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StivenLancheros

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{ "title": [ "Attestations.", "Theories." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In the \"Poetic Edda\" poem \"Þrymskviða\", the blessed of Vár is invoked by the jötunn Þrymr after his \"bride\" (who is actually the god Thor disguised as the goddess Freyja) is hallowed with the stolen hammer of Thor, Mjöllnir, at their wedding: In the chapter 35 of the \"Prose Edda\" book \"Gylfaginning\", High tells Gangleri (described as king Gylfi in disguise) about the ásynjur. High lists Vár ninth among the sixteen ásynjur he presents in the chapter and provides some information about her: Ninth Var: she listens to people's oaths and private agreements that women and men make between each other. Thus these contracts are called \"varar\". She also punishes those who break them. In addition, Vár appears twice more in the \"Prose Edda\". In chapter 75 of the \"Prose Edda\" book \"Skáldskaparmál\" Vár appears within a list of 27 ásynjur names. In chapter 87 the name \"Vár\" is employed in a kenning referring to the goddess Skaði (\"bow-string-Vár\") in the poem \"Haustlöng\" by the skald Þjóðólfr of Hvinir. A runic inscription inscribed on a stick from Bergen, Norway around the year 1300 records a common mercantile transaction followed by a verse from a displeased scribe that mentions Vár (edits applied per the translator's notes): Mindy Macleod and Bernard Mees posit that the first line of the inscription essentially means \"women make me miserable\" or potentially \"marriage makes me miserable,\" whereas the second line means \"women often take a lot of sleep from me.\"", "Regarding the ceremonial marital reference to Vár in \"Þrymskviða\", Andy Orchard opines that \"the antiquity of such a ritual is far from clear.\" Britt-Mari Näsström argues that, like many other minor goddesses, Vár was originally one of Freyja's names, \"later apprehended as independent goddesses.\" Rudolf Simek says that the goddesses Sága, Hlín, Sjöfn, Snotra, Vár, and Vör should be considered vaguely defined figures who \"should be seen as female protective goddesses\" that are all responsible for \"specific areas of the private sphere, and yet clear differences were made between them so that they are in many ways similar to matrons.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Attestations.", "\"Poetic Edda\".", "\"Prose Edda\".", "Archaeological record.", "Theories.", "Dumézil." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "", "In the \"Poetic Edda\", Víðarr is mentioned in the poems \"Völuspá\", \"Vafthrúdnismál\", \"Grímnismál\", and \"Lokasenna\". In stanzas 54 and 55 of the poem \"Völuspá\", a völva tells Odin that his son Víðarr will avenge Odin's death at Ragnarök by stabbing Fenrir in the heart: In stanzas 51 and 53 of \"Vafthrúdnismál\", Vafþrúðnir states that Víðarr and his brother Váli will both live in the \"temples of the gods\" after Surtr's fire has ceded and that Víðarr will avenge the death of his father Odin by sundering the cold jaws of Fenrir in battle: In stanza 17 of \"Grímnismál\", during Odin's visions of various dwelling places of the gods, he describes Víðarr's (here anglicized as \"Vidar\") residence: According to \"Lokasenna\", Loki rebukes the gods at the start of the poem for not properly welcoming him to the feast at Ægir's hall. In stanza 10, Odin finally relents to the rules of hospitality, urging Víðarr to stand and pour a drink for the quarrelsome guest. Víðarr follows his orders. Loki toasts the Æsir before beginning his flyting.", "Víðarr is referenced in the \"Prose Edda\" books \"Gylfaginning\" and \"Skáldskaparmál\". Víðarr is referenced in the book \"Gylfaginning\" in chapters 29, 51, and 53. In chapter 29, Víðarr is introduced by the enthroned figure of High as \"the silent god\" with a thick shoe, that he is nearly as strong as the god Thor, and that the gods rely on him in times of immense difficulties. In chapter 51, High foretells that, during Ragnarök, the wolf Fenrir will devour Odin, Víðarr will avenge him by stepping down with one foot on the lower jaw of the monster, grabbing his upper jaw in one hand and tearing his mouth apart, killing him. Víðarr's \"thick shoe\" is described as consisting of all the extra leather pieces that people have cut from their own shoes at the toe and heel, collected by the god throughout all time. Therefore, anyone who is concerned enough to give assistance to the gods should throw these pieces away. In chapter 54, following Ragnarök and the rebirth of the world, it is told that Víðarr along with his brother Váli will have survived both the swelling of the sea and the fiery conflagration unleashed by Surtr, completely unharmed, and shall thereafter dwell on the field Iðavöllr, \"where the city of Asgard had previously been\". According to \"Skáldskaparmál\", Víðarr was one of the twelve presiding male gods seated in their thrones at a banquet for the visiting Ægir. At a point in dialogue between the skaldic god Bragi and Ægir, Snorri himself begins speaking of the myths in euhemeristic terms and states that the historical equivalent of Víðarr was the Trojan hero Aeneas who survived the Trojan War and went on to achieve \"great deeds\". Later in the book, various kennings are given for Víðarr, including again the \"silent As\", \"possessor of the iron shoe\", \"enemy and slayer of Fenrisulf\", \"the gods' avenging As\", \"father's homestead-inhabiting As\", \"son of Odin\", and \"brother of the Æsir\". In the tale of the god Thor's visit to the hall of the jötunn Geirröd, Gríðr is stated as the mother of \"Víðarr the Silent\" who assists Thor in his journey. In chapter 33, after returning from Asgard and feasting with the gods, Ægir invites the gods to come to his hall in three months. Fourteen gods make the trip to attend the feast, including Víðarr. In chapter 75, Víðarr's name appears twice in a list of Æsir.", "The mid-11th century Gosforth Cross, located in Cumbria, England, has been described as depicting a combination of scenes from the Christian Judgement Day and the pagan Ragnarök. The cross features various figures depicted in Borre style, including a man with a spear facing a monstrous head, one of whose feet is thrust into the beast's forked tongue and on its lower jaw, while a hand is placed against its upper jaw, a scene interpreted as Víðarr fighting Fenrir. The depiction has also been theorized as a metaphor for Jesus's defeat of Satan.", "Theories have been proposed that Víðarr's silence may derive from a ritual silence or other abstentions which often accompany acts of vengeance, as for example in \"Völuspá\" and \"Baldrs draumar\" when Váli, conceived for the sole purpose of avenging Baldr's death, abstains from washing his hands and combing his hair \"until he brought Baldr's adversary to the funeral pyre\". Parallels have been drawn between chapter 31 of Tacitus' 1st century CE work \"Germania\" where Tacitus describes that members of the Chatti, a Germanic tribe, may not shave or groom before having first slain an enemy.", "Georges Dumézil theorized that Víðarr represents a cosmic figure from an archetype derived from the Proto-Indo-Europeans. Dumézil stated that he was aligned with both vertical space, due to his placement of his foot on the wolf's lower jaw and his hand on the wolf's upper jaw, and horizontal space, due to his wide step and strong shoe, and that, by killing the wolf, Víðarr keeps the wolf from destroying the cosmos, and the cosmos can thereafter be restored after the destruction resulting from Ragnarök. Dumézil thus conceives of Víðarr as a spatial god. Dumézil substantiates his claim with the text of the \"Lokasenna\", in which Víðarr, trying to mediate the dispute with Loki, urges the other Aesir to \"grant Loki his space\" at the feasting table. Dumézil argues that this play on Víðarr's spatiality would have been understood by an audience familiar with the god, an interpretation further warranted by his reading of the Lokasenna as being in significant part a book of puns and word plays about the different Aesir. Dumézil also suggests that Víðarr's spatiality is seen in the Vishnu of the Vedic traditions, both etymologically (the \"Vi\"- root) and mythologically, citing the story of Bali and Vishnu. In this legend, Vishnu (in the form of Vamana) tricks the malevolent king Bali, who has secured dominion over the whole Earth, by making Bali promise to grant Vamana all the land he can cover in three paces. Vamana turns himself into a giant and strides across all of heaven and Earth, taking Bali's head and granting him immortality in lieu of taking the last pace. Dumézil theorizes that these myths of Fenrir vs. Víðarr and Bali vs. Vishnu may have a common origin in an Indo-European god of spatiality, similar but distinct from the hypothetical framing or entry / exit god that spawned Janus and Heimdallr." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background and composition.", "Reception.", "Music video.", "Development and synopsis.", "Reception.", "Lawsuits.", "Live performances." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Lopez's third studio album \"This Is Me... Then\" was released in November 2002. It featured the entertainer in a more \"hands-on role\" than ever before, writing more material. Her fiancé at the time, actor Ben Affleck, was her muse and inspiration for the album's lyrics; the title referred to \"who you are at the time\", and it was something Lopez wanted to look back on in the future. Affleck and Lopez became a prominent supercouple in popular culture, referred to as \"Bennifer\" by the public. \"Jenny from the Block\" was released as the album's lead single, peaking at number three on the US \"Billboard\" Hot 100, while its second single \"All I Have\", topped the Hot 100. However, Lopez was initially dissatisfied with the release of both singles. She felt that the tracks were too similar to her previous singles such as \"Ain't It Funny\" and \"I'm Real\"; she felt like she was \"visiting old territory\". She subsequently released \"I'm Glad\" as the album's third single, with it being serviced to Top 40 radio on August 7, 2003. \"I'm Glad\" is an uptempo R&B ballad which runs for a duration of three minutes and forty-two seconds. Lopez wrote the song with the assistance of Troy Oliver, Cory Rooney, Andre Deyo and Schooly D, with Oliver and Rooney serving as producers. She recorded her vocals for the track with Peter Wade Keusch and Bruce Swedien at The Hit Factory recording studios in New York City, where it was also mixed. \"I'm Glad\" contains a sample of the 1986 Schooly D song \"P.S.K. What Does It Mean?\". Its instrumentation consists of classical harp runs laced throughout a computer-generated beat. Written in the key of Db Major, Lopez's vocal spans from an A to a C. Its instrumentation includes the use of piano and guitar. \"I'm Glad\" is about finding true love, containing lyrics such as \"I think I'm in love. Damn, finally\". \"The Boston Globe\" noted the song's lyrics to be about her relationship with actor Ben Affleck, who served as Lopez's muse for \"This Is Me... Then\".", "Steven Morse of \"The Boston Globe\" praised the song, describing it as \"elegantly\" structured. The song was nominated for \"Choice Love Song\" at the 2003 Teen Choice Awards. \"I'm Glad\" entered the US \"Billboard\" Hot 100 at number 64, on the issue date May 3, 2003. In its fourth week on the chart, the song climbed to its peak position of number 32, making it her lowest-charting single since \"Feelin' So Good\" (2000). However, it was more successful on the \"Billboard\" Hot Dance Club Songs chart, peaking at number four on the issue date July 12, 2003. The song made its peak at 11 in the UK Official Charts Company for 14 good weeks. \"I'm Glad\" debuted and peaked at number eight in Canada, becoming her eighth top-ten hit. It also entered the Australian Singles Chart at number ten, its peak position, and was later certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association.", "", "The music video for \"I'm Glad\" was filmed in February 2003. While coming up with ideas for the video, Lopez's sole vision was to dance solo, without back-up dancers or assistance. She hired David LaChapelle to direct, and he then came up with the idea to recreate the film \"Flashdance\" (1983). LaChapelle identically fashioned the \"sets, iconography, and costuming\" of \"Flashdance\" as a back-drop for Lopez to dance. For the music video, Lopez sported her natural curly hair, leotards and \"tiny pants\". She spent several hours at night perfecting the music video, taking part in the editing process herself. During the music video's editing stages, Lopez wanted to make sure everything was authentic. She said, \"I really worked out and did the diet thing... and then after the video...there's always that one guy who's like 'We should retouch this'. I was like, 'You're going to leave everything the way it is. That's how it wiggles and jiggles in real life, that's how they're going to see it in the video. And I noticed—[the editors] sent [the video] to me and they have shaved off a little bit of my hips and—I was like, 'That ain't me—those are not my hips. Just leave them the way they are. Do me a favor—don't touch my hips. Don't try to make me look skinnier. It's fine, it's fine the way it is'. And that's what they did.\" Prior to the clip being released, Jon Wiederhorn of MTV News reported that it was heavily influenced by the 1980s, stating that Lopez \"strikes '80s dance moves, and the color, style and camerawork have a decidedly retro vibe\". Identical to the storyline in \"Flashdance\", Lopez plays a young aspiring dancer who welds by day and dances by night at a bar. The clip begins with Lopez entering a dance studio wearing a puffy jacket and scarf. She has arrived at an audition, with a table of judges present. Suddenly, the screen switches to showing different aspects of her life, including her at her modest home, riding through the neighborhood on a bike with her dog running along, as well as her role as an exotic dancer at a local bar and grill. Later, at a strip club, she is seen dancing to intricate choreography clothed in a skimpy red top. She then appears exercising and practicing her dance moves in another location. The screen then switches to before she entered the dance audition; she walks through a line of intimidating beautiful ballerinas. Lopez's dance routine in front of the judges then commences her audition, which includes her dancing on the judge's table, as they move their feet to the music.", "A writer from \"The New York Times\" praised the video, stating that Lopez \"has taken what's thrilling about the movie - the idea of a working-class girls who makes her mark on the world - and presented it as a buffed-up fairy-tale version of her own career\", calling Lopez a \"pleasure to watch\". About.com's Jason Shawhan considered it her second best video, behind \"Waiting for Tonight\", and called it one of her most \"interesting efforts\", describing the dance work on display as \"punishing\". Writing for the UGO Networks, K. Thor Jensen placed the video seventeenth on a list of the \"50 Sexiest Music Videos of All Time\", calling it a \"funky\" homage to \"Flashdance\" that \"J-Lo in several scenes from the classic flick, dancing like her life depended on it\". Jensen also wrote, \"The video would earn a spot on this list just for the bit where water pours down from the ceiling on Lopez, but luckily the rest of the clip keeps the quality high.\" Joe Usmar of the \"Daily Mirror\" regarded it as one of the \"10 Sexiest Music Videos Ever Made\", praising Lopez's physicality and calling its visuals \"goddamn hawt\". Mike Nied of Idolator ranked it as Lopez's second best music video, writing: \"It is hard to imagine a pop star in 2018 pulling off the choreography to \"Flashdance\" quite as flawlessly as J.Lo does here.\" Author Daniel Bernardi noted that \"While Beal's performance was criticized for its lack of dance, Lopez's bodily performance faced scrutiny for its excess.\" In the book \"Dance and the Hollywood Latina: Race, Sex, and Stardom\" (2011), author Priscilla Peña Ovalle observed that the music video's provocative sexual choreography \"authenticated [Lopez] as a bona fide Hollywood Latina by showing her dancing in shots that tilt from face to fanny\". Ovalle also wrote that the storyline of \"Flashdance\" was similar to Lopez's life, and she fully embodied a \"fantasy of achievement\". Similarly, Gary Susman of \"Time\" wrote: \"In a way, of course, Lopez was re-enacting her own life story, that of the Bronx girl who’d used street moves to dance her way to fame. Unlike \"Flashdance\", 'I’m Glad' starred a woman who could perform her own dance moves.\" The video was nominated for four MTV Video Music Awards, including Best Female Video, Best Dance Video, Best Choreography in a Video and Best Art Direction in a Video.", "The recreation of dance sequences from \"Flashdance\" led the film's production company, Paramount Pictures, to sue Lopez and Sony Music over copyright infringement claims. A spokesperson for Lopez said that the film is one of Lopez's favorite movies, and that clip was nothing but a tribute to it. Paramount and Sony settled out of court. Apart from this, Maureen Marder—whose life was the inspiration for \"Flashdance\"—sued Lopez and Sony for copyright infringement in November 2003. Additionally, Marder had previously also sued Paramount for only paying her a $2,300 fee for her story, which the film adaption of grossed over $150 million at the United States box office. Marder \"had refused to grant sequel rights or to permit any further use of her story or identity after the film became a success\" according to her attorney, Robert Hefling. Hefling stated, \"She is penniless, disabled with a spinal injury, and trying to raise a teenage daughter. Now her life story is on the screen again—and other people are profiting from it—with no acknowledgment of her rights, let alone fair compensation for her contribution.\" In June 2006, all of Marder's claims were dismissed.", "During the song's initial release Lopez did not perform the song live at any moment in time until her acceptance at the MTV Video Music Awards in 2018 where she performed a small section of the song in her 10 minute long medley including recreating the video moment in which a bucket of water is splashed onto her from above while dancing (a hologram light replacing the water during the performance)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background and release.", "Composition and remix.", "Commercial performance.", "Music video." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "While recording her then-upcoming album, Lopez listened to blues and soul, the music she had often turned to while growing up. Using songs by Stevie Wonder, Luther Vandross and others as inspiration, she attempted to elicit a similar feeling in her own songwriting, claiming, \"Those were just songs that made my heart sing\", she said. \"They just stay with you.... I wanted to do something that's true to me and how I grew up, but I also wanted to make beautiful songs. So I'd listen to records from today and I would listen to records from back then, and [eventually] I'd go, 'That's what I want.'\" Among the songs on the album, \"Baby I Love U!\" was written, with the help of her longtime collaborator and friend Cory Rooney. \"He's so talented\", she said. \"And he's so 'behind the scenes,' especially when it comes to me. He's really, really just dedicated to music for the pure love of music.\" \"Baby I Love U!\" was released as the album's fourth and final single on August 3, 2003 in the United States, and on March 8, 2004 in the UK.", "\"Baby I Love U!\" was written by Jennifer Lopez, Cory Rooney and Dan Shea, with production being handled by Rooney and Shea. The song contains an interpolation of the \"haunting melody\" from the theme of \"Midnight Cowboy\", written by John Barry. It is a contemporary R&B and pop song, with a \"vintage-sound\", where Lopez \"gushes for Ben Affleck\", according to Sal Cinquemani of \"Slant Magazine\". A remix version featuring R. Kelly was released on the CD single of the song. Kelly's part talks about 'rollin' with'some fine females' against J-Lo's heart-on-the-sleeve declaration of passion. The version with Kelly was also included on her second remix album \"The Reel Me\".", "\"Baby I Love U!\" performed much lower than Lopez's previous singles from \"This Is Me... Then\", missing the top 40 on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 chart, debuting and peaking at number 72, on the issue date April 3, 2004. Eventually, the song became Lopez's lowest charting-English single on the \"Billboard\" charts, until \"Papi\" became her lowest charting-single, later in 2011. The song also made its debut on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart at number 75. The song received a Billboard Spin Award on March 25, 2006 for 50,000 spins. Elsewhere, the song proved to be more successful. First time Jennifer performed this song on Telman Ismailov's 50 years anniversary as a birthday gift. In the United Kingdom, the song was a huge success, debuting and peaking at number three, on March 20, 2004, becoming her third top-three single of the same album. In Ireland, the single managed to peak inside the top 20, reaching number 16, on March 11, 2004.", "The music video for the song was directed by Meiert Avis and premiered on BET, on August 11, 2003. The video was also included on the DVD \"The Reel Me\". It features scenes of Lopez in the bed, as well as walking around the house, performing the song. Jason Shawhan of About.com called the video \"minimalist and stark and much more inspired than the song that forms its spine.\" Shawhan continued, \"Visually, in fact, there's something quite experimental going on with its almost exclusive use of close-up and shifting focal length. This is certainly a promising development in Lopez' continuing evolution as a visual artist, and we can hope she'll work with director Meiert Avis again soon.\" There is a version of the music video featuring scenes from the movie Gigli released on MTV." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Release history and milestones.", "Features.", "Criticism.", "Renderer modality problems.", "User interface issues.", "Helper programs removed.", "Collection of personal information.", "Password issues.", "XML rendering issue (fixed)." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The browser was finally released on May 19, 2005. A minor update known as version 8.0.1 was released a few hours later to incorporate the key security patches added in Firefox 1.0.4.", "Perhaps the most noteworthy feature introduced in Netscape Browser is the ability to use either of two layout engines to render websites — either Internet Explorer 6's Trident layout engine or the Gecko engine used by Mozilla and its derivatives. This is used as part of the browser's \"Site Controls\" system, which allows security settings to be altered on a per-site basis, and is also touted as a defense against phishing and similar attacks, with both blacklists and whitelists built in and automatically updated regularly. This system decides whether a site is \"trusted\" or \"suspect\", while only whitelisted sites use the Trident engine by default. However, this feature is actually implemented by using the IE ActiveX control, which is composed of most of IE's architectures. Other features highlighted by AOL's publicity include improved tabbed browsing abilities, a toolbar system called the \"MultiBar,\" which includes up to 10 toolbars in the space of one, and extra support for \"Live Content\", such as RSS feeds. In keeping with the security emphasis, a new secure form information and password management system, known as a \"PassCard,\" which saves usernames and passwords for individual sites, is also included. In Netscape version 8.1, the Security Center feature is much more integrated into the browser, and extra features, such as ID Theft Protection and Spyware Protection have been integrated. Netscape includes a host of \"widgets\" designed to improve the browsing experience, including Local Weather information, Movie Times and reviews, Mapquest maps, Yellow pages, White pages, Stocks, and a City guide, all integrated into menu-enabled toolbar buttons. Furthermore, a webmail button is included in the toolbar, which links directly to multiple webmail homepages and is configurable for multiple webmail accounts. A button to run the user's default mail client is included. There are multiple smaller features included, including a shortcut menu that appears when text is selected to paste the selected text directly into a search engine of choice. Finally, the browser includes a pop-up advertisement blocker which can be configured to allow pop-ups for individual sites, block only unrequested pop-ups, and open any pop-ups in new tabs in one window, thus preventing pop-unders.", "The Netscape Browser has been criticized for various reasons. Perhaps the most severe is the claim that, in contradiction to its claimed emphasis on security, its use of both the Trident and Gecko rendering engines means it unavoidably inherits all the vulnerabilities of both engines, making it potentially less secure than either Firefox or IE on their own.", "The switching between rendering engines may also confuse users, since the web browsing experience is very different depending on which is used. A standards based website will generally render better in Gecko thanks to its better standards support, but Netscape Browser renders whitelisted pages using Trident instead. \"\"As the switching is transparent to the user, users are left wondering why their experience changes randomly across different websites\"\".", "The optional theme \"Fusion\" has also been criticized because it does not conform to the Microsoft human interface guidelines (HIG), either \"Luna\" or \"classic\" style, although the default theme, \"Winscape\", looks more like a traditional Windows application. There is also a claim that the usability of the browser is reduced by not obeying standard Windows manipulations. Similarly, the excessive nesting of tabs has been cited as a sign of generally poor interface design. The installation program of Netscape 8.12 prompts the user into which theme would be preferred, with the traditional \"Winscape\" being checked by default.", "Some users have argued the formerly included email client and HTML editor were more valuable as part of the browser package than new features such as a live weather report and news ticker, especially since these applications were tradition in earlier versions. Firefox, upon which Netscape Browser is based, does not include an email client or HTML editor either, but an HTML editor extension can be downloaded from the Extension and Themes section of the Firefox website, and email support is provided by Mozilla Thunderbird. Older Netscape releases were based upon the Mozilla Suite, which did include this functionality.", "Another criticism is that the browser collects user browsing behavior by default. By default, the option \"Allow Netscape to gather anonymous browser usage statistics\" is enabled. The option is found in the \"Advanced Settings\" during installation. As many casual users may skip the dialogs during installation, this feature could be turned on in many installations of Netscape Browser. Some argue this feature should be called spyware, however this term usually applies only to software that attempts to send private information to companies often later selling this to advertisers, whereas the information collected is actually anonymous.", "A related possible criticism is that in the browser's password manager menu, saved passwords can be viewed in plain text. Thus, if a user has access to another's account, they could retrieve all their usernames and passwords in plain text with little effort. Further, this option cannot be turned off or removed without editing the software. This problem doesn't happen in version 8.1.3.", "A few days after Netscape 8.0.1 was released, Microsoft reported the browser disables the XML rendering engine in Internet Explorer by causing IE to render XML pages as a blank page. Netscape fixed the issue in version 8.0.2." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Attestations.", "\"Poetic Edda\".", "\"Prose Edda\".", "\"Heimskringla\".", "\"Fagrskinna\".", "Theories and proposed etymological connections." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "In the poem \"Vafþrúðnismál\", Odin engages the wise jötunn Vafþrúðnir in a game of wits. Disguised as \"Gagnráðr\", Odin asks Vafþrúðnir \"where men fight in courts every day.\" Vafþrúðnir responds that (here \"einherjar\" is translated as \"einheriar\"): In the poem \"Grímnismál\", Odin (disguised as \"Grímnir\") tells the young Agnar that the cook Andhrímnir boils the beast Sæhrímnir, which he refers to as \"the best of pork\", in the container Eldhrímnir, yet adds that \"but few know by what the einheriar are nourished.\" Further into \"Grímnismál\", Odin gives a list of valkyries (Skeggjöld, Skögul, Hildr, Þrúðr, Hlökk, Herfjötur, Göll, Geirahöð, Randgríð, Ráðgríð, and Reginleif), and states that they bear ale to the einherjar. Towards the end of the poem, another reference to the einherjar appears when Odin tells the king Geirröd (unaware that the man he has been torturing is Odin) that Geirröd is drunk, and that Geirröd loses much when he loses his favor and the favor of \"all the Einherjar.\" In the poem \"Helgakviða Hundingsbana I\", the hero Sinfjötli flyts with Guðmundr. Sinfjötli accuses Guðmundr of having once been a female, including that he was \"a witch, horrible, unnatural, among Odin's valkyries\" and that all of the einherjar \"had to fight, headstrong women, on your account\".", "In the \"Prose Edda\" book \"Gylfaginning\", the einherjar are introduced in chapter 20. In chapter 20, Third tells Gangleri (described as king Gylfi in disguise) that Odin is called \"Valföðr\" (Old Norse \"father of the slain\") \"since all those who fall in battle are his adopted sons,\" and that Odin assigns them places in Valhalla and Vingólf where they are known as einherjar. In chapter 35, High quotes the \"Grímnismál\" valkyrie list, and says that these valkyries wait in Valhalla, and there serve drink, and look after tableware and drinking vessels in Valhalla. In addition, High says that Odin sends valkyries to every battle, that they allot death to men, and govern victory. In chapter 38, High provides more detail about the einherjar. Gangleri says that \"you say that all those men that have fallen in battle since the beginning of the world have now come to Odin in Val-hall. What has he got to offer them food? I should have thought that there must be a pretty large number there.\" High replies that it is true there are a pretty large number of men there, adding many more have yet to arrive, yet that \"there will seem too few when the wolf comes.\" However, High adds that food is not a problem because there will never be too many people in Valhalla that the meat of Sæhrímnir (which he calls a boar) cannot sufficiently feed. High says that Sæhrímnir is cooked every day by the cook Andhrímnir in the pot Eldhrimnir, and is again whole every evening. High then quotes the stanza of \"Grímnismál\" mentioning the cook, meal, and container in reference. Further into chapter 38, Gangleri asks if Odin consumes the same meals as the einherjar. High responds that Odin gives the food on his table to his two wolves Geri and Freki, and that Odin himself needs no food, for Odin gains sustenance from wine as if it were drink and meat. High then quotes another stanza from \"Grímnismál\" in reference. In chapter 39, Gangleri asks what the einherjar drink that is as plentiful as their food, and if they drink water. High responds that it is strange that Gangleri is asking if Odin, the All-Father, would invite kings, earls, and other \"men of rank\" to his home and give them water to drink. High says that he \"swears by his faith\" that many who come to Valhalla would think that he paid a high price for a drink of water if there were no better beverages there, after having died of wounds and in agony. High continues that atop Valhalla stands the goat Heiðrún, and it feeds on the foliage of the tree called Læraðr. From Heiðrún's udders flow mead that fills a vat a day. The vat is so large that all of the einherjar are able to drink to their fullness from it. In chapter 40, Gangleri says that Valhalla must be an immense building, yet it must often be crowded around the doorways. High responds that there are plenty of doors, and that crowding doesn't occur around them. In support, High again quotes a stanza from \"Grímnismál\". In chapter 41, Gangleri notes that there are very many people in Valhalla, and that Odin is a \"very great lord when he commands such a troop\". Gangleri then asks what entertainment the einherjar have when they're not drinking. High responds that every day, the einherjar get dressed and \"put on war-gear and go out into the courtyard and fight each other and fall upon each other. This is their sport.\" High says that when dinner time arrives, the einherjar ride back to Valhalla and sit down to drink. In reference, High quotes a stanza from \"Grímnismál\". In chapter 51, High foretells the events of Ragnarök. After the god Heimdallr awakens all the gods by blowing his horn Gjallarhorn, they will assemble at a thing, Odin will ride to the well Mímisbrunnr and consult Mímir on behalf of himself and his people, the world tree Yggdrasil will shake, and then the Æsir and the einherjar will don their war gear. The Æsir and einherjar will ride to the field Vígríðr while Odin rides before them clad in a golden helmet, mail, and holding his spear Gungnir, and heading towards the wolf Fenrir. In chapter 52, Gangleri asks what will happen after the heavens, earth, and all of the world are burned and the gods, einherjar and all of mankind have died, noting that he had previously been told that \"everyone will live in some world or other for ever and ever.\" High replies with a list of locations, and then describes the re-emerging of the world after Ragnarök. The einherjar receive a final mention in the \"Prose Edda\" in chapter 2 of the book \"Skáldskaparmál\", where a quote from the anonymous 10th century poem \"Eiríksmál\" is provided (see the \" Fagrskinna\" section below for more detail and another translation from another source):", "At the end of the \"Heimskringla\" saga \"Hákonar saga góða\", the poem \"Hákonarmál\" (by the 10th century skald Eyvindr skáldaspillir) is presented. The saga relates that king Haakon I of Norway died in battle, and yet though he is Christian, he requests that since he has died \"among heathens, then give me such burial place as seems most fitting to you.\" The saga relates that, shortly after, Haakon died on the same slab of rock that he was born upon, that he was greatly mourned by friend and foe alike, and that his friends moved his body northward to Sæheim in North Hordaland. Haakon was there buried in a large burial mound in full armor and his finest clothing, yet with no other valuables. Further, \"words were spoken over his grave according to the custom of heathen men, and they put him on the way to Valhalla.\" The poem \"Hákonarmál\" is then provided. In \"Hákonarmál\", Odin sends forth the two valkyries Göndul and Skögul to \"choose among the kings' kinsmen\" and who in battle should dwell with Odin in Valhalla. A battle rages with great slaughter. Haakon and his men die in battle, and they see the valkyrie Göndul leaning on a spear shaft. Göndul comments that \"groweth now the gods' following, since Hákon has been with host so goodly bidden home with holy godheads.\" Haakon hears \"what the valkyries said,\" and the valkyries are described as sitting \"high-hearted on horseback,\" wearing helmets, carrying shields and that the horses wisely bore them. A brief exchange follows between Haakon and the valkyrie Skögul: Skögul says that they shall now ride forth to the \"green homes of the godheads\" to tell Odin the king will come to Valhalla. In Valhalla, Haakon is greeted by Hermóðr and Bragi. Haakon expresses concern that he shall receive Odin's hate (Lee Hollander theorizes this may be due to Haakon's conversion to Christianity from his native heathenism), yet Bragi responds that he is welcome:", "In chapter 8 of \"Fagrskinna\", a prose narrative states that, after the death of her husband Eric Bloodaxe, Gunnhild Mother of Kings had a poem composed about him. The composition is by an anonymous author from the 10th century and is referred to as \"Eiríksmál\", and describes Eric Bloodaxe and five other kings arriving in Valhalla after their death. The poem begins with comments by Odin (as Old Norse \"Óðinn\"): The god Bragi asks where a thundering sound is coming from, and says that the benches of Valhalla are creaking—as if the god Baldr had returned to Valhalla—and that it sounds like the movement of a thousand. Odin responds that Bragi knows well that the sounds are for Eric Bloodaxe, who will soon arrive in Valhalla. Odin tells the heroes Sigmund and Sinfjötli to rise to greet Eric and invite him into the hall, if it is indeed he. Sigmund asks Odin why he would expect Eric more than any other king, to which Odin responds that Eric has reddened his gore-drenched sword with many other lands. Eric arrives, and Sigmund greets him, tells him that he is welcome to come into the hall, and asks him what other lords he has brought with him to Valhalla. Eric says that with him are five kings, that he will tell them the name of them all, and that he, himself, is the sixth.", "According to John Lindow, Andy Orchard, and Rudolf Simek, scholars have commonly connected the einherjar to the Harii, a Germanic tribe attested by Tacitus in his 1st-century AD work \"Germania\". Tacitus writes: Lindow says that \"many scholars think there may be basis for the myth in an ancient Odin cult, which would be centered on young warriors who entered into an ecstatic relationship with Odin\" and that the name \"Harii\" has been etymologically connected to the \"-herjar\" element of \"einherjar\". Simek says that since the connection has become widespread, \"one tends to interpret these obviously living armies of the dead as religiously motivated bands of warriors, who led to the formation of the concept of the \"einherjar\" as well as the Wild Hunt [...]\". Simek continues that the notion of an eternal battle and daily resurrection appears in book I of Saxo Grammaticus' \"Gesta Danorum\" and in reports of the eternal battle of Hjaðningavíg. According to Guðbrandur Vigfússon (1874), the concept of the einherjar links directly to the Old Norse name \"Einarr\". Vigfússon comments that \"the name Einarr is properly = einheri\", and points to a relation to the term with the Old Norse common nouns \"einarðr\" (meaning \"bold\") and \"einörð\" (meaning \"valour\")." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Role In \"Mahabharata\".", "Veda Vyasa.", "Works.", "The \"Mahabharata\".", "Other texts attributed.", "Puranas.", "Yoga Bhashya.", "Brahma Sutras.", "In Sikhism.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Vyasa appears for the first time as the compiler of, and an important character in, the Mahabharata. It is said that he was the expansion of the God Vishnu, who came in Dwaparayuga to make all the Vedic knowledge from oral tradition available in written form. He was the son of Satyavati, adopted daughter of the fisherman Dusharaj and the wandering sage Parashara, who is credited with being the author of the first Purana, Vishnu Purana. He was born on an island in the river Yamuna. Due to his dark complexion, Vyasa was also given the name \"Krishna\", in addition to the name \"Dwaipayana\", meaning \"island-born\". According to the Vishnu Purana, Vyasa was born on an island of the Yamuna at Kalpi. According to legend, in a previous life Vyasa was the Sage Apantaratamas, who was born when Lord Vishnu uttered the syllable \"Bhu\". He was a devotee of Lord Vishnu. Since birth, he already possessed the knowledge of the Vedas, the Dharmashastras and the Upanishads. At Vishnu's behest, he was reborn as Vyasa. Vyasa was the son of Sage Parashara and great grandson of Sage Vashistha. Prior to Vyasa's birth, Parashara had performed a severe penance to Lord Shiva. Shiva granted a boon that Parashara's son would be a Brahmarshi equal to Vashistha and would be famous for his knowledge. Parashara begot Vyasa with Satyavati. She conceived and immediately gave birth to Vyasa. Vyasa became an adult and left, promising his mother that he would come to her when needed. Vyasa acquired his knowledge from the four Kumaras, Narada and Lord Brahma himself. Vyasa is believed to have lived on the banks of Ganga in modern-day Uttarakhand. The site was also the ritual home of the sage Vashishta, along with the Pandavas, the five brothers of the Mahabharata.", "According to the \"Mahabharata\", the sage Vyasa was the son of Satyavati and Parashara. During her youth, Satyavati was a fisherwoman who used to drive a boat. One day, sage Parashara was in a hurry to attend a Yajna. Satyavati helped him cross the river borders. Parashara was enchanted by the beauty of Satyavati and wanted his heir from her. Initially she did not agree to his demand telling that other saints would see them, and her purity would be questioned. So Parashara created a secret place with bushes and Satyavati agreed. Satyavati later gave birth to Vyasa. Parashara took away Vyasa with him when he was born. She kept this incident a secret, not telling even King Shantanu whom she was married to later. After many years, Shantanu and Satyavati had two sons, named Chitrangada and Vichitravirya. Chitrangada was killed by Gandharvas in a battle, while Vichitravirya was weak and ill all the time. Satyavati then asked Bhisma to fetch queens for Vichitravirya. Bhishma attended the swayamvara conducted by the king of Kashi (present-day Varanasi), and defeated all the kings. Amba openly rebuted the swayamvara as she was in love with the prince of shalva, which was against the rule of swayamvara. Later bhishma came to know that King of Kashi did not know about the love of his elder daughter, so Bhishma released Amba and allowed her to go to Shalva kingdom and marry the prince who later rejected her. She came back to Bhishma and asked him to marry her, which he could not due to his vow of life long celibacy. She shuttled between Bhishma and Shalva with no success. Due to this she vowed to kill Bhishma. During the wedding ceremony, Vichitravirya collapsed and died. Satyavati was clueless on how to save the clan from perishing. She asked Bhishma to marry both the queens, who refused citing his vow and the promise that he made to her and his father, never to marry. He, therefore, could not father an heir to the kingdom. Later, Satyavati revealed to Bhishma, secrets from her past life and requested him to bring Vyasa to Hastinapur. Sage Vyasa had a fierce personality and a bright, glowing spiritual aura around him. Hence upon seeing him, Ambika who was rather scared shut her eyes, resulting in their child, Dhritarashtra, being born blind. The other queen, Ambalika, turned pale upon meeting Vyasa, which resulted in their child, Pandu, being born pale. Alarmed, Satyavati requested that Vyasa meet Ambika again and grant her another son. Ambika instead sent her maid to meet Vyasa. The duty-bound maid was calm and composed; she had a healthy child who was later named Vidura. While these are Vyasa's sons, another son Shuka, born of his wife Pinjalā (Vatikā), daughter of the sage Jābāli was his true spiritual heir. Shuka appears occasionally in the story as a spiritual guide to the young Kuru princes.", "Hindus traditionally hold that Vyasa categorised the primordial single Veda into three canonical collections and that the fourth one, known as Atharvaveda, was recognized as Veda only very much later. Hence he was called Veda Vyasa, or \"Splitter of the Vedas,\" the splitting being a feat that allowed people to understand the divine knowledge of the Veda. The word vyasa means split, differentiate or describe. The \"Vishnu Purana\" has a theory about Vyasa. The Hindu view of the universe is that of a cyclic phenomenon that comes into existence and dissolves repeatedly. Each cycle is presided over by a number of Manus, one for each Manvantara, that has four ages, Yugas of declining virtues. The Dvapara Yuga is the third Yuga. The \"Vishnu Purana\" (Book 3, Ch 3) says: In every third world age (Dvapara), Vishnu, in the person of Vyasa, in order to promote the good of mankind, divides the Veda, which is properly but one, into many portions. Observing the limited perseverance, energy and application of mortals, he makes the Veda fourfold, to adapt it to their capacities; and the bodily form which he assumes, in order to effect that classification, is known by the name of Veda-vyasa. Of the different Vyasas in the present Manvantara and the branches which they have taught, you shall have an account. Twenty-eight times have the Vedas been arranged by the great Rishis in the Vaivasvata Manvantara... and consequently eight and twenty Vyasas have passed away; by whom, in the respective periods, the Veda has been divided into four. The first... distribution was made by Svayambhu (Brahma) himself; in the second, the arranger of the Veda (Vyasa) was Prajapati... (and so on up to twenty-eight). As per Vishnu Purana, Guru Drona's son rishi Aswatthama will become the next sage (Vyasa) and will divide the Veda in 29th Mahayuga of 7th Manvantara.", "", "Vyasa is traditionally known as the chronicler of this epic and also features as an important character in Mahābhārata, Vyasa asks Ganesha to assist him in writing the text. Ganesha imposes a precondition that he would do so only if Vyasa would narrate the story without a pause. Vyasa set a counter-condition that Ganesha understand the verses first before transcribing them. Thus Vyasa narrated the entire Mahābhārata and all the Upanishads and the 18 Puranas, while Lord Ganesha wrote. Vyasa is supposed to have meditated and authored the epic by the foothills of the river Beas (Vipasa) in the Punjab region. Vyasa's \"Jaya\" (literally, \"victory\"), the core of the Mahabharata, is a dialogue between Dhritarashtra (the Kuru king and the father of the Kauravas, who opposed the Pāndavas in the Kurukshetra War) and Sanjaya, his adviser and charioteer. Sanjaya narrates the particulars of the Kurukshetra War, fought in eighteen days, chronologically. Dhritarashtra at times asks questions and expresses doubts, sometimes lamenting, fearing the destruction the war would bring on his family, friends and kin. Sanjaya, in the beginning, gives a description of the various continents of the Earth and numerous planets, and focuses on the Indian subcontinent. Large and elaborate lists are given, describing hundreds of kingdoms, tribes, provinces, cities, towns, villages, rivers, mountains, forests, etc. of the (ancient) Indian subcontinent (Bhārata Varsha). Additionally, he gives descriptions of the military formations adopted by each side on each day, the death of individual heroes and the details of the war-races. Eighteen chapters of Vyasa's Jaya constitute the Bhagavad Gita, a sacred text in Hinduism. Thus, the Jaya deals with diverse subjects, such as geography, history, warfare, religion and morality. The final version of Vyasa's work is the Mahābhārata. It is structured as a narration by Ugrasrava Sauti, a professional storyteller, to an assembly of rishis who, in the forest of Naimisha, had just attended the 12 year sacrifice known as Saunaka, also known as Kulapati.", "", "Vyasa is also credited with the writing of the eighteen major Purāṇas, which are works of Indian literature that cover an encyclopedic range of topics, such as myths and histories. His son Shuka is the narrator of the major Purāṇa Bhagavat-Purāṇa.", "The \"Yoga Bhashya\", a commentary on the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, is attributed to Vyasa.", "The Brahma Sutras are attributed to Badarayana — which makes him the proponent of the crest-jewel school of Hindu philosophy, i.e., Vedanta. Vaishnava Acharyas acknowledge that Badarayana is indeed Vyasa and he is known as Badarayana as he had his ashram in Badari kshetram. Others believe the name to be because the island on which Vyasa was born is said to have been covered with badara (Indian jujube/Ber/Ziziphus mauritiana) trees. Some modern historians, though, suggest that these were two different personalities. There may have been more than one Vyasa, or the name Vyasa may have been used at times to give credibility to a number of ancient texts. Much ancient Indian literature was a result of long oral tradition with wide cultural significance rather than the result of a single author. However, Vyasa is credited with documenting, compiling, categorizing and writing commentaries on much of this literature.", "In \"Brahm Avtar\", one of the compositions in Dasam Granth, the Second Scripture of Sikhs, Guru Gobind Singh mentions Rishi Vyas as an avatar of Brahma. He is considered the fifth incarnation of Brahma. Guru Gobind Singh wrote brief account of Rishi Vyas's compositions about great kings— Manu, Prithu, Bharath, Jujat, Ben, Mandata, Dilip, Raghu Raj and Aj— and attributed to him the store of Vedic learning.", "Vyasa is widely revered in Hindu traditions. A grand temple in honour of Sri Veda Vyasa has been built at his birthplace in Kalpi, Orai, Uttar Pradesh. The temple is known as Shri Bal Vyas Mandir. \"Shrimad Sudhindra Teerth Swamiji\", the erstwhile spiritual guru of Sri Kashi Math Samsthan, Varanasi, had the vision to construct this temple in 1998. The temple is managed by the Chitrapur Sarasawath Brahmin (CSB) community who belong to the said Sri Kashi Math Samsthan. This beautiful temple has now also become a popular tourist destination." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Personal life.", "Career.", "Awards and honors.", "Work.", "Influence on hiring practices." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "He was born in Overisel Township, Michigan, the son of David Birkhoff and Jane Gertrude Droppers. The mathematician Garrett Birkhoff (1911–1996) was his son.", "Birkhoff obtained his A.B. and A.M. from Harvard University. He completed his Ph.D. in 1907, on differential equations, at the University of Chicago. While E. H. Moore was his supervisor, he was most influenced by the writings of Henri Poincaré. After teaching at the University of Wisconsin–Madison and Princeton University, he taught at Harvard from 1912 until his death.", "In 1923, he was awarded the inaugural Bôcher Memorial Prize by the American Mathematical Society for his paper in 1917 containing, among other things, what is now called the Birkhoff curve shortening process. He was elected to the National Academy of Sciences, the American Philosophical Society, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the Académie des Sciences in Paris, the Pontifical Academy of Sciences, and the London and Edinburgh Mathematical Societies. The George David Birkhoff Prize in applied mathematics is awarded jointly by the American Mathematical Society and the Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics in his honor.", "In 1912, attempting to solve the four color problem, Birkhoff introduced the chromatic polynomial. Even though this line of attack did not prove fruitful, the polynomial itself became an important object of study in algebraic graph theory. In 1913, he proved Poincaré's \"Last Geometric Theorem,\" a special case of the three-body problem, a result that made him world-famous. In 1927, he published his \"Dynamical Systems\". He wrote on the foundations of relativity and quantum mechanics, publishing (with R. E. Langer) the monograph \"Relativity and Modern Physics\" in 1923. In 1923, Birkhoff also proved that the Schwarzschild geometry is the unique spherically symmetric solution of the Einstein field equations. A consequence is that black holes are not merely a mathematical curiosity, but could result from any spherical star having sufficient mass. Birkhoff's most durable result has been his 1931 discovery of what is now called the ergodic theorem. Combining insights from physics on the ergodic hypothesis with measure theory, this theorem solved, at least in principle, a fundamental problem of statistical mechanics. The ergodic theorem has also had repercussions for dynamics, probability theory, group theory, and functional analysis. He also worked on number theory, the Riemann–Hilbert problem, and the four colour problem. He proposed an axiomatization of Euclidean geometry different from Hilbert's (see Birkhoff's axioms); this work culminated in his text \"Basic Geometry\" (1941). In his later years, Birkhoff published two curious works. His 1933 \"Aesthetic Measure\" proposed a mathematical theory of aesthetics. While writing this book, he spent a year studying the art, music and poetry of various cultures around the world. His 1938 \"Electricity as a Fluid\" combined his ideas on philosophy and science. His 1943 theory of gravitation is also puzzling since Birkhoff knew (but didn't seem to mind) that his theory allows as sources only matter which is a perfect fluid in which the speed of sound must equal the speed of light.", "Albert Einstein and Norbert Wiener, among others, accused Birkhoff of advocating anti-Semitic hiring practices. During the 1930s, when many Jewish mathematicians fled Europe and tried to obtain jobs in the USA, Birkhoff is alleged to have influenced the hiring process at American institutions to exclude Jews. Birkhoff's anti-Semitic views and remarks are well-documented, but Saunders Mac Lane has argued that Birkhoff's efforts were motivated less by animus towards Jews than by a desire to find jobs for home-grown American mathematicians. However, Birkhoff took a particular liking to certain Jewish mathematicians, including Stanislaw Ulam. Gian-Carlo Rota writes: \"Like other persons rumored to be anti-Semitic, he would occasionally feel the urge to shower his protective instincts on some good-looking young Jew. Ulam's sparkling manners were diametrically opposite to Birkhoff's hard-working, aggressive, touchy personality. Birkhoff tried to keep Ulam at Harvard, but his colleagues balked at the idea.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early history.", "Features.", "Plugins.", "WebExtension.", "Reception." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "On April 20, 1999, it was reported that Mozilla, at the time the open-source arm of AOL's Netscape Communications division, had announced the commencement of \"an instant messaging and chat project with the stated goal of supporting a wide variety of chat protocols, including \"the venerable Internet Relay Chat\". Other companies were also developing chat systems. We recognize that there's a lot of interest in the instant messaging space,' said AOL spokesperson Catherine Corre, referring to the Mozilla project. 'This is a recognition of the interest in that area. At the time, the new chat client proposal was reported as being \"competition\" to AOL's own AOL Instant Messenger chat client, and on April 21, 1999, the announcement was rescinded \"pending further review by Netscape.\" Independently, programmer Robert Ginda developed an IRC client and submitted it to the Mozilla project, which as of September 1999 planned to introduce it with the planned release of Mozilla browser. Named \"ChatZilla,\" the client was available in development form in May 2000 for the Netscape 6.01 browser, and Mozilla 0.8.", "ChatZilla runs on any platform on which a Mozilla-based browser can run, including OS X, Linux, and Microsoft Windows, and provides a \"consistent user interface across the board.\" It can also be used as a standalone app using XULRunner. It contains most general features of IRC clients, including connecting to multiple servers at once, maintaining a built-in list of standard networks, searching and sorting of available channels, chat logging, Direct Client-to-Client (\"DCC\") chat and file transfers, and user customization of the interface. ChatZilla includes automatic completion of nicknames with the codice_1 key, and appends a comma if the nickname is the first word on a line. It also provides completion of codice_2 with the codice_1 key, and a \"quick double-codice_1\" presents a list of available commands based on what's been typed so far. The text entry window can be \"single line\", in which the Enter key sends the composed text, or \"multiline\" in which allows composing larger text sections with line breaks, and the Ctrl-Enter key combo sends the text block. JavaScript is used for running scripts and messages are styled with CSS, which can be controlled by the user: by selecting from the View menu, dragging a link to a codice_5 file to the message window, or with the codice_6 command. DCC is supported which allows users to transfer files and chat directly between one another. The sender of each message is shown to the left of the text as a link—clicking the link opens a private chat window to that user. ChatZilla is included with SeaMonkey in addition to being available for download to other Mozilla-based browsers such as Firefox as an extension. It can also be run in a tab in Firefox.", "ChatZilla offers many plugins, which extend the functionality in the user-experience of the add-on. Some of these plugins include:", "The introduction of Firefox Quantum (version 57) has dropped the support of add-ons, and so has stopped ChatZilla from working inside Firefox. Work has begun to move the code to a WebExtension.", "Reviews of ChatZilla have varied from enthusiastic, in the case of users familiar with IRC, to unimpressed, for reviewers more accustomed to other chat client user interfaces. A 2003 review in \"Computers for Doctors\" of Mozilla 1.0, referred to IRC client applications as \"not very user-friendly, and the same goes for ChatZilla. You won't find any pop-up icons, or happy little noises telling you somebody wants to chat.\" In 2004, Jennifer Golbeck, writing in \"IRC Hacks\", pointed out its cross-platform consistency, and found it \"quick and easy to start using\", and has \"great support for changing the appearance of chat windows with motifs...(CSS files).\" In a 2008 overview of extensions for Firefox in \"Linux Journal\", Dan Sawyer described ChatZilla as an \"oldie-but-goodie\", \"venerable,\" \"with all the trimmings,\" \"handsomely organizes chat channels, logs, has an extensive built-in list of available channels, supports DCC chats and file transfers, and has its own plugin and theming architecture.\" The application \"implements all the standards very well, and for those who prefer to keep desktop clutter to a minimum but still enjoy fighting with random strangers on IRC, ChatZilla is a must-have.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Youth and studies.", "Concert career.", "Chamber music.", "Death." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Josef Suk was born in Prague, the grandson of the composer and violinist Josef Suk, and great-grandson of the composer Antonín Dvořák. After finishing high school in 1945 he entered the Prague Conservatory (1945-1951), where his teachers were Jaroslav Kocián, Norbert Kubát and Karel Šnebergr. The most important of all his teachers was Jaroslav Kocián, who started teaching him privately when Suk was 7 years old. Led by him, Suk mastered the violin art drawing from the spectacular interpretative art of his teacher, who was specific with his noble technique of tone formation. During his studies, in 1949, Suk was sent to Paris and Brussels where he represented successfully the young generation of Czech violinists. After leaving the Prague Conservatory, he spent four terms at the Academy of Performing Arts in Prague (AMU) with the professors Marie Hlouňová and Alexandr Plocek. However, before finishing his studies he was suspended for political reasons. \"AMU was rather a military and political school at that time. For example, I protested against being obliged to trench. That was because our fingers suffered – and I wanted to be a musician, not a soldier. That was the reason why I was suspended after four terms and detached to the military division of Košice for punishment. In the last minute I was saved when I got to the Army artist company, where I spent the two years of military service playing the violin.\" \"Since the very beginning, when I got my first violin from my father, a binding feeling of big expectations bore on me. I wasn’t sure whether I was able to be up to the wishes and hopes of my parents and my grandfather. The great commitment of filling my family tradition attached all my artist career. Sometimes it might have opened some gates and routes, but on the other hand it meant also an indispensable stress.\"", "1950-1952 he was the primarius of the Prague quartet, 1953-1955 concert master of the dramatic orchestra of the National theatre in Prague, then till 1957 a soloist of the Army artist company. His first significant success was a recital in Prague on 6 November 1954. Shortly after that George Szell invited him to the USA to play with the Cleveland Orchestra. In 1958 he performed in Germany, Netherlands and Romania, then also in France and Belgium. In 1960 he was lent the violin by Antonio Stradivari called \"Duc de Camposelice\" made in 1710. Its former owner was Váša Příhoda, who donated it to the Czechoslovak state shortly before his death. Suk also played the \"Libon\" Stradivari and \"The Prince of Orange\" violin by Giuseppe Guarneri del Gesu. He also used an instrument by Přemysl Špidlen for a long time. In 1961 he was named the soloist of Czech Philharmonic to go through many its tours and recitals. He cooperated and made many recordings with the world's best orchestras, conductors and interpreters. He won many prizes for his recordings – Grand Prix du disque for Debussy's and Janáček's sonatas, for the Dumky Trio by Dvořák with Jan Panenka and Miloš Sádlo, for the complete collection of Mozart's violin concerts with the Prague Chamber Orchestra conducted by Libor Hlaváček, for the Berg concert and for the concertos of Martinů. He was also a violist and he recorded the Sinfonia Concertante by Mozart, playing both parts of violin and viola. With the Czech philharmonic, conducted by Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau, he recorded \"Harold en Italie\" by Hector Berlioz. His violin art was characterized by a rotund and rich tone, glass-clear intonation and an idiomatic interpretation. Suk was one of the world's best interpreters of Bach, Mozart and Beethoven. His recordings of Dvořák's Violin Concerto are exemplary. From 1979 to 1986 he was a teacher at the Music College in Vienna.", "Aside from his solo career he focused on chamber music. As a student (1950-1952) he was the primarius of the Prague quartet and in 1951 he founded the Suk Trio, named after his grandfather Josef Suk, together with his friends Jiří Hubička (piano) and Saša Večtomov (cello), later with Jan Panenka (piano, replaced then by Josef Hála) and Josef Chuchro (cello). Suk Trio played many concerts both home and abroad and recorded many compositions. With the trio's later pianist Jan Panenka Suk recorded the entire collection of Beethoven's sonatas and their recording of Shostakovich's sonata for viola and piano was the very first. As a violist he often cooperated with the Smetana Quartet, mostly as second viola. Another remarkable partnership was with the harpsichordist prof. Zuzana Růžičková. They were close friends and within many concerts they made many recordings, for example Bach's and Händel's sonatas. They were also dedicated a sonata by Růžičková's husband, Viktor Kalabis. Josef Suk also collaborated with Julius Katchen and János Starker when recording Brahms's trios and sonatas. In 1974, as a commemoration of the 100th anniversary of birth of his grandfather Josef Suk, he founded the Suk Chamber Orchestra. Suk acted as its leader and conductor till 2000. He held the title of Meritorious Artist and since 1977 the title of National Artist. In 2002 he was awarded the National Order of the Legion of Honour.", "Josef Suk died on 6 July 2011, aged 81, of prostate cancer and was buried in Prague, the Vyšehrad cemetery." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Education.", "Literature.", "Science.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "At 14 Vocel moved to Prague to attend a Piarist college-preparatory high school. Concomitantly he attended philosophy lectures at Charles University. Already by that time he had begun writing fiction, of which efforts only two complete works survive—\"Krvočíše\" (Bloodshot), a romance about growing grapes in celebration of Charles IV (King of Bohemia and Holy Roman Emperor), and \"Harp\" (1875), a tragedy. On graduating, Vocel departed from Prague to Vienna, where he studied philosophy and law. In order to support himself and assist his family, Vocel accepted tutoring appointments in various homes of the ancient Bohemian Czernin family and later of other noble families, e.g., the House of Harrach, where he established himself as an abiding mentor to nascent businessman / arts patron (1828–1909). On graduating from the University of Vienna, Vocel returned to Prague, where, in 1843, he helped to establish the Archaeological Society.", "Vocel's literary work reflects a pathological interest in medieval history, archeology and historiography. By and large his two most significant works are thought to be \"Poslední Orebit\" and \"Přemyslovci\". In 1850 Vocel was appointed Associate Professor of Archeology and Art History at the Charles University. As author of numerous articles and scientific papers he inadvertently introduced what would later become a widely accepted method of chemical analysis to determine the age of bronze objects. A highlight of his literary career was the two-volume \"Prehistory of the Czech Lands\" (1866, '68), in which he posited a sound foundation for archeology in Czech science. Though beyond its expanded description of his method of chemical analysis the work did not offer archeological breakthroughs or newer methods, it has exercised considerable influence abroad. Together with Czech writer, historian, museum director, patriot and publicist (1812–1871), Vocel contributed to the popularity and development of Czech archeology through their 1854 co-founding of a specialized organ, \"\" (edited by Zap from 1854 to '66), in which Czech history, from its mythic beginnings to the Hussite movement, was examined and celebrated. In 1872 the bourgeois Czech writer Jakub Malý, an early devotee of Czech history and literature and promoter of the study of the English language, published the biography \"Jan Erazim Vocel\".", "Vocel inadvertently pioneered a chemical method of determining the age of bronze objects. He published numerous scientific and historical-fiction books including his two-part treatise \"Prehistory of the Czech Lands\", which laid a foundation for scientific archeology in the country.", "Alongside fellow Kutná Hora natives Karel Havlíček Borovský and Josef Kajetán Tyl, Jan Erazim Vocel is regarded as a key figure in the 19th century Czech national revival." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Origins.", "Contribution to hip-hop.", "Modern beatboxing.", "Notation.", "Phonology.", "Multi-vocalism.", "World records.", "Selected discography.", "In popular culture.", "External links." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Techniques similar to beatboxing have been present in many American musical genres since the 19th century, such as early rural music, both black and white, religious songs, blues, ragtime, vaudeville, and hokum. Examples include the Appalachian technique of eefing and the blues song \"Bye bye bird\" by Sonny Boy Williamson II. Additional influences may perhaps include forms of African traditional music, in which performers utilize their bodies (e.g., by clapping or stomping) as percussion instruments and produce sounds with their mouths by breathing loudly in and out, a technique used in beatboxing today. Many well-known performers used vocal percussion occasionally, even though this was not directly connected to the cultural tradition that came to be known as beatboxing. Paul McCartney's \"That Would Be Something\" (1969) includes vocal percussion. Pink Floyd's \"Pow R. Toc H.\" (1967) also includes vocal percussion performed by the group's lead vocalist, Syd Barrett. Jazz singers Bobby McFerrin and Al Jarreau were very well known for their vocal styles and techniques, which have had great impact on techniques beatboxers use today. Michael Jackson was known to record himself beatboxing on a dictation tape recorder as a demo and scratch recording to compose several of his songs, including \"Billie Jean\", \"The Girl Is Mine\", and others. Gert Fröbe, a German actor most widely known for playing Auric Goldfinger in the James Bond film \"Goldfinger\", \"beatboxes\" as Colonel Manfred von Holstein (simultaneously vocalizing horned and percussive instruments) in \"Those Magnificent Men in their Flying Machines\", a 1965 British comedy film.", "The term \"beatboxing\" is derived from the mimicry of early drum machines, then known as beatboxes, particularly the Roland TR-808. The term \"beatbox\" was used to refer to earlier Roland drum machines such as the TR-55 and CR-78 in the 1970s. They were followed by the TR-808, released in 1980, which became central to hip hop music and electronic dance music. It is the TR-808 that human beatboxing is largely modeled after. \"Human beatboxing\" in hip-hop originated in the 1980s. Its early pioneers include Doug E. Fresh, the self-proclaimed first \"human beatbox\"; Swifty, the first to implement the inhale sound technique; Buffy, who helped perfect many beatboxing techniques; and Wise, who contributed significantly to beat boxing's proliferation. Wise inspired an entire new fan base of human beatboxers with his human turntable technique. Other pioneers of beatboxing include Rahzel well known for his realistic robotic sounds and for his ability to sing and beatbox simultaneously, Scratch a beatboxer and musician well known for further revolutionizing the use of vocal scratching in beatboxing, and Kenny Muhammad The Human Orchestra, a beatboxer known for his technicality and outstanding rhythmic precision, who pioneered the inward k snare, a beatbox technique that imitates a snare drum by breathing inward.", "The Internet has played a large part in the popularity of modern beatboxing. Alex Tew (aka A-Plus) started the first online community of beatboxers in 2000 under the banner of HUMANBEATBOX.COM. An early example of modern beatboxing was seen in the 2001 South Korean romantic comedy film \"My Sassy Girl\". In 2001, Gavin Tyte, a member of this community created the world's first tutorials and video tutorials on beatboxing. In 2003, the community held the world's first Human Beatbox Convention in London featuring beatbox artists from all over the world. Beatboxing's current popularity is due in part to releases from artists such as Rahzel, RoxorLoops, Reeps One, and Alem. In the Pacific, Jason Tom perpetuates the art of beatboxing through blogging, mathematics and motivational speaking in Honolulu, the westernmost and southernmost major U.S. city of the 50th U.S. state of Hawaii. Sometimes, modern beatboxers will use their hand or another part of their body to extend the spectrum of sound effects and rhythm. Some have developed a technique that involves blowing and sucking air around their fingers to produce a very realistic record scratching noise, which is commonly known as the \"crab scratch.\" Another hand technique includes the \"throat tap,\" which involves beatboxers tapping their fingers against their throats as they throat sing or hum. Beat boxers these days can produce up to 8 different sounds at the same time. Today there is an increase in the variety in which we see beatboxing throughout musical culture. People have gone as far as adding beatboxing in with different instruments to create a completely different sound unlike any other. Artist Greg Patillo goes as far as adding in beatboxing while playing the flute to very iconic songs. Beatbox has become modernized and has even been seen in popular movies such as \"Pitch Perfect\" and \"Pitch Perfect 2\". These movies showcase classical songs performed with a cappella covers in which all of the beats to the songs are done completely using the idea and technique of beatboxing to complete the sound capable to imitate the original song.", "As with other musical disciplines, some form of musical notation or transcription may sometimes be useful in order to describe beatbox patterns or performances. Sometimes this takes the form of ad hoc phonetic approximations, but is occasionally more formal. is usually the bass drum, is usually the snare drum, and () is usually the hi-hat (in : 𝄆b-ts-k-ts-b-ts-k-ts𝄇). Standard Beatbox Notation (SBN) was created by Mark Splinter and Gavin Tyte of Humanbeatbox.com in 2006 as an alternative to International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) transcription, which had been used sparingly before then. In a research study published in 2013 and based on real-time MRI imaging of a beatboxer, the authors propose a notation system which combines the International Phonetic Alphabet with musical staff notation, in part motivated by their observation that many beatboxing sounds can be adequately represented by the IPA.", "Each beatboxer can produce a very large number of unique sounds, but there are three distinct linguistic categories of sound within beatboxing. Ejectives are the strong puffs of air from the voicebox that give intensity to percussive sounds. The \"t\", \"p\", \"k\", \"d\", \"b\" and \"g\" sounds can all be made into ejectives. “Ch” and “j” are examples of ejective affricates. Nonstandard fricatives are the mechanical sounds such as snare drums, cymbals, and other buzzing noises in beatboxing that are made with fricatives. Certain sounds, such as velar lateral fricatives, bilabial lateral fricatives, and linguolabial fricatives, are all judged impossible according to the IPA but are technically possible and are sounds that are commonly used in beatboxing. Coarticulation is the act of controlling a sound in two places at once. A common example of this is the sound created by rolling an “r” sound while saying a “v” sound. This is called a voiced alveolar trill with labiodental articulation. Similarly, epenthesis is the sound created when beatboxers sing and do percussion at the same time. Contrary to what the sound suggests, their tongue is not in two places at once. This effect is created by placing percussive sounds in the middle of words.", "Multi-vocalism is a form of vocal musicianship conceptualized by British Beatboxer and vocalist Killa Kela. It describes Beatboxers who incorporate other vocal disciplines and practices into their routines and performances such as singing, rapping, sound mimicry and other vocal arts. Beardyman is a well known multi-vocalist.", "According to the Guinness World Records, the current record for the largest human beatbox ensemble was set by Booking.com employees. The record involved 4,659 participants and was achieved by Booking.com employees together with beatboxers at the RAI Amsterdam in Amsterdam, Netherlands, on 10 December 2013 during their annual company meeting. The previous largest human beatbox ensemble involved 2,081 participants and was achieved by Google (Ireland), Shlomo (UK) and Testament (UK) at The Convention Centre, Dublin, Ireland on 14 November 2011. Before Shlomo's record, the previous record for the largest human beatbox ensemble involved 1,246 participants and was achieved by Vineeth Vincent and Christ University (India) in Bangalore, Karnataka, India, on 5 February 2011.", "This list is a selected discography of commercial releases which are mostly/entirely beatbox-based or are otherwise notable/influential records in the history of beatboxing and its popularisation.", "When asked to beatbox, Siri will repeat the phrase \"Boots and Cats\" to mimic beatboxing. \"Teen Vogue\" called it \"perhaps the most entertaining mid-day pick-me-up ever created.\" A GEICO radio commercial, featuring a supermarket employee beatboxing various announcements over a store intercom (\"Cleanup on aisle 14\" with beats interspersed), won the Westwood One Sports Sounds Awards Media Choice Award for best commercial heard during the radio network's coverage of Super Bowl LII.", "Beatboxing-Communities supporting the scene for more than 10 years:<br" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography.", "Climate.", "History.", "Oversticht.", "Overijssel.", "Politics.", "Economy.", "Transport.", "Municipalities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Overijssel is bordered by Germany (Lower Saxony and North Rhine-Westphalia) to the east, the Achterhoek region of Gelderland to the south, the Veluwe region of Gelderland and Flevoland to the west, and Friesland and the former moors of Drenthe to the north. Overijssel comprises three regions: Kop van Overijssel in the northwest, Salland in the centre of the province, and Twente in the east. Besides the capital Zwolle, other major cities are Almelo, Deventer, Enschede, and Hengelo. To the southeast, the province's surface is mostly sandy, interspersed with small rivers such as the Regge and Dinkel and other brooks. In the northwest, the geology is dominated by sediments from the \"Overijsselse Vecht\" and clay. The northern parts were once covered by \"veen\" (bogs) which separated the dryer and more arable south from Drenthe and which have been exploited as fuel to a large degree. Only small patches survive today (\"Engbertsdijksvenen\" near Geesteren, \"Witteveen\" (near Haaksbergen), and the Aamsveen (near Enschede). The extreme northwest is dominated by a system of lakes formed by former peat-mining and protected under the De Weerribben-Wieden National Park status, which is a valuable wetland. The highest point in Overijssel is the summit of the Tankenberg, a hill in the municipality of Losser, at 85 metres (278 ft). The lowest point is in the Mastenbroek Polder near Kampen at 2 metres (6 ft) below sea level.", "Overijssel enjoys an oceanic climate (Cfb in the Köppen classification). However, winters tend to be more severe than the rest of the Netherlands, because of its distance from the coast.", "", "Overijssel was formerly known as Oversticht and also included most of the modern-day province of Drenthe. In 1336, it was made part of Guelders, though it was ceded to the Bishopric of Utrecht in 1347. The Bishops ceded the Oversticht to the Emperor Charles V in 1528, who styled himself Lord of Overijssel, after the Latin name of Oversticht that was known since 1233: \"Transysla\" or \"Transisalania\", or Over-IJssel, i.e. the other side of the river IJssel. The people joined with the other Dutch and rebelled against Charles' heir Philip II. Overijssel became governed by the most powerful mayors and lords in the province, including by the lieutenant-governor Nicolaas Schmelzing (1561-1629). After a brief occupation by the forces of the Bishop of Münster (1672–74), Overijssel received a new form of government which granted the stadtholders more power. Widespread resistance against the increased power throughout the provinces eventually led to the formation of the Batavian Republic in 1795. A centralist government arose and the Netherlands was organised into a series of \"départements\", based on those used by revolutionary France.", "At first organised into its own \"département\", it was merged with Drenthe in 1798 to form Ouden IJssel, which was renamed Overijssel in 1801. The French annexed the Batavian Republic in 1810, and Overijssel was organised into the new French département of Bouches-de-l'Yssel. After the defeat of Napoleon in 1814, the kingdom of the Netherlands and the former province of Overijssel were recreated. Overijssel was occupied by Nazi Germany during World War II from May 1940 until its liberation in April 1945. The Noordoostpolder, a reclaimed territory which had been laid dry in 1942, was part of Overijssel from 1962 until 1986, when it became part of the newly created province of Flevoland.", "The King's Commissioner of Overijssel is currently a vacant position as previous title holder Ank Bijleveld (CDA) was appointed to be Minister of defence on 26 October 2017. The King's Commissioner is the chairman of the Provincial-Executive (executive branch) and the States-Provincial (elected legislature) of the province.", "The Gross domestic product (GDP) of the region was 43.2 billion € in 2018, accounting for 5.6% of the Netherlands economic output. GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power was 32,700 € or 108% of the EU27 average in the same year.", "There are three main motorways in Overijssel, the A1, A28, and the A35. The A32 also runs through the province, but just for a few kilometers near Steenwijk. The main railway station in Overijssel is the Zwolle railway station, located in the city of Zwolle which serves as hub between the northern provinces and the rest of The Netherlands. The main airport in Overijssel is the Enschede Airport Twente, located outside of Enschede. The airport does not currently offer any international flights, though it has historically.", "Overijssel is divided into 25 municipalities:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Geography.", "Nature.", "Municipalities.", "Economy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The Bishopric of Utrecht was established in 695 when Saint Willibrord was consecrated bishop of the Frisians at Rome by Pope Sergius I. With the consent of the Frankish ruler, Pippin of Herstal, he settled in an old Roman fort in Utrecht. After Willibrord's death the diocese suffered greatly from the incursions of the Vikings. Better times appeared during the reign of the Saxon emperors, who frequently summoned the Bishops of Utrecht to attend the imperial councils and diets. In 1024 the bishops were made Princes of the Holy Roman Empire and the new Prince-Bishopric of Utrecht was formed. In 1122, with the Concordat of Worms, the Emperor's right of investiture was annulled, and the cathedral chapter received the right to elect the bishop. It was, however, soon obligated to share this right with the four other collegiate chapters in the city. The Counts of Holland and Guelders, between whose territories the lands of the Bishops of Utrecht lay, also sought to acquire influence over the filling of the episcopal see. This often led to disputes and consequently the Holy See frequently interfered in the election. After the middle of the 14th century the popes repeatedly appointed the bishop directly without regard to the five chapters. During the Hook and Cod Wars, Utrecht was fought over by forces of the Duke of Burgundy leading to the First Utrecht Civil War (1470-1474) and Second Utrecht Civil War (1481-1483). In 1527, the Bishop sold his territories, and thus his secular authority, to Holy Roman Emperor Charles V and the principality became an integral part of the Habsburg dominions, which already included most other Dutch provinces. The chapters transferred their right of electing the bishop to Charles V and his government, a measure to which Pope Clement VII gave his consent, under political pressure after the Sack of Rome. However, the Habsburg rule did not last long, as Utrecht joined in the Dutch Revolt against Charles' successor Philip II in 1579, becoming a part of the Dutch Republic. In World War II, Utrecht was held by German forces until the general capitulation of the Germans in the Netherlands on May 5, 1945. It was occupied by Canadian Allied forces on May 7, 1945. The towns of Oudewater, Woerden, Vianen and Leerdam were transferred from the province of South Holland to Utrecht in 1970, 1989, 2002 and 2019 respectively. In February 2011, Utrecht, together with the provinces of North Holland and Flevoland, showed a desire to investigate the feasibility of a merger between the three provinces. This has been positively received by the Dutch cabinet, for the desire to create one Randstad province has already been mentioned in the coalition agreement. The province of South Holland, part of the Randstad urban area, visioned to be part of the Randstad province, and very much supportive of the idea of a merger into one province, is not named. With or without South Holland, if created, the new province would be the largest in the Netherlands in both area and population.", "In the east of Utrecht lies the Utrecht Hill Ridge (Dutch: Utrechtse Heuvelrug), a chain of hills left as lateral moraine by tongues of glacial ice after the Saline glaciation that preceded the last ice age. Because of the scarcity of nutrients in the fast-draining sandy soil, the greatest part of a landscape that was formerly heath has been planted with pine plantations. The south of the province is a river landscape. The west consists mostly of meadows. In the north are big lakes formed by the digging of peat from bogs formed after the last ice age.", "One of the most attractive natural areas in the province is the Vechtstreek (\"Vecht region\"), situated on either side of the Vecht river. An international nature conservation organisation that has settled the head office of its Netherlands branch in this province (at Zeist) is the WWF. \"Natuur en Milieu\" (\"Nature and Environment\") is a national nature protection organisation whose head office is in this province (at Utrecht city).", "The Province of Utrecht is divided into 26 municipalities.", "The Gross domestic product (GDP) of the region was 71.5 billion € in 2018, accounting for 9.2% of the Netherlands economic output. GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power was 47,900 € or 159% of the EU27 average in the same year." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Personality.", "Career.", "Mathematical work.", "Erdős' problems.", "Collaborators.", "Erdős number.", "Signature.", "Books about Erdős." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Paul Erdős was born in Budapest, Austria-Hungary, on 26 March 1913. He was the only surviving child of Anna (née Wilhelm) and Lajos Erdős (born as Lajos Engländer). His two sisters, aged 3 and 5, both died of scarlet fever a few days before he was born. His parents were both Jewish mathematics teachers. His fascination with mathematics developed early—he was often left home by himself because his father was held captive in Siberia as an Austro-Hungarian POW during 1914–1920, causing his mother to have to work long hours to support their household. He taught himself to read through mathematics texts that his parents left around in their home. By the age of four, given a person's age, he could calculate in his head how many seconds they had lived. Due to his sisters' deaths, he had a close relationship with his mother, with the two of them allegedly sharing the same bed until he left for college. Erdős entered the University of Budapest at the age of 17. By the time he was 20, he had found a proof for Chebyshev's Theorem. In 1934, at the age of 21, he was awarded a doctorate in mathematics. Erdős's thesis advisor was Lipót Fejér, who was also the thesis advisor for John von Neumann, George Pólya, and Paul (Pál) Turán. Because he was a Jew, Erdős decided Hungary was dangerous and relocated to the United States. Many members of Erdős' family, including two of his aunts, two of his uncles, and his father, died in Budapest during the Holocaust. His mother survived in hiding. He was living in America and working at the Princeton Institute for Advanced Study at the time. Described by his biographer, Paul Hoffman, as \"probably the most eccentric mathematician in the world,\" Erdős spent most of his adult life living out of a suitcase. Except for some years in the 1950s, when he was not allowed to enter the United States based on the pretense that he was a Communist sympathizer, his life was a continuous series of going from one meeting or seminar to another. During his visits, Erdős expected his hosts to lodge him, feed him, and do his laundry, along with anything else he needed, as well as arrange for him to get to his next destination. On 20 September 1996, at the age of 83, he had a heart attack and died while attending a conference in Warsaw. These circumstances were close to the way he wanted to die. He once said, Erdős never married and had no children. He is buried next to his mother and father in grave 17A-6-29 at Kozma Street Cemetery in Budapest. For his epitaph, he suggested \"I've finally stopped getting dumber.\" (Hungarian: \"\"Végre nem butulok tovább\"\"). His life was documented in the film \"\", made while he was still alive, and posthumously in the book \"The Man Who Loved Only Numbers\" (1998). Erdős' name contains the Hungarian letter \"ő\" (\"o\" with double acute accent), but is often incorrectly written as \"Erdos\" or \"Erdös\" either \"by mistake or out of typographical necessity\".", "Possessions meant little to Erdős; most of his belongings would fit in a suitcase, as dictated by his itinerant lifestyle. Awards and other earnings were generally donated to people in need and various worthy causes. He spent most of his life traveling between scientific conferences, universities and the homes of colleagues all over the world. He earned enough in stipends from universities as a guest lecturer, and from various mathematical awards, to fund his travels and basic needs; money left over he used to fund cash prizes for proofs of \"Erdős problems\" (see below). He would typically show up at a colleague's doorstep and announce \"my brain is open\", staying long enough to collaborate on a few papers before moving on a few days later. In many cases, he would ask the current collaborator about whom to visit next. His colleague Alfréd Rényi said, \"a mathematician is a machine for turning coffee into theorems\", and Erdős drank copious quantities (this quotation is often attributed incorrectly to Erdős, but Erdős himself ascribed it to Rényi). After 1971 he also took stimulants, despite the concern of his friends, one of whom (Ron Graham) bet him $500 that he could not stop taking them for a month. Erdős won the bet, but complained that during his abstinence, mathematics had been set back by a month: \"Before, when I looked at a piece of blank paper my mind was filled with ideas. Now all I see is a blank piece of paper.\" After he won the bet, he promptly resumed his use of Ritalin and Benzedrine. He had his own idiosyncratic vocabulary: although an agnostic atheist, he spoke of \"The Book\", a visualization of a book in which God had written down the best and most elegant proofs for mathematical theorems. Lecturing in 1985 he said, \"You don't have to believe in God, but you should believe in \"The Book\".\" He himself doubted the existence of God, whom he called the \"Supreme Fascist\" (SF). He accused SF of hiding his socks and Hungarian passports, and of keeping the most elegant mathematical proofs to Himself. When he saw a particularly beautiful mathematical proof he would exclaim, \"This one's from \"The Book\"!\" This later inspired a book titled \"Proofs from the Book\". Other idiosyncratic elements of Erdős's vocabulary include: He gave nicknames to many countries, examples being: the U.S. was \"samland\" (after Uncle Sam), the Soviet Union was \"joedom\" (after Joseph Stalin), and Israel was \"\".", "In 1934, he moved to Manchester, England, to be a guest lecturer. In 1938, he accepted his first American position as a scholarship holder at Princeton University. At this time, he began to develop the habit of traveling from campus to campus. He would not stay long in one place and traveled back and forth among mathematical institutions until his death. In 1954, the United States Citizenship and Immigration Services denied Erdős, a Hungarian citizen, a re-entry visa into the United States, for reasons that have never been fully explained. Teaching at the University of Notre Dame at the time, Erdős could have chosen to remain in the country. Instead, he packed up and left, albeit requesting reconsideration from the U.S. Immigration Services at periodic intervals. Hungary at the time was under the Warsaw Pact with the Soviet Union. Although Hungary limited the freedom of its own citizens to enter and exit the country, it gave Erdős the exclusive privilege of being allowed to enter and exit the country as he pleased in 1956. The U.S. Immigration Services later granted a visa in 1963 to Erdős and he resumed including American universities in his teaching and travels. Ten years later, in 1973, the 60-year-old Erdős voluntarily left Hungary. During the last decades of his life, Erdős received at least fifteen honorary doctorates. He became a member of the scientific academies of eight countries, including the U.S. National Academy of Sciences and the UK Royal Society. Shortly before his death, he renounced his honorary degree from the University of Waterloo over what he considered to be unfair treatment of colleague Adrian Bondy.", "Erdős was one of the most prolific publishers of papers in mathematical history, comparable only with Leonhard Euler; Erdős published more papers, mostly in collaboration with other mathematicians, while Euler published more pages, mostly by himself. Erdős wrote around 1,525 mathematical articles in his lifetime, mostly with co-authors. He strongly believed in and practiced mathematics as a social activity, having 511 different collaborators in his lifetime. In his mathematical style, Erdős was much more of a \"problem solver\" than a \"theory developer\" (see \"The Two Cultures of Mathematics\" by Timothy Gowers for an in-depth discussion of the two styles, and why problem solvers are perhaps less appreciated). Joel Spencer states that \"his place in the 20th-century mathematical pantheon is a matter of some controversy because he resolutely concentrated on particular theorems and conjectures throughout his illustrious career.\" Erdős never won the highest mathematical prize, the Fields Medal, nor did he coauthor a paper with anyone who did, a pattern that extends to other prizes. He did win the Wolf Prize, where his contribution is described as \"for his numerous contributions to number theory, combinatorics, probability, set theory and mathematical analysis, and for personally stimulating mathematicians the world over\". In contrast, the works of the three winners after were recognized as \"outstanding\", \"classic\", and \"profound\", and the three before as \"fundamental\" or \"seminal\". Of his contributions, the development of Ramsey theory and the application of the probabilistic method especially stand out. Extremal combinatorics owes to him a whole approach, derived in part from the tradition of analytic number theory. Erdős found a proof for Bertrand's postulate which proved to be far neater than Chebyshev's original one. He also discovered the first elementary proof for the prime number theorem, along with Atle Selberg. However, the circumstances leading up to the proofs, as well as publication disagreements, led to a bitter dispute between Erdős and Selberg. Erdős also contributed to fields in which he had little real interest, such as topology, where he is credited as the first person to give an example of a totally disconnected topological space that is not zero-dimensional, the Erdős space.", "Throughout his career, Erdős would offer payments for solutions to unresolved problems. These ranged from $25 for problems that he felt were just out of the reach of the current mathematical thinking (both his and others), to several thousand dollars for problems that were both difficult to attack and mathematically significant. There are thought to be at least a thousand remaining unsolved problems, though there is no official or comprehensive list. The offers remain active despite Erdős's death; Ronald Graham is the (informal) administrator of solutions. A solver can get either an original check signed by Erdős before his death (for memento only, cannot be cashed) or a cashable check from Graham. Perhaps the most mathematically notable of these problems is the Erdős conjecture on arithmetic progressions: If true, it would solve several other open problems in number theory (although one main implication of the conjecture, that the prime numbers contain arbitrarily long arithmetic progressions, has since been proved independently as the Green–Tao theorem). The payment for the solution of the problem is currently worth US$5,000. The most familiar problem with an Erdős prize is likely the Collatz conjecture, also called the 3\"N\" + 1 problem. Erdős offered $500 for a solution.", "His most frequent collaborators include Hungarian mathematicians András Sárközy (62 papers) and András Hajnal (56 papers), and American mathematician Ralph Faudree (50 papers). Other frequent collaborators were the following: For other co-authors of Erdős, see the list of people with Erdős number 1 in List of people by Erdős number.", "Because of his prolific output, friends created the Erdős number as a tribute. An Erdős number describes a person's degree of separation from Erdős himself, based on their collaboration with him, or with another who has their own Erdős number. Erdős alone was assigned the Erdős number of 0 (for being himself), while his immediate collaborators could claim an Erdős number of 1, their collaborators have Erdős number at most 2, and so on. Approximately 200,000 mathematicians have an assigned Erdős number, and some have estimated that 90 percent of the world's active mathematicians have an Erdős number smaller than 8 (not surprising in light of the small world phenomenon). Due to collaborations with mathematicians, many scientists in fields such as physics, engineering, biology, and economics have Erdős numbers as well. Several studies have shown that leading mathematicians tend to have particularly low Erdős numbers. For example, the roughly 268,000 mathematicians with a known Erdős number have a median value of 5. In contrast, the median Erdős number of Fields Medalists is 3. As of 2015, approximately 11,000 mathematicians have an Erdős number of 2 or less. Collaboration distances will necessarily increase over long time scales, as mathematicians with low Erdős numbers die and become unavailable for collaboration. The American Mathematical Society provides a free online tool to determine the Erdős number of every mathematical author listed in the Mathematical Reviews catalogue. The Erdős number was most likely first defined by Casper Goffman, an analyst whose own Erdős number is 2. Goffman published his observations about Erdős's prolific collaboration in a 1969 article titled \"And what is your Erdős number?\" Jerry Grossman has written that it could be argued that Baseball Hall of Famer Hank Aaron can be considered to have an Erdős number of 1 because they both autographed the same baseball (for Carl Pomerance) when Emory University awarded them honorary degrees on the same day. Erdős numbers have also been proposed for an infant, a horse, and several actors.", "Erdős signed his name \"Paul Erdos P.G.O.M.\" When he became 60, he added \"L.D.\", at 65 \"A.D.\", at 70 \"L.D.\" (again), and at 75 \"C.D.\"", "Erdős is the subject of at least three books: two biographies (Hoffman's \"The Man Who Loved Only Numbers\" and Schechter's \"My Brain is Open\", both published in 1998) and a 2013 children's picture book by Deborah Heiligman (\"The Boy Who Loved Math: The Improbable Life of Paul Erdős\")." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Career.", "1986–2004: No Doubt.", "2004–2006: \"Love. Angel. Music. Baby.\" and film debut.", "2006–2013: \"The Sweet Escape\" and return to No Doubt.", "2014–2016: \"The Voice\" and \"This Is What the Truth Feels Like\".", "2017–present: \"You Make It Feel Like Christmas\" and Las Vegas residency.", "Other ventures.", "Personal life.", "Artistry.", "Public image.", "Achievements and legacy.", "Philanthropy.", "Discography.", "Tours." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Gwen Renée Stefani was born on October 3, 1969, in Fullerton, California, and raised Catholic in nearby Anaheim, California. She was named after a stewardess in the 1968 novel \"Airport\", and her middle name, Renée, comes from The Four Tops' 1968 cover of The Left Banke's 1966 song \"Walk Away Renée\". Her father, Dennis Stefani, is Italian-American and worked as a Yamaha marketing executive. Her mother, Patti (\"née\" Flynn), worked as an accountant before becoming a housewife. Stefani's parents were fans of folk music and exposed her to music by artists like Bob Dylan and Emmylou Harris. Stefani has two younger siblings, Jill and Todd, and an older brother, Eric. Eric was the keyboardist for No Doubt before leaving the band to pursue a career in animation on \"The Simpsons\". She worked at the ice cream parlor Dairy Queen.", "", "Her brother Eric introduced Gwen to 2 Tone music by Madness and The Selecter and, in 1986, he invited her to provide vocals for No Doubt, a ska band he was forming. In 1991 the band was personally signed to Interscope Records by Jimmy Iovine. The band released its self-titled debut album in 1992, but its ska-pop sound was unsuccessful due to the popularity of grunge. Before the mainstream success of both No Doubt and Sublime, Stefani contributed guest vocals to \"Saw Red\" on Sublime's 1994 album \"Robbin' the Hood\". Stefani rejected the aggressiveness of female grunge artists and cited Blondie singer Debbie Harry's combination of power and sex appeal as a major influence. No Doubt's third album, \"Tragic Kingdom\" (1995), which followed the self-released \"The Beacon Street Collection\" (1995), took more than three years to make. Five singles were released from \"Tragic Kingdom\", including \"Don't Speak\", which led the Hot 100 Airplay year-end chart of 1997. Stefani left college for one semester to tour for \"Tragic Kingdom\" but did not return when touring lasted two and a half years. The album was nominated for a Grammy and sold more than 16 million copies worldwide by 2004. In late 2000, \"Rolling Stone\" magazine named her \"The Queen of Confessional Pop\". During the time when No Doubt was receiving mainstream success, Stefani collaborated on the singles \"You're the Boss\" with the Brian Setzer Orchestra, \"South Side\" with Moby, and \"Let Me Blow Ya Mind\" with Eve. No Doubt released the less popular \"Return of Saturn\" in 2000, which expanded upon the new wave influences of \"Tragic Kingdom\". Most of the lyrical content focused on Stefani's often rocky relationship with then-Bush frontman Gavin Rossdale and her insecurities, including indecision on settling down and having a child. The band's 2001 album, \"Rock Steady\", explored more reggae and dancehall sounds, while maintaining the band's new wave influences. The album generated career-highest singles chart positions in the United States, and \"Hey Baby\" and \"Underneath It All\" received Grammy Awards. A greatest hits collection, \"The Singles 1992–2003\", which includes a cover of Talk Talk's \"It's My Life\", was released in 2003. In 2002, Eve and Stefani won a Grammy Award for Best Rap/Sung Collaboration for \"Let Me Blow Ya Mind\".", "Stefani's debut solo album \"Love. Angel. Music. Baby.\" was released on November 12, 2004. The album features several collaborations with producers and other artists, including Tony Kanal, Tom Rothrock, Linda Perry, André 3000, Nellee Hooper, The Neptunes and New Order. Stefani created the album to modernize the music to which she listened when in high school, and \"L.A.M.B.\" takes influence from a variety of music styles of the 1980s and early 1990s such as new wave, synthpop, and electro. Stefani's decision to use her solo career as an opportunity to delve further into pop music instead of trying \"to convince the world of [her] talent, depth and artistic worth\" was considered unusual. The album was described as \"fun as hell but... not exactly rife with subversive social commentary\". The album debuted on the US \"Billboard\" 200 albums chart at number seven, selling 309,000 copies in its first week. \"L.A.M.B.\" reached multi-platinum status in the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia, and Canada. The first single from the album was \"What You Waiting For?\", which debuted atop the ARIA Singles Chart, charted at number 47 on the US \"Billboard\" Hot 100 and reached the top ten on most other charts. The song served to explain why Stefani produced a solo album and discusses her fears in leaving No Doubt for a solo career as well as her desire to have a baby. \"Rich Girl\" was released as the album's second single. A duet with rapper Eve, and produced by Dr. Dre, it is an adaptation of a 1990s pop song by British musicians Louchie Lou & Michie One, which itself is a very loose cover lyrically but closer melodically of \"If I Were a Rich Man\", from the musical \"Fiddler on the Roof\". \"Rich Girl\" reached the US and UK top ten. The album's third single \"Hollaback Girl\" became Stefani's first US and second Australian number-one single; it reached top ten elsewhere. The song was the first US music download to sell more than one million copies, and its brass-driven composition remained popular throughout 2005. The fourth single \"Cool\" was released shortly following the popularity of its predecessor, reaching the top 20 in US and UK. The song's lyrics and its accompanying music video, filmed on Lake Como, depict Stefani's former relationship with Kanal. \"Luxurious\" was released as the album's fifth single, but did not perform as well as its predecessors. \"Crash\" was released in January 2006 as the album's sixth single in lieu of \"Love. Angel. Music. Baby.\"s sequel, which Stefani postponed because of her pregnancy. In 2004, Stefani showed interest in making film appearances and began auditioning for films such as \"Mr. & Mrs. Smith\". She made her film debut playing Jean Harlow in Martin Scorsese's \"The Aviator\" in 2004. Scorsese, whose daughter was a No Doubt fan, showed reciprocal interest in casting Stefani after seeing her picture from a Marilyn Monroe-inspired photo shoot for \"Teen Vogue\" in 2003. To prepare for the role, Stefani read two biographies and watched 18 of Harlow's films. Shooting her part took four to five days, and Stefani had few lines. Stefani lent her voice to the title character of the 2004 video game \"Malice\", but the company opted not to use No Doubt band members' voices.", "Stefani's second studio album, \"The Sweet Escape\", was released on December 1, 2006. Stefani continued work with Kanal, Perry, and The Neptunes, along with Akon and Tim Rice-Oxley from English rock band Keane. The album focuses more heavily on electronic and dance music for clubs than its predecessor. Its release coincided with the DVD release of Stefani's first tour, entitled \"Harajuku Lovers Live\". Sia Michel wrote that it \"has a surprisingly moody, lightly autobiographical feel... but Stefani isn't convincing as a dissatisfied diva\" and Rob Sheffield called the album a \"hasty return\" that repeats \"Love. Angel. Music. Baby.\" with less energy. \"Wind It Up\", the album's lead single, used yodeling and an interpolation of \"The Sound of Music\", and peaked in the top 10 in the US and the UK. The title track reached the top 10 in over 15 nations, including number two peaks in the US, Australia and the UK. To promote \"The Sweet Escape\", Stefani was a mentor on the sixth season of \"American Idol\" and performed the song with Akon. The song earned her a Grammy Award nomination for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals. Three more singles were released from the album; \"4 in the Morning\", \"Now That You Got It\" which featured Damian Marley and \"Early Winter\". To promote the album, Stefani embarked on a worldwide tour, The Sweet Escape Tour, which covered North America, Europe, Asia and the Pacific and part of Latin America. In an interview with \"Entertainment Weekly\" on June 6, 2011, Stefani stated that she had no plans to continue work as a solo artist. With Stefani promoting \"The Sweet Escape\", No Doubt began work on a new album without her and planned to complete it after Stefani's The Sweet Escape Tour was finished. In March 2008, the band started making posts concerning the progression of the album on their official fan forum. Stefani made a post on March 28, 2008 stating that songwriting had commenced but was slow on her end because she was pregnant with her second child. \"The Singles 1992–2003\" became available on December 9, 2008 for the video game \"Rock Band 2\". Adrian Young played drums on Scott Weiland's album \"\"Happy\" in Galoshes\". No Doubt headlined the Bamboozle 2009 festival in May 2009, along with Fall Out Boy. The band completed a national tour in mid-2009. The new album \"Push and Shove\" was released on September 25, preceded by the first single, \"Settle Down\", on July 16. The music video for \"Settle Down\" was directed by Sophie Muller (who has previously directed numerous music videos for No Doubt). Also around this time No Doubt were guest mentors for the UK version of The X-Factor. \"Settle Down\" peaked at 34 on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 with the album peaking at number three on the US \"Billboard\" 200. On November 3, 2012, the band pulled its music video \"Looking Hot\" from the Internet after receiving complaints that it was insensitive towards Native Americans.", "On April 12, 2014, Stefani made a surprise appearance at the Coachella festival, where she joined Pharrell Williams onstage during his set to perform \"Hollaback Girl\". On April 29, it was officially confirmed that Stefani would join the seventh season of \"The Voice\" as a coach, replacing Christina Aguilera. Nine years after the previous time, she attended the 2014 MTV Video Music Awards. Stefani appears as a featured artist on Maroon 5's song \"My Heart Is Open\", co-written by Sia Furler, from the band's album \"V\", which was performed for the first time with Adam Levine and an orchestra at the 2015 Grammy Awards. Stefani also collaborated with Calvin Harris on the track \"Together\" from his album \"Motion\". On September 8, 2014, Stefani told MTV News during New York Fashion Week that she was working on both a No Doubt album and a solo album, and that she was working with Williams. Stefani released her comeback single \"Baby Don't Lie\" on October 20, 2014, co-written with producers Ryan Tedder, Benny Blanco, and Noel Zancanella. \"Billboard\" announced that her third studio album was set to be released in December with Benny Blanco serving as executive producer. In late October, \"Spark the Fire\", a new track from Stefani's third album, was released. The song was produced by Pharrell Williams. On November 23, the full song premiered online. Both \"Baby Don't Lie\" and \"Spark the Fire\" were later scrapped from Stefani's third album. On January 13, 2015, Stefani and Williams also recorded a song titled \"Shine\", for the \"Paddington\" soundtrack. Stefani and Sia Furler worked together on a ballad, called \"Start a War\" which was expected to be released on Stefani's third studio album as well, but it was not included on the final cut. On July 10, 2015, American rapper Eminem featured Stefani on his single \"Kings Never Die\", from the \"Southpaw\" film soundtrack. The track debuted and peaked at number 80 on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 chart, and matched first-week digital download sales of 35,000 copies. On October 17, 2015, Stefani performed a concert as part of her MasterCard Priceless Surprises tour series at the Hammerstein Ballroom in New York City, where she performed a new song about her breakup with ex-husband Gavin Rossdale, titled \"Used to Love You\". It was released as a download on October 20, 2015. The video was released the same day. The song was released to contemporary hit radio in the United States on October 27, 2015. The track is the first official single off her third solo album \"This Is What the Truth Feels Like\", which she began working on in mid-2015. Stefani said much of the previous material she worked on in 2014 felt forced and inauthentic, the opposite of what she had originally wanted. The album's second single, \"Make Me Like You\", was released on February 12, 2016. \"This Is What the Truth Feels Like\" was released on March 18, 2016, and debuted at number one on the \"Billboard\" 200 with 84,000 album-equivalent units sold in its first week, earning Stefani her first number-one album on the U.S. chart as a solo artist. To further promote the album, Stefani embarked on her This Is What the Truth Feels Like Tour with rapper Eve in the United States. Stefani voiced DJ Suki in the animated film \"Trolls\", which was released on November 4, 2016. She is also included on five songs from the. Stefani twice performed as part of the \"Final Shows\" at Irvine Meadows Amphitheatre on October 29–30, before the venue's closure.", "In July 2017, Stefani announced plans to release new music by the end of the year. In August, several song titles from the singer's sessions were published on GEMA's official website, suggesting that she may be recording a holiday album. The songwriting credits from the leaked tracks had Stefani collaborating with busbee, Blake Shelton, and Justin Tranter. The album, titled \"You Make It Feel Like Christmas\", was released on October 6, 2017. Its title track, featuring guest vocals from Shelton, was digitally distributed on September 22, 2017, as the lead single. To promote the record, Stefani hosted \"Gwen Stefani's You Make It Feel Like Christmas\", an NBC Christmas television special that aired on December 12, 2017. Stefani's first concert residency, titled, began on June 27, 2018 at the Zappos Theater in Las Vegas. It is scheduled to conclude on May 16, 2020. It was named after the No Doubt song, \"Just A Girl\". Proceeds from the show ($1 per ticket) were donated to the organization Cure4Kids. A deluxe edition of \"You Make It Feel Like Christmas\" was released in October 2018, and was promoted through the single \"Secret Santa\". On June 22, 2019, Stefani performed at the Machaca Fest in Fundidora Park. In the same month, \"The New York Times Magazine\" listed Stefani among hundreds of artists whose material was reportedly destroyed in the 2008 Universal fire. She replaced Adam Levine as a judge for \"The Voice\"'s 17th season in the fall of 2019, and Nick Jonas will be her replacement for the 18th season. she will be returning for the Voice’s 19th season, replacing Nick Jonas as a coach. On December 13, 2019, Stefani featured on Shelton's single \"Nobody but You\" from his compilation album \"\". The song peaked at number 18 on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 and 49 on the Canadian Hot 100.", "Stefani made most of the clothing that she wore on stage with No Doubt, resulting in increasingly eclectic combinations. Stylist Andrea Lieberman introduced her to haute couture clothing, which led to Stefani launching a fashion line named L.A.M.B. in 2004. The line takes influence from a variety of fashions, including Guatemalan, Japanese, and Jamaican styles. The line achieved popularity among celebrities and is worn by stars such as Teri Hatcher, Nicole Kidman, and Stefani herself. In June 2005, she expanded her collection with the less expensive Harajuku Lovers line, which she referred to as \"a glorified merchandise line\", with varied products including a camera, mobile phone charms, and undergarments. In late 2006, Stefani released a limited edition line of dolls called \"Love. Angel. Music. Baby. Fashion dolls\". The dolls are inspired by the clothes Stefani and the Harajuku Girls wore while touring for the album. In late 2007, Stefani launched a perfume, L, as a part of her L.A.M.B. collection of clothing and accessories. The perfume has high notes of sweet pea and rose. In September 2008, Stefani released a fragrance line as a part of her Harajuku Lovers product line. There are five different fragrances based on the four Harajuku Girls and Stefani herself called Love, Lil' Angel, Music, Baby and G (Gwen)., Stefani has become the spokesperson for L'Oréal Paris. In 2016, Urban Decay released a limited edition cosmetic collection in collaboration with Stefani. After needing to wear glasses, she began designing eyewear. In 2016, Gwen began releasing eyewear under her fashion label L.A.M.B. She also began releasing affordable eyewear under the label GX, with Tura Inc. In 2014, Stefani announced the production of an animated series about her and the Harajuku Girls. Along with Vision Animation and Moody Street Kids, Stefani has helped create the show which features herself, Love, Angel, Music, and Baby as the band, HJ5, who fight evil whilst trying to pursue their music career. Mattel have signed on as the global toy licensee and the series itself, \"Kuu Kuu Harajuku\" will be distributed worldwide by DHX Media.", "Soon after Stefani joined No Doubt, she and bandmate Tony Kanal began dating. She stated that she was heavily invested in that relationship. Stefani commented that \"...all I ever did was look at Tony and pray that God would let me have a baby with him.\" The band almost split up when Kanal ended the relationship. Their break-up inspired Stefani lyrically, and many of \"Tragic Kingdom\"s songs, such as \"Don't Speak\", \"Sunday Morning\", and \"Hey You!\", chronicle the ups and downs of their relationship. Many years later, Stefani co-wrote her song \"Cool\" about their relationship as friends for her 2004 debut solo album \"Love. Angel. Music. Baby.\" Stefani met Bush lead singer and guitarist Gavin Rossdale in 1995, when No Doubt and headlining band Bush performed at a holiday concert for radio station KROQ. They married on September 14, 2002, with a wedding in St Paul's, Covent Garden, London. A second wedding was held in Los Angeles two weeks later. Stefani has three sons with Rossdale, Kingston, born in May 2006, Zuma born in August 2008, and Apollo, born in February 2014. On August 3, 2015, Stefani filed for divorce from Rossdale, citing \"irreconcilable differences\". The divorce was finalized on April 8, 2016, in which Rossdale agreed to the \"unequal split\" of their assets. Stefani announced her relationship with Blake Shelton, country music artist and \"The Voice\" co-star, in November 2015.", "AXS called Stefani a \"powerhouse\" vocalist with an \"incredible\" range. \"The New York Times\" considered Stefani's vocals \"mannered\" and commended her for \"kick[ing] her vibrato addiction\". IGN described Stefani as having a \"unique vocal prowess\". The \"Chicago Tribune\" stated that Stefani had a \"brash alto\". Stefani's debut album \"Love. Angel. Music. Baby.\" took influence from a variety of 1980s genres, which included electropop, new wave, dance-rock, hip hop, R&B, soul, and disco music. Stefani cited early Madonna, Lisa Lisa, Club Nouveau, Prince, New Order and The Cure as major influences for the album. Several of the album's tracks were designed for clubs, and contained electro beats meant for dancing. Referencing fashion and wealth in the album, the singer name-drops several designers who she considered inspirations in her personal career, such as John Galliano and Vivienne Westwood. Her second studio album \"The Sweet Escape\" resembles musically its predecessor while exploring more modern pop sounds, dabbling heavily into genres such as dance-pop and rap. It carried on the same themes developed in \"Love. Angel. Music. Baby.\", and was criticized for doing so. \"This Is What the Truth Feels Like\", the singer's third album, continued Stefani's endeavors with the pop genre, while incorporating music from a variety of other genres including reggae, disco, and dancehall, as well as the use of guitars. Stefani's lyrics shifted towards events that had recently occurred in her personal life, such as her divorce from Rossdale, and new relationship with Shelton. The singer stated her album was more about forgiveness than revenge.", "Stefani began wearing a bindi in the mid-1990s after attending several family gatherings for Tony Kanal, who is of Indian heritage. During No Doubt's breakthrough, Stefani wore the forehead decoration in several of the band's music videos and briefly popularized the accessory in 1997. Since the 1995 music video for \"Just a Girl\", Stefani has been known for her midriff and frequently wears shirts that expose it. Stefani's makeup design generally includes light face powder, bright red lipstick, and arched eyebrows; she wrote about the subject in a song titled \"Magic's in the Makeup\" for No Doubt's \"Return of Saturn\", asking \"If the magic's in the makeup/Then who am I?\". Stefani is a natural brunette, but her hair has not been its natural color since she was in ninth grade. Since late 1994, she has usually had platinum blonde hair. Stefani discussed this in the song \"Platinum Blonde Life\" on \"Rock Steady\" and played original blonde bombshell Jean Harlow in the 2004 biopic \"The Aviator\". She dyed her hair blue in 1998 and pink in 1999, when she appeared on the cover of \"Return of Saturn\" with pink hair. In 2006, Stefani modified her image, inspired by that of Michelle Pfeiffer's character Elvira Hancock in the 1983 film \"Scarface\". The reinvented image included a symbol consisting of two back-to-back 'G's, which appears on a diamond-encrusted key she wears on a necklace and which became a motif in the promotion of \"The Sweet Escape\". Stefani raised concerns in January 2007 about her rapid weight loss following her pregnancy. She later stated that she had been on a diet since the sixth grade to fit in size 4 clothing. A wax figure of Stefani was unveiled at Madame Tussauds Las Vegas at The Venetian on September 22, 2010. The release of Stefani's first solo album brought attention to her entourage of four Harajuku Girls, who appear in outfits influenced by Gothic Lolita fashion, and are named for the area around the Harajuku Station of Tokyo. Stefani's clothing also took influence from Japanese fashion, in a style described as a combination between Christian Dior and Japan. The dancers are featured in her music videos, press coverage, and on the album cover for \"Love. Angel. Music. Baby.\", with a song named for and dedicated to them on the album. They were also featured in, and the namesake for, Stefani's Harajuku Lovers Tour. \"Forbes\" magazine reported that Stefani earned $27 million between June 2007 to June 2008 for her tour, fashion line and commercials, making her the world's 10th highest paid music personality at the time.", "Throughout her career as a solo artist, Stefani has won several music awards, including one Grammy Award, four MTV Video Music Awards, one American Music Award, one Brit Award, and two \"Billboard\" Music Awards. With No Doubt, she has won two Grammy Awards. In 2005, \"Rolling Stone\" called her \"the only true female rock star left on radio or MTV\" and featured her on the magazine's cover. Stefani received the Style Icon Award at the first People Magazine Awards in 2014. In 2016, the singer was honored at the Radio Disney Music Awards with a Hero Award, which is given to artists based on their personal contributions to various charitable works. Stefani has been referred to as a \"Pop Princess\" by several contemporary music critics. In 2012, VH1 listed the singer at the number thirteen on their list of \"100 Greatest Women in Music\". Stefani's work has influenced artists and musicians including Hayley Williams of Paramore, Best Coast, Kim Petras, Teddy Sinclair, Katy Perry, Charli XCX, Kesha, Ava Max, Marina Diamandis, Rita Ora, Keke Palmer, Bebe Rexha, Dua Lipa, The Stunners, Kelly Clarkson, Sky Ferreira, Kirstin Maldonado of Pentatonix, and Cover Drive. The latter group, a quartet of Barbados musicians, claimed that both Stefani and No Doubt had helped influence their music, to which the lead singer of the group, Amanda Reifer, said that she would \"pass out\" if she ever met Stefani. The lead single from \"Love. Angel. Music. Baby.\", \"What You Waiting For?\", was considered by \"Pitchfork\" to be one of Stefani's best singles, and would later place it at number sixteen on their \"Top 50 Singles of 2004\" list. \"Hollaback Girl\" from \"Love. Angel. Music. Baby.\" would go on to be the first song to digitally sell an excess of one million copies in the United States; it was certified platinum in both the United States and Australia, and peak at number forty-one on \"Billboard\"s decade-end charts for 2000–09. Since its release in 2005, \"Hollaback Girl\" has been called Stefani's \"signature song\" by \"Rolling Stone\".", "Following the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami, Stefani donated $1 million to Save the Children's Japan Earthquake–Tsunami Children in Emergency Fund. Stefani also ran an auction on eBay from April 11 to 25, 2011, allowing participants to bid on vintage clothing items from her personal wardrobe and custom T-shirts designed and signed by her, as well as an admission to a private Harajuku-themed tea party hosted by her on June 7, 2011, at Los Angeles' first-ever Japanese-style maid café and pop art space, Royal/T, with proceeds from the auction going to Save the Children's relief effort. At the amfAR gala during the 2011 Cannes Film Festival, Stefani auctioned off the lacy black dress she wore at the event for charity, raising over $125,000. A representative for designer Michael Angel, who helped Stefani with the design and worked as a stylist, said that Angel created the gown, not Stefani. In response, Angel released a statement confirming that the dress was designed by Stefani for L.A.M.B. to wear and be auctioned off at the amfAR gala. Stefani hosted a fundraiser with First Lady Michelle Obama in August 2012 at the singer's Beverly Hills home.", "Solo discography No Doubt discography", "Headlining Residency Promotional Festivals" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Writing and production.", "Composition.", "Critical reception.", "Chart performance.", "Music video.", "Synopsis.", "Live performances.", "Credits and personnel." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Following the release of her third studio album, \"This Is Me... Then\" (2002), and the media circus caused following the demise of her two-year relationship with American actor-director Ben Affleck, Lopez took a break from her career. During her time off, she wed long-time friend Marc Anthony. Once she felt like it was time to make her return, she began recording material for her fourth studio album, \"Rebirth\" (2005). Lopez told \"Billboard\" that taking time off was hard for her to do, as it was, in her own words, \"not really in my genes—it's not part of my make-up. There were times when my life was like a roller coaster ride, but as an artist, you need time to clarify. I've grown a lot since my first album. Vocally, I've become more confident. I record songs with a different attack—with a different vigor\".", "While recording his fourth studio album, \"Confessions\" (2004), American recording artist Usher collaborated with record producer Rich Harrison; only one of the songs they did together, \"Take Your Hand\", made the album's final track listing. However, one of the songs that missed the album's track listing was \"Ride\", composed by Harrison, although it was made available as a 12-inch club record and as a leaked internet download. Harrison decided to rework the song for Lopez after opting to give \"1 Thing\" to Amerie over her. The resulting \"Get Right\" contained the \"same horn track\" and \"same vocal guidelines\" as \"Ride\". Sources reported that Usher was unhappy and wanted publishing credits, because he \"couldn't get it right\" for \"Confessions\", but didn't expect it to be used by someone else; \"I'd better get some of the publishing rights or else,\" he was allegedly quoted saying. According to MTV News, most of Usher's lyrics to \"Ride\" differ from Lopez's \"Get Right\". In one verse, he sings: \"It's the way that you look at me, piques my curiosity\". \"I'm wondering what you're feeling tonight/ We never chilled, we never spent no time/ So let's take a minute/... Show you what I'm feeling inside/ Baby, hold on, tonight we're gonna ride.\" As \"Ride\" had been circulating online for months, following the release of \"Get Right\", club DJs began playing the songs back-to-back, \"letting listeners hear two big-name singers going head-to-head over the same beat\".", "\"Get Right\" is an upbeat dance and R&B song with jazz and funk influences, which has a duration of three minutes and forty-five seconds (3:45). It was written by Richard Harrison, who produced it alongside Cory Rooney. Lopez recorded her vocals with Bruce Swedien and Peter Wade Keusch at recording studios in Fort Washington and Long Island. Swedien and Keusch later mixed her vocals at Cove City Sound Studios, Glen Cove. The song's hook is based around a sample of Maceo and the Macks' track \"Soul Power 74\". This was a remixed instrumental version of the original James Brown song \"Soul Power\". A honking saxophone line, described as \"wild\" by \"The New York Times\", is looped over and over again throughout the song which also utilizes the use of repetitive horn rifts. The song's beat was noted by \"Milwaukee Journal Sentinel\" among other sources to be \"infectious\". Fox News noted the entertainer to be \"talk-singing\" on the track. The song's lyrical premise is about Lopez's invitations towards a potential dancer partner, incorporating themes of dance, sex and alcohol. She promises him that \"before the night is up we can get right\" during the song's chorus. She later states \"I'm about to fill your cup/So we can get it right\". In the bridge of \"Get Right\", the lyrics are identical to Usher's \"Ride\". Lopez sings, \"So much we've got to say, but so little time/ And if tonight ain't long enough, don't leave love behind/ (Don't leave this man behind)/ Baby, take my hand\". On the song's remix, American rapper Fabolous is featured. His lyrics include \"I ain't Mr. Right, I'm Mr. Right Now\".", "CBBC Newsound collected public reviews of the song by preteens and teenagers between the ages of 11 and 14. It was described by some as \"individual\" and \"humming tune\". \"Get Right\" was noted for being extremely catchy, with several claiming it \"got stuck\" in their heads. \"It's one of the really rubbish annoying trumpety tunes that get stuck in your head for ages\", said one preteen, while another commented, \"I really like this song it's one of her good songs and wicked to boogie to at a party\". At the Teen Choice Awards, the song was nominated for \"Best R&B/Rap Track\" as well as \"Choice Party Starter\". Jack Smith of BBC News called it \"older-than-old-skool brass\" while comparing it to Beyoncé's music. Kelefa Sanneh of \"The New York Times\" called the song \"memorable\", crediting the general success of \"Rebirth\" during its first week of availability to \"one of the year's most unusual R&B songs\". Sanneh praised its saxophone line which allowed it to sound \"like nothing else on the radio\".\"The Guardian\"s Alexis Petridis lauded the song, describing it as \"brilliant\", with \"an almost ruthless precision\". Mike Schiller of PopMatters noted the single to be \"more jazzy and funky than a Jennifer Lopez song has any right to be\". Schiller said she kept the song \"simple\", containing \"infectious horns and a simple backbeat\" which \"manages the feat of being the grooviest dance track Lopez has released since \"J.Lo\"s 'Play'.\" In a mixed review, Commonsensemedia's Kathi Kamen Goldmark said the song, \"percolates with manic horn riffs and the kind of infectious energy that makes thin vocals irrelevant.\" Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine agreed, while criticizing her voice, said the \"incessant Maceo Parker horn loop of 'Get Right' is obnoxious at best\". Although also criticizing Lopez's vocals, Nathan Rabin of \"The A.V. Club\" club wrote:", "Her first musical release in nearly two years, \"Get Right\" allowed Lopez to re-enter the media spotlight immediately upon its release. In the United Kingdom, \"Get Right\" debuted at the top of the UK Singles Chart on February 20, 2005 – for the week ending date February 26, 2005 – selling 49,928 copies in its first week of release and dethroning U2's \"Sometimes You Can't Make It On Your Own\" to become her twelfth top-ten hit in Britain, as well as her second number one song in the country after \"Love Don't Cost a Thing\" in January 2001. The following week, \"Get Right\" fell a position to number two when it was dethroned by \"Over and Over\" by Nelly featuring Tim McGraw. Elsewhere, the single reached the top ten of most major music markets, over 18 countries. For the chart week ending February 17, 2005, Get Right\" debuted at number one in Ireland. It experienced similar success in Italy, where it debuted at number one that day, remaining in the top ten of the Italian Singles Chart for ten weeks. In Belgium, \"Get Right\" charted at number two in Wallonia and number three in Flanders. The single entered the French Singles Chart at number three on February 13, 2005. The following week, it peaked at number two, while remaining on the chart for a further 15 weeks. Soon, the Syndicat National de l'Édition Phonographique certified \"Get Right\" gold for sales of 250,000 copies in France. In New Zealand, the song peaked at number two, later being certified platinum there for shipments of 15,000. After peaking at number three in Australia, \"Get Right\" was certified double platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association for shipments exceeding 140,000. \"Get Right\" peaked at number three in Canada, becoming one of her biggest hits in that country. In the United States, the single debuted at number 53 on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 for the week of January 22, 2005, winning the chart's \"Hot Shot Debut of the Week\" honor. It was successful as a digital download, debuting at 16 on the US Digital Songs chart that week. Two weeks later, \"Get Right\" had reached the Hot 100's top 40, jumping to number 28. It reached number six on the Digital Songs chart, while also appearing at number 28 on the US Hot 100 Airplay. By February 12, 2005, the song had reached a new high of number 13 on the Hot 100 as well as number five on the Digital Songs chart. However, it failed to progress on the Hot 100 Airplay chart, stalling above the top 25. For the week ending February 26, 2005, \"Get Right\" peaked at number 12 on the Hot 100. This made it her first lead single that failed to reach the chart's top ten. Additionally, \"Get Right\" reached number one on the US Hot Dance Club Play and number 18 on the US Pop Songs chart. The song was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America for shipments of 500,000 units. In June 2013, Gary Trust of \"Billboard\" reported that \"Get Right\" had sold 692,000 paid downloads.", "The music video for \"Get Right\" was shot over the weekend of November 20, 2004. It was directed by Francis Lawrence, who had previously directed the music videos for Lopez's previous singles \"Waiting for Tonight\" (1999) and \"Play\" (2001). The clip is \"a dance version\" of Robert Altman's comedy-drama film \"Short Cuts\" (1993). It was reported to examine \"all the little moments that happen almost simultaneously in a nightclub during the duration of a single song, in which J. Lo is always the center of the story\". A cloned Lopez portrays a DJ, a \"diva\" Jennifer who is \"detached\" in a VIP section, as well as patrons on a girl's night out and a bartender among numerous other characters. The entertainer worked with The Talauega Brothers for the music video's choreography. While Lopez was filming the music video, her friend and comedian Ellen DeGeneres made a humorous visit to the clip's set in Los Angeles, California. She danced with Lopez and her dancers, while making a \"mess\" out of the dance steps. Months later, DeGeneres' visit to the set was aired on \"The Ellen DeGeneres Show\", where Lopez appeared as a featured guest. On December 31, 2004, Lopez celebrated New Year's Eve by unveiling an exclusive sneak-peak look at the music video for \"Get Right\" on MTV. On January 4, 2005, America Online broadcast the clip, while MTV screened the video's creation on \"Making the Video\" the next day. On January 6, the full music video aired on \"Total Request Live\", where Lopez appeared herself, as well as the FUSE networks. The music video was met with popularity. It registered as the most-streamed music video at numerous websites including Yahoo!, MTV.com, MSN, Vh1 and Rolling Stone. On AOL Music's total monthly streams for April 2005, the clip for \"Get Right\" was viewed over 994,000 times, becoming one of the top ten most viewed music videos. It also received heavy airplay on television, with cable networks such as Vh1 and MTV heavily screening it. Lopez appeared on MTV2's \"Sucker Free Sunday\" to promote the clip. For the week of February 19, 2005, the music video for \"Get Right\" became the number one clip on MTV internationally. At the 2005 MTV Video Music Awards held on August 28, Lopez received four nominations for \"Get Right\". This included Best Dance Video, Best Direction in a Video, Best Choreography and Best Editing.", "The clip begins with a stressed out female DJ who has been forced into bringing her younger sister to work at a nightclub with her. Her under-age sister hides in a corner. A blonde bartender comforts a saddened friend, who suggests that she go back to work. A stripper is on the phone to her boyfriend, lying by stating that she is at a gay club. A heavily made-up woman complains to her friend about her lover acting up in the club, while her friend calls him an idiot. The DJ hands her sister headphones to listen to the track which she plays, \"Get Right\" by Jennifer Lopez. A music video featuring the entertainer dancing with a cane among other settings are displayed on the many screens at the nightclub. As the song begins, the nightclub gets busier. A celebrity diva enters with her entourage, stunning an uptight nerdy fan who has come to the club by herself. The nerd begins to make eye contact with the diva. The stripper takes her position on the counters. The upset made-up woman bolts to the dance-floor to confront her lover, nearly accidentally causing the bartender to trip in the process. She eventually dumps her lover who is staring at the stripper. The nerd begins to loosen up, ordering more drinks from the bartender, as the stripper also asks for a drink. Towards the song's bridge, the diva sports a smile as she witnesses the nerd dancing and drinking more. The busy bartender steals a moment to look at the screens, where a classic-Lopez dance-break is being featured. The bartender, diva, nerd and stripper all begin to immerse themselves in the music. The angry made-up woman leaves the club. The clip ends with the DJ staring at her sister, who is singing to the end of the track cheekily, when the song ends.", "On January 24, 2005, Lopez performed \"Get Right\" for the first time live at the 2005 NRJ Music Awards held in Cannes, France. She sported a \"sultry\" white tuxedo with black lapels. According to \"The Sydney Morning Herald\", the entertainer \"electrified the youthful crowd\". \"Get Right\" served as the opening number of her setlist on the Dance Again World Tour, her first worldwide tour which spanned for nearly 80 dates in 2012. She appeared before a group of male dancers with canes and top hates in a \"glamorous entrance\". She then pulled off her feathered skirt, revealing a sparkling nude catsuit, before shouting \"Let's get it!\" and commencing the concert with \"Get Right\". According to Hans Nicholas Jong of \"The Jakarta Post\", the crowd were very receptive of the performance as they let out \"rapturous\" cheers while grooving to the song's beat. The version of \"Get Right\" Lopez performed on the Dance Again World Tour was a rock influenced version, which still contained \"infectious\" horn rifts. Lopez later performed the song as part of her medley during the 2018 MTV Video Music Awards on August 20, 2018 at Radio City Music Hall in New York City. \"Get Right\" was featured in Lopez's setlist during the Super Bowl LIV halftime show.", "Credits adapted from the album booklet of \"Rebirth\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Design.", "Reverse (common) side.", "Obverse (national) sides.", "Edges.", "Planned designs.", "Commemorative issues.", "Types of Commemorative €2 coins.", "Commemorative coins that are issued jointly by all eurozone countries.", "Commemorative coins issued by a single country.", "Proposing a topic for a €2 Commemorative Coin.", "Role of the European Central Bank.", "Role of the Directorate-General for Economic and Financial Affairs.", "Similar coins." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2" ], "content": [ "The coin dates from 2002, when euro coins and notes were introduced in the 12-member eurozone and its related territories. The common side was designed by Luc Luycx, a Belgian artist who won a Europe-wide competition to design the new coins. The designs of the one- and two-euro coins were intended to show the European Union (EU) as a whole with the then-15 countries more closely joined together than on the 10 to 50-cent coins (the 1-cent to 5-cent coins showed the EU as one, though intending to show its place in the world). The national sides, then 15 (eurozone plus Monaco, San Marino and the Vatican who could mint their own) were each designed according to national competitions, though to specifications which applied to all coins such as the requirement of including twelve stars. National designs were not allowed to change until the end of 2008, unless a monarch (whose portrait usually appears on the coins) dies or abdicates. This happened in Monaco and the Vatican City, resulting in three new designs in circulation (the Vatican had an interim design until the new Pope was selected). National designs have seen some changes due to a new rule stating that national designs should include the name of the issuing country (neither Finland and Belgium show a country name, and hence have made minor changes). In 2004 the commemorative coins were allowed to be minted in six states (a short interim period was set aside so citizens could get used to the new currency). By 2007 nearly all states had issued a commemorative issue and the first eurozone-wide commemorative was issued to celebrate the Treaty of Rome. As the EU's membership has since expanded in 2004 and 2007, with further expansions envisaged, the common face of all euro coins from the value of 10 euro cent and above were redesigned in 2007 to show a new map. This map showed Europe, not just the EU, as one continuous landmass; however, Cyprus was moved west as the map cut off after the Bosphorus (which was seen as excluding Turkey for political reasons). The redesign in 2007, rather than in 2004, was due to the fact that 2007 saw the first enlargement of the eurozone: the entry of Slovenia. Hence, the Slovenian design was added to the designs in circulation. Cyprus and Malta joined in 2008, Slovakia in 2009 and Estonia in 2011, bringing four more designs. Also in 2009, the second eurozone-wide issue of a 2-euro commemorative coin was issued, celebrating ten years of the introduction of the euro. In 2012, the third eurozone-wide issue of a 2-euro commemorative coin was issued, celebrating 10 years of euro coins and notes. In 2015, the fourth eurozone-wide issue for this denomination was issued, commemorating the 30th anniversary of the Flag of Europe.", "The coins are composed of two alloys. The inner circle is composed of three layers (nickel brass, nickel, nickel brass) and the outer ring of copper-nickel giving them a two colour (silver outer and gold inner) appearance. The diameter of the coins is 25.75 mm, the thickness is 2.20 mm and the mass is 8.5 grams. The coins' edges are finely milled with lettering, though the exact design of the edge can vary between states with some choosing to write the issuing state's name or denomination around the edge (see \"edges\" below). The coins have been used from 2002, though some are dated 1999 which is the year the euro was created as a currency, but not put into general circulation.", "The reverse (used from 2007 onwards) was designed by Luc Luycx and displays a map of Europe, not including Iceland and cutting off, in a semicircle, at the Bosporus, north through the middle of Ukraine and Belarus and through northern Scandinavia. Cyprus is located further west than it should be and Malta is shown disproportionally large so it appears on the map. The map has numerous indentations giving an appearance of geography rather than a flat design. Six fine lines cut across the map except where there is landmass and have a star at each end – reflecting the twelve stars on the flag of Europe. Across the map is the word EURO, and a large number 2 appears to the left hand side of the coin. The designer's initials, LL, appear next to Cyprus. Luc Luycx designed the original coin, which was much the same except the design was only of the then 15 members in their entirety and showing border and no geographic features. The map was less detailed and the lines the stars were upon cut through where there would be landmass in eastern Europe if it were shown.", "The obverse side of the coin depends on the issuing country. All have to include twelve stars (in most cases a circle around the edge), the engravers initials and the year of issue. New designs also have to include the name or initials of the issuing country. The side cannot repeat the denomination of the coin unless the issuing country uses an alphabet other than Latin (currently, Greece is the only such country, hence it engraves \"2 ΕΥΡΩ\" upon its coins). Austria also engraves \"2 EURO\" on the reverse of its coins.", "The edges of the 2 euro coin vary according to the issuing state;", "Austria, Germany and Greece will also at some point need to update their designs to comply with guidelines stating they must include the issuing state's name or initial, and not repeat the denomination of the coin. In addition, there are several EU states that have not yet adopted the euro, some of them have already agreed upon their coin designs however it is not known exactly when they will adopt the currency, and therefore these are not yet minted. See enlargement of the Eurozone for expected entry dates of these countries. Latvia officially introduced the euro on 1 January 2014, its design for the 2 euro coin is similar to the 5 lati coin's design from 1929 to 1932:", "Each state, allowed to issue coins, may also mint two commemorative coins each year (until 2012, it was one a year). Only €2 coins may be used in this way (for them to be legal tender) and there is a limit on the number that can be issued. The coin must show the normal design criteria, such as the twelve stars, the year and the issuing country. Not all states have issued their own commemorative coins except for in 2007, 2009 and 2012 when every then-eurozone state issued a common coin (with only different languages and country names used) to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the Treaty of Rome (1957–2007), the 10th anniversary of the euro (1999–2009) and the 10th anniversary of euro coins (2002-2012). Eurozone-wide issues do not count as a state's two-a-year issue. Germany has begun issuing one coin a year for each of its states (the German Bundesländer series which will take it up to 2021.", "There are several types of Commemorative €2 Coins:", "So far, there have been three commemorative coins that the eurozone countries have issued jointly: the first, in March 2007, to commemorate the \"50th anniversary of the Treaty of Rome\", the second, in January 2009, to commemorate the tenth anniversary of the euro is celebrated with a coin called the \"10th anniversary of Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union\" and the third one in 2012, to commemorate 10 years of the euro coins and notes. There are €2 commemorative coins that have been issued on the same topic by different member states, two (by Belgium and Italy) to celebrate Louis Braille's 200th birthday, four (by Italy, Belgium, Portugal and Finland) to celebrate 60th anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and two (by Germany and France) to commemorate 50 years of the Elysee Treaty (1963-2013).", "As a rule, euro countries may each issue only two €2 commemorative coins per year. Exceptionally, they are allowed to issue another, provided that it is a joint issuance and commemorates events of European-wide importance.", "", "Designing and issuing the coins is the competence of the individual euro countries. The ECB's role regarding the commemorative but also all other coins is to approve the maximum volumes of coins that the individual countries may issue. \"Unlike banknotes, euro coins are still a national competence and not the ECB's. If a euro area country intends to issue a €2 commemorative coin it has to inform the European Commission. There is no reporting by euro area countries to the ECB. The Commission publishes the information in the multilingual Official Journal of the EU (C series). The Official Journal is the authoritative source upon which the ECB bases its website updates on euro coins. The reporting process, the translation into 22 languages and publishing lead to unavoidable delays. The coin pages on the ECB’s website cannot therefore always be updated as timely as users might wish. If the ECB learns of a euro coin that has not yet featured in the Official Journal, only its image will be posted on the ECB’s website, with a brief statement that confirmation by the European Commission is pending.\"", "The website of the EU – DG for Economic and Financial Affairs is not specific on the topic of proposing themes for €2 commemorative coins. The website of the European Central Bank where the Euro coins are mentioned, is not specific on the topic of proposing themes for €2 commemorative coins. It is not mentioned how the €2 commemorative coins that are in circulation today came about.", "The coins were minted in several of the participating countries, many using blanks produced at the Birmingham Mint in Birmingham, England. A problem has arisen in differentiation of coins made using similar blanks and minting techniques." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Design and development.", "Operational history.", "RAF Service.", "Sweden.", "Canada.", "Air racing." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The design was a development of the Siddeley-Deasy S.R.2 Siskin designed by Major F. M. Green (formerly chief engineer of the Royal Aircraft Factory) of the Siddeley-Deasy Motor Car Company, to meet the requirements of RAF Specification Type 1 for a single-seat fighter powered by the promising ABC Dragonfly radial engine. The SR.2 Siskin was a single-bay biplane of wood and fabric construction. Its wings were of unequal span and the aircraft was fitted with a distinctive fixed conventional landing gear with long oleo strut shock absorbers carrying the axle, which was connected by radius rods to a pair of V-struts situated behind the axle. The Dragonfly engine was fitted in a streamlined cowling to reduce drag, with individual cooling channels for each engine cylinder. Two Vickers machine guns were mounted in the nose decking in front of the pilot. The Siskin first flew in May 1919, powered by a Dragonfly engine delivering 270 hp (200 kW), rather than the promised 320 hp (240 kW). Despite the expectations piled on it, the Dragonfly proved to be a disaster, far less powerful than expected and very unreliable, being prone to overheating and catastrophic vibration, that would normally cause crankshaft failure within a few hours. Despite the engine problems, the Siskin displayed good performance and handling, outmatching its Dragonfly-powered contemporaries. In 1919, Siddeley-Deasy merged with Armstrong Whitworth, with the aviation interests becoming Armstrong Whitworth Aircraft. Siddeley-Deasy had inherited the design of the RAF.8 fourteen-cylinder radial engine and its designer Sam D. Heron, and by 1920 this engine, now known as the Jaguar, had been developed sufficiently to be a possible replacement for the Dragonfly. One of the prototype Siskins was fitted with a Jaguar, flying in this form on 20 March 1921. In 1922 Air Ministry Specification 14/22 was issued for an all-metal single-seat high performance landplane and one Jaguar-powered prototype was ordered from Armstrong Whitworth. As well as re-engining with the Jaguar, Major Green redesigned the Siskin with an all-metal structure, as the Siskin III. The change from wood to metal construction was a requirement of the Air Ministry war production plan which would use the motor car industry for aircraft production, something which would not have been possible using wood. The all-metal Siskin was the start of a general transition to metal for military aircraft to enable a rapid increase in aircraft production when required to meet wartime demand. A contract for three production aircraft was placed on 13 October 1922 with a further six ordered on 26 January 1923 including one as a prototype of a two-seat variant. The Siskin III first flew on 7 May 1923, with first deliveries to the RAF (six for evaluation) taking place in January 1924. The fighter was the first all-metal fighter in the British Royal Air Force. Following the order from the RAF, Romania ordered 65 aircraft but they were cancelled following a crash on takeoff at Whitley Abbey, Coventry, on 18 February 1925 during acceptance tests; the Romanian pilot being killed. The main production version was the Siskin IIIA ordered in 1926, which originally was powered with a Jaguar IV engine, but was later re-engined with the supercharged Jaguar IVA engine. The supercharger, a novel idea at the time, had little effect on performance below 10,000 ft (3,050 m), but it greatly improved speed and climb above that height. Following an evaluation of two Siskin IIIs the Royal Canadian Air Force ordered 12 IIIAs which were delivered between 1926 and 1931. With Armstrong-Whitworth busy building the Armstrong Whitworth Atlas some of the later Siskin IIIA production was sub-contracted out to Blackburn, Bristol, Gloster, and Vickers.", "", "The first Siskin IIIs were delivered to No. 41 Squadron RAF at RAF Northolt in May 1924, quickly followed by No. 111 Squadron RAF. The Siskin III was popular in service, being highly manoeuvrable, although slightly underpowered. The improved Siskin IIIA was first delivered to No. 111 Squadron in September 1926. The Siskin was used by 11 RAF squadrons. The last operational RAF Siskins were replaced in October 1932 by Bristol Bulldogs. The Siskin presented exhibitions of flying at every RAF display from 1925 to 1931.", "The ski-equipped second Siskin II aircraft was sold to the Royal Swedish Air Force in 1925.", "Canada used the aircraft from 1926 until 1939. In 1926, the British Air Ministry sent two Siskin IIIs to Canada for testing by the Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) under winter flying conditions. The test pilot was Clennell H. Dickins. The Siskin was considered a modern type when it was acquired by RCAF, which eventually purchased the Mark IIIA, used to equip the Fighter Flight at Camp Borden and Trenton. In 1937, the Flight became No. I (Fighter) Squadron and was transferred from Trenton to Calgary in August 1938. Siskin aircraft remained with this unit until the outbreak of the Second World War, eventually to be replaced by Hawker Hurricanes in 1939. The airframes were then turned over to various technical establishments for use as instructional airframes. Like its RAF counterparts, in 1929, a three-plane Siskin air demonstration team was formed at Camp Borden, Ontario – the RCAF's first official flight demonstration team. The aerobatic team put on popular solo and formation displays from coast to coast.", "The Siskin was used as a successful racing aircraft, a Siskin V flown by Flight Lieutenant Barnard winning the 1925 Kings Cup Race at a speed of more than 151 mph (243 km/h)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Formation and early years (1986–1991).", "Richey Edwards era: \"Generation Terrorists\" to \"The Holy Bible\" (1992–1995).", "\"Everything Must Go\" to \"Lipstick Traces\" (1996–2003).", "\"Lifeblood\" to \"Journal for Plague Lovers\" (2004–2009).", "\"Postcards from a Young Man\" and \"National Treasures\" (2010–2012).", "\"Rewind the Film\" to anniversary of \"The Holy Bible\" (2013–2016).", "\"Escape from History\" and \"Resistance Is Futile\" (2017–present).", "Solo work.", "Collaborations and covers.", "Musical style.", "Band members.", "Awards and nominations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Manic Street Preachers formed in 1986 at Oakdale Comprehensive School, Blackwood, South Wales, which all the band members attended. Bradfield and the slightly older Moore are cousins, and shared bunkbeds in the Bradfield family home after Moore's parents divorced. During the band's early years, Bradfield, alongside the classically trained Moore, primarily wrote the music while Wire focused on the lyrics. The origin of the band's name remains unclear, but the most often-told story relates that Bradfield, while busking one day in Cardiff, got into an altercation", "The band's debut album, \"Generation Terrorists\", was released in 1992 on the Columbia Records imprint. The liner notes contained a literary quote for each of the album's eighteen songs and the album lasted just over seventy minutes. The album's lyrics are politicised like those of the Clash and Public Enemy, with the album's songs regularly switching from a critical focus on global capitalism to more personal tales of despair and the struggles of youth. About the musical style of the album Pitchfork writer Joe Tangari wrote that \"Generation Terrorists\" \"walked a weird line between agit-punk, cock rock, romantic melodicism and glam, and was so obviously patterned after the Clash's \"London Calling\" that it was actually kind of cute.\" Other tracks combine personal and political themes, implicating a connection between global capitalism and personal struggle; \"Nat West-Barclays-Midlands-Lloyds\" was written as a critique of overseas banking credit policies, but also concerned Richey Edwards' issues involving overdrafts and refused loans. Marc Burrows of Drowned in Sound considered the song to be an accurate prediction of \"global financial meltdown\" and its effects on everyday life. The single \"Motorcycle Emptiness\", meanwhile, criticises consumerism as a \"shallow dream\" that makes human life overtly commercialised. \"Little Baby Nothing\", a duet between Traci Lords and Bradfield, was described by Priya Elan of the \"NME\" as a \"perfect snapshot of [female] innocence bodysnatched and twisted\". The record contained six singles and sold 250,000 copies. The success of 1996's \"Everything Must Go\" at the 1997 Brit Awards ensured that sales of \"Generation Terrorists\" and subsequent albums \"Gold Against the Soul\" and \"The", "The first album without Edwards, \"Everything Must Go\", was released on 20 May 1996. The band had chosen to work with new producer Mike Hedges, mainly for his work on Siouxsie and the Banshees' single \"Swimming Horses\" that Bradfield rated highly. Hedges had already been approached before to produce \"The Holy Bible\" but he wasn't available at the time. \"Everything Must Go\" debuted on the UK Albums Chart at number 2, so far the album has gone Triple Platinum in the UK and is their most successful album to date, spending 103 weeks in the Top 100 with the album still in the Top 5 a year after its release. Containing five songs either written or co-written by Edwards the album was released to overwhelmingly positive reviews. Lyrically the themes were different from their previous effort, instead of introspective and autobiographical tracks such as \"4st 7lb\", Wire's predilection for historical and political themes dominates, like the No. 2 hit single \"A Design for Life\". The song was the first to be written and released by the band following the mysterious disappearance of figurehead Richey Edwards the previous year and was used as the opening track on \"Forever Delayed\", the band's greatest hits album released in November 2002. Much later on, interviewed in 2014 by \"NME\" for their \"Song Stories\" video series, singer/guitarist James Dean Bradfield recalled that the lyric had been a fusion of two sets of lyrics-\"Design for Life\" and \"Pure Motive\"-sent to him from Wales by bassist Nicky Wire,", "The band's seventh studio album, \"Lifeblood\", was released on 1 November 2004 and reached No. 13 on the UK album chart. Critical response to the album was mixed. The album was more introspective and more focused on the past, Wire talked about the ghosts that haunted this record and stated that the record was a retrospective: \"The main themes are death and solitude and ghosts. Being haunted by history and being haunted by your own past. Sleep is beautiful for me. I hate dreaming because it ruins ten hours of bliss. I had a lot of bad dreams when Richey first disappeared. Not ugly dreams, but nagging things. Until we wrote 'Design for Life', it was six months of misery. \"Lifeblood\" doesn't seek to exorcise Edwards' ghost, though, just admits that there are no answers\". Tony Visconti helped the band produce three songs on the album, which was followed by a UK arena tour in December 2004. \"Empty Souls\" and \"The Love of Richard Nixon\" were the two singles released from the album, both reaching No. 2 in the UK. A tenth-anniversary edition of \"The Holy Bible\"", "On 1 June 2010, the band announced on their homepage that a new album called \"Postcards from a Young Man\" would be released on 20 September. James Dean Bradfield said that the album would be an unashamedly pop-orientated affair, following 2009's \"Journal for Plague Lovers\". \"We're going for big radio hits on this one\", he told \"NME\". \"It isn't a follow-up to \"Journal for Plague Lovers\". It's one last shot at mass communication.\" On 26 July, the first single from the new album, \"(It's Not War) Just the End of Love\", was played on the breakfast shows of BBC Radio 2, BBC 6Music, XFm and Absolute Radio. It was released on 13 September. The title had previously been suggested as a working title for the album by Nicky Wire. Three collaborations were also confirmed on", "In May 2013, the band announced an Australasian tour for June and July, that would see them play their first ever show in New Zealand. This tour coincided with the British and Irish Lions rugby tour to Australia and the Melbourne concert on the eve of the 2nd Test featured Lions' centre Jamie Roberts as a guest guitarist on \"You Love Us\". In May 2013 the Manics released information about their most recent recording sessions, saying that they had enough material for two albums; the first would be almost exclusively without electric guitars. The name of the first album and title track was revealed to be \"Rewind the Film\" on 8 July. In a statement, the band announced, \"(If) this record has a relation in the Manics back catalogue, it's probably the sedate coming of age that was \"This Is My Truth Tell Me Yours.\"\" The band also stated via Twitter, \"MSP were in the great Hansa Studios in January with Alex Silva (who recorded \"The Holy Bible\" with us). Berlin was inspirational... Sean been playing a french horn in the studio today—sounding wonderful.\" The lead single of the album, \"Show Me the Wonder\", was referred to on their Twitter account, the Manics posted, \"I think'show", "In February 2017 the band revealed a teaser trailer for a new documentary entitled \"Escape from History\", charting the band's journey from \"The Holy Bible\", through to the disappearance of lyricist and guitarist Richey Edwards, to the huge success of \"Everything Must Go\". The documentary aired on Sky Arts on 15 April. The band also stated that they would release a new album later in that year. The band released a special edition of their album \"Send Away the Tigers\" on 12 May. 2017 marks the 10th anniversary of the record and the Manics said that \"this is a very important album\" in their career. The special", "In late 2005, both Bradfield and Wire announced that they intended to release solo material prior to a new album by the band. A free download of Nicky Wire's debut solo offering \"I Killed the Zeitgeist\" was posted on the band's website for just one day, Christmas Day 2005, while \"The Shining Path\" was released exclusively on iTunes for download. In addition, a promotional album sampler had been sent out to the press and certain other people which included \"I Killed the Zeitgeist\", \"Goodbye Suicide\", \"Sehnsucht\", and \"Everything Fades\". The album was officially released in September 2006. It charted at No. 130 in the UK. The sound of the album, which Nicky referred to as his \"nihilistic anti-everything album\", was inspired by, among others, Neu!, the Plastic Ono Band, Einstürzende Neubauten, the Modern Lovers, Richard Thompson and Lou Reed. Only one official single was released, \"Break My Heart", "The band released a split single in 1992 with the Fatima Mansions, a rock cover of \"Suicide Is Painless\", which became their first UK Top 10 hit. They have recorded many cover versions of songs by other artists, primarily as B-sides for their own singles. Bands and artists to whom the group have paid tribute in this way include the Clash, Guns N' Roses, Alice Cooper, Happy Mondays, McCarthy, Chuck Berry, Faces and Nirvana. The band's first musical appearance since Edwards' departure was recording a cover of \"Raindrops Keep Fallin' on My Head\" for \"The Help Album\", a charity effort in 1995 in support of aid efforts in war-torn Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Lightning Seeds' song \"Waiting for Today to Happen\", from their fifth album, \"Dizzy Heights\" (1996), was written by Nicky Wire and Ian Broudie. That same year, James Dean Bradfield and Dave Eringa produced Northern Uproar's first single, \"Rollercoaster/Rough Boys\". The 808 State song \"Lopez\" (1997) features lyrics by Wire and vocals by Bradfield. It is featured on their greatest hits", "Manic Street Preachers' music has been variously described as alternative rock, hard rock punk rock, glam rock, Britpop, and pop rock. According to their AllMusic biography, the band were fashioning themselves after the Clash and the Sex Pistols, attempting to", "Current members Former members", "Best Art Vinyl Awards The Best Art Vinyl Awards are yearly awards established in 2005 by Art Vinyl Ltd to celebrate the best album artwork of the past year. Brit Awards The Brit Awards are the British Phonographic Industry's annual popular music awards. Manic Street Preachers has received four awards from eight nominations. GAFFA Awards Hungarian Music Awards The Hungarian Music Awards have been given to artists in the field of Hungarian music since 1992. Mercury Prize The Mercury Prize is an annual music prize awarded for the best album released in the United Kingdom by a British or Irish act. NME Awards The NME Awards is an annual music awards show in the United Kingdom. Q Awards The Q Awards are the UK's annual music awards run by the music magazine \"Q\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Early years (1991–1996).", "Music for Nations era (1996–2001).", "Sony interlude (2001–2004).", "Move to Roadrunner (2004–2010).", "Peaceville Records (2010–2014).", "Nuclear Blast Records (2014–present).", "Musical style and influences." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Cradle of Filth's first three years saw three demos (\"Invoking the Unclean\", \"Orgiastic Pleasures Foul\" and \"Total Fucking Darkness\") recorded amidst the sort of rapid line-up fluctuations that have continued ever since, with the band having more than twenty musicians in its history. An album entitled \"Goetia\" was recorded prior to the third demo and set for release on Tombstone Records, but all tracks were wiped when Tombstone went out of business and the band could not afford to buy the recordings from the studio. The band eventually signed to Cacophonous Records, and their debut album, \"The Principle of Evil Made Flesh\", was Cacophonous's first release in 1994. A step-up in terms of production from the rehearsal quality of most of their demos, the album was still nevertheless a sparse and embryonic version of what was to come, with lead singer Dani Filth's vocals in particular bearing little similarity to the style he was later to develop. The album was well-received however, and as recently as June 2006 found its way into \"Metal Hammer\"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s list of the top ten black metal albums of the last twenty years. Cradle's relationship with Cacophonous soon soured, the band accusing the label of contractual and financial mismanagement. Acrimonious legal proceedings took up most of 1995, and the original version of the band's second album, \"Dusk... and Her Embrace\" was recorded by the \"Principle...\" lineup for Cacophonous but scrapped. Subsequently re-worked with new band members for Music For Nations (see below), the embryonic Cacophonous version was eventually released as \"Dusk... and Her Embrace: The Original Sin\" in July 2016. The band finally signed to Music for Nations in 1996 after only one more contractually obligated Cacophonous recording: the EP \"V Empire or Dark Faerytales in Phallustein\", which, it has since been conceded, was hastily written as a Cacophonous escape-plan. Despite the circumstances of its release however, its handful of tracks are staples of the band's live sets to this day, and \"Queen of Winter, Throned\" was listed among twenty-five \"essential extreme metal anthems\" in a 2006 issue of \"Kerrang!\" magazine. The EP also marked Sarah Jezebel Deva's debut with the band, replacing Andrea Meyer, Cradle's first female vocalist and self-styled \"satanic advisor\". Deva appeared on every subsequent Cradle release and tour until 2010's \"Darkly, Darkly, Venus Aversa\", but was never considered a full band member, since she also performed with The Kovenant, Therion and Mortiis, and fronted her own Angtoria project along with Cradle's former bass guitar player, Dave Pybus.", "The re-worked and re-recorded \"Dusk... and Her Embrace\" followed the same year: a critically acclaimed breakthrough album that greatly expanded the band's fan-base throughout Europe and the rest of the world. Cradle's inaugural album for Music for Nations set the tone for what was to follow. The album's production values matched the band's ambition for the first time, whilst Dani's vocal gymnastics were at their most extreme. The increasingly theatrical stage shows of the 1997 European tour helped keep Cradle in the public eye, as did a burgeoning line of controversial merchandise, not least the notorious T-shirt depicting a masturbating nun on the front and the slogan \"Jesus is a cunt\" in large letters on the back. The T-shirt is banned in New Zealand, a handful of fans have faced court appearances and fines for wearing the shirt in public, and some band members themselves attracted a certain amount of hostile attention when they wore similar \"I Love Satan\" shirts to the Vatican. Alex Mosson, the Lord Provost of Glasgow from 1999 to 2003, called the shirts (and by implication the band) \"sick and offensive\". The band obviously approved, using the quote on the back cover of the 2005 DVD \"Peace Through Superior Firepower\". In 1998, Dani began his long-running \"Dani's Inferno\" column for \"Metal Hammer\", and the band appeared in the BBC documentary series \"Living with the Enemy\" (on tour with a fan and his disapproving mother and sister) and released its third studio album, \"Cruelty and the Beast\". A fully realised concept album based on the legend of the \"Blood Countess\" Elizabeth Báthory, the album boasted the casting coup of Ingrid Pitt providing guest narration as the Countess; a role she first played in Hammer Film Productions' 1971 film \"Countess Dracula\". The album led to Cradle's US debut, and Dani claimed it in 2003 as the Cradle album of which he was most proud, although he conceded dissatisfaction with its sound quality. The following year the band continued primarily to tour, but did release the EP \"From the Cradle to Enslave\", accompanied by the band's first music video, which formed the centrepiece of the DVD \"PanDaemonAeon\". Replete with graphic nudity and gore, the video was directed by Alex Chandon, who would go on to produce further Cradle promo clips and DVD documentaries, as well as the full-length feature film \"Cradle of Fear\". The band released their fourth studio album in the Autumn of 2000. \"Midian\" was based around the Clive Barker novel \"Cabal\" and its subsequent film adaptation \"Nightbreed\". Like \"Cruelty and the Beast\", \"Midian\" featured a guest narrator, this time Doug Bradley, who starred in \"Nightbreed\" but remains best known for playing Pinhead in the \"Hellraiser\" series. Bradley's line \"Oh, no tears please\" from the song \"Her Ghost in the Fog\" is a quote of Pinhead's from the first \"Hellraiser\" (\"No tears, please. It's a waste of good suffering...\"), and Bradley would reappear on later albums \"Nymphetamine\", \"Thornography\" and \"Godspeed on the Devil's Thunder\". The video for \"Her Ghost in the Fog\" received heavy rotation on MTV2 and other metal channels, and the track also found its way onto the soundtrack of the werewolf movie \"Ginger Snaps\" (it would also feature, much later, in the video game \"Brütal Legend\").", "The longest-ever interim period between full-length Cradle albums was nevertheless a busy time for the band. \"Bitter Suites to Succubi\" was released on the band's own Abracadaver label, and was a mixture of four new songs, re-recordings of three songs from \"The Principle of Evil Made Flesh\", two instrumental tracks and a cover of The Sisters of Mercy's \"No Time to Cry\". Stylistically similar to \"Midian\", the collection was, at the time, unique among Cradle releases in that it featured exactly the same band members as its predecessor. Further stop-gap releases followed in the form of the \"best of\" package \"Lovecraft & Witch Hearts\" and the live album, \"Live Bait for the Dead\". Finally, the band (principally Dani) also found time to appear in the horror film \"Cradle of Fear\" while they negotiated their first major-label signing with Sony Music. \"Damnation and a Day\" arrived in 2003; Sony's heavyweight funding underwriting Cradle's undiminished ambition by finally bringing a real orchestra into the studio (the 101 piece Budapest Film Orchestra including the 40 piece Choir replacing the increasingly sophisticated synthesisers of previous albums) and thus marking the band's belated gestation—for one album only—into full-blown symphonic metal. \"Damnation\" featured the band's most complex compositions to date, outran its predecessors by a good twenty minutes and produced two more popular videos: the Jan Švankmajer-influenced \"Mannequin\" and \"Babalon A.D. (So Glad for the Madness)\", based on Pier Paolo Pasolini's film \"Salò\". Roughly half the album trod the conceptual territory of John Milton's \"Paradise Lost\"—showing the events of the fall of man through the eyes of Lucifer—while the remainder comprised stand-alone tracks such as the Nile tribute \"Doberman Pharaoh\" and the aforementioned \"Babalon A. D.\"; a reference to Aleister Crowley. \"Babalon A. D.\" was the first DVD-only single to reach the UK's top 40 charts, according to the \"Guinness Book of Records of British Hit Singles and Albums\". Feeling that Sony's enthusiasm quickly palled however, Cradle jumped ship to Roadrunner Records after barely a year.", "2004's \"Nymphetamine\" was the band's first full album since \"The Principle of Evil Made Flesh\" to not be based around any sort of overarching concept (although references to the works of H. P. Lovecraft are made more than once). Cradle's bass guitarist Dave Pybus described it as an \"eclectic mix between the group's \"Damnation\" and \"Cruelty\" albums with a renewed vigour for melody, songmanship and plain fucking weirdness.\" \"Nymphetamine\" debuted at No. 89 on the Billboard Top 200 chart, selling just under 14,000 copies, and the band's growing acceptance by the mainstream was confirmed when the album's title track was nominated for a Grammy award. The album's track \"Coffin Fodder\" was referenced in an episode of the Channel 4 sit-com \"The IT Crowd\" in February 2006. \"Thornography\" was released in October 2006. According to Dani Filth, the title \"represents mankind's obsession with sin and self... an addiction to self-punishment or something equally poisonous... a mania.\" On the subject of the album's musical direction, Filth told \"Revolver\" magazine, \"I'm not saying it's 'experimental', but we're definitely testing the limits of what we can do... A lot of the songs are really rhythmical—thrashy, almost—but they're all also really catchy.\" A flurry of pre-release controversy saw Samuel Araya's original cover artwork scrapped and replaced in May 2006, although numerous CD booklets had already been printed with the original image. \"Thornography\" received a similar reception to \"Nymphetamine\", garnering generally positive reviews, but raising a few eyebrows with the inclusion of a cover of Heaven 17's \"Temptation\" (featuring guest vocals from Dirty Harry), which was released as a digital single and accompanying video shortly before the album. \"Thornography\" entered the Billboard chart at No. 66, having sold nearly 13,000 copies. Long-term drummer Adrian Erlandsson departed the band in November 2006, with the intention of devoting his energies to his two side projects, Needleye and Nemhain. The official press release from Roadrunner saw Erlandsson state \"I have enjoyed my time with Cradle but it is now time to move on. I feel I am going out on a high as \"Thornography\" is definitely our best album to date\". He was replaced by Martin Škaroupka. Work on the eighth studio album, released in October 2008 as \"Godspeed on the Devil's Thunder\", began early that year following a GWAR-supported tour which took place in Russia, Ukraine, United Kingdom, Romania, Slovakia and North America. \"Godspeed\" is a concept album based around the legend of Gilles de Rais, a 15th-century French nobleman who fought alongside Joan of Arc and accumulated great wealth before becoming a Satanist, sexual deviant and murderer. \"Kerrang!\" preferred the album to the \"relatively weak\" \"Thornography\", calling it \"grandiose and epic\", while \"Metal Hammer\" said it had \"genuine narrative depth and emotional resonance\", and \"Terrorizer\" called it \"cohesive, consistent and convincing\". It sold 11,000 copies in its week of release, entering the Billboard 200 at No. 48.", "Cradle's relationship with Roadrunner came to an end in April 2010, with the announcement that the band's next album would be released by the British independent label Peaceville Records, using Cradle's own Abracadaver imprint. Dani Filth cited \"the artistic restrictions and mindless inhibitions imposed by a major label\" as the band's reason for going independent. Early press releases named the new album \"All Hallows Eve\", but by August 2010 the title was confirmed as \"Darkly, Darkly, Venus Aversa\". Released on 1 November 2010, it is a concept album in the same vein as its predecessor, \"Godspeed on the Devil's Thunder\"; this time centring on the demon Lilith, the first wife of the biblical Adam, and also making reference to Greek, Egyptian and Sumerian mythology, the Knights Templar and the Carmelite Nuns. The label referred to it as \"a dark tapestry of horror, madness and twisted sex\", while Filth called its sound \"creepily melodic, like Mercyful Fate or a dark Iron Maiden\". \"Metal Hammer\"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s Dom Lawson felt it was \"another sumptuous and spectacular eruption of gothic melodrama, perverted sonic schlock and balls-out extreme metal bombast\", and likened it to an \"instalment in an ongoing series of novels.\" An EP entitled \"Evermore Darkly\", featuring \"new tracks and rarities\", was released in October 2011. The package included a DVD with a tour documentary, a live DVD recorded at 2011's Graspop festival and the video for \"Lilith Immaculate\". In April 2012, the compilation album \"Midnight in the Labyrinth\" was released, featuring orchestral re-recordings of songs from the band's first three albums and the \"V Empire\" EP. Dani Filth had described it in the preceding months as \"reinventing\" the tracks as \"full soundtrack quality stuff... with choirs, strings and some narration\". This album's version of \"Summer Dying Fast\" was included on \"Evermore Darkly\" as a teaser for the full release (the \"Evermore\" track listing subtitles this version \"\"Midnight in the Labyrinth\" breadcrumb trail\"), and \"A Gothic Romance (Red Roses for the Devil's Whore)\" was released online via Peaceville's website on 4 April. Sarah Jezebel Deva returned to provide female vocals for \"Midnight in the Labyrinth\"; her first work with Cradle since her departure in 2008. In July 2012, the band re-issued its back catalogue from 1994 to 2002, via The End Records. Cradle's tenth studio album, \"The Manticore and Other Horrors\", was released on 29 October 2012 in Europe, and on 30 October in North America. Paul Allender told Ultimate Guitar that \"The last thing we want to do is come out with another album that sounds like the last two. We decided to change direction and go back to what we used to do with the female vocals; all the strong melody lines and harmonies... I've put a lot of punk-orientated riffs back into it again. It's really gone quite dark and pretty hardcore.\" On 2 September 2013, via his monthly blog, Dani Filth announced the crowd-funded Cradle of Filth comic book, \"The Curse of Venus Aversa\", and \"a career spanning double-disc 'best of'\" compilation that is yet to be named. In March 2014, Cradle of Filth announced the first ever commercial release of their 1993 demo \"Total Fucking Darkness\". The album arrived on CD and limited edition vinyl the following May, on the independent Mordgrimm label. It features all the tracks from the original cassette, plus previously unreleased rehearsal recordings and the sole surviving track from their abandoned \"Goetia\" album.", "In April 2014, Paul Allender stated on his official Facebook account that he had once again left Cradle of Filth, in favour of his new band White Empress. Dani Filth stated about Allender departing the band: \"Paul has been enthralled [\"sic\"] in his own project and he could not do the tour due to personal reasons. Since then the band has grown as a unit, we were only writing as one guitarist for the last three records and we now have two very competent guitarists. Paul had a very strong opinion about doing that [writing single guitar parts], and we're a two-guitar band. So that may be one of the things that kind of opened the fissure a bit.\" James McIlroy also left the band at around this point due to imminent surgery for a spinal injury. Both guitarists were replaced for upcoming tours by Marek \"Ashok\" Šmerda of the Czech groups Root and Inner Fear, and Richard Shaw of English acts Emperor Chung and NG26. On 2 April 2014, Cradle of Filth's website announced that they were working on their follow-up to \"The Manticore and Other Horrors\". Dani Filth announced that they expected a Spring 2015 release and that three songs had already been written. On 11 November 2014 it was reported on the official Cradle of Filth Facebook page that they had signed to Nuclear Blast Records for their new album and were expected to begin recording the follow up to \"The Manticore And Other Horrors\" later the same month. In early 2015, the working title of the album was revealed as \"Hammer of the Witches\" (inspired by the 1486 treatise on the prosecution of witches by Heinrich Kramer). This title was eventually confirmed as official. The album was recorded at Grindstone Studios in Suffolk, England, with a tentative initial release date of 26 June. Over 21 and 22 March the band filmed scenes for a promo video for the song \"Right Wing Of The Garden Triptych\". The shoot was in the hangar and fire station of former U.S. military base of Bentwaters, with additional narrative scenes (featuring actresses in a bondage setting) filmed on a farmstead near the Imperial War Museum Duxford. The video was directed by Sam Scott-Hunter. On 21 April 2015, the album's release date was updated to sometime in July, and the band revealed \"Hammer of the Witches\" cover artwork by the Latvian post-modernist artist Arthur Berzinsh. The album was officially released through Nuclear Blast on 10 July 2015. The subsequent world tour included the band's largest set of UK dates for eight years in late 2015, and a set of North American shows in early 2016. On 16 June 2017 the title of the next album was revealed as \"Cryptoriana – The Seductiveness of Decay\" and it was given an official release date of 22 September 2017 through Nuclear Blast Records. In October of 2017, Dani Filth stated that writing for the next Cradle of Filth album will begin sometime after the \"Cryptoriana World Tour\". On 10 February 2020, it was announced on the band's social media that keyboardist and vocalist Lindsey Schoolcraft had departed from the band, citing mental health reasons, as well as giving the band room to progress. In the post the band announced that a replacement had been found, but have yet to publicly disclose their identity.", "Cradle of Filth's particular genre has provoked a great deal of discussion, and their status as a black metal band or otherwise has been in debate since near the time that the group rose to fame. The band have cited acts that were heavily influential to black metal such as Bathory, Celtic Frost and Mercyful Fate among their influences, but Dani Filth, in a 1998 interview for BBC Radio 5 for example, said \"I use the term 'heavy metal', rather than 'black metal', because I think that's a bit of a fad now. Call it what you like: death metal, black metal, any kind of metal...\". Gavin Baddeley's 2006 \"Terrorizer\" interview states that \"few folk, the band included, call Cradle black metal these days.\" In a 2006 interview with \"Terrorizer\", former guitarist Paul Allender said, \"We were never a black metal band. The only thing that catered to that was the make-up. Even when \"The Principle of Evil Made Flesh\" came out—you look at Emperor and Burzum and all that stuff—we didn't sound anything like that. The way that I see it is that we were, and still are now, an extreme metal band.\" Cradle of Filth's style has been described as symphonic metal, symphonic black metal, gothic metal, \"gothic black metal\", and even \"dark metal\". However, the band's evolving sound has allowed them to continue resisting definitive categorisation. They are audibly influenced by Iron Maiden, have collaborated on projects like Christian Death's \"Born Again Anti-Christian\" album (on the track \"Peek-a-Boo\") and have even dabbled outside of metal music with dance remixes – such as \"Twisting Further Nails\", \"Pervert's Church\" and \"Forgive Me Father (I'm In A Trance)\". Appearing on the BBC music quiz \"Never Mind the Buzzcocks\" on 9 April 2001, Filth jokingly described Cradle's sound as \"heavy funk\", and in an October 2006 interview stated, \"we'd rather be known as solely 'Cradle of Filth', I think, than be hampered by stupid genre barriers.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Names and epithets.", "Historical and literary sources.", "Early epigraphic sources.", "Depiction in coinage (2nd century BCE).", "Inscriptions.", "Literary sources.", "Mahabharata.", "Other sources.", "Puranas.", "Iconography.", "Life and Legends.", "Birth.", "Childhood and youth.", "Adulthood.", "Kurukshetra War and \"Bhagavad Gita\".", "Death and ascension.", "Versions and interpretations.", "Proposed datings.", "Philosophy and theology.", "Influence.", "Vaishnavism.", "Early traditions.", "Bhakti tradition.", "Indian subcontinent.", "Outside Asia.", "Southeast Asia.", "In popular culture.", "Performance arts.", "In television and films.", "Krishna outside of Hinduism.", "Jainism.", "Buddhism.", "Other." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The name \"Krishna\" originates from the Sanskrit word \"\", which is primarily an adjective meaning \"black\", \"dark\", \"dark blue\" or “the all attractive”. The waning moon is called Krishna Paksha, relating to the adjective meaning \"darkening\". The name is also interpreted sometimes as \"all-attractive\". As a name of Vishnu, Krishna is listed as the 57th name in the \"Vishnu Sahasranama\". Based on his name, Krishna is often depicted in idols as black- or blue-skinned. Krishna is also known by various other names, epithets, and titles that reflect his many associations and attributes. Among the most common names are \"Mohan\" \"enchanter\"; \"Govinda\" \"chief herdsman\", \"Keev\" \"prankster\", and \"Gopala\"", "The tradition of Krishna appears to be an amalgamation of several independent deities of ancient India, the earliest to be attested being Vāsudeva. Vāsudeva was a hero-god of the tribe of the Vrishnis, belonging to the Vrishni heroes, whose worship is attested from the 5th-6th century in the writings of Pāṇini, and from the 2nd century BCE in epigraphy with the Heliodorus pillar. At one point in time, it is thought that the tribe of the Vrishnis fused with the tribe of the Yadavas, whose own hero-god was named Krishna. Vāsudeva and Krishna fused to become a single deity, which appears in the \"Mahabharata\", and they start to be identified with Vishnu in the \"Mahabharata\" and the \"Bhagavad Gita\". Around the 4th century CE, another tradition, the cult of Gopala-Krishna, the protector of cattle, was also absorbed into the Krishna tradition.", "", "Around 180 BCE the Indo-Greek king Agathocles issued some coinage bearing images of deities that are now interpreted as being related to Vaisnava imagery in India. The deities displayed on the coins appear", "The Heliodorus Pillar, a stone pillar with a Brahmi script inscription was discovered by colonial era archaeologists in Besnagar (Vidisha, central Indian state of Madhya Pradesh). Based on the internal evidence of the inscription, it has been dated to between 125 and 100BCE, and now known after Heliodorus – an Indo-Greek who served as an ambassador of the Greek king Antialcidas to a regional Indian king Kasiputra Bhagabhadra. The Heliodorus pillar inscription is a private religious dedication of Heliodorus to \"Vāsudeva\", an early deity and another name for Krishna in the Indian tradition. It states that the column was constructed by \"the \"Bhagavata\" Heliodorus\" and that it is a \"\"Garuda\" pillar\" (both are Vishnu-Krishna-related terms). Additionally, the inscription includes a Krishna-related verse from chapter11.7 of the \"Mahabharata\" stating that the path to immortality and heaven is to correctly live a life of three virtues: self-temperance (\"damah\"), generosity (\"cagah\" or \"tyaga\"), and vigilance (\"apramadah\"). The Heliodorus pillar site was fully excavated by archaeologists in the 1960s. The effort revealed the brick foundations of a much larger ancient elliptical temple complex with a sanctum, \"mandapas\", and seven additional pillars. The Heliodorus pillar inscriptions and the temple are among the earliest known evidence", "", "The earliest text containing detailed descriptions of Krishna as a personality is the epic \"Mahabharata\", which depicts Krishna as an incarnation of Vishnu. Krishna is central to many of the main stories of the epic. The eighteen chapters of the sixth book (\"Bhishma Parva\") of the epic that constitute the \"Bhagavad Gita\" contain the advice of Krishna to Arjuna on the battlefield. The \"Harivamsa\", a later appendix to the \"Mahabharata\" contains a detailed version of Krishna's childhood and youth. The \"Chandogya Upanishad\", estimated to have been composed sometime between the 8th and 6thcenturiesBCE, has been another source of speculation regarding Krishna in ancient India. The verse (III.xvii.6) mentions Krishna in \"Krishnaya Devakiputraya\" as a student of the sage Ghor' of the Angirasa family. Ghora is identified with Neminatha, the twenty-second \"tirthankara\" in Jainism, by some scholars. This phrase, which means \"To", "Megasthenes, a Greek ethnographer and an ambassador of Seleucus I to the court of Chandragupta Maurya towards the end of 4thcenturyBCE, made reference to Herakles in his famous work Indica. This text is now lost to history, but was quoted in secondary literature by later Greeks such as Arrian, Diodorus, and Strabo. According to these texts, Megasthenes mentioned that the Sourasenoi tribe of India, who worshipped Herakles, had two major cities named Methora and Kleisobora, and a navigable river named the Jobares. According to Edwin Bryant, a professor of Indian religions known for his publications on Krishna, \"there is little doubt that the Sourasenoi refers to the Shurasenas, a branch of the Yadu dynasty to which Krishna belonged\". The word Herakles, states", "Many Puranas, mostly compiled during the Gupta period (4-5th century CE), tell Krishna's life story or some highlights from it. Two Puranas, the \"Bhagavata Purana\" and the \"Vishnu Purana\", contain the most elaborate telling of Krishna's story, but the life stories of Krishna in these and other texts vary, and contain significant inconsistencies. The \"Bhagavata Purana\" consists of twelve books subdivided into 332chapters, with a cumulative total of between 16,000 and 18,000 verses depending on the version. The tenth book of the text, which contains about 4,000 verses (~25%) and is dedicated to legends about Krishna, has been the most popular and widely studied part of this text.", "Krishna is represented in the Indian traditions in many ways, but with some common features. His iconography typically depicts him with black, dark, or blue skin, like Vishnu. However, ancient and medieval reliefs and stone-based arts depict him in the natural color of the material out of which he is formed, both in India and in southeast Asia. In some texts, his skin is poetically described as the color of Jambul (\"Jamun\", a purple-colored fruit). Krishna is often depicted wearing a peacock-feather wreath or crown, and playing the bansuri (Indian flute). In this form, he is usually shown standing with one leg bent in front of the other in the \"Tribhanga\" posture. He is sometimes accompanied by cows or a calf, which symbolise the divine herdsman \"Govinda\". Alternatively, he is shown as a romantic young boy with the gopis (milkmaids), often making music or playing pranks. In other icons, he is a part", "This summary is a mythological account, based on literary details from the \"Mahābhārata\", the \"Harivamsa\", the \"Bhagavata Purana\", and the \"Vishnu Purana\". The scenes from the narrative are set in ancient India, mostly in the present states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan, Haryana, Delhi, and Gujarat. The legends about Krishna's life are called \"Krishna charitas\" (IAST: Kṛṣṇacaritas).", "In the \"Krishna Charitas\", Krishna is born to Devaki and her husband, Vasudeva of the Yadava clan in Mathura. Devaki's brother is a tyrant named Kamsa. At Devaki's wedding, according to Puranic legends, Kamsa is told by fortune tellers that a child of Devaki would kill him. Kamsa arranges to kill all of Devaki's children. When Krishna is", "The legends of Krishna's childhood and youth describe him as a cow herder, a mischievous boy whose pranks earns him the nickname \"Makhan Chor\" (butter thief) and a protector who steals the hearts of the people in both Gokul and Vrindavana. The texts state, for example, that Krishna lifts the Govardhana hill to protect the inhabitants of Vrindavana from devastating rains and floods. Other legends describe him as an enchanter and playful lover of the gopis (milkmaids) of Vrindavana, especially Radha. These metaphor-filled love stories are known as the \"Rasa lila\" and were romanticised in the poetry of Jayadeva, author of the Gita Govinda. They are also central to the development of the Krishna bhakti traditions worshiping Radha Krishna. Krishna's childhood illustrates", "Krishna legends then describe his return to Mathura. He overthrows and kills the tyrant king, \"his uncle\" Kamsa/Kansa after quelling several assassination attempts by Kamsa. He reinstates Kamsa's father, Ugrasena as the king of the Yadavas and becomes a leading prince at the court. In one version of the Krishna story, as narrated by Shanta Rao, Krishna after Kamsa's death leads the Yadavas to the newly built city of Dwaraka. Thereafter Pandavas rise. Krishna befriends Arjuna and the other Pandava princes of the Kuru kingdom. Krishna plays a", "According to the epic poem \"Mahabharata\", Krishna becomes Arjuna's charioteer for the Kurukshetra War, but on the condition that he personally will not raise any weapon. Upon arrival at the battlefield and seeing that the enemies are his family, his grandfather and his cousins and loved ones, Arjuna is moved and says his heart will not allow him to fight", "It is stated in the Indian texts that the legendary Kurukshetra War leads to the death of all the hundred sons of Gandhari. After Duryodhana's death, Krishna visits Gandhari to offer his condolences when Gandhari and Dhritarashtra visited Kurukshtra, as stated in Stree Parva. Feeling that Krishna deliberately did not put an end to the war, in a fit of rage and sorrow Gandhari said, 'Thou were indifferent to the Kurus and the Pandavas whilst they slew each other, therefore, O Govinda, thou shalt be the slayer of thy own", "There are numerous versions of Krishna's life story, of which three are most studied: the \"Harivamsa\", the \"Bhagavata Purana\", and the \"Vishnu Purana\". They share the basic storyline but vary significantly in their specifics, details, and styles. The most original composition, the \"Harivamsa\" is told in a realistic style that describes Krishna's life as a poor herder but weaves in poetic and allusive fantasy. It ends on a triumphal note, not with the death of Krishna. Differing in some details, the fifth book of the \"Vishnu Purana\" moves", "The date of Krishna's birth is celebrated every year as Janmashtami. According to Guy Beck, \"most scholars of Hinduism and Indian history accept the historicity of Krishna—that he was a real male person, whether human or divine, who lived on Indian soil by at least 1000 BCE and interacted with many other historical persons within the cycles of the epic and puranic histories.\" Yet, Beck also notes that there is an \"enormous number of contradictions and discrepancies surrounding the chronology of Krishna's life as depicted in the Sanskrit canon.\"", "A wide range of theological and philosophical ideas are presented through Krishna in Hindu texts. Ramanuja, a Hindu theologian whose works were influential in Bhakti movement, presented him in terms of qualified monism (Vishishtadvaita). Madhvacharya, a Hindu philosopher whose works led to the founding of Haridasa sect of Vaishnavism, presented Krishna in the framework of dualism (Dvaita). Jiva Goswami, a saint from Gaudiya Vaishnava school, described Krishna theology in terms of Bhakti yoga and Achintya Bheda Abheda. Krishna theology is presented in a pure monism (advaita, called \"shuddhadvaita\") framework by Vallabha Acharya, who was the founder of Pushti sect of vaishnavism. Madhusudana Sarasvati, an India philosopher, presented Krishna theology in nondualism-monism framework (Advaita Vedanta), while Adi Shankara, who is credited for unifying and establishing the main currents of thought in Hinduism, mentioned Krishna in his early eighth-century discussions on Panchayatana puja. The \"Bhagavata Purana\", a popular text on Krishna considered to be like a scripture in Assam, synthesizes an Advaita, Samkhya, and Yoga framework for Krishna but one that proceeds through loving devotion to Krishna. Bryant describes the synthesis", "", "The worship of Krishna is part of Vaishnavism, a major tradition within Hinduism. Krishna is considered a full avatar of Vishnu, or one with Vishnu himself. However, the exact relationship between Krishna and Vishnu is complex and diverse, with Krishna sometimes considered an independent deity and supreme. Vaishnavas accept many incarnations of Vishnu, but Krishna is particularly important. Their theologies are generally centered either on Vishnu or an avatar such as Krishna as supreme. The terms Krishnaism and Vishnuism have sometimes been used to distinguish the", "The deity \"Krishna-Vasudeva\" (\"\" \"Krishna, the son of Vasudeva Anakadundubhi\") is historically one of the earliest forms of worship in Krishnaism and Vaishnavism. It is believed to be a significant tradition of the early history of", "The use of the term bhakti, meaning devotion, is not confined to any one deity. However, Krishna is an important and popular focus of the devotionalism tradition within Hinduism, particularly among the Vaishnava sects. Devotees of Krishna subscribe to the concept of \"lila\", meaning 'divine play', as the central principle of the universe. It is a form of bhakti yoga, one of three types of yoga discussed by Krishna in the \"Bhagavad Gita\".", "The bhakti movements devoted to Krishna became prominent in southern India in the 7th to 9thcenturies CE. The earliest works included those of the Alvar saints of the Tamil Nadu. A major collection of their works is the \"Divya Prabandham\". The Alvar Andal's popular collection of songs Tiruppavai, in which she conceives of herself as a gopi, is the most famous of the oldest works in this genre. The movement originated in South India during the 7thCE, spreading northwards from Tamil Nadu through Karnataka and Maharashtra; by the 15thcentury, it was established in Bengal and northern India. Early Bhakti pioneers include Nimbarka (12th or 13thcentury CE), but", "By 1965 the \"Krishna-bhakti\" movement had spread outside India after Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada (as instructed by his guru, Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati Thakura) traveled from his homeland in West Bengal to New York City. A year later in 1966, after gaining many followers, he was able to form the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON), popularly known as the Hare Krishna movement. The purpose of this movement was to write about Krishna in English and to share the Gaudiya Vaishnava philosophy with people in the Western world by spreading the teachings of the saint Chaitanya Mahaprabhu. In the biographies of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu,", "Krishna is found in southeast Asian history and art, but to a far less extent than Shiva, Durga, Nandi, Agastya, and Buddha. In temples (\"candi\") of the archaeological sites in hilly volcanic Java, Indonesia, temple reliefs do not portray his pastoral life or his role as the erotic lover, nor do the historic Javanese Hindu texts. Rather, either his childhood or the life as a king and Arjuna's companion have been more favored. The most elaborate temple arts of Krishna are found in a series of \"Krsnayana\" reliefs in the Prambanan Hindu temple complex near Yogyakarta. These are dated to the 9thcentury CE. Krishna remained a part of the Javanese cultural", "", "Indian dance and music theatre traces its origins and techniques to the ancient \"Sama Veda\" and \"Natyasastra\" texts. The stories enacted and the numerous choreographic themes are inspired by the mythologies and legends in Hindu texts, including Krishna-related literature such as \"Harivamsa\" and \"Bhagavata Purana\". The Krishna stories have played a key role in the history of Indian theatre, music, and dance, particularly through the tradition of \"Rasaleela\". These are dramatic enactments of Krishna's childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. One common scene involves Krishna playing flute in rasa leela, only to be heard by certain gopis (cowheard maidens), which is theologically supposed to represent divine call only heard by certain enlightened beings. Some of the text's legends have inspired secondary theatre literature", "Krishna has many facets to his personality, and numerous TV shows and films have,", "", "The Jainism tradition lists 63 \"Śalākāpuruṣa\" or notable figures which, amongst others, includes the twenty-four \"Tirthankaras\" (spiritual teachers) and nine sets of triads. One of these triads is Krishna as the \"Vasudeva\", Balarama as the \"Baladeva\", and Jarasandha as the \"Prati-Vasudeva\". In each age of the Jain cyclic time is born a \"Vasudeva\" with an elder brother termed the \"Baladeva\". Between the triads, \"Baladeva\" upholds the principle of non-violence, a central idea of Jainism. The villain is the \"Prati-vasudeva\", who attempts to destroy the world. To save the world, \"Vasudeva-Krishna\" has to forsake the non-violence principle and kill the \"Prati-Vasudeva\". The stories of these triads can be found in the \"Harivamsa Purana\" (8thcentury CE) of Jinasena (not be confused with its namesake, the addendum to \"Mahābhārata\") and the \"Trishashti-shalakapurusha-charita\" of Hemachandra. The story of Krishna's life in the \"Puranas\" of Jainism follows the same general outline as those in the Hindu texts, but in details they are very different: they include Jain \"Tirthankaras\" as characters in", "The story of Krishna occurs in the Jataka tales in Buddhism. The \"Vidhurapandita Jataka\" mentions \"Madhura\" (Sanskrit: Mathura), the \"Ghata Jataka\" mentions Kamsa, Devagabbha (Sk: Devaki), Upasagara or Vasudeva, Govaddhana (Sk: Govardhana), Baladeva (Balarama), and Kanha or Kesava (Sk: Krishna, Keshava). Like the Jaina versions of the Krishna legends, the Buddhist versions such as one in \"Ghata Jataka\" follow the general outline of the story, but are different from the Hindu versions as well. For example, the Buddhist legend describes Devagabbha (Devaki) to have been isolated in a palace built upon a pole, after she is born, so no future husband could reach her. Krishna's father similarly is described as a powerful king, but who meets up with Devagabbha anyway, and to whom Kamsa gives away his sister Devagabbha in marriage. The siblings of Krishna are not killed by Kamsa, though he tries. In the", "Krishna is mentioned as \"Krishna Avtar\" in the Chaubis Avtar, a composition in Dasam Granth traditionally and historically attributed to Guru Gobind Singh. Bahá'ís believe that Krishna was a \"Manifestation of God\", or one in a line of prophets who have revealed the Word of God progressively for a gradually maturing humanity. In this way, Krishna shares an exalted station with Abraham, Moses, Zoroaster, Buddha, Muhammad, Jesus, the Báb, and the founder of the Bahá'í Faith, Bahá'u'lláh. Ahmadiyya, a 20th-century Islamic movement, consider Krishna as one of their ancient prophets. Ghulam" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Founding and 1980s growth.", "1990s expansion.", "Streamlining.", "Acquisitions.", "Acquisition by Microchip Technology.", "The end of Atmel Way.", "Products.", "Microcontrollers.", "Wireless / RF.", "Touchscreen.", "Memory.", "Security.", "Analog.", "Custom.", "Automotive.", "Smart energy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Atmel Corporation was founded in 1984, by George Perlegos. Atmel was an acronym for “advanced technology for memory and logic”. Perlegos had worked in the memory group of Intel in the 1970s and had co-founded Seeq Technology to manufacture EPROM memory. Using only US$30,000 in capital, Atmel was initially operated as a fabless company, using Sanyo and General Instrument to make the chip wafers. The first Atmel memory products used less power than competitors. Customers included Motorola, Nokia, and Ericsson. In 1987, Intel sued Atmel for patent infringement. Rather than fight the patent claim, Atmel redesigned its products to use different intellectual property. These had better performance and even lower power consumption. In addition, Atmel then entered the flash memory business that Intel had focused on. Atmel used US$60 million in venture capital for the 1989 purchase of a fabrication facility from Honeywell in Colorado Springs. Atmel then invested another US$30 million in manufacturing technology.", "In 1991, Atmel expanded the Colorado facility after acquiring Concurrent Logic, a field-programmable gate array (FPGA) manufacturer. The company made its initial public offering (IPO) in 1991 which yielded more than US$65 million. 1994 saw Atmel enter the microprocessor market. The first Atmel flash memory microcontroller was based on the Intel 8051. The controller executed an instruction for every clock cycle, as opposed to the 12 cycles that legacy 8051 parts required. In 1994, Atmel purchased the EEROM assets of Seeq Technology (LSI Corporation acquired the rest of Seeq in 1999). In 1995, Atmel was among the first companies to license the ARM architecture, creating initially its AT91 family of devices, followed by the SAM family, and more recently a full selection of Cortex-based solutions, including ones based on the ultra-low-power ARM Cortex-M4. Atmel now has dozens of families of ARM-based devices. In 1995, Atmel acquired the pan-European chipmaker European Silicon Structures (ES2) and thus gained a fabrication facility in Rousset, France. Atmel built a new fab alongside the existing ES2 fab. This business unit was named Atmel-ES2. Atmel acquired Digital Research in Electronic Acoustics and Music (DREAM) in 1996. Atmel formed a design team in Trondheim, Norway to develop the Atmel AVR line of RISC microcontrollers. This team combined technology of former students at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology with Atmel's expertise in flash memory. These 8-bit Harvard architecture chips were first developed in 1996. The AVR chip is the basis of most Arduino open-source development boards. In 1998, Atmel purchased part of TEMIC from Vishay Intertechnology, which provided them with a fab in Germany as well as part of MHS from Vishay that gave them a fab in Nantes, France. In September 2000, Atmel acquired a fabrication plant in North Tyneside, England, from Siemens, via a £28 million grant from the UK government and paying Siemens around US$35 million.", "Atmel streamlined operations with a strategy called \"fab-lite\". This started in 2005 when Atmel sold the MHS fab in Nantes France to Xbybus. In February 2006, Steven Laub became a director and in August president and chief executive officer. Under Laub Atmel divested more manufacturing plants and business lines. Atmel announced the sale of its North Tyneside facility (Fab9) on October 8, 2007. The manufacturing equipment was sold to Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company, Ltd. (TSMC) and the property and associated land to Highbridge Business Park Limited. In 2008, Atmel sold their fab in Germany to Tejas semiconductor. In 2010, Atmel received approval from the French government to sell its fab to Germany-based LFoundry GmbH, while retaining their design center there. Atmel completed the sale of their Secure Microcontroller Solutions smart card business to INSIDE Secure. In February 2011, Atmel sold its Digital Research in Electronics, Acoustics and Music (DREAM) business, which sold products for karaoke and other entertainment machines, for US$2.3 million. Atmel's DataFlash serial interface flash memory products were sold to Adesto Technologies in October 2012.", "As Atmel divested several fabs and ancillary business lines, Laub also oversaw acquisitions. One strategy was to participate in the touch screen market, both in the semiconductor chips and the sensors themselves. In 2008, Atmel bought Quantum Research Group Ltd. (now known as Atmel Technologies Ireland Limited, a wholly owned subsidiary), a supplier of capacitive sensing technology. Work done at Quantum, led to the 2012 release of Atmel's XSense product line, a flexible touch screen based on copper mesh electrodes. Atmel moved into Internet of things technology. They completed the acquisition of Advanced Digital Design S.A, a Spanish company that develops power line communication. Ozmo Devices, which developed products for Wi-Fi Direct, was acquired by Atmel in December 2012. Ozmo was founded in 2004 as H-Stream Wireless by Kateljin Vleugels and Roel Peeters, and was based in Palo Alto, California. In 2012, Atmel had approximately US$1.4 billion in annual revenue, with over 60% of their revenue from microcontrollers, and net income of US$30 million. Atmel purchased the smart metering product lines of IDT Corporation in March 2013. Atmel purchased Newport Media in July 2014. This will provide Atmel further capability in wireless Bluetooth and Wi-Fi.", "In October 2008, Atmel received an unsolicited offer from Microchip Technology and ON Semiconductor, estimated at US$2.3 billion. The offer was eventually rejected and the companies gave up on their hostile takeover attempt. However, in 2016, Microchip agreed to buy Atmel for $3.6 billion. JPMorgan Chase and Qatalyst Partners served as financial advisers to Microchip and Atmel, respectively. The company had previously heard offers from Cypress Semiconductor and Dialog Semiconductor in 2015, and the deal with Microchip was expected to be finalized at the end of Q2 2016. Atmel finally merged with Microchip Technology on July 2016 after prolonged negotiations for US$3.56 billion.", "Apple Computer purchased the old cul-de-sac where Atmel's HQ office sat. Paperwork was filed with the city of San Jose to change the name from \"Atmel Way\" to \"Orchard Place.\"", "", "A large part of Atmel's revenue is from microcontrollers. These include the AVR 8- and 32-bit microcontrollers, ARM architecture microprocessors, and ARM-based flash microcontrollers. In addition Atmel still makes microcontrollers that use the 8051 architecture, albeit improved to do single-cycle instructions. Supporting the microcontrollers is the Atmel Studio 7 integrated development environment which Atmel offers for free. They also provide an Atmel Software Framework.", "To provide for the Internet of Things (IoT), Atmel offers dual-band 2.4 GHz/5 GHz a/b/g Wi-Fi chips from its Ozmo acquisition. Also, Atmel offers 2.4 GHz b/g/n Wi-Fi chips WILC1000/WILC3000 and WINC1500 from its Newport Media, Inc acquisition. WINC1500 provide a full 802.11 b/g/n network controller with full ip stack TCP/IP, UDP with upper layer protocols as DHCP, DNS, HTTP, SNTP, TLS etc. Also, Atmel makes wireless transceivers using regional 700/800/900 MHz, as well as global 2.4 GHz frequency bands, Some chips are standalone transceivers while others are integrated with a microcontroller. They also sell the Zigbit module that comes with FCC certifications. Atmel also makes remote control RF products using the license-free ISM band (industrial scientific medical) frequencies (5.8 GHz, 2.4 GHz, 868 to 928 MHz, 433 MHz, and 315 MHz). The wireless segment also provides RFID chips for tracking, access and identification. Finally, Atmel offers a line of IR controllers that can support infrared as well as RF wireless.", "Atmel makes both touchscreen controller ICs and its XSense flexible touchscreen. The company makes sensor hubs that manage accelerometers, gyroscopes, inertial measurement units and magnetometers. These sensors give consumer products and embedded systems context awareness. The sensor hub offloads the main application processor and allows product functionality without the need to power the main processor. Atmel also makes simple touch controller chips for buttons, sliders, and wheels used on industrial and consumer products. The touch wheel interface became popularized by the Apple iPod. To support the application of its touch controller chips, Atmel provides a free QTouch library of software routines.", "Atmel's original business was in memory, and it still sells several memory products. It offers serial and parallel EEPROM, as well as one-time programmable (OTP) EPROM. In addition, it offers secure memory with its CryptoMemory product line of EEPROMS in capacities from 1 to 256 kbits.", "In addition to the secure memory mentioned above, they have the CryptoAuthentication product lines that provide hardware authentication capability with both symmetric and asymmetric-key algorithm authentication. These ICs are used in many applications, including secure access, communications, control, and to prevent cloned products like batteries or ink cartridges not approved by the product manufacturer. Atmel's CryptoRF products add hardware encrypted security to RFID applications. Finally Atmel offers a trusted platform module that gives strong hardware-based public key (RSA algorithm) security for both personal computers and embedded processors on a single chip.", "Atmel makes LED driver chips. It also has a line of digital-output temperature sensors. The company also makes power management and analog companions (PMAAC) that combine a group of discrete ICs often used in handheld or battery-powered products. Integrated functions include audio codecs (compressor-decompressor), lithium-ion battery chargers, and stereo digital-to-analog converters.", "These products include custom integrated circuits designed to meet specialized single-customer requirements. Products include FPGAs, products with military and aerospace applications, and application-specific standard products (ASSP) for space applications, power management, and secure cryptographic memory products.", "Atmel modified or specialized many of its products for the automotive market. These products often have a wider temperature range or are specially qualified for automotive applications. These products include car access, touch control, radio, CAN, VAN, and LIN Bus networking, battery management, high-temperature drivers, and serial EEPROMs.", "Atmel also has chips specialized for the smart energy and smart metering markets. These chips combine microprocessors with tamper-proof hardware security and power line communication modems. The parts also integrate analog front-ends for accurate metrology." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History of the Netscape Communications Corporation.", "Early years.", "Open sourcing.", "Acquisition by America Online.", "Disbanding.", "Final release of the browser.", "Software.", "Classic releases.", "Netscape Navigator (versions 0.9–4.08).", "Netscape Communicator (versions 4.0–4.8).", "Mozilla-based releases.", "Netscape 6 (versions 6.0–6.2.3).", "Netscape 7 (versions 7.0–7.2).", "Mozilla Firefox-based releases.", "Netscape Browser (version 8.0–8.1.3).", "Netscape Navigator (version 9.0).", "End of development and support.", "Mozilla Thunderbird-based releases.", "Netscape Messenger 9.", "Product list.", "Initial product line.", "Later Netscape products.", "Propeller.", "Netscape Search.", "Other sites.", "Netscape technologies.", "Current services.", "Netscape Internet Service.", "Netscape.com.", "DMOZ.", "Netscape Forum Center." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Netscape was the first company to attempt to capitalize on the emerging World Wide Web. It was founded under the name Mosaic Communications Corporation on April 4, 1994, the brainchild of Jim Clark who had recruited Marc Andreessen as co-founder and Kleiner Perkins as investors. The first meeting between Clark and Andreessen was never truly about a software or service like Netscape, but more about a product that was similar to Nintendo. Clark recruited other early team members from SGI and NCSA Mosaic. Jim Barksdale came on board as CEO in January 1995. Jim Clark and Marc Andreessen originally created a 20-page concept pitch for an online gaming network to Nintendo for the Nintendo 64 console, but a deal was never reached. Marc Andreessen explains, \"If they had shipped a year earlier, we probably would have done that instead of Netscape.\" The company's first product was the web browser, called \"Mosaic Netscape 0.9,\" released on October 13, 1994. Within four months of its release, it had already taken three-quarters of the browser market. It became the main browser for Internet users in such a short time due to its superiority over other competition, like Mosaic. This browser was subsequently renamed Netscape Navigator, and the company took the \"Netscape\" name (coined by employee Greg Sands, although it was also a trademark of Cisco Systems) on November 14, 1994, to avoid trademark ownership problems with NCSA, where the initial Netscape employees had previously created the NCSA Mosaic web browser. The Mosaic Netscape web browser did not use any NCSA Mosaic code. The internal codename for the company's browser was \"Mozilla\", which stood for \"Mosaic killer\", as the company's goal was to displace NCSA Mosaic as the world's number one web browser. A cartoon Godzilla-like lizard mascot was drawn by artist-employee Dave Titus, which went well with the theme of crushing the competition. The Mozilla mascot featured prominently on Netscape's website in the company's early years. However, the need to project a more \"professional\" image (especially towards corporate clients) led to this being removed. On August 9, 1995, Netscape made an extremely successful IPO. The stock was set to be offered at US$14 per share, but a last-minute decision doubled the initial offering to US$28 per share. The stock's value soared to US$75 during the first day of trading, nearly a record for first-day gain. The stock closed at US$58.25, which gave Netscape a market value of US$2.9 billion. While it was somewhat unusual for a company to go public prior to becoming profitable, Netscape's revenues had, in fact, doubled every quarter in 1995. The success of this IPO subsequently inspired the use of the term \"Netscape moment\" to describe a high-visibility IPO that signals the dawn of a new industry. During this period, Netscape also pursued a publicity strategy (crafted by Rosanne Siino, then head of public relations) packaging Andreessen as the company's \"rock star.\" The events of this period ultimately landed Andreessen, barefoot, on the cover of \"Time\" magazine. The IPO also helped kickstart widespread investment in internet companies that created the dot-com bubble. Netscape advertised that \"the web is for everyone\" and stated one of its goals was to \"level the playing field\" among operating systems by providing a consistent web browsing experience across them. The Netscape web browser interface was identical on any computer. Netscape later experimented with prototypes of a web-based system which would enable users to access and edit their files anywhere across a network, no matter what computer or operating system they happened to be using. This did not escape the attention of Microsoft, which viewed the commoditization of operating systems as a direct threat to its bottom line, i.e. a move from Windows to another operating system would yield a similar browsing experience thus reducing barriers to change. It is alleged that several Microsoft executives visited the Netscape campus in June 1995 to propose dividing the market (an allegation denied by Microsoft and, if true, would have breached antitrust laws), which would have allowed Microsoft to produce web browser software for Windows while leaving all other operating systems to Netscape. Netscape refused the proposition. Microsoft released version 1.0 of Internet Explorer as a part of the Windows 95 Plus Pack add-on. According to former Spyglass developer Eric Sink, Internet Explorer was based not on NCSA Mosaic as commonly believed, but on a version of Mosaic developed at Spyglass (which itself was based upon NCSA Mosaic). Microsoft quickly released several successive versions of Internet Explorer, bundling them with Windows, never charging for them, financing their development and marketing with revenues from other areas of the company. This period of time became known as the browser wars, in which Netscape Communicator and Internet Explorer added many new features and went through many version numbers (not always in a logical fashion) in attempts to outdo each other. But Internet Explorer had the upper hand, as the amount of manpower and capital dedicated to it eventually surpassed the resources available in Netscape's entire business. By version 3.0, IE was roughly a feature-for-feature equivalent of Netscape Communicator, and by version 4.0, it was generally considered to be more stable on Windows than on the Macintosh platform. Microsoft also targeted other Netscape products with free workalikes, such as the Internet Information Server (IIS), a web server which was bundled with Windows NT. Netscape could not compete with this strategy. In fact, it didn't attempt to. Netscape Navigator was not free to the general public until January 1998, while Internet Explorer and IIS have always been free or came bundled with an operating system and/or other applications. Meanwhile, Netscape faced increasing criticism for the bugs in its products; critics claimed that the company suffered from \"featuritis\" – putting a higher priority on adding new features than on making them work properly. This was particularly true with Netscape Navigator 2, which was only on the market for five months in early 1996 before being replaced by Netscape Navigator 3. The tide of public opinion, having once lauded Netscape as the David to Microsoft's Goliath, steadily turned negative, especially when Netscape experienced its first bad quarter at the end of 1997 and underwent a large round of layoffs in January 1998. Later, former Netscape executives Mike Homer and Peter Currie described the period as \"hectic and crazy\" and that the company was undone by factors both internal and external.", "January 1998 was also the month that Netscape started the open source Mozilla project. Netscape publicly released the source code of Netscape Communicator 5.0 in the hopes that it would become a popular open source project. It placed this code under the Netscape Public License, which was similar to the GNU General Public License but allowed Netscape to continue to publish proprietary work containing the publicly released code. However, after having released the Communicator 5.0 code this way, Netscape proceeded to work on Communicator 5.0 which was focused on improving email and enterprise functionality. It eventually became clear that the Communicator 5.0 browser was too difficult to develop, and open source development was halted on this codebase. Instead, the open source development shifted to a next-generation browser built from scratch. Using the newly built Gecko layout engine, this browser had a much more modular architecture than Communicator 5.0 and was, therefore, easier to develop with a large number of programmers. It also included an XML user interface language named XUL that allowed single development of a user interface that ran on Windows, Macintosh, and Unix. The slogan for this open sourcing effort, \"Free The Lizard\", carried comedic sexual overtones. The United States Department of Justice filed an antitrust case against Microsoft in May 1998. Netscape was not a plaintiff in the case, though its executives were subpoenaed and it contributed much material to the case, including the entire contents of the 'Bad Attitude' internal discussion forum. In October 1998, Netscape acquired web directory site NewHoo for the sum of US$1 million, renamed it the Open Directory Project, and released its database under an open content license.", "On November 24, 1998, America Online (AOL) announced it would acquire Netscape Communications in a tax-free stock-swap valued at US$4.2 billion. During this time, Andreessen's view of Netscape changed; to him, it was no longer just a browser, intranet, extranet, or a software company, but rather an amalgamation of products and services. By the time the deal closed on March 17, 1999, it was valued at US$10 billion. This merger was ridiculed by many who believed that the two corporate cultures could not possibly mesh; one of its most prominent critics was longtime Netscape developer Jamie Zawinski. The acquisition was seen as a way for AOL to gain a bargaining chip against Microsoft, to let it become less dependent on the Internet Explorer web browser. Others believed that AOL was interested in Netcenter, or Netscape's web properties, which drew some of the highest traffic worldwide. Eventually, Netscape's server products and its Professional Services group became part of iPlanet, a joint marketing and development alliance between AOL and Sun Microsystems. On November 14, 2000, AOL released Netscape 6, based on the Mozilla 0.6 source code. (Version 5 was skipped.) Unfortunately, Mozilla 0.6 was far from being stable yet, and so the effect of Netscape 6 was to further drive people away from the Netscape brand. It was not until August 2001 that Netscape 6.1 appeared, based on Mozilla 0.9.2 which was significantly more robust. A year later came Netscape 7.0, based on the Mozilla 1.0 core.", "During the acquisition of Netscape by AOL, joint development and marketing of Netscape software products would occur through the Sun-Netscape Alliance. The software, in the newly branded iPlanet, included \"messaging and calendar, collaboration, web, application, directory, and certificate servers\", as well as \"production-ready applications for e-commerce, including commerce exchange, procurement, selling, and billing.\" In March 2002, when the alliance was ended, \"iPlanet became a division of Sun... Sun retained the intellectual property rights for all products and the engineering\" On July 15, 2003, Time Warner (formerly AOL Time Warner) disbanded Netscape. Most of the programmers were laid-off, and the Netscape logo was removed from the building. However, the Netscape 7.2 web browser (developed in-house rather than with Netscape staff, with some work outsourced to Sun's Beijing development center) was released by AOL on August 18, 2004. On October 12, 2004, the popular developer website Netscape DevEdge was shut down by AOL. DevEdge was an important resource for Internet-related technologies, maintaining definitive documentation on the Netscape browser, documentation on associated technologies like HTML and JavaScript, and popular articles written by industry and technology leaders such as Danny Goodman. Some content from DevEdge has been republished at the Mozilla website. After the Sun acquisition by Oracle in January 2010, Oracle continued to sell iPlanet branded applications, which originated from Netscape. Applications include Oracle iPlanet Web Server and Oracle iPlanet Web Proxy Server.", "The Netscape brand name continued to be used extensively. The company once again had its own programming staff devoted to the development and support for the series of web browsers. Additionally, Netscape also maintained the Propeller web portal, which was a popular social-news site, similar to Digg, which was given a new look in June 2006. AOL marketed a discount ISP service under the Netscape brand name. A new version of the Netscape browser, Netscape Navigator 9, based on Firefox 2, was released in October 2007. It featured a green and grey interface. In November 2007, IE had 77.4% of the browser market, Firefox 16.0%, and Netscape 0.6%, according to Net Applications, an Internet metrics firm. On December 28, 2007, AOL announced that on February 1, 2008 it would drop support for the Netscape web browser and would no longer develop new releases. The date was later extended to March 1 to allow a major security update and to add a tool to assist users in migrating to other browsers. These additional features were included in the final version of Netscape Navigator 9 (version 9.0.0.6), released on February 20, 2008.", "", "", "Netscape Navigator was Netscape's web browser from versions 1.0–4.8. The first beta versions were released in 1994 and were called Mosaic and later Mosaic Netscape. Then, a legal challenge from the National Center for Supercomputing Applications (makers of NCSA Mosaic), which many of Netscape's founders used to develop, led to the name Netscape Navigator. The company's name also changed from Mosaic Communications Corporation to Netscape Communications Corporation. The browser was easily the most advanced available and so was an instant success, becoming a market leader while still in beta. Netscape's feature-count and market share continued to grow rapidly after version 1.0 was released. Version 2.0 added a full email reader called Netscape Mail, thus transforming Netscape from a single-purpose web browser to an Internet suite. The main distinguishing feature of the email client was its ability to display HTML email. During this period, the entire suite was called Netscape Navigator. Version 3.0 of Netscape (the first beta was codenamed \"Atlas\") was the first to face any serious competition in the form of Microsoft Internet Explorer 3.0. But Netscape remained the most popular browser at that time. Netscape also released a Gold version of Navigator 3.0 that incorporated WYSIWYG editing with drag and drop between web editor and email components.", "Netscape 4 addressed the problem of Netscape Navigator being used as both the name of the suite and the browser contained within it by renaming the suite to Netscape Communicator. After five preview releases in 1996–1997, Netscape released the final version of Netscape Communicator in June 1997. This version, more or less based on Netscape Navigator 3 Code, updated and added new features. The new suite was successful, despite increasing competition from Internet Explorer (IE) 4.0 and problems with the outdated browser core. IE was slow and unstable on the Mac platform until version 4.5. Despite this, Apple entered into an agreement with Microsoft to make IE the default browser on new Mac OS installations, a further blow to Netscape's prestige. The Communicator suite was made up of Netscape Navigator, Netscape Mail & Newsgroups, Netscape Address Book and Netscape Composer (an HTML editor). On January 22, 1998, Netscape Communications Corporation announced that all future versions of its software would be available free of charge and developed by an open source community, Mozilla. Netscape Communicator 5.0 was announced (codenamed \"Gromit\"). However, its release was greatly delayed, and meanwhile, there were newer versions of Internet Explorer, starting with version 4. These had more features than the old Netscape version, including better support of HTML 4, CSS, DOM, and ECMAScript; eventually, the more advanced Internet Explorer 5.0 became the market leader. In October 1998, Netscape Communicator 4.5 was released. It featured various functionality improvements, especially in the Mail and Newsgroups component, but did not update the browser core, whose functionality was essentially identical to that of version 4.08. One month later, Netscape Communications Corporation was bought by AOL. In November, work on Netscape 5.0 was canceled in favor of developing a completely new program from scratch.", "", "In 1998, an informal group called the Mozilla Organization was formed and largely funded by Netscape (the vast majority of programmers working on the code were paid by Netscape) to coordinate the development of Netscape 5 (codenamed \"Gromit\"), which would be based on the Communicator source code. However, the aging Communicator code proved difficult to work with and the decision was taken to scrap Netscape 5 and re-write the source code. The re-written source code was in the form of the Mozilla web browser, on which, with a few additions, Netscape 6 was based. This decision meant that Netscape's next major version was severely delayed. In the meantime, Netscape was taken over by AOL who, acting under pressure from the Web Standards Project, forced its new division to release Netscape 6.0 in 2000. The suite again consisted of Netscape Navigator and the other Communicator components, with the addition of a built-in AOL Instant Messenger client, Netscape Instant Messenger. However, it was clear that Netscape 6 was not yet ready for release and it flopped badly. It was based on Mozilla 0.6, which was not ready to be used by the general public yet due to many serious bugs that would cause it to crash often or render web pages slowly. Later versions of Netscape 6 were much-improved (especially 6.2.x was regarded as a good release), but the browser still struggled to make an impact on a disappointed community.", "Netscape 7.0 (based on Mozilla 1.0.1) was released in August 2002 as a direct continuation of Netscape 6 with very similar components. It picked up a few users, but was still very much a minority browser. It did, however, come with the popular Radio@Netscape Internet radio client. AOL had decided to deactivate Mozilla's popup-blocker functionality in Netscape 7.0, which created an outrage in the community. AOL reversed the decision and allowed Netscape to reinstate the popup-blocker for Netscape 7.01. Netscape also introduced a new AOL-free-version (without the usual AOL add-ons) of the browser suite. Netscape 7.1 (codenamed \"Buffy\" and based on Mozilla 1.4) was released in June 2003. In 2003, AOL closed down its Netscape division and laid-off or reassigned all of Netscape's employees. Mozilla.org continued, however, as the independent Mozilla Foundation, taking on many of Netscape's ex-employees. AOL continued to develop Netscape in-house (with help from Sun's Beijing development center), but, due to there being no staff committed to it, improvements were minimal. One year later, in August 2004, the last version based on Mozilla was released: Netscape 7.2, based on Mozilla 1.7.2. After an official poll posted on Netscape's community support board in late 2006, speculation arose of the Netscape 7 series of suites being fully supported and updated by Netscape's in-house development team. This was not to be.", "", "Between 2005 and 2007, Netscape's releases became known as \"Netscape Browser\". AOL chose to base Netscape Browser on the relatively successful Mozilla Firefox, a re-written version of Mozilla produced by the Mozilla Foundation. This release is not a full Internet suite as before, but is solely a web browser. Other controversial decisions include the browser only being released for Microsoft Windows and featuring both the Gecko rendering engine of previous releases and the Trident engine used in Internet Explorer, and switching between them based on a \"compatibility list\" that came with the browser. This effectively exposed users to the security vulnerabilities in both and resulted in a completely different user experience based on which site they were on. Examples are handling of right-to-left or bi-directional text, user interface widgets, bugs and web standards violations in Trident, etc. On top of this, Netscape Browser 8 even broke Internet Explorer's ability to open XML files by damaging a Windows Registry key, and would do so every time it was opened, even if the user fixed it manually. AOL's acquisition of Netscape Communications in November 1998 made it less of a surprise when the company laid off the Netscape team and outsourced development to Mercurial Communications. Netscape Browser 8.1.3 was released on April 2, 2007, and included general bug fixes identified in versions 8.0–8.1.2", "Netscape Navigator 9's features were said to include newsfeed support and become more integrated with the Propeller Internet portal, alongside more enhanced methods of discussion, submission and voting on web pages. It also sees the browser return to multi-platform support across Windows, Linux and Mac OS X. Like Netscape version 8.x, the new release was based upon the popular Mozilla Firefox (version 2.0), and supposedly had full support of all Firefox add-ons and plugins, some of which Netscape was already providing. Also for the first time since 2004, the browser was produced in-house with its own programming staff. A beta of the program was first released on June 5, 2007. The final version was released on October 15, 2007.", "AOL officially announced that support for Netscape Navigator would end on March 1, 2008, and recommended that its users download either the Flock or Firefox browsers, both of which were based on the same technology. The decision met mixed reactions from communities, with many arguing that the termination of product support is significantly belated. Internet security site \"Security Watch\" stated that a trend of infrequent security updates for AOL's Netscape caused the browser to become a \"security liability\", specifically the 2005–2007 versions, Netscape Browser 8. Asa Dotzler, one of Firefox's original bug testers, greeted the news with \"good riddance\" in his blog post, but praised the various members of the Netscape team over the years for enabling the creation of Mozilla in 1998. Others protested and petitioned AOL to continue providing vital security fixes to unknowing or loyal users of its software, as well as protection of a well-known brand.", "", "On June 11, 2007, Netscape announced Netscape Mercury, a standalone email and news client that was to accompany Navigator 9. Mercury was based on Mozilla Thunderbird. The product was later renamed Netscape Messenger 9, and an alpha version was released. In December 2007, AOL announced it was canceling Netscape's development of Messenger 9 as well as Navigator 9.", "", "Netscape's initial product line consisted of:", "Netscape's later products included:", "Between June 2006 and September 2007, AOL operated Netscape's website as social news website similar to Digg. The format did not do well as traffic dropped 55.1 percent between November 2006 and August 2007. In September 2007, AOL reverted Netscape's website to a traditional news portal, and rebranded the social news portal as \"Propeller\", moving the site to the domain \"propeller.com.\" AOL shut down the Propeller website on October 1, 2010.", "Netscape operated a search engine, Netscape Search, which now redirects to AOL Search (which itself now merely serves Bing (formerly Google) search results). Another version of Netscape Search was incorporated into Propeller.", "Netscape also operates a number of country-specific Netscape portals, including Netscape Canada among others. The portal of Netscape Germany was shut down in June 2008. The Netscape Blog was written by Netscape employees discussing the latest on Netscape products and services. Netscape NewsQuake (formerly \"Netscape Reports\") is Netscape's news and opinion blog, including video clips and discussions. As of January 2012, no new posts have been made on either of these blogs since August 2008.", "Netscape created the JavaScript web page scripting language. It also pioneered the development of push technology, which effectively allowed websites to send regular updates of information (weather, stock updates, package tracking, etc.) directly to a user's desktop (aka \"webtop\"); Netscape's implementation of this was named Netcaster. However, businesses quickly recognized the use of push technology to deliver ads to users that annoyed them, so Netcaster was short-lived. Netscape was notable for its cross-platform efforts. Its client software continued to be made available for Windows (3.1, 95, 98, NT), Macintosh, Linux, OS/2, BeOS, and many versions of Unix including DEC, Sun Solaris, BSDI, IRIX, IBM AIX, and HP-UX. Its server software generally was only available for Unix and Windows NT, though some of its servers were made available on Linux, and a version of Netscape FastTrack Server was made available for Windows 95/98. Today, most of Netscape's server offerings live on as the Sun Java System, formerly under the Sun ONE branding. Although Netscape Browser 8 was Windows only, multi-platform support exists in the Netscape Navigator 9 series of browsers.", "", "Netscape ISP is a dial-up Internet service once offered at US$9.95 per month. The company serves web pages in a compressed format to increase effective speeds up to 1300 kbit/s (average 500 kbit/s). The Internet service provider is now run by Verizon under the Netscape brand. The low-cost ISP was officially launched on January 8, 2004. Its main competitor is NetZero. Netscape ISP is no longer actively marketed, but for a time its advertising was aimed at a younger demographic, e.g., college students, and people just out of school, as an affordable way to gain access to the Internet.", "Netscape always drove lots of traffic from various links included in the browser menus to its web properties. Some say it was very late to leverage this traffic for what would become the start of the major online portal wars. When it did, Netcenter, the new name for its site entered the race with Yahoo!, Infoseek, and MSN, which Google would only join years later. The original Netscape.com was discontinued in June 2006, replaced by the site that would eventually become Propeller.com. Two continuations of the original Netscape.com portal are available; Compuserve.com, the Web site of Compuserve, and ISP.Netscape.com, the website for Netscape's dial-up discount ISP service, continue to use the Netscape.com layout as it was before June 2006. Of the two, only the latter explicitly uses the Netscape branding. Netscape.com is currently an AOL Netscape-branded mirror duplicate of the AOL.com portal with the URL, replacing the former social news website in September 2007. The social news site moved to the Propeller.com domain, where it stayed until ending operations in October 2010. It features facilities such as news, sports, horoscopes, dating, movies, music and more. The change has come to much criticism amongst many site users, because the site has effectively become an AOL clone, and simply re-directs to regional AOL portals in some areas across the globe. Netscape's exclusive features, such as the Netscape Blog, Netscape NewsQuake, Netscape Navigator, My Netscape and Netscape Community pages, are less accessible from the AOL Netscape designed portal and in some countries not accessible at all without providing a full URL or completing an Internet search. The new AOL Netscape site was originally previewed in August 2007 before moving the existing site in September 2007. Netscape.co.uk now redirects to AOL Search, with no Netscape branding at all.", "DMOZ (from directory.mozilla.org, its original domain name, also known as the Open Directory Project or ODP), was a multilingual open content directory of World Wide Web links owned by Netscape that was constructed and maintained by a community of volunteer editors. It closed in 2017.", "Netscape also has a wide variety of community-based forums within Netscape Forum Center, including its browser's community support board. To post on the forums, users must possess an AOL Screenname account in which to sign in, referred to within the site as the \"Netscape Network\". The same service is also available through Compuserve Forum Center." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Planning and preparation.", "Festival.", "Releases.", "Films.", "Albums.", "Soundtrack albums and 25th anniversary releases.", "30th anniversary releases.", "40th anniversary releases.", "50th anniversary releases.", "Aftermath.", "Legacy.", "Woodstock site today.", "Woodstock 40th anniversary.", "Woodstock 50th anniversary.", "Local economic impact.", "In popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Woodstock was initiated through the efforts of Michael Lang, Artie Kornfeld, Joel Rosenman, and John P. Roberts. Roberts and Rosenman financed the project. Lang had some experience as a promoter, having co-organized the Miami Pop Festival on the East Coast the prior year, where an estimated 25,000 people attended the two-day event. Early in 1969, Roberts and Rosenman were New York City entrepreneurs, in the process of building Media Sound, a large audio recording studio complex in Manhattan. Lang and Kornfeld's lawyer, Miles Lourie, who had done legal work on the Media Sound project, suggested that they contact Roberts and Rosenman about financing a similar, but much smaller, studio Kornfeld and Lang hoped to build in Woodstock, New York. Unpersuaded by this Studio-in-the-Woods proposal, Roberts and Rosenman counter-proposed a concert featuring the kind of artists known to frequent the Woodstock area (such as Bob Dylan and The Band). Kornfeld and Lang agreed to the new plan, and Woodstock Ventures was formed in January 1969. The company offices were located in an oddly decorated floor of 47 West 57th Street in Manhattan. Burt Cohen, and his design group, Curtain Call Productions, oversaw the psychedelic transformation of the office. From the start, there were differences in approach among the four: Roberts was disciplined and knew what was needed for the venture to succeed, while the laid-back Lang saw Woodstock as a new, \"relaxed\" way of bringing entrepreneurs together. When Lang was unable to find a site for the concert, Roberts and Rosenman, growing increasingly concerned, took to the road and eventually came up with a venue. Similar differences about financial discipline made Roberts and Rosenman wonder whether to pull the plug or to continue pumping money into the project. In April 1969, Creedence Clearwater Revival became the first act to sign a contract for the event, agreeing to play for $10,000 (equivalent to $ in ). The promoters had experienced difficulty landing big-name groups prior to Creedence committing to play. Creedence drummer Doug Clifford later commented, \"Once Creedence signed, everyone else jumped in line and all the other big acts came on.\" Given their 3 a.m. start time and omission from the \"Woodstock\" film (at frontman John Fogerty's insistence), members have expressed bitterness over their experiences regarding the festival. Woodstock was conceived as a profit-making venture. It became a \"free concert\" when circumstances prevented the organizers from installing fences and ticket booths before opening day. Tickets for the three-day event cost $18 in advance and $24 at the gate (equivalent to about $ and $ today). Ticket sales were limited to record stores in the greater New York City area, or by mail via a post office box at the Radio City Station Post Office located in Midtown Manhattan. Around 186,000 advance tickets were sold. The organizers had originally anticipated approximately 50,000 festival-goers would turn up.", "The influx of attendees to the rural concert site in Bethel created a massive traffic jam. The town of Bethel did not enforce its codes, fearing chaos as the crowd flowed to the site. Eventually, radio and television descriptions of the traffic jams discouraged people from setting off to the festival. Arlo Guthrie made an announcement that was included in the film saying that the New York State Thruway was closed, although the director of the Woodstock museum said that this closure never occurred. To add to the problems and difficulty in dealing with the large crowds, recent rains had caused muddy roads and fields. The facilities were not equipped to provide sanitation or first aid for the number of people attending; hundreds of thousands found themselves in a struggle against bad weather, food shortages, and poor sanitation. On the morning of Sunday, August 17, New York Governor Nelson Rockefeller called festival organizer John P. Roberts and told him that he was thinking of ordering 10,000 National Guard troops to the festival, but Roberts persuaded him not to. Sullivan County declared a state of emergency. During the festival, personnel from nearby Stewart Air Force Base helped ensure order and air-lifted performers in and out of the concert site. Jimi Hendrix was the last to perform at the festival, and he took the stage at 8:30 Monday morning due to delays caused by the rain. The audience had peaked at an estimated 450,000 during the festival but was reduced to about 30,000 by that point; many of them merely waited to catch a glimpse of him, then left during his performance. Hendrix and his new band Gypsy Sun and Rainbows were introduced as The Experience, but he corrected this and added: \"You could call us a Band of Gypsies\". They performed a two-hour set, including his psychedelic rendition of the national anthem. The song became \"part of the sixties Zeitgeist\" as it was captured in the Woodstock film. The festival was remarkably peaceful given the number of people and the conditions involved, although there were two recorded fatalities, one from insulin usage and another caused when a tractor ran over someone sleeping in a nearby hayfield. There also were two births recorded at the event, one in a car caught in traffic and another in a hospital after an airlift by helicopter; there were four miscarriages. Max Yasgur owned the site of the event, and he spoke of how nearly half a million people spent the three days with music and peace on their minds. He stated, \"If we join them, we can turn those adversities that are the problems of America today into a hope for a brighter and more peaceful future.\"", "", "The documentary film \"Woodstock\", directed by Michael Wadleigh and edited by Thelma Schoonmaker and Martin Scorsese, was released in March 1970. Artie Kornfeld (one of the promoters of the festival) went to Fred Weintraub, an executive at Warner Bros., and asked for money to film the festival. Artie had been turned down everywhere else, but against the express wishes of other Warner Bros. executives, Weintraub put his job on the line and gave Kornfeld $100,000 (equivalent to $ today) to make the film. \"Woodstock\" helped to save Warner Bros at a time when the company was on the verge of going out of business. The book \"Easy Riders, Raging Bulls\" details the making of the film. Wadleigh rounded up a crew of about 100 from the New York film scene. With no money to pay the crew, he agreed to a double-or-nothing scheme, in which the crew would receive double pay", "", "Two soundtrack albums were released. The first, \"\", was a 3-LP (later 2-CD) album containing a sampling of one or two songs by most of the acts who performed. A year later, \"Woodstock 2\" was released as a 2-LP album. Both albums included recordings of stage announcements (many by Production Coordinator John Morris, e.g., \"[We're told] that the brown acid is not specifically too", "In July 1999, MCA Records released \"Live at Woodstock\", a double-disc recording (longer than \"Jimi", "In June 2009, complete performances from Woodstock by Santana, Janis Joplin, Sly & the Family Stone, Jefferson Airplane, and Johnny Winter were released separately by Legacy/SME Records, and were also collected in a box set titled \"The Woodstock", "On 2 August 2019, the Rhino label released \"\", a 38-CD, 36-hour, 432-song completists' audio box set of nearly every note played at the original 1969 Woodstock festival (including 276 songs that were previously unreleased), a \"CD collection [co-produced for Rhino by archivist Andy Zax] that lays the '69 fest out in chronological order, from the first stage announcements to muddy farewells.\" The only things missing from this 38-CD edition are two Jimi Hendrix songs that his estate did not believe were up to the required standard and some of Sha Na Na's music that missed being captured on tape. Due to various production and warehousing issues, the release of the box set was delayed dramatically, causing massive backlash and dissatisfaction towards Rhino and Warner Music. More condensed versions—an album on 10 CDs, and an album on either 3 CDs or 5 LPs—were also released. The full version was limited to a run of only 1,969 copies.", "In the years immediately following the festival, Woodstock co-producers John Roberts and Joel Rosenman, along with Robert Pilpel, wrote \"Making Woodstock\", a book about the goings-on behind the scenes during the production of the Woodstock Festival. Max Yasgur refused to rent out his farm for a 1970 revival of the festival, saying, \"As far as I know, I'm going back to running a dairy farm.\" Yasgur died in 1973. Bethel voters did not re-elect Supervisor Amatucci in an election held in November 1969 because of his role in bringing the festival to the town, and the upset attributed to some residents. Although accounts vary, the loss was only by a very small margin of between six and fifty votes. New York State", "", "In 1984, a plaque was placed at the original site commemorating the festival. The field and the stage area remain preserved in their rural setting and the fields of the Yasgur farm are still visited by people of all generations. In 1996, the site of the concert and surrounding was purchased by cable television pioneer Alan Gerry for the purpose of creating the Bethel Woods Center for the Arts. The Center opened on July 1, 2006, with a performance by the New York Philharmonic. On August 13, 2006, Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young", "There was worldwide media interest in the 40th anniversary of Woodstock in 2009. A number of activities to commemorate the festival took place around the world. On August 15, at the Bethel Woods Center for the Arts overlooking the original site, the largest assembly of Woodstock performing alumni since the original 1969 festival performed in an eight-hour concert in front of a sold-out crowd. Hosted by Country Joe McDonald, the concert featured Big Brother and the Holding Company performing Janis Joplin's hits (she actually appeared with the Kozmic Blues Band at Woodstock, although that band did feature former Big Brother guitarist Sam Andrew), Canned Heat, Ten Years After, Jefferson Starship, Mountain, and the headliners, The Levon Helm Band. At Woodstock, Levon Helm played drums and was one of the lead vocalists with The Band. Paul Kantner was the only member of", "In May 2014, Michael Lang, one of the producers and organizers of the original Woodstock event, revealed plans for a possible 50th anniversary concert in 2019 and that he was exploring various locations. Reports in late 2018 confirmed the plans for a concurrent 50th Anniversary event on the original site to be operated by the Bethel Woods Centre for the Arts. The scheduled date for the \"Bethel Woods Music and Culture Festival: Celebrating the golden anniversary at the historic site of the 1969 Woodstock festival\" was August 16–18, 2019. Partners in the event are Live Nation and INVNT. Bethel Woods described the festival as a \"pan-generational music, culture and community event\" (including some live performances and talks by) \"leading futurists and retro-tech experts\". Michael Lang told a reporter that he also had \"definite plans\" for a 50th anniversary concert that would \"hopefully encourage people to get involved with our lives on the planet\" with a goal of", "Woodstock still acts as an economic engine for the local economy. A Bethel Woods report from 2018 indicates that $560.82 million of spending has been", "As one of the biggest music festivals of all time and a cultural touchstone for the late 1960s, Woodstock has been referenced in many different ways in popular culture. The phrase \"the Woodstock generation\" became part of the common lexicon. Tributes and parodies of the festival began almost as soon as the final chords sounded. Cartoonist Charles Schulz named his recurring \"Peanuts\" bird character – which began appearing in 1966 but was still unnamed – Woodstock in tribute to the festival. In April 1970, \"Mad\" magazine published a poem by Frank Jacobs and illustrated by Sergio Aragonés titled \"I Remember, I Remember The Wondrous Woodstock Music Fair\" that parodies the traffic jams and the challenges of getting close enough to actually hear the music. Keith Robertson's 1970 children's book \"Henry Reed's Big Show\" has the title character attempting to emulate the success of the festival by mounting his own concert at his uncle's farm. Melanie Safka's 1970 song, \"Lay Down (Candles in the Rain)\", recalls the experience of both her Woodstock performance and her participation in the 1969 Moratorium to End the War in Vietnam. Joni Mitchell's 1970 song, \"Woodstock\", was written while she viewed news coverage of the festival and, lamenting her decision not to perform there, described it instead. In 1973, the stage show \"National Lampoon's Lemmings\" portrayed the \"Woodchuck\" festival, featuring parodies of many Woodstock performers. \"Time\" magazine named \"The Who at Woodstock – 1969\" to the magazine's \"Top 10 Music-Festival Moments\" list on March 18, 2010. \"A Walk on the Moon\" is a 1999 film set partially at the Woodstock festival. In 2005, Argentine writer Edgar Brau published \"Woodstock\", a long poem commemorating the festival. An English translation of the poem was published in January 2007 by Words Without Borders. \"Taking Woodstock\" is a 2009 film by director Ang Lee that dramatizes how the festival came together. In 2017, the singer Lana Del Rey released a song, \"Coachella – Woodstock in My Mind,\" in order to show her worries about the tensions between North Korea and the United States, while she was at Coachella, expressing nostalgia by reminding the Woodstock festival as a symbol of peace. In August 2019, the United States Postal Service released a Forever stamp commemorating Woodstock's 50th anniversary. The stamp was designed by Antonio Alcalá, Art Director of the USPS and was first issued at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City on 8 August 2019. The museum was hosting \"Play it Loud\", an exhibit co-organized with the Rock & Roll Hall of Fame consisting of vintage rock and roll instruments, posters, and costumes. Attending the ceremony were Woodstock producers Michael Lang and Joel Rosenman. The ceremony began with a \"stirring\" electric guitar performance of \"The Star Spangled Banner\" by \"Captain\" Kirk Douglas of the Roots—\"reminiscent\" of Jimi Hendrix's performance at original festival." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Taxonomy and evolution.", "Families.", "Biology.", "Anatomy.", "Vision.", "Diet and predation.", "Antipredator adaptations.", "Reproduction and life history.", "Sexual cannibalism.", "Relationship with humans.", "In literature and art.", "Martial arts.", "In mythology and religion.", "As pets.", "For pest control.", "Mantis-like robot." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Over 2,400 species of mantis in about 430 genera are recognized. They are predominantly found in tropical regions, but some live in temperate areas. The systematics of mantises have long been disputed. Mantises, along with stick insects (Phasmatodea), were once placed in the order Orthoptera with the cockroaches (now Blattodea) and rock crawlers (now Grylloblattodea). Kristensen (1991) combined the Mantodea with the cockroaches and termites into the order Dictyoptera, suborder Mantodea. The name \"mantodea\" is formed from the Ancient Greek words (\"mantis\") meaning \"prophet\", and (\"eidos\") meaning \"form\" or \"type\". It was coined in 1838 by the German entomologist Hermann Burmeister. The order is occasionally called the mantes, using a Latinized plural of Greek \"mantis\". The name mantid properly refers only to members of the family Mantidae, which was, historically, the only family in the order. The other common name, praying mantis, applied to any species in the order (though in Europe mainly to \"Mantis religiosa\"), comes from the typical \"prayer-like\" posture with folded forelimbs. The vernacular plural \"mantises\" (used in this article) was confined largely to the US, with \"mantids\" predominantly used as the plural in the UK and elsewhere, until the family Mantidae was further split in 2002. One of the earliest classifications splitting an all-inclusive Mantidae into multiple families was that proposed by Beier in 1968, recognizing eight families, though it was not until Ehrmann's reclassification into 15 families in 2002 that a multiple-family classification became universally adopted. Klass, in 1997, studied the external male genitalia and postulated that the families Chaeteessidae and Metallyticidae diverged from the other families at an early date. However, the Mantidae and Thespidae are still both considered polyphyletic, so the Mantodea will have to be revised. The earliest mantis fossils are about 135 million years old, from Siberia. Fossils of the group are rare: by 2007, only about 25 fossil species were known. Fossil mantises, including one from Japan with spines on the front legs as in modern mantises, have been found in Cretaceous amber. Most fossils in amber are nymphs; compression fossils (in rock) include adults. Fossil mantises from the Crato Formation in Brazil include the long \"Santanmantis axelrodi\", described in 2003; as in modern mantises, the front legs were adapted for catching prey. Well-preserved specimens yield details as small as 5 μm through X-ray computed tomography. Because of the superficially similar raptorial forelegs, mantidflies may be confused with mantises, though they are unrelated. Their similarity is an example of convergent evolution; mantidflies do not have tegmina (leathery forewings) like mantises, their antennae are shorter and less thread-like, and the raptorial tibia is more muscular than that of a similar-sized mantis and bends back further in preparation for shooting out to grasp prey.", "The \"Mantodea Species File\" lists the following living (with at least 2 extinct) families:", "", "Mantises have large, triangular heads with a beak-like snout and mandibles. They have two bulbous compound eyes, three small simple eyes, and a pair of antennae. The articulation of the neck is also remarkably flexible; some species of mantis can rotate their heads nearly 180°. The mantis thorax consists of a prothorax, a mesothorax, and a metathorax. In all species apart from the genus \"Mantoida\", the prothorax, which bears the head and forelegs, is much longer than the other two thoracic segments. The prothorax is also flexibly articulated, allowing for a wide range of movements of the head and fore limbs while the remainder of the body remains more or less immobile. Mantises have two spiked, grasping forelegs (\"raptorial legs\") in which prey items are caught and held securely. In most insect legs, including the posterior four legs of a mantis, the coxa and trochanter combine as an inconspicuous base of the leg; in the raptorial legs, however, the coxa and trochanter combine to form a segment about as long as the femur, which is a spiky part of the grasping apparatus (see illustration). Located at the base of the femur is a set of discoidal spines, usually four in number, but ranging from none to as many as five depending on the species. These spines are preceded by a number of tooth-like tubercles, which, along with a similar series of tubercles along the tibia and the apical claw near its tip, give the foreleg of the mantis its grasp on its prey. The foreleg ends in a delicate tarsus used as a walking appendage, made of four or five segments and ending in a two-toed claw with no arolium. Mantises can be loosely categorized as being macropterous (long-winged), brachypterous (short-winged), micropterous (vestigial-winged), or apterous (wingless). If not wingless, a mantis has two sets of wings: the outer wings, or tegmina, are usually narrow and leathery. They function as camouflage and as a shield for the hind wings, which are clearer and more delicate. The abdomen of all mantises consists of 10 tergites, with a corresponding set of nine sternites visible in males and seven visible in females. The abdomen tends to be slimmer in males than females, but ends in a pair of cerci in both sexes.", "Mantises have stereo vision. They locate their prey by sight; their compound eyes contain up to 10,000 ommatidia. A small area at the front called the fovea has greater visual acuity than the rest of the eye, and can produce the high resolution necessary to examine potential prey. The peripheral ommatidia are concerned with perceiving motion; when a moving object is noticed, the head is rapidly rotated to bring the object into the visual field of the fovea. Further motions of the prey are then tracked by movements of the mantis's head so as to keep the image centered on the fovea. The eyes are widely spaced and laterally situated, affording a wide binocular field of vision and precise stereoscopic vision at close range. The dark spot on each eye that moves as it rotates its head is a pseudopupil. This occurs because the ommatidia that are viewed \"head-on\" absorb the incident light, while those to the side reflect it. As their hunting relies heavily on vision, mantises are primarily diurnal. Many species, however, fly at night, and then may be attracted to artificial lights. Mantises in the family Liturgusidae collected at night have been shown to be predominately males; this is probably true for most mantises. Nocturnal flight is especially important to males in locating less-mobile females by detecting their pheromones. Flying at night exposes mantises to fewer bird predators than diurnal flight would. Many mantises also have an auditory thoracic organ that helps them avoid bats by detecting their echolocation calls and responding evasively.", "Mantises are generalist predators of arthropods. The majority of mantises are ambush predators that only feed upon live prey within their reach. They either camouflage themselves and remain stationary, waiting for prey to approach, or stalk their prey with slow, stealthy movements. Larger mantises sometimes eat smaller individuals of their own species, as well as small vertebrates such as lizards, frogs, small birds and fishes. Most mantises stalk tempting prey if it strays close enough, and will go further when they are especially hungry. Once within reach, mantises strike rapidly to grasp the prey with their spiked raptorial forelegs. Some ground and bark species pursue their prey in a more active way. For example, members of a few genera such as the ground mantises, \"Entella\", \"Ligaria\", and \"Ligariella\" run over dry ground seeking prey, much as tiger beetles do. The fore gut of some species extends the whole length of the insect and can be used to store prey for digestion later. This may be advantageous in an insect that feeds intermittently. Chinese mantises live longer, grow faster, and produce more young when they are able to eat pollen.", "Mantises are preyed on by vertebrates such as frogs, lizards, and birds, and by invertebrates such as spiders, large species of hornets, and ants. Some hunting wasps, such as some species of \"Tachytes\" also paralyse some species of mantis to feed their young. Generally, mantises protect themselves by camouflage, most species being cryptically colored to resemble foliage or other backgrounds, both to avoid predators and to better snare their prey. Those that live on uniformly colored surfaces such as bare earth or tree bark are dorsoventrally flattened so as to eliminate shadows that might reveal their presence. The species from different families called flower mantises are aggressive mimics: they resemble flowers convincingly enough to attract prey that come to collect pollen and nectar. Some species in Africa and Australia are able to turn black after a molt towards the end of the dry season; at this time of year, bush fires occur and this coloration enables them to blend in with the fire-ravaged landscape (fire melanism). When directly threatened, many mantis species stand tall and spread their forelegs, with their wings fanning out wide. The fanning of the wings makes the mantis seem larger and more threatening, with some species enhancing this effect with bright colors and patterns on their hind wings and inner surfaces of their front legs. If harassment persists, a mantis may strike with its forelegs and attempt to pinch or bite. As part of the bluffing (deimatic) threat display, some species may also produce a hissing sound by expelling air from the abdominal spiracles. Mantises lack chemical protection, so their displays are largely bluff. When flying at night, at least some mantises are able to detect the echolocation sounds produced by bats; when the frequency begins to increase rapidly, indicating an approaching bat, they stop flying horizontally and begin a descending spiral toward the safety of the ground, often preceded by an aerial loop or spin. If caught, they may slash captors with their raptorial legs. Mantises, like stick insects, show rocking behavior in which the insect makes rhythmic, repetitive side-to-side movements. Functions proposed for this behavior include the enhancement of crypsis by means of the resemblance to vegetation moving in the wind. However, the repetitive swaying movements may be most important in allowing the insects to discriminate objects from the background by their relative movement, a visual mechanism typical of animals with simpler sight systems. Rocking movements by these generally sedentary insects may replace flying or running as a source of relative motion of objects in the visual field. As ants may be predators of mantises, genera such as \"Loxomantis\", \"Orthodera\", and \"Statilia\", like many other arthropods, avoid attacking them. Exploiting this behavior, a variety of arthropods, including some early-instar mantises, mimic ants to evade their predators.", "The mating season in temperate climates typically takes place in autumn, while in tropical areas, mating can occur at any time of the year. To mate following courtship, the male usually leaps onto the female's back, clasping her thorax and wing bases with his forelegs. He then arches his abdomen to deposit and store sperm in a special chamber near the tip of the female's abdomen. The female lays between 10 and 400 eggs, depending on the species. Eggs are typically deposited in a froth mass-produced by glands in the abdomen. This froth hardens, creating a protective capsule, which together with the egg mass is called an ootheca. Depending on the species, the ootheca can be attached to a flat surface, wrapped around a plant, or even deposited in the ground. Despite the versatility and durability of the eggs, they are often preyed on, especially by several species of parasitoid wasps. In a few species, mostly ground and bark mantises in the family Tarachodidae, the mother guards the eggs. The cryptic \"Tarachodes maurus\" positions herself on bark with her abdomen covering her egg capsule, ambushing passing prey and moving very little until the eggs hatch. An unusual reproductive strategy is adopted by Brunner's stick mantis from the southern United States; no males have ever been found in this species, and the females breed parthenogenetically. The ability to reproduce by parthenogenesis has been recorded in at least two other species, \"Sphodromantis viridis\" and \"Miomantis\" sp., although these species usually reproduce sexually. In temperate climates, adults do not survive the winter and the eggs undergo a diapause, hatching in the spring. As in closely related insect groups in the superorder Dictyoptera, mantises go through three life stages: egg, nymph, and adult (mantises are among the hemimetabolous insects). For smaller species, the eggs may hatch in 3–4 weeks as opposed to 4–6 weeks for larger species. The nymphs may be colored differently from the adult, and the early stages are often mimics of ants. A mantis nymph grows bigger as it molts its exoskeleton. Molting can happen five to 10 times before the adult stage is reached, depending on the species. After the final molt, most species have wings, though some species remain wingless or brachypterous (\"short-winged\"), particularly in the female sex. The lifespan of a mantis depends on the species; smaller ones may live 4–8 weeks, while larger species may live 4–6 months.", "Sexual cannibalism is common among most predatory species of mantises in captivity. It has sometimes been observed in natural populations, where about a quarter of male-female encounters result in the male being eaten by the female. Around 90% of the predatory species of mantises exhibit sexual cannibalism. Adult males typically outnumber females at first, but their numbers may be fairly equivalent later in the adult stage, possibly because females selectively eat the smaller males. In \"Tenodera sinensis\", 83% of males escape cannibalism after an encounter with a female, but since multiple matings occur, the probability of a male's being eaten increases cumulatively. The female may begin feeding by biting off the male's head (as they do with regular prey), and if mating has begun, the male's movements may become even more vigorous in its delivery of sperm. Early researchers thought that because copulatory movement is controlled by a ganglion in the abdomen, not the head, removal of the male's head was a reproductive strategy by females to enhance fertilization while obtaining sustenance. Later, this behavior appeared to be an artifact of intrusive laboratory observation. Whether the behavior is natural in the field or also the result of distractions caused by the human observer remains controversial. Mantises are highly visual organisms and notice any disturbance in the laboratory or field, such as bright lights or moving scientists. Chinese mantises that had been fed \"ad libitum\" (so that they were not hungry) actually displayed elaborate courtship behavior when left undisturbed. The male engages the female in a courtship dance, to change her interest from feeding to mating. Under such circumstances, the female has been known to respond with a defensive deimatic display by flashing the colored eyespots on the inside of her front legs. The reason for sexual cannibalism has been debated; experiments show that females on poor diets are likelier to engage in sexual cannibalism than those on good diets. Some hypothesize that submissive males gain a selective advantage by producing offspring; this is supported by a quantifiable increase in the duration of copulation among males which are cannibalized, in some cases doubling both the duration and the chance of fertilization. This is contrasted by a study where males were seen to approach hungry females with more caution, and were shown to remain mounted on hungry females for a longer time, indicating that males that actively avoid cannibalism may mate with multiple females. The same study also found that hungry females generally attracted fewer males than those that were well fed. The act of dismounting after copulation is dangerous for males, for at this time, females most frequently cannibalize their mates. An increase in mounting duration appears to indicate that males wait for an opportune time to dismount a hungry female, who would be likely to cannibalize her mate.", "", "One of the earliest mantis references is in the ancient Chinese dictionary \"Erya\", which gives its attributes in poetry, where it represents courage and fearlessness, and a brief description. A later text, the (\"Great History of Medical Material Annotated and Arranged by Types, Based upon the Classics and Historical Works\") from 1108, gives accurate details of the construction of the egg packages, the development cycle, anatomy, and the function of the antennae. Although mantises are rarely mentioned in Ancient Greek sources, a female mantis in threat posture is accurately illustrated on a series of fifth-century BC silver coins, including didrachms, from Metapontum in Sicily. In the 10th century AD, Byzantine era \"Adages\", Suidas describes an insect resembling a slow-moving green locust with long front legs. He translates Zenobius 2.94 with the words \"seriphos\" (maybe a mantis) and \"graus\", an old woman, implying a thin, dried-up stick of a body. Western descriptions of the biology and morphology of the mantises became more accurate in the 18th century. Roesel von Rosenhof illustrated and described mantises and their cannibalistic behavior in the \"\" (\"Insect Entertainments\"). Aldous Huxley made philosophical observations about the nature of death while two mantises mated in the sight of two characters in his 1962 novel \"Island\" (the species was \"Gongylus gongylodes\"). The naturalist Gerald Durrell's humorously autobiographical 1956 book \"My Family and Other Animals\" includes a four-page account of an almost evenly matched battle between a mantis and a gecko. Shortly before the fatal \"dénouement\", Durrell narrates: M. C. Escher's woodcut \"Dream\" depicts a human-sized mantis standing on a sleeping bishop. The 1957 film \"The Deadly Mantis\" features a mantis as a giant monster. A cultural trope imagines the female mantis as a \"femme fatale\". The idea is propagated in cartoons by Cable, Guy and Rodd, LeLievre, T. McCracken, and Mark Parisi, among others. It ends Isabella Rossellini's short film about the life of a praying mantis in her 2008 \"Green Porno\" season for the Sundance Channel.", "Two martial arts separately developed in China have movements and fighting strategies based on those of the mantis. As one of these arts was developed in northern China, and the other in southern parts of the country, the arts are today referred to (both in English and Chinese) as 'Northern Praying Mantis' and 'Southern Praying Mantis'. Both are very popular in China, and have also been exported to the West in recent decades.", "The mantis was revered by the southern African Khoi and San in whose cultures man and nature were intertwined; for its praying posture, the mantis was even named \"\" (\"god of the Khoi\") in the Afrikaans language that had developed among the first European settlers. However, at least for the San, the mantis was only one of the manifestations of a trickster-deity who could assume many other forms, such as a snake, hare or vulture. Several ancient civilizations did consider the insect to have supernatural powers; for the Greeks, it had the ability to show lost travelers the way home; in the Ancient Egyptian \"Book of the Dead\" the \"bird-fly\" is a minor god that leads the souls of the dead to the underworld; in a list of 9th-century BC Nineveh grasshoppers (\"buru\"), the mantis is named necromancer (\"buru-enmeli\") and soothsayer (\"buru-enmeli-ashaga\").", "Mantises are among the insects most widely kept as pets. Because the lifespan of a mantis is only about a year, people who want to keep mantises often breed them. In 2013 at least 31 species were kept and bred in the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, and the United States. In 1996 at least 50 species were known to be kept in captivity by members of the Mantis Study Group. \"The Independent\" described the \"giant Asian praying mantis\" as \"part stick insect with a touch of Buddhist monk\", and stated that they needed a vivarium around 30 cm (12 in) on each side. \"The Daily South\" argued that a pet insect was no weirder than a pet rat or ferret, and that while a pet mantis was unusual, it would not \"bark, shed, [or] need shots or a litter box\".", "Gardeners who prefer to avoid pesticides may encourage mantises in the hope of controlling insect pests. However, mantises do not have key attributes of biological pest control agents; they do not specialize in a single pest insect, and do not multiply rapidly in response to an increase in such a prey species, but are general predators. They eat whatever they can catch, including both harmful and beneficial insects. They therefore have \"negligible value\" in biological control. Two species, the Chinese mantis and the European mantis, were deliberately introduced to North America in the hope that they would serve as pest controls for agriculture; they have spread widely in both the United States and Canada.", "A prototype robot inspired by the forelegs of the praying mantis has front legs that allow the robot to walk, climb steps, and grasp objects. The multi-jointed leg provides dexterity via a rotatable joint. Future models may include a more spiked foreleg to improve the grip and ability to support more weight." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Overview." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "The concert was organized in about a month, upon the suggestion of headliners The Rolling Stones, who wanted to help revive Toronto's economy after the SARS outbreaks earlier in the year. (The Rolling Stones have held tour rehearsals in Toronto on more than one occasion; Toronto was also the setting for Keith Richards's 1977 arrest and subsequent trial.) When The Rolling Stones announced the concert, Toronto was still under a SARS warning from the World Health Organization. The publicity garnered by the SARS outbreak led to a downturn in Toronto's tourism industry, which the concert was intended to help revive. Tickets for the concert went on sale on June 27, 2003 and cost $21.50 Canadian. The Canadian portion of 150,000 tickets sold out almost immediately and made a single-day record for the Canadian arm of Ticketmaster. The concert was held at Downsview Park in northern Toronto, a former military base which also accommodated 800,000 people when Pope John Paul II visited the city in 2002. The concert was hosted by actor/singer Dan Aykroyd, and vendors sold Alberta beef in support of the Canadian beef industry, which had recently suffered because of a case of mad cow disease. North York General Hospital, which had been hit the hardest by the SARS outbreak in previous months, provided emergency on-site hospital services. The Toronto water department was initially supposed to provide free water by tapping the groundwater at the site, but were unable to do so due to health concerns. The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) and cable music station MuchMoreMusic provided coverage of parts of the concert throughout the day, including the end of The Rolling Stones' set. The concert opened in the afternoon with the Have Love Will Travel Revue (Aykroyd and James Belushi), Sam Roberts, Kathleen Edwards, La Chicane, The Tea Party, The Flaming Lips who invited artists from backstage to dance on stage with them dressed in fuzzy animal costumes, Sass Jordan, The Isley Brothers, and Blue Rodeo. Each band performed for 15–20 minutes. The second part of the concert began later in the afternoon and lasted into the night and included Justin Timberlake, The Guess Who, Rush, AC/DC, and The Rolling Stones, who performed a 90-minute set to end the concert. Justin Timberlake was booed by the crowd, which was anticipating the harder-rocking second half of the concert. Throughout his performance he had to dodge water bottles, toilet paper, muffins, and other items thrown by the audience. He later returned to duet with Mick Jagger on \"Miss You\" and also for Justin Timberlake's \"Cry Me a River\". When some fans continued to throw bottles at Timberlake, the crowd was harangued by a visibly angry Keith Richards. Rush was the last band to be added to the lineup. According to drummer Neil Peart, they more-or-less felt pressured to perform because Toronto is their hometown, although they typically do not do one-off concert performances. A documentary DVD entitled \"Toronto Rocks\" was released in 2004, showing highlights of the event." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "1982–1987.", "1988 to 1995: Recognition and early success.", "1996 to 2000: JKP – the beginnings with their own label.", "Musical style.", "Social involvement.", "Political activities.", "Ties to Düsseldorf." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The current members of Die Toten Hosen are Campino (Andreas Frege), Kuddel (Andreas von Holst), Vom (Stephen Ritchie), Andi (Andreas Meurer) and Breiti (Michael Breitkopf). All members except one are German, though Campino's mother, Jenny, was English. The drummer Vom comes from England. He joined in 1999, after previous drummer Wölli sustained injuries in a car crash. Wölli had played from 1985 to 1999 and was an honorary member of the band until his death in 2016. The drummer until 1985 was Trini Trimpop, who became the band's manager when Wölli joined. The band is reputed to have played for free at private birthday parties or similar events in their early years, so long as the host provided them with unlimited beer and covered all damage caused by the band.", "Die Toten Hosen formed in 1982 at the Ratinger Hof, a Düsseldorf bar frequented by punk musicians. Its founder members were Campino and Andreas von Holst, both from local punk band ZK, with Andreas Meurer, Michael Breitkopf, Trini Trimpop and Walter November. According to their friend and one time promoter Andrea Berzen, they chose the name \"Die toten Hosen\" – which literally translates as \"the dead trousers\" but connotes the German idiom \"hier ist tote Hose\" or \"hier herrscht tote Hose\" meaning \"there is nothing going on here\", \"it’s boring here\" – over \"Die Pariser\". According to Andrea Berzen, Campino preferred the former because it implied that their concerts might not be sold out, but there might be \"tote Hose\" on the nights. At their first concert at the Bremer Schlachthof over Easter 1982, the compère mistakenly introduced them as Die Toten Hasen (The Dead Hares). The debut single \"Wir sind bereit\" (We are ready) was released in 1982, and was followed by their first album, \"Opel-Gang\", the next year. Guitarist Walter November left the band in November 1983 due to his drug problems. One of the two A sides of the third single was the drinking song \"Eisgekühlter Bommerlunder\" (ice-cold Bommerlunder schnapps), which received considerable radio airplay and increased their fan base. The band released their first album titled \"Opel-Gang\" in early 1983 on their own label Totenkopf (skull). In July 1983, the band signed to EMI, who financed a video for \"Eisgekühlter Bommerlunder\", directed by Wolfgang Büld. It depicts a chaotic wedding ceremony in a small Bavarian church, with Kurt Raab playing an alcoholic priest and Marianne Sägebrecht playing the bride. After the filming the congregation called for the church to be reconsecrated. German public television refused to screen the video for several years for fear of offending churchgoers. At the end of 1983, they released \"Hip Hop Bommi Bop\", a hip-hop version of \"Eisgekühlter Bommerlunder\" featuring New York rapper Fab Five Freddy. In 1984, the band played a session on the BBC's John Peel Show. EMI were displeased with the band's high travel costs and by Norbert Hähnel publicly parodying their million-selling artist Heino at a Toten Hosen concert. Heino successfully obtained a court order to cease and desist. Die Toten Hosen left EMI and signed to Virgin Records. Their second album \"Unter Falscher Flagge\" (Under False Colours), was released in 1984. The title explained the front cover of the LP, which carried a picture of the band members dressed as pirates aboard a ship. The original back cover featured the skeleton of a dog sitting in front of a gramophone, a caricature of the His Master's Voice artwork used by EMI. Legal action by EMI prompted the album cover to be changed to the skeleton of an eagle, which, along with the Jolly Roger, became a band logo. In Spring 1985, the band toured France for the Goethe Institute and in Autumn they travelled to Hungary and Poland. In late 1985, Trini Trimpop moved from drumming for the band into their management, where he worked until 1992. Jakob Keusen briefly replaced him as the band's drummer before Wolfgang Rohde (Wölli) took over in January 1986. Rohde’s first concert was also the band’s first concert in front of a very large audience. Along with Herbert Grönemeyer, Udo Lindenberg, Marius Müller-Westernhagen, BAP, the Rodgau Monotones and many others, they performed at the Anti-WAAhnsinns-Festival in July 1986 to protest the construction of the nearby Nuclear reprocessing plant Wackersdorf. In 1986, they recorded their third album, \"Damenwahl\" (Ladies' Choice). The Damenwahl tour was sponsored by the northern German condom manufacturer Fromms, who arranged for free samples to be scattered amongst the crowd. In 1987, the band celebrated its first chart success with the record \"Never Mind the Hosen, Here's Die Roten Rosen\" (Never mind the Trousers – Here’s the Red Roses) using the pseudonym Die Roten Rosen (The Red Roses). The album contains rock versions of German 1960s pop songs. The name and cover art of the record are a parody of the LP Never Mind the Bollocks, Here’s the Sex Pistols by the Sex Pistols from 1977. In late 1987, Die Toten Hosen released their first live album \"Bis zum bitteren Ende\" (Till the Bitter End). It charted in the German and Austrian Top 30.", "In 1988, the band released their commercial breakthrough, the album \"Ein kleines bisschen Horrorschau\" (A little bit of horrorshow). The album referenced the Anthony Burgess's novel \"A Clockwork Orange\" and Stanley Kubrick's film of the same name and was largely written for Bernd Schadewald’s theatre adaption of \"A Clockwork Orange\". For half a year the band played on stage at the Kammerspiele Bad Godesberg theatre in Bonn, alongside Ralf Richter, the play's lead actor. In September 1988, Die Toten Hosen performed at the Lituanika Festival in Vilnius and Kaunas, Lithuania. They were chosen by the jury as the best band of the event. The album included \"Hier kommt Alex\" (Here comes Alex) was later re-recorded in an unplugged version in 2005 incorporating the opening piano phrase of Beethoven's Moonlight Sonata. Their spring tour in 1989 included a sell-out performance at the huge Westfalenhallen in Dortmund. The band released \"3 Akkorde für ein Halleluja\" (3 Chords for a Hallelujah), a video documentary of their lives. In 1990 the Toten Hosen were invited to attend the New Music Seminar in New York and performed as support for The Rolling Stones in Cologne. That summer the band travelled to Italy to report on the FIFA World Cup for various newspapers and radio stations. For this purpose they recorded a rock cover version of the classic \"Azzurro\" by Adriano Celentano, accompanied by a video satirising the behaviour of German football fans when abroad. The double album \"Kreuzzug ins Glück\" (Crusade to happiness) was released in 1990 and sold over 150,000 copies in its first week. In 1991 the Toten Hosen released their album \"Learning English Lesson One\", a tribute to the band's musical influences, consisting mainly of cover versions of English punk rock classics. Each track featured at least one member of the original band that had recorded it. Several songs were recorded in Rio de Janeiro with Great Train Robber Ronald Biggs. The album also marked the beginning of the band's collaboration with T.V. Smith, songwriter and lead singer of The Adverts, which continues to the present day. The band's 1992 \"Menschen, Tiere, Sensationen\" (People, Animals, Sensations) tour included concerts in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Denmark, Great Britain, Spain, France and a their first ever dates in Argentina. The single \"Sascha... ein aufrechter Deutscher\" (Sascha... an upstanding German) was released for Christmas 1992 as a vehement condemnation of right-wing radicalism. The proceeds of this song were donated to an anti-racist charity campaign in Düsseldorf. The right-wing Republikaner party failed in its attempt to have the song banned for defamation and thereby unintentionally contributed to the success of the single. The song grossed half a million Deutsche Mark. In 1993, the album \"Kauf MICH!\" (Buy ME!) was released and reached number one in the German charts. Its songs express opinions on consumerism, advertisement and right-wing extremism. In the summer of 1993 Die Toten Hosen performed as the supporting act for U2 on their Zoo TV tour in Germany, with audiences of over 50,000 people at each concert. The video to the song \"Kauf MICH!\" shows footage of these concerts. In the same year, the band released Reich & Sexy (Rich & Sexy), their first best-of album. On the cover the members of the band are naked, portraying pretentious millionaires from the music industry surrounded by nude women. An international version of the best-of album was released in 1994 called \"Love, Peace & Money\". For a period, Die Toten Hosen had three albums in the German charts at the same time. In 1994 the band was on the road for almost the entire year in Germany and neighbouring countries. In November they gave four concerts in the US and in Canada as support act for Green Day. Starting in April 1995, the Toten Hosen got their own radio program on Fritz radio in Berlin, called \"Tausend Takte Tanzmusik\" (\"a thousand beats of dance music\"). The show aired every Sunday from 7 to 8 pm for a year. At the end of the year the band founded their own record label JKP.", "The first album under their own label was \"Opium fürs Volk\" (opium for the people), released in 1996. Its songs deal with faith and religion. The album went platinum, their third record to do so, after \"Kauf MICH!\" and \"Reich und sexy\". The single \"Zehn kleine Jägermeister\" (ten little master huntsmen or rather: ten little Jägermeisters) went to number one of the German-speaking singles charts. The Toten Hosen and Iggy Pop were a supporting act at the Ramones farewell concert in the River-Plate-Stadion of Buenos Aires in front of 75,000 people. An extended tour followed under the slogan \"Ewig währt am längsten\" (Eternity lasts longest) through Germany, Austria and Switzerland. Furthermore, they performed at the Gurtenfestival, the Forestglade Festival, the Berlin Waldbühne and at the Bizarre Festival in Cologne. In May 1996 they headlined the Rock am Ring festival. In the same year the band released their second live album \"Im Auftrag des Herrn\" (on the Lord's behalf). Their 1000th concert was on 28 June 1997 in the Düsseldorfer Rheinstadium, and was attended by over 60,000 fans. The death of Dutch girl Rieke Lax at the concert prompted the band to release the song \"Alles ist eins\" (Everything is one) in her memory. The 1998 Warped Tour took in New Zealand, Australia, Japan and Hawaii. Campino was twice hospitalised after concerts in Byron Bay and Geelong in Australia. Die Toten Hosen have collaborated with numerous other musicians (like Bad Religion, AC/DC, U2, Rolling Stones); they are also one of the few German punk bands popular outside Germany, with a large following in South America, Australia and Eastern Europe. The band's members are passionate fans of their local football team, Fortuna Düsseldorf, which they sponsored from 2001 to 2003. When a goal is scored at the club's ground, the Esprit Arena, the chorus of the band's song \"Strom\" is played. The band released a football-themed song named \"Bayern\" in 2000 in which they proclaim that they would not join Bayern Munich under any circumstances. Campino mentioned that the band lost significant CD sales in the southern Germany since the release of the song. In August 2006, Campino starred as Mack the Knife in Brecht's \"The Threepenny Opera\" at Berlin's Admiralspalast, a short distance from the theatre where the play premiered in 1928. The director, famous actor Klaus Maria Brandauer, was criticised for the play's unadventurous staging, but Campino was cheered by the audience. Artist Andreas Gursky produced \"Tote Hosen\", a blown up photograph of the crowd from a Die Toten Hosen concert, depicting youths excitedly cheering for the band, many wearing the red Hosen shirt. It is in the collection of the Museum of Modern Art. Faith No More bassist Billy Gould wore a Toten Hosen tee shirt on the cover of their greatest hits album, \"\". Faith No More have covered the Toten Hosen song \"Hofgarten\" in live shows. German rock group Samsas Traum covered \"Hier kommt Alex\" with a more gothic sound. Lead singer Alexander Kaschte changes the final lyric to \"Hey! Ich bin Alex!\" (Hey! I am Alex!) as a wry joke. British punk band UK Subs recorded an English-language cover of the song on their 1993 album \"Normal Service Resumed\". '\"Hier kommt Alex\" is featured in video games \"\" and \"Rock Band\" (European version). The song was also released as a downloadable track on the American version of Rock Band on 27 May 2008. Die Toten Hosen also have a special edition of SingStar for PlayStation 2, devoted exclusively to the band, featuring 24 tracks and videos from over the decades, which was released in 2007. MC Frontalot, in collaboration with faux-German electronic musician KOMPRESSOR on the track \"Rappers We Crush\", rhymes \"What did I do to deserve this?/What was my crime?/Was it because I sampled Die Toten Hosen that one time?\" In 2002 and 2005, the band played at Przystanek Woodstock, the biggest open air festival in Europe. In 2010, the band played several dates in Central Asia and became the first foreign rock band to perform in the former Soviet republic of Tajikistan since 1991. The band was criticised for accepting 68,000 € of German government funding towards this tour. On 2 October 2010, the band played in Amman, Jordan, their first concert in the Middle East. In 2012, Die Toten Hosen released their album \"Ballast der Republik\". A special edition includes a bonus CD with cover versions of songs that influenced the band. On 26 April 2016 it was announced that former drummer Wolfgang Rohde had died after suffering from cancer. In early 2018, Members of Die Toten Hosen recorded backing vocals on Australian band The Living End's eighth studio album Wunderbar, which was recorded in Germany.", "All band members are self-taught musicians. At the beginning of their musical career most of them were still at school. Their first album was recorded in a studio rented by the hour. The band kept to simple guitar chords and lyrics, in garage style. \"Die Toten Hosen\" were mainly influenced by punk bands from the 1970s, to whom they frequently pay tribute in recorded work and live performances. On occasion they have played songs by the Beatles and the Rolling Stones. Some of the band's songs have been described as \"Schunkelpunk\", a fusion of German schlager music and punk, exemplified by \"Eisgekühlter Bommerlunder\", numerous cover versions of German schlager songs and tracks like \"Azzurro\". They can be seen as pioneers of \"Volxmusic\", which combines elements of German folk music with jazz, hip-hop or rock. In some of their songs \"Die Toten Hosen\" experiment with strings or wind instruments. A few songs have elements that are lifted from jazz (e.g. \"Warum werde ich nicht satt\"), reggae (\"Zehn kleine Jägermeister\") or Yugoslavian gypsy music (\"Das Mädchen aus Rottweil\"). For the most part, The Toten Hosen have not departed substantially from their original style of music, choosing power chords, straightforward lyrics, simple melodies and anthem-like choruses over long instrumental solos. Other influences on the music of Die Toten Hosen include hardcore punk, punk blues, heavy metal, thrash metal, and hard rock. The focus of the band's music has gradually shifted from funny and nonsensical to serious. The songs from the band's first LP were mostly about having fun, but by the end of the 1980s they were focusing more on political and social issues such as racism.", "", "The band openly support political and social organizations in their music, interviews and by donations, but are not affiliated with any political party. They turned down a request from Germany's SPD (Social Democratic Party) to write a song for their European election campaign in 1994. In 1991, their track \"Fünf vor Zwölf\" (it is high time) was published on the sampler \"Nazis raus\" (Nazis get out) and in 2006 they supported the band ZSK's \"Kein Bock auf Nazis\" (can't stand Nazis) campaign. In 1992, the band participated in a demonstration against xenophobia in Bonn. They performed together with Herbert Grönemeyer, Nina Hagen and others for nearly 200,000 demonstrators. In 1995 they supported Greenpeace, IPPNW, \"Aktion Atomteststop\" (an initiative for a nuclear test ban), the BUND (German \"Friends of the Earth\" chapter) and they were featured on the track \"Tout Pour Sauver L’Amour\" (Everything to save love) on the \"Stop Chirac\" compilation album. In 2002, the band attracted publicity by posing undressed for posters of the animal rights group PETA under the slogan \"Lieber nackt als im Pelz\" (Better naked than in fur). in 2005 they funded 'On the Run', a compilation album to raise funds for immigrants' rights organisation Pro Asyl, and contributed the song \"Meine Stadt\" (my town). From 1999 to 2004 their web site had a public discussion forum but this was terminated without explanation.", "Over the course of the band's history, Die Toten Hosen have expressed their loyalty to their home town in various ways. In summer 1995, the band staged an ice hockey game called \"Powerplay des Wahnsinns\" (Power-play of insanity), playing in a team alongside professional players from Düsseldorfer EG against a team composed of Finnish rock band Leningrad Cowboys and Finnish national ice hockey players. The match took place in the stadium at the Brehmstrasse in Düsseldorf. Their team \"Knochenbrecher Düsseldorf\" (Düsseldorf Bonebreakers) lost 9:10. In 1996 they slipped into women's clothing, silk stockings and high heels and took part in the Düsseldorf Mardi Gras parade with their own float under the slogan \"We bury good taste\". Die Toten Hosen are supporters of the football club Fortuna Düsseldorf. At the end of the 1980s, they helped the club by donating 200,000 DM towards signing the player Anthony Baffoe. From 2001 to 2003, they sponsored the club after it had experienced major financial difficulties. In 2002, the band signed an advertising contract with the Diebels Brewery, and donated the proceeds to the club's \"Nachwuchs\" (youth side), who wear the band's skull emblem on their shirts. Die Toten Hosen have reserved space for 17 people at Düsseldorf's Südfriedhof cemetery, where they wish to be buried after death." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Design.", "Reverse (common) side.", "Obverse (national) sides.", "Planned designs." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "3" ], "content": [ "The coin dates from 2001, when euro coins and banknotes were introduced in the 12 member eurozone and its related territories. The common side was designed by Luc Luycx, a Belgian artist who won a Europe-wide competition to design the new coins. The design of the 10 to 50 cent coins were intended to show separate states of the European Union (EU), as opposed to the one and two euro coins showing the 15 states as one and the 1 to 5 cent coins showing the EU's place in the world. The national sides, then 15 (eurozone + Monaco, San Marino and the Vatican who could mint their own) were each designed according to national competitions, though to specifications which applied to all coins such as the requirement of including twelve stars (see euro coins for more). National designs were not allowed to change until the end of 2008, unless a monarch (whose portrait usually appears on the coins) dies or abdicates. This happened in Monaco and the Vatican City resulting in three new designs in circulation (the Vatican had an interim design until the new Pope was selected). National designs have seen some changes due to new rules stating that national designs should include the name of the issuing country (Finland and Belgium both do not show their name, and hence have made minor changes). As the EU's membership has since expanded in 2004 and 2007, with further expansions envisaged, the common face of all euro coins from the value of 10 cent and above were redesigned in 2007 to show a new map. This map showed Europe, not just the EU, as one continuous landmass, however Cyprus was moved west as the map cut off after the Bosporus (which was seen as excluding Turkey for political reasons). The redesign in 2007, rather than in 2004, was due to the fact that 2007 saw the first enlargement of the eurozone; the entry of Slovenia. Hence, the Slovenian design was added to the designs in circulation. Two more designs were added in 2008 with the entry of Cyprus and Malta and another one in 2009 with Slovakia. Two more were added in 2011 and 2014, for Estonia and Latvia, respectively, and Lithuania in 2015.", "The coins are composed of an alloy called Nordic gold, with a diameter of 24.25 mm, a 2.38 mm thickness and a mass of 7.80 grams. The coins' edges have regular indentations. The coins have been used from 2002, though some are dated 1999 which is the year the euro was created as a currency, but not put into general circulation.", "The reverse (used from 2007 onwards) was designed by Luc Luycx and displays a map of Europe on the left. The map does not include Iceland and cuts off on the right through Russia (exactly, at a line from the Kandalaksha Gulf to the Bosphorus (Cyprus is moved westward under Crete in order to include it and Malta is shown as disproportionally large so that it shows up). The map is flat and level with most of the coin and the sea is shown as an indentation. Six fine lines cut through the sea, breaking when passing through the map, and at their ends at the top and bottom are twelve stars (reflective of the flag of Europe). To the right, in raised lettering, is \"50 Euro Cent\" with the '50' being shown much larger than the words. The designers initials, LL, appear next to the 0 in 50. Luc Luycx designed the original coin, which was much the same except the design was only of the then 15 members and shown with gaps between the states and raised rather than with an indented sea.", "The obverse side of the coin depends on the issuing country. All have to include twelve stars (in most cases a circle around the edge), the engravers initials and the year of issue. New designs also have to include the name or initials of the issuing country. The side cannot repeat the denomination of the coin unless the issuing country uses an alphabet other than Latin (currently, Greece is the only such country, hence it engraves \"50 ΛΕΠΤΑ\" upon its coins). Despite using the Latin alphabet, Austria repeats the denomination on its coins.", "Austria, Germany and Greece will also at some point need to update their designs to comply with guidelines stating they must include the issuing state's name or initial, and not repeat the denomination of the coin. In addition, there are several EU states that have not yet adopted the euro, some of them have already agreed upon their coin designs however it is not yet known exactly when they will adopt the currency, and hence these are not yet minted. See enlargement of the Eurozone for expected entry dates of these countries." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Computation.", "By polar coordinates.", "Complete proof.", "By Cartesian coordinates.", "Relation to the gamma function.", "Generalizations.", "The integral of a Gaussian function.", "\"n\"-dimensional and functional generalization.", "\"n\"-dimensional with linear term.", "Integrals of similar form.", "Higher-order polynomials." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "3", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "A standard way to compute the Gaussian integral, the idea of which goes back to Poisson, is to make use of the property that: Consider the function formula_7on the plane formula_8, and compute its integral two ways: Comparing these two computations yields the integral, though one should take care about the improper integrals involved. where the factor of \"r\" is the Jacobian determinant which appears because of the transform to polar coordinates (\"r\" \"dr\" \"dθ\" is the standard measure on the plane, expressed in polar coordinates ), and the substitution involves taking \"s\" = −\"r\", so \"ds\" = −2\"r\" \"dr\". Combining these yields so", "To justify the improper double integrals and equating the two expressions, we begin with an approximating function: If the integral were absolutely convergent we would have that its Cauchy principal value, that is, the limit would coincide with To see that this is the case, consider that so we can compute by just taking the limit Taking the square of formula_21 yields Using Fubini's theorem, the above double integral can be seen as an area integral taken over a square with vertices {(−\"a\", \"a\"), (\"a\", \"a\"), (\"a\", −\"a\"), (−\"a\", −\"a\")} on the \"xy\"-plane. Since the exponential function is greater than 0 for all real numbers, it then follows that the integral taken over the square's incircle must be less than formula_24, and similarly the integral taken over the square's circumcircle must be greater than formula_24. The integrals over the two disks can easily be computed by switching from cartesian coordinates to polar coordinates: Integrating, By the squeeze theorem, this gives the Gaussian integral", "A different technique, which goes back to Laplace (1812), is the following. Let Since the limits on \"s\" as \"y\" → ±∞ depend on the sign of \"x\", it simplifies the calculation to use the fact that \"e\" is an even function, and, therefore, the integral over all real numbers is just twice the integral from zero to infinity. That is, Thus, over the range of integration, \"x\" ≥ 0, and the variables \"y\" and \"s\" have the same limits. This yields: Therefore, formula_35, as expected.", "The integrand is an even function, Thus, after the change of variable formula_37, this turns into the Euler integral where formula_39 is the gamma function. This shows why the factorial of a half-integer is a rational multiple of formula_40. More generally, which can be obtained by substituting formula_42 in the integrand of the gamma function to get formula_43.", "", "The integral of an arbitrary Gaussian function is An alternative form is This form is useful for calculating expectations of some continuous probability distributions related to the normal distribution, such as the log-normal distribution, for example.", "Suppose \"A\" is a symmetric positive-definite (hence invertible) precision matrix, which is the matrix inverse of the covariance matrix. Then, where the integral is understood to be over R. This fact is applied in the study of the multivariate normal distribution. Also, where σ is a permutation of {1,..., 2\"N\"} and the extra factor on the right-hand side is the sum over all combinatorial pairings of {1,..., 2\"N\"} of \"N\" copies of \"A\". Alternatively, for some analytic function \"f\", provided it satisfies some appropriate bounds on its growth and some other technical criteria. (It works for some functions and fails for others. Polynomials are fine.) The exponential over a differential operator is understood as a power series. While functional integrals have no rigorous definition (or even a nonrigorous computational one in most cases), we can \"define\" a Gaussian functional integral in analogy to the finite-dimensional case. There is still the problem, though, that formula_49 is infinite and also, the functional determinant would also be infinite in general. This can be taken care of if we only consider ratios: In the DeWitt notation, the equation looks identical to the finite-dimensional case.", "If A is again a symmetric positive-definite matrix, then (assuming all are column vectors)", "where formula_57 is a positive integer and formula_58 denotes the double factorial. An easy way to derive these is by differentiating under the integral sign. One could also integrate by parts and find a recurrence relation to solve this.", "Applying a linear change of basis shows that the integral of the exponential of a homogeneous polynomial in \"n\" variables may depend only on SL(\"n\")-invariants of the polynomial. One such invariant is the discriminant, zeros of which mark the singularities of the integral. However, the integral may also depend on other invariants. Exponentials of other even polynomials can numerically be solved using series. These may be interpreted as formal calculations when there is no convergence. For example, the solution to the integral of the exponential of a quartic polynomial is The \"n\" + \"p\" = 0 mod 2 requirement is because the integral from −∞ to 0 contributes a factor of (−1)/2 to each term, while the integral from 0 to +∞ contributes a factor of 1/2 to each term. These integrals turn up in subjects such as quantum field theory." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Early life.", "Budding mathematician.", "Political firebrand.", "Final days.", "Contributions to mathematics.", "Algebra.", "Galois theory.", "Analysis.", "Continued fractions." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Galois was born on 25 October 1811 to Nicolas-Gabriel Galois and Adélaïde-Marie (née Demante). His father was a Republican and was head of Bourg-la-Reine's liberal party. His father became mayor of the village after Louis XVIII returned to the throne in 1814. His mother, the daughter of a jurist, was a fluent reader of Latin and classical literature and was responsible for her son's education for his first twelve years. In October 1823, he entered the Lycée Louis-le-Grand, At the age of 14, he began to take a serious interest in mathematics. He found a copy of Adrien-Marie Legendre's \"Éléments de Géométrie\", which, it is said, he read \"like a novel\" and mastered at the first reading. At 15, he was reading the original papers of Joseph-Louis Lagrange, such as the \"Réflexions sur la résolution algébrique des équations\" which likely motivated his later work on equation theory, and \"Leçons sur le calcul des fonctions\", work intended for professional mathematicians, yet his classwork remained uninspired, and his teachers accused him of \"affecting\" ambition and originality in a negative way.", "In 1828, he attempted the entrance examination for the École Polytechnique, the most prestigious institution for mathematics in France at the time, without the usual preparation in mathematics, and failed for lack of explanations on the oral examination. In that same year, he entered the École Normale (then known as l'École préparatoire), a far inferior institution for mathematical studies at that time, where he found some professors sympathetic to him. In the following year Galois' first paper, on continued fractions, was published. It was at around the same time that he began making fundamental discoveries in the theory of polynomial equations. He submitted two papers on this topic to the Academy of Sciences. Augustin-Louis Cauchy refereed these papers, but refused to accept them for publication for reasons that still remain unclear. However, in spite of many claims to the contrary, it is widely held that Cauchy recognized the importance of Galois' work, and that he merely suggested combining the two papers into one in order to enter it in the competition for the Academy's Grand Prize in Mathematics. Cauchy, an eminent mathematician of the time, though with political views that were at the opposite end from Galois', considered Galois' work to be a likely winner. On 28 July 1829, Galois' father committed suicide after a bitter political dispute with the village priest. A couple of days later, Galois made his second and last attempt to enter the Polytechnique, and failed yet again. It is undisputed that Galois was more than qualified; however, accounts differ on why he failed. More plausible accounts state that Galois made too many logical leaps and baffled the incompetent examiner, which enraged Galois. The recent death of his father may have also influenced his behavior. Having been denied admission to the École polytechnique, Galois took the Baccalaureate examinations in order to enter the École normale. He passed, receiving his degree on 29 December 1829. His examiner in mathematics reported, \"This pupil is sometimes obscure in expressing his ideas, but he is intelligent and shows a remarkable spirit of research.\" He submitted his memoir on equation theory several times, but it was never published in his lifetime due to various events. Though his first attempt was refused by Cauchy, in February 1830 following Cauchy's suggestion he submitted it to the Academy's secretary Joseph Fourier, to be considered for the Grand Prix of the Academy. Unfortunately, Fourier died soon after, and the memoir was lost. The prize would be awarded that year to Niels Henrik Abel posthumously and also to Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi. Despite the lost memoir, Galois published three papers that year, one of which laid the foundations for Galois theory. The second one was about the numerical resolution of equations (root finding in modern terminology). The third was an important one in number theory, in which the concept of a finite field was first articulated.", "Galois lived during a time of political turmoil in France. Charles X had succeeded Louis XVIII in 1824, but in 1827 his party suffered a major electoral setback and by 1830 the opposition liberal party became the majority. Charles, faced with political opposition from the chambers, staged a coup d'état, and issued his notorious July Ordinances, touching off the July Revolution which ended with Louis Philippe becoming king. While their counterparts at the Polytechnique were making history in the streets during \"les Trois Glorieuses\", Galois and all the other students at the École Normale were locked in by the school's director. Galois was incensed and wrote a blistering letter criticizing the director, which he submitted to the \"Gazette des Écoles\", signing the letter with his full name. Although the \"Gazette\"s editor omitted the signature for publication, Galois was expelled. Although his expulsion would have formally taken effect on 4 January 1831, Galois quit school immediately and joined the staunchly Republican artillery unit of the National Guard. He divided his time between his mathematical work and his political affiliations. Due to controversy surrounding the unit, soon after Galois became a member, on 31 December 1830, the artillery of the National Guard was disbanded out of fear that they might destabilize the government. At around the same time, nineteen officers of Galois' former unit were arrested and charged with conspiracy to overthrow the government. In April 1831, the officers were acquitted of all charges, and on 9 May 1831, a banquet was held in their honor, with many illustrious people present, such as Alexandre Dumas. The proceedings grew riotous. At some point, Galois stood and proposed a toast in which he said, \"To Louis Philippe,\" with a dagger above his cup. The republicans at the banquet interpreted Galois' toast as a threat against the king's life and cheered. He was arrested the following day at his mother's house and held in detention at Sainte-Pélagie prison until 15 June 1831, when he had his trial. Galois' defense lawyer cleverly claimed that Galois actually said, \"To Louis-Philippe, \"if he betrays\",\" but that the qualifier was drowned out in the cheers. The prosecutor asked a few more questions which Galois answered well. Perhaps influenced by Galois' youth, the jury acquitted him that same day. On the following Bastille Day (14 July 1831), Galois was at the head of a protest, wearing the uniform of the disbanded artillery, and came heavily armed with several pistols, a loaded rifle, and a dagger. He was again arrested. During his stay in prison, Galois at one point drank alcohol for the first time at the goading of his fellow inmates. One of these inmates, François-Vincent Raspail, recorded what Galois said while drunk in a letter from July 25. Excerpted from the letter: The first line is a haunting prophecy of how Galois will in fact die; the second shows how Galois was profoundly affected by the loss of his father. Raspail continues that Galois, still in a delirium, attempted suicide, and that he would have succeeded if his fellow inmates hadn't forcibly stopped him. Months later, when Galois' trial occurred on 23 October, he was sentenced to six months in prison for illegally wearing a uniform. While in prison, he continued to develop his mathematical ideas. He was released on 29 April 1832.", "Galois returned to mathematics after his expulsion from the École Normale, although he continued to spend time in political activities. After his expulsion became official in January 1831, he attempted to start a private class in advanced algebra which attracted some interest, but this waned, as it seemed that his political activism had priority. Siméon Poisson asked him to submit his work on the theory of equations, which he did on 17 January 1831. Around 4 July 1831, Poisson declared Galois' work \"incomprehensible\", declaring that \"[Galois'] argument is neither sufficiently clear nor sufficiently developed to allow us to judge its rigor\"; however, the rejection report ends on an encouraging note: \"We would then suggest that the author should publish the whole of his work in order to form a definitive opinion.\" While Poisson's report was made before Galois' July 14 arrest, it took until October to reach Galois in prison. It is unsurprising, in the light of his character and situation at the time, that Galois reacted violently to the rejection letter, and decided to abandon publishing his papers through the Academy and instead publish them privately through his friend Auguste Chevalier. Apparently, however, Galois did not ignore Poisson's advice, as he began collecting all his mathematical manuscripts while still in prison, and continued polishing his ideas until his release on 29 April 1832, after which he was somehow talked into a duel. Galois' fatal duel took place on 30 May. The true motives behind the duel are obscure. There has been much speculation as to the reasons behind it. What is known is that five days before his death, he wrote a letter to Chevalier which clearly alludes to a broken love affair. Some archival investigation on the original letters suggests that the woman of romantic interest was Stéphanie-Félicie Poterin du Motel, the daughter of the physician at the hostel where Galois stayed during the last months of his life. Fragments of letters from her, copied by Galois himself (with many portions, such as her name, either obliterated or deliberately omitted), are available. The letters hint that du Motel had confided some of her troubles to Galois, and this might have prompted him to provoke the duel himself on her behalf. This conjecture is also supported by other letters Galois later wrote to his friends the night before he died. Galois' cousin, Gabriel Demante, when asked if he knew the cause of the duel, mentioned that Galois \"found himself in the presence of a supposed uncle and a supposed fiancé, each of whom provoked the duel.\" Galois himself exclaimed: \"I am the victim of an infamous coquette and her two dupes.\" Much more detailed speculation based on these scant historical details has been interpolated by many of Galois' biographers (most notably by Eric Temple Bell in \"Men of Mathematics\"), such as the frequently repeated speculation that the entire incident was stage-managed by the police and royalist factions to eliminate a political enemy. As to his opponent in the duel, Alexandre Dumas names Pescheux d'Herbinville, who was actually one of the nineteen artillery officers whose acquittal was celebrated at the banquet that occasioned Galois' first arrest. However, Dumas is alone in this assertion, and if he were correct it is unclear why d'Herbinville would have been involved. It has been speculated that he might have been du Motel's \"supposed fiancé\" at the time (she ultimately married someone else), but no clear evidence has been found supporting this conjecture. On the other hand, extant newspaper clippings from only a few days after the duel give a description of his opponent (identified by the initials \"L.D.\") that appear to more accurately apply to one of Galois' Republican friends, most probably Ernest Duchatelet, who was imprisoned with Galois on the same charges. Given the conflicting information available, the true identity of his killer may well be lost to history. Whatever the reasons behind the duel, Galois was so convinced of his impending death that he stayed up all night writing letters to his Republican friends and composing what would become his mathematical testament, the famous letter to Auguste Chevalier outlining his ideas, and three attached manuscripts. Mathematician Hermann Weyl said of this testament, \"This letter, if judged by the novelty and profundity of ideas it contains, is perhaps the most substantial piece of writing in the whole literature of mankind.\" However, the legend of Galois pouring his mathematical thoughts onto paper the night before he died seems to have been exaggerated. In these final papers, he outlined the rough edges of some work he had been doing in analysis and annotated a copy of the manuscript submitted to the Academy and other papers. Early in the morning of 30 May 1832, he was shot in the abdomen, abandoned by his opponents and seconds, and was found by a passing farmer. He died the following morning at ten o'clock in the Hôpital Cochin (probably of peritonitis), after refusing the offices of a priest. His funeral ended in riots. There were plans to initiate an uprising during his funeral, but during the same time frame the leaders heard of General Jean Maximilien Lamarque's death, and the rising was postponed without any uprising occurring until 5 June. Only Galois' younger brother was notified of the events prior to Galois' death. He was 20 years old. His last words to his younger brother Alfred were: On 2 June, Évariste Galois was buried in a common grave of the Montparnasse Cemetery whose exact location is unknown. In the cemetery of his native town – Bourg-la-Reine – a cenotaph in his honour was erected beside the graves of his relatives. In 1843 Joseph Liouville reviewed his manuscript and declared it sound. It was finally published in the October–November 1846 issue of the \"Journal de Mathématiques Pures et Appliquées\". The most famous contribution of this manuscript was a novel proof that there is no quintic formula – that is, that fifth and higher degree equations are not generally solvable by radicals. Although Niels Henrik Abel had already proved the impossibility of a \"quintic formula\" by radicals in 1824 and Paolo Ruffini had published a solution in 1799 that turned out to be flawed, Galois' methods led to deeper research in what is now called Galois theory. For example, one can use it to determine, for \"any\" polynomial equation, whether it has a solution by radicals.", "From the closing lines of a letter from Galois to his friend Auguste Chevalier, dated May 29, 1832, two days before Galois' death: Within the 60 or so pages of Galois' collected works are many important ideas that have had far-reaching consequences for nearly all branches of mathematics. His work has been compared to that of Niels Henrik Abel, another mathematician who died at a very young age, and much of their work had significant overlap.", "While many mathematicians before Galois gave consideration to what are now known as groups, it was Galois who was the first to use the word \"group\" (in French \"groupe\") in a sense close to the technical sense that is understood today, making him among the founders of the branch of algebra known as group theory. He developed the concept that is today known as a normal subgroup. He called the decomposition of a group into its left and right cosets a \"proper decomposition\" if the left and right cosets coincide, which is what today is known as a normal subgroup. He also introduced the concept of a finite field (also known as a Galois field in his honor), in essentially the same form as it is understood today. In his last letter to Chevalier and attached manuscripts, the second of three, he made basic studies of linear groups over finite fields:", "Galois' most significant contribution to mathematics is his development of Galois theory. He realized that the algebraic solution to a polynomial equation is related to the structure of a group of permutations associated with the roots of the polynomial, the Galois group of the polynomial. He found that an equation could be solved in radicals if one can find a series of subgroups of its Galois group, each one normal in its successor with abelian quotient, or its Galois group is solvable. This proved to be a fertile approach, which later mathematicians adapted to many other fields of mathematics besides the theory of equations to which Galois originally applied it.", "Galois also made some contributions to the theory of Abelian integrals and continued fractions. As written in his last letter, Galois passed from the study of elliptic functions to consideration of the integrals of the most general algebraic differentials, today called Abelian integrals. He classified these integrals into three categories.", "In his first paper in 1828, Galois proved that the regular continued fraction which represents a quadratic surd \"ζ\" is purely periodic if and only if \"ζ\" is a reduced surd, that is, formula_1 and its conjugate formula_2 satisfies formula_3. In fact, Galois showed more than this. He also proved that if \"ζ\" is a reduced quadratic surd and \"η\" is its conjugate, then the continued fractions for \"ζ\" and for (−1/\"η\") are both purely periodic, and the repeating block in one of those continued fractions is the mirror image of the repeating block in the other. In symbols we have where \"ζ\" is any reduced quadratic surd, and \"η\" is its conjugate. From these two theorems of Galois a result already known to Lagrange can be deduced. If \"r\" > 1 is a rational number that is not a perfect square, then In particular, if \"n\" is any non-square positive integer, the regular continued fraction expansion of √\"n\" contains a repeating block of length \"m\", in which the first \"m\" − 1 partial denominators form a palindromic string." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Research in set theory.", "Zermelo's navigation problem.", "Publications." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Ernst Zermelo graduated from Berlin's Luisenstädtisches Gymnasium (now ) in 1889. He then studied mathematics, physics and philosophy at the universities of Berlin, Halle and Freiburg. He finished his doctorate in 1894 at the University of Berlin, awarded for a dissertation on the calculus of variations (\"Untersuchungen zur Variationsrechnung\"). Zermelo remained at the University of Berlin, where he was appointed assistant to Planck, under whose guidance he began to study hydrodynamics. In 1897, Zermelo went to Göttingen, at that time the leading centre for mathematical research in the world, where he completed his habilitation thesis in 1899. In 1910, Zermelo left Göttingen upon being appointed to the chair of mathematics at Zurich University, which he resigned in 1916. He was appointed to an honorary chair at the University of Freiburg in 1926, which he resigned in 1935 because he disapproved of Adolf Hitler's regime. At the end of World War II and at his request, Zermelo was reinstated to his honorary position in Freiburg.", "In 1900, in the Paris conference of the International Congress of Mathematicians, David Hilbert challenged the mathematical community with his famous Hilbert's problems, a list of 23 unsolved fundamental questions which mathematicians should attack during the coming century. The first of these, a problem of set theory, was the continuum hypothesis introduced by Cantor in 1878, and in the course of its statement Hilbert mentioned also the need to prove the well-ordering theorem. Zermelo began to work on the problems of set theory under Hilbert's influence and in 1902 published his first work concerning the addition of transfinite cardinals. By that time he had also discovered the so-called Russell paradox. In 1904, he succeeded in taking the first step suggested by Hilbert towards the continuum hypothesis when he proved the well-ordering theorem (\"every set can be well ordered\"). This result brought fame to Zermelo, who was appointed Professor in Göttingen, in 1905. His proof of the well-ordering theorem, based on the powerset axiom and the axiom of choice, was not accepted by all mathematicians, mostly because the axiom of choice was a paradigm of non-constructive mathematics. In 1908, Zermelo succeeded in producing an improved proof making use of Dedekind's notion of the \"chain\" of a set, which became more widely accepted; this was mainly because that same year he also offered an axiomatization of set theory. Zermelo began to axiomatize set theory in 1905; in 1908, he published his results despite his failure to prove the consistency of his axiomatic system. See the article on Zermelo set theory for an outline of this paper, together with the original axioms, with the original numbering. In 1922, Abraham Fraenkel and Thoralf Skolem independently improved Zermelo's axiom system. The resulting 8 axiom system, now called Zermelo-Fraenkel axioms (ZF), is now the most commonly used system for axiomatic set theory.", "Proposed in 1931, the Zermelo's navigation problem is a classic optimal control problem. The problem deals with a boat navigating on a body of water, originating from a point O to a destination point D. The boat is capable of a certain maximum speed, and we want to derive the best possible control to reach D in the least possible time. Without considering external forces such as current and wind, the optimal control is for the boat to always head towards D. Its path then is a line segment from O to D, which is trivially optimal. With consideration of current and wind, if the combined force applied to the boat is non-zero the control for no current and wind does not yield the optimal path.", "Works by others:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and education.", "Political career.", "Secretary-General of the United Nations (1992–1996).", "1991 selection.", "First term.", "Second term vetoed.", "Later life.", "Death.", "Published works." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Boutros Boutros-Ghali was born in Cairo, Egypt, on 14 November 1922 into a Coptic Christian family. His father Yusuf Butros Ghali was the son of Boutros Ghali Bey then Pasha (also his namesake), who was Prime Minister of Egypt from 1908 until he was assassinated in 1910. His mother Safela Mikhail Sharubim was daughter of Mikhail Sharubim (1861–1920), a prominent public servant and historian. Boutros-Ghali graduated from Cairo University in 1946. He received a PhD in international law from the University of Paris and diploma in international relations from the Sciences Po in 1949. During 1949–1979, he was appointed Professor of International Law and International Relations at Cairo University. He became President of the Centre of Political and Strategic Studies in 1975 and President of the African Society of Political Studies in 1980. He was a Fulbright Research Scholar at Columbia University from 1954 to 1955, Director of the Centre of Research at The Hague Academy of International Law from 1963 to 1964, and Visiting Professor at the Faculty of Law at Paris University from 1967 to 1968. In 1986 he received an honorary doctorate from the Faculty of Law at Uppsala University, Sweden. He was also the Honorary Rector of the Graduate Institute of Peace Studies, a branch of Kyunghee University Seoul.", "Boutros Boutros-Ghali's political career developed during the presidency of Anwar El Sadat. He was a member of the Central Committee of the Arab Socialist Union from 1974 to 1977. He served as Egypt's Minister of State for Foreign Affairs from 1977 until early 1991. He then became Deputy Minister for Foreign Affairs for several months before moving to the UN. As Minister of State for Foreign Affairs, he played a part in the peace agreements between President Sadat and Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin. According to investigative journalist Linda Melvern, Boutros-Ghali approved a secret $26 million arms sale to the government of Rwanda in 1990 when he was Foreign Minister, the weapons stockpiled by the Hutu regime as part of the fairly public, long-term preparations for the subsequent genocide. He was serving as UN Secretary-General when the killings occurred four years later.", "", "Boutros-Ghali ran for Secretary-General of the United Nations in the 1991 selection. The top post in the UN was opening up as Javier Pérez de Cuéllar of Peru reached the end of his second term, and Africa was next in the rotation. Boutros-Ghali tied Bernard Chidzero of Zimbabwe in the first two rounds of polling, edged ahead by one vote in round 3, and fell behind by one vote in round 4. After several countries withdrew their support for Chidzero, fed by fears that the United States was trying to eliminate both of the leading candidates, Boutros-Ghali won a clear victory in round 5.", "Boutros-Ghali's term in office remains controversial. In 1992, he submitted \"An Agenda for Peace\", a suggestion for how the UN could respond to violent conflict. He set three goals: for the UN to be more active in promoting democracy, for the UN to conduct preventative diplomacy to avert crises, and to expand the UN's role as peacekeeper. Although the goals were consistent with those of American President George H. W. Bush, he nevertheless clashed repeatedly with the United States, especially with his efforts to involve the UN more deeply in the civil wars in Somalia 1992 and in Rwanda in 1994. The United States refused to send troops under UN leadership. Boutros-Ghali was criticised for the UN's failure to act during the 1994 Rwandan genocide, which officially left over one million people dead, and he appeared unable to muster support in the UN for intervention in the continuing Angolan Civil War. One of the hardest tasks during his term was dealing with the crisis of the Yugoslav Wars after the disintegration of the former Yugoslavia. The UN peacekeeping force was ineffective in Bosnia, forcing the intervention by NATO in December 1995. His reputation became entangled in the larger controversies over the effectiveness of the UN and the role of the United States in the UN. Some Somalis believed he was responsible for an escalation of the Somalia crisis by undertaking a personal vendetta against Mohamed Farrah Aidid and his Habr Gidr clan, favouring their rivals, the Darod the clan of the former dictator Mohamed Siad Barre. It was believed that he demanded the 12 July 1993 US helicopter attack on a meeting of Habr Gidr clan leaders, who were meeting to discuss a peace initiative put forward by the leader of the UN Mission in Mogadishu, retired U.S. Admiral Jonathan Howe. It is generally believed that the majority of the clan elders were eager to arrange a peace and to rein in the provocative activities of their clan leader, Mohamed Farrah Aidid, but, after this attack on a peaceful meeting, the clan was resolved on fighting the Americans and the UN, leading to the Battle of Mogadishu on 3–4 October 1993.", "Boutros-Ghali ran unopposed for the customary second term in 1996, despite efforts by the United States to unseat him. U.S. ambassador Madeleine Albright asked Boutros-Ghali to resign and offered to establish a foundation for him to run, an offer that other Western diplomats called \"ludicrous.\" American diplomatic pressure also had no effect, as other members of the Security Council remained unwavering in their support for Boutros-Ghali. He won 14 of the 15 votes in the Security Council, but the sole negative vote was a U.S. veto. After four deadlocked meetings of the Security Council, France offered a compromise in which Boutros-Ghali would be appointed to a short term of two years, but the United States rejected the French offer. Finally, Boutros-Ghali suspended his candidacy, becoming the only Secretary-General ever to be denied a second term by a veto.", "Boutros Boutros-Ghali's wife, Leia Maria Boutros-Ghali, born Leia Nadler, was raised in an Egyptian Jewish family in Alexandria and converted to Catholicism as a young woman. From 1997 to 2002, Boutros-Ghali was Secretary-General of La Francophonie, an organisation of French-speaking nations. From 2003 to 2006, he served as the chairman of the board of the South Centre, an intergovernmental research organisation of developing countries. Boutros-Ghali played a \"significant role\" in creating Egypt's National Council for Human Rights, and served as its president until 2012. Boutros-Ghali supported the Campaign for the Establishment of a United Nations Parliamentary Assembly and was one of the initial signatories of the Campaign's appeal in 2007. In a message to the Campaign, he stressed the necessity to establish democratic participation of citizens at the global level. From 2009–2015 he also participated as jury member for the Conflict Prevention Prize, awarded every year by the Fondation Chirac.", "Boutros-Ghali died aged 93 in a hospital in Cairo, after having been admitted for a broken pelvis or leg, on 16 February 2016. A military funeral was held for him with prayers led by Coptic Pope Tawadros II. He is buried at Petrine Church in Abbassia, Cairo.", "As Secretary-General, Boutros-Ghali wrote \"An Agenda for Peace\". He has also published other memoirs:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Influences.", "\"On Nature\".", "Proem.", "The Way of Truth.", "Perception vs. Logos.", "The Way of Opinion.", "Interpretations.", "Issues of translation.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Parmenides was born in the Greek colony of Elea (now Ascea), which, according to Herodotus, had been founded shortly before 535 BC. He was descended from a wealthy and illustrious family. It was said that he had written the laws of the city. His dates are uncertain; according to doxographer Diogenes Laërtius, he flourished just before 500 BC, which would put his year of birth near 540 BC, but in the dialogue \"Parmenides\" Plato has him visiting Athens at the age of 65, when Socrates was a young man, c. 450 BC, which, if true, suggests a year of birth of c. 515 BC. Parmenides was the founder of the School of Elea, which also included Zeno of Elea and Melissus of Samos. His most important pupil was Zeno, who according to Plato was 25 years his junior, and was regarded as his \"eromenos\".", "He was said to have been a pupil of Xenophanes, and regardless of whether they actually knew each other, Xenophanes' philosophy is the most obvious influence on Parmenides. Eusebius quoting Aristocles of Messene says that Parmenides was part of a line of philosophy that culminated in Pyrrhonism. This line begins with Xenophenes and goes through Parmenides, Melissus of Samos, Zeno of Elea, Leucippus, Democritus, Protagoras, Nessas of Chios, Metrodorus of Chios, Diogenes of Smyrna, Anaxarchus, and finally Pyrrho. Though there are no obvious Pythagorean elements in his thought, Diogenes Laërtius describes Parmenides as a disciple of \"Ameinias, son of Diochaites, the Pythagorean\". According to Sir William Smith, in \"Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology\" (1870): \"Others content themselves with reckoning Parmenides as well as Zeno as belonging to the Pythagorean school, or with speaking of a \"Parmenidean life\", in the same way as a \"Pythagorean life\" is spoken of.\" The first purported hero cult of a philosopher we know of was Parmenides' dedication of a heroon to his Ameinias in Elea.", "Parmenides is one of the most significant of the pre-Socratic philosophers. His single known work, a poem conventionally titled \"On Nature\", has survived only in fragments. Approximately 160 verses remain today from an original total that was probably near 800. The poem was originally divided into three parts: The proem is a narrative sequence in which the narrator travels \"beyond the beaten paths of mortal men\" to receive a revelation from an unnamed goddess (generally thought to be Persephone or Dikē) on the nature of reality. \"Aletheia\", an estimated 90% of which has survived, and \"doxa\", most of which no longer exists, are then presented as the spoken revelation of the goddess without any accompanying narrative. Parmenides attempted to distinguish between the unity of nature and its variety, insisting in the \"Way of Truth\" upon the reality of its unity, which is therefore the object of knowledge, and upon the unreality of its variety, which is therefore the object, not of knowledge, but of opinion. In the \"Way of Opinion\" he propounded a theory of the world of seeming and its development, pointing out, however, that, in accordance with the principles already laid down, these cosmological speculations do not pretend to anything more than mere appearance.", "In the proem, Parmenides describes the journey of the poet, escorted by maidens (\"the daughters of the Sun made haste to escort me, having left the halls of Night for the light\"), from the ordinary daytime world to a strange destination, outside our human paths. Carried in a whirling chariot, and attended by the daughters of Helios the Sun, the man reaches a temple sacred to an unnamed goddess (variously identified by the commentators as Nature, Wisdom, Necessity or Themis), by whom the rest of the poem is spoken. The goddess resides in a well-known mythological space: where Night and Day have their meeting place. Its essential character is that here all opposites are undivided, or one. He must learn all things, she tells him – both truth, which is certain, and human opinions, which are uncertain – for though one cannot rely on human opinions, they represent an aspect of the whole truth.Welcome, youth, who come attended by immortal charioteers and mares which bear you on your journey to our dwelling. For it is no evil fate that has set you to travel on this road, far from the beaten paths of men, but right and justice. It is meet that you learn all things — both the unshakable heart of well-rounded truth and the opinions of mortals in which there is not true belief. (B 1.24–30)", "The section known as \"the way of truth\" discusses that which is real and contrasts with the argument in the section called \"the way of opinion,\" which discusses that which is illusory. Under the \"way of truth,\" Parmenides stated that there are two ways of inquiry: that it \"is\", on the one side, and that it \"is not\" on the other side. He said that the latter argument is never feasible because there is no thing that can \"not be\": \"For never shall this prevail, that things that are not are.\" Thinking and the thought that it is are the same; for you will not find thinking apart from what is, in relation to which it is uttered. (B 8.34–36)For to be aware and to be are the same. (B 3)It is necessary to speak and to think what is; for being is, but nothing is not. (B 6.1–2)Helplessness guides the wandering thought in their breasts; they are carried along deaf and blind alike, dazed, beasts without judgment, convinced that to be and not to be are the same and not the same, and that the road of all things is a backward-turning one. (B 6.5–9)Only one thing exists, which is timeless, uniform, and unchanging:How could what is perish? How could it have come to be? For if it came into being, it is not; nor is it if ever it is going to be. Thus coming into being is extinguished, and destruction unknown. (B 8.20–22)Nor was [it] once, nor will [it] be, since [it] is, now, all together, / One, continuous; for what coming-to-be of it will you seek? / In what way, whence, did [it] grow? Neither from what-is-not shall I allow / You to say or think; for it is not to be said or thought / That [it] is not. And what need could have impelled it to grow / Later or sooner, if it began from nothing? Thus [it] must either be completely or not at all. (B 8.5–11)[What exists] is now, all at once, one and continuous... Nor is it divisible, since it is all alike; nor is there any more or less of it in one place which might prevent it from holding together, but all is full of what is. (B 8.5–6, 8.22–24)And it is all one to me / Where I am to begin; for I shall return there again. (B 5)", "Parmenides claimed that there is no truth in the opinions of the mortals. Genesis-and-destruction, as Parmenides emphasizes, is a false opinion, because to be means to be completely, once and for all. What exists can in no way not exist. For this view, that That Which Is Not exists, can never predominate. You must debar your thought from this way of search, nor let ordinary experience in its variety force you along this way, (namely, that of allowing) the eye, sightless as it is, and the ear, full of sound, and the tongue, to rule; but (you must) judge by means of the Reason (Logos) the much-contested proof which is expounded by me. (B 7.1–8.2)", "After the exposition of the \"arche\" (ἀρχή), i.e. the origin, the necessary part of reality that is understood through reason or logos (\"that [it] Is\"), in the next section, \"the Way of Appearance/Opinion/Seeming\", Parmenides gives a cosmology. He proceeds to explain the structure of the becoming cosmos (which is an illusion, of course) that comes from this origin. The structure of the cosmos is a fundamental binary principle that governs the manifestations of all the particulars: \"the aether fire of flame\" (B 8.56), which is gentle, mild, soft, thin and clear, and self-identical, and the other is \"ignorant night\", body thick and heavy.The mortals lay down and decided well to name two forms (i.e. the flaming light and obscure darkness of night), out of which it is necessary not to make one, and in this they are led astray. (B 8.53–4)The structure of the cosmos then generated is recollected by Aetius (II, 7, 1): For Parmenides says that there are circular bands wound round one upon the other, one made of the rare, the other of the dense; and others between these mixed of light and darkness. What surrounds them all is solid like a wall. Beneath it is a fiery band, and what is in the very middle of them all is solid, around which again is a fiery band. The most central of the mixed bands is for them all the origin and cause of motion and becoming, which he also calls steering goddess and keyholder and Justice and Necessity. The air has been separated off from the earth, vapourized by its more violent condensation, and the sun and the circle of the Milky Way are exhalations of fire. The moon is a mixture of both earth and fire. The \"aether\" lies around above all else, and beneath it is ranged that fiery part which we call heaven, beneath which are the regions around the earth.Cosmology originally comprised the greater part of his poem, him explaining the world's origins and operations. Some idea of the sphericity of the Earth seems to have been known to Parmenides. Parmenides also outlined the phases of the moon, highlighted in a rhymed translation by Karl Popper: Smith stated:Of the cosmogony of Parmenides, which was carried out very much in detail, we possess only a few fragments and notices, which are difficult to understand, according to which, with an approach to the doctrines of the \"Pythagoreans\", he conceived the spherical mundane system, surrounded by a circle of the pure light (Olympus, Uranus); in the centre of this mundane system the solid earth, and between the two the circle of the milkyway, of the morning or evening star, of the sun, the planets, and the moon; which circle he regarded as a mixture of the two primordial elements. The fragments read:", "The traditional interpretation of Parmenides' work is that he argued that the every-day perception of reality of the physical world (as described in \"doxa\") is mistaken, and that the reality of the world is 'One Being' (as described in \"aletheia\"): an unchanging, ungenerated, indestructible whole. Under the \"Way of Opinion\", Parmenides set out a contrasting but more conventional view of the world, thereby becoming an early exponent of the duality of appearance and reality. For him and his pupils, the phenomena of movement and change are simply appearances of a changeless, eternal reality. Parmenides was not struggling to formulate the laws of conservation of mass and conservation of energy; he was struggling with the metaphysics of change, which is still a relevant philosophical topic today. Moreover, he argued that movement was impossible because it requires moving into \"the void\", and Parmenides identified \"the void\" with nothing, and therefore (by definition) it does not exist. That which does exist is \"The Parmenidean One.\" Since existence is an immediately intuited fact, non-existence is the wrong path because a thing cannot disappear, just as something cannot originate from nothing. In such mystical experience (\"unio mystica\"), however, the distinction between subject and object disappears along with the distinctions between objects, in addition to the fact that if nothing cannot be, it cannot be the object of thought either: William Smith also wrote in \"Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology\":On the former reason is our guide; on the latter the eye that does not catch the object and re-echoing hearing. On the former path we convince ourselves that the existent neither has come into being, nor is perishable, and is entirely of one sort, without change and limit, neither past nor future, entirely included in the present. For it is as impossible that it can become and grow out of the existent, as that it could do so out of the non-existent; since the latter, non-existence, is absolutely inconceivable, and the former cannot precede itself; and every coming into existence presupposes a non-existence. By similar arguments divisibility, motion or change, as also infinity, are shut out from the absolutely existent, and the latter is represented as shut up in itself, so that it may be compared to a well-rounded ball; while thought is appropriated to it as its only positive definition. Thought and that which is thought of (Object) coinciding; the corresponding passages of Plato, Aristotle, Theophrastus, and others, which authenticate this view of his theory. The religious/mystical context of the poem has caused recent generations of scholars such as Alexander P. Mourelatos, Charles H. Kahn, and Peter Kingsley to call parts of the traditional, rational logical/philosophical interpretation of Parmenides into question (Kingsley in particular stating that Parmenides practiced iatromancy). The philosophy was, he says, given to him by a goddess. It has been claimed that previous scholars placed too little emphasis on the apocalyptic context in which Parmenides frames his revelation. As a result, traditional interpretations have put Parmenidean philosophy into a more modern, metaphysical context to which it is not necessarily well suited, which has led to misunderstanding of the true meaning and intention of Parmenides' message. The obscurity and fragmentary state of the text, however, renders almost every claim that can be made about Parmenides extremely contentious, and the traditional interpretation has by no means been abandoned. The \"mythological\" details in Parmenides' poem do not bear any close correspondence to anything known from traditional Greek mythology:", "One issue is the grammar. In the original Greek the two ways are simply named \"that Is\" (ὅπως ἐστίν) and \"that Not-Is\" (ὡς οὐκ ἐστίν) (B 2.3 and 2.5) without the \"it\" inserted in our English translation. In ancient Greek, which, like many languages in the world, does not always require the presence of a subject for a verb, \"is\" functions as a grammatically complete sentence. Much debate has been focused on where and what the subject is. The simplest explanation as to why there is no subject here is that Parmenides wishes to express the simple, bare fact of existence in his mystical experience without the ordinary distinctions, just as the Latin \"pluit\" and the Greek \"huei\" (ὕει \"rains\") mean \"it rains\"; there is no subject for these impersonal verbs because they express the simple fact of raining without specifying what is doing the raining. This is, for instance, Hermann Fränkel's thesis. Many scholars still reject this explanation and have produced more complex metaphysical explanations. There is the possibility for various wrong translations of the fragments. For example, it is not at all clear that Parmenides refuted that which we call perception. The verb \"noein\", used frequently by Parmenides, could better be translated as 'to be aware of' than as 'to think'. Furthermore, it is hard to believe that 'being' is only within our heads, according to Parmenides.", "John Palmer notes \"Parmenides’ distinction among the principal modes of being and his derivation of the attributes that must belong to what must be, simply as such, qualify him to be seen as the founder of metaphysics or ontology as a domain of inquiry distinct from theology.\" Parmenides' considerable influence on the thinking of Plato is undeniable, and in this respect Parmenides has influenced the whole history of Western philosophy, and is often seen as its grandfather. Even Plato himself, in the \"Sophist\", refers to the work of \"our Father Parmenides\" as something to be taken very seriously and treated with respect. In the \"Parmenides\", the Eleatic philosopher, which may well be Parmenides himself, and Socrates argue about dialectic. In the \"Theaetetus\", Socrates says that Parmenides alone among the wise (Protagoras, Heraclitus, Empedocles, Epicharmus, and Homer) denied that everything is change and motion. \"Even the censorious Timon allows Parmenides to have been a high-minded man; while Plato speaks of him with veneration, and Aristotle and others give him an unqualified preference over the rest of the Eleatics.\" He is credited with a great deal of influence as the author of this \"Eleatic challenge\" or \"Parmenides problem\" that determined the course of subsequent philosophers' inquiries. For example, the ideas of Empedocles, Anaxagoras, Leucippus, and Democritus have been seen as in response to Parmenides' arguments and conclusions. According to Aristotle, Democritus and Leucippus, and many other physicists, proposed the atomic theory, which supposes that everything in the universe is either atoms or voids, specifically to contradict Parmenides' argument. Karl Popper wrote: So what was really new in Parmenides was his axiomatic-deductive method, which Leucippus and Democritus turned into a hypothetical-deductive method, and thus made part of scientific methodology. Alexius Meinong, much like Parmenides, believed that while anything which can be spoken of meaningfully may not \"exist\", it must still \"subsist\" and therefore have being. Bertrand Russell famously responded to this view when he proposed a solution to the problem of negative existentials in \"On Denoting\", as did W.V.O. Quine in his \"On What There Is\". A view analogous to Parmenides with respect to time can be seen in the B theory of time and the concept of Block time, which considers existence to consist of past, present, and future, and the flow of time to be illusory. In his critique of this idea, Popper called Einstein \"Parmenides\". Parmenides' influence on philosophy reaches up until present times. The Italian philosopher Emanuele Severino has founded his extended philosophical investigations on the words of Parmenides. His philosophy is sometimes called Neo Parmenideism, and can be understood as an attempt to build a bridge between the poem on truth and the poem on opinion. He also studies non-being, so called meontology. Erwin Schrödinger identified Parmenides' monad of the \"Way of Truth\" as being the conscious self in \"Nature and the Greeks\". The scientific implications of this view have been discussed by scientist Anthony Hyman." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "Origins.", "Derivation from Italic alphabets.", "Date and purpose of invention.", "Rune names.", "Inscription corpus.", "Scandinavian inscriptions.", "Continental inscriptions.", "Distribution.", "List of inscriptions.", "Unicode." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The Elder Futhark (named after the initial phoneme of the first six rune names: F, U, Þ, A, R and K) has 24 runes, often arranged in three groups of eight runes; each group is called an \"ætt\" (pl. \"ættir\"). In the following table, each rune is given with its common transliteration: þ corresponds to the Greek letter (theta). ï is also transliterated as æ and may have been either a diphthong or a vowel close to the or. z was Proto-Germanic, and evolved into Proto-Norse and is also transliterated as ʀ. The remaining transliterations correspond to the IPA symbol of their approximate value. The earliest known sequential listing of the alphabet dates to 400 and is found on the Kylver Stone in Gotland: Two instances of another early inscription were found on the two Vadstena and Mariedamm bracteates (6th century), showing the division in three ætts, with the positions of ï, p and o, d inverted compared to the Kylver stone: The Grumpan bracteate presents a listing from 500 which is identical to the one found on the previous bracteates but incomplete:", "", "The Elder Futhark runes are commonly believed to originate in the Old Italic scripts: either a North Italic variant (Etruscan or Raetic alphabets), or the Latin alphabet itself. Derivation from the Greek alphabet via Gothic contact to Byzantine Greek culture was a popular theory in the 19th century, but has been ruled out since the dating of the Vimose inscriptions to the 2nd century (while the Goths had been in contact with Greek culture only from the early 3rd century). Conversely, the Greek-derived 4th century Gothic alphabet does have two letters derived from runes, (from Jer j) and (from Uruz u). The angular shapes of the runes, presumably an adaptation to the incision in wood or metal, are not a Germanic innovation, but a property that is shared with other early alphabets, including the Old Italic ones (compare, for example, the Duenos inscription). The 1st century BC Negau helmet inscription features a Germanic name, \"Harigastiz\", in a North Etruscan alphabet, and may be a testimony of the earliest contact of Germanic speakers with alphabetic writing. Similarly, the Meldorf inscription of 50 may qualify as \"proto-runic\" use of the Latin alphabet by Germanic speakers. The Raetic \"alphabet of Bolzano\" in particular seems to fit the letter shapes well. The spearhead of Kovel, dated to 200 AD, sometimes advanced as evidence of a peculiar Gothic variant of the runic alphabet, bears an inscription \"tilarids\" that may in fact be in an Old Italic rather than a runic alphabet, running right to left with a \"T\" and a \"D\" closer to the Latin or Etruscan than to the Bolzano or runic alphabets. Perhaps an \"eclectic\" approach can yield the best results for the explanation of the origin of the runes: most shapes of the letters can be accounted for when deriving them from several distinct North Italic writing systems: the p rune has a parallel in the Camunic alphabet, while it has been argued that d derives from the shape of the letter \"san\" (= ś) in Lepontic where it seems to represent the sound /d/. The g, a, f, i, t, m and l runes show no variation, and are generally accepted as identical to the Old Italic or Latin letters \"X\", \"A\", \"F\", \"I\", \"T\", \"M\" and \"L\", respectively. There is also wide agreement that the u, r, k, h, s, b and o runes respectively correspond directly to \"V\", \"R\", \"C\", \"H\", \"S\", \"B\" and \"O\". The runes of uncertain derivation may either be original innovations, or adoptions of otherwise unneeded Latin letters. suggests that all 22 Latin letters of the classical Latin alphabet (1st Century, ignoring marginalized \"K\") were adopted (þ from \"D\", z from \"Y\", ŋ from \"Q\", w from \"P\", j from \"G\", ï from \"Z\"), with two runes (p and d) left over as original Germanic innovations, but there are conflicting scholarly opinions regarding the e (from \"E\"?), n (from \"N\"?), þ (\"D\"? or Raetic \"Θ\"?), w (\"Q\" or \"P\"?), ï and z (both from either \"Z\" or Latin \"Y\"?), ŋ (\"Q\"?) and d runes. Of the 24 runes in the classical futhark row attested from 400 (Kylver stone), ï, p and ŋ are unattested in the earliest inscriptions of ca. 175 to 400, while e in this early period mostly takes a Π-shape, its M-shape () gaining prevalence only from the 5th century. Similarly, the s rune may have either three () or four () strokes (and more rarely five or more), and only from the 5th century does the variant with three strokes become prevalent. Note that the \"mature\" runes of the 6th to 8th centuries tend to have only three directions of strokes, the vertical and two diagonal directions. Early inscriptions also show horizontal strokes: these appear in the case of e (mentioned above), but also in t, l, ŋ and h.", "The general agreement dates the creation of the first runic alphabet to roughly the 1st century. Early estimates include the 1st century BC, and late estimates push the date into the 2nd century. The question is one of estimating the \"findless\" period separating the script's creation from the Vimose finds of ca. 160. If either ï or z indeed derive from Latin \"Y\" or \"Z\", as suggested by Odenstedt, the first century BC is ruled out, because these letters were only introduced into the Latin alphabet during the reign of Augustus. Other scholars are content to assume a findless period of a few decades, pushing the date into the early 2nd century. Pedersen (and with him Odenstedt) suggests a period of development of about a century to account for their assumed derivation of the shapes of þ and j from Latin \"D\" and \"G\". The invention of the script has been ascribed to a single person or a group of people who had come into contact with Roman culture, maybe as mercenaries in the Roman army, or as merchants. The script was clearly designed for epigraphic purposes, but opinions differ in stressing either magical, practical or simply playful (graffiti) aspects. concludes that in its earliest stage, the runic script was an \"artificial, playful, not really needed imitation of the Roman script\", much like the Germanic bracteates were directly influenced by Roman currency, a view that is accepted by in the light of the very primitive nature of the earliest (2nd to 4th century) inscription corpus.", "Each rune most probably had a name, chosen to represent the sound of the rune itself. The Old English names of all 24 runes of the Elder Futhark, along with five names of runes unique to the Anglo-Saxon runes, are preserved in the Old English rune poem, compiled in the 8th or 9th century. These names are in good agreement with medieval Scandinavian records of the names of the 16 Younger Futhark runes, and to some extent also with those of the letters of the Gothic alphabet (recorded by Alcuin in the 9th century). Therefore, it is assumed that the names go back to the Elder Futhark period, at least to the 5th century. There is no positive evidence that the full row of 24 runes had been completed before the end of the 4th century, but it is likely that at least some runes had their name before that time. This concerns primarily the runes used magically, especially the Teiwaz and Ansuz runes which are taken to symbolize or invoke deities in sequences such as that on the Lindholm amulet (3rd or 4th century). Reconstructed names in Common Germanic can easily be given for most runes. Exceptions are the \"þ\" rune (which is given different names in Anglo-Saxon, Gothic and Scandinavian traditions) and the \"z\" rune (whose original name is unknown, and preserved only in corrupted form from Old English tradition). The 24 Elder Futhark runes are: The rune names stood for their rune because of the first phoneme in the name (the principle of acrophony), with the exception of \"Ingwaz\" and \"Algiz\": the Proto-Germanic \"z\" sound of the \"Algiz\" rune, never occurred in a word-initial position. The phoneme acquired an \"r\"-like quality in Proto-Norse, usually transliterated with ʀ, and finally merged with r in Icelandic, rendering the rune superfluous as a letter. Similarly, the \"ng\"-sound of the \"Ingwaz\" rune does not occur word-initially. The names come from the vocabulary of daily life and mythology, some trivial, some beneficent and some inauspicious:", "Old Futhark inscriptions were found on artifacts scattered between the Carpathians and Lappland, with the highest concentration in Denmark. They are usually short inscriptions on jewelry (bracteates, fibulae, belt buckles), utensils (combs, spinning whorls) or weapons (lance tips, seaxes) and were mostly found in graves or bogs.", "Words frequently appearing in inscriptions on bracteates with possibly magical significance are alu, laþu and laukaz. While their meaning is unclear, alu has been associated with \"ale, intoxicating drink\", in a context of ritual drinking, and laukaz with \"leek, garlic\", in a context of fertility and growth. An example of a longer early inscription is on a 4th-century axe-handle found in Nydam, Jutland: wagagastiz / alu:??hgusikijaz:aiþalataz (\"wagagastiz\" \"wave-guest\" could be a personal name, the rest has been read as alu:wihgu sikijaz:aiþalataz with a putative meaning \"wave/flame-guest, from a bog, alu, I, oath-sayer consecrate/fight\". The obscurity even of emended readings is typical for runic inscriptions that go beyond simple personal names). A term frequently found in early inscriptions is Erilaz, apparently describing a person with knowledge of runes. The oldest known runic inscription dates to 160 and is found on the Vimose Comb discovered in the bog of Vimose, Funen. The inscription reads harja, either a personal name or an epithet, viz. Proto-Germanic \"*harjaz\" (PIE \"\") \"warrior\", or simply the word for \"comb\" (\"*hārijaz\"). Another early inscription is found on the Thorsberg chape (200), probably containing the theonym Ullr. The typically Scandinavian runestones begin to show the transition to Younger Futhark from the 6th century, with transitional examples like the Björketorp or Stentoften stones. In the early 9th century, both the older and the younger futhark were known and used, which is shown on the Rök Runestone where the runemaster used both. The longest known inscription in the Elder Futhark, and one of the youngest, consists of some 200 characters and is found on the early 8th century Eggjum stone, and may even contain a stanza of Old Norse poetry. The Caistor-by-Norwich astragalus reading raïhan \"deer\" is notable as the oldest inscription of the British Isles, dating to 400, the very end of Roman Britain and just predating the modifications leading to the Anglo-Saxon futhorc.", "The oldest inscriptions (before 500) found on the Continent are divided into two groups, the area of the North Sea coast and Northern Germany (including parts of the Netherlands) associated with the Saxons and Frisians on one hand (part of the \"North Germanic \"Koine\"\"), and loosely scattered finds from along the Oder to south-eastern Poland, as far as the Carpathian Mountains (e.g. the ring of Pietroassa in Romania), associated with East Germanic tribes. The latter group disappears during the 5th century, the time of contact of the Goths with the Roman Empire and their conversion to Christianity. In this early period, there is no specifically West Germanic runic tradition. This changes from the early 6th century, and for about one century (520 to 620), an Alamannic \"runic province\" emerges, with examples on fibulae, weapon parts and belt buckles. As in the East Germanic case, use of runes subsides with Christianization, in the case of the Alamanni in the course of the 7th century.", "There are some 350 known Elder Futhark inscriptions with 81 known inscriptions from the South (Germany, Austria, Switzerland) and 267 from Scandinavia. The precise numbers are debatable because of some suspected forgeries, and some disputed inscriptions (identification as \"runes\" vs. accidental scratches, simple ornaments or Latin letters). 133 Scandinavian inscriptions are on bracteates (compared to 2 from the South), and 65 are on runestones (no Southern example is extant). Southern inscriptions are predominantly on fibulae (43, compared to 15 in Scandinavia). The Scandinavian runestones belong to the later period of the Elder Futhark, and initiate the boom of medieval Younger Futhark stones (with some 6,000 surviving examples). Elder Futhark inscriptions were rare, with very few active literati, in relation to the total population, at any time, so that knowledge of the runes was probably an actual \"secret\" throughout the Migration period. Of 366 lances excavated at Illerup, only 2 bore inscriptions. A similar ratio is estimated for Alemannia, with an estimated 170 excavated graves to every inscription found. Estimates of the total number of inscriptions produced are based on the \"minimal runological estimate\" of 40,000 (ten individuals making ten inscriptions per year for four centuries). The actual number was probably considerably higher. The 80 known Southern inscriptions are from some 100,000 known graves. With an estimated total of 50,000,000 graves (based on population density estimates), some 80,000 inscriptions would have been produced in total in the Merovingian South alone (and maybe close to 400,000 in total, so that of the order of 0.1% of the corpus has come down to us), and estimates a population of several hundred active literati throughout the period, with as many as 1,600 during the Alamannic \"runic boom\" of the 6th century.", "After,.", "The Elder Futhark is encoded in Unicode within the unified Runic range, 16A0–16FF. Among the freely available TrueType fonts that include this range are Junicode and FreeMono. The Kylver Stone row encoded in Unicode reads: Encoded separately is the \"continental\" double-barred \"h\"-rune,. A graphical variant of the \"ng\"-rune,, is also encoded separately. These two have separate codepoints because they become independent letters in the Anglo-Saxon futhorc. The numerous other graphical variants of Elder Futhark runes are considered glyph variants and not given Unicode codepoints. Similarly, bindrunes are considered ligatures and not given Unicode codepoints. The only bindrune that can arguably be rendered as a single Unicode glyph is the i͡ŋ bindrune or \"lantern rune\", as, the character intended as the Anglo-Saxon Gēr rune." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "By country.", "Germany.", "Singapore.", "Spain.", "United Kingdom.", "United States.", "Israel.", "Finland." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The notion of a reservist has been around, in many forms, for thousands of years. In ancient times, reservist forces such as the Anglo-Saxon Fyrd and the Viking Leidangr formed the main fighting strength of most armies. It was only at the end of the 17th century that professional standing armies became the norm. Historically reservists played a significant role in Europe after the Prussian defeat in the Battle of Jena-Auerstedt. On 9 July 1807 in the Treaty of Tilsit, Napoleon forced Prussia to drastically reduce its military strength, in addition to ceding large amounts of territory. The Prussian army could no longer be stronger than 42,000 men. The \"Krümpersystem\", introduced to the Prussian army by the military reformer Gerhard von Scharnhorst, arranged for giving recruits a short period of training, which in the event of war could be considerably expanded. With this the reduction of the army's strength did not have the desired effect, and in the following wars Prussia was able to draw up a large number of trained soldiers. By the time of the Second Reich reservists were already being given so-called \"war arrangements\" following the completion of their military service, which contained exact instructions relating to the conduct of reservists in time of war.", "", "Every conscript which has served at least a day in the Bundeswehr is a reservist, unless he is declared ineligible for military service or has made a claim of conscientious objection. Soldiers of enlisted ranks with a limited contract (either 4, 8 or 12 years) or professional soldiers, who have filled their tour of duty, are likewise part of the reserve. This is also the case for women, but on the basis of the \"Soldatengesetz\" (Eng: \"Soldier Bill\"), not the \"Wehrpflichtgesetz\" (\"Conscription Bill\"). Every soldier follows his rank with the initials \"d.R.\" (\"der Reserve\"—\"in the reserve\"). So it does not affect whether the soldier is called up, placed in an inactive formation, or not. Only professional soldiers use the appellation \"a.D.d.R\" (\"außer Dienst, der Reserve\"—\"out of service, in the reserve\") after the end of their service. All others (part-time soldiers and conscripts) strictly use \"d.R.\" until the end of their lives. Reservists are an integral part of the Bundeswehr. They are essential for the capability of the armed forces in time of war. Reservists can be active in the Bundeswehr in addition to their mandatory service. This mostly happens through (mostly voluntarily) military exercises or official events. Apart from that the Bundeswehr organises reservist unions as particularly representative supporting organisations of \"voluntarily reservist work\". Eligibility for compulsory military service for soldiers and other servicemen of low rank ends at the end of the 45th year of age. Thereafter the conscript is no longer part of the reserve. Despite that the appellations \"a.D.\" and/or \"d.R.\" may still be used. Conscription for non-commissioned officers (NCOs) and officers lasts until the 60th year of age. Until the 32nd year of age every conscript is subject to military inspection. Recognised conscientious objectors, who have completed their civil service, are nonetheless part of the reserve and in the event of war will be given a suitable non-combatant role outside the Bundeswehr, such as emergency medical services, clearing debris or minesweeping. All conscripts who have not done their service belong to the \"Ersatzreserve\" (replacement reserve).", "All male able-bodied Singapore citizens and second-generation permanent residents upon reaching the age of 18 are obliged by law to serve National Service compulsorily as a national duty to defend the Singapore city-state island. They must serve a mandatory two-year active period as Full-Time National Servicemen (NSFs), deployed to the Singapore Armed Forces (SAF), Singapore Police Force (SPF), or the Singapore Civil Defence Force (SCDF). When a Singapore conscript completes his active service, he attains the status of being an \"operationally ready\" citizen-soldier, and is thereafter known as an Operationally-Ready National Serviceman (NSman). NSmen are the equivalent of other militaries' reservists. The slight difference in nomenclature is as to these NSmen will form the main fighting personnel of the Singapore Armed Forces upon wartime or any national exigencies. In practice, Operationally-Ready NSmen of all the tri-service (SAF, SPF and SCDF) are all routinely called up annually for reservist duty until they complete their reservist cycle obligations or upon the legally statutory discharge age of 40 for Warrant Officers, Specialists and Enlistees ( WOSEs) and 50 for Officers.", "\"Reservistas Voluntarios\" (Volunteer Reservists) provide the Spanish Armed Forces (Army, Navy and Air Force) branches of qualified civilian professionals essentially required for each army. The training is divided in two phases. The first stage it's the Basic Training in military knowledge. The time for this phase are normally two weeks. The second stage, which typical time are one week, it's the Specific Training, in this phase the applicant for Reservist develop the specific tasks in his military unit. When the Applicant approve the two stages acquires the Reservist title and the rank of Soldier, Sergeant or Second Lieutenant (Alférez). The time of the Reservist commitment is three years, with extensions until 58 years of age for Officers and NCO and 55 years old for ordinary soldiers.", "All three branches of the British Armed Forces have volunteer reserves. Reservists hold civilian jobs and train on a stipulated number of weekends monthly. They are generally assigned to an administrative corps or specialist trade according to their occupations and location in the country.", "All five branches of the United States armed forces have their own Reserve Forces, whose reservists can be called upon to serve anywhere at any time: There is also the United States National Guard, which is under dual Federal/State control, and is traditionally intended for homeland defense and domestic disaster relief (although large numbers have been deployed in the War on Terror, and as such the distinction between National Guardsmen and Reservists has become blurred). The National Guard is divided into: During peacetime, Reservists and National Guardsmen spend a minimum of one weekend a month, two weeks a year annually in training. Reservists and National Guardsmen in front tier combat organizations, such as aviation units flying combat aircraft and combat support aircraft, will be funded for additional military drill duty or active duty for training in order to maintain skill levels. They may also perform additional duty in support of the active duty forces and/or in lieu of their active duty counterparts. Some states also maintain non-federal state defense forces as a small reserve for their National Guard units. These units cannot be deployed beyond the borders of their states and cannot be federalized.", "After personnel complete their regular service, the IDF may call up men for: In most cases, the reserve duty is carried out in the same unit for years, in many cases the same unit as the active service and by the same people. Many soldiers who have served together in active service continue to meet in reserve duty for years after their discharge, causing reserve duty to become a strong male bonding experience in Israeli society. Although still available for call-up in times of crisis, most Israeli men, and virtually all women, do not actually perform reserve service in any given year. Units do not always call up all of their reservists every year, and a variety of exemptions are available if called for regular reserve service. Virtually no exemptions exist for reservists called up in a time of crisis, but experience has shown that in such cases (most recently, the 2006 Lebanon War) exemptions are rarely requested or exercised; units generally achieve recruitment rates above those considered fully manned.", "The Finnish Defence Forces is based on a universal male conscription. All men above 18 years of age are liable to serve either 6, 9 or 12 months. Yearly about 27,000 conscripts are trained. 80% of the males complete the service. The conscripts first receive basic training, after which they are assigned to various units for special training. Privates who are trained for tasks not requiring special skills serve for 6 months. In technically demanding tasks the time of service is 9, or in some cases 12 months. Those selected for NCO (non-commissioned officer) or officer training serve 12 months. At the completion of the service, the conscripts receive a reserve military rank of private, lance corporal, corporal, sergeant or second lieutenant, depending on their training and accomplishments. After their military service, the conscripts are placed in reserve until the end of their 50th or 60th living year, depending on their military rank. During their time in reserve, the reservists are liable to participate in military refresher exercises for a total of 40, 75 or 100 days, depending on their military rank. In addition, all reservists are liable for activation in a situation where the military threat against Finland has seriously increased, in full or partial mobilization or in a large-scale disaster or a virulent epidemic. The males who do not belong to the reserve may only be activated in case of full mobilization, and those rank-and-file personnel who have fulfilled 50 years of age only with a specific parliamentary decision." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Letters.", "Rune inventory.", "Combinations and digraphs.", "Usage and culture.", "Inscription corpus." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "There are competing theories about the origins of the Anglo-Saxon futhorc. One theory proposes that it was developed in Frisia and from there later spread to Britain. Another holds that runes were first introduced to Britain from the mainland where they were then modified and exported to Frisia. Both theories have their inherent weaknesses, and a definitive answer may come from further archaeological evidence. The early futhorc was nearly identical to the Elder Futhark, except for the split of \"a\" into three variants \"āc\", \"æsc\" and \"ōs\", resulting in 26 runes. This was done to account for the new phoneme produced by the Ingvaeonic split of allophones of long and short \"a\". The earliest \"ōs\" rune is found on the 5th-century Undley bracteate. \"āc\" was introduced later, in the 6th century. The double-barred \"hægl\" characteristic of continental inscriptions is first attested as late as 698, on St Cuthbert's coffin; before that, the single-barred variant was used. In England the futhorc expanded. Runic writing in England became closely associated with the Latin scriptoria from the time of Anglo-Saxon Christianization in the 7th century. The futhorc started to be replaced by the Latin alphabet from around the 7th century, but it was still sometimes used up until the 10th or 11th century. In some cases, texts would be written in the Latin alphabet, and þorn and ƿynn came to be used as extensions of the Latin alphabet. By the Norman Conquest of 1066, it was very rare and disappeared altogether shortly thereafter. From at least five centuries of use, fewer than 200 artefacts bearing futhorc inscriptions have survived. Several famous English examples mix runes and Roman script, or Old English and Latin, on the same object, including the Franks Casket and St Cuthbert's coffin; in the latter, three of the names of the Four Evangelists are given in Latin written in runes, but \"LUKAS\" (Saint Luke) is in Roman script. The coffin is also an example of an object created at the heart of the Anglo-Saxon church that uses runes. A leading expert, Raymond Ian Page, rejects the assumption often made in non-scholarly literature that runes were especially associated in post-conversion Anglo-Saxon England with Anglo-Saxon paganism or magic.", "The letter sequence and letter inventory of futhorc, along with the actual sounds made by those letters could vary depending on location and time. That being so, an authentic and unified list of runes is not possible.", "The sequence of the runes above comes from the surviving modern copy of the Anglo-Saxon rune poem which was based on the now-destroyed Cotton Otho B.x.165 manuscript. The first 24 of these runes directly continue the elder futhark letters, and do not deviate in sequence (though ᛞᛟ rather than ᛟᛞ is an attested sequence in both elder futhark and futhorc). The next 5 runes represent additional vowels (\"a, æ, y, io, ea\"), comparable to the five forfeda of the ogham alphabet. While the rune poem and some manuscripts present ᛡ as \"ior\", and ᛄ as \"ger\", epigraphically both are variants of ger. R. I. Page designated ior a pseudo-rune. The runes above (in no particular order) were not included in the rune poem. Calc appears in manuscripts, and epigraphically on the Ruthwell Cross, the Bramham Moor Ring, the Kingmoor Ring, and elsewhere. Gar appears in manuscripts, and epigraphically on the Ruthwell Cross and probably on the Bewcastle Cross. The unnamed ᛤ rune only appears on the Ruthwell Cross, where it seems to take calc's place as /k/ where that consonant is followed by a secondary fronted vowel. Cweorð and stan only appear in manuscripts. The unnamed ę rune only appears on the Baconsthorpe Grip. The unnamed ᶖ rune only appears on the Sedgeford Handle. There is little doubt that calc and gar are modified forms of cen and gyfu, and that they were invented to address the ambiguity which arose from /k/ and /g/ spawning palatalized offshoots. R. I. Page designated cweorð and stan pseudo-runes, noting their apparent pointlessness, and speculating that cweorð was invented merely to give futhorc an equivalent to Q. The ę rune is likely a local innovation, possibly representing an unstressed vowel, and may derive its shape from ᛠ. The unnamed ᶖ rune is found in a personal name (bᶖrnferþ), where it stands for a vowel or diphthong. Anglo-Saxon expert Gaby Waxenberger speculates that ᶖ may not be a true rune, but rather a bindrune of ᛁ and ᚩ, or the result of a mistake.", "Sundry runic combinations are found in the futhorc corpus. For example, the sequence ᚫᚪ appears on the Mortain Casket where ᛠ could theoretically have been used.", "A rune in Old English could be called a \"rúnstæf\" (perhaps meaning something along the lines of \"mystery letter\" or \"whisper letter\"), or simply \"rúne\". Futhorc inscriptions hold diverse styles and contents. Ocher has been detected on at least one English runestone, implying its runes were once painted. Bind runes are not uncommon in futhorc (relative to its small corpus), and were seemingly used most often to ensure the runes would fit in a limited space. Futhorc logography is attested to in a few manuscripts. This was done by having a rune stand for its name, or a similar sounding word. In the sole extant manuscript of the poem \"Beowulf\", the ēðel rune was used as a logogram for the word ēðel (meaning \"homeland\", or \"estate\"). Both the Hackness Stone and Codex Vindobonensis 795 attest to futhorc Cipher runes. In one manuscript (Corpus Christi College, MS 041) a writer seems to have used futhorc runes like Roman numerals, writing ᛉᛁᛁ⁊ᛉᛉᛉᛋᚹᛁᚦᚩᚱ, which likely means \"12&30 more\". There is some evidence of futhorc rune magic. Sword pommels (such as the artefact indexed as IOW-FC69E6) have been found in England which seem to bear ᛏ runes which may be akin to magical runes spoken of in Norse myth. The possibly magical alu sequence seems to appear on an urn found at Spong Hill in \"spiegelrunes\" (runes whose shapes are mirrored). In a tale from Bede's Ecclesiastical History (written in Latin), a man named Imma cannot be bound by his captives and is asked if he is using \"litteras solutorias\" (loosening letters) to break his binds. In one Old English translation of the passage, Imma is asked if he is using \"drycraft\" (magic, druidcraft) or \"runestaves\" to break his binds. Furthermore, futhorc rings have been found with what appear to be enchanted inscriptions for the stanching of blood.", "The Old English and Old Frisian Runic Inscriptions database project at the Catholic University of Eichstätt-Ingolstadt, Germany aims at collecting the genuine corpus of Old English inscriptions containing more than two runes in its paper edition, while the electronic edition aims at including both genuine and doubtful inscriptions down to single-rune inscriptions. The corpus of the paper edition encompasses about one hundred objects (including stone slabs, stone crosses, bones, rings, brooches, weapons, urns, a writing tablet, tweezers, a sun-dial, comb, bracteates, caskets, a font, dishes, and graffiti). The database includes, in addition, 16 inscriptions containing a single rune, several runic coins, and 8 cases of dubious runic characters (runelike signs, possible Latin characters, weathered characters). Comprising fewer than 200 inscriptions, the corpus is slightly larger than that of Continental Elder Futhark (about 80 inscriptions, c. 400–700), but slightly smaller than that of the Scandinavian Elder Futhark (about 260 inscriptions, c. 200–800). Runic finds in England cluster along the east coast with a few finds scattered further inland in Southern England. Frisian finds cluster in West Frisia. Looijenga (1997) lists 23 English (including two 7th-century Christian inscriptions) and 21 Frisian inscriptions predating the 9th century. Currently known inscriptions in Anglo-Frisian runes include:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Structure.", "Contents.", "Composition.", "Themes.", "Later interpretation and influence.", "External links." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The superscriptions divide the collections as follows:", "\"Proverbs\" translates to the Hebrew word \"mashal\", but \"mashal\" has a wider range of meaning than the short catchy sayings implied by the English word. Thus, while roughly half the book is made up of \"sayings\" of this type, the other half is made up of longer poetic units of various types. These include \"instructions\" formulated as advice from a teacher or parent addressed to a student or child, dramatic personifications of both Wisdom and Folly, and the \"words of the wise\" sayings, longer than the Solomonic \"sayings\" but shorter and more diverse than the \"instructions\". The first section (chapters 1–9) consists of an initial invitation to young men to take up the course of wisdom, ten \"instructions\", and five poems on personified Woman Wisdom. Proverbs 10:1–22:16, with 375 sayings, consists of two parts, the first (10–4) contrasting the wise man and the fool (or the righteous and the wicked), the second (15–22:16) addressing wise and foolish speech. 22:17 opens ‘the words of the wise’, until 24, with short moral discourses on various subjects. Chapters 25–29, attributed to editorial activity of \"the men of Hezekiah,\" contrasts the just and the wicked and broaches the topic of rich and poor. Chapter 30:1–4, the \"sayings of Agur\", introduces creation, divine power, and human ignorance.", "It is impossible to offer precise dates for the sayings in Proverbs, a \"collection of collections\" relating to a pattern of life which lasted for more than a millennium. The phrase conventionally used for the title is taken from chapter 1:1, \"mishley shelomoh\", Proverbs of Solomon (the phrase is repeated at 10:1 and 25:1), is likely more concerned with labeling the material than ascribing authorship. The book is an anthology made up of six discrete units. The first, chapters 1–9, was probably the last to be composed, in the Persian or Hellenistic periods. This section has parallels to prior cuneiform writings. The second, chapters 10–22:16, carries the superscription \"the proverbs of Solomon\", which may have encouraged its inclusion in the Hebrew canon. The third unit is headed \"bend your ear and hear the words of the wise\": a large part of it is a recasting of a second-millennium BCE Egyptian work, the Instruction of Amenemope, and may have reached the Hebrew author(s) through an Aramaic translation. The third, 22:17–24:22, contains ‘the words of the wise’. Chapter 24:23 begins a new section and source with the declaration, \"these too are from the wise.\" The next section at chapter 25:1 has a superscription to the effect that the following proverbs were transcribed \"by the men of Hezekiah\", indicating at face value that they were collected in the reign of Hezekiah in the late 8th century BCE. Chapters 30 and 31 (the \"words of Agur,\" the \"words of Lemuel,\" and the description of the ideal woman) are a set of appendices, quite different in style and emphasis from the previous chapters. The \"wisdom\" genre was widespread throughout the ancient Near East, and reading Proverbs alongside the examples recovered from Egypt and Mesopotamia reveals the common ground shared by international wisdom. The wisdom literature of Israel may have been developed in the family, the royal court, and houses of learning and instruction; nevertheless, the overwhelming impression is of instruction within the family in small villages.", "Along with the other examples of the biblical wisdom tradition – Job and Ecclesiastes and some other writings – Proverbs raises questions of values, moral behavior, the meaning of human life, and righteous conduct. The three retain an ongoing relevance for both religious and secular readers, Job and Ecclesiastes through the boldness of their dissent from received tradition, Proverbs in its worldliness and satiric shrewdness. Wisdom is as close as biblical literature comes to Greek philosophy, of which it was a contemporary; it shares with the Greeks an inquiry into values and reflections on the human condition, although there is no discussion of ontology, epistemology, metaphysics, and the other abstract issues raised by the Greeks. Proverbs was almost excluded from the Bible because of its contradictions (the result of the book's origins as not just an anthology but an anthology of anthologies). The reader is told, for example, both to \"not answer a fool according to his folly\", according to 26:4, and to \"answer a fool according to his folly\", as 26:5 advises. More pervasively, the recurring theme of the initial unit (chapters 1–9) is that the fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom, but the following units are much less theological, presenting wisdom as a transmissible human craft, until with 30:1–14, the \"words of Agur,\" we return once more to the idea that God alone possesses wisdom. \"The fear of God is the beginning of wisdom\" (Proverbs 9:10 – the phrase implies submission to God's will). Wisdom is praised for her role in creation (\"God by wisdom founded the earth; by understanding he established the heavens\" – Proverbs 3:19). God acquired her before all else, and through her he gave order to chaos (\"When [God] established the heavens... when he drew a circle on then face of the Deeps... when he marked out the foundations of the earth, then I was beside him\" – Proverbs 8:27–31). Since humans have life and prosperity by conforming to the order of creation, seeking wisdom is the essence and goal of the religious life. Wisdom, or the wise person, is compared and contrasted with foolishness or the fool, meaning one who is lacking in wisdom and uninterested in instruction, not one who is merely silly or playful (though see the words of Agur for a \"fool\" who has wisdom, and could be seen as playful). For the most part Proverbs offers a simplistic view of life with few grey areas: life lived according to the rules brings reward, life in violation of them is certain to bring disaster. In contrast, Job and Ecclesiastes appear to be direct contradictions of the simplicities of Proverbs, each in its own way all but dismissing the assumptions of the \"wise\". Noteworthy also is the fact that the \"mighty acts of God\" (the Exodus, the giving of the Torah at Sinai, the Covenant between God and Israel, etc.) which make up Israel's history are completely or almost completely absent from Proverbs and the other Wisdom books: in contrast to the other books of the Hebrew bible, which appeal to divine revelation for their authority (\"Thus says the Lord!\"), wisdom appeals to human reason and observation.", "The pre-Exilic (i.e. pre-586 BCE) Old Testament allowed no equals to YHWH in heaven, despite the continued existence of an assembly of subordinate servant-deities. The post-Exilic writers of the Wisdom tradition developed the idea that Wisdom existed before creation and was used by God to create the universe: \"Present from the beginning, Wisdom assumes the role of master builder while God establishes the heavens, restricts the chaotic waters, and shapes the mountains and fields.\" Borrowing ideas from Greek philosophers who held that reason bound the universe together, the Wisdom tradition taught that God's Wisdom, Word and Spirit were the ground of cosmic unity. Christianity in turn adopted these ideas and applied them to Jesus: the Epistle to the Colossians calls Jesus \"...image of the invisible God, first-born of all creation...\", while the Gospel of John identifies him with the creative word (\"In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God\"). In the 4th century, when Christianity was caught up in heresies and still developing the creeds which would define its beliefs, was used both to support and refute the claims of the Arians. The Arians, assuming that Christ could be equated with the \"Wisdom of God\" (), argued that the Son, like Wisdom, was \"created\" (Proverbs 8:22), and therefore subordinate to the Creator; their opponents, who argued that the relevant Hebrew word should be translated as \"begot\", won the debate, and the Nicene Creed declared that the Son was \"begotten, not made\", meaning that God and Christ were consubstantial.", "Online translations of \"Book of Proverbs\":" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Length.", "Usage in Mars lander timekeeping.", "Terminology.", "Conversion." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The average duration of the day-night cycle on Mars — i.e., a Martian day — is 24 hours, 39 minutes and 35.244 seconds, equivalent to 1.02749125 Earth days. The sidereal rotational period of Mars—its rotation compared to the fixed stars—is only 24 hours, 37 minutes and 22.66 seconds. The solar day lasts slightly longer because of its orbit around the sun which requires it to turn slightly further on its axis.", "When a spacecraft lander begins operations on Mars, the passing Martian days (sols) have been tracked using a simple numerical count. The two Viking lander missions, Mars Phoenix, Mars Science Laboratory rover \"Curiosity\", and InSight counted the sol on which each lander touched down as \"Sol 0\". It is expected that the Perseverance rover mission will also count the sol of touchdown as \"Sol 0\". Mars Pathfinder and the two Mars Exploration Rovers instead defined touchdown as \"Sol 1\". Generally speaking, the choice between counting from Sol 0 or Sol 1 has been made so that Sol 1 would be the first sol with \"meaningful\" or \"useful\" lander operations. Thus, landers that touched down late in the Martian day have begun their sol count at 0, while those that touch down early in the day began their count at 1. Although lander missions have twice occurred in pairs, no effort was made to synchronize the sol counts of the two landers within each pair. Thus, for example, although \"Spirit\" and \"Opportunity\" were sent to operate simultaneously on Mars, each counted its landing date as \"Sol 1\", putting their calendars approximately 21 sols out of sync.", "The word \"yestersol\" was coined by the NASA Mars operations team early during the MER mission to refer to the previous sol (the Mars version of \"yesterday\"), and came into fairly wide use within that organization during the Mars Exploration Rover Mission of 2003. It was eventually picked up and used by the press. Other neologisms include \"tosol\" (for \"today\" on Mars), as well as one of three Mars versions of \"tomorrow\": \"nextersol\", \"morrowsol\", or \"solmorrow\". NASA planners coined the term \"soliday\" at least as far back as 2012 to refer to days off due to time phasing or the synching of planetary schedules.", "Considering a possible colonization of Mars, one question that arose was \"how does one convert a Sol to standard Earth time?\" In the science fiction series \"Mars trilogy\" by Kim Stanley Robinson, the Mars settlers use traditional Earth watches that stop ticking at midnight for 39 minutes and 40 seconds before resuming their timekeeping. This creates something like a \"witching hour\" which compensates for the time difference between a Sol and an Earth day. This follows the method previously given by Philip K. Dick in his novel \"Martian Time-Slip\". An alternative idea was suggested in 1988 by David Powell (the Davidian Mars calendar). In this case the clocks simply run slower than the ones on Earth so that their hour hands complete two cycles per one Sol. For example, 1 Mars-second is 1.027 Earth-seconds, 1 Mars-minute is 61.62 Earth-seconds, and 1 Mars-hour is 61 minutes and 36.968 Earth-seconds. NASA once commissioned custom watches using this method. An alternative method is to maintain the SI second, but divide it into different forms. Rounded to the nearest whole second, there are 88775 SI seconds in a sol; 88775 factorizes into 5×5×53×67. 53 and 67, both prime numbers, are reasonably close to 60, the standard sexagesimal division of seconds per minute and minutes per hour, while 5×5=25, a number close to the 24 hours in a day on Earth. Thus, a system with 25-hour sols could use a 67-minute/53-second system, or a 53-minute/67-second system. Either system would require frequent leap seconds (one approximately every four sols) to maintain synchronization with Mars' rotation." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Rune names.", "Variants.", "Long-branch runes.", "Short-twig runes.", "Hälsinge runes (staveless runes).", "Descendant scripts.", "Medieval.", "Early modern." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Usage of the Younger Futhark is found in Scandinavia and Viking Age settlements abroad, probably in use from the 9th century onward. While the Migration Period Elder Futhark had been an actual \"secret\" known to only a literate elite, with only some 350 surviving inscriptions, literacy in the Younger Futhark became widespread in Scandinavia, as witnessed by the great number of Runestones (some 3,000), sometimes inscribed with almost casual notes. During a phase from about 650 to 800, some inscriptions mixed the use of Elder and Younger Futhark runes. Examples of inscriptions considered to be from this period include DR 248 from Snoldelev, DR 357 from Stentoften, DR 358 from Gummarp, DR 359 from Istaby, and DR 360 from Björketorp, and objects such as the Setre Comb (N KJ40). Ög 136 in Rök, which uses Elder Futhark runes to encrypt part of the text, and Ög 43 in Ingelstad, which uses a single Elder Futhark rune as an ideogram, are also sometimes included as transitional inscriptions. By the late 8th century, the reduction from 24 to 16 runes was complete. The main change was that the difference between voiced and unvoiced consonants was no longer expressed in writing. Other changes are the consequence of sound changes that separate Old Norse from Proto-Norse and Common Germanic (mostly changes to the vowel system). In tabular form: The Younger Futhark became known in Europe as the \"alphabet of the Norsemen\", and was studied in the interest of trade and diplomatic contacts, referred to as in Frankish Fulda (possibly by Walahfrid Strabo) and \"Ogham of the Scandinavians\" in the Book of Ballymote.", "The names of the 16 runes of the Younger futhark are recorded in the Icelandic and Norwegian rune poems. The names are: From comparison with Anglo-Saxon and Gothic letter names, most of these names directly continue the names of the Elder Futhark runes. The exceptions to this are:", "The Younger Futhark is divided into long-branch (Danish) and short-twig (Swedish and Norwegian) runes. The difference between the two versions has been a matter of controversy. A general opinion is that the difference was functional, i.e. the long-branch runes were used for documentation on stone, whereas the short-twig runes were in everyday use for private or official messages on wood.", "The long-branch runes are the following rune signs:", "In the short-twig runes (or Rök runes), nine runes appear as simplified variants of the long-branch runes, while the remaining seven have identical shapes:", "Hälsinge runes are so named because in modern times they were first noticed in the Hälsingland region of Sweden. Later, other runic inscriptions with the same runes were found in other parts of Sweden. They were used between the 10th and 12th centuries. The runes seem to be a simplification of the Swedish-Norwegian runes and lack certain strokes, hence the name \"staveless\". They cover the same set of staves as the other Younger Futhark alphabets. This variant has no assigned Unicode range (as of Unicode 12.1).", "", "In the Middle Ages, the Younger Futhark in Scandinavia was expanded, so that it once more contained one sign for each phoneme of the old Norse language. Dotted variants of voiceless signs were introduced to denote the corresponding voiced consonants, or vice versa, voiceless variants of voiced consonants, and several new runes also appeared for vowel sounds. Inscriptions in medieval Scandinavian runes show a large number of variant rune-forms, and some letters, such as \"s,\" \"c\" and \"z,\" were often used interchangeably (Jacobsen & Moltke, 1941–42, p. VII; Werner, 2004, p. 20). Medieval runes were in use until the 15th century. Of the total number of Norwegian runic inscriptions preserved today, most are medieval runes. Notably, more than 600 inscriptions using these runes have been discovered in Bergen since the 1950s, mostly on wooden sticks (the so-called Bryggen inscriptions). This indicates that runes were in common use side by side with the Latin alphabet for several centuries. Indeed, some of the medieval runic inscriptions are actually in the Latin language. After the 15th century interest in rune history and their use in magical processes grew in Iceland, with various studies beginning with Third Grammatical Icelandic Treatise - Málfræðinnar grundvǫllr. Publications written in Latin and Danish in the 1600s included works by Arngrímur Jónsson, Runólfur Jónsson and Dr. Olaus Worms. Content from these along with Icelandic and Norwegian Rune Poems appeared frequently in subsequent manuscripts written in Iceland.", "According to Carl-Gustav Werner, \"in the isolated province of Dalarna in Sweden a mix of runes and Latin letters developed\" (Werner 2004, p. 7). The Dalecarlian runes came into use in the early 16th century and remained in some use up to the 20th century. Some discussion remains on whether their use was an unbroken tradition throughout this period or whether people in the 19th and 20th centuries learned runes from books written on the subject. The character inventory is suitable for transcribing modern Swedish and the local Dalecarlian language." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and education.", "Career.", "CFCs.", "Gaia hypothesis.", "Nuclear power.", "Climate.", "Geoengineering.", "Sustainable retreat.", "Awards and honours.", "Personal life.", "Portraits of Lovelock.", "External links." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "James Lovelock was born in Letchworth Garden City. Nell, his mother, won a scholarship to a grammar school but was unable to take it up, and started work at 13 in a pickle factory. His father, Tom, had served six months hard labour for poaching in his teens and was illiterate until attending technical college, and later ran a book shop. The family moved to London, where Lovelock's dislike of authority made him, by his own account, an unhappy pupil at Strand School. Lovelock could not afford to go to university, something which he believes helped prevent him becoming overspecialised and aided the development of Gaia theory.", "After leaving school Lovelock worked at a photography firm, attending Birkbeck College during the evenings, before being accepted to study chemistry at the University of Manchester, where he was a student of the Nobel Prize laureate Professor Alexander Todd. Lovelock worked at a Quaker farm before a recommendation from his professor led to him taking up a Medical Research Council post, working on ways of shielding soldiers from burns. Lovelock refused to use the shaved and anaesthetised rabbits that were used as burn victims, and exposed his own skin to heat radiation instead, an experience he describes as \"exquisitely painful\". His student status enabled temporary deferment of military service during the Second World War, but he registered as a conscientious objector. He later abandoned his conscientious objection in the light of Nazi atrocities, and tried to enlist in the armed forces, but was told that his medical research was too valuable for the enlistment to be approved. In 1948, Lovelock received a PhD degree in medicine at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine. He spent the next two decades working at London's National Institute for Medical Research. In the United States, he has conducted research at Yale, Baylor College of Medicine, and Harvard University. In the mid-1950s, Lovelock experimented with the cryopreservation of rodents, determining that hamsters could be frozen with 60% of the water in the brain crystallized into ice with no adverse effects recorded. Other organs were shown to be susceptible to damage. The results were influential in the theories of cryonics. A lifelong inventor, Lovelock has created and developed many scientific instruments, some of which were designed for NASA in its planetary exploration program. It was while working as a consultant for NASA that Lovelock developed the Gaia hypothesis, for which he is most widely known. In early 1961, Lovelock was engaged by NASA to develop sensitive instruments for the analysis of extraterrestrial atmospheres and planetary surfaces. The Viking program, which visited Mars in the late 1970s, was motivated in part to determine whether Mars supported life, and many of the sensors and experiments that were ultimately deployed aimed to resolve this issue. During work on a precursor of this program, Lovelock became interested in the composition of the Martian atmosphere, reasoning that many life forms on Mars would be obliged to make use of it (and, thus, alter it). However, the atmosphere was found to be in a stable condition close to its chemical equilibrium, with very little oxygen, methane, or hydrogen, but with an overwhelming abundance of carbon dioxide. To Lovelock, the stark contrast between the Martian atmosphere and chemically dynamic mixture of the Earth's biosphere was strongly indicative of the absence of life on Mars. However, when they were finally launched to Mars, the Viking probes still searched (unsuccessfully) for extant life there. Further experiments to search for life on Mars have been carried out by further space probes, most recently NASA'S 2012 Curiosity Rover. Lovelock had invented the electron capture detector, which ultimately assisted in discoveries about the persistence of CFCs and their role in stratospheric ozone depletion. After studying the operation of the Earth's sulphur cycle, Lovelock and his colleagues, Robert Jay Charlson, Meinrat Andreae and Stephen G. Warren developed the CLAW hypothesis as a possible example of biological control of the Earth's climate. Lovelock was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1974. He served as the president of the Marine Biological Association (MBA) from 1986 to 1990, and has been an Honorary Visiting Fellow of Green Templeton College, Oxford (formerly Green College, Oxford) since 1994. As an independent scientist, inventor, and author, Lovelock worked out of a barn-turned-laboratory he called his \"experimental station\" located in a wooded valley on the Devon/Cornwall border in the South West England. In 1988 he made an extended appearance on the Channel 4 television programme \"After Dark\", alongside Heathcote Williams and Petra Kelly, among others. On 8 May 2012, he appeared on the Radio Four series \"The Life Scientific\", talking to Jim al-Khalili about the Gaia hypothesis. On the programme, he mentioned how his ideas had been received by various people, including Jonathan Porritt. He also mentioned how he had a claim for inventing the microwave oven. He later explained this claim in an interview with \"The Manchester Magazine\". Lovelock said that he did create an instrument during his time studying causes of damage to living cells and tissue, which had, according to him, \"almost everything you would expect in an ordinary microwave oven\". He invented the instrument for the purpose of heating up frozen hamsters in a way that caused less suffering to the animals, as opposed to the traditional way which involved putting red hot spoons on the animals' chest to heat them up. He believes that at the time, nobody had gone that far and made an embodiment of an actual microwave oven. However, he does not claim to have been the first person to have the idea of using microwaves for cooking.", "After the development of his electron capture detector, in the late 1960s, Lovelock was the first to detect the widespread presence of CFCs in the atmosphere. He found a concentration of 60 parts per trillion of CFC-11 over Ireland and, in a partially self-funded research expedition in 1972, went on to measure the concentration of CFC-11 from the northern hemisphere to the Antarctic aboard the research vessel RRS \"Shackleton\". He found the gas in each of the 50 air samples that he collected but, not realising that the breakdown of CFCs in the stratosphere would release chlorine that posed a threat to the ozone layer, concluded that the level of CFCs constituted \"no conceivable hazard\". He has since stated that he meant \"no conceivable toxic hazard\". However, the experiment did provide the first useful data on the ubiquitous presence of CFCs in the atmosphere. The damage caused to the ozone layer by the photolysis of CFCs was later discovered by Sherwood Rowland and Mario Molina. After hearing a lecture on the subject of Lovelock's results, they embarked on research that resulted in the first published paper that suggested a link between stratospheric CFCs and ozone depletion in 1974 (for which Sherwood and Molina later shared the 1995 Nobel Prize in Chemistry with Paul Crutzen).", "Drawing from the research of Alfred C. Redfield and G. Evelyn Hutchinson, Lovelock first formulated the hypothesis in the 1960s resulting from his work for NASA concerned with detecting life on Mars, the Gaia hypothesis proposes that living and non-living parts of the Earth form a complex interacting system that can be thought of as a single organism. Named after the Greek goddess Gaia at the suggestion of novelist William Golding, the hypothesis postulates that the biosphere has a regulatory effect on the Earth's environment that acts to sustain life. While the hypothesis was readily accepted by many in the environmentalist community, it has not been widely accepted within the scientific community as a whole. Among its most prominent critics were the evolutionary biologists Richard Dawkins, Ford Doolittle, and Stephen Jay Gould, a convergence of opinion among a trio whose views on other scientific matters often diverged. These (and other) critics have questioned how natural selection operating on individual organisms can lead to the evolution of planetary-scale homeostasis. In response to this Lovelock, together with Andrew Watson, published the computer model Daisyworld in 1983, that postulated a hypothetical planet orbiting a star whose radiant energy is slowly increasing or decreasing. In the non-biological case, the temperature of this planet simply tracks the energy received from the star. However, in the biological case, ecological competition between \"daisy\" species with different albedo values produces a homeostatic effect on global temperature. When energy received from the star is low, black daisies proliferate since they absorb a greater fraction of the heat, but when energy input is high, white daisies predominate since they reflect excess heat. As the white and black daisies have contrary effects on the planet's overall albedo and temperature, changes in their relative populations stabilise the planet's climate and to keep temperature within an optimal range despite fluctuations in energy from the star. Lovelock argued that Daisyworld, although a parable, illustrates how conventional natural selection operating on individual organisms can still produce planetary-scale homeostasis. In Lovelock's 2006 book, \"The Revenge of Gaia\", he argues that the lack of respect humans have had for Gaia, through the damage done to rainforests and the reduction in planetary biodiversity, is testing Gaia's capacity to minimize the effects of the addition of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. This eliminates the planet's negative feedbacks and increases the likelihood of homeostatic positive feedback potential associated with runaway global warming. Similarly the warming of the oceans is extending the oceanic thermocline layer of tropical oceans into the Arctic and Antarctic waters, preventing the rise of oceanic nutrients into the surface waters and eliminating the algal blooms of phytoplankton on which oceanic food chains depend. As phytoplankton and forests are the main ways in which Gaia draws down greenhouse gases, particularly carbon dioxide, taking it out of the atmosphere, the elimination of this environmental buffering will see, according to Lovelock, most of the earth becoming uninhabitable for humans and other life-forms by the middle of this century, with a massive extension of tropical deserts. (In 2012, Lovelock distanced himself from these conclusions, saying he had \"gone too far\" in describing the consequences of climate change over the next century in this book.) In his 2009 book, \"The Vanishing Face of Gaia\", he rejects scientific models that disagree with the findings that sea levels are rising and Arctic ice is melting faster than the models predict. He suggests that we may already be beyond the tipping point of terrestrial climate resilience into a permanently hot state. Given these conditions, Lovelock expects human civilization will be hard-pressed to survive. He expects the change to be similar to the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum when atmospheric concentration of CO was 450 ppm, and the temperature of the Arctic Ocean was 23 °C.", "Lovelock has become concerned about the threat of global warming from the greenhouse effect. In 2004 he caused a media sensation when he broke with many fellow environmentalists by pronouncing that \"only nuclear power can now halt global warming\". In his view, nuclear energy is the only realistic alternative to fossil fuels that has the capacity to both fulfill the large scale energy needs of humankind while also reducing greenhouse emissions. He is an open member of Environmentalists for Nuclear Energy. In 2005, against the backdrop of renewed UK government interest in nuclear power, Lovelock again publicly announced his support for nuclear energy, stating, \"I am a Green, and I entreat my friends in the movement to drop their wrongheaded objection to nuclear energy\". Although these interventions in the public debate on nuclear power are recent, his views on it are longstanding. In his 1988 book \"The Ages of Gaia\" he states: I have never regarded nuclear radiation or nuclear power as anything other than a normal and inevitable part of the environment. Our prokaryotic forebears evolved on a planet-sized lump of fallout from a star-sized nuclear explosion, a supernova that synthesised the elements that go to make our planet and ourselves. In \"The Revenge of Gaia\" (2006), where he puts forward the concept of sustainable retreat, Lovelock writes:A television interviewer once asked me, \"But what about nuclear waste? Will it not poison the whole biosphere and persist for millions of years?\" I knew this to be a nightmare fantasy wholly without substance in the real world... One of the striking things about places heavily contaminated by radioactive nuclides is the richness of their wildlife. This is true of the land around Chernobyl, the bomb test sites of the Pacific, and areas near the United States' Savannah River nuclear weapons plant of the Second World War. Wild plants and animals do not perceive radiation as dangerous, and any slight reduction it may cause in their lifespans is far less a hazard than is the presence of people and their pets... I find it sad, but all too human, that there are vast bureaucracies concerned about nuclear waste, huge organisations devoted to decommissioning power stations, but nothing comparable to deal with that truly malign waste, carbon dioxide. In 2019 Lovelock said he thought difficulties in getting nuclear power going again were due to propaganda, that \"the coal and oil business fight like mad to tell bad stories about nuclear\", and that \"the greens played along with it. There’s bound to have been some corruption there — I’m sure that various green movements were paid some sums on the side to help with propaganda\".", "Writing in the British newspaper \"The Independent\" in January 2006, Lovelock argued that, as a result of global warming, \"billions of us will die and the few breeding pairs of people that survive will be in the Arctic where the climate remains tolerable\" by the end of the 21st century. He has been quoted in \"The Guardian\" that 80% of humans will perish by 2100 AD, and this climate change will last 100,000 years. He further predicted, the average temperature in temperate regions would increase by as much as 8 °C and by up to 5 °C in the tropics, leaving much of the world's land uninhabitable and unsuitable for farming, with northerly migrations and new cities created in the Arctic. He predicted much of Europe will have become uninhabitable having turned to desert and Britain will have become Europe's \"life-raft\" due to its stable temperature caused by being surrounded by the ocean. He suggested that \"we have to keep in mind the awesome pace of change and realise how little time is left to act, and then each community and nation must find the best use of the resources they have to sustain civilisation for as long as they can.\" In a March 2010 interview with \"The Guardian\" newspaper, he said that democracy might have to be \"put on hold\" to prevent climate change. He continued: Statements from 2012 portray Lovelock as continuing his concern over global warming while at the same time criticizing extremism and suggesting alternatives to oil, coal and the green solutions he does not support. In an April 2012 interview, aired on MSNBC, Lovelock stated that he had been \"alarmist\", using the words \"All right, I made a mistake,\" about the timing of climate change and noted the documentary \"An Inconvenient Truth\" and the book \"The Weather Makers\" as examples of the same kind of alarmism. Lovelock still believes the climate to be warming although the rate of change is not as he once thought, he admitted that he had been \"extrapolating too far.\" He believes that climate change is still happening, but it will be felt farther in the future. Of the claims \"the science is settled\" on global warming he states: He criticizes environmentalists for treating global warming like a religion. In the MSNBC article Lovelock is quoted as proclaiming: In a follow up interview Lovelock stated his support for natural gas; he now favors fracking as a low-polluting alternative to coal. He opposes the concept of \"sustainable development\", where modern economies might be powered by wind turbines, calling it meaningless drivel. He keeps a poster of a wind turbine to remind himself how much he detests them. In \"Novacene\" (2019) Lovelock proposes that benevolent superintelligence may take over and save the ecosystem, and states that the machines will need to keep organic life around to keep the planet's temperature habitable for electronic life. On the other hand, if instead life becomes entirely electronic, \"so be it: we played our part and newer, younger actors are already appearing on stage\".", "In September 2007, Lovelock and Chris Rapley proposed the construction of ocean pumps to pump water up from below the thermocline to \"fertilize algae in the surface waters and encourage them to bloom\". The basic idea was to accelerate the transfer of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to the ocean by increasing primary production and enhancing the export of organic carbon (as marine snow) to the deep ocean. A scheme similar to that proposed by Lovelock and Rapley is already being independently developed by a commercial company. The proposal attracted widespread media attention and criticism. Commenting on the proposal, Corinne Le Quéré, a University of East Anglia researcher, said \"It doesn’t make sense. There is absolutely no evidence that climate engineering options work or even go in the right direction. I’m astonished that they published this. Before any geoengineering is put to work a massive amount of research is needed – research which will take 20 to 30 years\". Other researchers have claimed that \"this scheme would bring water with high natural \"p\"CO levels (associated with the nutrients) back to the surface, potentially causing exhalation of CO\". Lovelock subsequently said that his proposal was intended to stimulate interest and research would be the next step.", "Sustainable retreat is a concept developed by James Lovelock in order to define the necessary changes to human settlement and dwelling at the global scale with the purpose of adapting to global warming and preventing its expected negative consequences on humans. Lovelock thinks the time is past for sustainable development, and that we have come to a time when development is no longer sustainable. Therefore, we need to retreat. Lovelock states the following in order to explain the concept: The concept of sustainable retreat emphasized a pattern of resource use that aims to meet human needs with lower levels and/or less environmentally harmful types of resources.", "Lovelock was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1974. His nomination reads: Lovelock has been awarded a number of prestigious prizes including the Tswett Medal (1975), the American Chemical Society Award in Chromatography (1980), the World Meteorological Organization Norbert Gerbier–MUMM Award (1988), the Dr A.H. Heineken Prize for Environmental Sciences (1990) and the Royal Geographical Society Discovery Lifetime award (2001). In 2006 he received the Wollaston Medal, the Geological Society of London's highest award, whose previous recipients include Charles Darwin. Lovelock was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) for services to the study of the Science and Atmosphere in the 1990 New Year Honours and a Member of the Order of the Companions of Honour (CH) for services to Global Environment Science in the 2003 New Year Honours.", "Lovelock married Helen Hyslop in 1942, and they had four children and lived together until 1989 when Helen died of multiple sclerosis. He fell in love with his second wife, Sandy, at the age of 73. Lovelock believes that \"you would find the life of me and my wife Sandy to be an unusually happy one in simple beautiful but unpretentious surroundings.\" Lovelock became a centenarian in 2019.", "In March 2012, the National Portrait Gallery unveiled a new portrait of Lovelock by British artist Michael Gaskell (2011). The collection also has two photographic portraits by Nick Sinclair (1993) and Paul Tozer (1994). The archive of the Royal Society of Arts has a 2009 image taken by Anne-Katrin Purkiss. Lovelock agreed to sit for sculptor Jon Edgar in Devon during 2007, as part of The Environment Triptych (2008) along with heads of Mary Midgley and Richard Mabey. A bronze head is in the collection of the sitter and the terracotta is in the archive of the artist.", "Interviews" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History of the Romanian Armed Forces.", "Romanian War of Independence.", "Second Balkan War.", "World War I.", "World War II.", "Cold War.", "Post-1990.", "Equipment.", "Manpower.", "Future.", "Current deployments.", "Other militarized institutions." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The first attempt to create an independent Romanian army was made by Gheorghe Magheru during the 1848 Wallachian Revolution, and it was based at Râureni (now part of Râmnicu Vâlcea). However, Magheru rapidly ordered his troops to disband when the Ottoman forces swept into Bucharest to stop the revolution.", "The current Romanian Land Forces were formed in 1859, immediately after the unification of Wallachia with Moldavia, and were commanded by Alexandru Ioan Cuza, \"Domnitor\" of Romania until his abdication in 1866. In 1877, at the request of Nikolai Konstantinovich, Grand Duke of Russia the Romanian army fused with the Russian forces, and led by King Carol I, fought in what was to become the Romanian War of Independence. They participated in the Siege of Plevna and several other battles. The Romanians won the war, but suffered about 27,000 casualties. Until World War I, the Romanian army didn't face any other serious actions.", "Romania mobilized its army on 5 July 1913, with intention of seizing Southern Dobruja, and declared war on Bulgaria on 10 July. In a diplomatic circular that said, \"Romania does not intend either to subjugate the polity nor defeat the army of Bulgaria\", the Romanian government endeavoured to allay international concerns about its motives and about increased bloodshed. According to Richard Hall, \"the entrance of Romania into the conflict made the Bulgarian situation untenable and the Romanian thrust across the Danube was the decisive military act of the Second Balkan War.\"", "On July 6, 1916, Romania declared war on Germany and Austria-Hungary, following the initial success of the Brusilov Offensive (a major Russian offensive against the armies of the Central Powers on the Eastern Front). The Romanian armies entered Transylvania (then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire), together with Russian forces. However, German forces under the command of General Erich von Falkenhayn stalled the attack in November, 1916, and drove back the Romanians. At the same time, Austrian and Turkish troops invaded southern Romania, forcing the country into a two-front war. The Central Powers drove deep into Romania and conquered the south of the country (Wallachia, including Bucharest) by the end of 1916. The Romanian forces, led by Marshal Constantin Prezan, retreated into the north-east part of Romania (Moldavia). In the summer of 1917 however, Prezan, aided by the future Marshal, General Ion Antonescu, successfully defended the remaining unoccupied territories against German and Austro-Hungarian forces led by Field Marshal August von Mackensen. General Alexandru Averescu led the Second Army in the victories of the Battle of Mărăşti (July 22 to August 1, 1917) and the Battle of Mărăşeşti (August 6 to September 8, 1917). As a result of the Russian Revolution, Romania was left isolated and unable to continue the war, and was forced to sign the Treaty of Bucharest with the Central Powers. Later on, in 1919, Germany agreed, in the Treaty of Versailles Article 259, to renounce all the benefits provided to it by the Treaty of Bucharest in 1918. After the successful offensive on the Thessaloniki front, which put Bulgaria out of the war, Romania re-entered the war on November 10, 1918, a day before its end in the West.", "After General (later Marshal) Ion Antonescu took power in September 1940, Romania signed the Tripartite Pact with the Axis Powers and subsequently took part in Operation Barbarossa in 1941. An expeditionary force invaded the Soviet Union in Bessarabia and southern Ukraine, alongside the German Wehrmacht. The expeditionary force, 'Army Group Antonescu,' was composed on 22 June 1941 of the 3rd Army, the 4th Army, the 2nd Army Corps, and the 11th Infantry Division. The 3rd Army comprised the 4th Army Corps (6th and 7th Infantry Divisions), the Cavalry Corps, the Mountain Corps, two separate artillery battalion, a TA unit, and the Air Force's 3rd Army Cooperation Command. The 4th Army consisted of the 3rd Army Corps, the 5th Army Corps, the 11th Army Corps (two fortress brigades), and the 4th Army Cooperation Command. The army group-level 2nd Army Corps, under Major General N. Macici, controlled the 9th and 10th Infantry Divisions and the 7th Cavalry Brigade. Additionally the 1st Armoured Division was formed for service on the Eastern Front. The Army Group's first offensive, in conjunction with the Eleventh Army, Operation Munchen, enabled Romania to retake the territory immediately east of the Dnister, former part of Moldavia. The Romanian Armies saw their first major battles at Odessa and Sevastopol, and in 1942 advanced with other Axis forces deeper into Soviet territory during Operation Blue. The greatest disaster for the Romanian expeditionary force on the Eastern Front came at Stalingrad, where, during the Soviet counter-offensive of November 1942, the thinly spread forces of the Third Army (deployed north of Stalingrad) and of the Fourth Army (deployed south of Stalingrad) were attacked by vastly superior Soviet forces and suffered combined losses of some 158,000 personnel. During April–May 1944 the Romanian forces led by General Mihai Racoviţǎ, together with elements of the German Sixth Army were responsible for defending Northern Romania during the Soviet First Jassy-Kishinev Offensive, and took part in the Battles of Târgu Frumos. In late August 1944, the Red Army entered eastern Romania. The Battle of Jassy took place on August 20–25, 1944. 150 000 German soldiers died (80 000 in Stalingrad), 106 000 Germans was taken as prisoners by the Red Army (108 000 in Stalingrad); the fate of the rest 80 000 remain unknown. On August 23, 1944, a coup led by King Michael I of Romania deposed Marshal Antonescu and set up a pro-Soviet government. It has been estimated that the royal coup shortened the war by six months. Romania soon declared war on Nazi Germany, and the First and Fourth Armies were pressed into action. After the expelling of the last Wehrmacht remnants from Romania, the Romanian Armies took part in the Siege of Budapest and the Prague Offensive of May 1945.", "After the Romanian Communist Party seized power, the Armed Forces of Romania was reformed to mirror the soviet model. It was reestablished as the Romanian People's Army () under the original supervision of Minister of Defence, Emil Bodnăraş. Between 1955 and 1991, the Romanian People's Army took part in events of the Warsaw Pact, of which Romania was a member. During this period, the army was supplied with weapons and equipment from the Soviet Union. From 1947 to 1960, the country divided into 3 military regions: Western (Cluj), Eastern (Bacău), and South (Bucharest). In 1980 the Romanian Land Forces was reorganized in 4 Army Commands: 1st (Bucharest), 2nd (Buzau), 3rd (Craiova) and 4th (Cluj-Napoca). In the four Army Commands were 8 Mechanized Divisions, 2 Tank Divisions and 1 Tank Brigade, as well as 4 Mountain Brigades (specialized motorized infantry units). In 1989 the RLF had, as armored equipment, a total of 2715 combat vehicles: 945 outdated (soviet WW-2 type) T-34-85 tanks, 790 soviet and Czechoslovak T-55/-55A/-55AM tanks, 415 Romanian built TR-77-580, 535 Romanian built TR-85-800 and 30 soviet T-72 \"Ural-1\" tanks.", "The People's Army was dissolved after the Romanian Revolution in the beginning of 1990 and was rebranded as the Romanian Armed Forces. Since 1994, Romania has been actively participating in the Partnership for Peace program and on 29 March 2004, it officially joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). During the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia in 1999, Romania placed its territory and airspace at disposal for NATO troop and even sent troops to the Kosovo Force contingent in the summer of 1999 to stabilize the situation in Kosovo and Metohija. On 15 November 2002, Hungary, Romania, Slovakia, and Ukraine created a multinational engineering battalion called \"\"Tisa\"\", which includes an engineering company from the armed forces. Romania has taken part in the War in Afghanistan since July 2002, with Romanian contingent being increased from 962 to more than 1,500 troops in 2009. The armed forces also took part in the War in Iraq from 2003 to August 2009, in which the losses of the Romanian contingent amounted to 3 soldiers killed and at least 11 wounded.", "The Land Forces have overhauled their equipment in recent years, and are today a modern army with multiple NATO capabilities. They are participating in a peacekeeping mission in Afghanistan, together with the other NATO countries. The Land Forces are at present planning on replacing the TAB APC vehicles with new armored personnel carriers produced in conjunction with the Germany company Rheinmetall. The Air Force currently operates modernized Soviet MiG-21 LanceR fighters, which are due to be replaced by modernized ex-Portuguese F-16 fighters starting with 2016. In the first stage a first squadron of 12 fighter aircraft will be acquired and a second squadron of another 12 aircraft will follow by 2020. The Air Force has also received 7 new C-27J Spartan tactical airlift aircraft, in order to replace the bulk of the old transport force. Two modernized ex-Royal Navy Type 22 frigates were acquired by the Naval Forces in 2004 and a further four modern missile corvettes will be commissioned in the next few years. Three domestically-produced IAR 330 Puma NAVAL helicopters were also ordered by the Naval Forces, and were commissioned in late 2008.", "Romania joined NATO in 2004. As a consequence, extensive preparations were made to abolish conscription by 2007 and create a professional army in place of a conscripted one. The new armed forces include 69,300 military personnel. Some 36,000 make up the Romanian Land Forces, 10,300 serve as the Romanian Air Force and 6,500 are in the Romanian Naval Forces; the remaining 16,500 serve in other fields.", "The Romanian Military will essentially undergo a three-stage restructuring. As of 2017, the first two stages have been completed. 2015 marked the end of the second stage when the armed forces reached a superior compatibility with NATO forces. In 2025, the long-term stage is to be completed. The stages aim at modernising the structure of the armed forces, reducing the personnel as well as acquiring newer and more improved technology that is compatible with NATO standards. The military sees obsolete Soviet-era equipment as a major limitation and intends to replace its MiG-21 fighters by 2020 and buy modern combat helicopters, according to an August 2017 government plan. Romania is also set to acquire the MIM-104 Patriot air defence system, armored vehicles, corvettes and US M142 HIMARS rocket artillery.", "Romanian troops participated in the occupation of Iraq, reaching a peak of 730 soldiers before being slowly drawn down to 350 soldiers. Romania terminated its mission in Iraq and withdrew its last troops on July 24, 2009. Romania currently has troops deployed in Afghanistan, and is planning to nearly double its troop strength there to 1,800 by September 2010, according to an announcement made by President Traian Basescu in Prague on April 8, 2010.", "The following Romanian institutions have military status but are not part of the Armed Forces:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Early years (1924–1942).", "Original Six era (1942–1967).", "Expansion and the Big Bad Bruins (1967–1979).", "Ray Bourque era (1979–2000).", "New Millennium (2000–2010).", "Contenders and Stanley Cup champion (2010–2015).", "Don Sweeney era (2015–present).", "Team information.", "Logo and uniforms.", "Ownership.", "Training facilities.", "Bruins' mascots.", "Team songs.", "Goal song.", "Intro song.", "Season-by-season record.", "Players and personnel.", "Head coaches.", "General managers.", "Team and league honors.", "Hall of Famers.", "Franchise scoring leaders.", "NHL awards and trophies.", "Team awards.", "Media and broadcasters." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2" ], "content": [ "", "In 1924, at the convincing of Boston grocery magnate Charles Adams, the National Hockey League decided to expand to the United States. Adams had come to greatly enjoy ice hockey while watching the 1924 Stanley Cup Finals between the NHL champion Montreal Canadiens and the WCHL champion Calgary Tigers. The previous year in 1923, Thomas Duggan received options on three NHL franchises for the United States, and he sold one to Charles Adams, who in turn, persuaded the NHL to grant him a franchise for the city of Boston, which occurred on November 1, 1924. With the Montreal Maroons, the team was one of the NHL's first expansion teams, and the first NHL team to be based in the United States. Adams' first act was to hire Art Ross, a former star player and innovator, as general manager. Ross was the face of the franchise for the next thirty years, including four separate stints as coach. Adams directed Ross to come up", "Even though the NHL had by 1942 been reduced to the six teams that would in the modern era be called the \"Original Six\", talent was depleted enough that freak seasons could take place, as in 1944, when Bruin Herb Cain would set the then-NHL record for points in a season with 82. But the Bruins did not make the playoffs that season, and Cain was out of the NHL two seasons later. The stars returned for the 1945–46 season, and Clapper led the team back to the Stanley Cup Final as player-coach. He retired as a player after the next season, becoming the first player to play twenty NHL seasons,", "Weston Adams repurchased the Bruins in 1964 after Brown's death and set about rebuilding the team. Adams signed a defenseman from Parry Sound, Ontario, named Bobby Orr, who entered the league in 1966 and became, in the eyes of many, the greatest player of all time. He was announced that season's winner of the Calder Memorial Trophy for Rookie of the Year and named to the Second NHL All-Star Team. When asked about Orr's NHL debut game, October 19, 1966, against the Detroit Red Wings, then-Bruins coach Harry Sinden recalled: Despite Orr's stellar rookie season, the Bruins would miss the playoffs. The next season, they would go on to make the playoffs for the first of 29 straight seasons, an all-time record. The Bruins then obtained young forwards Phil Esposito, Ken Hodge and Fred Stanfield from Chicago in a deal celebrated as one of the most one-sided in hockey history. Hodge and Stanfield became key elements of the Bruins' success, and Esposito, who centered a line with Hodge and Wayne Cashman, became the league's top goal-scorer and the first NHL player to break the 100-point mark, setting many goal- and point-scoring records. Esposito remains one of four players to win the Art Ross Trophy four consecutive seasons (the other three are Jaromir Jagr, Wayne Gretzky and Gordie Howe). With other stars like forwards Bucyk, John McKenzie, Derek Sanderson, and Hodge, steady defenders like", "The 1979 season saw new Head Coach Fred Creighton—himself replaced by the newly retired Cheevers the following year. The Bruins trade of Ron Grahame to the Los Angeles Kings for a first round pick, that turned out to be eighth overall, enabled the Bruins to draft Ray Bourque, one of the greatest defensemen of all-time and the face of the Bruins for over two decades. The Bruins made the playoffs every year through the 1980s behind stars such as Park, Bourque and Rick Middleton—and had the league's best record in 1983 behind a Vezina Trophy–winning season from ex-Flyer goaltender Pete Peeters, with 110 points—but always fell short of making the Finals. Bourque, Cam Neely and Keith Crowder led the Bruins to another", "In the 1999–2000 season, the Bruins finished in last place in the Northeast Division and failed to qualify for the playoffs. During a game between the Bruins and the Vancouver Canucks on February 21, 2000, Marty McSorley was ejected for using his stick to hit Canucks forward Donald Brashear in the head. McSorley was initially suspended for the remaining 23 games of the season. However, on October 6, McSorley was convicted of assault using a weapon for his attack on Brashear; he was then sentenced to 18 months of probation. As a result of the conviction, McSorley's suspension was extended through February 21, 2001. After a 3–4–1 start, the Bruins fired head coach Pat Burns and went with Mike Keenan for the rest of the way. Despite a 15-point improvement from the previous season, the Bruins missed the playoffs in 2000–01 by just one point, and Keenan was let go. Centerman Jason Allison led the Bruins in scoring. The following season, 2001–02, the Bruins improved again with another 13 points, winning their first Northeast Division title since 1993 with a core built around Joe Thornton, Sergei Samsonov, Brian Rolston, Bill Guerin, Mike Knuble and the newly acquired Glen Murray. Their regular season success did not translate to the post-season, however, as they lost in six games to the underdog eighth-place Montreal Canadiens in the first round. The 2002–03 season found the Bruins platooning their goaltending staff between Steve Shields and John Grahame for most of the season. A mid-season trade brought in veteran Jeff Hackett. In the midst of a late-season slump, general manager Mike O'Connell fired head coach Robbie Ftorek with", "On February 15, 2011, the Bruins acquired center Chris Kelly from the Ottawa Senators after Marc Savard's attempted comeback ended due to another concussion, this one delivered away at Colorado by former Bruin Matt Hunwick. Ottawa received the Bruins' second-round pick in 2011. Just two days later and on the brink of the trade deadline, the Bruins acquired defenseman Tomas Kaberle in a trade from the Toronto Maple Leafs in exchange for prospect Joe Colborne, a first-round selection in 2011 and a potential second-round pick in 2012 (which became official on May 27 when the Bruins clinched a berth in the Stanley Cup Finals). Mark Stuart and Blake Wheeler were also traded to the Atlanta Thrashers for Rich Peverley and Boris Valabik. In the 2011 Stanley Cup playoffs, the Bruins became the first team in NHL history to win a seven-game series without scoring a power-play goal, as they eliminated the Montreal Canadiens in seven games, and also won their first playoff series after trailing 2–0. On May 6, the Bruins swept the Philadelphia Flyers in four games to advance to the Eastern Conference Finals for the first time since 1992. Boston then defeated the Tampa Bay Lightning in seven games and advanced to the Stanley Cup Finals for the first time since 1990 to face the Vancouver Canucks. The Bruins lost the first two games of the series in very close contests, 1–0, on a goal with less than 19 seconds left in regulation, and then 3–2 in overtime. Game 3 did not start well for the Bruins either, as they lost Nathan Horton to injury at the 5:07 mark of the first period following a", "On April 15, 2015, Peter Chiarelli was fired by the Boston Bruins. On May 20, the Bruins named former player Don Sweeney as the team's new general manager for the 2015–16 season. One recent all-time franchise achievement the Bruins attained in the 2015–16 season is shared by only their greatest rival, the Canadiens – a total of 3,000 wins in the team's existence, achieved by the Bruins on January 8, 2016 in a 4–1 road victory against the New Jersey Devils. The team was seen as a playoff contender throughout the regular season. However, a sub-.500 record on home ice and frequent road losses in the final two months of the regular", "", "Since 1948, the Bruins' logo is a black and gold spoked wheel with the letter \"B\" in the center. The logo has been tweaked numerous times over the course of its history, reaching its current form in 2007. The block \"B\" logo itself preceded the \"Spoked B\" and is currently the logo used in their third jersey. The Bruins have also used an alternate logo featuring a walking bear surrounded by the full team name. The logo was first used from 1924 to 1932 and was readopted as an alternate logo in 2007. From 1924 to 1934 the Bruins' colors were brown and gold. They wore brown uniforms in their maiden season, but switched to a", "Team founder Charles Adams owned the team until 1936, when he transferred his stock to son Weston Adams, general manager and minority owner Art Ross and minority owner Ralph Burkard. Weston Adams remained majority owner until 1951, when the Boston Garden-Arena Corporation purchased controlling interest in the team. Under the Garden-Arena Corporation's management, Boston Celtics founder Walter A. Brown ran the team from 1951 until his death in 1964. After Brown's death, Weston Adams returned to the role of team president. In 1969, he was succeeded by his son, Weston Adams, Jr. On December 7, 1973, Storer Broadcasting, owner of WSBK-TV, and the Garden-Arena Corporation agreed to a merger which resulted in Storer acquiring a 100% interest in the Bruins.", "The Bruins previously trained and practiced at the Bright-Landry Hockey Center in Allston, Massachusetts (built in 1956), then moved to the", "Blades the Bruin is an anthropomorphic bear serves as the Bruins' team mascot. In January and February, Blades travels around the greater Boston area", "When Boston television station WSBK-TV began broadcasting Bruins games in 1967, the producers of the games' telecasts wanted a suitable piece of music to air for the introduction of each game. Perhaps inspired by the Boston Ballet's annual Christmas performance of \"The Nutcracker\" had become closely identified with Boston, The Ventures' instrumental rock version of the Nutcracker's overture, known as \"Nutty\", itself thought to be that group's version of the slightly earlier hit \"Nut Rocker\", was selected as the opening piece of music for Bruins telecasts. The song \"Nutty\" has been identified with the Bruins ever since, and is still sometimes played at the TD Garden during Bruins games. On ice, \"Paree\", a 1920s hit tune written by Leo Robin and Jose Padilla, has been played as an organ instrumental for decades, typically as the players entered the arena just before the start of each period and, for many years, after each Bruins' goal. It was introduced by John Kiley, the organist for the Bruins from the 1950s through the 1980s, and is still played during Bruins' games.", "\"Kernkraft 400 (Sport Chant Stadium Remix)\" by Zombie Nation has been played for a number of seasons now after every Bruins goal scored on home ice, after two short blasts of a Kahlenberg KM-135 replica boat horn. As an \"influence\" from its use by the Bruins, the Zombie Nation song was also used by the Red Sox following a Red Sox home run at Fenway Park from the early-2000s until 2015. The Patriots use the Bruins recording of the horn for every third down at Gillette Stadium. Before the 2007-08 season,", "Currently \"Cochise\" by Audioslave is played whenever the Bruins enter the ice. \"Joker and the Thief\" by Wolfmother is played before the opening faceoff. Conversely, after every Bruins' win at the TD Garden (as with the NESN-covered Boston Red Sox when winning a baseball game at Fenway Park), \"Dirty Water\", by The Standells, is played. During the month of December, the team uses \"The Nutcracker\", a traditional song with the Bruins. Quincy punk rock band Dropkick Murphys wrote their song \"Time to Go\" (released in their 2003 album \"Blackout\") as a Bruins rally tune, and has performed their own version of The Ventures' song \"Nutty\" at games. Although it did not come with the band's guarantee to help bring home a championship, as they did with their song \"Tessie\" for the Red Sox, it is still a part of the team's culture and is played during third period TV timeouts. Two other Dropkick Murphys songs which are sometimes played at the TD Garden to rally the home crowd are \"I'm Shipping Up to Boston\" and \"The Boys Are Back.\"", "\"This is a partial list of the last five seasons completed by the Bruins. For the full season-by-season history, see List of", "", "The current head coach is Bruce Cassidy, who was promoted on an interim basis to the head coaching position on February 7, 2017, after", "Following the team's failure to make the 2015 playoffs, Peter Chiarelli was", "", "The Boston Bruins presently acknowledge an affiliation with a number of inductees to the Hockey Hall of Fame. Inductees affiliated with the Bruins include 51 former players and seven builders of the sport. The six individuals recognized as builders by the Hall of Fame includes former", "These are the top-ten point-scorers in franchise", "Stanley Cup Presidents' Trophy Prince of Wales Trophy Art Ross Trophy Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy Calder Memorial Trophy Conn Smythe Trophy Frank J. Selke Trophy Hart Memorial Trophy Jack Adams Award James Norris Memorial Trophy King Clancy Memorial Trophy Lady Byng Memorial Trophy Lester B. Pearson Award Lester Patrick Trophy Mark Messier Leadership Award Maurice \"Rocket\" Richard Trophy NHL Foundation Player Award NHL Leading Scorer Vezina Trophy William M. Jennings Trophy", "The Bruins have several team awards that are traditionally awarded at the last home game of the regular season. Jack Edwards: TV play-by-play", "Andy Brickley: TV color analyst Sophia Jurksztowicz: Rinkside reporter Judd Sirott: Radio play-by-play Bob Beers: Radio color analyst" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Features.", "History." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "MDN Web Docs is a resource for developers, maintained by the community of developers and technical writers and hosting many documents on a wide variety of subjects, such as: HTML5, JavaScript, CSS, Web APIs, Django, Node.js, WebExtensions and MathML. For mobile web developers, MDN provides documentation on subjects such as building an HTML5 mobile app, building a mobile add-on, and location-aware apps.", "The project (originally called Mozilla Developer Center) was started in 2005, and initially led by Mozilla Corporation employee Deb Richardson in 2005. Documentation efforts have been led by Eric Shepherd since 2006. The initial content for the website was provided by DevEdge, for which the Mozilla Foundation was granted a license by AOL. The site now contains a mix of content migrated from DevEdge and mozilla.org, as well as original and more up-to-date content. Documentation was also migrated from XULPlanet.com. MDN has a discussion forum and an IRC channel #mdn on the Mozilla IRC Network. MDN is funded by the Mozilla Corporation with servers and employees. With the Oct 3, 2016 release, Brave features Mozilla Developer Network as one of its default search engines options. In 2017, MDN Web Docs became the unified documentation of web technology for Google, Samsung, Microsoft, and Mozilla. Microsoft started redirecting pages from MSDN to MDN. In 2019, Mozilla started a Beta of a rewrite MDN Web Docs site for readers in React (instead of jQuery). Contributors can edit the site contents using the old editor, which is still supported." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History and development." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "Netscape 7.0 was released in 2002. It was based on a more stable and notably faster Mozilla 1.0 core and bundled with extras like integrated AOL Instant Messenger, integrated ICQ, Radio@Netscape, and new features such as tabbed browsing. The market responded to what was essentially a repackaged version of Mozilla Application Suite (swollen with integrated tools to access proprietary services owned by AOL) by ignoring it. Competition from mature and competent non-Microsoft alternatives such as the Opera browser and the regular Mozilla distribution was a major factor. A point release of version 7.1 (based on Mozilla 1.4) was similarly ignored. AOL announced on July 15, 2003 that it was laying off all its remaining development staff working on the Netscape version of Mozilla. Combined with AOL's antitrust case court settlement with Microsoft to use Internet Explorer in future versions of the AOL software, this seemed to mark the effective end of development on Netscape Navigator, the open source projects notwithstanding. Many believed that no further versions of the browser would be released and that the Netscape brand name would live on only as the name of AOL's low-cost dial-up internet service. Netscape 7.2 was released on August 17, 2004, though AOL did not restart the Netscape browser division (instead, they developed it in-house). It was very similar to Netscape 7.1 and the only new feature in it was the Netscape Toolbar, which was developed by mozdev.org. Though many had believed Netscape 7 would be the last version of Netscape to be released, AOL, in May 2005, released Netscape Browser version 8. It included improved security and the ability to natively use the Gecko layout engine used by Mozilla and its derivatives. It also has Internet Explorer's Trident as a possible rendering engine to use, which enables the user to switch to its rendering system to display web pages that do not work well with Gecko. This use of the Trident engine allows the use of ActiveX controls and brings all ActiveX security problems associated with Internet Explorer. Netscape 9 superseded Netscape 8 in October 2007, but Netscape's browser was discontinued altogether on March 1, 2008." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History and development." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "In March 1998, Netscape split off most of the Communicator code and put it under an open source license. The project was dubbed Mozilla. It was estimated that turning the gutted source code (all proprietary elements had to be removed) into a new browser release might take a year, and so it was decided that the next release of the corporate Netscape browser, version 5.0, would be based on it. Netscape assigned its browser development engineers to help with the project. Later that year it was quite evident that development on Mozilla was not proceeding quickly, so Netscape reassigned some of its engineers to a new Communicator 4.5 release. This had the result of redirecting part of the browser effort into a dead-end branch while Internet Explorer 5.0 was still building momentum. The version 5 of the browser was skipped, at the time when Internet Explorer 5.0 had been available for a year and a half. There were plans to release an almost-ready version 5.0 based on the 4.x codebase, but this idea was scrapped. The Mozilla engineers decided in late October 1998 to scrap the Communicator code and start over from scratch using the standards-compliant Gecko rendering engine. All resources were bound to work on the Netscape 6.0 release using Gecko, which some Netscape employees still deem one of the bigger mistakes in the company's history. The first public builds of Mozilla two years later (2000) were rather disappointing, with many mid-level PCs of the time too slow to run the larger codebase, which used its own custom set of graphical user interface widgets and had a customizable UI built in a custom XML dialect known as XUL. With public beta versions released in April, August, and October, Netscape 6.0 shipped in November 2000. At release, the browser was deemed too unstable for production use. Versions 6.1 and 6.2, released in 2001, addressed stability problems, and were more respected, but still had a relatively small number of users, and Netscape 6 was facing new competition from Internet Explorer 6.0, released in the summer of 2001." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name.", "Geography.", "History.", "Early history.", "Gallic Wars.", "Roman period." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "They are mentioned as \"Arvernos\" by Caesar (mid-1st c. BC), as \"Arvernorum\" by Livy (late-1st c. BC), as \"A̓roúernoi\" (Ἀρούερνοι) by Strabo (early 1st c. AD), and as \"A̓rouernō͂n\" (Ἀρουερνῶν) by Ptolemy (2nd c. AD). The region of Auvergne, attested as \"ecclesiae Arvenicae\" in 511 (\"pagus Arvenicus\" or \"pago Alvernio\" in the 9th c., \"Alvernhe\" ca. 1071–1127) is named after the Gallic tribe.", "It is assumed that the pre-Roman territory of the Arverni roughly corresponded to the limits of the Roman-era \"civitas Arvernorum\", later inherited by the early medieval Diocese of Clermont. Their territory would has thus encompassed the modern départements of Puy-de-Dôme and Cantal, parts of Haute-Loire and Allier, as well as small areas of Creuse, Loire and Aveyron. They dwelled between the Vellavi in the southwest, and the Bituriges and Aedui in the north.", "", "The Arverni are known to have had the most powerful tribal hegemony in Gaul during the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC under their kings, Luernius, and his son Bituitus. Their power was based on strong metallurgic technologies and weapons, elaborated and rich agriculture and catering, mining, trade and military dominance over their neighbours with tributes paid to them. But when Arverni king Bituitus was defeated by the Romans of Quintus and Gnaeus Ahenobarbus in 121 BC, their ascendancy passed to the Aedui and Sequani. Unlike the Allobroges, who were brought under direct Roman rule as a result of the Celtic wars of the 120s, the Arverni negotiated a treaty that preserved their independence, though their territory was diminished. No further Arvernian kings are mentioned in the historical record between 121 BC and 52 BC, and they may have adopted a constitutional oligarchy at this time. However, there were at least two later attempts to re-establish rulership by Celtillus and Vercingetorix. The defeat of the Arverni under Bituitus led directly to the establishment of \"Gallia Narbonensis\" as a Roman province, referred to simply as the \"Provincia\" so often that a part of the ancient region is today known as Provence. The King Luernios was mentioned in writing by the Greek ethnographer Posidonius. Luernios was known to have scattered gold and silver coins to his followers while riding in his chariot. Under Luernios, the Arverni were at the head of a formidable Gallic military hegemony which stretched from the Rhine to the Atlantic coast. They joined Bellovesus' migrations towards Italy, together with the Aedui, Ambarri, Aulerci, Carnutes and Senones.", "The Arverni later played an important role in the Gallic Wars of Julius Caesar from 58 BC to 51 BC. At first the Arvenian nobles tried to avoid confronting Caesar during his early incursions. They executed the leader Celtillus, evidently for trying to gain sovereignty over all the Gauls. In 52 BC, Celtillus' son Vercingetorix rallied his supporters to fight the Romans, but was expelled from Gergovia by the nobles, including his uncle Gobanitio. He then raised a great army in the country, and returned to the city where he ejected his opponents and was declared king. This accomplished, Vercingetorix forged an alliance with at least 15 Gallic tribes, requesting the presence of sons of chiefs to prove their alliance. He then led the majority of the Gauls and won the Gergovia battle against Julius Caesar and his cavalry did marvels in pursuing the Roman troops. After Julius Caesar saved half of his legions and received food from other Gauls, he went further north to fight weaker opposition. Vercingetorix was defeated by Caesar at the Battle of Alesia, after several months where the legions built 14 ranges of military equipment around the city to lay siege upon the Gallic soldiers. After several weeks of support from the western Gallic people with large numbers of troops coming to support Vercingetorix from outside the city, the Gauls were close to merging the inner and outer forces on 2 occasions. When the outer forces decided to depart, Vercingetorix took the decision to surrender himself to the Romans in order to save the people of Alesia.", "In the aftermath of the Gallic Wars the Arverni soldiers were pardoned and its senate was restored to power. The Arverni and the majority of other Gaulish states were pulled into the Roman political hemisphere but retained full rights and home rule. According to Gregory of Tours and his book \"Historia Francorum\" (\"History of the Franks\") the Arverni senators were still active in the sixth century and were deeply involved in the politics of the nascent Frankish state." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Ethnonym.", "History.", "Origins.", "Middle ages.", "Early modern period.", "Bashkir rebellions of the 17th–18th centuries.", "Napoleonic Wars.", "The establishment of the Republic of Bashkortostan.", "Great Patriotic War.", "Genetics.", "Language.", "Demographics.", "Culture.", "Religion." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The etymology and indeed meaning of the endonym \"Bashqort\" is without consensus. The following theories of origin and definition have been advanced:", "", "The Bashkirs are considered to have some cultural similarities to Iranian tribes who formerly existed in modern Bashkortostan, such as the Bušxk', and may have descended from them. Alternatively, Mikhail Artamonov suggested Bashkirs are descended from the Bušxk', a Scythian tribe that became culturally \"Turkified\" (including a process of language replacement), during the Turkic migrations of the first millennium AD.", "The first report about Bashkirs might have been found in the Chinese chronicle Book of Sui: around 40 Turkic Tiele tribes were named (636 AD) in \"A Narration about the Tiele people\"; Bashkirs might have included within that narration: if the tribal name 比干 (Mandarin \"Bǐgān\" < Middle Chinese ZS: *\"piɪ-kɑn\") were read as 比千 (\"Bĭqiān\" < *\"piɪt͡shen\"), according to Chinese scholar Rui Chuanming In the 7th century, Bashkirs are also mentioned in \"Ashkharatsuyts\". From the 9th century, the first Arab and Persian written reports about Bashkirs commence. These include reports by:: Sallam al-Tardzhuman (9th century). 10th-century authors on the Bashkir were: Ahmad ibn Fadlan, Al-Masudi, and Abu Zayd al-Balkhi. In the 12th century, Said Al-Andalusi and Muhammad al-Idrisi mentioned the Bashkirs. The 13th-century authors Ibn Sa'id al-Maghribi, Yaqut al-Hamawi and Qazvini and the 14th-century authors Al-Dimashqi and Abu'l-Fida wrote about Bashkirs. The traveller Sallam an at-Tardzhuman visited Bashkir lands and wrote in circa 840 the first written Arab source on the Bashkirs and a rough description of its borders. In the 10th century, Persian Abu Zayd al-Balkhi (10th century) described Bashkirs as a people divided into two groups: one inhabiting the Southern Urals, the other living on the Danube plain near the boundaries of Byzantium. Ibn Rustah, a contemporary of Abu Zayd al-Balkhi, observed that Bashkirs were an independent people occupying territories on both sides of the Ural mountains ridge between Volga, Kama, and Tobol Rivers and upstream of the Yaik river. Ahmad ibn Fadlan, ambassador of the Baghdad Caliph Al-Muqtadir to the governor of Volga Bulgaria, wrote the first ethnographic description of the Bashkir in 922. The Bashkirs, according to Ibn Fadlan, were a warlike and powerful people, which he and his companions (a total of five thousand people, including military protection) \"bewared... with the greatest threat\". They were described as engaged in cattle breeding. According to ibn Fadlan, the Bashkirs worshipped twelve gods: winter, summer, rain, wind, trees, people, horses, water, night, day, death, heaven and earth, and the most prominent, the sky god. Apparently, Islam had already begun to spread among the Bashkirs, as one of the ambassadors was a Muslim Bashkir. According to the testimony of Ibn Fadlan, the Bashkirs were Turks, living on the southern slopes of the Urals, and occupying a vast territory up to the river Volga. They were bordered by Oghuz Turks on the south, Pechenegs to the south-east and Bulgars on the west. The first European sources to mention the Bashkirs were the works of Joannes de Plano Carpini and William of Rubruquis of the 13th century. By 1236, Genghis Khan had incorporated the lands of Bashkortostan were incorporated into his empire. During the 13th and 14th centuries, all of Bashkortostan was a component of the Golden Horde. The brother of Batu-Khan, Sheibani, received the Bashkir lands east of the Ural Mountains. After the disintegration of the Mongol Empire, the Bashkirs were divided among the Nogai Horde, the Khanate of Kazan and the Khanate of Sibir, founded in the 15th century.", "In the middle of the 16th century, Bashkirs were gradually conquered by the Tsardom of Russia. Primary documents pertaining to the Bashkirs during this period have been lost, although some are mentioned in the \"shezhere\" (family trees) of the Bashkir. During the Russian Imperial period, Russians and Tatars began to migrate to Bashkortostan which led to eventual demographic changes in the region. The recruitment of Bashkirs into the Russian army and having to pay steep taxes pressured many Bashkirs to adopt a more settled lifestyle and to slowly abandon their ancient nomadic pastoralist past. In the late 16th and early 19th centuries, Bashkirs occupied the territory from the river Sylva in the north; to the river heads of Tobol in the east; the mid-stream of the river Yaik in the south; in the Middle and Southern Urals, the Cis-Urals including Volga territory and Trans-Uralsto; and the eastern bank of the river Volga on the south-west.", "The Bashkirs participated in the 1662–64, 1681–84 and 1704–11 Rebellions. In 1676, the Bashkirs rebelled under a leader named Seyid Sadir or 'Seit Sadurov', and the Russian army had great difficulties in ending the rebellion. The Bashkirs rose again in 1707, under Aldar and Kûsyom, due to perceived ill-treatment by Imperial Russian officials. At the founding of Orenburg in 1735, the fourth insurrection occurred in 1735 and lasted six years. Russians had discussed from the times of Peter the Great a desire to expand Russian sovereignty south-east toward Persia and India. formed a plan to build the fort to be called Orenburg at Orsk at the confluence of the Or River and the Ural River, south-east of the Urals where the Bashkir, Kalmyk and Kazakh lands met. Work on Fort Orenburg commenced at Orsk in 1735. However, by 1743 'Orenburg' was moved a further 250 km west to its current location. The next planned construction was to be a fort on the Aral Sea. The consequence of the Aral Sea fort would involve crossing Bashkir and the Kazakh Lesser Horde lands, some of whom had recently offered a nominal submission to the Russia Crown. Kirillov's plan was approved on May 1, 1734 and he was placed in command. Although Kirillov was warned that this may provoke a Bashkir rebellion, the warnings were ignored. Kirillov left Ufa with 2,500 men in 1735. Warfare commenced on the first of July, 1735. The war consisted of many small raids and complex troop movements, so it cannot be easily summarized. For example: In the spring of 1736, Kirillov burned 200 villages, killed 700 in battle and executed 158. An expedition of 773 men left Orenburg in November and lost 500 from cold and hunger. At Seiantusa the Bashkir planned to massacre sleeping Russians, however, the ambush failed. In retaliation, one thousand villagers, including women and children, were put to the sword and another 500 driven into a storehouse and burned to death. Raiding parties then went out and burned about 50 villages and killed another 2,000. Eight thousand Bashkirs attacked a Russian camp and killed 158, losing 40 killed and three Bashkir prisoners were promptly hanged by the Russians. Rebellious Bashkirs raided loyal Bashkirs. Leaders who submitted were sometimes fined one horse per household and on other occasions, hanged. Kirillov died of disease during the war and there were several changes of commander. The Baskir War occurred during the reign of Empress Anna of Russia and the Russo-Turkish War (1735–1739). Although the history of the 1735 Bashkir War cannot be easily summarized, its results can be. Next major rebellion occurred in 1755–56. In its suppression, 36,000 Russian regular troops were involved. The number of rebels was about 50,000. The rebellion was cruelly crushed. Later, in 1774, the Bashkirs, under the leadership of Salavat Yulayev, supported Pugachev's Rebellion. In 1786, the Bashkirs achieved tax-free status; and in 1798 Russia formed an irregular Bashkir army from among them. Residual land ownership disputes continued. There are many museums in the Republic where you can get acquainted with the history of the region. The National Museum of the Republic of Bashkortostan, the Bashkir Nesterov Art Museum, the Museum of Archeology and Ethnography are the largest of them.", "During the Napoleonic Wars, many Kalmyks and Bashkirs served in the Russian army to defend the Russian nation from the French invaders during Napoleon's invasion of Russia. Many Bashkir regiments served in Battle of Paris and the subsequent occupation of France by the coalition forces.", "After the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution, the All-Bashkir Qoroltays (convention) concluded that it was necessary to form a national federal Bashkir republic within Russia. As a result, on 15 November 1917, the Bashkir Regional (central) Shuro (Council) proclaimed the establishment of the Bashkir republic in areas of predominantly Bashkir population: Orenburg, Perm, Samara, Ufa provinces and the autonomous entity Bashkurdistan. In December 1917, delegates to the All-Bashkir (constituent) Congress, representing the interests of the population edge of all nationalities, voted unanimously for the Resolution (Farman #2) of the Bashkir regional Shuro on the proclamation of national-territorial autonomy (of the republic) Bashkurdistan. From the Congress, the government of Bashkurdistan, the Pre-parliament – Kese-Qoroltay and other bodies of power and administration, were formed and decisions made on how next to proceed. In March 1919, the Bashkir Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic was formed based on agreements of the Russian Government. On October 11, 1990 Declaration of State Sovereignty by the Supreme Council of the Republic was proclaimed. On March 31, 1992 Bashkortostan signed a federal agreement on the delimitation of powers and areas of jurisdiction and the nature of contractual relations between the authorities of the Russian Federation and the authorities of the sovereign republics in its composition including the Republic of Bashkortostan.", "During World War II, Bashkir soldiers served in the Red Army to defend the Soviet Union and fought against the Germans during the German invasion of the Soviet Union.", "The modern Bashkirs have an average of approximately 60% \"West-Eurasian/European\" and 40% \"Siberian/East-Asian\" genetic material. Genetic studies have revealed Y-DNA haplogroups the dominant frequency for Bashkir males is the haplogroup R1b (R-M269 and R-M73) which is, on average, 47.6%. The Y-DNA haplogroup R-M269 (R1b1a2) R-M269 is the most common European haplogroup, greatly increasing in frequency on a West to East its prevalence in Wales at 92.3% to Poland estimated at 22.7%. The second most dominant is the haplogroup R1a at an average frequency of 26,5%, and third the haplogroup N1c at 17%. Despite the Bashkirs being considered a Turkic peoples, DNA haplogroups R1a and R1b are majority shared with Indo-Europeans. Haplogroups J2, C, O, E1b, G2a, L, N1b, I, T.were found at lower incidences. Most mtDNA haplogroups of the Bashkirs (60–65%) consist of the haplogroups G, D, С, Z and F; which are lineages characteristic of East-Eurasian populations. On the other hand, mtDNA haplogroups characteristic of European and Near Eastern populations were found in significant amounts (35–40%). Immunogeneticist Suslova commented in 2015 that: The Bashkirs are characterized by East-Asian admixture, which dates from the 13th century, according to an analysis of the identical-by-descent segments.", "Bashkir language is a Turkic language of the Kypchak group. It has three main dialects: Southern, Eastern and North-Western located in the territory of Historical Bashkortostan. The Russian census of 2010 recorded 1,152,404 Bashkir speakers in the Russian Federation. Bashkir language is native to 1 133 339 Bashkirs (71,7% of the total number of Bashkirs, reporting mother tongue). The Tatar language was reported as native tongue to 230,846 Bashkirs (14,6%). and Russian language reported as native tongue to 216 066 Bashkir (13,7%). Most Bashkirs are bilingual in Bashkir and Russian. The Bashkir tribes of pre-Islamic conversion used the Old Turkic alphabet. After the adoption of Islam, which began in the 10th century and lasted for several centuries, the Bashkirs began to use the Arabic alphabet. From the mid-18th-century Bashkir national literature began to be formulated. In 1923, Bashkir alphabet was based on the Arabic alphabet. In 1929 a Latin alphabet (yanalif) form of transcribing Bashkir was formulated. In 1940, writing Bashkir in Cyrillic alphabet was formulated. The modern Bashkir alphabet consists of 42 letters. The Bashkir language was considered endangered but recent Bashkir nationalism has made many develop an interest in it. The combination of encouragement by local authorities and renewed Bashkir language interest among Bashkirs have greatly assisted the language to stay relevant.", "The ethnic Bashkir population is estimated at roughly 2 million people (2009 SIL Ethnologue). The 2010 Russian census recorded 1,584,554 ethnic Bashkirs in Russia, of which 1,172,287 Bashkirs live in Bashkortostan (29.5% of the total population of the republic).", "The Bashkirs traditionally practiced agriculture, cattle-rearing and bee-keeping. The half-nomadic Bashkirs wandered either the mountains or the steppes, herding cattle. Wild-hive beekeeping can be named as a separate component of the most ancient culture which is practiced in the same Burzyansky District near to the Kapova Cave. Traditional Bashkir dish bishbarmaq is prepared from boiled meat and halma (the kind of noodles), sprinkled with herbs flavored with onions and some qorot (young dry cheese). This is another notable feature of the Bashkir cuisine: dishes often served dairy products — rare party without qorot or qaymaq (sour cream). Most of the dishes Bashkir cuisine is nutritious and easy to prepare. A series of epic Bashkir works called Ural-batyr and Akbuzat keeps layers of ancient mythology and have parallels with the Epic of Gilgamesh, Rigveda, and Avesta. Their plots concern the struggle of heroes against demonic forces. A peculiarity of them is that events and ceremonies described there may reference a specific geographical place; the Shulgan-Tash cave and its vicinity.", "In the pre-Islamic period the Bashkirs were followers of Animism, Shamanism and Tengrianism. Bashkirs began converting to Islam in the 10th century. Arab traveler Ibn Fadlan in 921 met some of the Bashkirs, who were already Muslims. The final assertion of Islam among the Bashkirs occurred in the 1320s and 1330s during the Golden Horde period. The mausoleum of Hussein-Bek, the burial place of the first Imam of Historical Bashkortostan, is preserved in Bashkortostan. The mausoleum is a 14th-century building. Catherine the Great established the Orenburg Mohammedan Spiritual Assembly in 1788 in Ufa, which was the first Muslim administrative center in Russia. Religious revival among the Bashkirs began in the early 1990s. According to Talgat Tadzhuddin there were more than 1,000 mosques in Bashkortostan in 2010. The Bashkirs are predominantly Sunni Muslims of the Hanafi madhhab." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Design.", "Reverse (common) side.", "Obverse (national) sides.", "Planned designs." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "3" ], "content": [ "The coin dates from 2002, when euro coins and banknotes were introduced in the 12 member eurozone and its related territories. The common side was designed by Luc Luycx, a Belgian artist who won a Europe-wide competition to design the new coins. The design of the 10 to 50 cent coins were intended to show separate states of the European Union (EU), as opposed to the one and two euro coins showing the 15 states as one and the 1 to 5 cent coins showing the EU's place in the world. The national sides, then 15 (eurozone + Monaco, San Marino and the Vatican who could mint their own) were each designed according to national competitions, though to specifications which applied to all coins such as the requirement of including twelve stars (see euro coins for more). National designs were not allowed to change until the end of 2008, unless a monarch (whose portrait usually appears on the coins) dies or abdicates. This happened in Monaco and the Vatican City resulting in three new designs in circulation (the Vatican had an interim design until the new Pope was selected). National designs have seen some changes due to new rules stating that national designs should include the name of the issuing country (Finland and Belgium both do not show their name, and hence have made minor changes). As the EU's membership has since expanded in 2004 and 2007, with further expansions envisaged, the common face of all euro coins from the value of 10 cent and above were redesigned in 2007 to show a new map. This map showed Europe, not just the EU, as one continuous landmass, however Cyprus was moved west as the map cut off after the Bosporus (which was seen as excluding Turkey for political reasons). The redesign in 2007, rather than in 2004, was because 2007 saw the first enlargement of the eurozone; the entry of Slovenia. Hence, the Slovenian design was added to the designs in circulation. Two more designs were added in 2008 with the entry of Cyprus and Malta and another one in 2009 with Slovakia, and two more for Estonia and Latvia were added in 2011 and 2014, respectively. Lithuania in 2015.", "The coins are composed of an alloy called Nordic gold, with a diameter of 22.25 mm, a 2.14 mm thickness and a mass of 5.74 grams. The coins' edges are smooth with seven indentations from the coin's \"Spanish flower\" shape. The coins have been used from 2002, though some are dated 1999 which is the year the euro was created as a currency, but not put into general circulation.", "The reverse (used from 2007 onwards) was designed by Luc Luycx and displays a map of Europe on the left. The map does not include Iceland and cuts off on the right through Russia (at a line from the Kandalaksha Gulf to the Bosphorus). Additionally, Cyprus is moved westward under Crete in order to include it and Malta is shown as disproportionally large so that it shows up. The map is flat and level with most of the coin and the sea is shown as an indentation. Six fine lines cut through the sea, breaking when passing through the map, and at their ends at the top and bottom are twelve stars (reflective of the flag of Europe). To the right, in raised lettering, is \"20 Euro Cent\" with the '20' being shown much larger than the words. The designer's initials, LL, appear next to the 0 in 20. Luc Luycx designed the original coin, which was much the same except the design was only of the then 15 members and shown with gaps between the states and raised rather than with an indented sea.", "The obverse side of the coin depends on the issuing country. All have to include twelve stars (in most cases a circle around the edge), the engraver's initials and the year of issue. New designs also have to include the name or initials of the issuing country. The side cannot repeat the denomination of the coin unless the issuing country uses an alphabet other than Latin (currently, Greece is the only such country hence they engrave \"20 ΛΕΠΤΑ\" upon their coins).", "Austria, Germany and Greece will also at some point need to update their designs to comply with guidelines stating they must include the issuing state's name or initial. Austria will also have to remove the denomination of the coin from its design, Greece is exempt from this requirement as it uses a non-Latin alphabet. In addition, there are several EU states that have not yet adopted the euro. While some of them have already agreed upon their coin designs, these are not yet minted as it is not known exactly when they will adopt the currency. See enlargement of the Eurozone for expected entry dates of these countries." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Subgroups.", "History.", "Origin.", "Genetics.", "Culture.", "Religion." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "There is no universally accepted etymology of the word \"Chuvash\", but there are two main theories that try to explain it: one suggests that the word \"Chuvash\" may be derived from Common Turkic \"jăvaš\" ('friendly', 'peaceful'), as opposed to \"şarmăs\" ('warlike'). Another theory is based on the \"Tabghach\", an early medieval Xianbei clan and founders of the Northern Wei dynasty in China. The Old Turkic name \"Tabghach\" (\"Tuoba\" in Mandarin) was used by some Inner Asian peoples to refer to China long after this dynasty. Gerard Clauson has shown that through regular sound changes, the clan name Tabghach may have transformed to the ethnonym Chuvash.", "Chuvash people are divided into three main groups:", "The Turkic ancestors of the Chuvash people are believed to have come from central Siberia, where they lived in the Irtysh basin (between the Tian Shan and Altay) from at least the end of the third millennium BC. In the beginning of the first century AD, the Bulgars started moving west through Zhetysu and the steppes of modern-day Kazakhstan, reaching the North Caucasus in 2nd–3rd centuries AD. There they established several states (Old Bulgaria on the Black Sea coast and the Suar Duchy in modern-day Dagestan. Old Bulgaria broke up in the second half of the 7th century after a series of successful Khazar invasions. Some of its population fled north, to the Volga-Kama region, where they established Volga Bulgaria, which eventually became extremely wealthy: its capital being the 4th largest city in the world. Shortly after that, the Suar Duchy was forced to become a vassal state of Khazaria. About half a century later, the Suars took part in the Arab–Khazar wars of 732–737. The adoption of Islam in the early tenth century in Volga Bulgaria led to most of its people (including the Chuvash) to embrace the religion. After the collapse of Volga Bulgaria by the Mongols in 1236, the Golden Horde kept control of the region until its slow dissolution in 1438. The Kazan Khanate then became the new authorities of the region and of the Chuvash. The modern name 'Chuvash' began to appear in records starting from the sixteenth century from Russian and other foreign sources. In 1552, the Russians conquered the Kazan Khanate and its territories. The subsequent centuries saw the Christianization and Russification of the Chuvash. During this period, most Chuvash converted to Orthodox Christianity (sometimes by force) but Russification was never achieved. However, a few Chuvash continued being Muslim. The eighteenth and nineteenth century saw the revival of Chuvash culture and the publication of many educational, literary, and linguistic works along with the establishment of schools and other programs. The Chuvash language began being used in local schools and a special written script for the Chuvash language was created in 1871. On June 24, 1920, the Chuvash Autonomous Region was established but was renamed the Chuvash Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic in April 21, 1925. Around this time saw the rise of Chuvash nationalism but the Soviet authorities attempted to suppress these nationalist movements by redrawing the borders of the republic so that many Chuvash will be living in neighboring republics or Russian districts. During most of the Soviet period, the Chuvash were subjected to Russification campaigns and propaganda. The Chuvash language vanished from educational and public use. In 1989, another Chuvash cultural revival began partly in response to these changes. Soon, the Chuvash language was once again used in educational, public, and political life. Today, the Chuvash language and culture is taught in schools in the Chuvash Republic and in areas outside that have large Chuvash populations. Chuvash around Russia also have media available to them in their local communities.", "According to one theory, the Chuvash may be descended from the Volga Bulgars. They have been subjected to much infusion and influence, not only from Russian and Turkic peoples, but also from neighboring Finnic tribes, with whom they were persistently and mistakenly identified for centuries, perhaps aided by the fact that the Chuvash language is a highly divergent form of Turkic, and was not easily recognized as such. Chuvash is classified, alongside the extinct Bulgar language, as the only remaining member of the Oghuric branch of the Turkic language family.", "Chuvashes are autosomally approximately 75% West Eurasian and 25% East Eurasian on average. The two main Y-DNA haplogroups amongst the Chuvash are R1a (Z282 and Z93) at the frequency of 28-32% and N-B211 at about 20%. R1a haplogroup peaks in the Kyrgyz at 63% and is present at 57,5% in Poles. N-B211 reaches its highest frequency at 67% in Udmurts and is also found in approximately 20% of Komis and Ugrians and in approximately 10% of Maris and Mordvins. In lower frequencies other haplogroups also found amongst the Chuvash are E-M78, N-P43 (especially N-L1419), J2, I1, R1b, I2a, J1a and C.", "They speak the Chuvash language and have some pre-Christian traditions. The Chuvash language is Turkic and is the only Oghur Turkic language that survives. The language has been influenced by Tatar, Russian, and Finno-Ugric languages. It has two to three dialects. In addition to Chuvash, many people also use the Russian language.", "Today Chuvash people are Eastern Orthodox Christians and belong to the Russian Orthodox Church. They retain some pre-Christian Tengrism traditions in their cultural activities. They syncretized Orthodox Christianity and Tengriism. Parallel pray in the shrines called keremet and sacrifice geese there. One of the main shrines is located in the town of Bilyarsk. There are some Chuvash who follow Islam which also has many traces of pre-Islamic beliefs and rituals." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name.", "Attestations.", "Etymology.", "Geography.", "Language and ethnicity.", "Politics and military.", "Religion.", "Material culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "They are mentioned as \"Treveri\" by Caesar (mid-1st c. BC), Pliny (1st c. AD) and Tacitus (early 2nd c. AD), as \"Trēoúēroi\" (Τρηούηροι) by Strabo (early 1st c. AD), as \"Tríbēroi\" (Τρίβηροι) by Ptolemy (2nd c. AD), as \"Trēouḗrōn\" (Τρηουήρων) by Cassius Dio (3rd c. AD), as \"Treuerorum\" by Orosius (early 5th c. AD), and as \"Triberorum\" in the \"Notitia Dignitatum\" (5th c. AD). The variant \"Treberi\" also appears in Pliny, and few highly deviant variant forms are also attested as \"Trēoũsgroi\" (Τρηου̃σγροι) in Strabo or \"Triḗrōn\" (Τριήρων) in Cassius Dio.", "The name is generally viewed as referring to a \"flowing river\", or to \"crossing the river\". Rudolf Thurneysen, followed by Xavier Delamarre, proposes to interpret the 'Treveri' as the Gaulish \"trē-uer-i\"- ('ferrymen'), composed of a suffix \"trē\"- (< \"*trei\"- 'through, across'; cf. Lat. \"trāns,\" Skt \"tiráh\") attached to \"uer-\" ('to cross a river'; cf. Skt \"vār\", ON \"vari\" 'water'), because these people helped to cross the Moselle river. The Gaulish name \"Treueri\" is most likely cognate with the Old Irish word \"treóir\" (< \"*trē-uori-\"; 'guiding, leading; passage through a ford, place to cross a river'). The Treveri also had a special goddess of the ford called \"Ritona\" (from Gaulish \"ritu-\" 'ford' or the homonym \"ritu-\" 'course'), and a temple dedicated to \"Uorioni Deo\". The first syllable is shown long and stressed \"(Trēverī)\" in Latin dictionaries, according to its Celtic etymology, thus giving the Classical Latin pronunciation. The city of Trier, attested as \"in Treueris Augusta\" in the 1st c. AD (\"Treuiris\" in 1065), is named after the tribe.", "In the time of Julius Caesar their territory extended as far as the Rhine north of the Triboci; across the Rhine from them lived the Ubii. Caesar mentions that the Segni and the Condrusi lived between the Treveri and the Eburones, and that the Condrusii and Eburones were clients of the Treveri. Caesar bridged the Rhine in the territory of the Treveri. They were bordered on the north and west by Belgic tribes: the Tungri (living where the Germani cisrhenani had lived in the time of Caesar, and according to Tacitus the same people), and the Remi. To the south their neighbours were the Mediomatrici. Later the Vangiones and Nemetes, whom ancient sources identify as Germanic, would settle to the east of the Treveri along the Rhine; thereafter, Treveran territory in present-day Germany was probably similar to that which afterwards became the Diocese of Trier. In addition to this area which is formed mainly by the northern part of the Moselle river valley and the neighbouring Eifel region, the Treveri populated also the area of the present-day Grand Duchy of Luxembourg and the major part of the adjacent Belgian Province of Luxembourg. The Rhine valley was removed from Treveran authority with the formation of the province of Germania Superior in the 80s CE. The valley of the Ahr would have marked their northern boundary. \"Colonia Augusta Treverorum\" (now Trier, Germany) was the capital of their \"civitas\" under the Empire. There is strong evidence that the recently excavated \"oppidum\" on the Titelberg plateau in the extreme southwest of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg was the Treveran capital during the 1st century BCE. The transfer of their activities to Trier followed the construction of Agrippa's road linking Trier with Reims which bypassed the Titelberg. During the Roman period, Trier became a Roman colony (in 16 BCE), and the provincial capital of Belgica itself. It was the frequent residence of a number of emperors. An important secondary centre was \"Orolaunum\" (now Arlon, capital of the Belgian Province of Luxembourg), which, in Edith Wightman's assessment, \"became a kind of regional capital for the western Treveri\", attaining \"a degree of prosperity only otherwise reached by \"civitas\" capitals\". The site of \"La Tranchée des Portes\" near Étalle, largest of Belgium by its size (100 hectares) has not still revealed its rank. A recent study shows that it had already human presence around 4000 BCE. Archaeological evidence suggests that the Treveri were divided into five cantons centred respectively on the \"oppida\" of the Titelberg, Wallendorf,, and the. Inscriptions from the Roman imperial period indicate that the \"civitas\" was divided into at least four \"pagi:\" the \"pagus Vilcias\", the \"pagus Teucorias\", the \"pagus Carucum\" extending north of Bitburg, and the \"pagus Ac[...]\" or \"Ag[...]\" (the inscription is incomplete). Wightman tentatively suggests that the \"pagus Vilcias\" might have been the western region around Arlon and Longuyon, and the \"pagus Teucorias\" the southern region around Tholey. Wightman considers it uncertain whether the Aresaces and Caitracates may originally have been \"pagi\" of the Treveri, but asserts that their territory – lying around Mogontiacum (Mainz) – \"always showed particularly close cultural connections with Treveran territory\". External to the Treveri, but subject to them as clients, were the Eburones and perhaps also the Caeroesi and Paemani. The 4th-century poet Ausonius lived in Trier under the Gratian's patronage; he is most famous for his poem \"Mosella,\" evoking life and scenery along the Treveri's arterial river.", "Caesar is not explicit in \"De Bello Gallico\" about whether the Treveri are to be considered to belong to Gallia Celtica or Gallia Belgica, although the former hypothesis enjoys some favour. Writing about a century after Caesar, Pomponius Mela identifies the Treveri as the \"most renowned\" of the Belgae (not to be confounded with the modern-day Belgians). According to the Roman consul Aulus Hirtius in the 1st century BCE, the Treveri differed little from Germanic peoples in their manner of life and \"savage\" behaviour. The Treveri boasted of their Germanic origin, according to Tacitus, in order to distance themselves from \"Gallic laziness\" (\"inertia Gallorum\"). But Tacitus does not include them with the Vangiones, Triboci or Nemetes as \"tribes unquestionably German\". The presence of hall villas of the same type as found in indisputably Germanic territory in northern Germany, alongside Celtic types of villas, corroborates the idea that they had both Celtic and Germanic affinities. Strabo says that their Nervian and Tribocan neighbours were Germanic peoples who by that point had settled on the left bank of the Rhine, while the Treveri are implied to be Gaulish. Jerome states that as of the 4th century their language was similar to that of the Celts of Asia Minor (the Galatians). Jerome probably had first-hand knowledge of these Celtic languages, as he had visited both Augusta Treverorum and Galatia. Very few personal names among the Treveri are of Germanic origin; instead, they are generally Celtic or Latin. Certain distinctively Treveran names are apparently none of the three and may represent a pre-Celtic stratum, according to Wightman (she gives \"Ibliomarus, Cletussto\" and \"Argaippo\" as examples). After the Roman conquest, Latin was used extensively by the Treveri for public and official purposes.", "Originally the \"oppida\" of the Titelberg, Wallendorf, Kastel, Otzenhausen and the Martberg were roughly equal in significance; however, sometime between 100 and 80 BCE, the Titelberg experienced an upsurge of growth which made it \"the central \"oppidum\" of the Treveri\". A large open space in the central square of the Titelberg which would have been used for public meetings of a religious or political nature during the 1st century BCE. By the time of Caesar's invasion, the Treveri seemed to have adopted an oligarchic system of government. The Treveri had a strong cavalry and infantry, and during the Gallic Wars would provide Julius Caesar with his best cavalry. Under their leader Cingetorix, the Treveri served as Roman auxiliaries. However, their loyalties began to change in 54 BCE under the influence of Cingetorix' rival Indutiomarus. According to Caesar, Indutiomarus instigated the revolt of the Eburones under Ambiorix that year and led the Treveri in joining the revolt and enticing Germanic tribes to attack the Romans. The Romans under Titus Labienus killed Indutiomarus and then put down the Treveran revolt; afterwards, Indutiomarus' relatives crossed the Rhine to settle among the Germanic tribes. The Treveri remained neutral during the revolt of Vercingetorix, and were attacked again by Labienus after it. On the whole, the Treveri were more successful than most Gallic tribes in cooperating with the Romans. They probably emerged from the Gallic Wars with the status of a free \"civitas\" exempt from tribute. In 30 BCE, a revolt of the Treveri was suppressed by Marcus Nonius Gallus, and the Titelberg was occupied by a garrison of the Roman army. Agrippa and Augustus undertook the organization of Roman administration in Gaul, laying out an extensive series of roads beginning with Agrippa's governorship of Gaul in 39 BCE, and imposing a census in 27 BCE for purposes of taxation. The Romans built a new road from Trier to Reims via Mamer, to the north, and Arlon, thus by-passing by 25 kilometres the Titelberg and the older Celtic route, and the capital was displaced to Augusta Treverorum (Trier) with no signs of conflict. The vicinity of Trier had been inhabited by isolated farms and hamlets before the Romans, but there had been no urban settlement here. Following the reorganisation of the Roman provinces in Germany in 16 BCE, Augustus decided that the Treveri should become part of the province of Belgica. At an unknown date, the capital of Belgica was moved from Durocortorum Remorum (Reims) to Augusta Treverorum. A significant layer of the Treveran élite seems to have been granted Roman citizenship under Caesar and/or Augustus, by whom they were given the \"nomen\" Julius. During the reigns of Augustus, Tiberius and Claudius, and particularly when Drusus and Germanicus were active in Gaul, Augusta Treverorum rose to considerable importance as a base and supply centre for campaigns in Germany. The city was endowed with an amphitheatre, baths, and other amenities, and for a while Germanicus' family lived in the city. Pliny the Elder reports that Germanicus' son, the future emperor Gaius (Caligula), was born \"among the Treveri, at the village of Ambiatinus, above Confluentes (Koblenz)\", but Suetonius notes that this birthplace was disputed by other sources. A faction of Treveri, led by Julius Florus and allied with the Aeduan Julius Sacrovir, led a rebellion of Gaulish debtors against the Romans in 21 CE. Florus was defeated by his rival Julius Indus, while Sacrovir led the Aedui in revolt. The Romans quickly re-established cordial relations with the Treveri under Indus, who promised obedience to Rome; in contrast, they completely annihilated the Aedui who had sided with Sacrovir. Perhaps under Claudius, the Treveri obtained the status of \"colonia\" and probably the Latin Right without actually being colonized by Roman veterans. Under Roman rule, there was a senate of the Treveri including about a hundred decurions, of which the executive was formed by two \"duoviri\". More serious was the revolt that began with Civilis' Batavian insurrection during the Year of the Four Emperors. In 70, the Treveri under Julius Classicus and Julius Tutor and the Lingones under Julius Sabinus joined the Batavian rebellion and declared Sabinus as Caesar. The revolt was quashed, and more than a hundred rebel Treveran noblemen fled across the Rhine to join their Germanic allies; in the assessment of historian Jeannot Metzler, this event marks the end of aristocratic Treveran cavalry service in the Roman army, the rise of the local bourgeoisie, and the beginnings of \"a second thrust of Romanization\". Camille Jullian attributes to this rebellion the promotion of Durocortorum Remorum (Reims), capital of the perennially loyal Remi, at the expense of the Treveri. By the 2nd and 3rd centuries, representatives of the old élite bearing the \"nomen\" Julius had practically disappeared, and a new élite arose to take their place; these would have originated mainly from the indigenous middle class, according to Wightman. The Treveri suffered from their proximity to the Rhine frontier during the Crisis of the Third Century. Frankish and Alamannic invasions during the 250s led to significant destruction, particularly in rural areas; given the failure of the Roman military to defend effectively against Germanic invasion, country dwellers improvised their own fortifications, often using the stones from tombs and mausoleums. Meanwhile, Augusta Treverorum was becoming an urban centre of the first importance, overtaking even Lugdunum (Lyon). During the Crisis of the Third Century, the city served as the capital of the Gallic Empire under the emperors Tetricus I and II from 271 to 274. The Treveri suffered further devastation from the Alamanni in 275, following which, according to Jeannot Metzler, \"The great majority of agricultural domains lay waste and would never be rebuilt\". It is unclear whether Augusta Treverorum itself fell victim to the Alamannic invasion. From 285 to 395, Augusta Treverorum was one of the residences of the western Roman Emperor, including Maximian, Constantine the Great, Constantius II, Valentinian I, Magnus Maximus, and Theodosius I; from 318 to 407, it served as the seat of the praetorian prefecture of Gaul. By the mid-4th century, the city was counted in a Roman manuscript as one of the four capitals of the world, alongside Rome, Alexandria, and Constantinople. New defensive structures, including fortresses at, Bitburg and Arlon, were constructed to defend against Germanic invasion. After a Vandal invasion in 406, however, the imperial residence was moved to Mediolanum (Milan) while the praetorian guard was withdrawn to Arelate (Arles).", "The Treveri were originally polytheists, and following the Roman conquest many of their gods were identified with Roman equivalents or coupled with Roman gods. Among the most important gods worshipped in Treveran territory were Mercury and Rosmerta, Lenus Mars and Ancamna, Jupiter Optimus Maximus, Apollo, Intarabus, and Minerva. Among the deities unique to the Treveri were Intarabus, Ritona, Inciona and Veraudunus, and the Xulsigiae. J.-J. Hatt considers that the Treveri, along with their neighbours the Mediomatrici, Leuci, and Triboci, \"appeared as pilots in the conservation of native Celtic and pre-Celtic [religious] traditions\". During the Roman period, Lenus Mars (or Mars Iovantucarus) has been deemed \"the main god of the Treveri\", as evidenced by dedications found across the different sections of \"civitas Treverorum\". They are connected in particular with a monumental sanctuary situated just outside the \"civitas\" capital of Trier. The cult of Lenus Mars was probably registered as a public cult in the official calendar of the \"civitas Treverorum\". Three important pagan sanctuaries in the immediate vicinity of Trier alone are well-known: the extensive Altbachtal temple complex, the nearby temple Am Herrenbrünnchen, and the important Lenus Mars Temple on the left bank of the Moselle. Inscriptions attest to the existence of a Treveran cult to Rome and Augustus, but the location of the temple is uncertain. Wightman suggests that the wholly classical and well-endowed temple Am Herrenbrünnchen would be a possibility, while Metzger argues that it can only have been a poorly known fourth temple in the city – the so-called Asclepius Temple not far from the bridge over the Moselle. The Altbachtal complex has yielded a wealth of inscriptions and the remains of a theatre and over a dozen temples or shrines, mostly Romano-Celtic \"fana\" dedicated to native, Roman, and Oriental deities. Outside of the city, many sacred sites are known; they are typically enclosed by a wall. Among these may be mentioned the temple of Apollo and Sirona at Hochscheid, that of Lenus Mars on the by, the temple and theatre of Mars Smertrius and Ancamna at Möhn, and a mother-goddess sanctuary at Dhronecken. Under Roman influence, a variety of new cults were introduced: Mithras had a temple in the Altbachtal, Cybele and Attis were worshipped there and at Dhronecken, and inscriptions and artwork attest to other Oriental deities such as Sabazius, Isis and Serapis. Besides the temple of Rome and Augustus mentioned above, the imperial cult is also evidenced by numerous religious inscriptions \"in honour of the divine house\" (i.e. the imperial family). In the 4th century, Christianity rose to prominence in Augusta Treverorum. The city became the seat of a Christian archbishopric during the second half of the 3rd century, and under Constantine I, it became an important centre for the diffusion of Christianity. The present-day cathedral has its origins in a 4th-century double church built close to the imperial palace, probably around 321 and perhaps thanks to a donation from Helena Augusta. Approximately four times larger than today's cathedral, this church was one of Constantine's great imperial foundations, ranking with other major churches at Rome, Constantinople, Jerusalem, and Bethlehem. Jerome, Athanasius of Alexandria and Martin of Tours all lived and worked in Trier during the 4th century, while Ambrose was born there. In the time of Gratian, the Altbachtal complex was \"not so much given up as deliberately destroyed\"; cult statues were smashed, and some temples were secularized and made into homes.", "The territory of the Treveri had formed part of the, covering the Hallstatt D and La Tène A-B periods (from 600 to 250 BCE). During the century from 250 to 150 BCE, the area between the Rhine and the Meuse underwent a drastic population restructuring as some crisis forced most signs of inhabitation onto the heights of the Hunsrück. Following this crisis, population returned to the lowlands and it is possible to speak with confidence of the Treveri by name. Much of the Treveran countryside seems to have been organized into rural settlements by the end of the 2nd century BCE, and this organization persisted into Roman times. Even before Roman times, the Treveri had developed trade, agriculture and metal-working. They had adopted a money-based economy based upon silver coins, aligned with the Roman \"denarius\", along with cheaper bronze or bronze-lead coins. Trade goods made their way to the Treveri from Etruria and the Greek world; monetary evidence suggests strong trade links with the neighbouring Remi. Iron ore deposits in Treveran territory were heavily worked and formed part of the basis for the area's wealth. Before and for some time after the Roman conquest, Treveran nobles were buried in chamber tombs which were covered with \"tumuli\" and filled with sumptuous goods including imported \"amphorae,\" weaponry and andirons. By the 2nd century CE, wealthy Treveri were building elaborate funerary monuments such as the World Heritage-listed Igel Column, or the sculpted grave-stones found at Arlon, Neumagen and, all of which depict the deceased's livelihood and/or interests during life. As cremation had become more common under Roman rule, gravestones often had special niches to receive urns of ashes as well as grave-goods. Roman-era grave-goods included the remains of animals used as food (particularly pigs and birds), coins, \"amphorae,\" pottery, glassware, jewellery and scissors. Burial replaced cremation again in the late 3rd century. The Treveri adapted readily to Roman civilization, adopting certain Mediterranean practices in cuisine, clothing, and decorative arts starting as early as the Roman occupation of the Titelberg in 30 BCE. As early as 21 CE, according to Greg Woolf, \"the Treveri and the Aedui [were] arguably those tribes which had undergone the greatest cultural change since the conquest\". The Romans introduced viticulture to the Moselle valley (see Moselle wine). In general, the archaeological record attests to ongoing rural development and prosperity into the 3rd century CE. Along with the neighbouring Remi, the Treveri can be credited with a significant innovation in Roman technology: the \"vallus\", a machine drawn by horses or mules to reap wheat. The \"vallus\" is known from funerary reliefs and literary descriptions. The many individual Treveri attested epigraphically in other \"civitates\" may attest to the development of a Treveran commercial network within the western parts of the Empire. During the early 2nd century CE, Augusta Treverorum was an important centre for the production of samian ware (along with Lezoux and Rheinzabern), supplying the Rhineland with high-quality glossy red pottery which was often elaborately decorated with moulded designs. Treveran villa architecture shows both coexistence and mixture of typically Gallic and Germanic traits. In some villas, such as at and Echternach, small rooms opened onto a large central hall, rather than onto the front verandah as in most places in Gaul; this arrangement has been considered typically ‘Germanic’, and may reflect a social structure in which extended families and clients all lived in a patron's home. On the other hand, typically ‘Gaulish’ villas are also found in Treveran territory." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Major works.", "\"Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature\".", "\"Contingency, Irony, and Solidarity\".", "\"Objectivity, Relativism, and Truth\".", "\"Essays on Heidegger and Others\".", "\"Achieving Our Country\".", "On human rights.", "Reception and criticism." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Richard Rorty was born on October 4, 1931, in New York City. His parents, James and Winifred Rorty, were activists, writers and social democrats. His maternal grandfather, Walter Rauschenbusch, was a central figure in the Social Gospel movement of the early 20th century. His father experienced two nervous breakdowns in his later life. The second breakdown, which he had in the early 1960s, was more serious and \"included claims to divine prescience.\" Consequently, Richard Rorty fell into depression as a teenager and in 1962 began a six-year psychiatric analysis for obsessional neurosis. Rorty wrote about the beauty of rural New Jersey orchids in his short autobiography, \"Trotsky and the Wild Orchids,\" and his desire to combine aesthetic beauty and social justice. His colleague Jürgen Habermas's obituary for Rorty points out that Rorty's contrasting childhood experiences, such as beautiful orchids versus reading a book in his parents' house that defended Leon Trotsky against Stalin, created an early interest in philosophy. He describes Rorty as an ironist: Nothing is sacred to Rorty the ironist. Asked at the end of his life about the 'holy', the strict atheist answered with words reminiscent of the young Hegel: 'My sense of the holy is bound up with the hope that some day my remote descendants will live in a global civilization in which love is pretty much the only law.' Rorty enrolled at the University of Chicago shortly before turning 15, where he received a bachelor's and a master's degree in philosophy (studying under Richard McKeon), continuing at Yale University for a PhD in philosophy (1952–1956). He married another academic, Amélie Oksenberg (Harvard University professor), with whom he had a son, Jay, in 1954. After two years in the United States Army, he taught at Wellesley College for three years until 1961. Rorty divorced his wife and then married Stanford University bioethicist Mary Varney in 1972. They had two children, Kevin and Patricia. While Richard Rorty was a \"strict atheist\" (Habermas), Mary Varney Rorty was a practicing Mormon. Rorty was a professor of philosophy at Princeton University for 21 years. In 1981, he was a recipient of a MacArthur Fellowship, commonly known as the \"Genius Award\", in its first year of awarding, and in 1982 he became Kenan Professor of the Humanities at the University of Virginia. In 1998 Rorty became professor of comparative literature (and philosophy, by courtesy), at Stanford University, where he spent the remainder of his academic career. During this period he was especially popular, and once quipped that he had been assigned to the position of \"transitory professor of trendy studies.\" Writer and neuroscientist Sam Harris studied under Rorty as an undergraduate at Stanford; Harris later remarked that \"I just argued with him endlessly but found it incredibly useful in refining my own views.\" Rorty's doctoral dissertation, \"The Concept of Potentiality\" was an historical study of the concept, completed under the supervision of Paul Weiss, but his first book (as editor), \"The Linguistic Turn\" (1967), was firmly in the prevailing analytic mode, collecting classic essays on the linguistic turn in analytic philosophy. However, he gradually became acquainted with the American philosophical movement known as pragmatism, particularly the writings of John Dewey. The noteworthy work being done by analytic philosophers such as Willard Van Orman Quine and Wilfrid Sellars caused significant shifts in his thinking, which were reflected in his next book, \"Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature\" (1979). Pragmatists generally hold that the meaning of a proposition is determined by its use in linguistic practice. Rorty combined pragmatism about truth and other matters with a later Wittgensteinian philosophy of language which declares that meaning is a social-linguistic product, and sentences do not 'link up' with the world in a correspondence relation. Rorty wrote in his \"Contingency, Irony, and Solidarity\" (1989): Truth cannot be out there—cannot exist independently of the human mind—because sentences cannot so exist, or be out there. The world is out there, but descriptions of the world are not. Only descriptions of the world can be true or false. The world on its own unaided by the describing activities of humans cannot.\"(5) Views like this led Rorty to question many of philosophy's most basic assumptions—and have also led to him being apprehended as a postmodern/deconstructionist philosopher. Indeed, from the late 1980s through the 1990s, Rorty focused on the continental philosophical tradition, examining the works of Friederich Nietzsche, Martin Heidegger, Michel Foucault, Jean-François Lyotard and Jacques Derrida. His work from this period included: \"Contingency, Irony, and Solidarity\" (1989); \"Essays on Heidegger and Others: Philosophical Papers\" (1991); and \"Truth and Progress: Philosophical Papers\" (1998). The latter two works attempt to bridge the dichotomy between analytic and continental philosophy by claiming that the two traditions complement rather than oppose each other. According to Rorty, analytic philosophy may not have lived up to its pretensions and may not have solved the puzzles it thought it had. Yet such philosophy, in the process of finding reasons for putting those pretensions and puzzles aside, helped earn itself an important place in the history of ideas. By giving up on the quest for apodicticity and finality that Edmund Husserl shared with Rudolf Carnap and Bertrand Russell, and by finding new reasons for thinking that such quest will never succeed, analytic philosophy cleared a path that leads past scientism, just as the German idealists cleared a path that led around empiricism. In the last fifteen years of his life, Rorty continued to publish his writings, including four volumes of his archived philosophical papers, \"Achieving Our Country\" (1998), a political manifesto partly based on readings of Dewey and Walt Whitman in which he defended the idea of a progressive, pragmatic left against what he feels are defeatist, anti-liberal, anti-humanist positions espoused by the critical left and continental school. Rorty felt these anti-humanist positions were personified by figures like Nietzsche, Heidegger, and Foucault. Such theorists were also guilty of an \"inverted Platonism\" in which they attempted to craft overarching, metaphysical, \"sublime\" philosophies—which in fact contradicted their core claims to be ironist and contingent. Rorty's last works, after his move to Stanford University, focused on the place of religion in contemporary life, liberal communities, comparative literature and philosophy as \"cultural politics\". Shortly before his death, he wrote a piece called \"The Fire of Life\", (published in the November 2007 issue of \"Poetry\" magazine), in which he meditates on his diagnosis and the comfort of poetry. He concludes, \"I now wish that I had spent somewhat more of my life with verse. This is not because I fear having missed out on truths that are incapable of statement in prose. There are no such truths; there is nothing about death that Swinburne and Landor knew but Epicurus and Heidegger failed to grasp. Rather, it is because I would have lived more fully if I had been able to rattle off more old chestnuts—just as I would have if I had made more close friends. Cultures with richer vocabularies are more fully human—farther removed from the beasts—than those with poorer ones; individual men and women are more fully human when their memories are amply stocked with verses.\" On June 8, 2007, Rorty died in his home from pancreatic cancer.", "", "In \"Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature\" (1979), Rorty argues that the central problems of modern epistemology depend upon a picture of the mind as trying to faithfully represent (or \"mirror\") a mind-independent, external reality. If we give up this metaphor, then the entire enterprise of foundationalist epistemology is misguided. A foundationalist believes that in order to avoid the regress inherent in claiming that all beliefs are justified by other beliefs, some beliefs must be self-justifying and form the foundations to all knowledge. There were two senses of \"foundationalism\" criticized in \"Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature\". In the epistemological sense, Rorty criticized the attempt to justify knowledge claims by tracing them to a set of foundations (e.g., self-evident premises or noninferential sensations); more broadly, he criticized the claim of philosophy to function foundationally within a culture. The former argument draws on Sellars's critique of the idea that there is a \"given\" in sensory perception, in combination with Quine's critique of the distinction between analytic sentences (sentences which are true solely in virtue of what they mean) and synthetic sentences (sentences made true by the world). Each critique, taken alone, provides a problem for a conception of how philosophy ought to proceed, yet leaves enough of the tradition intact to proceed with its former aspirations. Combined, Rorty claimed, the two critiques are devastating. With no privileged insight into the structure of belief and no privileged realm of truths or meaning, we have, instead, knowledge as those beliefs that pay their way. The only worthwhile description of the actual process of inquiry, Rorty claimed, was a Kuhnian account of the standard phases of the progress of disciplines, oscillating through normal and abnormal periods, between routine problem-solving and intellectual crises. After rejecting foundationalism, Rorty argues that one of the few roles left for a philosopher is to act as an intellectual gadfly, attempting to induce a revolutionary break with previous practice, a role that Rorty was happy to take on himself. Rorty suggests that each generation tries to subject all disciplines to the model that the most successful discipline of the day employs. In Rorty's view, the success of modern science has led academics in philosophy and the humanities to mistakenly imitate scientific methods. \"Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature\" popularized and extended ideas of Wilfrid Sellars (the critique of the Myth of the Given) and Willard Van Orman Quine (the critique of the analytic–synthetic distinction) and others who advocate the Wittgensteinian doctrine of \"dissolving\" rather than solving philosophical problems.", "In \"Contingency, Irony, and Solidarity\" (1989), Rorty abandons specifically analytic modes of explication in favor of narrative pastiche in order to develop an alternative conceptual vocabulary to that of the \"Platonists\" he rejects. This schema is based on the belief that there is no worthwhile theory of truth, aside from a non-epistemic semantic one (as Donald Davidson developed out of the work of Alfred Tarski). Rorty suggests that the task of philosophy should be distinguished along public and private lines. Private philosophers, who provide one with greater abilities to (re)create oneself, a view adapted from Nietzsche and which Rorty also identifies with the novels of Marcel Proust and Vladimir Nabokov, should not be expected to help with public problems. For a public philosophy, one might turn to Rawls or Habermas. This book also marks his first attempt to specifically articulate a political vision consistent with his philosophy, the vision of a diverse community bound together by opposition to cruelty, and not by abstract ideas such as 'justice' or 'common humanity,' policed by the separation of the public and private realms of life. In this book, Rorty introduces the terminology of ironism, which he uses to describe his mindset and his philosophy.", "Amongst the essays in \"Objectivity, Relativism, and Truth: Philosophical Papers, Volume 1\" (1990), is \"The Priority of Democracy to Philosophy,\" in which Rorty defends Rawls against communitarian critics. Rorty argues that liberalism can \"get along without philosophical presuppositions,\" while at the same time conceding to communitarians that \"a conception of the self that makes the community constitutive of the self does comport well with liberal democracy.\" For Rorty, social institutions ought to be thought of as \"experiments in cooperation rather than as attempts to embody a universal and ahistorical order.\"", "In this text, Rorty focuses primarily on the continental philosophers Heidegger and Derrida. He argues that these European \"post-Nietzscheans\" share much with American pragmatists, in that they critique metaphysics and reject the correspondence theory of truth. When discussing Derrida, Rorty claims that Derrida is most useful when viewed as a funny writer who attempted to circumvent the Western philosophical tradition, rather than the inventor of a philosophical (or literary) \"method.\" In this vein, Rorty criticizes Derrida's followers like Paul de Man for taking deconstructive literary theory too seriously.", "In \"Achieving Our Country: Leftist Thought in Twentieth-Century America\" (1997), Rorty differentiates between what he sees as the two sides of the Left, a cultural Left and a progressive Left. He criticizes the cultural Left, which is exemplified by post-structuralists such as Foucault and postmodernists such as Lyotard, for offering critiques of society, but no alternatives (or alternatives that are so vague and general as to be abdications). Although these intellectuals make insightful claims about the ills of society, Rorty suggests that they provide no alternatives and even occasionally deny the possibility of progress. On the other hand, the progressive Left, exemplified for Rorty by the pragmatist Dewey, Whitman and James Baldwin, makes hope for a better future its priority. Without hope, Rorty argues, change is spiritually inconceivable and the cultural Left has begun to breed cynicism. Rorty sees the progressive Left as acting in the philosophical spirit of pragmatism.", "Rorty's notion of human rights is grounded on the notion of sentimentality. He contended that throughout history humans have devised various means of construing certain groups of individuals as inhuman or subhuman. Thinking in rationalist (foundationalist) terms will not solve this problem, he claimed. Rorty advocated the creation of a culture of global human rights in order to stop violations from happening through a sentimental education. He argued that we should create a sense of empathy or teach empathy to others so as to understand others' suffering.", "Rorty is among the most widely discussed and controversial contemporary philosophers, and his works have provoked thoughtful responses from many other well-respected figures in the field. In Robert Brandom's anthology, entitled \"Rorty and His Critics\", for example, Rorty's philosophy is discussed by Donald Davidson, Jürgen Habermas, Hilary Putnam, John McDowell, Jacques Bouveresse, and Daniel Dennett, among others. In 2007, Roger Scruton wrote, \"Rorty was paramount among those thinkers who advance their own opinion as immune to criticism, by pretending that it is not truth but consensus that counts, while defining the consensus in terms of people like themselves.\" Ralph Marvin Tumaob concludes that Rorty was really influenced by the notion of Jean-François Lyotard's metanarratives, and by this he further added that \"postmodernism was influenced further by the works of Rorty\". John McDowell is strongly influenced by Rorty, particularly by Rorty's \"Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature\" (1979). In continental philosophy, authors such as Jürgen Habermas, Gianni Vattimo, Jacques Derrida, Albrecht Wellmer, Hans Joas, Chantal Mouffe, Simon Critchley, Esa Saarinen, and Mike Sandbothe are influenced in different ways by Rorty's thinking. American novelist David Foster Wallace titled a short story in his collection \"\" \"Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature\", and critics have attributed some of Wallace's writings on Irony to Rorty. Susan Haack has been a fierce critic of Rorty's neopragmatism. Haack criticises Rorty's claim to be a pragmatist at all and wrote a short play called \"We Pragmatists\", where Rorty and Charles Sanders Peirce have a fictional conversation using only accurate quotes from their own writing. For Haack, the only link between Rorty's neopragmatism and the pragmatism of Peirce is the name. Haack believes Rorty's neopragmatism is both anti-philosophical and anti-intellectual, and exposes people further to rhetorical manipulation. Although Rorty was an avowed liberal, his political and moral philosophies have been attacked by commentators from the Left, some of whom believe them to be insufficient frameworks for social justice. Rorty was also criticized by others for his rejection of the idea that science can depict the world. One criticism, especially of \"Contingency, Irony, and Solidarity\" is that Rorty's philosophical 'hero,' the ironist, is an elitist figure. Rorty argues that the majority of people would be \"commonsensically nominalist and historicist\" but not ironist. These people would combine an ongoing attention to the particular as opposed to the transcendent (nominalism), with an awareness of their place in a continuum of contingent lived experience alongside other individuals (historicist), without necessarily having continual doubts about the resulting worldview as the ironist does. An ironist is someone who: 1) \"has radical and continuing doubts about their final vocabulary\"; 2) \"realizes that argument phrased in their vocabulary can neither underwrite nor dissolve these doubts\"; and 3) \"does not think their vocabulary is closer to reality than others\" (all 73, \"Contingency, Irony, and Solidarity\"). On the other hand, the Italian philosopher Gianni Vattimo alongside the Spanish philosopher Santiago Zabala in their 2011 book \"Hermeneutic Communism: from Heidegger to Marx\" affirm that together with Richard Rorty we also consider it a flaw that \"the main thing contemporary academic Marxists inherit from Marx and Engels is the conviction that the quest for the cooperative commonwealth should be scientific rather than utopian, knowing rather than romantic.\" As we will show hermeneutics contains all the utopian and romantic features that Rorty refers to because, contrary to the knowledge of science, it does not claim modern universality but rather postmodern particularism. Rorty often draws on a broad range of other philosophers to support his views, and his interpretation of their works has been contested. Since Rorty is working from a tradition of re-interpretation, he remains uninterested in 'accurately' portraying other thinkers, but rather in utilizing their work in the same way a literary critic might use a novel. His essay \"The Historiography of Philosophy: Four Genres\" is a thorough description of how he treats the greats in the history of philosophy. In \"Contingency, Irony, and Solidarity\", Rorty attempts to disarm those who criticize his writings by arguing that their philosophical criticisms are made using axioms that are explicitly rejected within Rorty's own philosophy. For instance, Rorty defines allegations of irrationality as affirmations of vernacular \"otherness\", and so—Rorty argues—accusations of irrationality can be expected during \"any\" argument and must simply be brushed aside." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Editions.", "Updates." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Netscape Communicator was available in various editions, such as \"Professional\" and \"Complete\". The following components were included in Netscape Communicator (different editions had different components and some components were dropped in later editions):", "In October 1998, a major update to the program was released as Netscape 4.5. This included many improvements, mostly to the Messenger e-mail client, which now also took on the features of Collabra. However, some of the less popular components, such as Netcaster, were dropped. A feature called \"Roaming Profiles\" was added in version 4.5 that synchronized a user's bookmarks, address book and preferences with a remote server, so that a user's home and work browsers could have the same bookmarks. By the time version 4.5 was released, Netscape had started the Mozilla open source project and had ceased charging for Communicator. The term \"Navigator\" referred to the browser component alone, while \"Communicator\" referred to the suite as a whole, as established in version 4.0. However, due to user confusion, the names were often used interchangeably. Also, because none of the applications besides Navigator were popular on their own, and because Netscape never produced any other desktop software that approached the popularity of Navigator, people would often refer to both the Communicator suite and the Navigator browser as simply \"Netscape\". The Mozilla Foundation continued to develop the Netscape code base, providing the Mozilla Application Suite as a continuation of Netscape Communicator. The Mozilla Foundation decided in 2006 to discontinue development of the Application Suite. A community-maintained version called SeaMonkey has come to replace the Application Suite." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Gameplay and mechanics.", "Community Mods.", "Player statistics and ranking.", "History.", "Reception." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Gameplay is simplistic in nature, yet requires skill, tactics, and practice to master. Scorched 3D challenges players to destroy enemy tanks using a vast arsenal of weapon systems, defense systems, gadgets, and maneuvers. At the beginning of each round, AI and player controlled tanks are randomly situated on a fully deformable 3D landscape. Players then launch weapons at enemy tanks by gradually adjusting their tank's angle, rotation, and power. They may also equip shields and use defensive gadgets or countermeasures based on their current landscape position. To win, a player must kill a majority of the enemy tanks by the end of 10 rounds and have the highest score. Extra score and rewards are given for surviving the end of a round. Another important element of gameplay, is the dynamic economy. Players may earn cash each round by damaging or killing enemy tanks and structures. The player can then use their funds to buy advanced special weapons, gadgets, defenses and fuels before the next round. Every shield and weapon is unique, and each has a variety of different strengths and weaknesses. Players can influence the economy by purchasing weapons and upgrades. The economy is designed to fluctuate based on player buying patterns. The default mode stays true to the original gameplay formula of Scorched Earth. Nearly all classic weapons make a new 3D debut, and include: Defense is also important on the battlefield:", "\"Scorched 3D\" is heavily user modifiable, and supports a variety of exotic community mods that users may choose to download.", "Scorched 3D allows players to view and gain stats and medals that are displayed in the scorched3d.co.uk forums. These stats appear if the player has registered their username at the forum and have linked their in game Player ID via the website's User Control Panel. Accumulated scores are based on skill, deaths, kills, and rank. The higher the rank number, the less skilled, or less active a player generally is. Medals are gained through winning tournaments and destroying the most enemy tanks by the end of the season.", "The first build was created in April 2001 by lead developer Gavin Camp. The inspiration behind Scorched 3D was revealed in an interview with him on The O'Reilly Network: Scorched Earth was an institution for me and my friends at university. On many nights we would play the game while drinking — though it is pretty good even without the drink. Recently on a boring flight I played it with friends for eight hours straight; we hardly noticed the time passing. I thought that Scorched in 3D would allow many more game concepts, and [would] also combine my love of 3D graphics with the classic game. \"Scorched 3D\" originally started as a 3D landscape generator. It was eventually converted into a game, and is continually updated with new features and concepts. The project is currently being hosted by SourceForge.net. The latest public release version is v44. Since version 43.3d it includes a new real-time gameplay mode, as well as a new included mod: AWE (Armored Warfare Edition).", "The game was downloaded alone via Sourceforge.net between 2003 and May 2017 over 2.2 million times. A 2004 review in German print magazine LinuxUser was favourable. In 2005 a O'Reilly article on \"Open Source Mac Gaming\" recommended \"Scorched 3D\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "User interface.", "Technology.", "Versions." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The OpenCms user interface runs in a web browser, placing control elements directly on the web page that is edited. Content on a page can be modified by drag and drop. Text can be edited \"inline\" directly on the web page, or in an alternative form based editor. Web pages and their navigation structure are managed in a dedicated sitemap editor. Content elements are stored in galleries and can be reused between different web pages or web sites. An additional \"power user\" interface for Administrators provides role and permission management. Since version 9.5 OpenCms offers layout and template creation without coding.", "OpenCms runs on the Java platform as a servlet. It uses several libraries provided by the Apache foundation. The user interface has been developed using Vaadin and the Google Web Toolkit. The OpenCms content repository is stored in a database, with MariaDB, MySQL, PostgreSQL, HSQLDB, Oracle, MSSQL and DB2 being natively supported. It can be accessed with CMIS, WebDAV as an SMB network share or through the native web interface. Text content in OpenCms is defined using an XML schema. The user interface for the content managers creates XML files based on these schemas, which are stored in the database repository. A template system based on JavaServer Pages then creates web pages from the XML.", "OpenCms has been under continuous development as an open source project since the year 2000. A major version is released every 18 to 24 months, and bugfix releases are usually available every 3 to 4 months. The revision control of the OpenCms source code is done using Git on GitHub. The following table provides an overview of all major OpenCms releases." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "George Herbert Mead.", "Herbert Blumer.", "Other theorists.", "Assumptions, premises, and research methodology.", "Assumptions.", "Premises.", "Research methodology.", "Five central ideas.", "Central interactionist themes.", "Snow's Four Principles.", "Applications.", "New media.", "Criticisms.", "Framework and theories.", "Social structure.", "Language.", "Critical perspective.", "Society for the Study of Symbolic Interaction." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Symbolic interaction was conceived by George Herbert Mead and Charles Horton Cooley. Mead argued that people's selves are social products, but that these selves are also purposive and creative, and believed that the true test of any theory was that it was \"useful in solving complex social problems\". Mead's influence was said to be so powerful that sociologists regard him as the one \"true founder\" of the symbolic interactionism tradition. Although Mead taught in a philosophy department, he is best known by sociologists as the teacher who trained a generation of the best minds in their field. Strangely, he never set forth his wide-ranging ideas in a book or systematic treatise. After his death in 1931, his students pulled together class notes and conversations their mentor and published \"Mind, Self and Society\" in his name. It is a common misconception that John Dewey was the leader of this sociological theory; according to \"The Handbook of Symbolic Interactionism,\" Mead was undoubtedly the individual who \"transformed the inner structure of the theory, moving it to a higher level of theoretical complexity.\" \"Mind, Self and Society\" is the book published by Mead's students based on his lectures and teaching, and the title of the book highlights the core concept of social interactionism. \"Mind\" refers to an individual's ability to use symbols to create meanings for the world around the individual – individuals use language and thought to accomplish this goal. \"Self\" refers to an individual's ability to reflect on the way that the individual is perceived by others. Finally, \"society\", according to Mead, is where all of these interactions are taking place. A general description of Mead's compositions portray how outside social structures, classes, and power and abuse affect the advancement of self, personality for gatherings verifiably denied of the ability to characterize themselves.", "Herbert Blumer, a student and interpreter of Mead, coined the term and put forward an influential summary: people act a certain way towards things based on the meaning those things already have, and these meanings are derived from social interaction and modified through interpretation. Blumer was a social constructionist, and was influenced by John Dewey; as such, this theory is very phenomenologically-based. Given that Blumer was the first to use symbolic interaction as a term, he is known as the founder of symbolic interaction. He believed that the \"Most human and humanizing activity that people engage in is talking to each other.\" According to Blumer, human groups are created by people and it is only actions between them that define a society. He argued that with interaction and through interaction individuals are able to \"produce common symbols by approving, arranging, and redefining them.\" Having said that, interaction is shaped by a mutual exchange of interpretation, the ground of socialization.", "While having less influential work in the discipline, Charles Horton Cooley and William Isaac Thomas are considered to be influential representatives of the theory. Cooley's work on connecting society and the individuals influenced Mead's further workings. Cooley felt society and the individuals could only be understood in relationship to each other. Cooley's concept of the “looking-glass self,” influenced Mead’s theory of self and symbolic interactionism. W. I. Thomas is also known as a representative of symbolic interactionism. His main work was a theory of human motivation addressing interactions between individuals and the \"social sources of behaviors.\" He attempted to \"explain the proper methodological approach to social life; develop a theory of human motivation; spell out a working conception of adult socialization; and provide the correct perspective on deviance and disorganization.\" A majority of scholars agree with Thomas. Two other theorists who have influenced symbolic interaction theory are Yrjö Engeström and David Middleton. Engeström and Middleton explained the usefulness of symbolic interactionism in the communication field in a variety of work settings, including \"courts of law, health care, computer software design, scientific laboratory, telephone sales, control, repair, and maintenance of advanced manufacturing systems\". Other scholars credited for their contribution to the theory are Thomas, Park, James, Horton Cooley, Znaniecki, Baldwin, Redfield, and Wirth. Unlike other social sciences, symbolic interactionism emphasizes greatly on the ideas of action instead of culture, class and power. According to behaviorism, Darwinism, pragmatism, as well as Max Weber, action theory contributed significantly to the formation of social interactionism as a theoretical perspective in communication studies.", "", "Most symbolic interactionists believe a physical reality does indeed exist by an individual's social definitions, and that social definitions do develop in part or in relation to something \"real\". People thus do not respond to this reality directly, but rather to the social understanding of reality; i.e., they respond to this reality indirectly through a kind of filter which consists of individuals' different perspectives. This means that humans exist not in the physical space composed of realities, but in the \"world\" composed only of \"objects\". Three assumptions frame symbolic interactionism:", "Having defined some of the underlying assumptions of symbolic interactionism, it is necessary to address the premises that each assumption supports. According to Blumer (1969), there are three premises that can be derived from the assumptions above. 1) \"Humans act toward things on the basis of the meanings they ascribe to those things.\" The first premise includes everything that a human being may note in their world, including physical objects, actions and concepts. Essentially, individuals behave towards objects and others based on the personal meanings that the individual has already given these items. Blumer was trying to put emphasis on the meaning behind individual behaviors, specifically speaking, psychological and sociological explanations for those actions and behaviors. 2) \"The meaning of such things is derived from, or arises out of, the social interaction that one has with others and the society.\" The second premise explains the meaning of such things is derived from, or arises out of, the social interaction that one has with other humans. Blumer, following Mead, claimed people interact with each other by interpreting or defining each other's actions instead of merely reacting to each other's actions. Their \"response\" is not made directly to the actions of one another but instead is based on the meaning which they attach to such actions. Thus, human interaction is mediated by the use of symbols and signification, by interpretation, or by ascertaining the meaning of one another's actions. Meaning is either taken for granted and pushed aside as an unimportant element which need not to be investigated, or it is regarded as a mere neutral link or one of the causal chains between the causes or factors responsible for human behavior and this behavior as the product of such factors. 3) \"The Meanings are handled in, and modified through, an interpretative process used by the person in dealing with the things he/she encounters.\" Symbolic interactionists describe thinking as an inner conversation. Mead called this inner dialogue \"minding\", which is the delay in one's thought process that happens when one thinks about what they will do next. These meanings are handled in, and modified through, an interpretive process used by the person in dealing with the things he or she encounters. We naturally talk to ourselves in order to sort out the meaning of a difficult situation. But first, we need language. Before we can think, we must be able to interact symbolically. The emphasis on symbols, negotiated meaning, and social construction of society brought attention to the roles people play. Role-taking is a key mechanism that permits people to see another person's perspective to understand what an action might mean to another person. Role-taking is a part of our lives at an early age, for instance, playing house and pretending to be someone else. There is an improvisational quality to roles; however, actors often take on a script that they follow. Because of the uncertainty of roles in social contexts, the burden of role-making is on the person in the situation. In this sense, we are proactive participants in our environment.", "The majority of interactionist research uses qualitative research methods, like participant observation, to study aspects of social interaction, and/or individuals' selves. Participant observation allows researchers to access symbols and meanings, as in Howard Becker's \"Art Worlds\" and Arlie Hochschild's \"The Managed Heart\". They argue that close contact and immersion in the everyday activities of the participants is necessary for understanding the meaning of actions, defining situations and the process that actors construct the situation through their interaction. Because of this close contact, interactions cannot remain completely liberated of value commitments. In most cases, they make use of their values in choosing what to study; however, they seek to be objective in how they conduct the research. Therefore, the symbolic-interaction approach is a micro-level orientation focusing on human interaction in specific situations.", "There are five central ideas to symbolic interactionism according to Joel M. Charon (2004):", "To Blumer's conceptual perspective, he put them in three core propositions: that people act toward things, including each other, on the basis of the meanings they have for them; that these meanings are derived through social interaction with others; and that these meanings are managed and transformed through an interpretive process that people use to make sense of and handle the objects that constitute their social worlds. This perspective can also be described as three core principles- Meaning, Language and Thinking- in which social constructs are formed. The principle of meaning is the center of human behavior. Language provides meaning by providing means to symbols. These symbols differentiate social relations of humans from that of animals. By humans giving meaning to symbols, they can express these things with language. In turn, symbols form the basis of communication. Symbols become imperative components for the formation of any kind of communicative act. Thinking then changes the interpretation of individuals as it pertains to symbols.", "Keeping Blumer's earlier work in mind David A. Snow, professor of sociology at the University of California, Irvine, suggests four broader and even more basic orienting principles: human agency, interactive determination, symbolization, and emergence. Snow uses these four principles as the thematic bases for identifying and discussing contributions to the study of social movements.", "Symbolic interaction can be used to explain one's identity in terms of roles being \"ideas and principles on 'what to do' in a given situation,\" as noted by Hewitt. Symbolic Interactionist identity presents in 3 categories- situated, personal and social. Situated identity refers to the ability to view themselves as others do. This is often a snapshot view in that it is short, but can be very impactful. From this experience, one wishes to differentiate themselves from others and the personal identity comes to exist. This view is when one wishes to make themselves known for who they truly are, not the view of others. From the personal identity taking place, comes the social identity where connections and likeness are made with individuals sharing similar identities or identity traits. This viewpoint of symbolic interactionism can be applied to the use of social networking sites and how one's identity is presented on those sites. With social networking sites, one can boast (or post) their identity through their newsfeed. The personal identity presents itself in the need for individuals to post milestones that one has achieved, in efforts to differentiate themselves. The social identity presents itself when individuals \"tag\" others in their posts, pictures, etc. Situated identities may be present in the need to defend something on social media or arguments that occur in comments, where one feels it necessary to \"prove\" themselves. Coming from the viewpoint that we learn, or at least desire, how to expect other people's reactions/responses to things, Bruce Link and his colleagues studied how expectations of the reactions of others can affect the mental illness stigma. The participants of the study were individuals with psychosis who answered questions relating to discrimination, stigma, and rejection. The goal of the study was to determine whether others' expectations affect the participants' internalized stigmas, anticipated rejection, concerns with staying in, and other. Results found that high levels of internalized stigma were only present in the minority, however, anticipation of rejection, stigma consciousness, perceived devaluation discrimination and concerns with staying in were found to be more prevalent in participants. These perceptions were correlated with the outcomes of withdrawal, self-esteem and isolation from relatives. The study found that anticipation of rejection played the largest role in internalized stigmas.", "New media is a term used to define all that is related to the internet and the interplay between technology, images and sound. As studies of online community proliferate, the concept of online community has become a more accepted social construct. Studies encompassed discursive communities; identity; community as social reality; networking; the public sphere; and ease and anonymity in interactions. These studies show that online community is an important social construct in terms of its cultural, structural, political and economic character. It has been demonstrated that people's ideas about community are formed, in part, through interactions both in online forums and face-to-face. As a result, people act in their communities according to the meanings they derive about their environment, whether online or offline, from those interactions. This perspective reveals that online communication may very well take on different meanings for different people depending on information, circumstance, relationships, power, and other systems that make up communities of practice. People enact community the way it is conceived and the meaning of community evolves as they come up with new ways to utilize it. Given this reality, scholars are continually challenged to research and understand how online communities are comprised, how they function, and how they are connected to offline social life. Symbolic interaction theory was discussed in \"The Cyberself: The Self-ing Project goes online, Symbolic Interaction in the Digital Age\". Laura Robinson discusses how symbolic interaction theory explains the way individuals create a sense of self through their interactions with others. However, she believes advances in technology have changed this. The article investigates the manner in which individuals form their online identity. She uses symbolic interaction theory to examine the formation of the cyber \"I\" and a digital \"generalized other\". In the article, Robinson suggests individuals form new identities on the internet. She argues these cyber identities are not necessarily the way the individual would be perceived offline.", "Symbolic interactionists are often criticized for being overly impressionistic in their research methods and somewhat unsystematic in their theories. It is argued that the theory is not one theory, but rather, the \"framework\" for many different theories. Additionally, some theorists have a problem with symbolic interaction theory due to its lack of testability. These objections, combined with the fairly narrow focus of interactionist research on small-group interactions and other social psychological issues, have relegated the interactionist camp to a minority position among sociologists (albeit a fairly substantial minority). Much of this criticism arose during the 1970s in the U.S. when quantitative approaches to sociology were dominant, and perhaps the best known of these is by Alvin Gouldner.", "Some critiques of symbolic interactionism are based on the assumption that it is a theory, and the critiques apply the criteria for a \"good\" theory to something that does not claim to be a theory. Some critics find the symbolic interactionist framework too broad and general when they are seeking specific theories. Symbolic interactionism is a theoretical \"framework\" rather than a theory and can be assessed on the basis of effective conceptualizations. The theoretical framework, as with any theoretical framework, is vague when it comes to analyzing empirical data or predicting outcomes in social life. As a framework rather than a theory, many scholars find it difficult to use. Interactionism being a framework rather than a theory makes it impossible to test interactionism in the manner that a specific theoretical claim about the relationship between specific variables in a given context allows. Unlike the symbolic interactionist framework, the many theories derived from symbolic interactionism, such as role theory and the versions of identity theory developed by Sheldon Stryker, as well as Peter Burke and colleagues, clearly define concepts and the relationships between them in a given context, thus allowing for the opportunity to develop and test hypotheses. Further, especially among Blumerian processual interactionists, a great number of very useful conceptualizations have been developed and applied in a very wide range of social contexts, types of populations, types of behaviors, and cultures and subcultures.", "Symbolic interactionism is often related and connected with social structure. This concept suggests that symbolic interactionism is a construction of people's social reality. It also implies that from a realistic point of view, the interpretations that are being made will not make much difference. When the reality of a situation is defined, the situation becomes a meaningful reality. This includes methodological criticisms, and critical sociological issues. A number of symbolic interactionists have addressed these topics, the best known being Stryker's structural symbolic interactionism and the formulations of interactionism heavily influenced by this approach (sometimes referred to as the \"Indiana School\" of symbolic interactionism), including the works of key scholars in sociology and psychology using different methods and theories applying a structural version of interactionism that are represented in a 2003 collection edited by Burke \"et al\". Another well-known structural variation of symbolic interactionism that applies quantitative methods is Manford H. Kuhn's formulation which is often referred to in sociological literature as the \"Iowa School.\" Negotiated order theory also applies a structural approach.", "Language is viewed as the source of all meaning. Blumer illuminates several key features about social interactionism. Most people interpret things based on assignment and purpose. The interaction occurs once the meaning of something has become identified. This concept of meaning is what starts to construct the framework of social reality. By aligning social reality, Blumer suggests that language is the meaning of interaction. Communication, especially in the form of symbolic interactionism is connected with language. Language initiates all forms of communication, verbal and non-verbal. Blumer defines this source of meaning as a connection that arises out of the social interaction that people have with each other.", "According to social theorist Patricia Burbank, the concepts of synergistic and diverging properties are what shape the viewpoints of humans as social beings. These two concepts are different in a sense because of their views of human freedom and their level of focus. According to Burbank, actions are based on the effects of situations that occur during the process of social interaction. Another important factor in meaningful situations is the environment in which the social interaction occurs. The environment influences interaction, which leads to a reference group and connects with perspective, and then concludes to a definition of the situation. This illustrates the proper steps to define a situation. An approval of the action occurs once the situation is defined. An interpretation is then made upon that action, which may ultimately influence the perspective, action, and definition. Stryker emphasizes that the sociology world at large is the most viable and vibrant intellectual framework. By being made up of our thoughts and self-belief, the social interactionism theory is the purpose of all human interaction, and is what causes society to exist. This fuels criticisms of the symbolic interactionist framework for failing to account for social structure, as well as criticisms that interactionist theories cannot be assessed via quantitative methods, and cannot be falsifiable or tested empirically. Framework is important for the symbolic interaction theory because for in order for the social structure to form, there are certain bonds of communication that need to be established to create the interaction. Much of the symbolic interactionist framework's basic tenets can be found in a very wide range of sociological and psychological work, without being explicitly cited as interactionist, making the influence of symbolic interactionism difficult to recognize given this general acceptance of its assumptions as \"common knowledge.\" Another problem with this model is two-fold, in that it 1) does not take into account human emotions very much, implying that symbolic interaction is not completely psychological; and 2) is interested in social structure to a limited extent, implying that symbolic interaction is not completely sociological. These incompetencies frame meaning as something that occurs naturally within an interaction under a certain condition, rather than taking into account the basic social context in which interaction is positioned. From this view, meaning has no source and does not perceive a social reality beyond what humans create with their own interpretations. Another criticism of symbolic interactionism is more so on the scholars themselves. They are noted to not take interest in the history of this sociological approach. This has the ability to produce shallow understanding and can make the subject \"hard to teach\" based on the lack of organization in its teachings to relate with other theories or studies.", "The Society for the Study of Symbolic Interaction (SSSI) is an international professional organization for scholars, who are interested in the study of symbolic interaction. SSSI holds a conference in conjunction with the meeting of the American Sociological Association (ASA) and the Society for the Study of Social Problems. This conference typically occurs in August and sponsors the SSSI holds the Couch-Stone Symposium each spring. The Society provides travel scholarships for student members interested in attending the annual conference. At the annual conference, the SSSI sponsors yearly awards in different categories of symbolic interaction. Additionally, some of the awards are open to student members of the society. The Ellis-Bochner Autoethnography and Personal Narrative Research Award is given annually by the SSSI affiliate of the National Communication Association for the best article, essay, or book chapter in autoethnography and personal narrative research. The award is named after renowned autoethnographers Carolyn Ellis and Art Bochner. The society also sponsors a quarterly journal, \"Symbolic Interaction,\" and releases a newsletter, \"SSSI Notes\". SSSI also has a European branch, which organizes an annual conference that integrates European symbolic interactionists." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Formal statement.", "Proof.", "A simple application.", "Cauchy's mean value theorem.", "Proof of Cauchy's mean value theorem.", "Generalization for determinants.", "Mean value theorem in several variables.", "Mean value theorem for vector-valued functions.", "Mean value theorems for definite integrals.", "First mean value theorem for definite integrals.", "Proof of the first mean value theorem for definite integrals.", "Second mean value theorem for definite integrals.", "Mean value theorem for integration fails for vector-valued functions.", "A probabilistic analogue of the mean value theorem.", "Generalization in complex analysis." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "A special case of this theorem was first described by Parameshvara (1370–1460), from the Kerala School of Astronomy and Mathematics in India, in his commentaries on Govindasvāmi and Bhāskara II. A restricted form of the theorem was proved by Michel Rolle in 1691; the result was what is now known as Rolle's theorem, and was proved only for polynomials, without the techniques of calculus. The mean value theorem in its modern form was stated and proved by Augustin Louis Cauchy in 1823.", "Let formula_7 be a continuous function on the closed interval formula_2, and differentiable on the open interval formula_3, where <math>a. Then there exists some formula_4 in formula_3 such that The mean value theorem is a generalization of Rolle's theorem, which assumes formula_13, so that the right-hand side above is zero. The mean value theorem is still valid in a slightly more general setting. One only needs to assume that formula_7 is continuous on formula_2, and that for every formula_16 in formula_3 the limit exists as a finite number or equals formula_19 or formula_20. If finite, that limit equals formula_21. An example where this version of the theorem applies is given by the real-valued cube root function mapping formula_22, whose derivative tends to infinity at the origin. Note that the theorem, as stated, is false if a differentiable function is complex-valued instead of real-valued. For example, define formula_23 for all real formula_16. Then while formula_26 for any real formula_16. These formal statements are also known as Lagrange's Mean Value Theorem.", "The expression formula_28 gives the slope of the line joining the points formula_29 and formula_30, which is a chord of the graph of formula_1, while formula_21 gives the slope of the tangent to the curve at the point formula_33. Thus the mean value theorem says that given any chord of a smooth curve, we can find a point lying between the end-points of the chord such that the tangent at that point is parallel to the chord. The following proof illustrates this idea. Define formula_34, where formula_35 is a constant. Since formula_1 is continuous on formula_2 and differentiable on formula_3, the same is true for formula_39. We now want to choose formula_35 so that formula_39 satisfies the conditions of Rolle's theorem. Namely By Rolle's theorem, since formula_39 is differentiable and formula_44, there is some formula_4 in formula_3 for which formula_47, and it follows from the equality formula_34 that,", "Assume that \"f\" is a continuous, real-valued function, defined on an arbitrary interval \"I\" of the real line. If the derivative of \"f\" at every interior point of the interval \"I\" exists and is zero, then \"f\" is constant in the interior. Proof: Assume the derivative of \"f\" at every interior point of the interval \"I\" exists and is zero. Let (\"a\", \"b\") be an arbitrary open interval in \"I\". By the mean value theorem, there exists a point \"c\" in (\"a\",\"b\") such that This implies that \"f\"(\"a\") = \"f\"(\"b\"). Thus, \"f\" is constant on the interior of \"I\" and thus is constant on \"I\" by continuity. (See below for a multivariable version of this result.) Remarks:", "Cauchy's mean value theorem, also known as the extended mean value theorem, is a generalization of the mean value theorem. It states: If functions \"f\" and \"g\" are both continuous on the closed interval [\"a\", \"b\"], and differentiable on the open interval (\"a\", \"b\"), then there exists some \"c\" ∈ (\"a\", \"b\"), such that Of course, if and if, this is equivalent to: Geometrically, this means that there is some tangent to the graph of the curve which is parallel to the line defined by the points (\"f\"(\"a\"), \"g\"(\"a\")) and (\"f\"(\"b\"), \"g\"(\"b\")). However Cauchy's theorem does not claim the existence of such a tangent in all cases where (\"f\"(\"a\"), \"g\"(\"a\")) and (\"f\"(\"b\"), \"g\"(\"b\")) are distinct points, since it might be satisfied only for some value \"c\" with, in other words a value for which the mentioned curve is stationary; in such points no tangent to the curve is likely to be defined at all. An example of this situation is the curve given by which on the interval [−1, 1] goes from the point (−1, 0) to (1, 0), yet never has a horizontal tangent; however it has a stationary point (in fact a cusp) at. Cauchy's mean value theorem can be used to prove l'Hôpital's rule. The mean value theorem is the special case of Cauchy's mean value theorem when.", "The proof of Cauchy's mean value theorem is based on the same idea as the proof of the mean value theorem.", "Assume that formula_58 and formula_59 are differentiable functions on formula_3 that are continuous on formula_2. Define There exists formula_63 such that formula_64. Notice that and if we place formula_66, we get Cauchy's mean value theorem. If we place formula_66 and formula_68 we get Lagrange's mean value theorem. The proof of the generalization is quite simple: each of formula_69 and formula_70 are determinants with two identical rows, hence formula_71. The Rolle's theorem implies that there exists formula_72 such that formula_73.", "The mean value theorem generalizes to real functions of multiple variables. The trick is to use parametrization to create a real function of one variable, and then apply the one-variable theorem. Let formula_74 be an open convex subset of formula_75, and let formula_76 be a differentiable function. Fix points formula_77, and define formula_78. Since formula_39 is a differentiable function in one variable, the mean value theorem gives: for some formula_4 between 0 and 1. But since formula_82 and formula_83, computing formula_84 explicitly we have: where formula_86 denotes a gradient and formula_87 a dot product. Note that this is an exact analog of the theorem in one variable (in the case formula_88 this \"is\" the theorem in one variable). By the Cauchy–Schwarz inequality, the equation gives the estimate: In particular, when the partial derivatives of formula_1 are bounded, formula_1 is Lipschitz continuous (and therefore uniformly continuous). Note that formula_1 is not assumed to be continuously differentiable or continuous on the closure of formula_74. However, in order to use the chain rule to compute formula_94, we really do need to know that formula_1 is differentiable on formula_74; the existence of the formula_97 and formula_98 partial derivatives by itself is not sufficient for the theorem to be true. As an application of the above, we prove that formula_1 is constant if formula_74 is open and connected and every partial derivative of formula_1 is 0. Pick some point formula_102, and let formula_103. We want to show formula_104 for every formula_105. For that, let formula_106. Then \"E\" is closed and nonempty. It is open too: for every formula_107, for every formula_109 in some neighborhood of formula_16. (Here, it is crucial that formula_16 and formula_109 are sufficiently close to each other.) Since formula_74 is connected, we conclude formula_114. The above arguments are made in a coordinate-free manner; hence, they generalize to the case when formula_74 is a subset of a Banach space.", "There is no exact analog of the mean value theorem for vector-valued functions. In \"Principles of Mathematical Analysis,\" Rudin gives an inequality which can be applied to many of the same situations to which the mean value theorem is applicable in the one dimensional case: Theorem. \"For a continuous vector-valued function formula_116 differentiable on formula_3, there exists formula_118 such that formula_119.\" Jean Dieudonné in his classic treatise \"Foundations of Modern Analysis\" discards the mean value theorem and replaces it by mean inequality as the proof is not constructive and one cannot find the mean value and in applications one only needs mean inequality. Serge Lang in \"Analysis I \"uses the mean value theorem, in integral form, as an instant reflex but this use requires the continuity of the derivative. If one uses the Henstock–Kurzweil integral one can have the mean value theorem in integral form without the additional assumption that derivative should be continuous as every derivative is Henstock–Kurzweil integrable. The problem is roughly speaking the following: If \"f\" : \"U\" → R is a differentiable function (where \"U\" ⊂ R is open) and if \"x\" + \"th\", \"x, h\" ∈ R, \"t\" ∈ [0, 1] is the line segment in question (lying inside \"U\"), then one can apply the above parametrization procedure to each of the component functions \"f\" (\"i\" = 1,..., \"m\") of \"f\" (in the above notation set \"y\" = \"x\" + \"h\"). In doing so one finds points \"x\" + \"th\" on the line segment satisfying But generally there will not be a \"single\" point \"x\" + \"t*h\" on the line segment satisfying for all \"i\" \"simultaneously\". For example, define: Then formula_123, but formula_124 and formula_125 are never simultaneously zero as formula_16 ranges over formula_127. However a certain type of generalization of the mean value theorem to vector-valued functions is obtained as follows: Let \"f\" be a continuously differentiable real-valued function defined on an open interval \"I\", and let \"x\" as well as \"x\" + \"h\" be points of \"I\". The mean value theorem in one variable tells us that there exists some \"t*\" between 0 and 1 such that On the other hand, we have, by the fundamental theorem of calculus followed by a change of variables, Thus, the value \"f′\"(\"x\" + \"t*h\") at the particular point \"t*\" has been replaced by the mean value This last version can be generalized to vector valued functions: Proof. Let \"f\",..., \"f\" denote the components of \"f\" and define: Then we have The claim follows since \"Df\" is the matrix consisting of the components formula_134 Proof. Let \"u\" in R denote the value of the integral Now we have (using the Cauchy–Schwarz inequality): Now cancelling the norm of \"u\" from both ends gives us the desired inequality. Proof. From Lemma 1 and 2 it follows that", "", "Let \"f\" : [\"a\", \"b\"] → R be a continuous function. Then there exists \"c\" in [\"a\", \"b\"] such that Since the mean value of \"f\" on [\"a\", \"b\"] is defined as we can interpret the conclusion as \"f\" achieves its mean value at some \"c\" in (\"a\", \"b\"). In general, if \"f\" : [\"a\", \"b\"] → R is continuous and \"g\" is an integrable function that does not change sign on [\"a\", \"b\"], then there exists \"c\" in (\"a\", \"b\") such that", "Suppose \"f\" : [\"a\", \"b\"] → R is continuous and \"g\" is a nonnegative integrable function on [\"a\", \"b\"]. By the extreme value theorem, there exists \"m\" and \"M\" such that for each \"x\" in [\"a\", \"b\"], formula_143 and formula_144. Since \"g\" is nonnegative, Now let If formula_147, we're done since means so for any \"c\" in (\"a\", \"b\"), If \"I\" ≠ 0, then By the intermediate value theorem, \"f\" attains every value of the interval [\"m\", \"M\"], so for some \"c\" in [\"a\", \"b\"] that is, Finally, if \"g\" is negative on [\"a\", \"b\"], then and we still get the same result as above. QED", "There are various slightly different theorems called the second mean value theorem for definite integrals. A commonly found version is as follows: Here formula_156 stands for formula_157, the existence of which follows from the conditions. Note that it is essential that the interval (\"a\", \"b\"] contains \"b\". A variant not having this requirement is:", "If the function formula_74 returns a multi-dimensional vector, then the MVT for integration is not true, even if the domain of formula_74 is also multi-dimensional. For example, consider the following 2-dimensional function defined on an formula_161-dimensional cube: Then, by symmetry it is easy to see that the mean value of formula_74 over its domain is (0,0): However, there is no point in which formula_165, because formula_166 everywhere.", "Let \"X\" and \"Y\" be non-negative random variables such that E[\"X\"] < E[\"Y\"] < ∞ and formula_167 (i.e. \"X\" is smaller than \"Y\" in the usual stochastic order). Then there exists an absolutely continuous non-negative random variable \"Z\" having probability density function Let \"g\" be a measurable and differentiable function such that E[\"g\"(\"X\")], E[\"g\"(\"Y\")] < ∞, and let its derivative \"g′\" be measurable and Riemann-integrable on the interval [\"x\", \"y\"] for all \"y\" ≥ \"x\" ≥ 0. Then, E[\"g′\"(\"Z\")] is finite and", "As noted above, the theorem does not hold for differentiable complex-valued functions. Instead, a generalization of the theorem is stated such: Let \"f\" : Ω → C be a holomorphic function on the open convex set Ω, and let \"a\" and \"b\" be distinct points in Ω. Then there exist points \"u\", \"v\" on \"L\" (the line segment from \"a\" to \"b\") such that Where Re() is the Real part and Im() is the Imaginary part of a complex-valued function." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Origins.", "Challenge Cup era.", "Organized interleague competition.", "NHL takes over.", "125th anniversary.", "Engraving.", "Traditions and anecdotes.", "Trustees." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "After the Lord Stanley of Preston was appointed by Queen Victoria as Governor General of Canada on June 11, 1888, he and his family became highly enthusiastic about ice hockey. Stanley was first exposed to the game at Montreal's 1889 Winter Carnival, where he saw the Montreal Victorias play the Montreal Hockey Club. The \"Montreal Gazette\" reported that he \"expressed his great delight with the game of hockey and the expertise of the players\". During that time, organized ice hockey in Canada was still in its infancy and only Montreal and Ottawa had anything resembling leagues. Stanley's entire family became active in ice hockey. Two of his sons, Arthur and Algernon, formed a", "During the challenge cup period, none of the leagues that played for the trophy had a formal playoff system to decide their respective champions; whichever team finished in first place after the regular season won the league title. However, in 1894, four teams out of the five-team AHAC tied for the championship with records of 5–3–0. The AHAC had no tie-breaking system. After extensive negotiations and Quebec's withdrawal from the championship competition, it was decided that a three-team tournament would take place in Montreal, with the Ottawa team receiving a bye to the final because they were the only road", "In 1914, the Victoria Aristocrats from the Pacific Coast Hockey Association (PCHA) challenged the NHA and Cup champion Toronto Blueshirts. A controversy erupted when a letter arrived from the Stanley Cup trustees on March 17, that the trustees would not let the Stanley Cup travel west, as they did not consider Victoria a proper challenger because they had not formally notified the trustees. However, on March 18, Trustee William Foran stated that it was a misunderstanding. PCHA president Frank Patrick had not filed a challenge, because he had expected Emmett Quinn of the NHA to make all", "The WHL folded in 1926 and was quickly replaced by the Prairie Hockey League. However, in the meantime, the NHL (which had entered the U.S. only two years before) bought up the contracts of most of the WHL's players and largely used them to stock the rosters of three new U.S. teams. In what would turn out to be its most significant expansion of its pre-Original Six era, the Chicago Blackhawks, Detroit Red Wings and New York Rangers joined the NHL. With the NHL now firmly established in the largest markets of the Northeastern United States, and with the Western teams having been stripped of their best players, the PHL was deemed to be a \"minor league\" unworthy of challenging the NHL for hockey supremacy. The PHL lasted only two seasons. Over the next two decades, other leagues and clubs occasionally", "In March 2017, to commemorate the Stanley Cup's 125th anniversary, the original Cup and the current Stanley Cup were the focus of a four-day tour of Ottawa, including a stop at Rideau Hall. The Royal Canadian Mint announced the production of two commemorative coins to mark the anniversary. The first is a roll of Canadian quarters with an image of the Stanley Cup, the word Stanley Cup in English and Coupe Stanley in French with", "Like the Grey Cup, awarded to the winner of the Canadian Football League, the Stanley Cup is engraved with the names of the winning players, coaches, management, and club staff. However, this was not always the case: one of Lord Stanley's original conditions was that each team could, at their own expense, add a ring to the Cup to commemorate their victory. Initially, there was only one base ring, which was attached to the bottom of the original bowl by the Montreal Hockey Club. Clubs engraved their team names, usually in the form, on that one ring until it was full in 1902. With no more room to engrave their names (and unwilling to pay for a second band), teams left their mark on the bowl itself. The 1907 Montreal Wanderers became the first club to record their name on the bowl's interior surface, and the first champion to record the names of 20 members of their team. In 1908, for reasons unknown, the Wanderers, despite having turned aside four challengers, did not record their names on the Cup. The next year, the Ottawa Senators added a second band onto the Cup. Despite the new room, the 1910 Wanderers and the 1911 Senators did not put their names on the Cup. The 1915 Vancouver Millionaires became the second team to engrave players' names, this time inside the bowl along its sides. The 1918 Millionaires eventually filled the band added by the 1909 Senators. The 1915 Ottawa Senators, the 1916 Portland Rosebuds and the 1918 Vancouver Millionaires all engraved their names on the trophy even though they did not officially win it under the new PCHA-NHA system. They had won the title of only the previous champion's league and would have been crowned as Cup champions under the old challenge rules. The winners in 1918 and 1920 to 1923 did not put their winning team name on it. No further engraving occurred until 1924, when the Canadiens added a new band to the Cup. Since then, engraving the team and its players has been an unbroken annual tradition. Originally, a new band was added each year, causing the trophy to grow in size. The \"Stovepipe Cup\", as it was nicknamed because of its resemblance to the exhaust pipe of a stove, became unwieldy, so it was redesigned in 1948 as a two-piece cigar-shaped trophy with a removable bowl and collar. This Cup also properly honoured those teams that did not engrave their names on the Cup. Also included was the 1918–19 no decision between the Montreal Canadiens and Seattle Metropolitans. Since 1958, the Cup has undergone several minor alterations. The original collar and bowl were too brittle, and were replaced in 1963 and 1969, respectively. The modern one-piece Cup design was introduced in 1958, when the old barrel was replaced with a five-band barrel, each of which could contain 13 winning teams. Although the bands were originally designed to fill up during the Cup's centennial year in 1992, the names of the 1965 Montreal Canadiens were engraved over a larger area than allotted and thus there are 12 teams on that band instead of 13. When the bands were all filled in 1991, the top band of the large barrel was preserved in the Hockey Hall of Fame, and a new blank band was added to the bottom so the Stanley Cup would not grow further. Another new band was scheduled to be added to the bottom of the cup following the 2004–05 season, but was not added because of the 2004–05 NHL lockout. After the 2005–06 champion Carolina Hurricanes were crowned, and the new bottom ring was finally added (along with the retiring of the band listing the 1940–41 to 1952–53 champions). The cancelled season was acknowledged with the words \"2004–05 Season Not Played\". Following the crowning of the 2017–18 champions, the Washington Capitals, the band listing the 1953–54 to 1964–65 winners was removed in September 2018, with a new band for the 2017–18 to 2029–30 champions added to the bottom of the cup. Currently, the Cup stands at 89.5 centimetres (351⁄4 inches) tall and weighs 151⁄2 kilograms (341⁄2 lb).", "There are many traditions associated with the Stanley Cup. One of the oldest, started by the 1896 Winnipeg Victorias, dictates that the winning team drink champagne from the top bowl after their victory. The Cup is also traditionally presented on the ice to the captain of the winning team after the series-winning game; each member of the victorious club carries the trophy around the rink. However, this has not always been the case; prior to the 1930s, the Cup was not awarded immediately after the victory. The first time that the Cup was awarded on the ice may have been to the 1932 Toronto Maple Leafs, but the practice did not become a tradition until the 1950s. Ted Lindsay of the 1950 Cup champion Detroit Red Wings became the first captain, upon receiving the Cup, to hoist it overhead and skate around the rink. According to Lindsay, he did so to allow the fans to have a better view of the Cup. Since then, it has been a tradition for each member of the winning team, beginning with the captain, to take a lap around the ice with the trophy hoisted above his head. The tradition of the captain first hoisting the Cup has been \"breached\" a few times. In 1987 after the Edmonton Oilers defeated the Philadelphia Flyers, Wayne Gretzky handed the Cup to Steve Smith, a year after Smith made a costly gaffe that cost the Oilers the chance of making their fourth consecutive Stanley Cup Finals appearance. The second occurred in 1993 after the Montreal Canadiens defeated the Los Angeles Kings, Guy Carbonneau handed the Cup to Denis Savard, as Savard had been the player that many fans had urged the Canadiens to draft back in 1980. The third was in 2001 involving Joe Sakic and Ray Bourque when the Colorado Avalanche won the Cup in 2001, as the seventh and deciding game of the finals was the last of Bourque's 22-year NHL career, having never been on a cup-winning team until that time (until being traded to the Avalanche on March 6, 2000, Bourque had played only for the Boston Bruins). When Sakic received the trophy, he did not hoist it, but instead immediately handed it to Bourque; Sakic then became the second player on the team to hoist the trophy. The Stanley Cup championship team is allotted 100 days during off-season to pass around the Cup. It is always accompanied by at least one representative from the Hockey Hall of Fame. Although many players have unofficially spent a day in personal possession of the Cup, in 1995 the New Jersey Devils started a tradition wherein each member of the Cup-winning team is allowed to retain the Cup for a day. After the 1994–95 season, the NHL made it mandatory that one of the official Cup handlers always be present while the Cup is passed around among players in the off-season. This may have been related to Eddie Olczyk's handling of the Cup after the New York Rangers' 1994 win - Olczyk brought the Cup to the Belmont Stakes, where Kentucky Derby winner Go for Gin ate out of it. Victors of the Cup have used it to baptize their children. Three players (the New York Islanders' Clark Gillies, the Anaheim Ducks' Sean O'Donnell, and the Pittsburgh Penguins' Nick Bonino) even allowed their dogs to eat out of the Cup.", "The regulations set down by Lord Stanley call for two Trustees, who had the sole, joint right to govern the Cup and the conditions of its awarding until 1947, when they ceded control to the NHL. While the original regulations allow for a Trustee to resign, to date, all Cup Trustees have served until their deaths. In the event of a vacancy, the remaining trustee names the replacement for the deceased or resigned Trustee. To date, nine men have served as Trustees of the Stanley Cup:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name.", "Elder Futhark.", "Gothic jer.", "Anglo-Saxon runes.", "Younger Futhark." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The reconstructed Common Germanic name \"\" is the origin of English year (Old English \"ġēar\"). In contrast to the modern word, it had a meaning of \"season\" and specifically \"harvest\", and hence \"plenty, prosperity\". The Germanic word is cognate with Greek (\"horos\") \"year\" (and (\"hora\") \"season\", whence \"hour\"), Old East Slavic \"ꙗра (jara)\" \"spring\" and with the \"-or-\" in Latin \"hōrnus\" \"of this year\" (from \"*hōjōrō\"), as well as Avestan 𐬫𐬁𐬭𐬆 (\"yārə\") \"year\", all from a PIE stem \"\".", "The derivation of the rune is uncertain; some scholars see it as a modification of Latin G (\"C (ᚲ) with stroke\") while others consider it a Germanic innovation. The letter in any case appears from the very earliest runic inscriptions, figuring on the Vimose comb inscription, \"harja\". As the only rune of the Elder Futhark which was not connected, its evolution was the most thorough transformation of all runes, and it was to have numerous graphical variants. In the later period of the Elder Futhark, during the 5th to 6th centuries, connected variants appear, and these are the ones that give rise to the derivations in Anglo-Saxon (as ᛄ \"ger\" and ᛡ \"ior\") and Scandinavian (as ᛅ \"ár\") traditions.", "The corresponding Gothic letter is 𐌾 (\"j\"), named \"jēr\", which is also based on the shape of the Elder Futhark rune. This is an exception, shared with urus, due to the fact that neither the Latin nor the Greek alphabets at the time of the introduction of the Gothic one had graphemes corresponding to the distinction of \"j\" and \"w\" from \"i\" and \"u\".", "The rune in the futhorc is continued as \"gēr\", with its epigraphical variant, and its manuscript variant (which does appear once epigraphically, on the Brandon Pin). Manuscripts also record an \"ior\" rune with the shape of, but its authenticity is questionable.", "During the 7th and 8th centuries, the initial \"j\" in *\"jara\" was lost in Old Norse, which also changed the sound value of the rune from /j/ to an /a/ phoneme. The rune was then written as a vertical staff with a horizontal stroke in the centre, sometimes transcribed as æ. During the last phase of the Elder Futhark, the \"jēra\"-rune came to be written as a vertical staff with two slanting strokes in the form of an X in its centre (). As the form of the rune had changed considerably, an older 7th century form of the rune () was assumed by the s-rune. When the n-rune had stabilized in its form during the 6th and 7th centuries, its vertical stroke slanted towards the right (), which made it possible to simplify the \"jēra\"-rune by having only one vertical stroke that slanted towards the left, giving the \"ár\"-rune of the Younger Futhark. Since a simpler form of the rune was available for the /a/ phoneme, the older cross form of the rune now came to be used for the /h/ phoneme. The development of the Jēran rune from the earliest open form was not known before the discovery of the Kylver Stone in 1903, which has an entire elder futhark inscription on it. Therefore, the interpretation of the golden horns of Gallehus was slightly wrong before 1903, as it was believed this rune form could be an early form of the Ingwaz rune. The second word on the horns was thus interpreted as \"holtingaz\" rather than \"holtijaz\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Components.", "Former components.", "Investment methods.", "Mutual and exchange-traded funds.", "Futures contracts.", "Options contracts.", "Annual returns.", "History.", "Precursor.", "Initial components.", "Early years.", "1940s.", "1950s.", "1960s.", "1970s.", "1980s.", "1990s.", "2000s.", "2010s.", "2020s.", "Calculation.", "Assessment.", "Issues with market representation.", "Correlation among components." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Since April 6, 2020, the Dow Jones Industrial Average has consisted of the following companies:", "As of April 6, 2020, the components of the DJIA have changed 54 times since its beginning on May 26, 1896. General Electric had the longest continuous presence on the index, beginning in the original index in 1896 and ending in 2018. Changes to the index since 1991 are as follows:", "Investing in the DJIA is possible via index funds as well as via derivatives such as option contracts and futures contracts.", "The easiest way to invest indirectly in the Dow Jones Industrial Average is to buy an index fund which tracks its daily movement. Either a mutual fund or an exchange-traded fund (ETF) can replicate, before fees and expenses, the performance of the index by holding the same stocks as the index, in the same proportions. Some ETFs use leverage or short strategies to magnify price movements.", "In the derivatives market, the CME Group through its subsidiaries the Chicago Mercantile Exchange (CME) and the Chicago Board of Trade (CBOT), issues Futures Contracts; the E-mini Dow ($5) Futures (YM), which track the average and trade on their exchange floors respectively. Trading is typically carried out in an open outcry auction, or over an electronic network such as CME's Globex platform.", "The Chicago Board Options Exchange (CBOE) issues option contracts on the Dow through the root symbol DJX. Options on various Dow-underlying ETFs are also available for trading.", "The following table shows the annual development of the Dow Jones Index, which was calculated back to 1885.", "", "In 1884, Charles Dow composed his first stock average, which contained nine railroads and two industrial companies that appeared in the \"Customer's Afternoon Letter\", a daily two-page financial news bulletin which was the precursor to \"The Wall Street Journal\". On January 2, 1886, the number of stocks represented in what is now the \"Dow Jones Transportation Average\" dropped from 14 to 12, as the Central Pacific Railroad and Central Railroad of New Jersey were removed. Though comprising the same number of stocks, this index contained only one of the original twelve industrials that would eventually form Dow's most famous index.", "Dow calculated his first average purely of industrial stocks on May 26, 1896, creating what is now known as the \"Dow Jones Industrial Average\". None of the original 12 industrials still remain part of the index.", "When it was first published in the mid-1880s, the index stood at a level of 62.76. It reached a peak of 78.38 during the summer of 1890, but ended up hitting its all-time low of 28.48 in the summer of 1896 during the Panic of 1896. Many of the biggest percentage price moves in the Dow occurred early in its history, as the nascent industrial economy matured. In the 1900s, the Dow halted its momentum as it worked its way through two financial crises: the Panic of 1901 and the Panic of 1907. The Dow remained stuck in a range between 53 and 103 points until late 1914. The negativity surrounding the 1906 San Francisco earthquake did little to improve the economic climate; the index broke 100 for the first time in 1906. At the start of the 1910s, the Panic of 1910–1911 stifled economic growth. On July 30, 1914, as the average stood at a level of 71.42, a decision was made to close down the New York Stock Exchange, and suspend trading for a span of four and a half months. Some historians believe the exchange was closed because of a concern that markets would plunge as a result of panic over the onset of World War I. An alternative explanation is that the United States Secretary of the Treasury, William Gibbs McAdoo, closed the exchange to conserve the U.S. gold stock in order to launch the Federal Reserve System later that year, with enough gold to keep the United States on par with the gold standard. When the markets reopened on December 12, 1914, the index closed at 74.56, a gain of 4.4%. This is frequently reported as a large drop, due to using a later redefinition. Reports from the time say that the day was positive. Following World War I, the United States experienced another economic downturn, the Post–World War I recession. The Dow's performance remained unchanged from the closing value of the previous decade, adding only 8.26%, from 99.05 points at the beginning of 1910, to a level of 107.23 points at the end of 1919. The Dow experienced a long bull run from 1920 to late 1929 when it rose from 73 to 381 points. In 1928, the components of the Dow were increased to 30 stocks near the economic height of that decade, which was nicknamed the Roaring Twenties. This period downplayed the influence of the Depression of 1920–21 and certain international conflicts such as the Polish–Soviet War, the Irish Civil War, the Turkish War of Independence and the initial phase of the Chinese Civil War. After a peak of 381.17 on September 3, 1929, the bottom of the 1929 crash came just 2 months later on November 13, 1929 at 195.35 intraday, closing slightly higher at 198.69. The Wall Street Crash of 1929 and the ensuing Great Depression over the next several years returned the average to its starting point, almost 90% below its peak. Overall for the 1920s decade, the Dow still ended with a healthy 131.7% gain, from 107.23 to 248.48 points at the end of 1929. In inflation-adjusted numbers, the high of 381.17 on September 3, 1929 was not surpassed until 1954. Marked by global instability and the Great Depression, the 1930s contended with several consequential European and Asian outbreaks of war, leading up to catastrophic World War II in 1939. Other conflicts during the decade which affected the stock market included the 1936–1939 Spanish Civil War, the 1935–1936 Second Italo-Abyssinian War, the Soviet-Japanese Border War of 1939, and the Second Sino-Japanese War of 1937. The United States experienced the Recession of 1937–1938, which temporarily brought economic recovery to a halt. The largest one-day percentage gain in the index happened in the depths of the 1930s bear market on March 15, 1933, when the Dow gained 15.34% to close at 62.10. However, as a whole throughout the Great Depression, the Dow posted some of its worst performances, for a negative return during most of the 1930s for new and old stock market investors. For the decade, the Dow Jones average was down from 248.48 points at the beginning of 1930, to a stable level of 150.24 points at the end of 1939, a loss of about 40%.", "Post-war reconstruction during the 1940s, along with renewed optimism of peace and prosperity, brought about a 39% surge in the Dow from around the 148 level to 206. The strength in the Dow occurred despite the Recession of 1949 and various global conflicts.", "During the 1950s, the Korean War and the Cold War did not stop the Dow's climb higher. A 200% increase in the average from a level of 206 to 616 ensued over the course of that decade.", "The Dow began to stall during the 1960s but still managed a respectable 30% gain from the 616 level to 800.", "The 1970s marked a time of economic uncertainty and troubled relations between the U.S. and certain Middle-Eastern countries. The 1970s energy crisis was a prelude to a disastrous economic climate along with stagflation, the combination of high unemployment and high inflation. However, on November 14, 1972, the average closed at 1,003.16, above the 1,000 mark for the first time, during a brief relief rally in the midst of a lengthy bear market. Between January 1973 and December 1974, the average lost 48% of its value in what became known as the 1973–1974 stock market crash, closing at 577.60 on December 4, 1974. In 1976, the index reached 1,000 several times and it closed the year at 1,004.75. Although the Vietnam War ended in 1975, new tensions arose towards Iran surrounding the Iranian Revolution in 1979. Performance-wise for the 1970s, the index remained virtually flat, rising less than 5% from about the 800 level to 838.", "The 1980s began with the early 1980s recession. In early 1981, the index broke above 1,000 several times, but then retreated. After closing above 2,000 in January 1987, the largest one-day percentage drop occurred on Black Monday, October 19, 1987, when the average fell 22.61%. There were no clear reasons given to explain the crash. On October 13, 1989, the Friday the 13th mini-crash, which initiated the collapse of the junk bond market, resulted in a loss of almost 7% of the index in a single day. During the 1980s, the Dow increased 228% from 838 level to 2,753; despite the market crashes, Silver Thursday, an early 1980s recession, the 1980s oil glut, the Japanese asset price bubble, and other political distractions. The index had only two negative years in the 1980s: in 1981 and 1984.", "The 1990s brought on rapid advances in technology along with the introduction of the dot-com era. The markets contended with the 1990 oil price shock compounded with the effects of the early 1990s recession and a brief European situation surrounding Black Wednesday. Certain influential foreign conflicts such as the 1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt which took place as part of the initial stages of the Dissolution of the Soviet Union and the Revolutions of 1989; the First Chechen War and the Second Chechen War, the Gulf War, and the Yugoslav Wars failed to dampen economic enthusiasm surrounding the ongoing Information Age and the \"irrational exuberance\" (a phrase coined by Alan Greenspan) of the dot-com bubble. Between late 1992 and early 1993, the Dow staggered through the 3,000 level making only modest gains as the biotechnology sector suffered through the downfall of the Biotech Bubble; as many biotech companies saw their share prices rapidly rise to record levels and then subsequently fall to new all-time lows. The Dow soared from 2753 to 8000 between January 1990 to July 1997. In October 1997, the events surrounding the 1997 Asian financial crisis plunged the Dow into a 554-point loss to a close of 7,161.15; a retrenchment of 7.18% in what became known as the October 27, 1997 mini-crash. However, the Dow continued climbing past 9000 despite negativity surrounding the 1998 Russian financial crisis along with the subsequent fallout from the 1998 collapse of Long-Term Capital Management due to bad bets placed on the movement of the Russian ruble. On March 29, 1999, the average closed at 10,006.78, its first close above 10,000. This prompted a celebration on the trading floor, complete with party hats.. Total gains for the decade exceeded 315%; from the 2,753 level to 11,497, which equates to 12.3% annually. The Dow averaged a 5.3% return compounded annually for the 20th century, a record Warren Buffett called \"a wonderful century\"; when he calculated that to achieve that return again, the index would need to close at about 2,000,000 by December 2099.", "On September 17, 2001, the first day of trading after the September 11 attacks, the Dow fell 7.1%. However, the Dow began an upward trend shortly after the attacks, and quickly regained all lost ground to close above 10,000 for the year. In 2002, the Dow dropped to a 4-year low of 7286 on September 24, 2002 due to the stock market downturn of 2002 and lingering effects of the dot-com bubble. Overall, while the NASDAQ fell roughly 75% and the S&P 500 fell roughly 50% between 2000 and 2002, the Dow only fell 27% during the same period. In 2003, the Dow held steady within the 7,000 to 9,000-point level and recovered to the 10,000 mark by year end. The Dow continued climbing and reached a record high of 14,198.10 on October 11, 2007, a mark which was not matched until March 2013. It then dropped for the next year due to the Financial crisis of 2007-2008. On September 15, 2008, a wider financial crisis became evident when Lehman Brothers filed for bankruptcy along with the economic effect of record high oil prices which had reached almost $150 per barrel two months earlier. The Dow lost more than 500 points for the day, returning to its mid-July lows below 11,000. A series of bailout packages, including the Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008, proposed and implemented by the Federal Reserve and United States Department of the Treasury did not prevent further losses. After nearly six months of extreme volatility during which the Dow experienced its largest one-day point loss, largest daily point gain, and largest intraday range (of more than 1,000 points) at the time, the index closed at a new 12-year low of 6,547.05 on March 9, 2009, its lowest close since April 1997. The Dow had lost 20% of its value in only six weeks. Towards the latter half of 2009, the average rallied towards the 10,000 level amid optimism that the Late-2000s recession, the United States housing bubble and the financial crisis of 2007–2008, were easing and possibly coming to an end. For the decade, the Dow saw a rather substantial pullback for a negative return from 11,497 to 10,428, a loss of a little over 9%.", "During the first half of the 2010s decade, aided by the Federal Reserve's loose monetary policy including quantitative easing, the Dow made a notable rally attempt. This was despite significant volatility due to growing global concerns such as the 2010 European sovereign debt crisis, the Dubai World 2009 debt standstill, and the United States debt-ceiling crisis of 2011. On May 6, 2010, the Dow lost 9.2% intra-day and regained nearly all of it within a single hour. This event, which became known as the 2010 Flash Crash, sparked new regulations to prevent future incidents. Six years after its previous high in 2007, the Dow finally closed at a new record high on March 5, 2013. It continued rising for the next several years past 17,000 points until a brief 2015–16 stock market selloff in the second half of 2015. It then picked up again early 2016 and climbed past 25,000 points on January 4, 2018. Volatility returned in 2018 when the Dow fell nearly 20%. By early January 2019, the index had quickly rallied more than 10% from its Christmas Eve low. Overall in the 2010s decade, the Dow increased from 10,428 to 28,538 points for a substantial gain of 174%.", "Despite the emerging coronavirus pandemic, the Dow continued its bull run from the previous decade before peaking at 29,551.42 on February 12, 2020 (29,568.57 intraday on the same day). The index slowly retreated for the remainder of the week and into the next week, before coronavirus fears and an oil price war between Saudi Arabia and Russia sent the index into a tailspin, recording several days of losses (and gains) of at least 1,000 points, a typical symptom of a bear market as previously seen in October 2008 during the financial crisis. Volatility rose high enough to trigger multiple 15-minute trading halts. In the first quarter of 2020, the DJI fell 23%, its worst quarter since 1987.", "To calculate the DJIA, the sum of the prices of all 30 stocks is divided by a divisor, the Dow Divisor. The divisor is adjusted in case of stock splits, spinoffs or similar structural changes, to ensure that such events do not in themselves alter the numerical value of the DJIA. Early on, the initial divisor was composed of the original number of component companies; this initially made the DJIA a simple arithmetic average. The present divisor, after many adjustments, is less than one (meaning the index is larger than the sum of the prices of the components). That is: where p are the prices of the component stocks and d is the \"Dow Divisor\". Events such as stock splits or changes in the list of the companies composing the index alter the sum of the component prices. In these cases, in order to avoid discontinuity in the index, the Dow Divisor is updated so that the quotations right before and after the event coincide: The Dow Divisor was 0.14579812049809 on April 6, 2020 and every $1 change in price in a particular stock within the average equates to a 6.8588 (or 1 ÷ 0.14579812049809) point movement.", "", "With the inclusion of only 30 stocks, critics such as Ric Edelman argue that the DJIA is an inaccurate representation of overall market performance compared to more comprehensive indexes such as the S&P 500 Index or the Russell 3000 Index. Additionally, the DJIA is criticized for being a price-weighted index, which gives higher-priced stocks more influence over the average than their lower-priced counterparts, but takes no account of the relative industry size or market capitalization of the components. For example, a $1 increase in a lower-priced stock can be negated by a $1 decrease in a much higher-priced stock, even though the lower-priced stock experienced a larger percentage change. In addition, a $1 move in the smallest component of the DJIA has the same effect as a $1 move in the largest component of the average. For example, during September–October 2008, former component AIG's reverse split-adjusted stock price collapsed from $22.76 on September 8 to $1.35 on October 27; contributing to a roughly 3,000-point drop in the index. As of March 2020, Apple and UnitedHealth Group are among the highest priced stocks in the average and therefore have the greatest influence on it. Alternately, Pfizer and Dow Inc. are among the lowest priced stocks in the average and have the least amount of sway in the price movement. Critics of the DJIA and most securities professionals recommend the market-capitalization weighted S&P 500 Index or the Wilshire 5000, the latter of which includes most publicly listed U.S. stocks, as better indicators of the U.S. stock market.", "A study between the correlation of components of the Dow Jones Industrial Average compared with the movement of the index finds that the correlation is higher when the stocks are declining. The correlation is lowest in a time when the average is flat or rises a modest amount." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Emulating the human vision system.", "Photography.", "Tone mapping.", "Comparison with traditional digital images.", "History of HDR photography.", "Mid 19th century.", "Mid 20th century.", "Late 20th century.", "21st century.", "Examples.", "HDR processing.", "Multiple exposures anomalies.", "HDR sensors." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "One aim of HDR is to present a similar range of luminance to that experienced through the human visual system. The human eye, through non-linear response, adaptation of the iris, and other methods, adjusts constantly to a broad range of luminance present in the environment. The brain continuously interprets this information so that a viewer can see in a wide range of light conditions. Standard photographic and image techniques allow differentiation only within a certain range of brightness. Outside of this range, no features are visible because there is no differentiation in bright areas as everything appears just pure white, and there is no differentiation in darker areas as everything appears pure black. Non-HDR cameras take photographs with a limited exposure range, referred to as low dynamic range (LDR), resulting in the loss of detail in highlights or shadows.", "In photography, dynamic range is measured in exposure value (EV) differences, known as \"stops\". An increase of one EV, or one stop, represents a doubling of the amount of light. Conversely, a decrease of one EV represents a halving of the amount of light. Therefore, revealing detail in the darkest of shadows requires high exposures, while preserving detail in very bright situations requires very low exposures. Most cameras cannot provide this range of exposure values within a single exposure, due to their low dynamic range. High-dynamic-range photographs are generally achieved by capturing multiple standard-exposure images, often using exposure bracketing, and then later merging them into a single HDR image, usually within a photo manipulation program. Any camera that allows manual exposure control can make images for HDR work, although one equipped with auto exposure bracketing (AEB) is far better suited. Images from film cameras are less suitable as they often must first be digitized, so that they can later be processed using software HDR methods. In most imaging devices, the degree of exposure to light applied to the active element (be it film or CCD) can be altered in one of two ways: by either increasing/decreasing the size of the aperture or by increasing/decreasing the time of each exposure. Exposure variation in an HDR set is only done by altering the exposure time and not the aperture size; this is because altering the aperture size also affects the depth of field and so the resultant multiple images would be quite different, preventing their final combination into a single HDR image. An important limitation for HDR photography is that any movement between successive images will impede or prevent success in combining them afterward. Also, as one must create several images (often three or five and sometimes more) to obtain the desired luminance range, such a full set of images takes extra time. HDR photographers have developed calculation methods and techniques to partially overcome these problems, but the use of a sturdy tripod is, at least, advised. Some cameras have an auto-exposure bracketing (AEB) feature with a far greater dynamic range than others, from 0.6 at the low end to 18 EV in top professional cameras, As the popularity of this imaging method grows, several camera manufacturers are now offering built-in HDR features. For example, the Pentax K-7 DSLR has an HDR mode that captures an HDR image and outputs (only) a tone mapped JPEG file. The Canon PowerShot G12, Canon PowerShot S95, and Canon PowerShot S100 offer similar features in a smaller format. Nikon's approach is called 'Active D-Lighting' which applies exposure compensation and tone mapping to the image as it comes from the sensor, with the emphasis being on creating a realistic effect. Some smartphones provide HDR modes, and most mobile platforms have apps that provide HDR picture taking. Camera characteristics such as gamma curves, sensor resolution, noise, photometric calibration and color calibration affect resulting high-dynamic-range images. Color film negatives and slides consist of multiple film layers that respond to light differently. Original film (especially negatives versus transparencies or slides) feature a very high dynamic range (in the order of 8 for negatives and 4 to 4.5 for slides).", "Tone mapping reduces the dynamic range, or contrast ratio, of an entire image while retaining localized contrast. Although it is a distinct operation, tone mapping is often applied to HDRI files by the same software package. Several software applications are available on the PC, Mac and Linux platforms for producing HDR files and tone mapped images. Notable titles include:", "Information stored in high-dynamic-range images typically corresponds to the physical values of luminance or radiance that can be observed in the real world. This is different from traditional digital images, which represent colors as they should appear on a monitor or a paper print. Therefore, HDR image formats are often called \"scene-referred\", in contrast to traditional digital images, which are \"device-referred\" or \"output-referred\". Furthermore, traditional images are usually encoded for the human visual system (maximizing the visual information stored in the fixed number of bits), which is usually called \"gamma encoding\" or \"gamma correction\". The values stored for HDR images are often gamma compressed (power law) or logarithmically encoded, or floating-point linear values, since fixed-point linear encodings are increasingly inefficient over higher dynamic ranges. HDR images often don't use fixed ranges per color channel—other than traditional images—to represent many more colors over a much wider dynamic range. For that purpose, they do not use integer values to represent the single color channels (e.g., 0-255 in an 8 bit per pixel interval for red, green and blue) but instead use a floating point representation. Common are 16-bit (half precision) or 32-bit floating-point numbers to represent HDR pixels. However, when the appropriate transfer function is used, HDR pixels for some applications can be represented with a color depth that has as few as 10–12 bits for luminance and 8 bits for chrominance without introducing any visible quantization artifacts.", "", "The idea of using several exposures to adequately reproduce a too-extreme range of luminance was pioneered as early as the 1850s by Gustave Le Gray to render seascapes showing both the sky and the sea. Such rendering was impossible at the time using standard methods, as the luminosity range was too extreme. Le Gray used one negative for the sky, and another one with a longer exposure for the sea, and combined the two into one picture in positive.", "Manual tone mapping was accomplished by dodging and burning – selectively increasing or decreasing the exposure of regions of the photograph to yield better tonality reproduction. This was effective because the dynamic range of the negative is significantly higher than would be available on the finished positive paper print when that is exposed via the negative in a uniform manner. An excellent example is the photograph \"Schweitzer at the Lamp\" by W. Eugene Smith, from his 1954 photo essay \"A Man of Mercy\" on Albert Schweitzer and his humanitarian work in French Equatorial Africa. The image took five days to reproduce the tonal range of the scene, which ranges from a bright lamp (relative to the scene) to a dark shadow. Ansel Adams elevated dodging and burning to an art form. Many of his famous prints were manipulated in the darkroom with these two methods. Adams wrote a comprehensive book on producing prints called \"The Print\", which prominently features dodging and burning, in the context of his Zone System. With the advent of color photography, tone mapping in the darkroom was no longer possible due to the specific timing needed during the developing process of color film. Photographers looked to film manufacturers to design new film stocks with improved response, or continued to shoot in black and white to use tone mapping methods. Color film capable of directly recording high-dynamic-range images was developed by Charles Wyckoff and EG&G \"in the course of a contract with the Department of the Air Force\". This XR film had three emulsion layers, an upper layer having an ASA speed rating of 400, a middle layer with an intermediate rating, and a lower layer with an ASA rating of 0.004. The film was processed in a manner similar to color films, and each layer produced a different color. The dynamic range of this extended range film has been estimated as 1:10. It has been used to photograph nuclear explosions, for astronomical photography, for spectrographic research, and for medical imaging. Wyckoff's detailed pictures of nuclear explosions appeared on the cover of \"Life\" magazine in the mid-1950s.", "Georges Cornuéjols and licensees of his patents (Brdi, Hymatom) introduced the principle of HDR video image, in 1986, by interposing a matricial LCD screen in front of the camera's image sensor, increasing the sensors dynamic by five stops. The concept of neighborhood tone mapping was applied to video cameras in 1988 by a group from the Technion in Israel, led by Oliver Hilsenrath and Yehoshua Y. Zeevi. Technion researchers filed for a patent on this concept in 1991, and several related patents in 1992 and 1993. In February and April 1990, Georges Cornuéjols introduced the first real-time HDR camera that combined two images captured by a sensoror simultaneously by two sensors of the camera. This process is known as bracketing used for a video stream. In 1991, the first commercial video camera was introduced that performed real-time capturing of multiple images with different exposures, and producing an HDR video image, by Hymatom, licensee of Georges Cornuéjols. Also in 1991, Georges Cornuéjols introduced the HDR+ image principle by non-linear accumulation of images to increase the sensitivity of the camera: for low-light environments, several successive images are accumulated, thus increasing the signal to noise ratio. In 1993, another commercial medical camera producing an HDR video image, by the Technion. Modern HDR imaging uses a completely different approach, based on making a high-dynamic-range luminance or light map using only global image operations (across the entire image), and then tone mapping the result. Global HDR was first introduced in 1993 resulting in a mathematical theory of differently exposed pictures of the same subject matter that was published in 1995 by Steve Mann and Rosalind Picard. On October 28, 1998, Ben Sarao created one of the first nighttime HDR+G (High Dynamic Range + Graphic image) of STS-95 on the launch pad at NASA's Kennedy Space Center. It consisted of four film images of the space shuttle at night that were digitally composited with additional digital graphic elements. The image was first exhibited at NASA Headquarters Great Hall, Washington DC, in 1999 and then published in \"Hasselblad Forum\". The advent of consumer digital cameras produced a new demand for HDR imaging to improve the light response of digital camera sensors, which had a much smaller dynamic range than film. Steve Mann developed and patented the global-HDR method for producing digital images having extended dynamic range at the MIT Media Lab. Mann's method involved a two-step procedure: First, generate one floating point image array by global-only image operations (operations that affect all pixels identically, without regard to their local neighborhoods). Second, convert this image array, using local neighborhood processing (tone-remapping, etc.), into an HDR image. The image array generated by the first step of Mann's process is called a \"lightspace image\", \"lightspace picture\", or \"radiance map\". Another benefit of global-HDR imaging is that it provides access to the intermediate light or radiance map, which has been used for computer vision, and other image processing operations.", "In 2005, Adobe Systems introduced several new features in Photoshop CS2 including \"Merge to HDR\", 32 bit floating point image support, and HDR tone mapping. On June 30, 2016, Microsoft added support for the digital compositing of HDR images to Windows 10 using the Universal Windows Platform.", "", "This is an example of four standard dynamic range images that are combined to produce three resulting tone mapped images: Original images Results after processing This is an example of a scene with a very wide dynamic range: Source images Results after processing", "A fast-moving subject (or unsteady camera) will result in a \"ghost\" effect or a staggered-blur strobe effect, as a result of the merged images not being identical, but each capturing the moving subject at a different moment in time, with its position changed. Sudden changes in the lighting conditions (e.g. a cloud blocking the sun) can also interfere with the desired results, by producing one or more HDR layers that do have the luminosity expected by an automated HDR system, though one might still be able to produce a reasonable HDR image manually in software by rearranging the image layers to merge in order of their actual luminosity.", "Modern CMOS image sensors can often capture a high dynamic range from a single exposure. The wide dynamic range of the captured image is non-linearly compressed into a smaller dynamic range electronic representation. However, with proper processing, the information from a single exposure can be used to create an HDR image. Such HDR imaging is used in extreme dynamic range applications like welding or automotive work. Some other cameras designed for use in security applications can automatically provide two or more images for each frame, with changing exposure. For example, a sensor for 30fps video will give out 60fps with the odd frames at a short exposure time and the even frames at a longer exposure time. Some of the sensors on modern phones and cameras may even combine the two images on-chip so that a wider dynamic range without in-pixel compression is directly available to the user for display or processing." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name.", "Elder Futhark.", "Anglo-Saxon futhorc.", "Younger Futhark.", "Modern usage.", "\"Life rune\".", "Pop culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The Elder Futhark rune is conventionally called \"Algiz\" or \"Elhaz\", from the Common Germanic word for \"elk\". There is wide agreement that this is most likely not the historical name of the rune, but in the absence of any positive evidence of what the historical name may have been, the conventional name is simply based on a reading of the rune name in the Anglo-Saxon rune poem, first suggested by Wilhelm Grimm (\"Über deutsche Runen\", 1821), as \"eolh\" or \"eolug\" \"elk\". Like the \"ng\"-rune, the \"z\"-rune is a special case inasmuch as it could not have been named acrophonically, since the sound it represents did not occur in word-initial position. Choosing a name that terminates in \"-z\" would have been more or less arbitrary, as this was the nominative singular suffix of almost every masculine noun of the language. Since the name \"eolh\", or more accurately \"eolh-secg\" \"elk-sedge\" in the Anglo-Saxon rune poem represents not the rune's original sound value, but rather the sound of Latin \"x\" (/ks/), it becomes highly arbitrary to suggest that the original rune should have been named after the elk. There are a number of speculative suggestions surrounding the history of the rune's name. The difficulty lies in the circumstance that the Younger Futhark rune did not inherit this name at all, but acquired the name of the obsolete Eihwaz rune, as \"yr\". The only independent evidence of the Elder Futhark rune's name would be the name of the corresponding Gothic letter, \"ezec\". The Gothic letter was an adoption of Greek Zeta, and while it did express the /z/ phoneme, this Gothic sound did \"not\" occur terminally, but in positions where West and North Germanic have \"r\", e.g. Gothic \"máiza\" \"greater\" (Old Norse \"meira\", English \"more\"). The name of the Anglo-Saxon rune is variously recorded as \"eolx, eolhx, ilcs, ilx, iolx, ilix, elux\". Manuscript tradition gives its sound value as Latin \"x\", i.e. /ks/, or alternatively as \"il\", or yet again as \"\"l\" and \"x\"\". The reading of this opaque name as \"eolh\" \"elk\" is entirely due to the reading of the Anglo-Saxon rune poem's secg as \"eolh-secg\" (\"eolx-secg\", \"eolug-secg\", \"eolxecg\") \"elk-sedge\", apparently the name of a species of sedge (\"Carex\"). This reading of the poem is due to Wilhelm Grimm (1821), and remains standard. The suggestion is that this compound is realized as \"eolk-secg\", thus containing the Latin \"x\" (/ks/) sound sequence. The manuscript testimony that the rune is to be read as \"il\" would then be simply a mistaken assumption that its name must be acrophonic. The name of the corresponding Gothic letter \"ezec\", however, suggests that the old name of this rune was not just \"eolx\", but the full \"eolh-secg\". This is puzzling, because the sound value of the rune was clearly not /ks/ in the Elder Futhark period (2nd to 4th centuries). Furthermore, the name of the sedge in question is recorded in the older Epinal-Erfurt glossary as \"ilugsegg\" (glossing \"papiluus\", probably for \"papyrus\"), which cannot be derived from the word for elk. A suggestion by Warren and Elliott takes the Old English \"eolh\" at face value, and reconstructs a Common Germanic form of either \"*algiz\" or \"*alhiz\". They cite a \"more fanciful school\" which assumes an original meaning of \"elk\" based on a theonym \"Alcis\" recorded by Tacitus (suggesting that the name would have been theophoric in origin, referring to an \"elk-god\"). The authors dismiss the Old English \"elk-sedge\" as a late attempt to give the then-obsolete rune a value of Latin \"x\". Instead, they suggest that the original name of the rune could have been Common Germanic \"*algiz\" ('Algie'), meaning not \"elk\" but \"protection, defence\". Redbond (1936) suggested that the \"eolhx\" (etc.) may have been a corruption of \"helix\". Seebold (1991) took this up to suggest that the name of the rune may be connected to the use of \"elux\" for \"helix\" by Notker to describe the constellation of Ursa major (as turning around the celestial pole). An earlier suggestion is that of Zacher (1855), to the effect that the earliest value of this rune was the labiovelar /hw/, and that its name may have been \"hweol\" \"wheel\".", "In the Elder Futhark, Algiz represents the Germanic phoneme \"*z\", which does not occur word-initially. It is attested in that position in the earliest inscriptions, e.g. in \"ansuz\" (Vimose buckle), \"þewaz\" (Thorsberg chape). It was presumably present in the Ovre Stabu spearhead inscription (ca. AD 180), reading \"raunija[z]\", but is hardly legible now. The Nydam axe-handle (4th century) has the name \"wagagastiz\". The Golden Horns of Gallehus (early 5th century) had the personal name \"hlewagastiz holtijaz\". In the earliest inscriptions, the rune invariably has its standard Ψ-shape. From the 5th century or so, the rune appears optionally in its upside-down variant which would become the standard Younger Futhark \"yr\" shape. There are also other graphical variants; for example, the Charnay Fibula has a superposition of these two variants, resulting in an \"asterisk\" shape ().", "The name of the Anglo-Saxon rune is variously recorded as \"eolx, ilcs, ilix, elux, eolhx\". Manuscript tradition gives its sound value as Latin \"x\", i.e. /ks/, or alternatively as \"il\", or yet again as \"\"l\" and \"x\"\". The relevant stanza of the Anglo-Saxon rune poem reads: Reading the rune as \"eolhx\" (as discussed above), and with the emendation of \"seccard\" to \"secg eard\" due to Grimm (1821), the stanza becomes about a species of sedge (\"Cladium mariscus\") called \"elk-sedge\". In the translation of Page (1999): The 9th-century \"abecedarium anguliscum\" in Codex Sangallensis 878 shows \"eolh\" as a peculiar shape, as it were a bindrune of the older with the Younger Futhark, resulting in an \"asterisk\" shape similar to \"ior\". The only known instance where the rune does take the sound value of Latin \"x\" in epigraphy is the spelling of \"rex\" \"king\" on the interlace coin dies of king Beonna (mid 8th century). Furthermore, it appears in the inscription on St Cuthbert's coffin (late 7th century) in the abbreviation of the name Christ, where Greek ΧΡΣ is taken as Latin \"xps\" and rendered as runic.", "In the 6th and 7th centuries, the Elder Futhark began to be replaced by the Younger Futhark in Scandinavia. By the 8th century, the Elder Futhark was extinct, and Scandinavian runic inscriptions were exclusively written in Younger Futhark. The Yr rune is a rune of the Younger Futhark. Its common transliteration is a small capital \"ʀ\". The shape of the \"Yr\" rune in the Younger Futhark is the inverted shape of the Elder Futhark rune (). Its name \"yr\" (\"yew\") is taken from the name of the Elder Futhark Eihwaz rune. Its phonological value is the continuation of the phoneme represented by Algiz, the word-final \"*-z\" in Proto Germanic, In Proto-Norse pronounced closer to, perhaps. Within later Old Norse, the Proto-Norse phoneme collapses with by the 12th century. Unicode has \"Latin Small Capital Letter R\" at code point U+0280 ʀ (IPA’s symbol for the uvular trill). A corresponding capital letter is at U+01A6 Ʀ, called \"Latin Letter Yr\". The rune itself is encoded at U+16E6 \"Long Branch Yr\". Variants are \"Short Twig Yr\" at U+16E7 and \"Icelandic Yr\" at U+16E8. The Anglo-Saxon \"calc\" rune ᛣ has the same shape as Younger Futhark \"yr\", but is unrelated in origin (being a modification or \"doubling\" of \"cen\" ᚳ). Independently, the shape of the Elder Futhark Algiz rune reappears in the Younger Futhark \"Maðr\" rune, continuing the Elder Futhark rune \"*Mannaz\".", "", "The \"Man\" and \"Yr\" runes in Guido von List's Armanen Futharkh were based on the Younger Futhark. List's runes were later adopted and modified by Karl Maria Wiligut who was responsible for their adoptions in Nazi occultism. Both List and Wiligut have an \"Yr\" rune of the same shape as the Younger Futhark \"Yr\" rune. In this context, the \"Man\" rune (identical in shape to the Elder Futhark \"Algiz\") came to be understood in the Germanic mysticism of the early 20th century as symbolizing \"life\" and called the \"life rune\" (). This term occurs as early as the 1920s in the literature of Germanic mysticism, and it came to be widely used within the Nazi Party and Nazi Germany, e.g. in official prescriptions for the various uniforms of the \"\". The \"Yr\" rune came to be seen as the \"life rune\" inverted and interpreted as \"death rune\" (\"\") During the World War II era, these two runes ( for \"born\", for \"died\") came to be used in obituaries and on tomb stones as marking birth and death dates, replacing asterisk and cross symbols (* for \"born\", ✝ for \"died\") conventionally used in this context in Germany. It has always been clear that this association is an innovation of modern esotericism, without direct precedent in the medieval usage of the Younger Futhark alphabet. This fact was pointed out in an article in the German journal \"Stimmen der Zeit\" as early as in 1940. After 1945, the term \"life rune\" continued to be used as \"völkisch\" nationalism. Contemporary examples include use by the American National Alliance (as of 2007), and in reference to the Algiz rune in the logo of the Flemish nationalist as \"levensrune\" (as of 2016). The term \"death rune\" has been used in the context of esotericist or occultist aesthetics associated with black metal, in the name of \"Deathrune Records\" (as of 2011), formerly \" Records\", a minor black metal record label.", "Following Ralph Blum (1982), the Algiz rune is given a sense of \"protection\" in some modern systems of runic divination. Blum (1982) himself glosses for \"Algiz\" with \"Protection; Sedge or Rushes; An Elk\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Features.", "WinSCP as a remote editor.", "File Transfer Resume Issues.", "Portable version.", "Advertisements in installer." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "WinSCP can act as a remote editor. When the user clicks on a (text) file in the remote file manager, it transfers the file to the local machine and opens it in the integrated editor, allowing users to edit it locally as they would with any other text file. Alternatively, the user may choose local editors based on file extensions. Whenever the document is saved, the remote version is updated automatically.", "WinSCP, by default, transfers files larger than 100KB by creating a temporary file named by appending \".filepart\" to the original filename. After the file transfer successfully completes, the temporary file is renamed to the original filename. This is intended to allow resumption of interrupted file transfers - WinSCP tests for the existence of such filenames when transfers are initiated, and if it finds any, will not need to retransmit the part of the file already sent. This is a very effective technique for moving large files over unreliable connections, but undesirable behavior in other circumstances, because it ignores the possibility of filesystem triggered event management (e.g. inotify, Kqueue, Windows VSS, &etc) or limited permissions/accessibility on the receiving system. A high volume enterprise EDI server may move the.filepart to a heavily firewalled internal system before the rename happens, or a server subject to US security requirements such as HIPAA may prevent file renaming, for example. The default behavior can be disabled and will generally not be a problem for ad-hoc personal file transfers.", "Apart from the standard package, three portable versions are also available: A generic package and two customized versions for LiberKey and Portableapps.com. The portable version runs on Wine in Linux.", "Some older versions of the WinSCP installer included OpenCandy advertising module or bundled Google Chrome. Since version 5.5.5 (August 2014) the installer does not contain any advertisement. WinSCP itself did not and does not contain any advertisements." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early years.", "First world war.", "Post war diversification and failure.", "Hawker Engineering.", "Famous Sopwith aircraft." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Sopwith Aviation Company (based at Brooklands) was created in June 1912 by Thomas Octave Murdoch (Tommy, later Sir Thomas) Sopwith, a wealthy sportsman interested in aviation, yachting and motor-racing, when he was 24 years old. Following their first military aircraft sale in November 1912, Sopwith moved to the company's first factory premises which opened that December in a recently closed roller skating rink in Canbury Park Road near Kingston Railway Station in South West London. An early collaboration with the S. E. Saunders boatyard of East Cowes on the Isle of Wight, in 1913, produced the Sopwith \"Bat Boat\", an early flying boat with a Consuta laminated hull which could operate on sea or land. A small factory subsequently opened in Woolston, Hampshire in 1914.", "The company made more than 16,000 aircraft during the First World War. Many more of the company's aircraft were built by subcontractors rather than by Sopwith themselves. These included Fairey, Clayton and Shuttleworth, William Beardmore and Company and Ruston Proctor. Towards the end of the war, Sopwith took out a lease on \"National Aircraft Factory No.2\", constructed in 26 weeks during the winter of 1917 a mile to the north of the Canbury works in Ham. The company were able to greatly increase production of Snipe, Dolphin and Salamander fighter planes as a result. At the beginning of the war the company had 200 employees; this had reached 6,000 employees by the Armistice.", "After the war, the company attempted to produce aircraft for the civil market based on their wartime types. These included aircraft such as a single-winged Camel and the Dove, a derivative of the Pup and the Swallow, but the wide availability of war-surplus aircraft at knock-down prices meant this was never economical. In 1919 the company was renamed as Sopwith Aviation & Engineering Company and the factory was re-organised to produce ABC motorcycles under licence; this included an investment of £100,000 in new machinery. In September 1920 the Kingston factory closed for stocktaking and the company decided to enter voluntary liquidation; the works manager at Kingston announced in a letter to the 1400 employees: At a meeting of creditors held in October 1920 it was explained that although the company had previously accumulated a surplus of £900,000 in 1918, following a slump in the sale of motorcycles the company had liabilities of £705,430 (which included £583,510 for excess profits duty) and assets of £862,630. The amount of excess profit duty was being disputed by the company which had already paid £450,000 in duty. The meeting concluded that the best result would be to sell the business as a going concern. The Ham factory, which was included in 38 acres of freehold land, was sold to Leyland Motors. The newly formed H.G Hawker Engineering Company obtained the Sopwith patent rights and a government contract to refurbish Sopwith Snipe biplanes.", "Upon the liquidation of the Sopwith company, Tom Sopwith himself, together with Harry Hawker, Fred Sigrist and Bill Eyre, immediately formed H.G. Hawker Engineering, forerunner of the Hawker Aircraft and Hawker Siddeley lineage. Sopwith was Chairman of Hawker Siddeley until his retirement. Hawker and its successors produced many more famous military aircraft, including the inter-war Hart, and Demon; World War II's Hurricane, Typhoon, and Tempest; and the post-war Sea Fury, Hunter and Harrier. These later jet types were manufactured in the same factory buildings used to produce Sopwith Snipes in 1918 as Hawker Aircraft bought the Ham Factory when Leyland's lease expired in 1948.", "Initially, Tom Sopwith himself, assisted by his former personal mechanic Fred Sigrist, led the design of the company's types. Following a number of pre-war designs for the Royal Naval Air Service, such as the Three-seater and the Bat Boat, Sopwith's first major success was the fast and compact (hence the name) Tabloid, a design which first showed the influence of the company's test pilot, the Australian Harry Hawker. A float-equipped version of this aircraft won the Schneider Trophy in 1914. The landplane version was used by both the RNAS and RFC at the start of the war. With higher power and floats, the type evolved into the Sopwith Baby, which was a workhorse of the RNAS for much of the First World War. In 1916, Herbert Smith became Chief Engineer of the Sopwith company, and under his design leadership its other successful World War I types included the larger Type 9901. This aircraft, better known as the 11⁄2 Strutter due to its unconventional cabane strut arrangement, was used from 1916 by the RNAS, RFC and the French \"Aviation Militaire\" as a single-seat bomber, two-seat fighter and artillery spotter and trainer. Soon after came the small and agile single-seat Scout, which quickly became better known as the Pup because of its obvious descent from the 11⁄2 Strutter. The Pup and 11⁄2 Strutter were the first successful British tractor fighters equipped with a synchronisation gear to allow a machine gun to fire through the rotating propeller. This gear was known as the Sopwith-Kauper gear from its designers, although several other designs were used later. The Pup was widely used on the Western Front by the RFC and from ships by the RNAS from the autumn of 1916 to the early summer of 1917, and was considered a delight to fly by its pilots. It continued in use as an advanced trainer for the remainder of the War. The Pup began the famous series of \"animal\"-named Sopwith aircraft during the war, which, as a whole, would become renowned in aviation history as \"The Flying Zoo\". Experimentally equipped with three narrow-chord wings and a more powerful engine, the Pup led to the Triplane, which was used by just four squadrons of the RNAS during 1917, but became well known for its startling fighting qualities, put to best use by Raymond Collishaw's famous 'Black Flight' of 'Naval 10' (No. 10 Squadron RNAS). This flight was so called due to the black identification colour of the flight's aircraft, which in turn led to their naming as Black Maria, Black Prince, Black Death, Black Roger and Black Sheep. Such was the impact of this type that it spawned a large number of experimental triplane designs from manufacturers on all sides, although only the Fokker Triplane achieved any subsequent success. In the early summer of 1917 the twin-gun Camel fighter was introduced. This aircraft was highly manoeuvrable and well-armed, and over 5,000 were produced up until the end of the War. It destroyed more enemy aircraft than any other British type, but its difficult flying qualities also killed very many novice pilots in accidents. It was used, modified, as both a night-fighter and shipboard aircraft, and was flown in combat by the Belgian and American Air Services as well as the British. Later still in front-line service came the stationary-engined four-gun Dolphin and the ultimate rotary-engined fighter, the Snipe. The Snipe saw little wartime service, being issued only in small numbers to the Front, but William George Barker, the Canadian ace, won a Victoria Cross flying one in an epic single-handed dogfight against enormous odds. Towards the end of the war the company produced the Cuckoo torpedo-bomber and the Salamander armoured ground-attack development of the Snipe, but these types were too late to see action. Many other experimental prototypes were produced throughout the war, mostly named after animals (Hippo, Gnu etc.), leading to some referring to the 'Sopwith Zoo'. Following World War I, the Sopwith Snipe was chosen as the standard fighter of the much-reduced Royal Air Force, and soldiered on until finally replaced in the late 1920s." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Design.", "Reverse (common) side.", "Obverse (national) sides.", "Planned designs.", "Nicknames." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "2" ], "content": [ "The coin dates from 2002, when euro coins and banknotes were introduced in the 12-member eurozone and its related territories. The common side was designed by Luc Luycx, a Belgian artist who won a Europe-wide competition to design the new coins. The design of the 1 to 5 cent coins was intended to show the European Union's (EU) place in the world (relative to Africa and Asia) while the one and two euro coins showed the 15 states as one and the 10- to 50-cent coins showed separate EU states. The design of the national sides, then fifteen (eurozone plus Monaco, San Marino and the Vatican who could also mint their own coins) was the subject of national competitions, but was subject to some uniform specifications such as the requirement to include twelve stars (see euro coins for more). National designs were not allowed to change until the end of 2008, unless a monarch (whose portrait usually appears on the coins) dies or abdicates. This happened in Monaco and the Vatican City, resulting in three new designs in circulation (the Vatican had an interim design until the new Pope was elected). National designs have seen some changes as new rules required that national designs should include the name of the issuing country: neither Finland and Belgium had shown their name, and so made minor changes. As the EU's membership has since expanded in 2004 and 2007, with further expansions envisaged, the common face of all euro coins from the value of 10 cent and above were redesigned in 2007 to show a new map. The 1- to 5-cent coins, however, did not change, as the highlighting of the old members over the globe was so faint it was not considered worth the cost. However, new national coin designs were added in 2007 with the entry of Slovenia, in 2008 with Cyprus and Malta, in 2009 with Slovakia, In 2011 with Estonia, in 2014 with Latvia and in 2015 with Lithuania.", "The coins are composed of copper-covered steel, with a diameter of 21.25 mm, a 1.67 mm thickness and a mass of 3.92 grams. Coincidentally, the dimensions (though not the mass or composition) are nearly identical to those of Canadian and United States 5-cent coins. The coins' edges are smooth. The coins have been used from 2002, though some are dated 1999 which is the year the euro was created as a currency, but not put into general circulation.", "The reverse was designed by Luc Luycx and displays a globe in the bottom right. The (then 15) members of the EU are lightly highlighted and the northern part of Africa and the western part of Asia (including the Middle East) are shown. Six fine lines cut diagonally behind the globe from each side of the coin and have twelve stars at their ends (reflective of the flag of Europe). To the top left is a large number 5 followed, in smaller text, by the words \"Euro Cent\". The designers initials, LL, appear to the right of the globe. Starting in 2017 coins from individual member states have started adjusting their common side design to a new version, identified by smaller and more rounded numeral \"5\" and longer lines outside of the stars at the coin's circumference.", "The obverse side of the coin depends on the issuing country. All have to include twelve stars (in most cases arranged in a circle around the edge), the engraver's initials and the year of issue. New designs also have to include the name or initials of the issuing country. The side cannot repeat the denomination of the coin unless the issuing country uses an alphabet other than Latin (currently, Greece and Cyprus are the only such countries, hence Greece engraves \"5 ΛΕΠΤΑ\" (5 lepta) on its coins).", "Austria, Germany and Greece will also at some point need to update their designs to comply with guidelines stating they must include the issuing state's name or initials, and not repeat the denomination of the coin. In addition, there are several EU states that have not yet adopted the euro. Some of them have already agreed upon their coin designs; however, it is not known if or when they will adopt the currency, and hence these are not yet minted. See enlargement of the Eurozone for expected entry dates of these countries.", "In the Netherlands, the coin carries the nickname stuiver, carried over from the previous currency. The three copper plated coins are also nicknamed, or in Flemish." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Regulations.", "1997–2010.", "2011–2016.", "2017." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Between 1997 and 2010, the regulations mandated that World Rally Cars must have been built upon a production car with a minimum production run of 2500 units. A number of modifications could be made including increasing the engine displacement up to 2.0L, forced induction (including an anti-lag system), addition of four wheel drive, fitment of a sequential gearbox, modified suspension layout and attachment points, aerodynamic body modifications, weight reduction to a minimum of 1230 kg and chassis strengthening for greater rigidity. The maximum width was set at 1770 mm while front and rear tracks shouldn't exceed 1550 mm. Unlike the requirements for the preceding Group A cars, manufacturers were no longer required to build \"homologation specials\" in order to meet approval. The base model did not need to have all the characteristics of the WRC car, as evidenced from cars such the Peugeot 206, 307, Citroën Xsara and Škoda Fabia, which during this period had no road car variant with a turbocharged petrol engine or four wheel drive. One of the requirements was a minimum length of 4000 mm; the standard Peugeot 206 had an overall length of 3835 mm and Peugeot had to produce at least 2500 units featuring extended bumpers to comply with the required dimensions. To limit power, all forced induction cars were fitted with a 34 mm diameter air restrictor before the turbocharger inlet, limiting the air flow to about 10 cubic meters per minute. The restriction was intended to limit power output to 300 hp although some WRC engines were believed to produce around 330–340 hp. Engine development did not focus on peak power output but towards producing a very wide powerband (or power curve). Typically, power output in excess of 300 hp was available from 3000 rpm to the 7500 rpm maximum, with a peak of 330–340 hp at around 5500 rpm. At 2000 rpm (the engine idle speed in \"stage\" mode) power output was slightly above 200 hp. By 2004, the best cars had ABS, electronic clutch control, paddle shift, traction control, three active differentials, ride height control with GPS, electronic dampers and active suspension. For 2005 the maximum width of the WRC cars was increased from 1770 mm to 1800 mm. In an attempt to cut costs, since 2006 new regulations required mechanical front and rear differentials, while the central differential remained active. Active suspension and water injections were also prohibited. Cars entered by a manufacturer had to be equipped with the same engine for two rallies; further limitations were imposed on the changing of some parts, including suspension, steering, turbochargers and gearboxes.", "Starting in 2011, rules for WRC cars changed to be more restrictive. New regulations were derived from Super 2000 cars with a different aerodynamic kit. The cars were smaller models (there was no longer a minimum 4m length), with a 1600 cm direct injection turbo-charged engine with a 33 mm diameter air restrictor and a maximum pressure of 2.5 bar absolute (this will limit torque to about 400 N.m or less). Exotic materials (titanium, magnesium, ceramics and composite) were forbidden except when present in the base model. Carbon fibre and aramid fibre were very restricted (\"only one layer of fabric is used and is affixed to the visible face of the part\"), except for bodywork's side protections where multiple layers of aramid fibre are allowed. The gear changes must be made with a mechanical system, so the paddle shifters were not allowed. However the system was re-allowed in 2015. There was no center differential (earlier it used to be 3 differentials, with a center/3rd differential included), but the new regulation allows only front and rear axle differential and a mechanical clutch to disconnect the rear axle during handbrake use (to reduce cost and make the cars' driving style more exciting again for both spectators and TV broadcasts). These two differentials must be mechanical, without electronic control or hydraulic or viscous systems (from 2006 to 2010 the center differential and previously all three could be active). Minimum weight is 1200 kg empty and 1350 kg with driver and co-driver (in both cases with only one spare wheel).", "The 1.6 L turbo-charged engine was retained in the 2017 World Rally Car regulations, but the turbo restrictor diameter was increased from 33 mm to 36 mm, increasing the engine's power output from 310 bhp (223.7 kW) to 380 bhp (283.4 kW). Minimum vehicle weight was decreased by 25 kg. Manufacturers are also given more freedom to maximise aerodynamic performance, large brake cooling ducts in fairings forming enlarged wheel arches, and are allowed to use electronically-controlled active centre differentials, while the front and rear differentials remain mechanical. While 2011 specification World Rally Cars will be allowed to compete in 2017, the new World Rally Cars are allowed for use by manufacturers' teams only." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Architectural heritage." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Bergen was established before 1070 AD. In the Middle Ages, the Bryggen area encompassed all buildings between the sea and the \"Stretet\" (\"Øvregaten\") road, from Holmen in the north to Vågsbunnen in the south. According to the Sagas, the city was founded within this area. One of the earliest pier constructions has been dated to around 1100, and the existing buildings are of a much later date, with only Schøtstuene and some buildings towards Julehuset being originals from 1702. Around 1350, an office of the Hanseatic League was established in Bryggen. As the town developed into an important trading centre, the wharfs were improved and the buildings of Bryggen were gradually taken over by the Hanseatic merchants. The warehouses were used to store goods, particularly stockfish from northern Norway, and cereal from Europe. In 1702, the buildings belonging to the Hanseatic League were damaged by fire. They were rebuilt, and some of these were later demolished, and some were destroyed by fire. In 1754, the operations of the office at Bryggen ended, when all the properties were transferred to Norwegian citizens. Throughout history, Bergen has experienced many fires, since most of its houses were traditionally made from wood. This was also the case for Bryggen, and as of today around a quarter were built after 1702, when the older wharfside warehouses and administrative buildings burned down. The rest predominantly consists of younger structures, although there are some stone cellars that date back to the 15th century. Parts of Bryggen were again destroyed in a fire in 1955. A thirteen-year archaeological excavation followed, revealing the day-to-day runic inscriptions known as the Bryggen inscriptions. The Bryggen museum was built in 1976 on part of the site cleared by the fire.", "Bryggen was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1979, by Criterion (iii): \"Bryggen bears the traces of social organization and illustrates the use of space in a quarter of Hanseatic merchants that dates back to the 14th century. It is a type of northern “fondaco”, unequalled in the world, where the structures have remained within the cityscape and perpetuate the memory of one of the oldest large trading ports of Northern Europe\". Notable houses at Bryggen include Bellgården (a 300-year-old building), Svensgården, Enhjørningsgården, Bredsgården, Bugården, Engelgården. The oldest and tallest building in the area is St Mary's Church. Streets include Jacobsfjorden. Museums include Bryggens Museum and Hanseatic Museum and Schøtstuene." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Uses.", "Medical.", "Food.", "Safety.", "Mechanism of action.", "History.", "Society and culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Natamycin is used to treat fungal infections, including \"Candida\", \"Aspergillus\", \"Cephalosporium\", \"Fusarium\", and \"Penicillium\". It is applied topically as a cream, in eye drops, or (for oral infections) in a lozenge. Natamycin shows negligible absorption into the body when administered in these ways. When taken orally, little or none is absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract, making it inappropriate for systemic infections. Natamycin lozenges are also prescribed to treat yeast infections and oral thrush.", "Natamycin has been used for decades in the food industry as a hurdle to fungal outgrowth in dairy products and other foods. Potential advantages for the usage of natamycin might include the replacement of traditional chemical preservatives, a neutral flavor impact, and less dependence on pH for efficacy, as is common with chemical preservatives. It can be applied in a variety of ways: as an aqueous suspension (such as mixed into a brine) sprayed on the product or into which the product is dipped, or in powdered form (along with an anticaking agent such as cellulose) sprinkled on or mixed into the product. While not currently approved for use on meats in the United States, some countries allow natamycin to be applied to the surface of dry and fermented sausages to prevent mold growth on the casing. Also, natamycin is approved for various dairy applications in the United States. More specifically, natamycin is commonly used in products such as cream cheeses, cottage cheese, sour cream, yogurt, shredded cheeses, cheese slices, and packaged salad mixes. One of the reasons for food producers to use natamycin is to replace the artificial preservative sorbic acid. As a food additive, it has E number E235. Throughout the European Union, it is approved only as a surface preservative for certain cheese and dried sausage products. It must not be detectable 5 mm below the rind. While natamycin is approved in different applications at different levels in the world, it is approved in over 150 countries worldwide. The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) panel took over the responsibilities of providing scientific food safety advice to the EU from the Scientific Committee on Food in 2002. In 2009, the EFSA considered the proposed use levels of natamycin are safe if it is used for the surface treatment for these cheese and sausage types.", "Natamycin does not have acute toxicity. In animal studies, the lowest found was 2.5-4.5 g/kg. In rats, the LD is ≥2300 mg/kg, and doses of 500 mg/kg/day over 2 years caused no detectable differences in survival rate, growth, or incidence of tumors. The metabolites of natamycin also lack toxicity. The breakdown products of natamycin under various storage conditions may have a lower LD than natamycin, but in all cases, the numbers are quite high. In humans, a dose of 500 mg/kg/day repeated over multiple days caused nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. No evidence shows natamycin, at either pharmacological levels or levels encountered as a food additive, can harm normal intestinal flora, but definitive research may not be available. However, some people are allergic to natamycin. The EFSA has concluded that the use of natamycin as a food additive has no relevant risk for the development of resistant fungi.", "Natamycin inhibits the growth of fungi by specifically binding to ergosterol present in fungal cell membranes. The molecule interacts irreversibly with the sterol forming a sandwich-like structure embedded in the hydrophobic core of the membrane; between the two lipid layers. This causes membrane fragmentation and indirectly affects the functions ergosterol takes part in, such as endocytosis and exocytosis, vacuole fusion, morphogenesis, and amino acid and glucose transport across the membrane. Natamycin has very low solubility in water; however, natamycin is effective at very low levels. Its minimum inhibitory concentration is less than 10 ppm for most molds.", "It is produced as a secondary metabolite by some \"Streptomyces\" species: \"S. natalensis\", \"S. lydicus\", \"S. chattanoogensis\" and \"S. gilvosporeus\". Natamycin was first isolated in 1955 from fermentation broth of a \"Streptomyces natalensis\" cell culture.. It was originally named \"pimaricin\" to honor Pietermaritzburg, where \"Streptomyces natalensis\" was acquired. Pimaricin was later renamed natamycin after the World Health Organization (WHO) mandated that antibiotics produced by \"Streptomyces\" end in –mycin. The name also related to the organism producing the compound, \"Streptomyces natalensis\", hence the name natamycin.", "Natamycin appears on Whole Foods' “Unacceptable Ingredients for Food” list." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Architecture.", "Today.", "Organ and organists." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The site of this edifice, centred at the end of rue Royale, a line-of-sight between Gabriel's twin hôtels in the Place de la Concorde, required a suitably monumental end from the time that square was established in 1755, as Place Louis XV. The settlement around the site was called Ville l'Évêque. The site in the suburban \"faubourg\" had been annexed to the city of Paris in 1722. Two false starts were made in building a church on this site. The reconstruction of the older church consecrated to Mary Magdalene was considered. The first design, commissioned in 1757, with construction begun with the King's ceremonial placing of the cornerstone, 3 April 1763, was halted in 1764; that first design, by Pierre Contant d'Ivry, was based on Jules Hardouin Mansart’s Late Baroque church of Les Invalides, with a dome surmounting a Latin cross. In 1777, Contant d'Ivry died and was replaced by his pupil Guillaume-Martin Couture, who decided to start anew, razing the incomplete construction, shortening the nave and basing his new, more centralised design on the Roman Pantheon. At the start of the Revolution of 1789, however, only the foundations and the grand portico had been finished; the choir of the former church was demolished in 1797, but work was discontinued while debate simmered as to what purpose the eventual building might serve in Revolutionary France: a library, a public ballroom, and a marketplace were all suggested. In the meantime, the National Assembly was housed in the Palais Bourbon behind a pedimented colonnaded front that was inspired by the completed portico at the far end of the former rue Royale. After the execution of Louis XVI his body was immediately transported to the old Church of the Madeleine (demolished in 1799), since the legislation in force forbade burial of his remains beside those of his father, the Dauphin Louis de France, at Sens. Two curates who had sworn fealty to the Revolution held a short memorial service at the church. One of them, Damoureau, stated in evidence: On 21 January 1815 Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette's remains were re-buried in the Basilica of Saint-Denis where in 1816 his brother, King Louis XVIII, had a funerary monument erected by Edme Gaulle. In 1806 Napoleon made his decision to erect a memorial, a \"Temple de la Gloire de la Grande Armée\" (\"Temple to the Glory of the Great Army\"); following an elaborate competition with numerous entries and a jury that decided on a design by the architect Claude Étienne de Beaumont (1757–1811), the Emperor trumped all, instead commissioning Pierre-Alexandre Vignon (1763–1828) to build his design on an antique temple (Compare the Maison Carrée, in Nîmes) The then-existing foundations were razed, preserving the standing columns, and work begun anew. With completion of the Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel in 1808, the original commemorative role for the temple was reduced. After the fall of Napoleon, with the Catholic reaction during the Restoration, King Louis XVIII determined that the structure would be used as a church, dedicated to Mary Magdalene. Vignon died in 1828 before completing the project and was replaced by Jacques-Marie Huvé. A new competition was set up in 1828-29, to determine the design for sculptures for the pediment, a last judgment, in which Mary Magdalene knelt to intercede for the Damned; the winner was Philippe Joseph Henri Lemaire. The July Monarchy rededicated the monument of repentance for Revolution as a monument of national reconciliation, and the nave was vaulted in 1831. In 1837 it was briefly suggested that the building might best be utilised as a railway station, but the building was finally consecrated as a church in 1842. The funeral of Chopin at the Church of the Madeleine in Paris was delayed almost two weeks, until 30 October 1849. Chopin had requested that Mozart's Requiem be sung. The Requiem had major parts for female voices, but the Church of the Madeleine had never permitted female singers in its choir. The Church finally relented, on condition that the female singers remain behind a black velvet curtain. During the Paris Commune of 1871, the curé of the church, Abbé Deguerry was one of those arrested and held hostage by the Commune. He was executed alongside Georges Darboy, the Archbishop of Paris and four other hostages on 24 May, as French government troops were retaking the city.", "The Madeleine is built in the Neo-Classical style and was inspired by the much smaller Maison Carrée in Nîmes, one of the best-preserved of all Roman temples. It is one of the earliest large neo-classical buildings to imitate the whole external form of a Roman temple, rather than just the portico front. Its fifty-two Corinthian columns, each high, are carried around the entire building. The pediment sculpture of the Last Judgement is by Philippe Joseph Henri Lemaire, and the church's bronze doors bear reliefs representing the Ten Commandments. It measures. Inside, the church has a single nave with three domes over wide arched bays, lavishly gilded in a decor inspired as much by Roman baths as by Renaissance artists. At the rear of the church, above the high altar, stands a statue by Charles Marochetti depicting St Mary Magdalene being lifted up by angels which evokes the tradition concerning ecstasy which she entered in her daily prayer while in seclusion. The half-dome above the altar is frescoed by Jules-Claude Ziegler, entitled \"The History of Christianity\", showing the key figures in the Christian religion with – a sign of its Second Empire date – Napoleon occupying centre stage.", "The Madeleine is a parish church of the Archdiocese of Paris; masses and other religious services are celebrated daily, and funerals and weddings are still celebrated here. In the basement of the Church (entrance on the Flower Market side) is the Foyer de la Madeleine. Typical of various foyers run by religious and civic groups throughout France, the Madeleine is the home of a restaurant in which, for a yearly subscription fee, one can dine under the vaulted ceilings on a three-course French meal served by volunteers for a nominal price. After dining one can take coffee in a lounge at the far end of the foyer for one of the cheapest espressos in Paris. The walls of the Foyer are often decorated by local artists.", "The church has a celebrated pipe organ, built by Aristide Cavaillé-Coll in 1845. It was restored by Cavaillé-Coll's successor Charles Mutin in 1927, who also extended the manuals to 56 notes. Tonal modifications were carried out by Roethinger, Danion-Gonzalez, and Dargassies in 1957, 1971 and 1988 respectively. The position of titular organist has been held by many major organists and composers over the years:<ref name=\"/books-google\"></ref" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology and names.", "Geography and geology.", "Glaciation.", "History.", "Geological.", "Cultural.", "Nearby settlements.", "Landmarks.", "Historic and cultural sites.", "Scientific institutions.", "In culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "According to Armenian tradition, Aragats originates from the words Արա \"Ara\" + գահ \"gah\", which translates to \"Ara's throne\". Ara refers to the legendary hero Ara the Beautiful. Aragats was mentioned by the early medieval historian Movses Khorenatsi, who in his \"History of Armenia\" claims that the mountain is named after, the son of Hayk, the legendary father of the Armenian people. Aramaneak called his possessions \"the foot of Aragats\" (classical Armenian: ոտն Արագածոյ, \"otn Aragats'oy\"; modern: Aragatsotn). The modern Aragatsotn Province, dominated by the mountain, was formed in 1995. The name of the mountain is less often spelled \"Aragatz\" or \"Aragac\". A relatively modern name for the mountain is Alagöz (), which literally means \"variegated eye\" in Turkish. This term was widely used up until the mid-20th century in European, Tsarist Russian, and early Soviet sources. A corrupted version of the word, Alagyaz (Ալագյազ), was also used in Armenian. A village on the foot of Aragats is named Alagyaz.", "Aragats is isolated from Armenia's other mountain ranges. However, it is considered part and the highest point of the larger Lesser Caucasus mountain range. It has four summits, which are named according to their relative geographic position: Mount Aragats has a topographic prominence of 2,143 meters, more than some higher mountains, such as Dykh-Tau (5,205 m high) in Russian part of Great Caucasus Range. Situated northwest of Armenian capital Yerevan, Aragats is a large volcano with numerous fissure vents and adventive cones. Numerous large lava flows descend from the volcano and are constrained in age between middle Pleistocene and 3,000 BCE. The summit crater is cut by a long line of cones which generated possibly Holocene-age lahars and lava flows. The volcanic system covers an area of 5,000 km and is one of the largest in the region. More recent activity in flank centres occurred in Tirinkatar (0.48-0.61 Ma), Kakavasar, (0.52-0.54 Ma) and Ashtarak (0.58 Ma), as well as Jrbazhan in the summit area (0.52 Ma). The magmas feeding Aragats are unusually hot for arc-derived magmas, resulting in long and voluminous lava flows.", "Observations shortly after World War II showed the presence of firn fields and snowfields on the sides of the crater cirque, as well as moraines and glaciers inside the crater. An analysis in 1896 indicated a surface area of 5.5-5.8 km, but rapidly retreated afterwards. The glaciation has been retreating on account of insufficient snowfall and increasing temperatures. Glacial meltwater dominates the upper part of the rivers descending from Aragats but its importance decreases farther down the valleys. Traces of prehistorical glaciation also exist, including thick moraines in the summit area at an altitude of 2,600-3,000 m.", "", "The volcano was constructed within four different phases. The first phase (possibly 2.5Ma) occurred in the main crater and subsidiary vents and was basaltic andesite in composition. It crops out in deep gorges. The second phase (0.97–0.89 Ma, by K-Ar) involved the main vent, subsidiary structures and was basaltic and andesitic in composition with ignimbrites and pyroclastics, with tuffs and lava flows emanating from satellite centres. It was the most voluminous and included the Shamiram and Egvard subsidiary centres. The third phase (0.74–0.68 Ma) while similar to the second was more restricted in regional extent to the Mantash River basin. The fourth stage (0.56–0.45 Ma) involved mafic lava flows from parasitic vents in the southern parts of the volcano. Numerous engravings have been around the volcano, including rock paintings portraying animals and human-like figures in Kasagh River valley possibly of early Holocene age, and in Aghavnatun on the southern side of the volcano including petroglyps showing animals that were possibly created in the 4th to 1st millennia BCE. According to an ancient Armenian legend, Aragats and Mount Ararat were loving sisters who parted after a quarrel and separated permanently. Currently, the mountains are further separated politically, with Mt. Ararat being located in Turkey.", "Another legend tells that Gregory the Illuminator, who converted Armenia into Christianity in the early 4th century, \"used to pray on the peak of the mountain. At nighttime an icon-lamp shone to give light for him, the lamp hanging from heaven using no rope. Some say that the icon-lamp is still there, but only the worthy ones can see it.\" On May 28, 2005—the anniversary of the establishment of the First Republic of Armenia—around 250,000 people participated in a Dance of Unity () around Mount Aragats in a mass display of national unity. The quarter million participants, among them then-President Robert Kocharyan and Defense Minister Serzh Sargsyan, formed a ring around the mountain after a blessing from Catholicos Karekin II. The organizers hoped the event would be included in the \"Guinness World Records\". Prior to the dance, some 110,000 trees were planted on the slopes of Aragats.", "The following settlements are located on the slopes or foot of Aragats: Ashtarak, Artik, Aparan, Talin, Oshakan, Byurakan.", "", "Aragats has historically played a significant role in Armenian history and culture. Numerous historical and modern monuments are located on its slopes, some of which are listed below. The 4th century mausoleum of the Arsacid (Arshakuni) dynasty is located in the village of Aghtsk, on the slopes of Aragats. The early medieval fortress of Amberd and the nearby 11th century Vahramashen Church are located on the slopes of Aragats, at an altitude of. One source calls Amberd the \"biggest and the best preserved fortress\" in modern-day Armenia. The (տառերի պուրակ, lit. \"park of the letters\") is located near the village of Artashavan. It was founded in 2005 on the 1600th anniversary of the invention of the Armenian alphabet. It features sculptures of the 39 letters of the Armenian alphabet and statues of notable Armenians, such as Mesrop Mashtots (the inventor of the alphabet), Armenia's national poet Hovhannes Tumanyan, Khachatur Abovian (father of modern Eastern Armenian literature), and others. In 2012 a high cross, composed of 1711 large and small iron crosses, symbolizing the number of years since Armenia's conversion to Christianity in 301, was installed on a hill near the park. A cross is added on an annual basis.", "The Aragats Cosmic Ray Research Station () is a cosmic-ray observatory near Lake Kari, at around above sea level. It was founded in 1943 by the brothers Artem Alikhanian and Abram Alikhanov. The Nor-Amberd station, built in 1960, is located at. The Byurakan Observatory, established in 1946 by Victor Ambartsumian, is located on the southern slopes of Aragats, near the village of Byurakan, at an altitude of. It made Armenia one of the world's centers for the study of astrophysics in the 20th century. The ROT-54/2.6, a radio telescope built in 1985 by the radiophysicist Paris Herouni in the village of Orgov, on the slopes of Aragats.", "Mt. Aragats plays a special role in Armenian history and culture. Along with Ararat, it is considered a sacred mountain for the Armenians. Aragats is a male first name in Armenia, used especially in areas surrounding the mountain. Mt. Aragats is often associated with Gyumri, Armenia's second largest city. The mountain is depicted on the coat of arms of Gyumri. It is also depicted on the obverse side of the 10,000 Armenian dram banknote (in use since 2003) in the background of Avetik Isahakyan, a poet born in Gyumri. Numerous Armenians poets (e.g. Avetik Isahakyan) have written about Aragats. Marietta Shaginyan compared Aragats to a \"half-open bud of a giant pomegranate flower\". In one short poem Silva Kaputikyan compares Armenia to an \"ancient rock-carved fortress\", the towers of which are Mount Aragats and Mount Ararat. Numerous artists have painted Aragats. Some examples of paintings of Aragats kept at the National Gallery of Armenia include:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Political borders.", "Names and etymology.", "Geography.", "Elevation.", "Summit ice cap.", "Geology.", "Geological history.", "Recent volcanic and seismic activity.", "1840 eruption.", "Ascents.", "Armenian attitudes.", "First ascent.", "Later notable ascents.", "Resting place of Noah's Ark.", "Origin of the tradition.", "Prevalence of the tradition.", "Searches.", "Significance for Armenians.", "Symbolism.", "Myth of origin.", "Coat of arms of Armenia.", "Symbol of genocide and territorial claims.", "Cultural depictions.", "In visual art.", "European.", "Armenian.", "In literature.", "Non-Armenian.", "Armenian." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3" ], "content": [ "Mount Ararat forms a near-quadripoint between Turkey, Armenia, Iran, and the Nakhchivan enclave of Azerbaijan. Its summit is located some west of both the Iranian border and the border of the Nakhchivan exclave of Azerbaijan, and south of the Armenian border. The Turkish–Armenian–Azerbaijani and Turkish–Iranian–Azerbaijani tripoints are some 8 km apart, separated by a narrow strip of Turkish territory containing the E99 road which enters Nakhchivan at. From the 16th century until 1828 the range was part of the Ottoman-Persian border; Great Ararat's summit and the northern slopes, along with the eastern slopes of Little Ararat", "Ararat (Western Armenian pronunciation: \"Ararad\") is the Greek version of the Hebrew spelling (אֲרָרָט; RRṬ) of the name Urartu, a kingdom that existed in the Armenian Highlands in the 9th–6th centuries BC. German orientalist and Bible critic Wilhelm Gesenius speculated that the word \"Ararat\" came from the Sanskrit word \"Arjanwartah\", meaning \"holy ground.\" Some Armenian historians, such as, link the origin of the word \"Ararat\" to the root of the endonym of the indigenous peoples of the Armenian Highland (\"ar–\"), including the Armenians. The mountain is known as Ararat in European languages, however, none of the native peoples have traditionally referred to the mountain by that name. In classical antiquity, particularly in Strabo's \"Geographica\", the peaks of Ararat were known in ancient Greek as Ἄβος (\"Abos\") and Νίβαρος (\"Nibaros\"). This mountain was not called by", "Mount Ararat is located in the Eastern Anatolia Region of Turkey between the provinces of Ağrı and Iğdır, near the border with Iran, Armenia and Nakhchivan exclave of Azerbaijan, between the Aras and Murat rivers. Its summit is located some west of the Turkey-Iran border and south of the Turco-Armenian border. The Ararat plain runs along its northwest to western side.", "Ararat is the third most prominent mountain in West Asia. An elevation of for Mount Ararat is given by some encyclopedias and reference works such as \"Merriam-Webster's Geographical Dictionary\" and \"Encyclopedia", "The ice cap on the summit of Mount Ararat has been shrinking since at least 1957. In the late 1950s, Blumenthal observed that there existed 11 outlet glaciers emerging from a summit snow mass that covered about. At that time, it was found that the present glaciers on the summit of Ararat extend as low as an elevation of on the north-facing slope, and an elevation of Blumenthal estimated that the snow line had been as low as in elevation during the Late Pleistocene. Such a snow line would have created an ice cap of in extent. However, he observed", "Mount Ararat is a polygenic, compound stratovolcano. Covering an area of, it is the largest volcanic edifice within the region. Along its northwest–southeast trending long axis, Mount Ararat is about long and is about long along its short axis. It consists of about of dacitic and rhyolitic pyroclastic debris and dacitic, rhyolitic, and basaltic lavas. Mount Ararat consists of two distinct volcanic cones, Greater Ararat and Lesser Ararat (Little Ararat). The western volcanic cone, Greater Ararat, is a steep-sided volcanic cone that is larger and higher than the eastern volcanic cone. Greater Ararat is about wide at the base and rises about above the adjacent floors of the Iğdir and Doğubeyazıt basins. The eastern volcanic cone, Lesser Ararat, is high and across. These volcanic cones, which lie apart, are separated by a wide north–south-trending crack. This crack is the surface expression of an extensional fault. Numerous parasitic cones and lava domes have been built by flank eruptions along this fault and on the flanks of both of the main volcanic cones. Mount Ararat lies within a complex, sinistral pull-apart basin that originally was a single, continuous depression. The growth of Mount Ararat partitioned this depression into two smaller basins, the Iğdir and Doğubeyazıt basins. This pull-apart basin is the result of strike-slip movement along two en-echelon fault segments, the Doğubeyazıt–Gürbulak and Iğdir Faults, of a sinistral strike–slip fault system. Tension between these faults not only formed the original pull-apart basin, but created a system of faults, exhibiting a horsetail splay pattern, that control the position of the principal volcanic eruption centers of Mount Ararat and associated linear belt of parasitic volcanic cones. The strike-slip fault system within which Mount Ararat is located is the result of north–south convergence and tectonic compression between the Arabian Platform and Laurasia that continued after the Tethys Ocean closed during the Eocene epoch along the Bitlis–Zagros suture.", "During the early Eocene and early Miocene, the collision of the Arabian platform with Laurasia closed and eliminated the Tethys Ocean from the area of what is now Anatolia. The closure of these masses of continental crust collapsed this ocean basin by middle Eocene and resulted in a progressive shallowing of the remnant seas, until the end of the early Miocene. Post-collisional tectonic convergence within the collision zone resulted in the total elimination of the remaining seas from East Anatolia at the end", "The chronology of Holocene volcanic activity associated with Mount Ararat is documented by either archaeological excavations, oral history, historical records, or a combination of these data, which provide evidence that volcanic eruptions of Mount Ararat occurred in 2500–2400 BC, 550 BC, possibly in 1450 AD and 1783 AD, and definitely in 1840 AD. Archaeological evidence demonstrates that explosive eruptions and pyroclastic flows from the northwest flank of Mount Ararat destroyed and buried at least one Kura–Araxes culture settlement and caused numerous fatalities in 2500–2400 BC. Oral histories indicated that a significant eruption of uncertain magnitude occurred in 550 BC and minor eruptions of uncertain nature might have occurred in 1450 AD and 1783 AD. According to the interpretation of historical and archaeological data, strong earthquakes not associated with volcanic eruptions also occurred the area of Mount Ararat in 139, 368, 851–893, and 1319 AD. During the 139 AD earthquake, a large landslide that caused many casualties and was similar to the 1840 AD landslide originated from the summit of Mount Ararat.", "A phreatic eruption occurred on Mount Ararat on July 2, 1840 and pyroclastic flow from radial fissures on the upper north flank of the mountain and a possibly associated earthquake of magnitude 7.4 that caused severe damage and numerous casualties. Up to 10,000 people in the region died in the earthquake, including 1,900 villagers in the village of Akhuri (Armenian: Akori, modern Yenidoğan) who were killed by a gigantic landslide and subsequent debris flow. In addition, this combination of landslide and debris flow destroyed the Armenian monastery of St. Jacob near Akori, the town of Aralik, several villages, and Russian military barracks. It also temporarily dammed the Sevjur (Metsamor) River.", "The 13th century missionary William of Rubruck wrote that \"Many have tried to climb it, but none has been able.\"", "The Armenian Apostolic Church was historically opposed to ascents of Ararat on religious grounds. Thomas Stackhouse, an 18th-century English theologian, noted that \"All the Armenians are firmly persuaded that Noah's ark exists to the present day on the summit of Mount Ararat, and that in order to preserve it, no person", "The first recorded ascent of the mountain in modern times took place on. The Baltic German naturalist Friedrich Parrot of the University of Dorpat arrived at Etchmiadzin in mid-September 1829, almost two years after the Russian capture of Erivan, for the sole purpose of exploring Ararat. The prominent Armenian writer Khachatur Abovian, then a deacon and translator at Etchmiadzin, was assigned by Catholicos Yeprem, the head of the Armenian Church, as interpreter and guide. Parrot and Abovian crossed the Aras River into the district of Surmali and headed to the Armenian village of Akhuri on the northern slope of Ararat, above sea level. They set up", "Other early notable climbers of Ararat included Russian climatologist and meteorologist Kozma Spassky-Avtonomov (August 1834), Karl Behrens (1835), German mineralogist and geologist Otto Wilhelm Hermann von Abich (29 July 1845), and British politician", "", "Noah's Ark landed on the \"mountains of Ararat\" (Biblical, \"hare ararat\"), according to. Many historians and Bible scholars agree that \"Ararat\" is the Hebrew name of Urartu, the geographical predecessor of Armenia; they argue that the word referred to the wider region at the time and not specifically to Mt. Ararat. The phrase is translated as \"mountains of Armenia\" (\"montes Armeniae\") in the Vulgate, the fourth century Latin translation of the Bible. Nevertheless, Mount Ararat is traditionally considered the resting place of Noah's Ark. It", "Most Christians identify Mount Ararat with the biblical \"mountains of Ararat,\" \"largely because it would have been the first peak to emerge from the receding flood waters\", and it is where most of Western Christianity place the landing of Noah's Ark. A 1722 biblical dictionary by Austin Calmet and the 1871 Jamieson-Fausset-Brown Bible Commentary both point to Mount Ararat as the place where the ark rested. American missionary H. G. O. Dwight wrote in 1856 that it is \"the general opinion of the learned in Europe\" that the Ark landed on Mt. Ararat. James Bryce wrote that the ark rested upon a \"mountain in the district which the Hebrews knew as Ararat, or", "Ararat has traditionally been the main focus of the searches for Noah's Ark. Augustin Calmet wrote in his 1722 biblical dictionary, \"It is affirmed, but without proof, that there are still remains of Noah's ark on the top of this mountain; but M. de Tournefort, who visited this spot, has assured us there was nothing like it; that the top of mount Ararat is inaccessible, both by reason of its great height, and of the snow which perpetually covers it.\" Archaeological expeditions, sometimes supported by evangelical", "", "Despite lying outside the borders of the modern Armenia, Ararat has historically been associated with Armenia. It is widely considered the country's principal national symbol and brand. The image of Ararat, usually framed within a nationalizing discourse, is ubiquitous in everyday material culture in Armenia. According to ethnographer Tsypylma Darieva Armenians have \"a sense of possession of Ararat in the sense of symbolic cultural property.\" Ararat is known as the \"holy mountain\" of the Armenian people. It was", "The Genesis flood narrative was linked to the Armenian myth of origin by the early medieval historian Movses Khorenatsi. In his \"History of Armenia\", he wrote that Noah and his family first settled in Armenia and later moved to Babylon. Hayk, a descendant of Japheth, a son of Noah, revolted against Bel (the biblical Nimrod) and returned to", "Mount Ararat has been depicted on the coat of arms of Armenia consistently since 1918. The First Republic's coat of arms was designed by architect Alexander Tamanian and painter Hakob Kojoyan. This coat of arms was readopted by the legislature of the Republic", "In the aftermath of the Armenian Genocide of 1915, Ararat came to represent the destruction of the native Armenian population of eastern Turkey (Western Armenia) in the national consciousness of Armenians. Ari L. Goldman noted in 1988, \"In most Armenian homes in the modern diaspora, there are pictures of Mount Ararat, a bittersweet reminder of the homeland and national aspirations.\" Ararat has become a symbol of Armenian efforts to reclaim its \"lost lands\", i.e. the areas west of Ararat that are now part of Turkey that had significant Armenian population before the genocide. Adriaans noted that Ararat is featured as a sanctified territory for the Armenians in everyday banal irredentism. Stephanie Platz wrote, \"Omnipresent, the vision of Ararat rising above Yerevan and its outskirts constantly reminds Armenians of their putative ethnogenesis... and of their exile from Eastern Anatolia after the Armenian genocide of 1915.\" Turkish political scientist Bayram Balci argues", "Ethnographer Levon Abrahamian noted that Ararat is visually present for Armenians in reality (it can be seen from many houses in Yerevan and settlements in the Ararat plain), symbolically (through many visual representations, such as on Armenia's coats of arms), and culturally—in numerous and various nostalgic poetical, political, architectural representation. The first three postage stamps issued by Armenia in 1992 after achieving independence from the Soviet Union depicted Mt. Ararat. Mount Ararat has been depicted on various Armenian dram banknotes issued in 1993–2001; on the reverse of the 10 dram banknotes issued in 1993, on the reverse of the 50 dram banknotes issued in 1998, on the obverse of the 100 and 500 dram banknotes issued in 1993, and on the reverse of the 50,000 dram banknotes issued in 2001. It was also depicted on the reverse of the Turkish 100 lira banknotes of 1972–1986. Ararat is depicted on the logos of two of Armenia's leading universities—the Yerevan State University and the American University of Armenia. It is depicted on the logos of Football Club Ararat Yerevan (since the Soviet times) and the Football Federation of Armenia. The logo of Armavia, Armenia's now defunct flag carrier, also depicted Ararat. The publications of the Social Democrat Hunchakian Party in Lebanon (\"Ararad\" daily) and California, U.S. (\"Massis\" weekly) are both named for the mountain. The Ararat brandy, produced by the Yerevan Brandy Company since 1887, is considered the most prestigious Eastern European brandy. Hotels in Yerevan often advertise the visibility of Ararat from their rooms, which is seen as a major advantage for tourists.", "", "Ararat was depicted in the books of", "According to one source, the first Armenian artist to depict the mountain was Ivan Aivazovsky, who created a painting of Ararat during his visit to Armenia in 1868. Other major Armenians artists who painted Ararat include Yeghishe Tadevosyan, Gevorg Bashinjaghian, Martiros Saryan, and Panos Terlemezian.", "Rouben Paul Adalian suggested that \"there is probably more poetry written about Mount Ararat than any other mountain on earth.\" Travel writer Rick Antonson described Ararat as the \"most fabled mountain in the world.\"", "English Romantic poet William Wordsworth imagines seeing the ark in the poem \"Sky-prospect — From the Plain of France.\" In his \"Journey to Arzrum\" (; 1835–36), the celebrated Russian poet Aleksandr Pushkin recounted his travels to the Caucasus and Armenia at the time of the 1828–29 Russo-Turkish War. Russian Symbolist poet Valery Bryusov often referred to Ararat in his poetry and dedicated two poems to the mountain, which were published in 1917. Bryusov saw Ararat as the embodiment of antiquity of the Armenian people and their culture. Russian poet Osip Mandelstam wrote fondly of Ararat during his 1933 travels in Armenia. \"I have cultivated in myself a sixth sense, an 'Ararat' sense,\" the poet wrote, \"the sense of an attraction to", "Mt. Ararat is featured prominently in Armenian literature. According to Meliné Karakashian, Armenian poets \"attribute to it symbolic meanings of unity, freedom, and independence.\" According to Kevork Bardakjian, in Armenian literature, Ararat \"epitomizes Armenia and Armenian suffering and aspirations, especially the consequences of the 1915 genocide: almost total annihilation, loss of a unique culture and land [...] and an implicit determination never to recognize the new political borders.\" The last two lines of Yeghishe Charents's 1920 poem \"I Love My Armenia\" () read: \"And in the entire world you will not find a mountaintop like Ararat's. / Like an unreachable peak of glory I love my Mount Masis.\" In a 1926 poem dedicated to the mountain Avetik Isahakyan wrote: \"Ages as" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Genealogy.", "Mythology.", "Heracles and Deianeira.", "Other stories.", "Cult.", "Iconography.", "Possible origins.", "The Achelous River.", "In the \"Metamorphoses\"." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The name Ἀχελώϊος is possibly pre-Greek, its meaning is not entirely certain. Recent arguments suggest it is Semitic in origin, with the initial Αχ- stemming from the Akkadian \"aḫu\" (\"bank of the river\"), or \"aḫû\" (\"seashore\") and the suffix -ελώἴος, from the Akkadian \"illu\" (\"watercourse\" or \"water of the river invading land\").", "According to Hesiod, Achelous, along with all the other river gods, was the son of the Titans Oceanus and Tethys. According to the sixth-century mythographer Acusilaus, Achelous was the \"oldest and most honoured\" of the river-god offspring of Oceanus. Servius relating a tradition of unknown origin, reports that Achelous was said to have been the son of Earth (i.e. Gaia). According to the Renaissance, mythographer Natalis Comes, Alcaeus had Achelous as the son of Ocean and Earth. Achelous had various offspring. He was said to be the father of the Sirens. According to the 3rd-century BC poet Lycophron, the Sirens were the daughters of Achelous, by an unnamed \"melodious mother\" (perhaps meaning the mother was a Muse). Another 3rd-century BC poet Apollonius of Rhodes, makes the mother the Muse Terpsichore, while according to other accounts, she was the Muse Melpomene, or the Calydonian princess Sterope. Ovid calls the Sirens simply daughters of Achelous, with no mention of their mother. By Perimede, the daughter of Aeolus, Achelous was said to have fathered Hippodamas and Orestes. Achelous was also said to be the father (with no mothers mentioned) of several nymphs associated with various springs. These included Pirene, the nymph of a spring at Corinth, Castalia, the nymph of a spring at Delphi, and Dirce, the nymph of a spring (and the stream that flowed from it) at Thebes, which became associated with the Dirce who was Antiope's aunt. Plato has \"the nymphs\" as daughters of Achelous, and the 5th-century BC poet Panyassis seems also to have referred to \"Achelesian nymphs\". He was also the father (again with no mother metioned) of Alcmeon's second wife Callirrhoe, whose name means \"the lovely spring\". Such examples suggest the possibility of a tradition in which Achelous was considered to be the father of all springs or, at least, the nymphs associated with them.", "", "Achelous was a suitor for Deianeira, daughter of Oeneus, the king of Calydon; he transformed himself into a bull and fought Heracles for the right to marry Deianeira, but was defeated, and Heracles married Deianeira. The story of Achelous battle with Heracles, as a bull, for Deianeira, was apparently told as early as the 7th century BC, in a lost poem by the Greek poet Archilochus, while according to a summary of a lost poem by the early 5th-century BC Greek poet Pindar, during the battle, Heracles broke off one of Achelous's bull-horns, and the river-god was able to get his horn back by trading it for a horn from Amalthea. Sophocles, in his play \"Women of Trachis\" (c. 450–425 BC), has Deianeira tell her story, how Achelous wooed her in the shape of a bull, a snake, and a half-man/half-bull: In later accounts, Achelous does not get his horn back, as he did in Pindar's poem. Ovid, in his poem \"Metamorphoses\" (8 AD), has Achelous tell the story. In this version, Achelous fights Heracles, and loses three times: first in his normal (human?) shape, then as a snake, and finally as a bull. Heracles tore off one of Achelous's bull-horns, and the Naiads filled the horn with fruit and flowers, transforming it into the \"Horn of Plenty\" (cornucopia). According to the \"Fabulae\" (before 207 AD), by the Latin mythographer Hyginus, Heracles gave the broken-off horn to \"the Hesperides (or Nymphs)\", and it was \"these goddesses\" who \"filled the horn with fruit and called it \"Cornucopia\". According to Strabo, in some versions of the story Heracles gave Achelous's horn to Deianeira's father Oeneus as a wedding gift. While several sources make Achelous the father, by various mothers, of the Sirens (see above), according to the 4th-century AD Greek teacher of rhetoric Libanius, they were born from the blood Achelous shed when Heracles broke off his horn. Both Diodorus Siculus and Strabo provide rationalized accounts of the story. According to Diodorus, Heracles diverted the Achelous River's course, while according to Strabo, some writers \"conjecturing the truth from the myths\" said that, to please his father-in-law Oeneus, Heracles confined the river by means of \"embankments and channels\". In this way, Heracles defeated the raging river, and in so doing created a large amount of new fertile land and \"certain poets, as we are told, have made this deed into a myth\" (Diodorus). By both accounts, this new bountiful land of the Achelous River delta came to be known as Amaltheia's horn of plenty. Joseph Fontenrose saw in this story the possible reflection of an ancient tradition of conflict between Zeus and Achelous.", "Achelous played a role in the story of the Theban hero Alcmaeon, who had killed his mother Eriphyle because of her treachery against his father Amphiaraus, and needed to be religiously purified. According to Apollodorus, Alcmaeon was first purified by Phegeus the king of Psophis, but nevertheless the land of Psophis became barren because of the cursed Alcmaeon's presence. As Thucydides tells the story, the oracle of Apollo told Alcmaeon that he needed to find a land to live in that did not yet exist at the time of his mother's death. After long travels, Alcmaeon finally came to the springs of the Achelous River, where he was purified by the river-god, and received Achelous's daughter Callirrhoe as his wife, and at the mouth of the river he discovered a land newly made by deposits of river silt, where he could make his home free of his curse. Later, according to Apollodorus, Achelous commanded Alcmaeon to dedicate the necklace and robe—the cause of his mother's treachery— at Delphi, which he did. Ovid, in his \"Metamorphoses\", has the river-god involved in two transformation stories concerning the creation of islands near the mouth of the Achelous River. According to Ovid, the Echinades Islands were once five local nymphs. One day, the nymphs were offering sacrifices to the gods on the banks of the Achelous, but they forgot to include Achelous himself. The river-god became so angry, he overflowed his banks with a raging flood, sweeping the nymphs away into the sea. As Achelous tells the story: Achelous goes on to describe the creation of another island: \"far away beyond the others is one island that I love: the sailors call it Perimele.\" She was the daughter of Hippodamas, whose virginity Achelous took from her. Her enraged father threw her off a high cliff into the sea. But Achelous prayed to Poseidon to save her, and in answer Poseidon transformed the girl into an island.", "From at least as early as Homer, Achelous was apparently considered to be an important divinity throughout Greece. Calling Achelous \"king\", Homer mentions Achelous (along with Oceanus) as a mighty river, using him as a measure of the strength of (the even mightier) Zeus: The clear implication is that Achelous is the mightiest of the rivers (save perhaps for Oceanus himself), which would be in accord with Acusilaus' making Achelous the \"oldest and most honoured\" of the river-god offspring of Oceanus. However some ancient scholars thought that the line: \"nor the great might of deep-flowing Ocean\", was spurious, which would in fact make Achelous—rather than Oceanus—the source of all other waters. A commentary on \"Iliad\" 21.195, preserved on Oxyrhynchus Papyrus 221, contains a fragment of a poem, possibly from the Epic tradition, which mentions \"the waters of silver-eddying Achelous\" being the source of \"the whole sea\". A late-5th-century BC commentary on Orphic theogony, preserved by the Derveni Papyrus, quotes a poetic fragment calling the rivers the \"sinews of Achelous\". The same Oxyrhynchus Papyrus also quotes ancient verses which apparently equated Achelous and Oceanus, and that \"many people sacrifice to Achelois before sacrificing to Demeter, since Acheloios is the name of all rivers and the crop comes from water\". According to the early 4th-century BC Greek historian Ephorus, the oracle at Dodona usually added to his pronouncements the command to offer sacrifices to Achelous, and that, while people would offer sacrifices to their local river, only the Achelous river was honoured everywhere, with Achelous's name often being invoked in oaths, prayers and sacrifices, \"all the things that concern the gods.\" His name was often used to mean \"water\". Thus Euripides can have a house, far from the Achelous river, being sprinkled with \"Achelous' water\". Ephorus explained this \"puzzle\" by saying that, because of the frequent oracular command at Dodona to offer sacrifices to Achelous, it came to be thought that by \"Achelous\" the oracle meant, not the river but \"water\" in general. Plato has Socrates, walking in the countryside, come across a \"sacred place of some nymphs and of Achelous, judging by the figurines and statues\". The 2nd-century geographer Pausanias, mentions a part of the altar at the Amphiareion of Oropos dedicated to \"the nymphs and to Pan, and to the rivers Achelous and Cephisus\", as well as an altar to Achelous near Megara, and the Megarian Treasury at Olympia, which contained a dedication representing the fight of Heracles with Achelous.", "Achelous' wrestling bout with Heracles was the subject of several vase-paintings, from as early as the second quarter of the sixth century BC, and in most of these vases, Heracles can be seen grabbing Achelous by his single horn. Possibly the earliest version of the scene (c. 600–560 BC) appears on the figure frieze of a Middle Corinthian kylix cup (Brussels A1374), which depicts Heracles wrestling with a horned centaur-like Achelous, with a human torso and a bull's or horse's body, watched by the figure of an old man (Oineus?) and a woman (Deiaeira?). The earliest Attic versions (c. 570 BC) depict Achelous as a bull with a man's face and beard. On one later example (c. 525–475 BC), an Attic red-figure stamnos from Cerveteri attributed to Oltos (London E437), Achelous (identified by inscription) is shown with a bearded human upper torso, attached to a long serpentine body, with a fish's tail. This is similar to the depictions of the sea-god Triton which appear on many other Attic vases. Heracles (also identified by inscription) appears about to break off the river-god's single horn. On a somewhat later (c. 475–425 BC) red-figure Attic column krater (Louvre G365), Achelous's broken-off horn lies on the ground, while Heracles holds Achelous by his other horn, and threatens him with a club held overhead. Figures depicting Oineus and Deiaeira (as presumably on the Corinthian cup) and also Athena and Hermes are sometimes included in the scene. Pausanias reports seeing the scene represented on the throne of Amyclae, and also in the Megarian Treasury at Olympia, where he describes seeing \"small cedar-wood figures inlaid with gold\" which, besides Achelous, included Zeus, Deianeira, Heracles, and Ares aiding Achelous. The river-god is depicted on several Acarnanian coins as a bull with the head of an old man. The most common depiction of Achelous in Archaic and Classical times was this man-faced bull. Often a city would feature a man-faced bull on its coinage to represent a local variant of Achelous, such as Achelous Gelas of Gela, Sicily, or Achelous Sebethos of Neapolis, Campania.", "That Achelous, rather than Oceanus, was perhaps, in some earlier version of the \"Iliad\", the source of \"all rivers... and every sea\", and that his name was often used to mean \"water\", have (along with other evidence from ancient sources), suggested the possibility to modern scholars that Achelous may have predated Oceanus as the original Greek water-god. A recent study has tried to show that both the form and substance of Achelous, as a god of water primarily depicted as a man-faced bull, have roots in Old Europe in the Bronze Age. After the disappearance of many Old European cultures, the traditions traveled to the Near East at the beginning of 4th millennium BC (Ubaid period), and finally migrated to Greece, Italy, Sicily, and Sardinia with itinerant sea-folk during the Late Bronze Age through the Orientalizing period. Although no single cult of Achelous persisted throughout all of these generations, the iconography and general \"mythos\" easily spread from one culture to another, and all examples of man-faced bulls are found around the area of the Mediterraneanan, suggesting some intercultural continuity. Achelous was also an important deity in the Etruscan religion, intimately related to water as in the Greek tradition but also carrying significant chthonic associations. Man-faced bull iconography was first adapted to represent Achelous by the Etruscans in the 8th century BC, and the Greeks later adopted this same tradition. The leading exponents into the Greek and Etruscan worlds were seer-healers and mercenaries during the Iron Age, and Achelous as a man-faced bull becomes an emblem employed by mercenaries in the Greek world for centuries. These earlier figures probably adapted the mythological and iconographic traditions of Asallúhi (also Asarlúhi or Asaruludu), the \"princely bison\" of Near Eastern traditions that \"rises to the surface of the earth in springs and marshes, ultimately flowing as rivers.\"", "The Achelous River rises in the Pindus mountains, flows into the Ionian Sea near the Echinades Islands in western Greece, and divided ancient Acarnania and Aetolia. Servius gives a story of the origin of the river. He says that one day Achelous, who was said to be the son of Earth, lost his daughters the Sirens, and in his grief he called upon his mother, who received him into her bosom, and on that spot, Earth caused a river, bearing his name, to gush forth. Pseudo-Plutarch gives a different story for how the river acquired its name. He says it was formerly called Thestius, after a son of Mars and Pisidice, who jumped into the river after discovering he had killed his son Calydon by mistake. In a similar fashion the river acquired the name Achelous, after a son of Oceanus and the nymph Nais, who jumped into the river after he discovered he had slept with his daughter Cletoria by mistake. Strabo reports that in \"earlier times\" the river was called the Thoas. According to Strabo, some writers \"conjecturing the truth from the myths\" attributed various legends concerning the river-god, to features of the Achelous River itself. These writers said that, like other rivers, the Achelous was called \"like a bull\", because of the river's roaring waters and its meanders (which he says were called horns). Likewise the Achelous was called \"like a serpent\" because of the river's great length and many serpentine turnings. Homer locates another Achelous river in Lydia, near Mount Sipylos, and there were several other rivers with the name Achelous in ancient times. The multiplicity of rivers with the same name, perhaps due to the river-god's equation with water, has also been seen as suggesting the possibility that Achelous was originally \"the primal source of all water\".", "Ovid in his \"Metamorphoses\" provided a descriptive interlude when Theseus is the guest of Achelous, waiting for the river's raging flood to subside: \"He entered the dark building, made of spongy pumice, and rough tuff. The floor was moist with soft moss, and the ceiling banded with freshwater mussel and oyster shells.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Military career.", "World War I.", "Retirement and later life.", "In popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Kluck was born in Münster, Westphalia on 20 May 1846. He was the son of architect Karl von Kluck and his wife Elisabeth, née Tiedemann. He was a pupil at a school called Paulinum in his hometown of Münster. In 1874 he married Fanny von Donop (1850–1938); they had three sons and one daughter.", "He enlisted in the Prussian army in time to serve in the seven-week Austro-Prussian War of 1866 and the Franco-Prussian War, where he was wounded twice in the Battle of Colombey-Neuilly, and awarded the Iron Cross (second class) for bravery. He was made a general of infantry in 1906, and in 1913 was appointed Inspector General of the Seventh Army District.", "With the outbreak of World War I, Kluck was placed in command of the German First Army. According to the Moltke revisions of the Schlieffen Plan, the First Army was part of the strong right wing and positioned on the outer western edge of the German advance through Belgium and France. This western flank was to advance alongside Karl von Bülow's Second Army to Paris. Upon reaching Paris in concert, the First and Second armies were to threaten Paris from both the west and east. In his march through Belgium, he instructed his forces to murder hundreds of civilians and burn their villages. After fighting the British at Mons and Le Cateau, the First Army pursued Lanrezac's French Fifth Army during the great retreat. However, thirty miles from Paris and anticipating an encounter with the French Fifth Army (commanded by Lanrezac), the cautious Bülow halted his Second Army's advance and ordered Kluck's direct support. Kluck had recently been placed under Bülow's command when the latter was appointed to command the German right wing. Kluck protested this order to Bülow and Moltke, as he preferred to move past Lanrezac's left flank, but was overruled and ordered to support Bülow's attack on Lanrezac. By this time, the aggressive Kluck had advanced his First Army well south of von Bülow's position to 13 miles north of Paris. On August 30, Kluck decided to wheel his columns to the east of Paris, discarding entirely the Schlieffen Plan. Although frustrated by Bülow's caution, on 31 August Kluck turned his army southeast to support the Second Army. In so doing, Kluck created a 30-mile gap in the German line extending toward Bülow's stalled Second Army. Critically, the move exposed Kluck's right flank in the direction of Paris where (unknown to Kluck) General Michel-Joseph Maunoury's new Sixth Army was deployed. The French learned of Kluck's change in course on September 3 thanks to reports from Allied aircraft, and this was independently confirmed by radio intercepts. The following events were critical to the future course of the war. On 5 September, Maunoury attacked Kluck's right (west) flank, marking the opening of the First Battle of the Marne. Kluck parried the blow by borrowing two corps in the space between the First and Second army. A surprise attack on 8 September by Franchet D'Esperey's (who had replaced Lanrezac) Fifth Army against Bülow's Second widened the gap which the British Expeditionary Force marched to exploit. Von Kluck telegraphed von Moltke on the night of 8 September that the decisive victory would be won the following day. Instead, on 9 September a representative of the German Headquarters, Hentsch, considered the situation of Bülow's Army as very dangerous and ordered a retreat of all the armies, even though by that time von Kluck had overcome most of his own problems. Ian Senior dismisses as a \"myth\" the claim in the German Official History that von Kluck might have triumphed on 9 September. In fact the BEF was already over the Marne and Quast's attack against Maunoury's Sixth Army had failed, and suggests that this may be why Kluck avoided meeting Hentsch directly. The Germans retreated in good order to positions forty miles behind the River Aisne. There, the front would remain for years in the form of entrenched positions as World War I continued. Kluck and Bülow's lack of coordination and the ensuing failure to maintain an effective offensive line was a primary contribution to the failure of the Schlieffen Plan which was intended to deliver a decisive blow against France. Instead, the long stalemate of trench warfare was ready to begin. Many German experts hold Kluck and especially his Chief of Staff, Hermann von Kuhl, in the highest esteem. Germany could have won the Battle of the Marne, they think, if only Bülow had matched the courageous initiatives of Kluck's Army, although this doesn't explain the near encirclement of his army. The British at the time called him \"old one o'clock\". “In great and dangerous operations one must not think but act”, was von Kluck's favourite quote of Julius Caesar’s.", "Toward the end of March 1915, while inspecting an advanced portion of his troops, he was struck by shrapnel, which caused seven wounds and seriously injured his leg. Shortly afterward, he received the Order Pour le Mérite. In October 1916 the \"Militär Wochenblatt\" announced that von Kluck had been placed on half-pay, in accordance with his request to be allowed to retire. His son, Lieutenant Egon von Kluck, was killed early in 1915. General von Kluck wrote of his participation in the War in the volume entitled \"Führung und Taten der Erste\" (1920). His post war memoirs, \"The March on Paris and the Battle of the Marne\", were published in 1920. Kluck died in Berlin in October 1934.", "Von Kluck's name was mentioned in a bawdy British army song (whose lyrics were written to the tune of the traditional folk-song \"The Girl I Left Behind Me\"), which in the original ran: It was later reported styled in censored form, that is, in less offensive but wholly inaccurate language from a historical point of view. It is unclear if \"crown prince\" referred to Rupprecht, Crown Prince of Bavaria or Wilhelm, German Crown Prince, both army commanders for the duration of the war, though Wilhelm generally fought opposite the French." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Joe the Boss and the Castellamarese War.", "Death." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Giuseppe Masseria was born on January 17, 1886 in Menfi, Province of Agrigento, Sicily, in a family of tailors. When he was young, he moved to the town of Marsala, in the Province of Trapani. Masseria arrived in the United States in 1902. He then became part of the Morello crime family based in Harlem and parts of Little Italy in southern Manhattan. Masseria was a contemporary of other captains of that mafia \"famiglia\" such as Gaetano Reina. In 1909, Masseria was convicted of burglary and received a suspended sentence. On May 23, 1913, Masseria was sentenced to four to six years in prison for third-degree burglary. As the 1910s ended, Masseria and boss Salvatore D'Aquila vied for power in New York. By the early 1920s, they were at war with each other. In 1920, Masseria had recruited Lucky Luciano as one of his gunmen. D'Aquila also had a vicious gunman under him, Umberto Valenti, who was given the assignment to kill Masseria. On May 7, 1922, the boss of the Morello/Terranova crime family, Terranova, was killed in a drive-by shooting near his E. 116th Street home. Valenti was believed to have been personally responsible. Mere hours later, Terranova's underboss Silva Tagliagamba was fatally wounded in Lower Manhattan by Valenti and gunmen working for him. The next day, Valenti and some of his men attacked the new boss of the rival Terranova family, Masseria. Valenti found Masseria and his bodyguards on Grand Street \"within a block of Police Headquarters\". Masseria got away, but the gunmen had shot four men and two women; Masseria tossed his pistol away and was arrested while fleeing the scene. On August 9, 1922, Masseria walked out of his apartment at 80 2nd Avenue, and was rushed by two armed men who opened fire on him. Masseria ducked into a store at 82 2nd Avenue with the gunmen in pursuit. They shot out the front window and shot up the inside of the store. The gunmen fled across 2nd Avenue to a getaway car idling just around the corner on E. 5th Street. The car was a Hudson Cruiser. The gunmen jumped on the running boards as the car sped west on E. 5th Street towards the Bowery, guns blazing. The gunmen then plowed through a crowd and shot randomly at the blockade, wounding six men. Masseria survived the incident and was found by police in his upstairs bedroom shell-shocked. He was sitting on his bed dazed, with two bullet holes through his straw hat, which he was still wearing on his head. The incident gained Masseria new respect among gangsters as \"the man who can dodge bullets\" and his reputation began to rise as D'Aquila's began to wane. Forty-eight hours later, on August 11, Valenti attended a meeting in a cafe at the corner of Second Avenue and E. 12th Street.", "Masseria became head of the Morello family, becoming known as \"Joe the Boss\", with Giuseppe Morello as his consigliere. Salvatore D'Aquila was killed on October 10, 1928. Masseria, the leader of a gang that emerged from the old Morello crime family, was selected to replace D'Aquila as the new \"capo dei capi\" that winter. After his elevation, Masseria began applying pressure to other mafia gangs for monetary tributes. Other mobsters accused him of orchestrating the 1930 murders of Gaspar Milazzo in Detroit and Gaetano Reina in the Bronx. Nicolo Schiro tried to replicate the strategy of neutrality he used to deal with D'Aquila with Masseria but he was vigorously opposed by Salvatore Maranzano and Buffalo boss Stefano Magaddino. Masseria claimed Schiro had committed a transgression and demanded Schiro pay him $10,000 and step down as leader of his mafia crime family. Schiro complied. Soon after, Vito Bonventre was murdered at his home on July 15, 1930. This led to Maranzano being elevated to boss of the gang and a conflict with Masseria and his allies referred to as the Castellammarese War. During the Castellammarese War, between 1930 and 1931, Masseria and Morello fought against a rival group based in Brooklyn, led by Salvatore Maranzano and Joseph Bonanno. Morello, an old hand in the killing game, became Masseria's \"war chief\" and strategic adviser. One of the first victims of the war, Morello was killed along with associate Joseph Perriano on August 15, 1930, while collecting cash receipts in his East Harlem office. Joseph Valachi, the first made man in the American Mafia to turn state's evidence, identified Morello's killer as a Castellammarese gunman he knew as \"Buster from Chicago\".", "In a secret deal with Maranzano, Lucky Luciano agreed to engineer the death of his boss, Masseria, in return for receiving Masseria's rackets and becoming Maranzano's second-in-command. Joe Adonis had joined the Masseria faction and when Masseria heard about Luciano's betrayal, he approached Adonis about killing Luciano. However, Adonis instead warned Luciano about the murder plot. On April 15, 1931, Luciano had lured Masseria to a meeting where he was murdered at a restaurant called Nuova Villa Tammaro on Coney Island. While they played cards, Luciano allegedly excused himself to the bathroom, with the gunmen reportedly being Albert Anastasia, Vito Genovese, Joe Adonis, and Benjamin \"Bugsy\" Siegel; Ciro \"The Artichoke King\" Terranova drove the getaway car, but legend has it that he was too shaken up to drive away and had to be shoved out of the driver's seat by Siegel. Luciano was brought in for questioning by the police. At the time, police suspected a gangster named John \"Silk Stockings\" Giustra as being one of the gunmen in Masseria's murder. This was based on the report of a confidential informant and that one of the coats found at the murder scene was identified as belonging to Giustra. The case was dropped after Giustra was murdered on July 9, 1931. According to \"The New York Times\", \"[A]fter that, the police have been unable to learn definitely [what happened]\". Reputedly Masseria was \"seated at a table playing cards with two or three unknown men\" when he was fired upon from behind. He died from gunshot wounds to his head, back, and chest. Masseria's autopsy report shows that he died on an empty stomach. No witnesses came forward, though \"two or three\" men were observed leaving the restaurant and getting into a stolen car. No one was convicted in Masseria's murder as there were no witnesses and Luciano had an alibi. Masseria is buried at Calvary Cemetery in Queens, New York." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Early life.", "Higher education.", "Marriage.", "Family disaster.", "First World War.", "Italy under the Fascists.", "Selected works.", "English translations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Pirandello was born into an upper-class family in the village of u Càvusu (lit. \"Trouser\", from the shape of a nearby ravine), a poor suburb of Girgenti (Agrigento, a town in southern Sicily). His father, Stefano, belonged to a wealthy family involved in the sulphur industry, and his mother, Caterina Ricci Gramitto, was also of a well-to-do background, descending from a family of the bourgeois professional class of Agrigento. Both families, the Pirandellos and the Ricci Gramittos, were ferociously anti-Bourbon and actively participated in the struggle for unification and democracy (\"Il Risorgimento\"). Stefano participated in the famous Expedition of the Thousand, later following Garibaldi all the way to the battle of Aspromonte, and Caterina, who had hardly reached the age of thirteen, was forced to accompany her father to Malta, where he had been sent into exile by the Bourbon monarchy. But the open participation in the Garibaldian cause and the strong sense of idealism of those early years were quickly transformed, above all in Caterina, into an angry and bitter disappointment with the new reality created by the unification. Pirandello would eventually assimilate this sense of betrayal and resentment and express it in several of his poems and in his novel \"The Old and the Young\". It is also probable that this climate of disillusion inculcated in the young Luigi the sense of disproportion between ideals and reality which is recognizable in his essay on humorism (\"L'Umorismo\"). Pirandello received his elementary education at home, but was much more fascinated by the fables and legends, somewhere between popular and magic, that his elderly servant Maria Stella used to recount to him than by anything scholastic or academic. By the age of twelve, he had already written his first tragedy. At the insistence of his father, he was registered at a technical school, but eventually switched to the study of the humanities at the \"ginnasio\", something which had always attracted him. In 1880, the Pirandello family moved to Palermo. It was here, in the capital of Sicily, that Luigi completed his high school education. He also began reading omnivorously, focusing, above all, on 19th-century Italian poets such as Giosuè Carducci and Arturo Graf. He then started writing his first poems and fell in love with his cousin Lina. During this period, the first signs of serious contrast between Luigi and his father began to develop; Luigi had discovered some notes revealing the existence of Stefano's extramarital relations. As a reaction to the ever-increasing distrust and disharmony that Luigi was developing toward his father, a man of a robust physique and crude manners, his attachment to his mother would continue growing to the point of profound veneration. This later expressed itself, after her death, in the moving pages of the novella \"Colloqui con i personaggi\" in 1915. His romantic feelings for his cousin, initially looked upon with disfavour, were suddenly taken very seriously by Lina's family. They demanded that Luigi abandon his studies and dedicate himself to the sulphur business so that he could immediately marry her. In 1886, during a vacation from school, Luigi went to visit the sulphur mines of Porto Empedocle and started working with his father. This experience was essential to him and would provide the basis for such stories as \"Il Fumo\", \"Ciàula scopre la Luna\" as well as some of the descriptions and background in the novel \"The Old and the Young\". The marriage, which seemed imminent, was postponed. Pirandello then registered at the University of Palermo in the departments of Law and of Letters. The campus at Palermo, and above all the Department of Law, was the centre in those years of the vast movement which would eventually evolve into the Fasci Siciliani. Although Pirandello was not an active member of this movement, he had close ties of friendship with its leading ideologists: Rosario Garibaldi Bosco, Enrico La Loggia, Giuseppe De Felice Giuffrida and Francesco De Luca.", "In 1887, having definitively chosen the Department of Letters, he moved to Rome in order to continue his studies. But the encounter with the city, centre of the struggle for unification to which the families of his parents had participated with generous enthusiasm, was disappointing and nothing close to what he had expected. \"When I arrived in Rome it was raining hard, it was night time and I felt like my heart was being crushed, but then I laughed like a man in the throes of desperation.\" Pirandello, who was an extremely sensitive moralist, finally had a chance to see for himself the irreducible decadence of the so-called heroes of the Risorgimento in the person of his uncle Rocco, now a greying and exhausted functionary of the prefecture who provided him with temporary lodgings in Rome. The \"desperate laugh\", the only manifestation of revenge for the disappointment undergone, inspired the bitter verses of his first collection of poems, \"Mal Giocondo\" (1889). But not all was negative; this first visit to Rome provided him with the opportunity to assiduously visit the many theatres of the capital: Il Nazionale, Il Valle, il Manzoni. \"Oh the dramatic theatre! I will conquer it. I cannot enter into one without experiencing a strange sensation, an excitement of the blood through all my veins...\" Because of a conflict with a Latin professor, he was forced to leave the University of Rome and went to Bonn with a letter of presentation from one of his other professors. The stay in Bonn, which lasted two years, was fervid with cultural life. He read the German romantics, Jean Paul, Tieck, Chamisso, Heinrich Heine and Goethe. He began translating the \"Roman Elegies\" of Goethe, composed the \"Elegie Boreali\" in imitation of the style of the \"Roman Elegies\", and he began to meditate on the topic of humorism by way of the works of Cecco Angiolieri. In March 1891 he received his doctorate in Romance Philology with a dissertation on the dialect of Agrigento: \"Sounds and Developments of Sounds in the Speech of Craperallis\".", "After a brief sojourn in Sicily, during which the planned marriage with his cousin was finally called off, he returned to Rome, where he became friends with a group of writer-journalists including Ugo Fleres, Tomaso Gnoli, Giustino Ferri and Luigi Capuana. Capuana encouraged Pirandello to dedicate himself to narrative writing. In 1893 he wrote his first important work, \"Marta Ajala\", which was published in 1901 as \"l'Esclusa\". In 1894 he published his first collection of short stories, \"Amori senza Amore\". He married in 1894 as well. Following his father's suggestion he married a shy, withdrawn girl of a good family of Agrigentine origin educated by the nuns of San Vincenzo: Maria Antonietta Portulano. The first years of matrimony brought on in him a new fervour for his studies and writings: his encounters with his friends and the discussions on art continued, more vivacious and stimulating than ever, while his family life, despite the complete incomprehension of his wife with respect to the artistic vocation of her husband, proceeded relatively tranquilly with the birth of two sons (Stefano and Fausto) and a daughter (Rosalia \"Lietta\"). In the meantime, Pirandello intensified his collaborations with newspaper editors and other journalists in magazines such as \"La Critica\" and \"La Tavola Rotonda\" in which he published, in 1895, the first part of the \"Dialoghi tra Il Gran Me e Il Piccolo Me\". In 1897 he accepted an offer to teach Italian at the Istituto Superiore di Magistero di Roma, and in the magazine \"Marzocco\" he published several more pages of the \"Dialoghi\". In 1898, with Italo Falbo and Ugo Fleres, he founded the weekly \"Ariel\", in which he published the one-act play \"L'Epilogo\" (later changed to \"La Morsa\") and some novellas (La Scelta, Se...). The end of the 19th century and the beginnings of the 20th were a period of extreme productivity for Pirandello. In 1900, he published in \"Marzocco\" some of the most celebrated of his novellas (\"Lumie di Sicilia\", \"La Paura del Sonno\"...) and, in 1901, the collection of poems \"Zampogna\". In 1902 he published the first series of \"Beffe della Morte e della Vita\" and his second novel, \"Il Turno\".", "The year 1903 was fundamental to the life of Pirandello. The flooding of the sulphur mines of Aragona, in which his father Stefano had invested not only an enormous amount of his own capital but also Antonietta's dowry, precipitated the collapse of the family. Antonietta, after opening and reading the letter announcing the catastrophe, entered into a state of semi-catatonia and underwent such a psychological shock that her mental balance remained profoundly and irremediably shaken. Pirandello, who had initially harboured thoughts of suicide, attempted to remedy the situation as best he could by increasing the number of his lessons in both Italian and German and asking for compensation from the magazines to which he had freely given away his writings and collaborations. In the magazine \"New Anthology\", directed by G. Cena, meanwhile, the novel which Pirandello had been writing while in this horrible situation (watching over his mentally ill wife at night after an entire day spent at work) began appearing in episodes. The title was \"Il Fu Mattia Pascal\" (\"The Late Mattia Pascal\"). This novel contains many autobiographical elements that have been fantastically re-elaborated. It was an immediate and resounding success. Translated into German in 1905, this novel paved the way to the notoriety and fame which allowed Pirandello to publish with the more important firms such as Treves, with whom he published, in 1906, another collection of novellas \"Erma Bifronte\". In 1908 he published a volume of essays entitled \"Arte e Scienza\" and the important essay \"L'Umorismo\", in which he initiated the legendary debate with Benedetto Croce that would continue with increasing bitterness and venom on both sides for many years. In 1909 the first part of \"I Vecchi e I Giovani\" was published in episodes. This novel retraces the history of the failure and repression of the Fasci Siciliani in the period from 1893 to 1894. When the novel came out in 1913 Pirandello sent a copy of it to his parents for their fiftieth wedding anniversary along with a dedication which said that \"their names, Stefano and Caterina, live heroically.\" However, while the mother is transfigured in the novel into the otherworldly figure of Caterina Laurentano, the father, represented by the husband of Caterina, Stefano Auriti, appears only in memories and flashbacks, since, as was acutely observed by Leonardo Sciascia, \"he died censured in a Freudian sense by his son who, in the bottom of his soul, is his enemy.\" Also in 1909, Pirandello began his collaboration with the prestigious journal \"Corriere della Sera\" in which he published the novellas \"Mondo di Carta\" (\"World of Paper\"), \"La Giara\", and, in 1910, \"Non è una cosa seria\" and \"Pensaci, Giacomino!\" (\"Think it over, Giacomino!\") At this point Pirandello's fame as a writer was continually increasing. His private life, however, was poisoned by the suspicion and obsessive jealousy of Antonietta who began turning physically violent. In 1911, while the publication of novellas and short stories continued, Pirandello finished his fourth novel, \"Suo Marito\", republished posthumously (1941), and completely revised in the first four chapters, with the title \"Giustino Roncella nato Boggiòlo\". During his life the author never republished this novel for reasons of discretion; within are implicit references to the writer Grazia Deledda. But the work which absorbed most of his energies at this time was the collection of stories \"La Vendetta del Cane\", \"Quando s'è capito il giuoco\", \"Il treno ha fischiato\", \"Filo d'aria\" and \"Berecche e la guerra\". They were all published from 1913 to 1914 and are all now considered classics of Italian literature.", "As Italy entered the First World War, Pirandello's son Stefano volunteered for service and was taken prisoner by the Austro-Hungarians. In 1916 the actor Angelo Musco successfully recited the three-act comedy that the writer had extracted from the novella \"Pensaci, Giacomino!\" and the \"pastoral\" comedy \"Liolà\". In 1917 the collection of novellas \"E domani Lunedì\" (\"And Tomorrow, Monday...\") was published, but the year was mostly marked by important theatrical representations: \"Così è (se vi pare)\" (\"Right you are (if you think so)\"), \"A birrita cu' i ciancianeddi\" and \"Il Piacere dell'onestà\" (\"The Pleasure Of Honesty\"). A year later, \"Ma non è una cosa seria\" (\"But It's Nothing Serious\") and \"Il Gioco delle parti\" (\"The Game of Roles\") were all produced on stage. Pirandello's son Stefano returned home when the war ended. In 1919 Pirandello had his wife placed in an asylum. The separation from his wife, despite her morbid jealousies and hallucinations, caused great suffering for Pirandello who, even as late as 1924, believed he could still properly care for her at home. She never left the asylum. 1920 was the year of comedies such as \"Tutto per bene\", \"Come prima meglio di prima\", and \"La Signora Morli\". In 1921, the \"Compagnia di Dario Niccomedi\" staged, at the Valle di Roma, the play, \"Sei personaggi in cerca d'autore\", \"Six Characters in Search of an Author\". It was a clamorous failure. The public divided into supporters and adversaries, the latter of whom shouted, \"Asylum, Asylum!\" The author, who was present at the performance with his daughter Lietta, left through a side exit to avoid the crowd of enemies. The same drama, however, was a great success when presented in Milan. In 1922 in Milan, \"Enrico IV\" was performed for the first time and was acclaimed universally as a success. Pirandello's international reputation was developing as well. The \"Sei personaggi\" was performed in London and New York.", "In 1925, Pirandello, with the help of Mussolini, assumed the artistic direction and ownership of the Teatro d'Arte di Roma, founded by the Gruppo degli Undici. He described himself as \"a Fascist because I am Italian.\" For his devotion to Mussolini, the satirical magazine \"Il Becco Giallo\" used to call him \"P. Randello\" (\"randello\" in Italian means club). He expressed publicly apolitical belief, saying \"I'm apolitical, I'm only a man in the world...\" He had continuous conflicts with famous fascist leaders. In 1927 he tore his fascist membership card to pieces in front of the startled secretary-general of the Fascist Party. For the remainder of his life, Pirandello was always under close surveillance by the secret fascist police OVRA. His play, \"The Giants of the Mountain\", has been interpreted as evidence of his realization that the fascists were hostile to culture; yet, during a later appearance in New York, Pirandello distributed a statement announcing his support of Italy's annexation of Abyssinia. He gave his Nobel Prize medal to the Fascist government to be melted down for the Abyssinia Campaign. Mussolini's support brought him international fame and a worldwide tour, introducing his work to London, Paris, Vienna, Prague, Budapest, Germany, Argentina, and Brazil. Pirandello's conception of the theatre underwent a significant change at this point. The idea of the actor as an inevitable betrayer of the text, as in the \"Sei personaggi,\" gave way to the identification of the actor with the character that they play. The company took their act throughout the major cities of Europe, and the Pirandellian repertoire became increasingly well known. Between 1925 and 1926 Pirandello's last and perhaps greatest novel, \"Uno, Nessuno e Centomila\" (\"One, No one and One Hundred Thousand\"), was published serially in the magazine \"Fiera Letteraria\". Pirandello was nominated Academic of Italy in 1929, and in 1934 he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature after he had been nominated by Guglielmo Marconi, member of the Royal Academy of Italy. He was the last Italian playwright to be chosen for the award until 9 October 1997. Pirandello died alone in his home at Via Bosio, Rome, on 10 December 1936.", "", "Nearly all of Pirandello's plays were translated into English by the actor Robert Rietti. Pirandello's poetry was translated for the first time in 2016 by George Hochfield. William Weaver is a noted translator of Luigi Pirandello." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Genealogy.", "Hesiod's account.", "Cicero's account.", "Mythology." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Hesiod, \"Theogony\" 211ff (trans. Evelyn White; Greek epic 8th or 7th century B.C.): And Nyx (Night) bare hateful Moros (Doom) and black Ker (Violent Death) and Thanatos (Death), and she bare Hypnos (Sleep) and the tribe of Oneiroi (Dreams). And again the goddess murky Nyx, though she lay with none, bare Momos (Blame) and painful Oizys (Misery), and the Hesperides... Also she bare the Moirai (Fates) and the ruthless avenging Keres (Death Fates)... Also deadly Nyx bare Nemesis (Envy) to afflict mortal men, and after her, Apate (Deceit) and Philotes (Friendship) and hateful Geras (Old Age) and hardhearted Eris (Strife).", "Cicero, \"De Natura Deorum\" 3.17 (trans. Rackham) (Roman rhetorician 1st century B.C.): Their [Aether and Hemera's] brothers and sisters, whom the ancient genealogists name Amor (Love), Dolus (Guile) [Dolos], Metus (Fear), Labor (Toil), Invidentia (Envy), Fatum (Fate), Senectus (Old Age), Mors (Death), Tenebrae (Darkness), Miseria (Misery), Querella (Complaint), Gratia (Favour), Fraus (Fraud) [Apate], Pertinacia (Obstinacy), the Parcae (Fates), the Hesperides, the Somnia (Dreams): all of these are fabled to be the children of Erebus (Darkness) and Nox (Night) [Nyx].", "The only myth in which Apate appeared was that of the affair between Zeus, the king of the gods, and Semele, a Theban princess who bore him the god of wine, Dionysus. After knowing this infidelity of her husband, Hera sought the help of Apate in her scheme of punishing the mortal paramour of Zeus. Apate then willingly gave her a magical girdle which Hera then used to trick Semele into asking Zeus to appear before in his true form which resulted in her death (i.e. Semele) because no mortal being can directly gaze the presence of a god. The story as recounted in Nonnus' Dionysiaca were as follows: [Hera learns Semele is pregnant with a child of Zeus:] Nor did the consort of Zeus [Hera] abate her heavy anger. She stormed with flying shoe through the heaven bespangled with tis pattern of shining stars, she coursed through innumerable cities with travelling foot, seeking if anywhere she could find Apate (Deceit) the crafty one. But when high above Korybantian Dikte (Corybantian Dicte) she beheld the child bed water of neighbouring Amnisos, the fickle deity met her there on the hills; for she was fond of the Kretans (Cretans) for they are always liars, and she used to stay by the false tomb of Zeus. About her hips was a Kydonian (Cydonian) cincture, which contains all the cunning bewitchment of mankind : trickery with its many shifts, cajoling seduction, all the shapes of guile, perjury itself which flies on the winds of heaven. <poem>Then subtle minded Hera began to coax wily Apate (Deceit) with wily words, hoping to have revenge on her husband: \"Good greeting, lady of wily mind and wily snares! Not Hermes Hoaxthewits himself can outdo you with his plausible prittleprattle! Lend me also that girdle or many colours, which Rheia once bound about her flanks when she deceived her husband [Kronos (Cronus)]! I bring no prettified shape for my Kronion (Cronion) [Zeus], I do not trick my husband with a wily stone. No! a woman of the earth compels me whose bed makes furious Ares declare that he will house in heaven no more! What do I profit by being a goddess immortal?... I am afraid Kronides (Cronides), who is called my husband and brother, will banish me from heaven for a woman's bed, afraid he may make Semele queen of his Olympos! If you favour Zeus Kronion more than Hera, if you will not give me your all-bewitching girdle to bring back again to Olympos my wandering son, I will leave heaven because of their earthly marriage, I will go to the uttermost bounds of Okeanos (Oceanus) and share the hearth of primeval Tethys; thence I will pass to the house of and abide with Ophion. Come then, honour the mother of all [Hera], the bride of Zeus, and lend me the help of your girdle, that I may charm my runaway son furious Ares, to make heaven once more his home.\" When she had finished, the goddess replied with obedient words: \"Mother of Enyalios (i.e. Ares), bride first enthroned of Zeus! I will give my girdle and anything else you ask me; I obey, since you reign over the gods with Kronion. Receive this sash; bind it about your bosom, and you may bring back Ares to heaven. If you like, charm the mind of Zeus, and if it is necessary, charm Okeanos also from his anger. Zeus sovereign in the heights will leave his earthly loves and return self-bidden to heaven he will change his mind by my guileful girdle. This one puts to shame the heart bewitching girdle of the Paphian [Aphrodite].\" This said, the wilyminded deity was off under the wind, cleaving the air with flying shoe.</poem" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Mythology.", "Representation and cult." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Amphitrite was a daughter of Nereus and Doris (and thus a Nereid), according to Hesiod's \"Theogony\", but of Oceanus and Tethys (and thus an Oceanid), according to the \"Bibliotheca\", which actually lists her among both the Nereids \"and\" the Oceanids. Others called her the personification of the sea itself (saltwater). Amphitrite's offspring included seals and dolphins. She also bred sea monsters and her great waves crashed against the rocks, putting sailors at risk. Poseidon and Amphitrite had a son, Triton who was a merman, and a daughter, Rhodos (if this Rhodos was not actually fathered by Poseidon on Halia or was not the daughter of Asopus as others claim). \"Bibliotheca\" (3.15.4) also mentions a daughter of Poseidon and Amphitrite named Benthesikyme. Amphitrite is not fully personified in the Homeric epics: \"out on the open sea, in Amphitrite's breakers\" (\"Odyssey\" iii.101), \"moaning Amphitrite\" nourishes fishes \"in numbers past all counting\" (\"Odyssey\" xii.119). She shares her Homeric epithet \"Halosydne\" (\"sea-nourished\") with Thetis in some sense the sea-nymphs are doublets.", "Though Amphitrite does not figure in Greek \"cultus\", at an archaic stage she was of outstanding importance, for in the Homeric Hymn to Delian Apollo, she appears at the birthing of Apollo among, in Hugh G. Evelyn-White's translation, \"all the chiefest of the goddesses, Dione and Rhea and Ichnaea and Themis and loud-moaning Amphitrite;\" more recent translators are unanimous in rendering \"Ichnaean Themis\" rather than treating \"Ichnae\" as a separate identity. Theseus in the submarine halls of his father Poseidon saw the daughters of Nereus dancing with liquid feet, and \"august, ox-eyed Amphitrite\", who wreathed him with her wedding wreath, according to a fragment of Bacchylides. Jane Ellen Harrison recognized in the poetic treatment an authentic echo of Amphitrite's early importance: \"It would have been much simpler for Poseidon to recognize his own son... the myth belongs to that early stratum of mythology when Poseidon was not yet god of the sea, or, at least, no-wise supreme there—Amphitrite and the Nereids ruled there, with their servants the Tritons. Even so late as the \"Iliad\" Amphitrite is not yet 'Neptuni uxor'\" [Neptune's wife]\". Amphitrite, \"the third one who encircles [the sea]\", was so entirely confined in her authority to the sea and the creatures in it that she was almost never associated with her husband, either for purposes of worship or in works of art, except when he was to be distinctly regarded as the god who controlled the sea. An exception may be the cult image of Amphitrite that Pausanias saw in the temple of Poseidon at the Isthmus of Corinth (ii.1.7). Pindar, in his sixth Olympian Ode, recognized Poseidon's role as \"great god of the sea, husband of Amphitrite, goddess of the golden spindle.\" For later poets, Amphitrite became simply a metaphor for the sea: Euripides, in \"Cyclops\" (702) and Ovid, \"Metamorphoses\", (i.14). Eustathius said that Poseidon first saw her dancing at Naxos among the other Nereids, and carried her off. But in another version of the myth, she fled from his advances to Atlas, at the farthest ends of the sea; there the dolphin of Poseidon sought her through the islands of the sea, and finding her, spoke persuasively on behalf of Poseidon, if we may believe Hyginus and was rewarded by being placed among the stars as the constellation Delphinus. In the arts of vase-painting and mosaic, Amphitrite was distinguishable from the other Nereids only by her queenly attributes. In works of art, both ancient ones and post-Renaissance paintings, Amphitrite is represented either enthroned beside Poseidon or driving with him in a chariot drawn by sea-horses (\"hippocamps\") or other fabulous creatures of the deep, and attended by Tritons and Nereids. She is dressed in queenly robes and has nets in her hair. The pincers of a crab are sometimes shown attached to her temples." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Definition.", "Market characteristics.", "Market trends.", "Market size.", "Art history.", "Scope of the term.", "Socioeconomic significance.", "Luxury brands.", "Luxury department stores.", "Luxury shopping districts." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "A luxury good can be identified by comparing the demand for the good at one point in time against the demand for the good at a different point in time, with a different income level. When income goes up, demand for luxury goods goes up even more than income went up. When income goes down, demand for luxury goods go down even more than income went down. For example, if income goes up 1%, and the demand for a product goes up 2%, then the product is a luxury good. This contrasts with \"basic goods\", for which demand stays the same or decreases only slightly as income goes down.", "Luxury goods have high income elasticity of demand: as people become wealthier, they will buy proportionately more luxury goods. This also means, however, that should there be a decline in income its demand will drop more than proportionately. Income elasticity of demand is not constant with respect to income, and may change sign at different levels of income. That is to say, a luxury good may become a necessity good or even an inferior good at different income levels. Some luxury products have been claimed to be examples of Veblen goods, with a positive price elasticity of demand: for example, making a perfume more expensive can increase its perceived value as a luxury good to such an extent that sales can go up, rather than down. However, it is important to note that Veblen goods are not the same as luxury goods in general. Although the technical term luxury good is independent of the goods' quality, they are generally considered to be goods at the highest end of the market in terms of quality and price. Classic luxury goods include haute couture clothing, accessories, and luggage. Many markets have a luxury segment including, for example, luxury versions of automobiles, yachts, wine, bottled water, coffee, tea, foods, watches, clothes, jewelry, and high fidelity sound equipment. Luxuries may be services. The hiring of full-time or live-in domestic servants is a luxury reflecting disparities of income. Some financial services, especially in some brokerage houses, can be considered luxury services by default because persons in lower-income brackets generally do not use them. Luxury goods often have special luxury packaging to differentiate the products from mainstream competitors.", "Originally, luxury goods were available only to the very wealthy and \"aristocratic world of old money\" that offered them a history of tradition, superior quality, along with a pampered buying experience. Luxury goods have been transformed by a shift from custom-made (bespoke) works with exclusive distribution practices by specialized, quality-minded family-run and small businesses to a mass production of specialty branded goods by profit-focused large corporations and marketers. The trend in modern luxury is simply a product or service that is marketed, packaged, and sold by global corporations that are focused \"on growth, visibility, brand awareness, advertising, and, above all, profits.\" Increasingly, luxury logos now available to all consumers at a premium price across the world including online. The three dominant trends are the main factors that have accelerated the rapid growth of the industry, including the customer base and variations in the consumptions of different brands. The three dominant trends in the global luxury goods market are globalization, consolidation, and diversification. Consolidation involves the growth of big companies and ownership of brands across many segments of luxury products. Examples include LVMH, Richemont, and Kering, which dominate the market in areas ranging from luxury drinks to fashion and cosmetics. Global consumer companies, such as Procter & Gamble, are also attracted to the industry, due to the difficulty of making a profit in the mass consumer goods market. The customer base for various luxury goods continue to be more culturally diversified, and this presents more unseen challenges and new opportunities to companies in this industry.", "The luxury goods market has been on an upward climb for many years. Apart from the setback caused by the 1997 Asian Financial Crisis, the industry has performed well, particularly in 2000. In that year, the world luxury goods market – which includes drinks, fashion, cosmetics, fragrances, watches, jewelry, luggage, handbags – was worth close to $170 billion and grew 7.9 percent. The United States has been the largest regional market for luxury goods and is estimated to continue to be the leading personal luxury goods market in 2013, with a value of 62.5 billion euros. The largest sector in this category was luxury drinks, including premium whisky, champagne, and cognac. This sector was the only one that suffered a decline in value (-0.9 percent). The watches and jewelry section showed the strongest performance, growing in value by 23.3 percent, while the clothing and accessories section grew 11.6 percent between 1996 and 2000, to $32.8 billion. North America is the largest regional market for luxury goods. The largest ten markets for luxury goods account for 83 percent of overall sales, and include Japan, China, United States, Russia, Germany, Italy, France, United Kingdom, Brazil, Spain, and Switzerland. In 2012, China surpassed Japan as the world's largest luxury market. China's luxury consumption accounts for over 25% of the global market. The Economist Intelligence Unit published a report on the outlook for luxury goods in Asia which explores the trends and forecasts for the luxury goods of China market across key markets in Asia. In 2014, the luxury sector is expected to grow over the next 10 years because of 440 million consumers spending a total of 880 billion euros, or $1.2 trillion.", "Though often verging on the meaningless in modern marketing, \"luxury\" remains a legitimate and current technical term in art history for objects that are especially highly decorated to very high standards and use expensive materials. The term is especially used for medieval manuscripts to distinguish between practical working books for normal use, and fully illuminated manuscripts, that were often bound in treasure bindings with metalwork and jewels. These are often much larger, with less text on each page and many illustrations, and if liturgical texts were originally usually kept on the altar or sacristy rather any library that the church or monastery who owned them may have had. Secular luxury manuscripts were commissioned by the very wealthy and differed in the same ways from cheaper books. \"Luxury\" may be used for other applied arts where both utilitarian and luxury versions of the same types of objects were made. This might cover metalwork, ceramics, glass, arms and armour, and a wide range of objects. It is much less used for objects with no function beyond being an artwork: paintings, drawings and sculpture, even though the disparity in cost between an expensive and cheap work may have been as large.", "With increasing \"democratization\" of luxury goods, new product categories have been created within the luxury market, called \"accessible luxury\" or \"mass luxury\". These are meant specifically for the middle class, which sometimes called the \"aspiring class\" in this context. Because luxury has now diffused into the masses, defining the word has become more difficult. Bringing up to the modern day the long and generally very unsuccessful history of sumptuary laws designed to curb excessive personal consumption, in February 2013, the Chinese government banned advertisements for luxury goods on its official state radio and television channels.", "Several manufactured products attain the status of \"luxury goods\" due to their design, quality, durability or performance that are remarkably superior to the comparable substitutes. Thus, virtually every category of goods available on the market today includes a subset of similar products whose \"luxury\" is marked by better-quality components and materials, solid construction, stylish appearance, increased durability, better performance, advanced features, and so on. As such, these luxury goods may retain or improve the basic functionality for which all items of a given category are originally designed. There are also goods that are perceived as luxurious by the public simply because they play a role of status symbols as such goods tend to signify the purchasing power of those who acquire them. These items, while not necessarily being better (in quality, performance, or appearance) than their less expensive substitutes, are purchased with the main purpose of displaying wealth or income of their owners. These kinds of goods are the objects of a socio-economic phenomenon called \"conspicuous consumption\" and commonly include luxury vehicles, watches, jewelry, designer clothing, yachts, as well as large residences, urban mansions, and country houses.", "The idea of a luxury brand is not necessarily a product or a price point, but a mindset where core values that are expressed by a brand are directly connected to the producer's dedication and alignment to perceptions of quality with its customers' values and aspirations. Thus, it is these target customers, not the product, that make a luxury brand. Brands that are considered luxury connect with their customers by communicating that they are the top of their class or considered the best in their field. Furthermore, these brands must deliver - in some meaningful way - measurably better performance. What consumers perceive as luxurious brands and products change over the years, but there appear to be three main drivers: (1) a high price, especially when compared to other brands within its segment; (2) limited supply, in that a brand may not need to be expensive, but it arguably should not be easily obtainable and contributing to the customers' feeling that they have something special; and (3) endorsement by celebrities, which can make a brand or particular products more appealing for consumers and thus more \"luxurious\" in their minds. Two additional elements of luxury brands include special packaging and personalization. These differentiating elements distance the brands from the mass market and thus provide them with a unique feeling and user experience as well as a special and memorable \"luxury feel\" for customers. However, the concept of a luxury brand is now so popular that it is used in almost every retail, manufacturing, and service sector. Moreover, new marketing concepts such as \"mass-luxury\" or \"hyper luxury\" further blur the definition of what is a luxury product, a luxury brand, or a luxury company. Examples include LVMH (Louis Vuitton Moet Hennessy), the largest luxury good producer in the world with over fifty brands, including Louis Vuitton, the brand with the world's first fashion designer label. The LVMH group made a net profit of €8.1 billion on sales of €42.6 billion in 2017. Other market leaders include Richemont and Kering (previously named PPR). A rather small group in comparison, the wealthy tend to be extremely influential. Once a brand gets an \"endorsement\" from members of this group, then the brand can be defined as a true \"luxury\" brand. An example of different product lines in the same brand is found in the automotive industry, with \"entry-level\" cars marketed to younger, less wealthy consumers, and higher-cost models for older and more wealthy consumers. The advertising expenditure for the average luxury brand is 5-15% of sales revenue, or about 25% with the inclusion of other communications such as public relations, events and sponsorships.", "Since the development of mass-market \"luxury\" brands in the 1800s, department stores dedicated to selling all major luxury brands have opened up in most major cities around the world. Le Bon Marché in Paris, France is credited as one of the first of its kind. In the United States, the development of luxury-oriented department stores not only changed the retail industry, but also ushered the idea of freedom through consumerism and a new opportunity for middle- and upper-class women.", "Fashion brands within the luxury goods market tend to be concentrated in exclusive or affluent districts of cities around the world. These include:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Classical references.", "Post-classical." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Homer's \"Iliad\" (Book 19) depicts Atë as the eldest daughter of Zeus (with no mother mentioned). On Hera's instigation, Atë used her influence over Zeus so that he swore an oath that on that day a great mortal man descended from him would be born (brought into the light by Eileithyia, goddess of \"birth-pangs\"), who would become lord of all men who dwell about him (the Argives). Hera immediately arranged to delay the birth of Heracles to Alcmena and bring forth Eurystheus prematurely (to whom Heracles would later become subject), born to Nicippe (unnamed), wife of Sthenelus. In anger, Zeus flung Atë by her hair down to earth, from the starry heavens, forever forbidding her return to Mt. Olympus and heaven (the starry sky). Atë then wandered about, treading on the heads of men rather than on the earth, wreaking havoc and delusion amongst mortals. The Litae (\"Prayers\") follow after her, but Atë is fast and far outruns them. The \"Bibliotheca\" (3.143) claims that when thrown down by Zeus, Atë landed on a peak in Phrygia called by her name. There Ilus later, following a cow, founded the city of Ilion, known as Troy. This flourish is chronologically at odds with Homer's dating of Atë's fall. Hesiod's \"Theogony\" (l.230) makes Atë the daughter of Eris (\"Strife\"), with no father mentioned. In Nonnus' \"Dionysiaca\" (11.113), at Hera's instigation Atë persuades the boy Ampelus whom Dionysus passionately loves, to impress Dionysus by riding on a bull from which Ampelus subsequently falls and breaks his neck. In the Argonautica of Apollonius of Rhodes (4.817), Hera says that \"even the gods are sometimes visited by Atë\" (translated by Richard Hunter as \"even gods make mistakes\").", "In the play \"Julius Caesar\", Shakespeare introduces the goddess Atë as an invocation of vengeance and menace. Mark Antony, lamenting Caesar's murder, envisions: Shakespeare also mentions her in the play \"Much Ado About Nothing\", when Benedick says, referring to Beatrice, So too, in \"King John\", Shakespeare refers to Queen Eleanor as \"An Ate stirring [John] to blood and strife\" (2.1.63), and in Love's Labours Lost Birone jeers \"Pompey is moved. More Ates, more Ates! stir them on! stir them on!\" (5.2. 688-9). In Spenser's \"The Faerie Queene\", a fiend from Hell disguised as a beautiful woman is called Ate. This is a possible parallel to the fallen angels. In her book \"The March of Folly\", Barbara Tuchman notes that the earth has been called The Meadow of Atë." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Origins.", "Cult.", "Athens.", "Crete.", "Delos.", "Paros.", "Olympia.", "Sanctuary at Eretriam.", "Sparta." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The earliest form of the name is the Mycenaean Greek, \"e-re-u-ti-ja\", written in the Linear B syllabic script. Ilithyia is the latinisation of \"\". The etymology of the name is uncertain. R. S. P. Beekes suggests a not Indo-European etymology, and Nilsson believes that the name is Pre-Greek. 19th-century scholars suggested that the name is Greek, derived from the verb \"eleutho\" \"()\", \"to bring\", the goddess thus being \"The Bringer\". Walter Burkert believes that \" Eileithyia\" is the Greek goddess of birth and that her name is pure Greek. However, the relation with the Greek prefix'is uncertain, because the prefix appears in some pre-Greek toponyms like'(Eleutherna); therefore it is possible that the name is pre-Greek. Her name \"\" (\"Elysia\") in Laconia and Messene, probably relates her with the month \"Eleusinios\" and Eleusis. Nilsson believes that the name \"Eleusis\" is pre-Greek.", "According to F. Willets, \"The links between Eileithyia, an earlier Minoan goddess, and a still earlier Neolithic prototype are, relatively, firm. The continuity of her cult depends upon the unchanging concept of her function. Eileithyia was the goddess of childbirth; and the divine helper of women in labour has an obvious origin in the human midwife.\" To Homer, she is \"the goddess of childbirth\". The \"Iliad\" pictures Eileithyia alone, or sometimes multiplied, as the Eileithyiai: Hesiod (c. 700 BC) described Eileithyia as a daughter of Hera by Zeus (\"Theogony\" 921)—and the \"Bibliotheca\" (Roman-era) and Diodorus Siculus (c. 90–27 BC) (5.72.5) agreed. Also, a poem at the Greek Anthology Book 6, mention Eileithyia as Hera's daughter. But Pausanias, writing in the 2nd century AD, reported another early source (now lost): \"The Lycian Olen, an earlier poet, who composed for the Delians, among other hymns, one to Eileithyia, styles her 'the clever spinner', clearly identifying her with \"Fate\", and makes her older than Cronus.\" Being the youngest born to Gaia, Cronus was a Titan of the first generation and he was identified as the father of Zeus. Likewise, the meticulously accurate mythographer Pindar (522–443 BC) also makes no mention of Zeus: Later, for the Classical Greeks, \"She is closely associated with Artemis and Hera,\" Burkert asserts (1985, p 1761), \"but develops no character of her own\". In the Orphic Hymn to Prothyraeia, the association of a goddess of childbirth as an epithet of virginal Artemis, making the death-dealing huntress also \"she who comes to the aid of women in childbirth,\" (Graves 1955 15.a.1), would be inexplicable in purely Olympian terms: Thus Aelian in the 3rd century AD could refer to \"Artemis of the child-bed\" (\"On Animals\" 7.15). The Beauty of Durrës, a large 4th-century B.C.E. mosaic showing the head figure of a woman, probably portrays the goddess Eileithyia. Vase-painters, when illustrating the birth of Athena from Zeus' head, may show two assisting Eileithyiai, with their hands raised in the epiphany gesture.", "As the primary goddess of childbirth along with Artemis, Eileithyia had numerous shrines in many locations in Greece dating from Neolithic to Roman times, indicating that she was extremely important to pregnant women and their families. People would pray for and leave offerings for aid in fertility, safe childbirth, or thanks for a successful birth. Archeological evidence of terracotta votives figurines depicting children found at shines and holy sites dedicated to Eileithyia suggest that she was a kourotrophic divinity, whom parents would have prayed to for protection and care of their children. Midwives had an essential role in ancient Greek society with women of all classes were midwives participating in the profession, with many being slaves with only empirical training or some theoretical training in obstetrics and gynecology. More highly educated midwives, typically from higher classes, were referred to as \"iatrenes\" or doctors of women’s diseases and would be respected as physicians. She was invoked by women in labour, to ease the pain of labour and to further the birth. Callimachus recorded the hymn: Her Egyptian counterpart is Tawaret. She was strongly connected with the goddesses Artemis and Hekate, the latter of whom she shared strong chthonic elements to her cult.", "There were ancient icons of Eileithyia at Athens, one said to have been brought from Crete, according to Pausanias, who mentioned shrines to Eileithyia in Tegea and Argos, with an extremely important shrine in Aigion. Eileithyia, along with Artemis and Persephone, is often shown carrying torches to bring children out of darkness and into light: in Roman mythology her counterpart in easing labor is Lucina (\"of the light\").", "The Cave of Eileithyia near Amnisos, the harbor of Knossos, mentioned in the \"Odyssey\" (xix.198) in connection with her cult, was accounted the birthplace of Eileithyia. The Cretan cave has stalactites suggestive of the goddess' double form (Kerenyi 1976 fig. 6), of bringing labor on and of delaying it, and votive offerings to her have been found establishing the continuity of her cult from Neolithic times, with a revival as late as the Roman period. Here she was probably being worshipped before Zeus arrived in the Aegean, but certainly in Minoan–Mycenaean times (Burkert 1985 p 171; Nilsson 1950:53). The goddess is mentioned as Eleuthia in a Linear B fragment from Knossos, where it is stated that her temple is given an amphora of honey. In the cave of Amnisos (Crete) the god \"Enesidaon\" (the \"earth shaker\", who is the chthonic Poseidon) is related with the cult of Eileithyia. She was related with the annual birth of the divine child. The goddess of nature and her companion survived in the Eleusinian cult, where the following words were uttered: \"Mighty Potnia bore a strong son.\" In classical times, there were shrines to Eileithyia in the Cretan cities of Lato and Eleutherna and a sacred cave at Inatos. At a sanctuary in Tsoutsouros Inatos, two small terracotta figures, one breastfeeding and the other pregnant, have been dated to the 7th century.", "According to the Homeric Hymn III to Delian Apollo, Hera detained Eileithyia, who was coming from the Hyperboreans in the far north, to prevent Leto from going into labor with Artemis and Apollo, because the father was Zeus. Hera was very jealous of Zeus's relations with others and went out of her way to make the women suffer. The other goddesses present at the birthing on Delos sent Iris to bring her. As she stepped upon the island, the birth began. This hymn is contradicted by Hesiod’s Theogony, where Apollo and Artemis are born before Hera's marriage to Zeus, and therefore neither Hera or Eileithyia are mentioned interfering with the birth of the twins. On Delos, Eileithyia had a shrine and was worshipped in a mid-winter festival the named \"Eileithyaea\". It was said by Callimachus that the hymn sung during festival was the same as that sung by nymphs at Apollo's birth. This cult likely goes back to at least the Archaic period, and the cult was associated with other local Delian childbirth deities associated with Artemis, Opis and Arge.", "Eileithyia had a cult south of the Mount Kounados on the Cycladic Island of Paros, where a cave with a natural spring functioned as an informal sanctuary. Numerous artifacts have been found, such as pottery, bronze pieces, and marble plaques, which indicate use of the site from the Geometric period to the Roman period. It has been theorized that the site was used for prayers for both female and male fertility, based on the type of offerings that have been found.", "On the Greek mainland, at Olympia, an archaic shrine with an inner cella sacred to the serpent-savior of the city (\"Sosipolis\") and to Eileithyia was seen by the traveller Pausanias in the 2nd century AD (\"Greece\" vi.20.1–3); in it, a virgin-priestess cared for a serpent that was \"fed\" on honeyed barley-cakes and water—an offering suited to Demeter. The shrine memorialized the appearance of a crone with a babe in arms, at a crucial moment when Elians were threatened by forces from Arcadia. The child, placed on the ground between the contending forces, changed into a serpent, driving the Arcadians away in flight, before it disappeared into the hill.", "Archaeologists uncovered a sanctuary dedicated to Eileithyia at Eretria. The sanctuary had been placed in the northwestern section of a gymnasium.", "There was a sanctuary dedicated to Eileithyia near the Sanctuary of Artemis Orthia." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Creation.", "Unity of command problems in the Air Corps.", "Army Air Forces created.", "Reorganizations of the AAF.", "Circular No. 59 reorganization.", "March 1943 reorganization.", "Expansion.", "Organization and equipment.", "Command structure.", "Combat units.", "Aircraft.", "Role in World War II.", "Strategic planning.", "Combat crew rotation.", "Operations summary.", "USAAF statistical summary.", "Demobilization and independence.", "Legacy.", "Culture.", "Uniforms.", "Service dress.", "Female service dress.", "Flight clothing.", "Badges, insignia, and emblems.", "Badges.", "Identification patch for flying personnel in combat areas.", "Insignia of ranks and grades.", "Emblems." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3" ], "content": [ "", "The roots of the Army Air Forces arose in the formulation of theories of strategic bombing at the Air Corps Tactical School that gave new impetus to arguments for an independent air force, beginning with those espoused by Brig. Gen. Billy Mitchell that led to his later court-martial. Despite a perception of resistance and even obstruction then by the bureaucracy in the War Department General Staff (WDGS), much of which was attributable to lack of funds, the Air Corps later made great strides in the 1930s, both organizationally and in doctrine. A strategy stressing precision bombing of industrial targets by heavily armed, long-range", "The likelihood of U.S. participation in World War II prompted the most radical reorganization of the aviation branch in its history, developing a structure that both unified command of all air elements and gave it total autonomy and equality with the ground forces by March 1942. In the spring of 1941, the success in Europe of air operations conducted under centralized control (as exemplified by the British Royal Air Force and the German Wehrmacht's military air arm, the Luftwaffe) made clear that the splintering of authority in the American air forces, characterized as \"hydra-headed\" by one congressman, had caused a disturbing", "", "Under the revision of AR 95-5, the Army Air Forces consisted of three major components: Headquarters AAF, Air Force Combat Command, and the Air Corps. Yet the reforms were incomplete, subject to reversal with a change of mood at the War Department, and of dubious legality. By November 1941, on the eve of U.S. entry into the war, the division of authority within the Army as a whole, caused by the activation of Army GHQ a year before, had led to a \"battle of memos\" between it and the WDGS over administering the AAF, prompting Marshall to state that he had \"the poorest command post in the Army\" when defense commands showed a \"disturbing failure to follow through on orders\". To streamline the AAF in preparation for war, with", "A \"strong and growing dissatisfaction\" with the organization led to an attempt by Lovett in September 1942 to make the system work by bringing the Directorate of Management Control and several traditional offices that had been moved to the operating staff, including the Air Judge Advocate and Budget Officer, back under the policy staff umbrella. When this adjustment failed to resolve the problems, the system was scrapped and all functions combined into a single restructured air staff. The hierarchical \"command\" principle, in which a single commander has direct final accountability but delegates authority to staff, was adopted AAF-wide in a major reorganization and consolidation on 29 March 1943. The four main directorates and seventeen subordinate directorates (the \"operating staff\") were abolished as an unnecessary level of authority, and execution of policies was removed from the staffs to be assigned solely to field organizations along functional lines. The policy functions of the directorates were reorganized and consolidated into offices regrouped along conventional military lines under six assistant chiefs of air staff (AC/AS): Personnel; Intelligence; Operations, Commitments, and Requirements (OC&R); Materiel, Maintenance, and Distribution (MM&D); Plans; and Training. Command of Headquarters AAF resided in a Chief of Air Staff and three deputies.", "The Air Corps at the direction of President Roosevelt began a rapid expansion from the spring of 1939 forward, partly from the Civilian Pilot Training Program created at the end of 1938, with the goal of providing an adequate air force for defense of the Western Hemisphere. An initial \"25-group program\", announced in April 1939, called for 50,000 men. However, when war broke out in September 1939 the Air Corps still had only 800 first-line combat aircraft and 76 bases, including 21 major installations and depots. American fighter aircraft were inferior to the British Spitfire and Hurricane, and German Messerschmitt Bf 110 and 109. Ralph Ingersoll wrote in late 1940 after visiting Britain that the \"best American fighter planes already delivered to the British are used by them either as advanced trainers—or for fighting equally obsolete Italian planes in the Middle East. That is all they are good for.\" RAF crews he interviewed said that by spring 1941 a fighter engaging Germans had to have the capability to reach 400 mph in speed, fight at 30,000–35,000 feet, be simple to take off, provide armor for the pilot, and carry 12 machine guns or six cannons, all attributes lacking in American aircraft. Following the successful German invasion of France and the Low Countries in May 1940, Roosevelt asked Congress for a supplemental appropriation of nearly a billion dollars, a production program of 50,000 aircraft a year, and a military air force of 50,000 aircraft (of which 36,500 would be Army). Accelerated programs followed in the Air Corps that repeatedly revised expansion goals, resulting in plans for 84 combat groups, 7,799 combat aircraft, and the annual addition to the force of 30,000 new pilots and 100,000 technical personnel. The accelerated expansion programs resulted in a force of 156 airfields and 152,125 personnel at the time of the creation of the Army Air Forces. The German invasion of the Soviet Union, occurring only two days after the creation of the Army Air Forces, caused an immediate reassessment of U.S. defense strategy and policy. The need for an offensive strategy to defeat the Axis Powers required further enlargement and modernization of all the military services, including the new AAF. In addition, the invasion produced a new Lend lease partner in Russia, creating even greater demands on an already struggling American aircraft production. An offensive strategy required several types of urgent and sustained effort. In addition to the development and manufacture of aircraft in massive numbers, the Army Air Forces had to establish a global logistics network to supply, maintain, and repair the huge force; recruit and train personnel; and sustain the health, welfare, and morale of its troops. The process was driven by the pace of aircraft production, not the training program, and was ably aided by the direction of Lovett, who for all practical purposes became \"Secretary of the Air Corps\". A lawyer and a banker, Lovett had prior experience with the aviation industry that translated into realistic production goals and harmony in integrating the plans of the AAF with those of the Army as a whole. Lovett initially believed that President Roosevelt's demand following the attack on Pearl Harbor for 60,000 airplanes in 1942 and 125,000 in 1943 was grossly ambitious. However, working closely with General Arnold and engaging the capacity of the American automotive industry brought about an effort that produced almost 100,000 aircraft in 1944. The AAF reached its wartime inventory peak of nearly 80,000 aircraft in July 1944, 41% of them first line combat aircraft, before trimming back to 73,000 at the end of the year following a large reduction in the number of trainers needed. The logistical demands of this armada were met by the creation of the Air Service Command on 17 October 1941 to provide service units and maintain 250 depots in the United States; the elevation of the Materiel Division to full command status on 9 March 1942 to develop and procure aircraft, equipment, and parts; and the merger of these commands into the Air Technical Service Command on 31 August 1944. In addition to carrying personnel and cargo, the Air Transport Command made deliveries of almost 270,000 aircraft worldwide while losing only 1,013 in the process. The operation of the stateside depots was done largely by more than 300,000 civilian maintenance employees, many of them women, freeing a like number of Air Forces mechanics for overseas duty. In all facets of the service, more than 420,000 civilian personnel were employed by the AAF.", "", "By the end of World War II, the USAAF had created 16 numbered air forces (\"First\" through \"Fifteenth\" and \"Twentieth\") distributed worldwide to prosecute the war, plus a general air force within the continental United States to support the whole and provide air defense. The latter was formally organized as the Continental Air Forces and activated on 15 December 1944, although it did not formally take jurisdiction of its component air forces until the end of the war in Europe. Half of the numbered air forces were created \"de novo\" as the service expanded during the war. Some grew out of earlier commands as the service expanded in size and hierarchy (for example, the \"V Air Support Command\" became the Ninth Air Force in April 1942), and higher echelons such as United States Strategic Air Forces (USSTAF) in Europe and U.S. Strategic Air Forces in the Pacific became necessary to control the whole. A subordinate organizational tier within the numbered air force, the \"operational command\", was created to segregate units of similar functions (fighters and bombers) for administrative control. The numbering of the operational command was designated by the Roman numeral of its parent numbered air force.", "The primary combat unit of the Army Air Forces for both administrative and tactical purposes was the group, an organization of three or four flying squadrons and attached or organic ground support elements, which was the rough equivalent of a regiment of the Army Ground Forces. The Army Air Forces fielded a total of 318 combat groups at some point during World War II, with an operational force of 243 combat groups in 1945. The Air Service and its successor the Air Corps had established 15 permanent combat groups between 1919 and 1937. With the buildup of the combat force beginning 1 February 1940, the Air Corps expanded from 15 to 30 groups by the end of the year. On 7 December 1941 the number of activated combat groups had reached 67, with 49 still within the Continental United States. Of the CONUS groups (the \"strategic reserve\"), 21 were engaged in operational training or still being organized and were unsuitable for deployment. Of the 67 combat groups, 26 were classified as bombardment: 13 \"Heavy Bomb\" groups (B-17 Flying Fortress and B-24 Liberator), and the rest \"Medium\" and \"Light\" groups (B-25 Mitchell,", "The United States Army Air Forces used a large variety of aircraft in accomplishing its various missions, including many obsolete aircraft left over from its pre-June 1941 time as the Air Corps, with fifteen", "", "On 13 August 1941, the Air War Plans Division of the USAAF produced its plan for a global air strategy, AWPD/1. Formally known as \"Annex 2, Air Requirements\" to \"The Victory Program\", a plan of strategic estimates involving the entire U.S. military, the plan was prepared in accordance with strategic policies drawn earlier that year in the ABC-1 agreement with the British Commonwealth and the U.S. war plan Rainbow 5. Its forecast figures, despite planning errors from lack of accurate information about weather and the German economic commitment to the war, were within 2 percent of the units and 5.5 percent of the personnel ultimately mobilized, and it accurately predicted the time frame when the invasion of Europe by the Allies would take place. AWPD/1 called for an air defense of the Western hemisphere, a strategic defense against Japan in the Pacific, and strategic bombardment by 6,800 bombers against Germany, identifying 154 key targets of the German economic infrastructure it considered vulnerable to a sustained campaign. A strategic bomber requirement of 7,500 aircraft, which included the intercontinental B-36 (then still in the design phase), was far too large for American industry to achieve to be practical, and an", "To prevent or alleviate the effects of combat fatigue, the AAF developed policies for rotating combat crews between the theaters of operations and the United States. Replacement limitations and operational requirements caused the modification of basic AAF policy several times during the war. On 1 July 1942 the War Department first set a one-year tour of duty for all AAF combat crews, but a simple, uniform policy service-wide was unrealistic and never put into effect. Instead field commanders developed their own criteria for determining completion of tours. While varying substantially between theaters, most of these programs attempted to establish fixed tours based on numbers of missions and other quantifiable factors. Nonetheless, Headquarters AAF did not interfere with theater programs but did prohibit any rotation unless replacements had first arrived in the unit. After studying the situation, the War Department rescinded the one-year tour policy on 29 May 1943 and changed procedures for assignment of replacements to include both attrition and rotation purposes. However a continuing shortage forced commanders to lengthen", "The Air Force Historical Studies Office summarizes the execution of USAAF strategy during World War II: \"Arnold's staff made the first priority in the war to launch a strategic bombing offensive in support of the RAF against Germany. The Eighth Air Force, sent to England in 1942, took on that job. After a slow and often costly effort to bring the necessary strength to bear, joined in 1944 by the Fifteenth Air Force stationed in Italy, strategic bombing finally began to get results, and by the end of the war, the German economy had been dispersed and pounded to rubble. \"Tactical air forces supported the ground forces in the Mediterranean and", "The United States Army Air Forces incurred 12% of the Army's 936,000 battle casualties in World War II. 88,119 airmen died in service. 52,173 were battle casualty deaths: 45,520 killed in action, 1,140 died of wounds, 3,603 were missing in action and declared dead, and 1,910 were non-hostile battle deaths. Of the United States military and naval services, only the Army Ground Forces suffered more battle deaths. 35,946 non-battle deaths included 25,844 in aircraft accidents, more than half of which occurred within the Continental United States. 63,209 members of the USAAF were other battle casualties. 18,364 were wounded in action and required medical evacuation, and 41,057 became prisoners-of-war. Its casualties were 5.1% of its strength, compared to 10% for the rest of the Army.", "With the defeat of Japan, the entire United States military establishment immediately began a drastic demobilization, as it had at the end of World War I. The AAF was hit as hard or harder as the older services by demobilization. Officers and members were discharged, installations were closed, and aircraft were stored or sold. Between August 1945 and April 1946, its strength fell from 2.25 million men to just 485,000, and a year later to 304,000. The Air Transport Command, which retained its mission to support the entire military establishment worldwide, was trimmed from nine to three divisions and by the end of 1946 its personnel reduced by 80%. Aircraft inventory dropped from 79,000 to less than 30,000, many of them in storage. Permanent installations were reduced from 783 to 177, just 21 more than pre-war. By July 1946, the Army Air Forces had only 2 combat-ready", "The \"Army Air Forces in World War II\", the official history of the AAF, summarized its significance as the final step to independence for the Air Force: By the close of the war (the AAF) had emerged as virtually a third independent service. Officially, the AAF never became anything other than a subordinate agency of the War Department charged to organize, train, and equip air units for assignment to combat theaters. Its jurisdiction was wholly limited to the Zone of Interior \"(today called the CONUS)\", and it could communicate with air organizations in combat theaters only through channels extending up to the Chief of Staff, and then down through the theater commander to his subordinate air commander. The position", "", "", "USAAF uniforms for all members consisted of a winter service uniform of olive drab wool worn in temperate weather and a tropical weather summer service uniform of khaki cotton the same as those of other U.S. Army forces. In addition to the service uniforms usually worn for dress purposes and on pass from posts there were a variety of fatigue and flying uniforms. Summer and winter service uniforms were both worn throughout the year in the continental U.S. During World War II the European theater of operations was considered a year-round temperate uniform zone and the Pacific theater of operations a year-round tropical uniform zone. The issue enlisted men's winter service uniform consisted of a four pocket coat and trousers in olive drab shade 33 (light shade) 16 oz wool serge. Shirts with two", "Female USAAF uniforms were either the uniform of the Army Nurse Corps (ANC) or that of the Women's Auxiliary Army Corps (WAAC) with appropriate USAAF branch insignia. In the summer of 1943 the Women's Army Corps (WAC) replaced the WAAC. Although female auxiliary organizations such as the WAAC, Women's Auxiliary Ferrying Squadron (WAFS) and Women Airforce Service Pilots (WASP) performed valuable service to the AAF, only the ANC and the WAC were official members of the U.S. Armed Forces. In the AAF servicewomen became unofficially known as \"Air WACs\". Nurses attached to the AAF wore Army hospital whites, or prior to 1943, the ANC winter service uniform consisting of the ANC pattern dark blue cap or garrison cap with maroon piping, suit jacket with maroon cuff braid and gold army buttons, light blue or white shirt, black tie and light blue skirt, shoes were black or white. The ANC summer service uniform consisted of a similar suit in beige with maroon shoulder strap piping and cuff braid, beige ANC cap or beige garrison cap with maroon piping, white shirt, and black four-in-hand tie. During World", "Flight clothing varied widely by theater of operation and type of mission. Innovative aviation flight suits, boots, leather helmets, goggles, and gloves were issued as early as 1928 to the Air Corps, and at least one style, the Type A-3 flight suit, continued in service until 1944. However, A-2 flight jackets, made standard issue on 9 May 1931, became one of the best known symbols of the AAF. Made of seal brown horsehide leather (later supplemented by goatskin) with a beige spun silk lining (cotton after 1939), the jackets featured an officer's stand-up collar, shoulder straps, knit waistbands and cuffs, a zipper closing, and unit insignia. Heavy, sheepskin-lined B-3 and B-6 flight jackets, A-3 winter flying trousers, and B-2 \"gunner's\" caps, all in seal brown shearling, proved insufficient for the extreme cold temperatures of high altitude missions in unpressurized aircraft, and were supplemented by a variety of one-piece electrically heated flying suits manufactured by General Electric. In addition to men's flight", "AAF uniforms were subject to Army Regulations, specifically AR 600-35 and AR 600-40, authorizing the wearing of badges, insignia, and emblems on the uniform. The vast size of the service saw the wearing of many custom-made variants of authorized badges, insignia, and emblems, and numerous examples of unauthorized insignia and emblems appeared throughout the forces, particularly in combat units overseas.", "To denote the special training and qualifications required for air crew and technical personnel in the USAAF, in most categories known as being rated, the following military badges (known familiarly but ubiquitously throughout the service as \"wings\") were authorized for wear by members of the Army Air Forces: These aviation qualification badges were typically worn in full three-inch (76", "In order to recognize and differentiate combat aircrews from other airmen in Europe, on 29 March 1943 the European Theater Headquarters of the U.S. Army created an ultramarine blue cloth patch 1\" × 3.25\" to be sewn on the service coat behind the aviation badge. According", "The rank structure and insignia of the U.S. Army", "The first shoulder sleeve insignia authorized for Air Corps wear was that of the General Headquarters Air Force, approved 20 July 1937. This sleeve insignia, which consisted of a blue triskelion superimposed on a gold circle, was retained after GHQ Air Force became Air Force Combat Command on 20 June 1941. The triskelion represented a stylized propeller that symbolized the three combat wings of GHQ Air Force. On 23 February 1942, the GHQ AF patch was discontinued and the service-wide AAF sleeve insignia (\"Hap Arnold Emblem\") approved. The patch was designed by a member of Gen. Arnold's staff, James T. Rawls, and was based on the V-for-Victory sign popularized by Winston Churchill. The wearing of" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Secure Copy Protocol.", "Function.", "Remote to remote mode.", "Issues using talkative shell profiles.", "Secure Copy (remote file copy program).", "Syntax.", "Other clients.", "Security." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The SCP is a network protocol, based on the BSD RCP protocol, which supports file transfers between hosts on a network. SCP uses Secure Shell (SSH) for data transfer and uses the same mechanisms for authentication, thereby ensuring the authenticity and confidentiality of the data in transit. A client can send (upload) files to a server, optionally including their basic attributes (permissions, timestamps). Clients can also request files or directories from a server (download). SCP runs over TCP port 22 by default. Like RCP, there is no RFC that defines the specifics of the protocol.", "Normally, a client initiates an SSH connection to the remote host, and requests an SCP process to be started on the remote server. The remote SCP process can operate in one of two modes: For most SCP clients, source mode is generally triggered with the -f flag (from), while sink mode is triggered with -t (to). These flags are used internally and are not documented outside the SCP source code.", "In the past, in remote-to-remote secure copy, the SCP client opens an SSH connection to the source host and requests that it, in turn, open an SCP connection to the destination. (Remote-to-remote mode did not support opening two SCP connections and using the originating client as an intermediary). It is important to note that SCP cannot be used to remotely copy from the source to the destination when operating in password or keyboard-interactive authentication mode, as this would reveal the destination server's authentication credentials to the source. It is, however, possible with key-based or GSSAPI methods that do not require user input. Recently, remote-to-remote mode supports routing traffic through the client which originated the transfer, even though it is a 3rd party to the transfer. This way, authorization credentials must reside only on the originating client, the 3rd party.", "SCP does not expect text communicating with the ssh login shell. Text transmitted due to the ssh profile (e.g. echo \"Welcome\" in the.bashrc file) is interpreted as an error message, and a null line (echo \"\") causes scp to deadlock waiting for the error message to complete.", "The SCP program is a software tool implementing the SCP protocol as a service daemon or client. It is a program to perform secure copying. Perhaps the most widely used SCP program is the OpenSSH command line scp program, which is provided in most SSH implementations. The scp program is the secure analog of the rcp command. The scp program must be part of all SSH servers that want to provide SCP service, as scp functions as SCP server too. Some SSH implementations provide the scp2 program, which uses the SFTP protocol instead of SCP, but provides the very same command line interface as scp. scp is then typically a symbolic link to scp2.", "Typically, a syntax of scp program is like the syntax of cp (copy): Copying file to host: Copying file from host and copying folder from host (with -r switch): Note that if the remote host uses a port other than the default of 22, it can be specified in the command. For example, copying a file from host:", "As the Secure Copy Protocol implements file transfers only, GUI SCP clients are rare, as implementing it requires additional functionality (directory listing at least). For example, WinSCP defaults to the SFTP protocol. Even when operating in SCP mode, clients like WinSCP are typically not pure SCP clients, as they must use other means to implement the additional functionality (like the ls command). This in turn brings platform-dependency problems. More comprehensive tools for managing files over SSH are SFTP clients.", "In 2019 vulnerability was announced related to the openssh SCP tool and protocol allowing users to overwrite arbitrary files in the SCP client target directory." ] }

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{ "title": [ "As nationalism.", "Male chauvinism.", "In the workplace.", "Causes.", "Female chauvinism." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "In 1945, political theorist Hannah Arendt described the concept thus:", "Male chauvinism is the belief that men are superior to women. The first documented use of the phrase \"male chauvinism\" is in the 1935 Clifford Odets play \"Till the Day I Die\".", "The balance of the workforce changed during World War II. As men left their positions to enlist in the military and fight in the war, women started replacing them. After the war ended, men returned home to find jobs in the workplace now occupied by women, which \"threatened the self-esteem many men derive from their dominance over women in the family, the economy, and society at large.\" Consequently, male chauvinism was on the rise, according to Cynthia B. Lloyd. Lloyd and Michael Korda have argued that as they integrated back into the workforce, men returned to predominate, holding positions of power while women worked as their secretaries, usually typing dictations and answering telephone calls. This division of labor was understood and expected, and women typically felt unable to challenge their position or male superiors, argue Korda and Lloyd.", "Chauvinism is seen by some as an influential factor in the TAT, a psychological personality test. Through cross-examinations, the TAT exhibits a tendency toward chauvinistic stimuli for its questions and has the \"potential for unfavorable clinical evaluation\" for women. An often cited study done in 1976 by Sherwyn Woods, Some Dynamics of Male Chauvinism, attempts to find the underlying causes of male chauvinism. Adam Jukes argues that a reason for male chauvinism is masculinity itself:For the vast majority of people all over the world, the mother is a primary carer...There’s an asymmetry in the development of boys and girls. Infant boys have to learn how to be masculine. Girls don’t. Masculinity is not in a state of crisis. Masculinity is a crisis. I don’t believe misogyny is innate, but I believe it’s inescapable because of the development of masculinity.", "Female chauvinism is the belief that women are morally superior to men, and is considered anti-feminist. The term has been adopted by critics of some types or aspects of feminism; second-wave feminist Betty Friedan is a notable example. Ariel Levy used the term in similar, but opposite sense in her book, \"Female Chauvinist Pigs\", in which she argues that many young women in the United States and beyond are replicating male chauvinism and older misogynist stereotypes." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Characteristics.", "Qualitative versus quantitative metre.", "Feet.", "Classification.", "Caesura.", "Enjambment.", "Metric variations.", "Modern English.", "Metrical systems.", "Frequently used metres.", "Other languages.", "Sanskrit.", "Greek and Latin.", "Classical Arabic.", "Classical Persian.", "Classical Chinese.", "Old English.", "French.", "Spanish.", "Italian.", "Turkish.", "Ottoman Turkish.", "Portuguese.", "Welsh.", "History.", "Dissent." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "An assortment of features can be identified when classifying poetry and its metre.", "The metre of most poetry of the Western world and elsewhere is based on patterns of syllables of particular types. The familiar type of metre in English-language poetry is called qualitative metre, with stressed syllables coming at regular intervals (e.g. in iambic pentameters, usually every even-numbered syllable). Many Romance languages use a scheme that is somewhat similar but where the position of only one particular stressed syllable (e.g. the last) needs to be fixed. The metre of the old Germanic poetry of languages such as Old Norse and Old English was radically different, but was still based on stress patterns. Some classical languages, in contrast, used a different scheme known as quantitative metre, where patterns were based on syllable", "In many Western classical poetic traditions, the metre of a verse can be described as a sequence of \"feet\", each foot being a specific sequence of syllable types — such as relatively unstressed/stressed (the norm for English poetry) or long/short (as in most classical Latin and Greek poetry). Iambic pentameter, a common metre in English poetry, is based on a sequence of five \"iambic feet\" or \"iambs\", each consisting of a relatively unstressed syllable (here represented with \"-\" above the syllable)", "If the line has only one foot, it is called a \"monometer\"; two feet, \"dimeter\"; three is \"trimeter\"; four is \"tetrameter\"; five is \"pentameter\"; six is \"hexameter\", seven is \"heptameter\" and eight is \"octameter\". For example, if the feet are iambs, and if there are five feet to a line, then it is called an iambic pentameter. If the feet are primarily \"dactyls\" and there are six to a line, then it is a dactylic hexameter.", "Sometimes a natural pause occurs in the middle of a line rather than at a line-break. This is a caesura (cut). A good example is from \"The Winter's Tale\" by William Shakespeare;", "By contrast with caesura, enjambment is incomplete syntax at the end of a", "Poems with a well-defined overall metric pattern often have a few lines that violate that pattern. A common variation is the \"inversion\" of a foot, which turns an iamb (\"da-DUM\") into a trochee (\"DUM-da\"). A second", "Most English metre is classified according to the same system as Classical metre with an important difference. English is an accentual language, and therefore beats and offbeats (stressed and unstressed syllables) take the place of the long and short syllables of classical systems. In most English verse, the metre can be considered as a sort of back beat, against which natural speech rhythms vary expressively. The most common characteristic feet of English verse are the iamb in two syllables and the anapest in three. (See Foot (prosody) for a complete list of the metrical feet and their names.)", "The number of metrical systems in English is not agreed upon. The four major types are: accentual verse, accentual-syllabic verse, syllabic verse and quantitative verse. The alliterative verse of Old English could also be added to this list, or included as a special type of accentual verse. Accentual verse focuses on", "The most frequently encountered metre of English verse is the iambic pentameter, in which the metrical norm is five iambic feet per line, though metrical substitution is common and rhythmic variations practically inexhaustible. John Milton's \"Paradise Lost\", most sonnets, and much else besides in English are written in iambic pentameter. Lines of unrhymed iambic pentameter are commonly known as blank verse. Blank verse in the English language is most famously represented in the plays of William Shakespeare and the great works of Milton, though Tennyson (\"Ulysses\", \"The Princess\") and Wordsworth (\"The Prelude\") also make notable use of it. A rhymed pair of lines", "", "Versification in Classical Sanskrit poetry is of three kinds. Standard traditional works on metre are Pingala's and Kedāra's.", "The metrical \"feet\" in the classical languages were based on the length of time taken to pronounce each syllable, which were categorized according to their weight as either \"long\" syllables or \"short\" syllables (indicated as \"dum\" and \"di\" below). These are also called \"heavy\" and \"light\" syllables, respectively, to distinguish from long and short vowels. The foot is often compared to a musical measure and the long and short syllables to whole notes and half notes. In English poetry, feet are determined by emphasis rather than length, with stressed and unstressed syllables serving the same function as long and short syllables in classical metre. The basic unit in Greek and", "The metrical system of Classical Arabic poetry, like those of classical Greek and Latin, is based on the weight of syllables classified as either \"long\" or \"short\". The basic principles of Arabic poetic metre \"Arūḍ\" or Arud ( ') Science of Poetry ( '), were put forward by Al-Farahidi (786 - 718 CE) who did so after noticing that poems consisted of repeated syllables in each verse. In his first book, \"Al-Ard\" ( \"\"), he described 15 types of verse. Al-Akhfash described one extra, the 16th. A short syllable contains a short vowel with no following consonants. For example, the word \"kataba,\" which syllabifies as \"ka-ta-ba\", contains three short vowels and is made up of three short syllables. A long syllable contains either a long vowel or a short vowel followed by a consonant as is the case in the word \"maktūbun\" which syllabifies as \"mak-tū-bun\". These are the only syllable types possible in Classical Arabic phonology which, by and large, does not allow a syllable to end in more than one consonant or a consonant to occur in the same syllable after a long vowel. In other words, syllables of the type \"-āk-\" or \"-akr-\" are not found in classical Arabic. Each verse consists of a certain number of metrical feet (\"tafāʿīl\" or \"ʾaǧzāʾ\") and a certain combination of possible feet constitutes a metre (\"baḥr\"). The traditional Arabic practice for", "The terminology for metrical system used in classical and classical-style Persian poetry is the same as that of Classical Arabic, even though these are quite different in both origin and structure. This has led to serious confusion among prosodists, both ancient and modern, as to the true source and nature of the Persian metres, the most obvious error being the assumption that they were copied from Arabic. Persian poetry is quantitative, and the metrical patterns are made of long and short syllables, much as in Classical Greek, Latin and Arabic. \"Anceps\" positions in the line, however, that is places where either a long or short syllable can be used (marked \"x\" in the schemes below), are not found in Persian verse except in some metres at the beginning of a line. Persian poetry is written in couplets, with each half-line (hemistich) being 10-14 syllables long. Except in the ruba'i (quatrain), where either of two very similar metres may be used, the same metre is used for every line in the", "Classical Chinese poetic metric may be divided into fixed and variable length line types, although the actual scansion of the metre is complicated by various factors, including linguistic changes and variations encountered in dealing with a tradition extending over a geographically extensive regional area for a continuous time period of over some two-and-a-half millennia. Beginning with the earlier recorded forms: the Classic of Poetry tends toward couplets of four-character lines, grouped in rhymed quatrains; and, the Chuci follows this to some extent, but moves toward variations in line length. Han Dynasty poetry tended towards the variable line-length forms of the folk ballads and the Music Bureau yuefu.", "The metric system of Old English poetry was different from that of modern English, and related more to the verse forms of most of the older Germanic languages such as Old Norse. It used alliterative verse, a metrical pattern involving varied numbers of syllables but a fixed number (usually four) of strong stresses in each line. The unstressed syllables were relatively unimportant, but the caesurae (breaks between the half-lines) played a major role in Old English poetry. In place of using feet, alliterative verse divided each line into two half-lines. Each half-line had to follow one of five or so patterns, each of which defined a sequence of stressed and unstressed syllables, typically with two stressed syllables per half line. Unlike typical Western poetry, however, the number of unstressed syllables could vary somewhat. For example, the common pattern", "In French poetry, metre is determined solely by the number of syllables in a line. A silent 'e' counts as a syllable before a consonant, but is elided before a vowel (where \"h aspiré\" counts as a consonant). At the end of a line, the \"e\" remains unelided but is hypermetrical (outside the count of syllables, like a feminine", "In Spanish poetry the metre is determined by the number of syllables the verse has. Still it is the phonetic accent in the last word of the verse that decides the final count of the line. If the accent of the final word is at the last syllable, then the poetic rule states that one syllable shall be added to the actual count of syllables in the said line, thus having a higher number of poetic syllables than the number of grammatical syllables. If the accent lies on the second to last syllable of the last word in the", "In Italian poetry, metre is determined solely by the position of the last accent in a line, the position of the other accents being however important for verse equilibrium. Syllables are enumerated with respect to a verse which ends with a paroxytone, so that a Septenary (having seven syllables) is defined as a verse whose last accent falls on the sixth syllable: it may so contain eight syllables (\"Ei", "Apart from Ottoman poetry, which was heavily influenced by Persian traditions and created a unique Ottoman style, traditional Turkish poetry features a system in which the number of syllables in each verse must be the same, most frequently 7, 8, 11, 14 syllables. These verses are then divided into syllable groups depending on the number of total syllables in a verse: 4+3", "In the Ottoman Turkish language, the structures of the poetic foot (تفعل \"tef'ile\") and of poetic metre (وزن \"vezin\") were imitated from Persian poetry. About twelve of the most common Persian metres were used for writing Turkish poetry. As was the case with Persian, no use at all was made of the commonest metres of Arabic poetry (the \"tawīl\", \"basīt\", \"kāmil\", and \"wāfir\"). However, the terminology used to described the metres was indirectly borrowed from the Arabic poetic tradition through the medium of the", "Portuguese poetry uses a syllabic metre in which the verse is classified according to the last stressed", "There is a continuing tradition of strict metre poetry in the Welsh language that can be traced back to at least", "Metrical texts are first attested in early Indo-European languages. The earliest known unambiguously metrical texts, and at the same time the only metrical texts with a claim of dating to the Late Bronze Age, are the hymns of the Rigveda. That the texts of the Ancient Near East (Sumerian, Egyptian or Semitic) should not exhibit metre is surprising, and may be partly due to the nature of Bronze Age writing. There were, in fact, attempts to reconstruct metrical qualities of the poetic portions of the Hebrew Bible, e.g. by", "Not all poets accept the idea that metre is a fundamental part of poetry. 20th-century American poets Marianne Moore, William Carlos Williams and Robinson Jeffers believed that metre was an artificial construct imposed upon poetry rather than being innate to poetry. In an essay titled \"Robinson Jeffers, & The Metric Fallacy\" Dan Schneider echoes Jeffers' sentiments: \"What if someone actually said to you that all music was composed of just 2 notes? Or if someone claimed that there were just 2 colors in creation? Now, ponder if such a thing were true. Imagine the clunkiness & mechanicality of such music. Think of the visual arts devoid of not just color, but sepia tones, & even shades of gray.\" Jeffers called his technique \"rolling stresses\". Moore went further than Jeffers, openly declaring her poetry was written in syllabic form, and wholly denying metre. These syllabic lines from her famous poem illustrate her contempt for metre and other poetic tools. Even the syllabic pattern of this poem does not remain perfectly consistent: Williams tried to form poetry whose subject matter was centered on the lives of common people. He came up with the concept of the variable foot. Williams spurned traditional metre in most of his poems, preferring what he called \"colloquial idioms.\" Another poet who turned his back on traditional concepts of metre was Britain's Gerard Manley Hopkins. Hopkins' major innovation was what he called sprung rhythm. He claimed most poetry was written in this older rhythmic structure inherited from the Norman side of the English literary heritage, based on repeating groups of two or three syllables, with the stressed syllable falling in the same place on each repetition. Sprung rhythm is structured around feet with a variable number of syllables, generally between one and four syllables per foot, with the stress always falling on the first syllable in a foot." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name.", "Design.", "Main structure.", "Entrance.", "Bergfried.", "Towers.", "Wings.", "History.", "Foundation.", "Middle Ages and Early Modern Period.", "Construction history.", "Medieval castle.", "Weser Renaissance palace." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The name \"Wolfsburg\" (literally \"Wolf Castle\") does not indicate that the region of the Vorsfelder Werder in which the castle is located had a large number of wolves, even though there were certainly wolves in the nearby wet meadows of the Drömling. The wolf that gave its name to the castle is a heraldic beast on the coat of arms of the von Bartensleben family who built the edifice. Their coat of arms comprises a leaping wolf above two sheaves of corn. The family brought the name \"wolf\" with them, because they can be traced back to 1188 when they were still living at Bartensleben Castle in the village of Bartensleben about 40 kilometres to the south. In the 20th century, the city built here in 1938 was named after Wolfsburg Castle. Initially it was called the \"Stadt des KdF-Wagens\" (\"Town of the Strength through Joy Car\") because of the industrial plant established to build the Volkswagen. After the end of the Second World War, the city council decided to rename the city Wolfsburg on 25 May 1945.", "", "Since the 17th century the castle has been a four-sided, solid building surrounding an inner courtyard. The main body of the castle thus has four wings, which are named after the points of the compass. The upper outline of the castle with its finely decorated cross-gables, lucarnes and pointed roofs of the wall towers form a contrast with the fortification-like walls.", "Outsize stone figures on horseback decorate the palace entrance with its round arch. Above the portal there are stone shields with the coat of arms of the Bartenslebens, chimera (\"Neidköpfe\") and equestrian figures. The portal architecture, like the terrace with its great \"perron\" on the park side, is a 19th-century addition.", "The bergfried is integrated as an element of the west wing into the main structure and is recognisable as such by its lack of decoration and windows. The tower has an area of 9 x 9 metres, a height of around 23 metres and wall thickness of up to 3 metres. It is the oldest part of the whole site and its origins may go back to the 13th century.", "In the internal corners of the courtyard there are three other towers with staircases that enable the individual floors to be accessed. These are the Watchman's Tower (\"Hausmannsturm\") which at around 30 metres is the highest, the Owl Tower (\"Uhlenturm\") and the hexagonal \"Wendelstein\" tower with its circular staircase. They were built in the 16th century as the castle was converted into a palace.", "The north and south wings from the 16th century were mainly used for residential purposes. The roughly 25 metre high east wing was completed at the beginning of the 17th century. With its splendid decorative shapes in the Weser Renaissance style, it was very much an ostentatious reception building. On the ground floor there is a 30 metre long and 9 metre wide hall, the present Garden Hall (\"Gartensaal\"). Adjacent to it is a smaller hall the Chamber Room (\"Kaminzimmer\") and the \"Gerichtlaube\" (district office). From the inner courtyard the wing shows traces of an arcade that once ran in front of it. At roof height it is surrounded by corbels that presumably once carried a wooden wall walk. This wing of the building clearly shows how, by the end of the 16th century, the power of the von Bartenslebens was visibly demonstrated through their architecture.", "", "The reason for the construction of the \"Wolfsburg\" was the enfeoffment of land in the area of the present-day city of Wolfsburg to the noble family of von Bartensleben in the 13th century. These knights also watched over the trade routes where they crossed the River Aller and that entailed the construction of a fortification to protect their lordship. The first definite record of the castle was in 1302 where it is referred to as the \"Wluesborch\". The document is made out by the four brothers: Borchard, Günzel, Günter and Werner von Bartensleben. They were a \"ministerialis\" family (unfree knights), who came from the village of Bartensleben near Helmstedt. Their family members appeared at that time in the region, including in 1288 at the castle in Vorsfelde. In addition there is another record dating to 1135, but it is not clear whether this refers to the Wolfsburg or a predecessor castle. Emperor Lothar III then awarded the newly founded Benedictine abbey of \"Kaiserdom Königslutter\" with diversified estates, including a \"Wulvosburg\", that is named in connexion with the village of \"Käsdorf\".", "During the Middle Ages the castle was not an enclosed site, but consisted of the bergfried and an attached building, the Old House (\"Altes Haus\") in the present west wing. The site was a strong fortification of considerable strategic importance. Later it was even equipped with cannon, for according to a 1437 document the number of guns was to be increased by 10 pieces in the event of war. According to this record, there were only attacks on the castle during the feud of the von Bartenslebens against Duke Otto of Lüneburg in 1464, whereby it was intended to be largely demolished (\"mehrentheils demoliret worden seyn\"). The Wolfsburg emerged from the Thirty Years' War as one of the few aristocratic castles that remained undestroyed. It was almost continuously garrisoned by troops of the warring parties, the last being the Swedes. The lords of Brunswick and Magdeburg forced their withdrawal came in 1650 by having the castellans have the fortifications slighted. Six years later the von Bartenslebens had the fortifications rebuilt because they wanted to retain the military character of the castle.", "", "In the early stages around 1300 the Wolfsburg only had a stone tower house (\"Wohnturm\") on the Aller, whose precursor may have been a wooden watchtower in the style of a lowland motte. The present, roughly 23 metre high tower, later designated as the bergfried, is the oldest surviving part of the present site. It was accessible halfway up by a wooden staircase or ladder that could be hauled up in the face of enemy attack. To begin with, it may have been the tower house of the von Bartenslebens themselves. Over time it did not do justice to as an aristocratic residence and domestic building, and as a consequence other buildings and fortifications were constructed. Within the later castle, the bergfried acted as a dungeon and prison. Due to its situation in the Aller valley, the castle was probably surrounded by water from the outset. Certainly until the 19th century it was protected by two moats that were fed from the nearby Aller and the Hasselbach stream. The inner moat encircled the castle itself which, together with its drawbridges, made it a water castle. The outer moat surrounded the larger outer ward (\"Vorburg\"), a refuge place for the lord's subjects in time of war. In addition this area was protected by a curtain wall with defensive bastions or \"Rondellen\", against which the later domestic buildings and stables, the present coach houses (\"Remisen\") were built. Investigations in recent times revealed that the castle was not, as previously suspected, built on piles in boggy terrain. For the most part it stands on a sandy subsoil and only rests in places on oak piles.", "In the middle of the 15th century, a medieval castle no longer reflected the status of the von Bartenslebens. They turned the less comfortable building into a showy palace in the Weser Renaissance style with gardens and parks. Nevertheless it retained the character of a fortified water castle until 1840, when the protective moats were filled in as the Aller river was artificially confined and controlled. In 1574, thanks to his great fortune, Hans von Bartensleben, the Wealthy (\"der Reiche\"), was able to begin the conversion of the castle. For this work he employed masons, stonemasons and carpenters, whom he paid. The socage rendered him by the peasants of the villages of the Vorsfelder Werder provided free manual labour as well as horses and carts. When the Bartenslebens unduly imposed on them, the farmers complained (for example in 1600) to their overlord, Duke Henry Julius of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel. From then on, socage was restricted to \"only\" ten hours in summer and eight hours in winter, twice a week, although travel time from the villages, which were up to 15 kilometres away, was not counted. Hans the Wealthy had the Red House (\"Rotes Haus\"), a section of the building that had fallen into disrepair, demolished and erected in its place the present north wing with the entranceway to the \"schloss\". When he died in 1583, his relative Günzel, his brother Günther and their uncle Jakob continued the work and built the ostentatious east wing. Then followed the south wing as the \"Palas\" with its Great Hall. Not until 1620 was the palace completed in its present shape as a four-winged building with enclosed courtyard and outside dimensions of 50 x 60 metres. In converting it into a Renaissance palace, architecture and ornamentation were influenced by the Weser Renaissance style, of which the Wolfsburg is a typical example, as well as the most northeasterly one. The builders, stonemasons and sculptors who took part had also been involved in building palaces in the Weser region, for example, the Hamelin builder, Johann Edeler (also: Johann von der Mehle)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Applications of displacement." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "This method can be used to measure the volume of a solid object, even if its form is not regular. Several methods of such measuring exist. In one case the increase of liquid level is registered as the object is immersed in the liquid (usually water). In the second case, the object is immersed into a vessel full of liquid (called an overflow can), causing it to overflow. Then the spilled liquid is collected and its volume measured. In the third case, the object is suspended under the surface of the liquid and the increase of weight of the vessel is measured. The increase in weight is equal to the amount of liquid displaced by the object, which is the same as the volume of the suspended object times the density of the liquid. The concept of Archimedes' principle is that an object immersed in a fluid is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object. The weight of the displaced fluid can be found mathematically. The mass of the displaced fluid can be expressed in terms of the density and its volume,. The fluid displaced has a weight, where is acceleration due to gravity. Therefore, the weight of the displaced fluid can be expressed as. The weight of an object or substance can be measured by floating a sufficiently buoyant receptacle in the cylinder and noting the water level. After placing the object or substance in the receptacle, the difference in weight of the water level volumes will equal the weight of the object." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Canaanite period.", "Israelite and Judean period.", "Classical period.", "Middle Ages.", "Ottoman era.", "Modern era.", "Geography.", "Climate.", "Demographics.", "Population.", "Christian population.", "Economy.", "Tourism.", "Religious significance and commemoration.", "Birthplace of Jesus.", "Christmas celebrations.", "Other religious festivals.", "Culture.", "Embroidery.", "Mother-of-pearl carving.", "Cultural centers and museums.", "Local government.", "Mayors.", "Education.", "Transportation.", "Twin towns – sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The earliest reference to Bethlehem appears in the Amarna correspondence (c. 1400 BCE). In one of his six letters to Pharaoh, Abdi-Heba, the Egyptian-appointed governor of Jerusalem, appeals for aid in retaking \"Bit-Laḫmi\" in the wake of disturbances by Apiru mercenaries: \"Now even a town near Jerusalem, Bit-Lahmi by name, a village which once belonged to the king, has fallen to the enemy... Let the king hear the words of your servant Abdi-Heba, and send archers to restore the imperial lands of the king!\" It is thought that the similarity of this name to its modern forms indicates that it was originally a settlement of Canaanites who shared a Semitic cultural and", "Archaeological confirmation of Bethlehem as a city in the Kingdom of Judah was uncovered in 2012 at the archaeological dig at the City of David in the form of a \"bulla\" (seal impression in dried clay) in ancient Hebrew script that reads \"From the town of Bethlehem to the King,\" indicating that it was used to seal the string closing a shipment of grain, wine, or other goods sent as a tax payment in the 8th or 7th century BCE. Biblical scholars believe Bethlehem, located in the \"hill country\" of Judah, may be the same as the Biblical Ephrath, which means \"fertile\", as there is a reference to it in", "The Gospel of Matthew and the Gospel of Luke represent Jesus as having been born in Bethlehem. Modern scholars, however, regard the two accounts as contradictory and the Gospel of Mark, the earliest gospel, mentions nothing about Jesus having been born in Bethlehem, saying only that he came from Nazareth. Nonetheless, the tradition that Jesus was born in Bethlehem was prominent in the early church. In around 155, the apologist Justin Martyr recommended that those who doubted Jesus was really born in Bethlehem could go there and visit the very cave where he was supposed to have been born. The same cave is also referenced by the apocryphal Gospel of James and the fourth-century church historian Eusebius. After the Bar Kokhba revolt ( 132–136 CE) was crushed, the Roman emperor Hadrian converted the Christian site above the Grotto into a shrine dedicated to the Greek god Adonis, to honour his favourite, the Greek youth Antinous. In around 395 CE, the Church Father Jerome wrote in a letter: \"Bethlehem... belonging now to us... was overshadowed by a grove of Tammuz, that is to say, Adonis, and", "In 637, shortly after Jerusalem was captured by the Muslim armies, 'Umar ibn al-Khattāb, the second Caliph, promised that the Church of the Nativity would be preserved for Christian use. A mosque dedicated to Umar was built upon the place in the city where he prayed, next to the church. Bethlehem then passed through the control of the Islamic caliphates of the Umayyads in the 8th century, then the Abbasids in the 9th century. A Persian geographer recorded in the mid-9th century that a", "From 1517, during the years of Ottoman control, custody of the Basilica was bitterly disputed between the Catholic and Greek Orthodox churches. By the end of the 16th century, Bethlehem had become one of the largest villages in the District of Jerusalem, and was subdivided into seven quarters. The Basbus family served as the heads of Bethlehem among other leaders during this period. The Ottoman tax record and census from 1596 indicates that Bethlehem had a population of 1,435, making it the 13th largest village in Palestine at the time. Its total revenue amounted to 30,000 akce. Bethlehem paid taxes on wheat, barley and grapes. The Muslims and Christians were organized into separate communities, each having its own leader. Five leaders represented the village in the mid-16th century, three of whom were Muslims. Ottoman tax records", "Bethlehem was administered by the British Mandate from 1920 to 1948. In the United Nations General Assembly's 1947 resolution to partition Palestine, Bethlehem was included in the international enclave of Jerusalem to be administered by the United Nations. Jordan captured the city during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War. Many refugees from areas captured by Israeli forces in 1947–48 fled to the Bethlehem area, primarily settling in what became the official refugee camps of 'Azza (Beit Jibrin) and 'Aida in the north and Dheisheh in the south. The influx of refugees significantly transformed Bethlehem's Christian majority into a Muslim one. Jordan retained control of the city until the Six-Day War in 1967, when Bethlehem was captured by Israel, along with the rest of the West Bank. Following the Six-Day War, Israel took control of the city. On December 21, 1995, Israeli troops withdrew from Bethlehem, and three days later the city came under", "Bethlehem is located at an elevation of about above sea level, higher than nearby Jerusalem. Bethlehem is situated on the southern portion in the Judean Mountains. The city is located northeast of Gaza City and the Mediterranean Sea, west of Amman, Jordan, southeast of Tel Aviv, Israel and south of Jerusalem. Nearby cities and towns include Beit Safafa and Jerusalem to the north, Beit Jala to the northwest, Husan to the west, al-Khadr and Artas to the southwest, and Beit Sahour to the east. Beit Jala and", "Bethlehem has a Mediterranean climate, with hot and dry summers and mild, wetter winters. Winter temperatures (mid-December to mid-March) can be cool and rainy. January is the coldest month, with temperatures ranging from 1 to 13 degree Celsius (33–55 °F). From May through September, the weather is warm and sunny. August is the hottest month, with a high of 30", "", "According to Ottoman tax records, Christians made up roughly 60% of the population in the early 16th century, while the Christian and Muslim population became equal by the mid-16th century. However, there were no Muslim inhabitants counted by the end of the century, with a recorded population of 287 adult male tax-payers. Christians, like all non-Muslims throughout the Ottoman Empire, were required to pay the jizya tax. In 1867, an American visitor describes the town as having a population of 3,000 to 4,000; of whom about 100 were Protestants, 300 were Muslims and \"the remainder belonging to the Latin and Greek Churches with a few Armenians.\" Another report from the same year puts the Christian population at 3,000, with an additional 50 Muslims. An", "After the Muslim conquest of the Levant in the 630s, the local Christians were Arabized even though large numbers were ethnically Arabs of the Ghassanid clans. Bethlehem's two largest Arab Christian clans trace their ancestry to the Ghassanids, including al-Farahiyyah and an-Najajreh. The former have descended from the Ghassanids who migrated from Yemen and from the Wadi Musa area in present-day Jordan and an-Najajreh descend from Najran. Another Bethlehem clan, al-Anatreh, also trace their ancestry to the Ghassanids. The percentage of Christians in the town has been in a steady decline since the mid-twentieth century. In 1947, Christians made up 85% of the population, but by 1998, the figure had declined to 40%. In 2005, the mayor of Bethlehem, Victor Batarseh explained that \"due to the stress, either physical or psychological, and the bad economic situation, many people are emigrating, either Christians or Muslims, but it is more apparent among Christians, because they already are a minority.\" The Palestinian Authority is officially committed to equality for Christians, although there have been incidents of violence against them by the Preventive Security Service", "Shopping is a major attraction, especially during the Christmas season. The city's main streets and old markets are lined with shops selling Palestinian handicrafts, Middle Eastern spices, jewelry and oriental sweets such as baklawa. Olive wood carvings are the item most purchased by tourists visiting Bethlehem. Religious handicrafts include ornaments handmade from mother-of-pearl, as well as olive wood statues, boxes, and crosses. Other industries include stone and marble-cutting, textiles, furniture and furnishings. Bethlehem factories also produce paints, plastics, synthetic rubber, pharmaceuticals, construction materials and food products, mainly pasta and confectionery. Cremisan Wine, founded in 1885, is a winery run by monks in the Monastery of Cremisan. The grapes are grown mainly in the al-Khader district. In 2007, the monastery's wine production was around 700,000 liters per year. In 2008, Bethlehem hosted the largest economic conference to date in the Palestinian territories. It was initiated by Palestinian Prime Minister and former Finance Minister Salam Fayyad to convince more than a thousand businessmen, bankers and government officials from throughout the Middle East to invest in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. A total of 1.4 billion US dollars was secured for business investments in the Palestinian territories.", "Tourism is Bethlehem's main industry. Unlike other Palestinian localities prior to 2000, the majority of the employed residents did not have jobs in Israel. More than 20% of the working population is employed in the industry. Tourism accounts for approximately 65% of the city's economy and 11% of the Palestinian National Authority. The city has more than two million visitors every year. Tourism in Bethlehem ground to a halt for over a decade after the Second Intifada, but gradually began to pick back up in the early 2010s. The Church of", "", "In the New Testament, the Gospel of Luke says that Jesus' parents traveled from Nazareth to Bethlehem, where Jesus was born. The Gospel of Matthew mentions Bethlehem as the place of birth, and adds that King Herod was told that a 'King of the Jews' had been born in the town, prompting Herod to order the killing of all the boys who were two years old or under in the town and surrounding area. Joseph, warned of Herod's impending action by an angel of the Lord, decided to flee to Egypt with his family and then later settled in Nazareth after Herod's death. Early Christian traditions describe Jesus as being born in Bethlehem: in one account, a verse in the", "Christmas rites are held in Bethlehem on three different dates: December 25 is the traditional date by the Roman Catholic and Protestant denominations, but Greek, Coptic and Syrian Orthodox Christians", "Bethlehem celebrates festivals related to saints and prophets associated with Palestinian folklore. One such festival is the annual Feast of Saint George (al-Khadr) on 5–6 May. During the celebrations, Greek Orthodox Christians from", "", "The women embroiderers of Bethlehem were known for their bridalwear. Bethlehem embroidery was renowned for its \"strong overall effect of colors and metallic brilliance.\" Less formal dresses were made of indigo fabric with a sleeveless coat (\"bisht\") from locally woven wool worn over top. Dresses for special occasions were made of striped silk with winged sleeves with a short \"taqsireh\" jacket known as the Bethlehem jacket. The taqsireh was made", "The art of mother-of-pearl carving is said to have been a Bethlehem tradition since the 15th century when it was introduced by", "Bethlehem is home to the Palestinian Heritage Center, established in 1991. The center aims to preserve and promote Palestinian embroidery, art and folklore. The International Center of Bethlehem is another cultural center that concentrates primarily on the culture of Bethlehem. It provides language and guide training, woman's studies and arts and crafts displays, and training. The Bethlehem branch of the Edward Said National Conservatory of Music has about 500 students. Its primary goals are to teach children", "Bethlehem is the \"muhfaza\" (seat) or district capital of the Bethlehem Governorate. Bethlehem held its first municipal elections in 1876, after the \"mukhtars\" (\"heads\") of the quarters of Bethlehem's Old City (excluding the Syriac Quarter) made the decision to elect a local council of seven members to represent each clan in the town. A Basic Law was established so that if the victor for mayor was a Catholic, his deputy should be of the Greek Orthodox community. Throughout, Bethlehem's rule by the British and Jordan, the Syriac Quarter was allowed to participate in the election, as were the Ta'amrah Bedouins and Palestinian refugees, hence ratifying the number of municipal members in the council to 11. In 1976, an amendment was passed to allow women to vote and become council members and later the voting age was increased from 21 to 25. There are several branches of political parties on the council, including Communist, Islamist, and secular. The leftist factions of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) such as the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) and the Palestinian People's Party (PPP) usually dominate the reserved seats. Hamas gained the majority of the open seats in the 2005 Palestinian municipal elections.", "In the October 2012 municipal elections, Fatah", "According to the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (PCBS), in 1997, approximately 84% of Bethlehem's population over the age of 10 was literate. Of the city's population, 10,414 were enrolled in schools (4,015 in primary school, 3,578 in secondary and 2,821 in high school). About 14.1% of high school students received diplomas. There were 135 schools in the", "Bethlehem has three bus stations owned by private companies which offer service to Jerusalem, Beit Jala, Beit Sahour, Hebron, Nahalin, Battir, al-Khader, al-Ubeidiya and Beit Fajjar. There are two taxi stations that make trips to Beit Sahour, Beit Jala, Jerusalem, Tuqu' and Herodium. There are also two car rental departments: Murad and 'Orabi. Buses and taxis with West Bank licenses are not allowed to enter Israel, including Jerusalem, without a permit. The Israeli construction of the", "Bethlehem is twinned with:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Significance.", "Thalidomide example.", "Definitions." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Louis Pasteur could rightly be described as the first stereochemist, having observed in 1842 that salts of tartaric acid collected from wine production vessels could rotate the plane of polarized light, but that salts from other sources did not. This property, the only physical property in which the two types of tartrate salts differed, is due to optical isomerism. In 1874, Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff and Joseph Le Bel explained optical activity in terms of the tetrahedral arrangement of the atoms bound to carbon. Kekulé used tetrahedral models earlier in 1862 but never published these; Emanuele Paternò probably knew of these but was the first to draw and discuss three dimensional structures, such as of 1,2-dibromoethane in the \"Gazetta Chimica Italiana\" in 1893.", "Cahn–Ingold–Prelog priority rules are part of a system for describing a molecule's stereochemistry. They rank the atoms around a stereocenter in a standard way, allowing the relative position of these atoms in the molecule to be described unambiguously. A Fischer projection is a simplified way to depict the stereochemistry around a stereocenter.", "An often cited example of the importance of stereochemistry relates to the thalidomide disaster. Thalidomide is a pharmaceutical drug, first prepared in 1957 in Germany, prescribed for treating morning sickness in pregnant women. The drug was discovered to be teratogenic, causing serious genetic damage to early embryonic growth and development, leading to limb deformation in babies. Some of the several proposed mechanisms of teratogenicity involve a different biological function for the (\"R\")- and the (\"S\")-thalidomide enantiomers. In the human body however, thalidomide undergoes racemization: even if only one of the two enantiomers is administered as a drug, the other enantiomer is produced as a result of metabolism. Accordingly, it is incorrect to state that one stereoisomer is safe while the other is teratogenic. Thalidomide is currently used for the treatment of other diseases, notably cancer and leprosy. Strict regulations and controls have been enabled to avoid its use by pregnant women and prevent developmental deformations. This disaster was a driving force behind requiring strict testing of drugs before making them available to the public.", "Many definitions that describe a specific conformer (IUPAC Gold Book) exist, developed by William Klyne and Vladimir Prelog, constituting their Klyne–Prelog system of nomenclature: Torsional strain results from resistance to twisting about a bond." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name and etymology.", "Elder Futhark \"o\"-rune.", "Anglo-Saxon \"œ\"-rune.", "Modern use.", "Germany.", "South Africa.", "United States.", "New Zealand.", "Germanic neopaganism.", "Other." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The Common Germanic stem \"ōþala-\" or \"ōþila-\" \"inherited estate\" is an ablaut variant of the stem \"aþal-\". It consists of a root \"aþ-\" and a suffix \"-ila-\" or \"-ala-\". The suffix variant accounts for the umlauted form \"ēþel\". Germanic \"aþal‐\" had a meaning of (approximately) \"nobility\", and the derivation \"aþala‐\" could express \"lineage, (noble) race, descent, kind\", and thus \"nobleman, prince\" (whence Old English atheling), but also \"inheritance, inherited estate, property, possession\". Its etymology is not clear, but it is usually compared to \"atta\" \"father\" (cf. the name Attila, ultimately baby talk for \"father\"). There is an apparent, but debated, etymological connection of \"Ol\" to \"Adel\" (Old High German adal or edil), meaning \"nobility, noble family line, or exclusive group of superior social status; aristocracy\", typically associated with major land holdings and fortifications. The term \"oþal\" (Old High German \"uodal\") is a formative element in some Germanic names, notably \"Ulrich\" and variants;, the stem \"aþal\" is more frequent, found in Gothic names such as Athalaric, Ataulf, etc. and in Old High German names such as \"Adalbert\", and Adel. Unrelated, but difficult to separate etymologically, is the root \"aud-\" \"wealth, property, possession, prosperity\"; from this root are names such as \"Edmund\" and other English names with the \"ed\" prefix (from Old English \"ead\"), German \"Otto\" and various Germanic names beginning with \"ed-\" or \"od-\". Possibly related is \"euþa, euþu\" a word for \"child, offspring\" (attested in Old Norse \"jóð\", and possibly in the name of the Iuthungi). Odal was associated with the concept of inheritance in ancient Scandinavian property law. Some of these laws are still in effect today, and govern Norwegian property. These are the \"Åsetesrett\" (homestead right), and the \"Odelsrett\" (allodial right). The tradition of Udal law found in Shetland and Orkney in Scotland, and also in Manx law on the Isle of Man, is from the same origin.", "The \"o\"-rune is attested early, in inscriptions from the 3rd century, such as the Thorsberg chape (DR7) and the Vimose planer (\"Vimose-Høvelen\", DR 206). The letter is derived from a Raetian variant of the letter O. The corresponding Gothic letter is (derived from Greek Ω), which had the name \"oþal\". Wolfgang Krause (1964) has speculated that the \"o\" rune is used as an ideograph denoting possession in the Thorsberg chape inscription. The inscription has \"owlþuþewaz\", read by Krause as \"O[þila] - W[u]lþu-þewaz\" \"inherited property - the servant of Wulþuz\". The odal rune is found in some transitional inscriptions of the 6th or 7th century, such as the Gummarp, Björketorp and Stentoften runestones, but it disappears from the Scandinavian record by the 8th century. The Old Norse \"o\" phoneme is now written in Younger Futhark with the same letter as the \"u\" phoneme, the Ur rune.", "The Anglo-Saxon runes preserve the full set of 24 Elder Futhark runes (besides introducing innovations), but in some cases these runes are given new sound values due to Anglo-Frisian sound changes. The odal rune is such a case: the \"o\" sound in the Anglo-Saxon system is now expressed by \"ōs\" ᚩ, a derivation of the old Ansuz rune; the odal rune is now known as \"ēðel\" (with umlaut due to the form \"ōþila-\") and is used to express an \"œ\" sound, but is attested only rarely in epigraphy (outside of simply appearing in a futhark row). Epigraphical attestations include: The Anglo-Saxon rune poem preserves the meaning \"an inherited estate\" for the rune name:", "", "The rendition of the Odal rune with \"wings\" or \"feet\" (serifs) was the emblem of \"ethnic Germans\" (\"\") of the 7th SS Volunteer Mountain Division Prinz Eugen operating during World War II in the Nazi Germany-sponsored Independent State of Croatia. This rendition has been used by the Neo-Nazi in Germany, and in South Africa by the Anglo-Afrikaner Bond, the, the, and the Italian neo-fascist group National Vanguard. This particular rendition has no historical significance outside of Nazi Germany. Because of its Nazi associations, \"Strafgesetzbuch 86a\" bans any usage of the Odal rune as with most other symbols if used in a Neo-Nazi context. Another version with arrows on the end was used by the 23rd SS Volunteer Panzer Grenadier Division Nederland. Post war military usage was incorporated into the Bundeswehr with a stylized \"Othala rune\" being featured on the shoulder insignia of the Hauptfeldwebel with it also being used by the ranks succeeding it.", "It was used by the Afrikaner Student Federation and the far-right wing White Liberation Movement.", "In November 2016, the leadership of the National Socialist Movement announced their intention to replace the Nazi-pattern \"Hakenkreuz\" swastika with the Odal rune on their uniforms and party regalia in an attempt to enter mainstream politics.", "The symbol was used with the Black Sun/Sonnenrad/Schwarze Sonne, Tyr rune, Celtic Cross, Kolovrat swastika, the neo-Nazi slogan Fourteen Words and Archangel Michael's Cross of the Romanian fascist group Iron Guard by the Christchurch mosque shooter Brenton Harrison Tarrant.", "The rendition of the Othala rune both with and without feet/wings (serifs) is used by Odinists and Asatruar interchangeably, usually without any relation to National Socialism or the Völkisch movement.", "The Odal rune was used as one of the protection runes of the Shadowhunters in the film adaptation of the first in the series of Cassandra Clare books City of Bones. It was shown prominently on the character poster for Izzy, who wears it on her collarbone. It was also used throughout promotional material to highlight the stories themes of family and inheritance. An instrumental track on Agalloch's second album, The Mantle, is called \"Odal\". The 8th track of Wardruna's third album, Runaljod - Ragnarok, is called \"Odal\". The song ends with a long pronunciation of the name. In April 2014, the British Topman clothing company were forced to apologize after using the Nazi version with wings/feet in one of their clothing lines. The television show \"Sleepy Hollow\" used the version with wings/feet in season 3, calling it the emblem of Thura. The superhero web serial \"Worm\" features a white supremacist supervillain called Othala, who wears the rune (with serifs) as her emblem. In the second book in the Magnus Chase and the Gods of Asgard series by Rick Riordan, the Othala rune is translated as “inheritance.” This is particularly significant to Hearthstone, representing his brother’s death and his abuse at the hands of his father." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Career in aviation.", "Yachting.", "Personal life.", "Tributes." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Sopwith was born in Kensington, London on 18 January 1888. He was the eighth child and only son of Thomas Sopwith (a civil engineer and managing director of the Spanish Lead Mines Company, Linares, Jaén, Spain) and his wife Lydia Gertrude née Messiter. He was a grandson of mining engineer Thomas Sopwith. He was educated at Cottesmore School in Hove and at Seafield Park engineering college in Hill Head. When he was ten years old, on 30 July 1898 whilst on a family holiday on the Isle of Lismore, near Oban in Scotland, a gun lying across young Thomas's knee went off, killing his father. This accident haunted Sopwith for the rest of his life. Sopwith was interested in motor cycles, and took part in the 100-mile Tricar trial in 1904 where he was one of four medal winners. He also tried hot air ballooning, his first ascent being in C.S. Rolls' balloon in June 1906. Together with Phil Paddon he bought his own hot air balloon from Short Brothers. For a while he was in business with Phil Paddon selling automobiles as Paddon & Sopwith, Albemarle Street, Piccadilly, London. In his youth, he was an expert ice skater and played in goal during Princes Ice Hockey Club's 1908 match with C. P. P. Paris and during the 1909–10 season. He was also a member of the Great Britain national ice hockey team that won the gold medal at the first European Championships in 1910.", "Sopwith became interested in flying after seeing John Moisant flying the first cross-Channel passenger flight. His first flight was with Gustave Blondeau in a Farman at Brooklands. He soon taught himself to fly on a Howard Wright Avis monoplane and took to the air on his own for the first time on 22 October 1910. He crashed after travelling about 300 yards (275 m), but soon improved, and on 22 November was awarded Royal Aero Club Aviation Certificate No. 31, flying a Howard Wright 1910 Biplane. On 18 December 1910, Sopwith won a £4000 prize for the longest flight from England to the Continent in a British-built aeroplane, flying 169 miles (272 km) in 3 hours 40 minutes. He used the winnings to set up the Sopwith School of Flying at Brooklands. In June 1912 Sopwith, along with Fred Sigrist and others, set up the Sopwith Aviation Company, initially at Brooklands. On 24 October 1912 using a Wright Model B completely rebuilt by Sopwith and fitted with an ABC 40 hp engine, Harry Hawker took the British Michelin Endurance prize with a flight of 8h 23m. Sopwith Aviation got its first military aircraft order in November 1912, and in December moved to larger premises in Kingston upon Thames. The company produced more than 18,000 World War I aircraft for the allied forces, including 5747 of the Sopwith Camel single-seat fighter. Sopwith was awarded the CBE in 1918. Bankrupted after the war by punitive anti-profiteering taxes, he re-entered the aviation business in 1920 with a new firm named after his chief engineer and test pilot, Harry Hawker. Sopwith became chairman of the new firm, Hawker Aircraft. He became a Knight Bachelor in 1953. After the nationalisation in 1977 of the aviation interests of what was by then Hawker Siddeley, he continued to work as a consultant to the company until 1980. In 1979, Sopwith was inducted into the International Air & Space Hall of Fame at the San Diego Air & Space Museum. His authorised biography is \"Pure Luck\" (2005) by Alan Bramson, with a foreword by the Prince of Wales (). Sir Thomas was interviewed on 8 November 1978 by the art historian Anna Malinovska. The interview is reproduced in \"Voices in Flight\", 2006. He was a member of the Air Squadron flying club.", "Sopwith challenged the America's Cup with his J-class yachts, \"Endeavour\", in 1934, and with \"Endeavour II\" in 1937. Both yachts were designed by Charles E. Nicholson. Sopwith funded, organised and helmed the yachts. He did not win the Cup but he became a Cup legend by nearly winning it in 1934. He was inducted into the America's Cup Hall of Fame in 1995. In 1927 Sopwith commissioned yacht builders Camper and Nicholsons to build a luxury motor yacht he named \"Vita\". She was sold in 1929 to Sir John Shelley-Rolls who renamed her \"Alastor\". During World War II the Royal Navy commandeered her to ferry provisions to Navy vessels moored at the entrance to Strangford Lough. In 1946 a fire gutted her and she sank in Ringhaddy Sound in Strangford Lough. In 1937 Sopwith received the yacht \"Philante\", also built for him by Camper and Nicholsons. During the War the ship was requisitioned by the Royal Navy and used as a convoy escort vessel, \"HMS Philante\". After the war the vessel was returned to Sopwith and he sold her to Norway in 1947, to be used as a royal yacht for the Norwegian king.", "Sopwith married Beatrice Hore-Ruthven (1871–1930) in 1914; they had no children. Beatrice was the daughter of Walter Hore-Ruthven, who in 1919 was created Baron Ruthven of Gowrie. After Beatrice's death, in 1932 he married Phyllis Brodie Gordon (1892–1978); their son Thomas Edward Brodie Sopwith had success in car racing. Sopwith's house in Mayfair, No. 46 Green Street, where he lived from 1934 until 1940, has a blue plaque. In 1940 he moved to Warfield Hall in Berkshire which he had acquired the previous year. Sopwith's 100th birthday was marked by a flypast of military aircraft over his home, Compton Manor in King's Somborne, Hampshire. He died in Hampshire on 27 January 1989, aged 101. His grave and that of his second wife Phyllis Brodie can be found in the grounds of the 11th-century All Saints Church at Little Somborne near Winchester.", "A bronze bust of Sopwith was unveiled by his son at Kingston Library, London, on 26 September 2014. The sculptor was Ambrose Barber, a former executive of Hawker. Earlier in the same year, a plaque was unveiled in Canbury Gardens in Kingston upon Thames by Sopwith's son commemorating the Sopwith aviation company. Sopwith Way in Kingston upon Thames was named after Thomas Sopwith and built on the site of his company's former factory. Sopwith Road, one of the roads built on the site of the former Heston Aerodrome, is also named after him." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Design.", "Reverse (common) side.", "Obverse (national) sides.", "Planned designs.", "Usage.", "Nicknames." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The coin dates from 2002, when euro coins and banknotes were introduced in the twelve-member eurozone and its related territories. Despite this, a few coins were issued beginning in 1999. The common side was designed by Luc Luycx, a Belgian artist who won a Europe-wide competition to design the new coins. The design of the 1 to 5 cent coins was intended to show the European Union's (EU) place in the world (relative to Africa and Asia) as opposed to the one and two euro coins showing the 15 states as one and the 10- to 50-cent coins showing separate EU states. The national sides, then 15 (eurozone + Monaco, San Marino and the Vatican who could mint their own) were each designed according to national competitions, though to specifications which applied to all coins, such as the requirement of including twelve stars (see euro coins for more). National designs were not allowed to change until the end of 2008, unless a monarch (whose portrait usually appears on the coins) died or abdicated. This happened in Monaco and the Vatican City, resulting in three new designs in circulation (the Vatican had an interim design until the new Pope was selected). National designs have seen some changes due to new rules stating that national designs should include the name of the issuing country (Finland and Belgium both do not show their name, and hence have made minor changes). As the EU's membership has since expanded (in 2004 and 2007), with further expansions envisaged, the common face of all euro coins from the value of 10 cents and above was redesigned in 2007 to show a new map. The 1- to 5-cent coins, however, did not change, as the highlighting of the old members over the globe was so faint it was not considered worth the cost. But new national coin designs were added in 2007 with the entry of Slovenia, in 2008 with Cyprus and Malta, in 2009 with Slovakia, in 2011 with Estonia, in 2014 with Latvia, and in 2015 with Lithuania.", "The coins are composed of copper-covered steel, with a diameter of 18.75 mm, a 1.67 mm thickness and a mass of 3.06 grams. The edges are smooth with a continuous groove running round the coin. This groove helps distinguish the 2-cent coin from the smooth 1- and 5-cent coins, as well as the U.S. penny, which has the same diameter. The coins have been used from 2002, though some are dated 1999 which is the year the euro was created as a currency, but not put into general circulation.", "The reverse was designed by Luc Luycx and displays a globe in the bottom right. The then-fifteen members of the EU are lightly highlighted and the northern half of Africa and the western half of Asia (including the Middle East) are shown. Six fine lines cut diagonally behind the globe from each side of the coin and have twelve stars at their ends (reflective of the flag of Europe). To the top left is a large number 2 followed, in smaller text, by the words \"Euro Cent\". The designer's initials, LL, appear to the right of the globe. Starting in 2017 coins from individual member states have started adjusting their common side design to a new version, identified by smaller and more rounded numeral \"2\" and longer lines outside of the stars at the coin's circumference.", "The obverse side of the coin depends on the issuing country. All have to include twelve stars (in most cases in a circle around the edge), the engraver's initials, and the year of issue. New designs also have to include the name or initials of the issuing country. The side cannot repeat the denomination of the coin unless the issuing country uses an alphabet other than Latin. (Currently this is true only of Greece, which engraves \"2 ΛΕΠΤΑ\" upon their coins in the Greek alphabet. Austria, which still shows the denomination in German, will have to change its design to comply; see below.)", "Austria, Germany and Greece will at some point need to update their designs to comply with guidelines requiring them to include the issuing state's name or initial, and to not repeat the denomination of the coin. In addition, there are several EU states that have not yet adopted the euro. Some of them have already agreed upon their coin designs, but it is not known exactly when they will adopt the currency, and hence these are not yet minted. See Enlargement of the eurozone for expected entry dates of these countries.", "The one- and two-cent coins were initially introduced in order to ensure that the introduction of the euro was not used as an excuse by retailers to heavily round up prices. However, due to the cost to business and the mints of maintaining a circulation of low value coins, Belgium, Finland, Ireland, Italy and the Netherlands round prices to the nearest five cents (Swedish rounding) for cash payments, producing only a handful of those coins for collectors rather than general circulation. Despite this, the coins are still legal tender and produced outside these states, so if a customer with a two-cent coin minted elsewhere wishes to pay with it, they may. The Dutch Bank calculated it would save $36 million a year by not using the smaller coins. Other countries such as Germany favoured retaining the coins due to their desire for €1.99 prices, which appear more attractive to the consumer than a €2 price. According to a Eurobarometer survey of EU citizens, 64% across the Eurozone want their removal with prices rounded; with over 70% in Belgium, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands and Slovakia. Only Portugal and Latvia had a plurality in favour of retaining the coins (49% against removal, 45–46% in favour).", "In Flemish, the one-, two- and five-cent coins have the nickname (copper), (redhead), or (little redhead) due to their colour." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Significance.", "Organisation.", "Events and joint ventures.", "Guest of honour, focus of interest.", "Controversy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Frankfurter Buchmesse, or Frankfurt Book Fair, has a tradition spanning more than 500 years. Before the advent of printed books the general trade fair in Frankfurt was the place for selling handwritten books, as early as the 12th century. A printers' and publishers' fair became established sometime in the decades after Johannes Gutenberg developed printing in movable letters in Mainz near Frankfurt; although no official founding date of the Frankfurt Book Fair is documented, it had definitely been established by 1462, the year that the printers Johann Fust and Peter Schöffer, who had taken over Gutenberg's printing operations after a legal dispute, moved their operations to Frankfurt. The fair became the primary point for book marketing, but also a hub for the diffusion of written texts. During the Reformation, the fair was attended by merchants testing the market for new books and by scholars looking for newly available scholarship. Until the end of the 17th century, the Frankfurter Buchmesse was the most important book fair in Europe. It was eclipsed in 1632 by the Leipzig Book Fair during the Enlightenment as a consequence of political and cultural developments. After World War II, the first book fair was held again in 1949 at the St. Paul's Church. Since then, it has regained its preeminent position.", "The Frankfurter Buchmesse is the world's largest trade fair for books, based both on the number of publishing companies represented, and the number of visitors. It is considered to be the most important book fair in the world for international deals and trading. It is a critical marketing event for launching books and to facilitate the negotiation of the international sale of rights and licences. Book publishing-, multimedia- and technology companies, as well as content providers from all over the world gather. Publishers, agents, booksellers, librarians, academics, illustrators, service providers, film producers, translators, professional and trade associations, institutions, artists, authors, antiquarians, software and multimedia suppliers all participate in the events. Visitors take the opportunity to obtain information about the publishing market, to network, and to do business.", "The fair is organised by Frankfurter Buchmesse GmbH, a subsidiary of the \"German Publishers and Booksellers Association\". The five-day annual event in mid-October is held at the Frankfurt Trade Fair grounds in Frankfurt am Main, Germany. The first three days are restricted exclusively to trade visitors; the general public can attend on the weekend, for a fee. In 2009, 7,314 exhibitors from some 100 countries presented over 400,000 books. Some 300,000 visitors attended the fair. In 2016, more than 10,000 journalists from 75 countries reported on the fair, which brought together 7,135 exhibitors from 106 countries, and more than 172,296 trade visitors.", "The Peace Prize of the German Book Trade has been awarded at the fair each year since 1950 during a ceremony in the Frankfurter Paulskirche. The fair awards the Bookseller/Diagram Prize for Oddest Title of the Year, humoring the book with the oddest title. Certain initiatives would not exist without the Frankfurter Buchmesse and are closely linked to its goals and, up to a point, management structure. On the occasion of the 1980 Fair, Litprom was founded - the Society for the Promotion of African, Asian and Latin American Literature. As a non profit association, it monitors literary trends and selects the best examples of creative writing from Africa, Asia and Latin America for translation into German. It promotes them in Germany, Switzerland and Austria by encouraging contacts between authors and publishers from the Third World and those in German-speaking countries. It serves as an information hub and clearing house about literature from Africa, Asia and Latin America, establishing a forum of debate about \"Third World\" literature. In 2006, Litcam, a campaign against illiteracy was founded. In this context, the 2007 Frankfurt Book Fair also started a short story project named \"Who's on the line? Call for free\" by and for people with migration background.", "Since 1976, a \"guest of honour\", or a focus of interest is named for the fair. A special literary programme is organised for the occasion (readings, arts exhibitions, public discussion panels, theatre productions, and radio and TV programmes). A special exhibition hall is set up for the guest country, and the major publishing houses are present at the fair.", "The 2007 fair attracted criticism from both the Spanish and German media. German news magazine \"Der Spiegel\" described it as \"closed-minded\" for its policy of not including the many Catalans who write in Spanish in its definition of Catalan literature. The decision to exclude any element of \"Spanishness\", defined as literature exclusively done in Spanish, from the fair was made in spite of the fact that the Spanish government contributed more than 6 million euros towards the cost of the fair." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Early implementations.", "Widespread deployment.", "Rendering and compatibility.", "Privacy concerns." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The first Web Mail implementation was developed at CERN in 1993 by Phillip Hallam-Baker as a test of the HTTP protocol stack, but was not developed further. In the next two years, however, several people produced working webmail applications. In Europe, there were three implementations, Søren Vejrum's \"WWW Mail\", Luca Manunza's \"WebMail\", and Remy Wetzels' \"WebMail\". Søren Vejrum's \"WWW Mail\" was written when he was studying and working at the Copenhagen Business School in Denmark, and was released on February 28, 1995. Luca Manunza's \"WebMail\" was written while he was working at CRS4 in Sardinia, with the first source release on March 30, 1995. Remy Wetzels' \"WebMail\" was written while he was studying at the Eindhoven University of Technology in the Netherlands for the DSE and was released early January 1995. In the United States, Matt Mankins wrote \"Webex\", and Bill Fitler, while at, began working on an implementation which he demonstrated publicly at Lotusphere on January 24, 1995. Matt Mankins, under the supervision of Dr. Burt Rosenberg at the University of Miami, released his \"Webex\" application source code in a post to comp.mail.misc on August 8, 1995, although it had been in use as the primary email application at the School of Architecture where Mankins worked for some months prior. Bill Fitler's webmail implementation was further developed as a commercial product, which Lotus announced and released in the fall of 1995 as \"cc:Mail for the World Wide Web 1.0\"; thereby providing an alternative means of accessing a cc:Mail message store (the usual means being a cc:Mail desktop application that operated either via dialup or within the confines of a local area network). Early commercialization of webmail was also achieved when \"Webex\" began to be sold by Mankins' company, DotShop, Inc., at the end of 1995. Within DotShop, \"Webex\" changed its name to \"EMUmail\"; which would be sold to companies like UPS and Rackspace until its sale to Accurev in 2001. EMUmail was one of the first applications to feature a free version that included embedded advertising, as well as a licensed version that did not. Hotmail and Four11's RocketMail both launched in 1996 as free services and immediately became very popular.", "As the 1990s progressed, and into the 2000s, it became more common for the general public to have access to webmail because: In some cases, webmail application software is developed in-house by the organizations running and managing the application, and in some cases it is obtained from software companies that develop and sell such applications, usually as part of an integrated mail server package (an early example being Netscape Messaging Server). The market for webmail application software has continued into the 2010s.", "Email users may find the use of both a webmail client and a desktop client using the POP3 protocol presents some difficulties. For example, email messages that are downloaded by the desktop client and are removed from the server will no longer be available on the webmail client. The user is limited to previewing messages using the web client before they are downloaded by the desktop email client. However, one may choose to leave the emails on the server, in which case this problem does not occur. The use of both a webmail client and a desktop client using the IMAP4 protocol allows the contents of the mailbox to be consistently displayed in both the webmail and desktop clients and any action the user performs on messages in one interface will be reflected when email is accessed via the other interface. There are significant differences in rendering capabilities for many popular webmail services such as Gmail, Outlook.com and Yahoo! Mail. Due to the varying treatment of HTML tags, such as <style> and <head>, as well as CSS rendering inconsistencies, email marketing companies rely on older web development techniques to send cross-platform mail. This usually means a greater reliance on tables and inline stylesheets. Microsoft Windows applications by default create email messages via MAPI. Several vendors produce tools to provide a MAPI interface to webmail.", "Although emails stored unencrypted on any service provider's servers can be read by that service provider, specific concerns have been raised regarding webmail services that automatically analyze the contents of users' emails for the purpose of targeted advertising. At least two such services, Gmail and Yahoo! Mail, give users the option to opt out of targeted advertising. Webmail that is accessed over unsecured HTTP may be readable by a third party who has access to the data transmission, such as over an unsecured Wi-Fi connection. This may be avoided by connecting to the webmail service via HTTPS, which encrypts the connection. Gmail has supported HTTPS since launch and in 2014 began requiring it for all webmail connections. Yahoo! Mail added the option to connect over HTTPS in 2013 and made HTTPS required in 2014." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Design.", "Reverse (common) side.", "Obverse (national) sides.", "Planned designs.", "Usage.", "Nicknames." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The coin dates from 2002, when euro coins and banknotes were introduced in the 12-member eurozone and its related territories. The common side was designed by Luc Luycx, a Belgian artist who won a Europe-wide competition to design the new coins. The design of the 1- to 5-cent coins was intended to show the European Union's (EU) place in the world (relative to Africa and Asia), as opposed to the one- and two-euro coins showing the 15 states as one and the 10- to 50-cent coins showing separate EU states. The national sides, then 15 (eurozone + Monaco, San Marino and the Vatican, who could mint their own), were each designed according to national competitions, though to specifications which applied to all coins, such as the requirement of including twelve stars (see euro coins for more). National designs were not allowed to change until the end of 2008, unless a monarch (whose portrait usually appears on the coins) dies or abdicates. This happened in Monaco and the Vatican City, resulting in three new designs in circulation (the Vatican had an interim design until the new Pope was selected). National designs have seen some changes due to new rules stating that national designs should include the name of the issuing country (Finland and Belgium both do not show their name, and hence have made minor changes). As the EU's membership has since expanded in 2004 and 2007, with further expansions envisaged, the common face of all euro coins from the value of 10 cents and above were redesigned in 2007 to show a new map. The 1- to 5-cent coins, however, did not change, as the highlighting of the old members over the globe was so faint it was not considered worth the cost. However, new national coin designs were added: in 2007 for Slovenia; in 2008 for Cyprus and Malta; in 2009 for Slovakia; in 2011 for Estonia; in 2014 for Latvia; and in 2015 for Lithuania.", "The coins are composed of copper-covered steel, with a diameter of 16.25 mm, a 1.67 mm thickness and a mass of 2.30 grams. The coins' edges are smooth. The coins have been used from 2002, though some are dated 1999 which is the year the euro was created as a currency, but not put into general circulation.", "The reverse was designed by Luc Luycx and displays a globe in the bottom right. The then-fifteen members of the EU are lightly highlighted and the northern half of Africa and the western half of Asia (including the Middle East) are shown. Six fine lines cut diagonally behind the globe from each side of the coin and have twelve stars at their ends (reflective of the flag of Europe). To the top left is a large number 1 followed, in smaller text, by the words \"EURO CENT\". The designer's initials, LL, appear to the right of the globe. Starting in 2017 coins from individual member states have started adjusting their common side design to a new version, identified by smaller and more rounded numeral \"1\" and longer lines outside of the stars at the coin's circumference.", "The obverse side of the coin depends on the issuing country. All have to include twelve stars (in most cases a circle around the edge), the engravers initials and the year of issue. New designs also have to include the name or initials of the issuing country. The side cannot repeat the denomination of the coin unless the issuing country uses an alphabet other than Latin (currently, Greece is the only such country, hence engraving \"1 ΛΕΠΤΟ\" upon its coins); Austria ignores this rule, engraving \"EIN EURO CENT\" on its coins.", "Austria, Germany and Greece will also at some point need to update their designs to comply with guidelines stating they must include the issuing state's name or initial, and not repeat the denomination of the coin. In addition, there are several EU states that have not yet adopted the euro, some of them have already agreed upon their coin designs; however, it is not known exactly when they will adopt the currency, and hence these are not yet minted. See enlargement of the Eurozone for expected entry dates of these countries.", "The one- and two-cent coins were initially introduced to ensure that the transition to the euro was not used as an excuse by retailers to heavily round up prices. However, due to the cost of maintaining a circulation of low-value coins by business and the mints, Belgium, Finland, Ireland, Italy and the Netherlands round prices to the nearest five cents (Swedish rounding) if paying by cash, while producing only a handful of those coins for collectors, rather than general circulation. Despite this, the coins are still legal tender and produced outside these states, so if customers with one-cent coins minted elsewhere wish to pay with them, they may. The Nederlandse Bank calculated it would save $36 million a year by not using the smaller coins. Other countries such as Germany favoured retaining the coins due to retailers' desire for €1.99 prices, which appear more attractive to the consumer than €2.00 (psychological pricing). According to a Eurobarometer survey of EU citizens, 64% across the Eurozone want their removal with prices rounded; with over 70% in Belgium, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands and Slovakia. Only Portugal and Latvia had a plurality in favour of retaining the coins (49% against removal, 45–46% in favour).", "In Flemish, the 1- to 5-cent coins have the nickname (copper), (redhead) or (little redhead) due to their colour. In Portugal, the 1-cent coin gained the nicknames (button), (bean) and (blacks) due to its small size, colour and value: instead of gambling with real money, buttons sometimes are used." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "World War II.", "Criteria.", "Appearance.", "DFC National Memorial Act.", "Notable recipients of the DFC.", "Astronauts." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "The first award of the Distinguished Flying Cross was made by President Calvin Coolidge on May 2, 1927, to ten aviators of the U.S. Army Air Corps who had participated in the Army Pan American Flight which took place from December 21, 1926, to May 2, 1927. Two of the airmen died in a mid-air collision trying to land at Buenos Aires on February 26, 1927, and received their awards posthumously. The award had only been authorized by Congress the previous year and no medals had yet been struck, so the Pan American airmen initially received only certificates. Among the ten airmen were Major Herbert Dargue, Captains Ira C. Eaker and Muir S. Fairchild, and 1st Lt. Ennis C. Whitehead. Charles Lindbergh received the first presentation of the actual medal about a month later from Coolidge during the Washington, D.C. homecoming reception on June 11, 1927, from his trans-Atlantic flight. The medal had hurriedly been struck and readied just for that occasion. The 1927 War Department General Order (G.O. 8) authorizing Lindbergh's DFC states that it was awarded by the President, while the General Order (G.O. 6) for the Pan American Flyers' DFC citation notes that the War Department awarded it \"by direction of the President.\" The first Distinguished Flying Cross to be awarded to a Naval aviator was received by Commander Richard E. Byrd, USN for his trans-Atlantic flight from June 29 to July 1, 1927, from New York City to the coast of France. Byrd and his pilot Machinist Floyd Bennett had already received the Medal of Honor for their historic flight to the North Pole on May 9, 1926. Numerous recipients of the medal earned greater fame in other occupations; a number of astronauts, actors, and politicians have been Distinguished Flying Cross recipients, including President George H. W. Bush. DFC awards can be retroactive to cover notable achievements back to the beginning of World War I. On February 23, 1929, Congress passed special legislation to allow the award of the DFC to the Wright brothers for their December 17, 1903, flight. Other civilians who have received the award include Wiley Post, Jacqueline Cochran, Roscoe Turner, Amelia Earhart, Glenn H. Curtiss, and Eugene Ely. Eventually, it was limited to military personnel by an Executive Order. Amelia Earhart became the first woman to receive the DFC on July 29, 1932, when it was presented to her by Vice President Charles Curtis in Los Angeles for her solo flight across the Atlantic Ocean earlier that year.", "During World War II, the medal's award criteria varied widely depending on the theater of operations, aerial combat that was engaged in, and the missions that were accomplished. In the Pacific, commissioned officers were often awarded the DFC, while enlisted men were given the Air Medal. In Europe, some crews received it for their overall performance through a tour of duty. The criteria used was however not consistent between commands or over time. Individual achievement could also result in the medal being awarded. For example, George McGovern received one for successfully completing a bombing mission after his aircraft lost an engine, and then landing it safely.", "The Distinguished Flying Cross was authorized by Section 12 of the United States Army Air Corps Act enacted by Congress on July 2, 1926, as amended by Executive Order 7786 on January 8, 1938. This act provided for award to any person who distinguishes himself \"by heroism or extraordinary achievement while participating in an aerial flight\" while serving in any capacity with the Air Corps.", "The Distinguished Flying Cross was designed by Elizabeth Will and Arthur E. DuBois. The medal is a bronze cross pattee, on whose obverse is superimposed a four-bladed propeller, 1 11/16 inches in width. Five rays extend from the reentrant angles, forming a one-inch square. The reverse is blank; it is suitable for engraving the recipient's name and rank. The cross is suspended from a rectangular bar. The suspension and service ribbon of the medal is 1 3/8 inches wide and consists of the following stripes: 3/32 inch Ultramarine Blue 67118; 9/64 inch White 67101; 11/32 inch Ultramarine Blue 67118; 3/64 inch White 67101; center stripe 3/32 inch Old Glory Red 67156; 3/64 inch White 67101; 11/32 inch Ultramarine Blue 67118; 9/64 inch White 67101; 3/32 inch Ultramarine Blue 67118. Additional awards of the Distinguished Flying Cross are shown with bronze or silver Oak Leaf Clusters for the Army and Air Force, and gold and silver Inch Stars for the Navy, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard. The Air Force, Navy, and Marine Corps may authorize the \"V\" device for wear on the DFC to denote valor in combat; Navy and Marine Corps, Combat \"V\". The Army does not authorize the \"V\" device to be worn on the DFC (even though the Army awards the DFC \"for single acts of heroism\" or \"extraordinary achievement\" while participating in aerial flight). The other services can also award the DFC for extraordinary achievement without the \"V\" device.", "In July 2014, the United States Senate passed the Distinguished Flying Cross National Memorial Act. The act was sponsored by Senator Barbara Boxer, to designate the Distinguished Flying Cross Memorial at March Field Air Museum adjacent to March Air Reserve Base in Riverside, California as a national memorial to recognize members of United States Armed Forces who have distinguished themselves by heroism in aerial flight. The act was signed into law by President Barack Obama on July 25, 2014.", "Note: the rank indicated is the highest held by the individual.", "Note: Although astronaut Neil Armstrong's achievements as an aviator and an astronaut more than exceeded the requirements for the DFC, he was a civilian for his entire career with NASA, requiring an act of Congress to award the medal." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Early history.", "Metal-cylinder rocket artillery.", "Congreve rockets.", "World War II.", "Post-World War II." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3" ], "content": [ "", "The use of rockets as some form of artillery dates back to medieval China where devices such as fire arrows were used (albeit mostly as a psychological weapon). Fire arrows were also used in multiple launch systems and transported via carts. Devices such as the Korean hwacha were able to fire hundreds of fire arrows simultaneously. The use of medieval rocket artillery was picked up by the invading Mongols and spread to the Ottoman Turks who in turn used them on the European battlefield. The use of war-rockets is well documented in Medieval Europe. In 1408 Duke John the Fearless of Burgundy used 300 incendiary rockets in the Battle of Othée. The city dwellers coped with this tactic by covering their roofs with dirt.", "The earliest successful utilization of metal-cylinder rocket artillery is associated with Kingdom of Mysore, South India. Tipu Sultan's father Hyder Ali successfully established the powerful Sultanate of Mysore and introduced the first iron-cased metal-cylinder rocket. The Mysorean rockets of this period were innovative, chiefly because of the use of iron tubes that tightly packed the gunpowder propellant; this enabled higher thrust and longer range for the missile (up to 2 km range). Tipu Sultan used them against the larger forces of the British East India Company during the Anglo-Mysore Wars especially during the Battle of Pollilur (1780). Although the rockets were quite primitive, they had a demoralizing effect on the enemy due to the noise and bursting light. According to Stephen Oliver Fought and John F. Guilmartin, Jr. in \"Encyclopædia Britannica\" (2008):", "The Indian Tipu Sultan's rocket experiences, including Munro's book of 1789, eventually led to the Royal Arsenal beginning a military rocket R&D program in 1801. Several rocket cases were collected from Mysore and sent to Britain for analysis. The development was chiefly the work of Col. (later Sir) William Congreve, son of the Comptroller of the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, London, who set on a vigorous research and development programme at the Arsenal's laboratory; after development work was complete, the rockets were manufactured in quantity further north, near Waltham Abbey, Essex. He was told that \"the British at Seringapatam had suffered more from the rockets than from the shells or any other weapon used by the enemy\". \"In at least one instance\", an eyewitness told Congreve, \"a single rocket had killed three men and badly wounded others\". It has been suggested that Congreve may have adapted iron-cased gunpowder rockets for use by the British military from prototypes created by the Irish nationalist Robert Emmet during Emmet's Rebellion in 1803. But this seems far less likely given the fact that the British had been exposed to Indian rockets since 1780 at the latest, and that a vast quantity of unused rockets and their construction equipment fell into British hands at the end of the Anglo-Mysore Wars in 1799, at least 4 years before Emmet's rockets. Congreve introduced a standardised formula for the making of gunpowder at Woolwich and introduced mechanical grinding mills to produce powder of uniform size and consistency. Machines were also employed to ensure the packing of the powder was perfectly uniform. His rockets were more elongated had a much larger payload and were mounted on sticks; this allowed them to be launched from the sea at a greater range. He also introduced shot into the payload that added shrapnel damage to the incendiary capability of the rocket. By 1805 he was able to introduce a comprehensive weapons system to the British Army. The rocket had a \"cylindro-conoidal\" warhead and were launched in pairs from half troughs on simple metal A-frames. The original rocket design had the guide pole side-mounted on the warhead, this was improved in 1815 with a base plate with a threaded hole. They could be fired up to two miles, the range being set by the degree of elevation of the launching frame, although at any range they were fairly inaccurate and had a tendency for premature explosion. They were as much a psychological weapon as a physical one, and they were rarely or never used except alongside other types of artillery. Congreve designed several different warhead sizes from. The type with a guide pole was the most widely used variant. Different warheads were used, including explosive, shrapnel and incendiary. They were manufactured at a special facility near the Waltham Abbey Royal Gunpowder Mills beside the River Lea in Essex. These rockets were used during the Napoleonic Wars against the city of Boulogne, and during the naval bombardment of Copenhagen, where over 25,000 rockets were launched causing severe incendiary damage to the city. The rockets were also adapted for the purpose of flares for signalling and battlefield illumination. Henry Trengrouse utilized the rocket in his life-saving apparatus, in which the rocket was launched at a shipwreck with an attached line to help rescue the victims. The Congreve rockets are also famous for inspiring the lawyer Francis Scott Key to pen the words the \"rockets' red glare\" in what became the US National Anthem during the War of 1812. After the rockets were successfully used during Napoleon's defeat at the Battle of Waterloo, various countries were quick to adopt the weapon and establish special rocket brigades. The British created the British Army Rocket Brigade in 1818, followed by the Austrian Army and the Russian Army. One persistent problem with the rockets was their lack of aerodynamic stability. The British engineer William Hale designed a rocket with a combination of tail fins and directed nozzles for the exhaust. This imparted a spin to the rocket during flight, which stabilized its trajectory and greatly improved its accuracy, although it did sacrifice somewhat of the maximum range. Hale rockets were enthusiastically adopted by the United States, and during the Mexican War in 1846 a volunteer brigade of rocketeers was pivotal in the surrender of Mexican forces at the Siege of Veracruz. By the late nineteenth century, due to improvements in the power and range of conventional artillery, the use of military rockets declined; they were finally used on a small scale by both sides during the American Civil War.", "Modern rocket artillery was first employed during World War II, in the form of the German Nebelwerfer family of rocket ordnance designs, and Soviet Katyusha-series. The Soviet Katyushas, nicknamed by German troops \"Stalin's Organ\" because of their visual resemblance to a church musical organ and alluding to the sound of the weapon's rockets, were mounted on trucks or light tanks, while the early German Nebelwerfer ordnance pieces were mounted on a small wheeled carriage which was light enough to be moved by several men and could easily be deployed nearly anywhere, while also being towed by most vehicles. The Germans also had self-propelled rocket artillery in the form of the Panzerwerfer and Wurfrahmen 40 which equipped half-track armoured fighting vehicles. An oddity in the subject of rocket artillery during this time was the German \"Sturmtiger\", a vehicle based on the Tiger I heavy tank chassis that was armed with a 380 mm rocket mortar. The Western Allies of World War II employed little rocket artillery. During later periods of the war, British and Canadian troops used the Land Mattress, a towed rocket launcher. The United States Army built and deployed a small number of turret-mounted T34 Calliope and T40 Whizbang rocket artillery tanks (converted from M4 Sherman medium tanks) in France and Italy. In 1945, the British Army also fitted some M4 Shermans with two 60 lb RP3 rockets, the same as used on ground attack aircraft and known as \"\"Tulip\"\". In the Pacific, however, the US Navy made heavy use of rocket artillery on their LSM(R) transports, adding to the already intense bombardment by the guns of heavy warships to soften up Japanese-held islands before the US Marines would land. On Iwo Jima, the Marines made use of rocket artillery trucks in a similar fashion as the Soviet Katyusha, but on a smaller scale. The Japanese Imperial Army deployed the naval Type 4 20 cm (8 in) Rocket Launcher and army Type 4 40 cm (16 in) Rocket Launcher against the United States Marines and Army troops at Iwo Jima and Okinawa, and United States Army troops during the Battle of Luzon. Their deployment was limited relative to other mortar types and the projectiles on the 40 cm launcher were so large and heavy that they had to be loaded using small hand-operated cranes, but they were extremely accurate and had a pronounced psychological effect on opposing troops, who called them \"Screaming Mimis\", a nickname originally applied to the German Nebelwerfer tube-launched rocket mortar series in the European Theater of Operations. They were often used at night to conceal their launching sites and increase their disruptiveness and psychological effectiveness. The Japanese 20 cm rockets were launched from tubes or launching troughs, while the larger rockets were launched from steel ramps reinforced with wooden monopods. The Japanese also deployed a limited number of 447mm rocket launchers, termed 45 cm Rocket Mortars by United States personnel who test-fired them at the close of the war. Their projectiles consisted of a 1,500 lb cylinder filled with propellant and ballistite sticks detonated by black powder, which produced a blast crater approximately the size of an American 1,000 lb bomb. In effect, this made the 447mm projectile a type of surface-to-surface barrel bomb. While these latter weapons were captured at Luzon and proved effective in subsequent testing, it is not clear that they were ever used against American troops, in contrast to the more common 20 and 40 cm types, which clearly contributed to the 37,870 American casualties sustained at Luzon.", "Israel fitted some of their Sherman tanks with different rocket artillery. An unconventional Sherman conversion was the turretless Kilshon (\"Trident\") that launched an AGM-45 Shrike anti-radiation missile. The Soviet Union continued its development of the Katyusha during the Cold War, and also exported them widely. Modern rocket artillery such as the US M270 Multiple Launch Rocket System is highly mobile and are used in similar fashion to other self-propelled artillery. Global Positioning and Inertial Navigation terminal guidance systems have been introduced. During the Kargil war of 1999, Indian army pressed into service the Pinaka MBRL against Pakistani forces. The system was under development and still was able to successfully perform after which the Indian Army showed interest in inducting the system into service." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Overview.", "Characteristics.", "Through-hole technology.", "Surface-mount technology.", "Circuit properties of the PCB.", "Materials.", "RoHS compliant PCB.", "Laminates.", "Key substrate parameters.", "Common substrates.", "Copper thickness.", "Safety certification (US).", "Design.", "Manufacturing.", "PCB CAM.", "Panelization.", "Copper patterning.", "Subtractive, additive and semi-additive processes.", "Chemical etching.", "Lamination.", "Drilling.", "Plating and coating.", "Solder resist application.", "Silkscreen printing.", "Bare-board test.", "Assembly.", "Protection and packaging.", "Cordwood construction.", "Multiwire boards.", "History.", "See also." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "A basic PCB consists of a flat sheet of insulating material and a layer of copper foil, laminated to the substrate. Chemical etching divides the copper into separate conducting lines called tracks or \"circuit traces\", pads for connections, vias to pass connections between layers of copper, and features such as solid conductive areas for electromagnetic shielding or other purposes. The tracks function as wires fixed in place, and are insulated from each other by air and the board substrate material. The surface of a PCB may have a coating that protects the copper from corrosion and reduces the chances of solder shorts between traces or undesired electrical contact with stray bare wires. For its function in helping to prevent solder shorts, the coating is called solder resist or solder mask. A printed circuit board can have multiple copper layers. A two-layer board has copper on both sides; multi layer boards sandwich additional copper layers between layers of insulating material. Conductors on different layers are connected with vias, which are copper-plated holes that function as electrical tunnels through the insulating substrate. Through-hole component leads sometimes also effectively function as vias. After two-layer PCBs, the next step up is usually four-layer. Often two layers are dedicated as power supply and ground planes, and the other two are used for signal wiring between components. \"Through hole\" components are mounted by their wire leads passing through the board and soldered to traces on the other side. \"Surface mount\" components are attached by their leads to copper traces on the same side of the board. A board may use both methods for mounting components. PCBs with only through-hole mounted components are now uncommon. Surface mounting is used", "", "The first PCBs used through-hole technology, mounting electronic components by leads inserted through holes on one side of the board and soldered onto copper traces on the other side. Boards may be single-sided, with an unplated component side, or more compact double-sided boards, with components soldered on both sides. Horizontal installation of through-hole parts with two axial leads (such as resistors, capacitors, and diodes) is done by bending the leads 90 degrees in the same direction, inserting the part in the board (often bending leads located", "Surface-mount technology emerged in the 1960s, gained momentum in the early 1980s and became widely used by the mid-1990s. Components were mechanically redesigned to have small metal tabs or end caps that could be soldered directly onto the PCB surface, instead of wire leads to pass through holes. Components became much smaller and component placement on both sides of the board became more common than with through-hole mounting, allowing much", "Each trace consists of a flat, narrow part of the copper foil that remains after etching. Its resistance, determined by its width, thickness, and length, must be sufficiently low for the current the conductor will carry. Power and ground traces may need to be wider than signal traces. In a multi-layer board one entire layer may be mostly solid copper to act as a ground plane", "", "The European Union bans the use of lead (among other heavy metals) in consumer items, a piece of legislature called the RoHS, for Restriction of Hazardous Substances, directive. PCBs to", "Laminates are manufactured by curing under pressure and temperature layers of cloth or paper with thermoset resin to form an integral final piece of uniform thickness. The size can be up to in width and length. Varying cloth weaves (threads per inch or cm), cloth thickness, and resin percentage are used to achieve the desired final thickness and dielectric characteristics. Available standard laminate thickness are listed in ANSI/IPC-D-275. The cloth or fiber material used, resin material, and the cloth to resin ratio determine the laminate's type designation (FR-4, CEM-1, G-10, etc.) and therefore the characteristics of the laminate produced. Important characteristics are the level to which the laminate is fire retardant, the dielectric constant (e), the loss factor (tδ), the tensile strength, the shear strength, the glass transition temperature (T), and", "The circuitboard substrates are usually dielectric composite materials. The composites contain a matrix (usually an epoxy resin) and a reinforcement (usually a woven, sometimes nonwoven, glass fibers, sometimes even paper), and in some cases a filler is added to the resin (e.g. ceramics; titanate ceramics can be used to increase the dielectric constant). The reinforcement type defines two major classes of materials: woven and non-woven. Woven reinforcements are cheaper, but the high dielectric constant of glass may not be favorable for many higher-frequency applications. The spatially nonhomogeneous structure also introduces local variations in electrical parameters,", "Often encountered materials:", "Copper thickness of PCBs can be specified directly or as the weight of copper per area (in ounce per square foot) which is easier to measure. One ounce per square foot is 1.344 mils or 34 micrometers thickness. \"Heavy copper\" is a layer exceeding three ounces of copper per ft, or approximately 0.0042 inches (4.2 mils, 105 μm) thick.", "Safety Standard UL 796 covers component safety requirements for printed wiring boards for use as components in devices or appliances. Testing analyzes characteristics such as flammability, maximum operating temperature, electrical tracking, heat deflection, and direct support of live electrical parts.", "Initially PCBs were designed manually by creating a photomask on a clear mylar sheet, usually at two or four times the true size. Starting from the schematic diagram the component pin pads were laid out on the mylar and then", "PCB manufacturing consists of many steps.", "Manufacturing starts from the fabrication data generated by computer aided design, and", "Several small printed circuit boards can be grouped together for processing as a panel. A panel consisting of a design duplicated \"n\"-times is also called an \"n\"-panel, whereas a \"multi-panel\" combines several different designs onto a single panel. The outer tooling strip often includes tooling holes, a set of panel fiducials, a test coupon, and may include hatched copper pour or similar patterns for even copper distribution over the whole panel in order to avoid bending. The assemblers", "The first step is to replicate the pattern in the fabricator's CAM system on a protective mask on the copper foil PCB layers. Subsequent etching removes the unwanted", "Subtractive methods remove copper from an entirely copper-coated board to leave only the desired copper pattern. In additive methods the pattern is electroplated onto a bare substrate using a complex process. The advantage of the additive method is that less material is needed and less waste is produced. In the full additive process the bare laminate is covered with a photosensitive film which is imaged (exposed to light through a mask and then developed which removes the unexposed film). The exposed areas are sensitized in a chemical bath, usually containing palladium and similar to that used for through hole plating which makes the exposed area capable of bonding metal ions. The", "Chemical etching is usually done with ammonium persulfate or ferric chloride. For PTH (plated-through holes), additional steps of electroless deposition are done after the holes are drilled, then copper is electroplated to build up the thickness, the boards are screened, and plated with tin/lead. The tin/lead becomes the resist leaving the bare copper to be etched away. The simplest method, used for small-scale production and often by hobbyists, is immersion etching, in which the board is submerged in etching solution such as ferric chloride. Compared with methods used for mass production, the etching time is long. Heat and agitation can be applied to the bath to speed the etching rate. In bubble etching, air is passed through the etchant bath to agitate the solution and speed up etching. Splash etching uses a motor-driven paddle to", "Multi-layer printed circuit boards have trace layers inside the board. This is achieved by laminating a stack of materials in a press by applying pressure and heat for a period of time. This results in an inseparable one piece product. For example, a four-layer PCB can be fabricated by starting from a two-sided copper-clad laminate, etch the circuitry on both sides, then laminate to the top", "Holes through a PCB are typically drilled with drill bits made of solid coated tungsten carbide. Coated tungsten carbide is used because board materials are abrasive. High-speed-steel bits would dull quickly, tearing the copper and ruining the board. Drilling is done by computer-controlled drilling machines, using a \"drill file\" or Excellon file that describes the location and size of each drilled hole. Holes may be made conductive, by electroplating or inserting hollow metal eyelets, to connect board layers. Some conductive holes are intended for the insertion of through-hole-component leads. Others used to connect board layers, are called vias. When vias with a diameter smaller than 76.2 micrometers are required, drilling with mechanical bits is impossible because of high rates of wear and breakage. In this case, the vias may be laser drilled—evaporated by lasers. Laser-drilled vias typically have an inferior surface finish inside the hole. These holes are called \"micro vias\" and can have diameters as small as", "Proper plating or surface finish selection can be critical to process yield, the amount of rework, field failure rate, and reliability. PCBs are plated with solder, tin, or gold over nickel and a resist for etching away the unneeded underlying copper. After PCBs are etched and then rinsed with water, the solder mask is applied, and then any exposed copper is coated with solder, nickel/gold, or some other anti-corrosion coating. Matte solder is usually fused to provide a better bonding surface for bare copper. Treatments, such as benzimidazolethiol, prevent surface oxidation of bare copper. The places to which components will be mounted are typically plated, because untreated bare copper oxidizes quickly, and therefore is not readily solderable. Traditionally, any exposed copper was coated with solder by hot air solder levelling (HASL). The HASL finish prevents oxidation from the underlying copper, thereby guaranteeing a solderable surface. This solder was a tin-lead alloy, however new solder compounds are now used to achieve compliance with the RoHS directive in the EU, which restricts the use of lead. One of", "Areas that should not be soldered may be covered with solder resist (solder mask). One of the most common solder resists used today is called \"LPI\" (liquid photoimageable solder mask). A photo-sensitive coating is applied to the surface of the PWB, then exposed to light through the solder mask image film, and finally developed", "A legend is often printed on one or both sides of the PCB. It contains the component designators,", "Boards with no components installed are usually \"bare-board tested\" for \"shorts\" and \"opens\". This is called \"electrical test\" or \"PCB e-test\". A short is a connection between two points that should not be connected. An open is a missing connection between points that should be connected. For high-volume production, a fixture or a rigid needle adapter makes contact with copper lands on the board. The", "In assembly the bare board is populated (or \"stuffed\") with electronic components to form a functional \"printed circuit assembly\" (PCA), sometimes called a \"printed circuit board assembly\" (PCBA). In through-hole technology, the component leads are inserted in holes surrounded by conductive \"pads\"; the holes keep the components in place. In surface-mount technology (SMT), the component is placed on the PCB so that the pins line up with the conductive \"pads\" or \"lands\" on the surfaces of the PCB; solder paste, which was previously applied to the pads, holds the components in place temporarily; if surface-mount components", "PCBs intended for extreme environments often have a conformal coating, which is applied by dipping or spraying after the components have been soldered. The coat prevents corrosion and leakage currents or shorting due to condensation. The earliest conformal coats were wax; modern conformal coats are usually dips of dilute solutions of silicone rubber, polyurethane, acrylic, or epoxy. Another technique for applying a conformal coating is for plastic to be sputtered onto the PCB in a vacuum chamber. The chief disadvantage of conformal coatings is that servicing", "Cordwood construction can save significant space and was often used with wire-ended components in applications where space was at a premium (such as fuzes, missile guidance, and telemetry systems) and in high-speed computers, where short traces were important. In cordwood construction, axial-leaded components were mounted between two parallel planes. The components were either soldered together with jumper wire, or they were connected to other components by thin nickel ribbon welded at right angles onto the component leads. To avoid shorting together different interconnection layers, thin insulating cards were placed between them. Perforations or holes in the cards allowed component leads to project through to the next interconnection", "Multiwire is a patented technique of interconnection which uses machine-routed insulated wires embedded in a non-conducting matrix (often plastic resin). It was used during the 1980s and 1990s. (Kollmorgen Technologies Corp, filed 1978) As of 2010, Multiwire was still available through Hitachi. Since it was quite easy to stack interconnections (wires) inside the embedding matrix, the approach allowed designers to forget completely about the routing of wires (usually a time-consuming operation", "Before the development of printed circuit boards, electrical and electronic circuits were wired point-to-point on a chassis. Typically, the chassis was a sheet metal frame or pan, sometimes with a wooden bottom. Components were attached to the chassis, usually by insulators when the connecting point on the chassis was metal, and then their leads were connected directly or with jumper wires by soldering, or sometimes using crimp connectors, wire connector lugs on screw terminals, or other methods. Circuits were large, bulky, heavy, and relatively fragile (even discounting the breakable glass envelopes of the vacuum tubes that were often included in the circuits), and production was labor-intensive, so the products were expensive. Development of the methods used in modern printed circuit boards started early in the 20th century. In 1903, a German inventor, Albert Hanson, described flat foil conductors laminated to an insulating board, in multiple layers. Thomas Edison experimented with chemical methods of plating conductors onto linen paper in 1904. Arthur Berry in 1913 patented a print-and-etch method in the UK, and in the United States Max Schoop obtained a patent to flame-spray metal onto a board through a patterned mask. Charles Ducas in 1927 patented a method of electroplating circuit patterns. The Austrian engineer Paul Eisler invented the printed circuit as part of a radio set while working in the UK around 1936. In 1941 a multi-layer printed circuit was used in German magnetic influence naval mines. Around 1943 the USA began to use the technology on a large scale to make proximity fuzes for use in World War II. After the war, in 1948, the USA released the invention for commercial use. Printed circuits did not become commonplace in consumer electronics until the mid-1950s, after the \"Auto-Sembly\" process was developed by the United States Army. At around the same time in the UK work along similar lines was carried out by Geoffrey Dummer, then at the RRDE. Even as circuit boards became available, the point-to-point chassis construction method remained in common use in industry (such as TV and hi-fi sets) into at least the late 1960s. Printed circuit boards were introduced to reduce the size, weight, and cost of parts of the circuitry. In 1960, a small consumer radio receiver might be built with all its circuitry on one circuit board, but a TV set would probably contain one or more circuit boards Predating the printed circuit invention, and similar in spirit, was John Sargrove's 1936–1947 Electronic Circuit Making Equipment (ECME) which sprayed metal onto a Bakelite plastic board. The ECME could produce three radio boards per minute. During World War II, the development of the anti-aircraft proximity fuse", "PCB materials PCB layout software" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "1932–1938: People's Car Nazi project.", "1945–1948: British Army intervention, unclear future.", "1948–1961: Icon of post war West Germany.", "1961–1973: Beetle to Golf.", "1974–1990: Product line expansion.", "1991–1999.", "2000–2016: Further expansion.", "2017–present: Focus on electric vehicles.", "Operations.", "Worldwide presence.", "Work–life balance.", "Relationship with Porsche and the Volkswagen Law.", "AutoMuseum.", "Current models.", "Chinese models.", "GTI models.", "Electric models.", "GTE models.", "e-models.", "R models.", "Electric and alternative fuel vehicles.", "Pure ethanol vehicles.", "Flexible-fuel vehicles.", "Hybrid vehicles.", "Plug-in electric vehicles.", "Controversy.", "Environmental record.", "US diesel emission fraud.", "Canadian emissions charges.", "Collaboration with dictatorship.", "CEO use of Nazi slogan.", "Racist Commercial.", "Awards." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Volkswagen was established in 1937 by the German Labor Front (Deutsche Arbeitsfront) in Berlin. In the early 1930s, cars were a luxury: most Germans could afford nothing more elaborate than a motorcycle. Only one German out of 50 owned a car. Seeking a potential new market, some car makers began independent \"people's car\" projects – the Mercedes 170H, Adler AutoBahn, Steyr 55, and Hanomag 1.3L, among others. The trend was not new, as Béla Barényi is credited with having conceived the basic design in the mid-1920s. Josef Ganz developed the Standard Superior (going as far as advertising it as the \"German Volkswagen\"). In Germany, the company Hanomag mass-produced the 2/10 PS \"Kommissbrot\", a small, cheap rear-engined car, from 1925 to 1928. Also, in Czechoslovakia, the Hans Ledwinka's penned Tatra T77, a", "The company owes its post-war existence largely to one man, wartime British Army officer Major Ivan Hirst, REME. In April 1945, KdF-Stadt and its heavily bombed factory were captured by the Americans and subsequently handed over to the British, within whose occupation zone the town and factory fell. The factories were placed under the control of Saddleworth-born Hirst, by then a civilian Military Governor with the occupying forces. At first, one plan was to use it for military vehicle maintenance, and possibly dismantle and ship it to Britain. Since it had been used for military production, (though not of KdF-Wagens) and had been in Hirst's words, a \"political animal\" rather than a commercial enterprise – technically making it liable for destruction under the terms of the", "From 1948, Volkswagen became an important element, symbolically and economically, of West German regeneration. Heinrich Nordhoff (1899–1968), a former senior manager at Opel who had overseen civilian and military vehicle production in the 1930s and 1940s, was recruited to run the factory in 1948. In 1949, Major Hirst left the company—now re-formed as a trust controlled by the West German government and government of the State of Lower Saxony. The \"Beetle\" sedan or \"peoples' car\" Volkswagen is the Type 1. Apart from the introduction of the Volkswagen Type 2 commercial vehicle (van, pick-up, and camper), and the VW Karmann Ghia sports car, Nordhoff pursued the one-model policy until shortly before his death in 1968. Volkswagens were first exhibited and sold in the United States in 1949 but sold only", "The 1961 Type 1 Beetle had a 36 hp 1200cc four cylinder air-cooled flat-four opposed OHV engine made of aluminum alloy block and heads. By 1966, the Type 1 came with a 1300 engine. By 1967 the Type 1 had a 1500 engine, and 1600 in 1970. The air-cooled engine lost favor in the United States market with the advent of non-leaded gasoline and smog controls. These air-cooled engines were commonly tuned to be fuel-rich in order to control engine over-heating, and this led to excessive carbon monoxide emissions. VW Production equipment was eventually moved to Mexico where vehicle emissions were not regulated. Beetles were popular on the USA West Coast where the limited-capacity cabin heating was less inconvenient. Beetles were popularized on the USA West Coast as beach buggies and dune buggies. VW expanded its product line in 1961 with the introduction of four", "While Volkswagen's range of cars soon became similar to that of other large European automakers, the Golf has been the mainstay of the Volkswagen lineup since its introduction, and the mechanical basis for several other cars of the company. There have been eight generations of the Volkswagen Golf, the first of which was produced from the summer of 1974 until the autumn of 1983 (sold as the Rabbit in the United States and Canada and as the Caribe in Latin America). Its chassis also spawned the Volkswagen Scirocco sport coupe, Volkswagen Jetta saloon/sedan, Volkswagen Golf Cabriolet convertible, and Volkswagen Caddy pick-up. North American production of the Rabbit", "In 1991, Volkswagen launched the third-generation Golf, which was European Car of the Year for 1992. The Golf Mk3 and Jetta Mk3 arrived in North America in 1993. The sedan version of the Golf was badged Vento in Europe but remained Jetta in the United States. The Scirocco and the later Corrado were both Golf-based coupés. In 1994, Volkswagen unveiled the J Mays-designed Concept One, a \"retro\"-themed concept car with a resemblance to the original Beetle, based on the platform of the Polo. Due to a positive response to the concept, a production version was developed as the New Beetle, based on the Golf's larger", "Volkswagen began introducing an array of new models after Bernd Pischetsrieder became Volkswagen Group CEO (responsible for all Group brands) in 2002. The sixth-generation VW Golf was launched in 2008, came runner-up to the Opel/Vauxhall Insignia in the 2009 European Car of the Year, and has spawned several cousins: VW Jetta, VW Scirocco, SEAT León, SEAT Toledo, Škoda Octavia and Audi A3 hatchback ranges, as well as a new mini-MPV, the SEAT Altea. The GTI, a \"hot hatch\" performance version of the Golf, boasts a 2.0 L Turbocharged Fuel Stratified Injection (FSI) direct injection engine. VW began marketing the Golf under the Rabbit name once again in the U.S. and Canada in 2006. The sixth-generation Passat and the fifth-generation Jetta both debuted in 2005, and Volkswagen announced plans to expand its lineup further by bringing back the Scirocco by 2008. Other models in Wolfgang Bernhard's (Volkswagen brand CEO) \"product offensive\" include the Tiguan", "In 2017, Volkswagen announced plans to place a considerable focus on electric vehicles (EV), with a goal to, by 2025, launch at least 30 EV models, and have 20 to 25 percent of their total yearly sales volume (2-3 million) consist of EVs. In September, Volkswagen CEO Matthias Müller stated that the company aimed to have electric versions of all of its vehicle models by 2030, at a cost of 20 billion euro, and 50 billion euro on acquisition of batteries. Volkswagen returned to motorsport in 2018 by unveiling its all-electric I.D. R. At the Pikes Peak International Hill Climb, Romain Dumas set an all-time course record of just under eight minutes driving the I.D. R. In September 2018, Volkswagen announced that it", "Volkswagen is the founding and namesake member of the Volkswagen Group, a large international corporation in charge of multiple car and truck brands, including Audi, SEAT, Porsche, Lamborghini, Bentley, Bugatti, Scania, MAN, and Škoda. Volkswagen Group's global headquarters are located in Volkswagen's historic home of Wolfsburg, Germany. Volkswagen Group, as a unit, is Europe's largest automaker, with over 74000 employees and over 7700 dealerships.. For a long time, Volkswagen has had a market share over 20 percent. In 2010, Volkswagen posted record sales of 6.29 million vehicles, with its global market share at 11.4%. In 2008, Volkswagen became the third largest automaker in the world, and, as of 2016, Volkswagen was the second largest manufacturer worldwide. With strong headwinds reported in 2018, predominantly from trade tariffs and new emission standards, Volkswagen Group have limped to the 2018 finish line and astonishingly ended the year with record deliveries of 10.8m vehicles. Volkswagen Group's core markets include Germany and China. In July 2019, Volkswagen invested $2.6 billion in Argo AI, a startup focused on developing self-driving vehicles.", "Volkswagen has factories in many parts of the world, manufacturing or assembling vehicles for local markets. In addition to plants in Germany, Volkswagen has manufacturing or assembly facilities in Mexico, the United States, Slovakia, China, India, Indonesia, Russia, Malaysia, Brazil, Argentina, Portugal, Spain, Poland, the Czech Republic, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kenya and South Africa. In 2011, Volkswagen was named in the top 25 largest companies in the world by the", "Volkswagen agreed in December 2011 to implement a rule passed by the company's works council aimed at improving work–life balance and avoiding burnout by", "Volkswagen has always had a close relationship with Porsche, the Zuffenhausen-based sports car manufacturer founded in 1931 by Ferdinand Porsche, the original Volkswagen designer and Volkswagen company co-founder, hired by Adolf Hitler for the project. The first Porsche car, the Porsche 64 of 1938, used many components from the Volkswagen Beetle. The 1948 Porsche 356 continued using many Volkswagen components, including a tuned engine, gearbox and suspension. The two companies continued their collaboration in 1969 to make the VW-Porsche 914 and Porsche 914-6. (The 914-6 had a 6-cylinder Porsche engine, and the standard 914 had a Volkswagen engine.) Volkswagen and Porsche would collaborate again in 1976 on the Porsche 912-E (the USA only) and the Porsche 924, which used many Audi components and", "Since 1985, Volkswagen has run the Volkswagen AutoMuseum in Wolfsburg, a museum dedicated specifically to the history of Volkswagen. In addition to visiting exhibits in person, owners", "", "Manufactured by Shanghai Volkswagen", "The performance Grand Turismo Injection models. It indicates it has a direct fuel", "", "GTE are plug-in hybrid electric vehicles. The GTE's engine,", "VW e-models are all-electric vehicles.", "R models are", "", "Volkswagen do Brasil produced and sold pure ethanol-powered (E100 only) vehicles in Brazil, and production was discontinued only after they were supplanted by more modern Flex Fuel technology. As a response to the 1973 oil crisis, the Brazilian government began promoting bioethanol as a fuel, and the National Alcohol Program -\"Pró-Álcool\"- () was launched in 1975. Compelled by the 1979 energy crisis, and after development and testing with government fleets by the CTA at São José dos Campos, and further testing of several prototypes developed by the four local carmakers, including Volkswagen do Brasil, pure ethanol vehicles were launched in the Brazilian market. Gasoline engines were", "The 2003 VW Gol 1.6 Total Flex was the first full flexible-fuel vehicle launched in Brazil, capable of running on any blend of gasoline and E100. In March of that year, on its fiftieth anniversary, Volkswagen do Brasil launched in the local market the Gol 1.6 Total Flex, the first Brazilian commercial flexible fuel vehicle capable of running on any mix of E20-E25 gasoline and up to 100% hydrous ethanol fuel (E100). After the pure ethanol fiasco, consumer confidence in ethanol-powered vehicles was restored, allowing a rapid adoption of the flex technology. This was facilitated by the fuel distribution infrastructure already in place", "Volkswagen and Sanyo have teamed up to develop a battery system for hybrid cars. Volkswagen head Martin Winterkorn has confirmed the company plans to build compact hybrid electric vehicles. He has stated \"There will definitely be compact hybrid models, such as Polo and Golf, and without any great delay\", with gasoline and diesel power. For example, Golf is the ideal model to go hybrid as the Golf 1.4 TSI was recently awarded the \"Auto Environment Certificate\" by the Oko-Trend Institute for Environmental Research, and was considered as one of the most environmentally friendly vehicles of 2007. Also underway at Volkswagen's Braunschweig R&D facilities in Northern Germany is", "In November 2009, Volkswagen announced it has hired Karl-Thomas Neumann as its group chief officer for electric traction. VW's Chief of research, Jürgen Leohold, said in 2010 the company has concluded hydrogen fuel-cell cars are not a viable option. , the Volkswagen Group offers for retails customers nine plug-in electric cars, of which, three are all-electric cars: the Volkswagen e-Up!, e-Golf and Audi R8 e-tron, and six are plug-in hybrids: the Volkswagen Golf GTE, Passat GTE, Audi A3 Sportback e-tron, Q7 e-tron quattro, Porsche Panamera S E-Hybrid and Cayenne S E-Hybrid. Also two limited production plug-in hybrids were manufactured beginning in 2013, the Volkswagen XL1 (250 units) and the Porsche 918 Spyder (918 units). Total cumulative sales of all Volkswagen brand electrified cars since the start of their respective production is expected to reach about 103,000 by the end of 2016.", "", "In 1974 Volkswagen paid a $120,000 fine to settle a complaint filed by the Environmental Protection Agency over the use of so-called \"defeat devices\" that disabled certain pollution-control systems. The complaint said the use of the devices violated the U.S. Clean Air Act. In 1996, Volkswagen first implemented its seven environmental goals in Technical Development with themes involving climate protection, resource conservation, and healthcare, through objectives such as reducing greenhouse emissions and fuel consumption, enabling alternative fuels, and avoiding hazardous materials. The goals have been revised in 2002 and 2007. Volkswagen was the first car", "On 18 September 2015, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) said beginning in 2008 the automaker improperly installed engine control unit (ECU) software determined to be a \"defeat device\", in violation of the Clean Air Act, to circumvent environmental regulations of NO emissions by diesel engine 2009–2015 model year Volkswagen and Audi cars. The software detects when the cars were being subject to emissions testing, and then fully enabled ECU emission controls to successfully pass. However, during normal driving conditions, emission control software was shut off in order to attain greater fuel economy and additional power, resulting in as much as 40 times more pollution than allowed by law. \"Consumer Reports\" tested a 2011 Jetta SportWagen TDI and found in emissions mode its 0–60 mph time increased by 0.6 seconds and its highway fuel economy dropped from 50 mpg to 46 mpg. Volkswagen admitted to using the defeat device, and has been ordered to recall approximately 482,000 cars with four-cylinder 2.0-liter TDI engines. United States federal penalties may include fines ranging up to US$18billion, and possibly criminal charges. On 28 June 2016, Volkswagen agreed to pay a settlement of $15.3 billion, the largest auto-related consumer class-action lawsuit in the United States history. In May 2014, the EPA was first alerted to the issue by the International Council on Clean Transportation (ICCT), reporting results of research commissioned for them by West Virginia University's Center for Alternative Fuels, Engines and Emissions (CAFEE). After 15 months of denying the emissions control systems were deliberately gamed and instead claiming discrepancies due to \"technical\" reasons, on 21 August Volkswagen acknowledged to the EPA and California Air Resources Board (CARB) their emission controls systems were rigged. This was followed by a formal announcement of admission to regulators on 3 September which took place immediately after the EPA threatened to withhold approval for their 2016 cars. Volkswagen's initial public response came on 20 September, when a spokesman said they would stop all US", "On December 9, 2019, Environment and Climate Change Canada charged Volkswagen AG with importing nearly 128,000 cars into Canada", "In 2015, activists and former VW employees in Brazil spoke out in public accusing the company of being silent about the persecution", "In 2019 during an internal event with hundreds of managers the C.E.O, Herbert Diess, repeatedly said \"Ebit macht frei” or \"EBIT will", "In 2020 Volkswagen released commercial that contained references to colonialism and appeared to show a racial slur. When initially faced with", "Volkswagen was named the fourth most influential car of the 20th century in the 1999 Car of the Century competition, for its Volkswagen Type 1 'Beetle\" model. It trailed only the Ford Model T, BMC Mini, and Citroën DS. Volkswagen has produced four winners of the 50-year-old European Car of the Year award. Volkswagen has produced five winners of the United States Motor Trend Car of the Year award – the original Car of the Year designation, which began in 1949. Volkswagen has already produced four winners of the recently developed World Car of the Year award." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Structure.", "Carolingian Octagon (Palatine chapel).", "Geometry.", "Westwork.", "Choir.", "Side chapels.", "Notable items.", "Throne of Charlemagne.", "Marienschrein.", "Barbarossa chandelier.", "Ambon of Henry II. (Heinrichskanzel).", "Pala d'Oro.", "Treasury.", "Organs.", "Bells.", "Historical and religious significance.", "Final resting place of Charlemagne.", "Coronation church of German kings.", "Aachen pilgrimage.", "Influence.", "Legend.", "Miscellaneous." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Charlemagne began the construction of the Palatine Chapel around 796, along with the building of the rest of the palace structures. The construction is credited to Odo of Metz. The exact date of completion is unclear; however, a letter from Alcuin, in 798, states that it was nearing completion, and in 805, Leo III consecrated the finished chapel. A foundry was brought to Aachen near the end of the 8th century and was utilized to cast multiple bronze pieces, from doors and the railings, to the horse and bear statues. Charlemagne was buried in the chapel in 814. It suffered a large amount of damage in a Viking raid in 881, and was restored in 983. After Frederick Barbarossa canonized Charlemagne, in 1165, the chapel became a draw for pilgrims. In order to sustain the enormous flow of pilgrims in the Gothic period a choir hall was built, in 1355, and a two-part Capella vitrea (glass chapel) which was consecrated on the 600th anniversary of Charlemagne's death. A cupola, several other chapels and a steeple were also constructed at later dates. It was restored again in 1881, when the Baroque stucco was removed. During World War II, Aachen, including its famed cathedral, was heavily damaged by Allied bombing attacks and artillery fire, but the cathedral's basic structure survived. Many of the cathedral's artistic objects had been removed to secure storage during the war, and some which could not be moved were protected within the church itself. However, the glazing of the 14th-century choir hall, the Neo-Gothic altar, a large part of the cloister, and the Holiness Chapel (\"Heiligtumskapelle\") were irretrievably destroyed. Reconstruction and restoration took place intermittently over more than 30 years, and cost an estimated 40 million euros. In 1978, Aachen Cathedral was one of the first 12 items to be listed on the UNESCO list of world heritage sites.", "The cathedral uses two distinct architectural styles, with small portions of a third, First, the core of the cathedral is the Carolingian-Romanesque Palatine Chapel, which was modeled after San Vitale at Ravenna and is notably small in comparison to the later additions. Secondly, the choir was constructed in the Gothic style. Finally, there are portions that show Ottonian style, such as the area around the throne.", "The octagon in the centre of the cathedral was erected as the chapel of the Palace of Aachen between 796 and 805 on the model of other contemporary Byzantine buildings (e.g. the Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna and the Little Hagia Sophia in Constantinople). The architect was Odo of Metz, and the original design was of a domed octagonal inner room enveloped by a 16 sided outer wall. The span and height of Charlemagne's Palatine chapel was unsurpassed north of the Alps for over two hundred years. The Palatine chapel consisted of a high octagonal room with a two-story circuit below. The inner octagon, with a diameter of, is made up of strong piers, on which an octagonal cloister vault lies, covering the central room. Around this inner octagon is a sixteen sided circuit of low groin vaults, supporting a high gallery above. This upper story was known as the \"Hochmünster\" (high church). The arched openings of the lower story are only about half as high as those of the \"Hochmünster\", as a result of which the lower story looks stocky and bulky. The two floors are separated from each other by an expansive cornice. The high altar and Imperial throne are located on the upper circuit of the Palatine chapel in an octagonal side room, covered by a barrel vault lying on an angle. This area was connected with the palace by a passage. Above the arches of the gallery, an octagonal drum with window openings rises, on top of which is the cupola. On the east end was a small apse that protruded and was, in later years, replaced by the choir. Opposite of this, was the tiered entrance to the rest of the now defunct palace, Westwork. Light is brought in by a three tiered system of circular arched windows. The corners of the octagonal dome are joined with the walls with a system of paired pilasters with corinthian capitals. The upper gallery openings are divided by a grid of columns. These columns are ancient and come from St. Gereon in Cologne. Charlemagne allowed further spolia to be brought to Aachen from Rome and Ravenna at the end of the 8th century. In 1794, during the French occupation of the Rheinland, they were removed to Paris, but in 1815 up to half the pieces remaining in the Louvre were brought back to Aachen. In the 1840s they were restored to their original places once more and new columns of Odenberg granite were substituted for the missing columns. The interior walls were initially lined with a marble facade. The round arched openings in the upper floor in the side walls of the octagon, between the columns, in front of a mezzanine, are decorated with a metre-high railing of Carolingian bronze rails. These bronze rails were cast 1200 years ago in a single piece according to Roman models. The original cupola mosaic was probably executed around 800 and known from Medieval sources depicted Christ as the triumphant lord of the world, surrounded by the symbols of the Four Evangelists, with the twenty-four elders from the Apocalypse of John offering their crowns to him. In 1880/1 it was recreated by the Venetian workshop of Antonio Salviati, according to the plans of the Belgian architect Jean-Baptiste de Béthune. The dome was intricately decorated with a mosaic tile. The exterior walls of the Carolingian octagon, made of quarry stone, is largely unjointed and lacks further ornamentation. The only exception is that the projections of the pillars of the cupola are crowned by antique capitals. Above the Carolingian masonry, there is a Romanesque series of arches above a late Roman gable. The Octagon is crowned by unusual baroque vents. Aachen Cathedral was plastered red in the time of Charlemagne, according to the most recent findings of the Rheinish Office for Monuments. This plaster was made longer-lasting through the addition of crushed red brick. The colour was probably also a reference to the imperial associations of the work.", "The question of which geometric concepts and basic dimensions lie at the basis of the chapel's construction is not entirely clear even today. Works of earlier cathedral architects mostly followed either the Drusian foot (334 mm) or the Roman foot (295.7 mm). However, these measurements require complex theories to explain the church's actual dimensions. In 2012, the architectural historian Ulrike Heckner proposed a theory of a new, hitherto unknown unit of measure of 322.4 mm, the so-called Carolingian foot, to which all other measurements in the Palatine chapel can be traced back. This measurement is referred to as the \"Aachener Königsfuß\" (Aachen royal foot), after the similarly sized Parisian royal foot (324.8 mm). Beyond this, there is a symbolic layer to the octagon. Eight was a symbol of the eighth day (Sunday as the sabbath) and therefore symbolised the Resurrection of Jesus Christ and the promise of eternal life. Likewise, ten, the number of perfection in Medieval architectural symbolism, is frequent in the Palatine Chapel: Its diameter (including the circuit surrounding the dome) measures a hundred Carolingian feet (i. e. ten by ten) – equivalent to the height of the dome.", "The westwork (western facade) of the cathedral is of Carolingian origin, flanked by two stair-towers. It is a two-story building, completed by a porch from the 18th century at the west end. The bronze leaves attached to this porch, the \"Wolfstür\" (Wolf's Door), weigh 43 hundredweight altogether (cf. with this the Lousberg saga). The main entrance to the cathedral, the door was cast in Aachen around 800 and was located between the westwork and the octagon in the so-called hexadecagon up to 1788. The portal was restored in 1924. Each leaf is divided into eight rectangles – a number which had religious symbolism in Christianity, as a symbol of Sunday, the day of the Resurrection of Jesus Christ and also of perfection (as did twelve, also) and can be found in the measurements of the Palatine Chapel over and over again. These boxes were framed by decorative strips, which are made of egg-shaped decorations. The egg was considered a symbol of life and fertility from antiquity. In Christian belief it was imbued with the even wider symbolism of Eternal Life. The door-rings in the shape of lions' heads are wreathed by 24 (i.e. two times twelve or three times eight) acanthus scrolls – again to be understood at the deepest level through numerology. The Wolfstür's imitation of the shape of the ancient Roman temple door signifies Charlemagne's claim, to have established a New Rome in Aachen with the Palatine Chapel as the distinctive monumental building. There were multiple sculptures, made of bronze, including an equestrian piece probably meant as a parallel of a statue of Marcus Aurelius in Rome. In the forehall, there is a bronze sculpture of a bear, which was probably made in the 10th century, i.e. in Ottonian times. Opposite it is a bronze pine cone with 129 perforated scales, which stands 91 cm high (including its base); its date is controversial and ranges from the 3rd to the 10th century. Its base is clearly Ottonian and includes an inscription written in Leonine hexameter, which refers to the Tigris and Euphrates rivers of Mesopotamia. According to one view, the pine cone would originally have served as a waterspout on a fountain and would have been placed in the atrium of the Palatine chapel in Carolingian times. The upper level is characterised by an exceptionally fine brick western wall. Inside, it bulges outward, while the outside bulges inwards, so that the Carolingian west wall can be seen as a convex-concave bulge. Before the construction of the porch in the 18th century, the Carolingian west facade, when seen from the Narthex, was particularly evocative: a large niche, topped by a semicircular arch in the western upper level corresponded to the semicircle of the barrel vault of the lower level. Today, the western wall is broken up by the large western window. The large window frame dates from the Gothic period and replaced a smaller window from Carolingian times, which was probably structured as a mullion (a double arch with a column in the centre). The modern window was designed by Ewald Mataré in 1956. Mataré's design imitates, however abstractly, the structure of the Carolingian bronze gate inside the dome. Bronze and unprocessed quartz form the window itself. The function of the upstairs part of the west facade is not entirely clear. The right of baptism (long reserved for the Collegiate Church of Mary) was at a baptismal font, which was behind the marble throne, until the end of the \"Ancien Régime\". Possibly the space was involved in these ceremonies. Furthermore, in the western wall, under the great west window, there is a \"Fensetella\" (small window) even today, through which there is line of sight to the court below, the former atrium. It is certain that the so-called \"Carolingian Passage\" entered this room on its northern wall, connecting the Aula Regia (King's Hall) in the north of the palace with the church. The lower, barrel-vaulted room in the west probably served as Charlemagne's sepulchre after his death on 28 January 814 and his burial in the Persephone sarcophagus. The floors of the western facade lying above this room were remodelled in the first half of the 14th century and in the 17th century; the tower was completed between 1879 and 1884.", "Between 1355 and 1414, on the initiative of the Marienstift and the mayor of Aachen Gerhard Chorus (1285–1367), a Gothic Choir was built to the east of the Octagon. Before this there must have been a rectangular Carolingian choir. The Gothic choir measures 25m in length, 13m wide and 32m high. Its external wall is broken, as much as possible, by windows – the surface area of the glass is more than 1,000m2 and led to the name \"Glashaus\" (glass house). This was conceived as a glass reliquary for the holy relics of Aachen and for the body of Charlemagne. The design is arranged on the model of the Sainte-Chapelle in Paris, likewise a space for important relics and a royal palace chapel. For protection of the vault of the choir, iron rods were built in at the time of construction, to counter the lateral force on the narrow stone supports and to allow as much space as possible between them for window space.", "Gathered around the octagon are several side chapels. Clockwise from the southeast, they are:", "Aachen Cathedral houses a collection of medieval art objects from the late Classical, Carolingian, Ottonian and Staufian periods which are exceptional in their artistic and religious meaning.", "In the western gallery on the lower floor, opposite the choir, the Throne of Charlemagne is to be found, which has been the object of new investigations in the past decades. The original Carolingian throne came from the spolia of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem. The appearance of the throne and its location in the Palatine Chapel did not change with the passage of centuries. Between 936 and 1531, thirty one German kings ascended to this throne after their anointment and coronation at the Marienaltar (Altar of Mary).", "The \"Marienschrein\" (Shrine of St. Mary) rests in the choir of the church and dates from 1220 to 1239. Adorned with the figures of Christ, Mary, Charlemagne, Pope Leo III and the Twelve Apostles, the shrine contains the four great Aachen relics: St. Mary's cloak, Christ's swaddling clothes, St. John the Baptist's beheading cloth and Christ's loincloth. Following a custom begun in 1349, every seven years the relics are taken out of the shrine and put on display during the Great Aachen Pilgrimage. This pilgrimage most recently took place during June 2014.", "From the vault of the dome, which is made up of eight curved faces, a wheel chandelier hangs on a long chain, about four metres above the ground, with a diameter of over four metres, which is known as the Barbarossa Chandelier (1165/1170). This artwork was a donation of Emperor Frederick Barbarossa and his wife Beatrice. The forty-eight candles of the chandelier are lit for solemnities of the Church.", "Between 1002 and 1014, Henry II had a pulpit erected as an ambon in the east passage, which is among the most magnificent artistic treasures of the Ottonian Renaissance. Its inscription on the upper and lower edges clearly identifies its donor as Henry II, referring to him as \"REX PIVS HEINRICVS\". The pulpit is made of an oak base and is decorated all over with filigree and precious stones, with many precious artefacts from antiquity, such as four repoussé copper reliefs with depictions of the Evangelists, as well as six ivory panels of the 6th century. The wooden staircase dates to 1782. The Ambon was thoroughly restored in 1816/1817 and again between 1926 and 1937. To this day, the pulpit is still in liturgical use for solemnities of the Church.", "A golden altarpiece, the Pala d'Oro which today forms the Antependium of the high altar was probably created around 1020 in Fulda. It consists of seventeen individual gold panels with reliefs in repoussé. In the centre, Christ is enthroned as Redeemer in a Mandorla, flanked by Mary and the Archangel Michael. Four round medallions with images of the Evangelists' symbols show the connection to the other twelve relief panels with depictions from the life of Jesus Christ. They begin with the entry into Jerusalem and end with the encounter of the women with the risen Christ in front of the open grave on Easter morning. The depictions are read from left to right, like a book. Stylistically, the Pala d'Oro is not uniform. The first five reliefs probably come from a goldsmith taught in the Rheinland and is distinguished by a strikingly joyful narration. It probably derives from a donation of Emperor Otto III. The other panels, together with the central group of Christ, Mary, and Michael, draws from Byzantine and late Carolingian predecessors and was likely first added under Otto's successor, Henry II, who also donated the Ambo of Henry II. Presumably, in the late 15th century, the golden altarpiece formed a massive altar system together with the twelve reliefs of apostles in the cathedral treasury, along with altarpieces with scenes from the life of Mary, which would have been dismantled in 1794 as the French Revolutionary troops approached Aachen.", "The Aachen cathedral treasury includes highly important objects including the Cross of Lothair, Bust of Charlemagne and the Persephone sarcophagus. The Cathedral Treasury in Aachen is regarded as one of the most important ecclesiastical treasuries in northern Europe. Pilgrims are able to see some of the relics every seven years when they are displayed.", "The organ system of Aachen Cathedral was installed in 1939. It consists in part of the earlier organ, installed 1845–1847, which was built by the organ builder Wilhelm Korfmacher of Linnich. This \"Korfmacher\" organ had 60 stops, distributed in three works. The current instrument was installed in 1939 by Johannes Klais (Bonn) and expanded to 65 stops, which were distributed thereafter in five works. To achieve a balanced sound throughout the cathedral, the parts were distributed through the cathedral: in the northwest and southwest niches of the choir are the works of the High organ, while a swallow's nest organ was hung on the east pillar of the octagon. In 1991–1993, the organ was restored by the Klais organ company and increased to a total of 89 stops. At this time the swallow's nest organ was turned into a new, independent instrument, which now stands in the upper church, between the octagon and the choir. As well as a chamber organ, the cathedral also has a small organ, called the \"Zoboli Organ\". This was built by the north Italian organ builder, Cesare Zomboli, probably some time around 1850. The pipeworks, windbox, and keyboard survive. The historic housing no longer exists, but the current housing was built later on the model of a north Italian cabinet organ in classicist style. The instrument is arranged in the classic Italian style, with the typical stops of the Roman style as well.", "In the belfry of the tower, eight bells hang on wooden yokes in a wooden bell frame. The bells were cast three years after the city fire of 1656 by Franz Von Trier and his son Jakob. This disposition, altered from that of Medieval times, has been maintained to this day, except that the Marybell has had to be replaced twice. The modern Marybell was made in 1958 and was cast by Petit & Gebr. Edelbrock.", "", "The core of Aachen Cathedral, the Carolingian octagon, was originally erected as Charlemagne's palace chapel and was also his grave. After his death, on 28 January 814, he was buried in his church; the exact spot is unknown, because of the lack of documentation and the ambiguity of the physical evidence. However, it is probable that he was buried in the Persephone sarcophagus under the west tower at the entrance to the octagon. In 1000, Otto III had Charlemagne's vault opened. Otto of Lomello, one of the courtiers who accompanied him, recorded the event, which is reported in the Chronicle of Novalesia, written about 1026. The account reads: A large picture representing Otto and his nobles gazing on the dead Emperor was painted on the wall of the great room in Aachen Town Hall. In 1165, on the occasion of Charlemagne's canonisation, Emperor Frederick Barbarossa again opened the vault and reinterred his remains. In 1215, at his coronation, Frederick II had the remains reinterred for the last time, placing them in a casket of gold and silver, known as the Karlsschrein, where they remain to this day. Emperor Otto III was buried in the cathedral as well.", "On the explicit instructions of Charlemagne, his son Louis the Pious crowned himself king in the chapel. Between the coronation of Otto I in 936 and 1531, thirty German kings (out of ~40) were crowned in the chapel. The coronation itself occurred at the High Altar, followed by the enthronement on the Aachen Throne of Charlemagne (which can still be seen today). It is also notable that in this period, all German rulers, regardless of whether they were crowned in Aachen or not, took their position on Charlemagne's throne.", "The Aachen pilgrimage (\"Aachener Heiligtumsfahrt\"), a pilgrimage during which the four most important religious relics of the cathedral can be seen by believers, is attested from 1238. Since 1349, these relics have been displayed once every seven years. The last pilgrimage was in 2014, and had the motto \"\"Geh in das Land, das ich dir zeigen werde\"\" (\"Go to the land I will show you\"; cf. ).", "As early as the Middle Ages, Aachen Cathedral was admired and imitated, as in the case of Essen Minster, the Old Tower in Mettlach and in the Alsatian Abbey Church of Ottmarsheim. Construction elements of the octagon and choir were nominated as Historic landmarks of German civil engineering in 2007.", "According to legend, the people of Aachen ran out of funding to finish the construction of the cathedral. It is said that they made a deal with the devil to obtain the remaining funds, in exchange for the soul of the first to enter the cathedral. Upon completion, the locals sent a wolf into the cathedral and the devil quickly took the animal's soul. Upon realizing the trick, the devil stormed from the cathedral, severing his thumb in the lion head door handles. A wolf statue sits in the entrance to the cathedral, and the \"devil's thumb\" can be felt inside the lion's mouth.", "The German impressionist painter August von Brandis painted Aachen Cathedral in several works. Act III of Giuseppe Verdi's \"Ernani\" is set at the tomb of Charlemagne. The \"Domwache\" (Cathedral watch), a youth self-help group, has been operated since 1957 by the Catholic students association of K.D.St.V. Franconia Aachen. Since November 15th 2012, the Geological Service of North Rhine-Westphalia operates a station monitoring seismic activity in the Lower Rhine Basin. It is located in the foundations of the hexadecagon near the entry to the St Ann's Chapel." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Negroid vs Congoid.", "History of the concept.", "Origins.", "In the context of scientific racism.", "Subraces.", "Physical features.", "Craniofacial traits.", "Neoteny.", "Hair.", "Skin pigmentation.", "Athleticism.", "Criticism.", "Criticism based on modern genetics." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "\"Negroid\" has both Latin and Ancient Greek etymological roots. It literally translates as \"black resemblance\" from \"negro\" (black), and οειδές \"-oeidēs\", equivalent to \"-o-\" + είδες \"-eidēs\" \"having the appearance of\", derivative of είδος \"eîdos\" \"appearance\". The earliest recorded use of the term \"Negroid\" came in 1859. In modern usage, it is associated with populations that on the whole possess the suite of typical Negro physical characteristics.", "In 1962 Carleton Coon divided humanity into five major races: 1) Caucasoid, 2) Mongoloid, 3) Australoid, 4) Congoid, and 5) Capoid stating: The fourth comprises the Negroes and Pygmies of Africa. I have named it Congoid after the region (not a specific nation) which contains both kinds of people. The term \"Negroid\" has been deliberately omitted to avoid confusion. It has been applied both to Africans and the spiral-haired peoples of Southern Asian and Oceania who are not genetically related to each other, as far as we know. By 1982, Coon began using the two terms synonymously: The five primary races are the Caucasoid, Mongoloid, Australoid, Congoid (more commonly called Negroid), and the Capoid, mostly the Bushmen of Southern Africa...Some of my colleagues lump the last named with the Negroes, into whose ranks some of them have been absorbed.", "", "Johann Friedrich Blumenbach, a scholar at the then modern Göttingen University developed a concept dividing mankind into five races in the revised 1795 edition of his \"De generis humani varietate nativa\" (\"On the Natural Variety of Mankind\"). Although Blumenbach's concept later gave rise to scientific racism, his arguments were basically anti-racist, since he underlined that mankind as a whole forms one single \"species\", and points out that the transition from one race to another is so gradual that the distinctions between the races presented by him are \"very arbitrary\". Blumenbach counts the inhabitants of North Africa among the \"Caucasian race\", grouping the other Africans as \"Ethiopian race\". In this context, he names the \"Abyssinians\" and \"Moors\" as peoples through which the \"Ethiopian race\" gradually \"flows together\" with the \"Caucasian race\".", "The development of Western race theories took place in a historical situation where most Western nations were still profiting from the enslavement of Africans and therefore had an economical interest in portraying the inhabitants of Sub-Saharan Africa as an inferior race. A significant change in Western views on Africans came about when Napoleon's 1798 invasion of Egypt drew attention to the impressive achievements of Ancient Egypt, which could hardly be reconciled with the theory of Africans being inferior. In this context, many of the works published on Egypt after Napoleon's expedition \"seemed to have had as their main purpose an attempt to prove in some way that the Egyptians were not Negroes\", but belonged to a \"Hamitic race\", which was seen as a subgroup of the \"Caucasian race\". Thus the high civilization of Ancient Egypt could be separated from the allegedly inferior African \"race\". \"Perhaps because slavery was both still legal and profitable in the United States... there arose an American school of anthropology which attempted to prove scientifically that the Egyptian was a Caucasian, far removed from the inferior Negro\". In his \"Crania Aegyptiaca\" (1844), Samuel George Morton, the founder of anthropology in the United States, analyzed over a hundred intact crania gathered from the Nile Valley, and concluded that the ancient Egyptians were racially akin to Europeans. Discussions on race among Western scholars during the 19th century took place against the background of the debate between monogenists and polygenists, the former arguing for a single origin of all mankind, the latter holding that each human race had a specific origin. Monogenists based their arguments either on a literal interpretation of the biblical story of Adam and Eve or on secular research. Since polygenism stressed the perceived differences, it was popular among white supremacists, especially slaveholders in the US. Through craniometry conducted on thousands of human skulls, Morton argued that the differences between the races were too broad to have stemmed from a single common ancestor, but were instead consistent with separate racial origins. In \"Crania Aegyptiaca\", he reported his measurements of internal skull capacity grouped according to Blumenbach's five races, finding that the average capacity of the \"Caucasian race\" was at the top, and that \"Ethiopian\" skulls had the smallest capacity, with the other \"races\" ranging in between. He concluded that the \"Ethiopian race\" was inferior in terms of intelligence. At his death in 1851, when slavery still existed in the southern United States, the influential \"Charleston Medical Journal\" praised him with the words: \"We of the South should consider him as our benefactor for aiding most materially in giving to the negro his true position as an inferior race.\" While a controversy about the correctness of Morton's measurements has been going on since the late 1970s, modern scientists agree that the volume of the skull and intelligence are not related. Darwin's landmark work \"On the Origin of Species\", published in 1859, 8 years after Morton's death, significantly changed scientific discourse on the origin of humans. British biologist Thomas Huxley, a strong advocate of Darwinism and a monogenist, counted 10 \"modifications of mankind\", dividing the native populations of sub-Saharan Africa into the \"Bushmen\" of the Cape region and the \"Negroes\" of the central areas of the continent. In physical anthropology the term \"Negroid\" was used from the early 19th century until the middle of the 20th to denote one of three perceived general racial classifications of humans — \"Caucasoid\", \"Mongoloid\", and \"Negroid\". Under this classification scheme, humans were divided into broad sub-groups based on phenotypic characteristics such as cranial and skeletal morphology. Later iterations of the terminology, such as Carleton S. Coon's \"Origin of Races\", placed this theory in an evolutionary context. Coon divided the species \"Homo sapiens\" into five groups: \"Caucasoid\", \"Capoid\", \"Congoid\", \"Australoid\" and \"Mongoloid\", based on the alleged timing of each group's evolution from \"Homo erectus\". Positing the Capoid race as a separate racial entity, and labeling the two major divisions of what he called the \"Congoid race\" as being the \"African Negroes\" and the \"Pygmies\", he divided indigenous Africans into distinct \"Congoid\" and \"Capoid\" groups. Afrocentrist author Cheikh Anta Diop contrasted \"Negroid\" with \"Cro-Magnoid\" in his publications arguing for \"Negroid\" primacy. Grimaldi Man, Upper Paleolithic fossils found in Italy in 1901, had been classified as Negroid by Boule and Vallois (1921). The identification was obsolete by the 1960s, but was controversially revived by Diop (1989). In the context of the first peopling of the Sahara, there was a debate in the 1970s whether the non-negroid, mixed, or negroid fossils found in the region were older. Asselar man, a 6,400 year old fossil discovered in 1927 in the Adrar des Ifoghas near Essouk (now the Kidal Region of Mali), was claimed as the oldest known anatomically modern human skeleton of Negroid type.", "In the first half of the 20th century, the traditional subraces of the Negroid race were regarded as being the True Negro, the Forest Negro, the Bantu Negro, the Nilote, the Negrillo (also known as the African Pygmy), the Khoisan (often historically referred to as Hottentot and Bushman), the Negrito (also known as the Asiatic Pygmy), and the Oceanic Negroids (consisting of the Papuan and Melanesian). By the 1960s, some scholars regarded the Khoisan as a separate race known as the Capoid race, while others continued to regard them as a Negroid subrace. The term \"Congoid\" was frequently used interchangeably with \"Negroid\", with the main difference being that Congoid excluded the Capoid taxon.", "", "In modern craniofacial anthropometry, Negroid describes features that typify skulls of black people. These include a broad and round nasal cavity; no dam or nasal sill; Quonset hut-shaped nasal bones; notable facial projection in the jaw and mouth area (prognathism); a rectangular-shaped palate; a square or rectangular eye orbit shape; a large interorbital distance; a more undulating supraorbital ridge; and large teeth. According to George W. Gill and other modern forensic anthropologists, physical traits of Negroid crania are generally distinct from those of the Caucasoid and Mongoloid races. They assert that they can identify a Negroid skull with an accuracy of up to 95%. However, Alan H. Goodman cautions that this precision estimate is often based on methodologies using subsets of samples. He also argues that scientists have a professional and ethical duty to avoid such biological analyses since they could potentially have sociopolitical effects. Although widely used in forensic anthropology, some have also challenged the accuracy of craniofacial anthropometry vis-a-vis different human populations that have developed in close proximity to one another and those of mixed ethnic heritage. Since the distinguishing racial traits are not set until puberty, they are also difficult to ascertain in preadolescent skulls. Variation in craniofacial form between humans has been found to be largely due to differing patterns of biological inheritance. Modern cross-analysis of osteological variables and genome-wide SNPs has identified specific genes, which control this craniofacial development. Of these genes, DCHS2, RUNX2, GLI3, PAX1 and PAX3 were found to determine nasal morphology, whereas EDAR impacts chin protrusion.", "Ashley Montagu lists \"neotenous structural traits in which...Negroids [generally] differ from Caucasoids... flattish nose, flat root of the nose, narrower ears, narrower joints, frontal skull eminences, later closure of premaxillary sutures, less hairy, longer eyelashes, [and] cruciform pattern of second and third molars\". He also suggested that in the extinct Negroid group termed the \"Boskopoids\", pedomorphic traits proceeded further than in other Negroids. Additionally, Montagu wrote that the Boskopoids had larger brains than modern humans (1,700 cubic centimeters cranial capacity compared to 1,400 cubic centimeters in modern-day humans), and the projection of their mouth was less than in other Negroids. He believed that the Boskopoids were the ancestors of the Khoisan.", "A.H.Keane (1899) described tightly coiled, kinky hair as an ubiquitous trait among \"Negroid\" populations. By consequence, he considered the presence of looser, frizzly hair texture in other populations an indication of possible admixture with \"Negroid\" peoples. Commenting on the lack of body hair (glabrousness) of Negroids and Mongoloids, Carleton S. Coon wrote that \"[b]oth negroid and mongoloid skin conditions are inimical to excessive hair development except upon the scalp\".", "\"Negroid\" skin pigmentation was described as varying from very dark brown to light brown. As dark skin is also relatively common in human groups that have historically not been defined as \"Negroid\", including many populations in both Africa and Asia, it is only when present with other typical Negroid physical traits such as broad facial features, Negroid cranial characteristics, large teeth, prognathism, afro-textured hair and neoteny, that it has been used in Negroid classification. Populations with frequently dark skin yet on the whole lacking the suite of Negroid physical traits were thus usually not regarded as \"Negroid\", but instead as either \"dark Caucasoid\" (e.g. Hamitic/Ethiopid and Arabid) or \"Australoid\" depending on their other salient physical attributes. By contrast, populations with relatively light skin yet generally possessing typical Negroid physical characteristics, such as the Khoisan, were still regarded as \"Negroid\".", "In the context of prominent successes of African-American athletes like Jesse Owens during the 1936 Summer Olympics, the speed advantage of the \"Negroid type of calf, foot and heel bone\" was discussed. But anthropologist W. Montague Cobb pointed out that \"there is not a single physical characteristic, including skin color, which all the Negro stars have in common which definitely classify them as Negroes.\"", "The term \"Negroid\" is still used in forensic anthropology. In a medical context, some scholars have recommended that the term Negroid be avoided in scientific writings because of its association with scientific racism. This mirrors the decline in usage of the term negro in English, which fell out of favor following the campaigns of the Civil Rights Movement, but was later re-introduced in the US Census of 2010 because it was found that members of the older generation of African Americans continued to identify with it. The \"Oxford Dictionaries\" website as of 2018 indicates that \"the term Negroid belongs to a set of terms introduced by 19th-century anthropologists attempting to categorize human races(...) such terms are associated with outdated notions of racial types, and so are now potentially offensive and best avoided\". C.S. Coon's evolutionary approach was criticized on the basis that such sorting criteria generally do not produce meaningful results, and that evolutionary divergence was extremely improbable over the given time-frames. Monatagu (1963) argued that Coon's theory on the speciation of Congoids and other \"Homo sapiens\" was unlikely because the transmutation of one species to another was a markedly gradual process.", "In his 2016 essay \"Evolution and Notions of Human Race\", Alan R. Templeton discusses various criteria used in biology to define subspecies or races. His examples for traits traditionally considered to be racial include skin colour: \"[T]he native peoples with the darkest skins live in tropical Africa and Melanesia.\" While those two groups would traditionally be classified as \"black\", in reality Africans are more closely related to Europeans than to Melanesians. Another example is malarial resistance, which is often found in African populations, but also in \"many European and Asian populations\". Templeton concludes: \"[T]he answer to the question whether races exist in humans is clear and unambiguous: no.\"" ] }