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{ "title": [ "Course.", "Watershed.", "River modifications.", "History." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Little Zab rises in the Zagros Mountains in Iran at an elevation of circa amsl. In its upper reaches, the course of the Little Zab is determined by the alignment of the major mountain chains that make up the Zagros. Thus, the river flows through valleys that are predominantly aligned along a northwest–southeast axis, parallel to the major mountain chains of the Zagros, only to change its direction abruptly where it cuts through these chains in narrow gorges. The Little Zab enters the plain south of Dukan, where it first assumes a roughly westward course before turning to the southwest upstream from the town of Altun Kopru and uniting with the Tigris near the town of Al Zab. Most tributaries join the Little Zab upstream from Dukan, with the largest being the Baneh River and the Qala Chulan. A number of smaller streams joined the Little Zab in the Ranya Plain, which is now partly inundated by Lake Dukan. Different estimates have been given for the length of the Little Zab:, and. For a short distance, the Little Zab forms the border between Iran and Iraq, and along its lower course it also constitutes the border between Erbil Governorate and Sulaymaniyah Governorate, and Erbil and Kirkuk Governorates. The river is fed by snowmelt and rainfall, resulting in a peak discharge in the period February–May. Low water levels are recorded for the period July–October. The average discharge of the Little Zab is per second, whereas the maximum recorded discharge is per second. Average annual discharge is. Because of its torrential nature, Medieval Arab geographers have described the Little Zab, and the Great Zab as well, as \"demoniacally possessed\".", "The drainage basin of the Little Zab covers ; from the location where the Dukan Dam has been constructed, it measures. The larger part of the basin (74%) is located within Iraqi borders; the remainder is in Iran. On the north, it is bordered by the Great Zab basin while on the south it is adjoined by the basins of the Adhaim and Diyala rivers. The parallel mountain ranges of the Zagros consist of limestone folds rising to elevations over. Water erosion has filled the Little Zab valley and the foothill zone south-west of the Zagros with layers of gravel, conglomerate, and sandstone. The Ranya Plain is the largest valley in the Little Zab drainage basin, and the second-largest in the Iraqi Zagros behind the Shahrazor. The Little Zab crosses very diverse climatic and ecological zones. Annual precipitation along the course of the river diminishes from over in the Iranian Zagros to less than at the confluence with the Tigris near Al Zab. Average temperatures follow a similar gradient, with the mountain valleys generally experiencing colder winters than the foothill zone, while summers in the latter are hotter. In the high Zagros, three different ecozones can be distinguished. The tree line is at approximately ; above which herbs and shrubs predominate. The dominant vegetation between was an open oak forest (\"Quercus aegilops\"), but not much of this original vegetation remains. The river valleys are characterized by water-loving plants, and marshy areas were in the past – in the absence of drainage – prone to malaria. Although the foothill zone, especially the plain of Erbil, is heavily cultivated, patches of natural vegetation remain, with herbs in the genus \"Phlomis\" being very common.", "Two dams have been constructed on the Little Zab in Iraq while Iran is currently constructing one with two others planned. The two in Iraq are the Dukan Dam and the Dibis Dam. The Dukan Dam was constructed between 1957 and 1961 as a multi-purpose arch dam upstream from the town of Dukan. The dam’s crest is above the riverbed ( amsl) and long. Its functions are to regulate the flow of the Little Zab, to store water for irrigation in its reservoir (Lake Dukan) and to provide hydroelectric power. The maximum storage capacity of the dam’s reservoir is. Because the flooding of Lake Dukan would lead to the submersion of numerous archaeological sites, an archaeological survey and rescue excavations were carried out in the endangered region – notably at the sites of Tell Shemshara and Tell Bazmusian. The Dibis Dam is located approximately upstream from the confluence with the Tigris and was constructed between 1960 and 1965. The embankment dam is long and wide and provides water for the Kirkuk Irrigation Project. Currently under construction in Iran is the Sardasht Dam. Construction began in 2011 and when complete, the tall embankment dam will support a 120 MW power station. Above the Sardasht Dam, Iran is planning to construct the Shivahan and Garjhal Dams with the primary purpose of power generation.", "Although Iraqi Kurdistan is not well known from an archaeological point of view, the available evidence nevertheless shows that the relatively favourable ecological conditions of the Iraqi part of the Zagros attracted human groups from early prehistory onwards. Lower Palaeolithic archaeological sites have to date not been found in the Iraqi part of the Zagros Mountains, but they are known from the Iranian side where numerous cave sites have been found during archaeological surveys. Information on the early prehistory of the wider Little Zab region itself comes from the excavations carried out by the Oriental Institute at archaeological sites east of Kirkuk and south of the Little Zab. The earliest evidence for human occupation in this region comes from the Middle Palaeolithic site of Barda Balka, where Late Acheulean stone tools have been found. Archaeological research elsewhere in the Zagros confirms the importance of this area to early human hunter-gatherers – including groups of Neanderthals as evidenced by the finds in Shanidar Cave in the Great Zab basin. Mousterian stone tools that were used by either Neanderthals or anatomically modern humans have recently been excavated in Erbil, between the Little Zab and the Great Zab. Both open-air and cave sites are attested for the Zarzian culture, which straddles the Upper and Epipalaeolithic periods. After the Zarzian, the focus of human occupation shifted from cave-sites, which continue to be used as secondary or seasonal occupation sites up to today, to open-air sites and it was in this period that the trend toward domestication of plants and animals set in. Domestication of the goat probably occurred first in this area of the Zagros. Jarmo, a tell east of Kirkuk, was a Neolithic village community that practiced agriculture and animal husbandry. Pottery occurs from the early occupation levels onward; in its later phases it resembles pottery from Hassuna. The early occupation of Tell Shemshara, in the Ranya Plain, can also be dated to this period. The archaeological fieldwork in the Ranya Plain showed that this area was occupied during the Ubaid, Uruk and Ninevite V periods – roughly from the middle 6th to the mid-3rd millennium BCE. Evidence for these periods comes from the Citadel of Erbil as well. The region enters history at the end of the 3rd millennium BCE, when Erbil is mentioned as Urbilum by king Shulgi of the Ur III dynasty. From that time onward, the Little Zab basin became increasingly entangled in the affairs of the successive Mesopotamian empires that sought control over the Zagros Mountains. In the early second millennium BCE, king Shamshi-Adad of Upper Mesopotamia waged war to the land of Qabra, which was probably located along the lower course of the Little Zab, and installed garrisons in the conquered towns. The archive of clay tablets found at Tell Shemshara (ancient Shusharra) shows that the local governor switched allegiance and became a vassal of Shamshi-Adad. During the 14th century BCE, the region was part of the Mitannian kingdom, with sites like Nuzi and Tell al-Fakhar, south of the Little Zab, yielding clay tablet archives for this period. During the late second–early first millennia BCE, the lower Little Zab basin belonged to the heartland of the Middle Assyrian and Neo-Assyrian empires. After the fall of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, control of the Zagros shifted first to the Medes and in 550 BCE to the Achaemenid Empire. The last Achaemenid ruler Darius III was defeated by Alexander the Great at the Battle of Gaugamela in northern Iraq and after Alexander’s death in 323, the area fell to his Seleucid successors." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "1990s.", "2000s.", "2000.", "2001.", "2002.", "2003.", "2004.", "2005.", "2006.", "2007.", "2008.", "2009.", "2010.", "2011.", "2012.", "2013.", "2014.", "2015.", "2017.", "Organization.", "Force numbers and fatalities.", "Staff and forces.", "Command staff.", "Contributing countries.", "Civilians.", "Controversies." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The origin of this second United Nations military presence in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) is found in the Lusaka Ceasefire Agreement on 17 July 1999 and the following United Nations Security Council Resolution 1258 of 6 August 1999, authorizing the deployment of a maximum of 90 officers. The first liaison officers arrived in the DRC on 3 September 1999. In November 1999 the number of liaison officers totaled 39, distributed in the capitals of the warring countries (Rwanda, Uganda, Burundi, Zambia, Namibia, Zimbabwe, Ethiopia) including 24 who were stationed in Kinshasa. In January 2000 they reached the number of 79 and they were spread over the whole territory of DRC. Their mission was to liaise with all the warring factions, give a technical assistance and prepare the deployment of military observers.", "", "On 24 February 2000 with the resolution 1291, the U.N. Security Council authorized the deployment of a maximum of 5537 military personnel in the DRC, including 500 military observers. On 4 April 2000 the Senegalese Major General Mountago Diallo was appointed as the commander of MONUSCO's military force. The mandate is to monitor the implementation of the Ceasefire Agreement and the redeployment of belligerent forces, to develop an action plan for the overall implementation of the Ceasefire Agreement, to work with the parties to obtain the release of all prisoners of war, military captives and the return of the remains, to facilitate humanitarian assistance and to assist the Facilitator of the National Dialogue. Acting under Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter, the U.N. Security Council authorized MONUC to take the necessary action, in the areas of deployment of its infantry battalions, to protect UN personnel, facilities, installations and equipment, ensure the security and freedom of movement of its personnel, and to protect civilians under imminent threat of physical violence. In December 2000 there were 224 military personnel deployed, including 148 observers in 13 points around the country. The observers could only record the non-application of the Ceasefire, the violent fighting at Kisangani and in the Equateur and Katanga provinces as well as the presence of foreign troops in the DRC. The deployment of UN troops was impossible due to the security situation and the reluctance of the Congolese government.", "Even though the beginning of 2001 was still hampered by sporadic combat, the military observers could fulfill their mission in regards with the disengagement of forces and the withdrawal of some of the Rwandan and Ugandan forces. In March 2001, the first Uruguayan guard unit arrived in Kalemie. The force was deployed in four sectors at Kananga, Kisangani, Kalemie and Mbandaka. In July 2001, the force strength was of 2366 soldiers, including 363 military observers distributed in 22 cities and 28 teams monitoring the disengagement of forces. The contingent soldiers totaled 1869. They came from South Africa, Uruguay, Morocco, Senegal and Tunisia. Guard units protected MONUC installations in Kinshasa, Kananga, Kisangani, Kalemie, Goma and Mbandaka. A Uruguayan riverine unit and a South African air medical evacuation team were also deployed. The deployed troops were only to protect the sites against looting and theft, the force had neither the mandate nor the strength to protect the civilian population, or even to extract MONUC personnel. Following the Security Council Resolution 1355, the military observers, within their capacities, could also contribute to the voluntary disarmament, demobilization, repatriation and reintegration process of the armed groups. With Security Council Resolution 1376, the Security Council launched the third phase of the deployment of MONUC troops, in the East of DRC. The site for the logistical base was planned to be Kindu.", "In 2002, the 450 military observers, split in 95 teams, continued to monitor the Ceasefire along the ex-frontlines. The teams also investigated violations of the Ceasefire. Foreign troops continued to leave the country. The riverine units escorted the first ships on the Congo river, which was again open to commercial traffic. In June 2002 the UN troops' total number was 3804. Contingents from Ghana and Bolivia joined the force, of which more than a third of the soldiers were Uruguayan. More than a thousand soldiers were deployed in Kisangani. On 14 May 2002, a military observer died near Ikela following the explosion of a mine under his vehicle. On 30 July 2002, the different parties signed the Pretoria agreement. The nature of the mission of the peacekeepers changed. The military observers monitored the withdrawal of 20 000 Rwandan soldiers, but they also noted the rise of ethnic violence in Ituri. At the end of 2002 there were a total of 4200 UN soldiers in the DRC. By Resolution 1445 the Security Council authorized the increase of military personnel to 8500. The principle of two independent intervention forces was also approved. MONUC had to support the voluntary disarmament, demobilization, repatriation, reintegration and resettlement (DDRRR) process, but without using force.", "Numerous DDRRR operations in collaboration with the civilian component were conducted in the beginning of 2003. Before the start of the transition, UN soldiers were deployed along the front lines. A vast redeployment to the East started. The four coordination centres and 22 bases in the western part of the country were shut down. Over a hundred observers were redeployed and Uruguayan contingents arrived in Bukavu and Lubero. Observer teams monitored serious combat and human rights violations in Ituri. In April 2003, 800 Uruguayan soldiers were deployed in Bunia under Resolution 1484. In the same month an observer died in a mine explosion. In May 2003 two military observers were savagely killed by a militia. The withdrawal of 7000 Ugandan troops in April 2003 led to a deteriorating security situation in the Ituri region endangering the peace process. The U.N. Secretary General Kofi Annan called for establishing and deploying a temporary multi-national force to the area until the weakened MONUC mission could be reinforced. In his second special report to the Security Council, the U.N. Secretary General proposed a reorientation of MONUC missions: to provide support to the transition and to maintain security in key areas of the country. Accordingly, he proposed the creation of a brigade in Ituri to support the peace process. On 30 May 2003, the Security Council by its Resolution 1493 authorized the deployment of interim emergency multinational force in Bunia with a task to secure the airport, protect internally displaced persons in camps and the civilians in the town. Resolution 1493 authorized an increase of military personnel to 10 800, imposed and arms embargo and authorized MONUC to use all necessary means to fulfill its mandate in the Ituri district and, as it deemed it to be within its capabilities, also in North and South Kivu. The French Government had already shown interest in leading the operation. It soon broadened to an EU-led mission with France as the framework nation providing the bulk of the personnel and complemented by contributions from both EU and non-EU nations. The total force consisted of about 1800 personnel and was supported by French aircraft based at N'Djamena and Entebbe airfields. A small 80-man Swedish Special Forces group (SSG) was also added. The operation called Operation Artemis was launched on 12 June and the IMEF completed its deployment in the following three weeks. The force was successful in stabilising the situation in Bunia and enforcing the UN presence in the DRC. In September 2003, responsibility for the security of the region was handed over to the MONUC mission. Growing military conflict in DRC caused the United Nations to seek additional military help from major powers. In July 2003, India announced that it would be sending an additional 300 personnel and combat aircraft from the Indian Air Force to strengthen the UN peacekeeping effort in DRC. In September 2003, the Ituri brigade was in place, including soldiers from Uruguay, Bangladesh, Nepal, Pakistan, Indonesia, India and Morocco. In November 2003, a total of 10,415 peacekeepers were in the DRC, comprising infantry units, engineer units, helicopter units, logistic units, medical units and riverine units.", "Deploying the Ituri brigade conducting cordon and search operations improved the security conditions in Ituri, but at the same time the peacekeepers became the target of the militias. On 12 February 2004, a military observer was killed in Ituri. With the arrival of the Transitional Government of the Democratic Republic of the Congo which included members of rebel movements, more than 900 Tunisian and Ghanaian UN troops contributed to the security of Kinshasa. It was decided that the troops present in the Kivus will be assembled under the unified command of a brigade. In March the Nigerian General Samaila Iliya took over the command of the force. In June 2004, Bukavu was occupied by rebel general Laurent Nkunda. A military observer was killed. The 1000 MONUC troops could only protect their own installations. Demonstrations were held all over the country, forcing UN troops to open fire on looters in Kinshasa. MONUC soldiers were again targeted by Ituri militia at the end of 2004. Though the Secretary General had asked for an increase of 13,100 soldiers, in October 2004 the Security Council by Resolution 1565, authorized a reinforcement of 5,900 military personnel and defines the mandate which is still valid today. The strategic military objectives of the MONUC force were: Following the UN resolution, the Indian Army announced that it would be sending an additional 850 troops and four combat helicopters to aid the MONOU peacekeeping effort.", "By 2005, the strength of UN peacekeeping forces in Congo reached more than 16,000 troops, split almost equally between the Western Brigade and the Eastern Division. In February 2005, the mission deplores the deaths of 9 Bangladeshi UN troops killed during an ambush in Ituri. The actions of the Ituri and Kivu Brigades become more robust and the pressure rises on all armed groups. Thomas Lubanga Dyilo, the leader of the Union of Congolese Patriots, and other militia leaders were arrested by Congolese authorities and imprisoned in Makala, Kinshasa. Lubanga was accused of having ordered the killing of the peacekeepers in February 2005 and of being behind continuous insecurity in the area. On 10 February 2006, the International Criminal Court issued an arrest warrant for Lubanga for the war crime of \"conscripting and enlisting children under the age of fifteen years and using them to participate actively in hostilities\". The Congolese national authorities transferred Lubanga to ICC custody on 17 March 2006. On 1 March 2005, a vast cordon and search operation in Ituri was conducted by Nepalese, Pakistani and South African Infantry elements with the support of Indian attack helicopters, between 50 and 60 militiamen were killed. Senegalese General Babacar Gaye was appointed force commander in March 2005 after Spanish General Vincente Diaz de Villegas resigned for personal reasons. In May 2005, the U.N. Secretary General asked for a supplementary brigade for Katanga. Joint operations were conducted by the newly arrived integrated brigades of the Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (FARDC). UN troops were tasked with the support of the electoral process, contributing protection and transport. In Ituri over 15000 militiamen were disarmed. In October 2005, by Resolution 1635, the U.N. Security Council authorized a temporary increase of 300 military personnel to permit a deployment to Katanga.", "In late January, a group of 80 Guatemalan Special Forces from the Kaibiles were engaged in a 4 hour firefight with LRA rebels, ending with 8 Guatemalans and 15 Rebels deaths. They are believed to have been conducting a raid on an LRA encampment to capture LRA Deputy Commander [Vincent Otti]. The incident caused a significant uproar from both the Guatemalan Public and Government, who demanded an official inquiry into the engagement. On 25 April 2006, the U.N. Security Council adopted Resolution 1671, authorising the temporary deployment of a European Union force to support MONUC during the period encompassing the general elections in the DR Congo, which began on 30 July 2006. The European Council approved the launching of the EU military operation, EUFOR RD Congo, and appointed Lieutenant General Karlheinz Viereck (Germany) Operation Commander and Major General Christian Damay (France) EU Force Commander. The Operational Headquarters was the German-nominated Armed Forces Operational Command – Einsatzführungskommando – at Potsdam, Germany. The mission was tasked with: This mission came to an end on 30 November 2006.", "In May 2007, India announced that it would be sending an additional 70 Indian Air Force personnel to join the MONOU effort.", "In August 2008, an internal investigation led by the Indian Army and other MONOU officers revealed that about ten Indian peacekeepers may have been involved in abuse and exploitation in Congo. Earlier in May 2008, the vice chief of the Indian Army visited Congo to look into these allegations and by August 2008, the Indian Army had launched an official probe to look into these allegations. On 26 October 2008 Rally for Congolese Democracy (RCD) forces of Laurent Nkunda seized a major military camp, along with Virunga National Park for use as a base to launch attacks from. This occurred after a peace treaty failed, with the resultant fighting displacing thousands. The park was taken due to its strategic location on a main road leading to the city of Goma. On 27 October 2008 riots began around the United Nations compound in Goma, and civilians pelted the building with rocks and threw Molotov cocktails, claiming that the UN forces had done nothing to prevent the RCD advance. The Congolese national army also retreated under pressure from the rebel army in a \"major retreat\". Meanwhile, United Nations gunships and armoured vehicles were used in an effort to halt the advance of the rebels, who claim to be within of Goma. Special Representative of the UN Secretary-General for DRC Alan Doss explained the necessity of engaging the rebels, stating that \"...[the UN] can't allow population centres to be threatened... [the UN] had to engage.\" Indian Army personnel were asked to deploy themselves from Goma to adjoining North Kivu province, after the Uruguayan battalion deployed in the region fled. However, after that several Uruguayan battalions were playing a crucial role in the buffer zone between the retreating government soldiers and the advancing rebels. On 29 October 2008, a French request for an EU reinforcement of 1,500 troops was refused by several countries and appeared unlikely to materialize; however, the UN forces stated they would act to prevent takeovers of population centres. In November 2008, India announced that it would sending 3rd battalion of the elite 3rd Gurkha regiment to join the peace-keeping effort in Congo. India made the decision to send its elite forces amidst rising concerns that Indian peace-keepers were getting caught in the cross-fire between DRC government troops and rebels. On 18 November a draft resolution spearheaded by the French Foreign Ministry was presented before the United Nations Security Council. The resolution, signed by 44 different organizations and with the backing of the British Foreign Office minister Mark Malloch Brown, asked the UN to send 3,000 more peacekeepers to reinforce the 17,000-strong garrison in the Congo, which is the largest garrison of its kind. This was similar to the pleas of Human Rights Watch and other humanitarian aid groups in the region, who were also asking for reinforcements to bring stability to the area. In a shared statement, the coalition of organizations stated that \"[The reinforcements] would help to prevent the atrocities that continue to be committed against civilians on an ever greater scale here in North Kivu [province], on the border of Rwanda and Uganda... Since August 28, fighting has intensified in many areas, causing deaths, rapes, lootings, forced recruitment and further displacements of civilian populations. The population has thus been immersed in unspeakable suffering. In the last few days, fighting has drawn closer to large populated areas, such as the town of Goma. Fighting has also invaded and torn apart the region of Rutshuru, particularly in the town of Kiwanja, where hundreds of civilian deaths have now been recorded.\" Local groups in the Congo also requested help from the European Union, as they would be able to deploy soldiers sooner, working as a \"bridging force\" until the UN reinforcements arrived. British EU spokeswoman Catriona Little stated that they were \"not ruling in or out EU forces\". On 20 November, the UN voted unanimously to send 3,085 more peacekeepers, citing \"extreme concern at the deteriorating humanitarian situation and in particular the targeted attacks against civilian population, sexual violence, recruitment of child soldiers and summary executions.\" However, it did not extend MONUC's mandate in the Congo, which expires at the end of 2008. The decision was made despite the rebel commitment to pulling back from the front lines and allowing aid to reach the thousands of people still isolated, according to aid groups. However, a week after the UN vote, the DRC government requested the UN to not deploy any more Indian troops in the east of the country, arguing that there was a need to \"redress the balance\" of the make-up of the 17,000-strong UN force in the country.", "On 17 February, Egypt announced that it will send around 1,325 soldiers from the Egyptian Army to support the UN mission in Congo. Egypt also announced that it will send a police force to help in protecting the UN mission in Congo. The Egyptian armed force will work to give support and technical advice to the Congo Army beside operating armed mission in the conflict zones and medical assistant and support. According to the Foreign affairs in Cairo, Egypt will send a Mechanized Unit, Special Forces, Field Engineers, and Paratroops. Egypt already has a small unit in Congo consisting of 13 policemen and 23 observers. In March 2009, the Indian Army questioned more than 100 Indian troops deployed in DRC regarding the abuse allegations against them. After a thorough investigation, which included examination of statements by alleged victims, the Indian Army found \"serious irregularities\" in charges raised by the United Nations Office of Internal Oversight Services. Consequently, all of the accused personnel were let off due to lack of evidence. In October 2009, India announced a US$263 million aid package to Congo to help the country's information technology, hydroelectricity and railway sectors. India also renewed its military commitments to MONUC while Congo expressed its support for India's UNSC permanent seat candidature. These developments helped thaw relations between the two countries. In December, MONUC rushed peacekeeping troops to Dongo in the Kungu territory of Sud-Ubangi District where a new conflict rapidly escalated in an effort to protect the local population. A MONUC helicopter that was restocking the 20 troops stationed there fell under gunfire from armed men. The helicopter crew, all of Russian nationality, facilitated the evacuation of 25 people, including 5 injured people (including the helicopter pilot), who were brought to Brazzaville for emergency medical treatment. Sources in Kinshasa reported that in mid-November DRC President Joseph Kabila secretly airlifted a battalion of Rwandan Defense Forces (RDF) across Congo to put down the rebellion in Dongo and the operation was supported by the United Nations Observes Mission in Congo (MONUC) and the United States Africa Command. Along with RDF regulars, MONUC troops have been fighting alongside Tutsi Rwandan soldiers infiltrated by Rwanda, with the Kabila government's support, into the national army, the Armed Forces of the DRC (FARDC). At the weekly MONUC press conference of 16 December 2009, it was announced by MONUC spokesperson Madnodje Mounoubai that the first MONUC peacekeeping troops were deployed in Dongo, where a temporary operational basis is functional, as well as in nearby Bozene. The 500 MONUC troops will come from the Ghanaian, Tunisian and Egyptian contingents as well as troops from the Guatemalan Special Forces. Military equipment such as armored personnel carriers, transport and combat helicopters will also be at their disposal to support their mission.", "In accordance with Security Council resolution 1925 of 28 May 2010, MONUC was renamed as of 1 July the United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUSCO) to reflect the new phase reached in the country. In August 2010, the Mai Mai rebels ambushed a base of the 19th Kumaon Regiment of the Indian Army, killing three Indian peace-keepers. The attack renewed calls in India to decrease the country's military presence in Congo due to growing conflict in the region.", "In May 2011, the international cooperation minister of DRC expressed his government's desire of an \"orderly, progressive withdrawal\" of MONUSCO due to \"normalization\" of DRC's relations with neighboring countries and containment of rebels to a \"few isolated zones\". In June 2011, the UN announced that it would withdraw about 2,000 peace-keepers by the end of the month. The UN announcement came only a few days after India's decision to withdraw all of its four Mi-35 combat helicopters from MONUSCO and eventually cease peace-keeping operations in DRC.", "On 15 November, MONUSCO helicopter gunships were deployed to support government forces as they fought to hold off a 23 March Movement attack south of Kibumba; the combined army and UN assault killed approximately 64 M23 fighters. On 20 November 2012, 23 March Movement seized the provincial capital of Goma after the national army retreated. MONUSCO troops observed without intervening, as their mandate only allowed them to protect civilians. French Foreign Minister Laurent Fabius called the situation \"absurd\", noting MONUSCO's greatly superior numbers, and called for the group's mandate to be revised. UN spokesman Eduardo del Buey said peacekeepers \"cannot substitute\" for the Congo national army, adding that the 1,500 UN troops in Goma held their fire because they did not want to risk civilian lives.", "In January 2013 chief of MONUSCO Herve Ladsous told the UN Security Council during a closed-door session that the mission plans to deploy three unmanned aerial vehicles in eastern provinces of DRC. US, UK and some other Security Council members were also supportive of the idea. However, Rwanda, which had denied allegations by UN experts that it has been supporting the March 23 Movement, opposed this proposal. Rwandan delegation informed the UN Security Council that Monusco would be a \"belligerent\" if it deployed drones in eastern DRC. Other diplomats, including Russian, Chinese and some from Europe, also expressed reservations. They said there were unanswered questions about who would receive the information from the drones and how widely it would be disseminated, expressing discomfort at the idea of the United Nations becoming an active gatherer of intelligence. In March 2013, the United Nations Security Council authorized the deployment of an intervention brigade within MONUSCO to carry out targeted offensive operations, with or without the Congolese national army, against armed groups that threaten peace in eastern DRC. The brigade is based in Sake, North Kivu, and is made up of a total of 3,069 peacekeepers. It is tasked with neutralizing armed groups, reducing the threat posed to State authority and civilian security and to make space for stabilization activities. The first Brigade was composed of three battalions, one each from South Africa, Tanzania and Malawi with the Brigade being commanded by Brig-Gen James Makibolwa of Tanzania. On 30 July 2013, the March 23 Movement was given a 48-hour ultimatum by the UN to leave Goma area or face \"use of force.\" Between 21 and 29 August, heavy fighting outside Goma left 57 rebels, 10–23 government soldiers, 14 civilians and one Tanzanian U.N. peacekeeper dead. 720 government soldiers and 10 U.N. peacekeepers were also wounded.", "After the 2014 South Kivu attack in June 2014, the UN announced it would send MONUSCO peacekeeping troops to the area to protect the population. \"These violent acts are unacceptable and need to stop immediately,\" said Kobler.", "In May 2015, Allied Democratic Forces Ugandan rebels ambushed a MONUSCO convoy about from Beni, killing two Tanzanian soldiers. Four other peacekeepers were reported missing. In October 2015, Maman Sambo Sidikou succeeded Martin Kobler as head of the MONUSCO.", "On 8 December 2017, the Semuliki operating base, 27 miles from the town of Beni, was engaged in a protracted attack which resulted in the deaths of 15 U.N. peacekeepers and 5 Congolese soldiers killed. 53 U.N. peacekeepers were also wounded. At least 12 of the dead U.N. peacekeepers were Tanzanians. It is suspected that the attackers were rebels of the Allied Democratic Forces (ADF). This brings the total casualties of UN forces since the mission commenced in Congo to 93.", "The headquarters of the mission are in Kinshasa, DRC. The mission views the DRC as consisting of 6 sectors, each with its own staff headquarters. In 2005-6 the Eastern Division however was formed at Kisangani and took over brigades in North Kivu, South Kivu, and Ituri, along with two or three of the Sector HQs. The approved budget for MONUC, from 1 July 2007 to 30 June 2008, is US$1,166.72 million, the largest for any current UN peacekeeping operation.", "In July 2004 there were 10,531 UN soldiers under MONUC's command. On 1 October 2004, the UN Security Council decided to deploy 5,900 more soldiers to Congo, although UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan had asked for some 12,000. On 25 February 2005, nine Bangladeshi peacekeepers were killed by members of the Nationalist and Integrationist Front militia in Ituri province. The FNI killed another Nepali peacekeeper and took seven captive in May 2006. Two of the seven were released in late June and the UN was trying to secure the release of the remaining five. By November 2005, MONUC consisted of 16,561 uniformed troops. On 30 July 2006, MONUC forces were charged with keeping the 2006 general election—the first multiparty election in the DRC since 1960—peaceful and orderly. MONUC troops began patrolling areas of eastern DRC after armed clashes broke on 5 August following the chaotic collection of election results. The UN command is also arranging different training programmes and competitions in Congo for both Congo and international forces. A similar shooting competition was held between troops from all international forces and was won by a Pakistani infantry battalion. Total strength, on 31 October 2007 was 18,407 uniformed personnel, including 16,661 troops, 735 military observers, 1,011 police, who were supported by 931 international civilian personnel, 2,062 local civilian staff and 585 United Nations Volunteers. The UN has recorded a total of 161 fatalities among MONUC personnel, up to 1 July 2010, as follows: 100 military personnel, 10 military observers, 6 UN police, 12 international civilians, and 30 local civilians.", "On 31 October 2007 MONUC had a total of 18,407 uniformed personnel, including 16,661 troops, 735 military observers, 1,011 police, who were supported by 931 international civilian personnel, 2,062 local civilian staff and 585 United Nations Volunteers. Major troop contributors are India, Pakistan and Uruguay (nearly 10,000). On 20 November 2008, the United Nations Security Council voted unanimously to reinforce MONUC with 3,085 more peacekeepers to deal with trouble in the 2008 Nord-Kivu conflict. They voted after 44 organizations, led by the French Foreign Ministry, petitioned the council to send reinforcements to stabilize the region.", "MONUSCO command staff :", "As of 30 June 2013, the total number of personnel in the mission is 20,458:", "International civilian employees and volunteers, and DRC nationals: 2,636", "In 2007 and 2008, in several news and TV reports the BBC published own evidence about Pakistani MONUC peacekeepers in Mongbwalu had entered in a gold-for-guns trading relationship with Nationalist and Integrationist Front (FNI) militia leaders, eventually drawing Congolese army officers and Indian traders from Kenya into the deal. Following its own investigations, the UN concluded that there was no involvement of Pakistani peacekeeper in any such trade relationship. Namely Human Rights Watch harshly criticized the UN for the way it handled the investigation, providing detailed information from several UN documents, arguing that serious allegations of wrongdoing by Pakistani and Indian peacekeepers in the Democratic Republic of Congo were ignored, minimized or shelved by the UN’s Organization of Internal Oversight Services (OIOS). In May 2008, Africa Confidential alleged that some personnel of the Indian Army stationed in DRC had six of 44 allegations of improper relations with the FDLR. These allegations included – using a UN helicopter to fly into Virunga National Park to swap ammunition for ivory with rebels; fraternising with the Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda (FDLR) and failing to seize its weapons; exchanging UN rations for dollars and gold; buying marijuana from the FDLR; failing to support FDLR disarmament; arresting an FDLR rebel after he had supplied counterfeit gold to the Indian troops, and abusing him until the money was returned. The source of the allegations was reported as internal United Nations Office of Internal Oversight Services (OIOS) documents. None of the allegations were found to be true and no action was taken affecting greatly the credibility of Africa Confidential." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early years.", "War years.", "World title challenger.", "World Champion.", "Later World Championships.", "Soviet Championships.", "Post-war tournament record.", "Team competition.", "Final years.", "Legacy.", "Opera singer.", "Personal life." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Smyslov first became interested in chess at the age of six. His father, Vasily Osipovich Smyslov, worked as an engineering technician and had represented the St. Petersburg Technical Institute in intercollegiate chess competitions. Smyslov's father had also studied chess for a time under the tutelage of Mikhail Chigorin and the senior Smyslov became the boy's first teacher. The elder Smyslov gave his son a copy of Alexander Alekhine's book \"My Best Games of Chess 1908–1923\" and the future world champion would later write that this book became his constant reference. He would also write that \"...I was later to read everything that my father had in his library: Dufresne's handbook, separate numbers of the Soviet chess magazines \"Chess\" and \"Chess Sheet\", the text-books of Lasker and Capablanca, and the collections of games of Soviet and international tournaments. The games of the great Russian chess master M. I. Chigorin made an indelible impression on me; it was with interest that I read the various declarations on questions of strategy by A. I. Nimzovitch; I studied attentively the genius of prominent Soviet masters.\" Smyslov's competitive chess experiences began at the age of 14, when he started taking part in classification tournaments. In 1938, at age 17, Smyslov won the USSR Junior Championship. That same year, he tied for 1st–2nd places in the Moscow City Championship, with 121⁄2/17. However, Smyslov's first attempt at adult competition outside his own city fell short; he placed 12th–13th in the Leningrad–Moscow International tournament of 1939 with 8/17 in an exceptionally strong field. In the Moscow Championship of 1939–40 Smyslov placed 2nd–3rd with 9/13.", "In his first Soviet final, the 1940 USSR Chess Championship (Moscow, URS-ch12), he performed exceptionally well for 3rd place with 13/19, finishing ahead of the reigning champion Mikhail Botvinnik. This tournament was the strongest Soviet final up to that time, as it included several players, such as Paul Keres and Vladas Mikėnas, from countries annexed by the USSR, as part of the Nazi–Soviet Pact of 1939. The Soviet Federation held a further tournament of the top six from the 1940 event, and this was called the 1941 Absolute Championship of the USSR, one of the strongest tournaments ever organized. The format saw each player meet his opponents four times. The players were Botvinnik, Keres, Smyslov, Isaac Boleslavsky, Igor Bondarevsky, and Andor Lilienthal. Smyslov scored 10/20 for third place, behind Botvinnik and Keres. This proved that Smyslov was of genuine world-class Grandmaster strength at age 20, a very rare achievement at that time. World War II forced a halt to most international chess, but several tournaments involving Soviet players only were still organized. Smyslov was exempted from military service due to being severely nearsighted, and he won the 1942 Moscow Championship outright with a powerful 12/15. At Kuibyshev 1942, he placed second with 8/11. In a strong field at Sverdlovsk 1943, Smyslov tied for 3rd–4th places with 8/14. In the 1943–44 Moscow Championship, Smyslov tied for 3rd–4th with 111⁄2/16. He finished second in the 1944 USSR Championship at Moscow (URS-ch13) with 101⁄2/16. He emerged as champion from the 1944–45 Moscow Championship with 13/16. By this juncture, Smyslov had advanced into the group of the top three Soviet players, along with Botvinnik and Keres, who was playing in Nazi-occupied Europe during the war. As the war ended, organized chess picked up again. But Smyslov's form hit a serious slump in the immediate post-war period. In the 1945 USSR Championship at Moscow (URS-ch14), Smyslov was in the middle of the very powerful field with 81⁄2/17; the winner was Botvinnik, with Boleslavsky and the new star David Bronstein occupying second and third places. At Tallinn 1945, Smyslov had the worst result of his career, scoring just 61⁄2/15 in a not especially strong field. It was little better in the Moscow Championship of 1945–46, as he could only score 71⁄2/15 for a tie of 7th–11th places, as Bronstein won. Then in the Moscow Championship of 1946, Smyslov scored just 81⁄2/15, for a tie of 3rd–6th places, as Bronstein won again. During this period he scored just 31/62 in those four tournaments, for 50%. Nevertheless, Smyslov's earlier strong results secured him one of the five Soviet places in the first really strong post-war international tournament, at Groningen, Netherlands, in August 1946. This event, the Howard Staunton Memorial, was won by Botvinnik with 141⁄2/19, half a point ahead of former World Champion Max Euwe. Smyslov finished third with 121⁄2/19, and this confirmed his status as one of the world's top players. Smyslov found it tough going for the next while, however, once he was back playing in Soviet events. In the next Soviet Championship (URS-ch15, Leningrad 1947), he tied for 3rd–4th places with 12/19, as Keres won. At Pärnu 1947, Smyslov scored 8/13 for a tied 4th–6th places, as Keres won again. At Warsaw 1947, Smyslov scored 6/9 to tie for 2nd–5th places; the winner was Svetozar Gligorić. In the Mikhail Chigorin Memorial tournament, Moscow 1947, Smyslov tied for 3rd–4th places, with 10/15, as Botvinnik won. His results showed a consistent pattern of high finishes against strong company, but with virtually no tournament championships. Smyslov had never actually won an adult tournament (other than the Moscow City Championship) before he played in the 1948 World Championship Tournament.", "Smyslov was one of the five players selected to compete for the 1948 World Chess Championship tournament to determine who should succeed the late Alexander Alekhine as champion. His selection was questioned in some quarters, but this criticism was amply rebutted when he finished second behind Mikhail Botvinnik, with a score of 11/20. With his second-place finish from the 1948 World Championship, Smyslov was admitted directly into the 1950 Budapest Candidates' tournament without needing to play in qualifying events. Smyslov scored 10/18 for third place, behind Bronstein and Boleslavsky, who tied for first place. Smyslov's third place automatically qualified him into the next Candidates' tournament. He was awarded the International Grandmaster title in 1950 by FIDE on its inaugural list. After winning the Candidates Tournament in Zürich 1953, with 18/28, two points ahead of Keres, Bronstein, and Samuel Reshevsky, Smyslov played a match with Botvinnik for the title the following year. Sited at Moscow, the match ended in a draw, after 24 games (seven wins each and ten draws), meaning that Botvinnik retained his title.", "Smyslov again won the Candidates' Tournament at Amsterdam in 1956, which led to another world championship match against Botvinnik in 1957. Assisted by trainers Vladimir Makogonov and Vladimir Simagin, Smyslov won with the score 121⁄2–91⁄2. The following year, Botvinnik exercised his right to a rematch, and won the title back with a final score of 121⁄2–101⁄2. Smyslov later said his health suffered during the return match, as he came down with pneumonia, but he also acknowledged that Botvinnik had prepared very thoroughly. Over the course of the three World Championship matches, Smyslov had won 18 games to Botvinnik's 17 (with 34 draws), and yet he was only champion for a year. Nonetheless Smyslov wrote in his autobiographical games collection \"Smyslov's Best Games\", \"I have no reason to complain of my fate. I fulfilled my dream and became the seventh world champion in the history of chess.\"", "Smyslov did not qualify for another World Championship, but continued to play in World Championship qualifying events. In 1959, he was a Candidate, but finished fourth in the qualifying tournament held in Yugoslavia, which was won by the rising superstar Mikhail Tal. He missed out in 1962, but was back in 1964, following a first-place tie at the Amsterdam Interzonal, with 17/23. However he lost his first-round match to Efim Geller. In 1983, at the age of 62, he went through to the Candidates' Final (the match to determine who plays the champion, in that case Anatoly Karpov), losing 81⁄2–41⁄2 at Vilnius 1984 to Garry Kasparov, who was 21 at the time, and who went on to beat Karpov to become world champion in 1985. He had beaten Zoltán Ribli 61⁄2–41⁄2 in the semifinal, but drew his quarter-final match against Robert Hübner 7–7, with the advancing player (Smyslov) determined only by the spin of a roulette wheel. His final Candidates' appearance was the Montpellier 1985 tournament, where he did not advance.", "Smyslov was a frequent competitor at the Soviet Championships and enjoyed some notable successes. In 1940, while still a teenager, he finished third behind Bondarevsky and Lilienthal. At the 13th Championship in 1944, he placed second behind Botvinnik and in 1947, shared third with Bondarevsky, after Keres and Boleslavsky. He was a joint winner of the contest in 1949 and again in 1955 (with Bronstein and Geller respectively). Whilst the 1949 title was shared, the 1955 title was awarded to Geller after a play-off. Much later in his career he showed that he could still mount a credible challenge; he took a share of third place in 1969 (behind Petrosian and Polugaevsky) and in 1971, was joint runner-up with Tal, after Savon. He was ranked by FIDE as one of the top 15 players in the world from the late 1940s into the early 1980s, a stretch of almost 40 years.", "Smyslov maintained an active tournament schedule throughout the 1950s, 60s and 70s, registering many top three finishes in some of the most prestigious tournaments of the period. In 1950, he was second behind Kotov at Venice and in 1951, won the Chigorin Memorial, held in Leningrad. He shared third place with Botvinnik at Budapest (Maróczy Memorial) in 1952, after Keres and Geller. In 1953, he won a training tournament in Gagra and finished third at Bucharest, behind Tolush and Petrosian. At the 1954–55 edition of the Hastings Congress, he shared first place with Keres. At Zagreb 1955, he was sole winner, two clear points ahead of the field. He continued his winning streak at Moscow's Alekhine Memorial in 1956, a victory shared with his constant rival, Botvinnik. During this period, there were several triumphs in his city of birth, when he shared first place with Bronstein and Spassky at the inaugural edition of the Moscow Central Chess Club international tournament series (sometimes also referred as an Alekhine Memorial) in 1959, was a joint winner in both 1960 (with Kholmov) and 1961 (with Vasiukov), and won outright in 1963. His good form continued throughout the 1960s. There were shares of second place at Dortmund 1961 (after Taimanov) and at Mar del Plata 1962 (after Polugaevsky). He traveled again to Hastings at the end of 1962 and registered third place behind Gligoric and Kotov. In 1963, he was second at Sochi (Chigorin Memorial) after Polugaevsky. His visit to Havana's Capablanca Memorial in 1964 resulted in a share of first with the East German, Uhlmann. He took outright first at the same tournament the following year. In 1966, there were victories at Mar del Plata and at the Rubinstein Memorial in Polanica Zdroj. In 1967, he was second to Fischer at Monte Carlo, won at Moscow and took second after Stein at the city's Alekhine Memorial tournament. He placed third the same year at the Capablanca Memorial in Havana (after Larsen and Taimanov) and finished third again at Palma de Mallorca 1967 and Monte Carlo 1968, the latter two events both being headed by Larsen and Botvinnik. This was also the year he repeated his previous success at Polanica Zdroj, taking outright first. His next trip to Hastings also ended in triumph, as he took clear first at the 1968–69 edition. The 1960s drew to a close with victory at Monte Carlo 1969 (shared with Portisch) and a share of third place at Skopje 1969 (with Uhlmann and Kholmov, after Hort and Matulović). While less prolific than in previous decades, Smyslov played many strong tournaments in the 1970s and even into the 1980s and beyond. He was joint runner-up with Hort, Gligoric and Korchnoi at Rovinj/Zagreb 1970, after Fischer. A winner at Amsterdam in 1971, he came third at the Alekhine Memorial (Moscow) the same year, after Karpov and Stein. At Las Palmas 1972, he was second equal with Larsen, behind Portisch and in 1973, topped the Capablanca Memorial in Cienfuegos. First place followed at Reykjavík in 1974 and at the Venice tournament of the same year, he finished second behind Liberzon. Then followed a second place at the Alexander Memorial (Teesside) in 1975 (after Geller), a first place at Szolnok (also 1975), and a multi-way share of second at the large Lone Pine Open of 1976 (Petrosian won). He finished third behind Romanishin and Tal at Leningrad in 1977, when all three eclipsed the efforts of then world champion Anatoly Karpov. In 1978, he won at São Paulo and finished with a share of second at Buenos Aires, after Andersson. As the seventies ended, he took first place at Berlin 1979, this time shared with Csom. Notable outcomes for 1980 included joint first places at San Miguel (with Browne, Panno, Jaime Emma) and at Copenhagen (the Politiken Cup, with Mikhalchishin). The same year, he finished second at Bar, after Petrosian and second at Baguio City, after Torre. At Moscow 1981, he joined Kasparov and Polugaevsky in second place, behind Karpov. A further Hastings visit in 1981–82 resulted in a share of second place, with Speelman, after Kupreichik. He was first at Graz in 1984 and first equal at Copenhagen (Politiken Cup) 1986 with Chernin, Pigusov and Cserna. He played at Reggio Emilia over the New Year of 1986–87 and shared second spot with Hort, Chernin and Spassky, after Ribli. At Hastings in 1988–89, he took a share of third with Gulko and Speelman, behind Short and Korchnoi. Smyslov remained on FIDE's top 100 list until he was 70 years old. His tournament appearances were fewer in the 1990s, but results included a share of first place at Buenos Aires 1990 and a share of second at Malmö (Sigeman) in 1997, after Hellers.", "Smyslov represented the Soviet Union a total of nine times at chess Olympiads, from 1952 to 1972 inclusive, excepting only 1962 and 1966. He contributed strongly to team gold medal wins on each occasion he played, winning a total of eight individual medals. His total of 17 Olympiad medals won, including team and individual medals, is an all-time Olympiad record, according to olimpbase.org. At Helsinki 1952, he played second board, and won the individual gold medal with 101⁄2/13. At Amsterdam 1954, he was again on second board, scored 9/12, and took the individual bronze medal. At Moscow 1956, he scored 81⁄2/13 on second board, but failed to win a medal. At Munich 1958, he made 91⁄2/13 on second board, good for the silver individual medal. At Leipzig 1960, he was dropped to first reserve, and made a great score of 111⁄2/13, which won the gold medal. After missing out on selection in 1962, he returned for Tel Aviv 1964, on third board, and won the gold medal with 11/13. He missed selection in 1966, but returned with a vengeance for Lugano 1968, and made a phenomenal 11/12 for another gold medal as second reserve. At Siegen 1970, he was first reserve, and scored 8/11 for the bronze medal. His final Olympiad was Skopje 1972, where at age 51 he played third board and scored 11/14, good for the silver medal. His overall Olympiad score is an imposing 90 points in 113 games (+69−2=42), for 79.6%. This performance is the fifth all-time best for players participating in at least four Olympiads. Smyslov also represented the USSR in five European Team Championships, and emerged with a perfect medals' record: he won five team gold medals and five board gold medals. His total score in these events was (+19−1=15), for 75.7%. From olimpbase.org, here is his European teams' data. Smyslov played for the USSR in both the 1970 and 1984 matches against teams representing the Rest of the World. He was on board six at Belgrade in 1970, and on board four at London in 1984, with the Soviets winning both matches.", "In 1991, Smyslov won the inaugural World Senior Chess Championship. With a FIDE rating still around 2400 as of the year 2000, the 80-year old grandmaster participated in what was to be his final tournament, the Klompendans Veterans Vs. Ladies Tournament in Amsterdam. The highlight of the match was his rout of Zsofia Polgar, leaving the all-time record between the two as 5–1–3. Some of the matches were adjourned early as draws due to his failing eyesight, and Smyslov officially retired from competitive play after this tournament. His Elo rating after this event was 2494. Smyslov died of congestive heart failure in a Moscow hospital on the morning of 27 March 2010, three days after his 89th birthday. Reports circulated that his final years were lived in near-poverty and that he could not afford badly-needed eye surgery. It was also reported that Smyslov and his wife Nadezhda mostly lived off of income from renting their apartment out and that there was nobody around to check up on or care for them.", "Smyslov was known for his positional style, and, in particular, his precise handling of the endgame, but many of his games featured spectacular tactical shots as well. His opening repertoire was conventional for the 1950s–60s era, featuring mainly the Ruy Lopez and English Opening as White, and the Sicilian Defense and Nimzo-Indian Defense as Black. He made enormous contributions to chess opening theory in many openings, including the English Opening, Grünfeld Defence, and the Sicilian Defence. He has a variation of the Closed Ruy Lopez named after him: the line runs 1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.Bb5 a6 4.Ba4 Nf6 5.0-0 Be7 6.Re1 b5 7.Bb3 d6 8.c3 0-0 9.h3 h6. In the Grünfeld Defence, the continuation 1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 g6 3.Nc3 d5 4.Nf3 Bg7 5.Qb3 dxc4 6.Qxc4 0-0 7.e4 Bg4 8.Be3 Nfd7 is known as the Smyslov Variation and remains a major variation. Smyslov also successfully revived the Fianchetto Defence to the Ruy Lopez (1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.Bb5 g6) in the 1970s. In the Slav Defence, the sideline 1.d4 d5 2.c4 c6 3.Nc3 Nf6 4.Nf3 dxc4 5.a4 Na6 is named the Smyslov Variation. Finally, a variation of the King's Indian Defense is named after him which proceeds with the moves 1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 g6 3.Nc3 Bg7 4.Nf3 0-0 5.Bg5 d6 6.e3. Stanley Kubrick named a character after him in his film \"\".", "Smyslov was a baritone singer, and only positively decided upon a chess career after a failed audition with the Bolshoi Theatre in 1950. He occasionally gave recitals during chess tournaments, often accompanied by fellow Grandmaster and concert pianist Mark Taimanov. Smyslov once wrote that he tried to achieve harmony on the chess board, with each piece assisting the others.", "For more than 50 years Smyslov was married to Nadezhda Smyslova, a woman three years his elder whose first husband was executed during the Stalin's purges in the early 1940s. They met in 1948. Nadezhda had a son from the first marriage, an aspiring chess player who competed at the World Junior Championships. Vasily and Nadezhda had no further children. Nadezhda often accompanied her husband at major tournaments, providing moral support." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early years.", "Grandmaster in Moscow.", "1963 World Championship.", "Reigning World Champion.", "Later career.", "Personal life and death.", "Deafness.", "Recognition and legacy.", "Olympiads and team championships.", "Playing style.", "The positional exchange sacrifice.", "Contributions to opening theory." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Petrosian was born to Armenian parents on June 17, 1929 in Tiflis, Georgian SSR (modern-day Georgia). As a young boy, Petrosian was an excellent student and enjoyed studying, as did his brother Hmayak and sister Vartoosh. He learned to play chess at the age of 8, though his illiterate father Vartan encouraged him to continue studying, as he thought chess was unlikely to bring his son any success as a career. Petrosian was orphaned during World War II and was forced to sweep streets to earn a living. It was about this time that his hearing began to deteriorate, a problem that afflicted him throughout his life. In a 1969 interview with \"Time\" magazine, he recalled: He used his rations to buy \"Chess Praxis\" by Danish grandmaster Aron Nimzowitsch, a book which Petrosian later stated had the greatest influence on him as a chess player. He also purchased \"The Art of Sacrifice in Chess\" by Rudolf Spielmann. The other player to have had an early effect on Petrosian's chess was José Raúl Capablanca. At age 12 he began training at the Tiflis Palace of Pioneers under the tutelage of Archil Ebralidze. Ebralidze was a supporter of Nimzowitsch and Capablanca, and his scientific approach to chess discouraged wild tactics and dubious combinations. As a result, Petrosian developed a repertoire of solid positional openings, such as the Caro–Kann Defence. After training at the Palace of Pioneers for just one year, he defeated visiting Soviet grandmaster Salo Flohr at a simultaneous exhibition. By 1946, Petrosian had earned the title of Candidate Master. In that year alone, he drew against Grandmaster Paul Keres at the Georgian Chess Championship, then moved to Yerevan where he won the Armenian Chess Championship and the USSR Junior Chess Championship. Petrosian earned the title of Master during the 1947 USSR Chess Championship, though he failed to qualify for the finals. He set about to improve his game by studying Nimzowitsch's \"My System\" and by moving to Moscow to seek greater competition.", "After moving to Moscow in 1949, Petrosian's career as a chess player advanced rapidly and his results in Soviet events steadily improved. He placed second in the 1951 Soviet Championship, thereby earning the title of international master. It was in this tournament that Petrosian faced world champion Botvinnik for the first time. Playing White, after obtaining a slightly inferior position from the opening, he defended through two adjournments and eleven total hours of play to obtain a draw. Petrosian's result in this event qualified him for the Interzonal the following year in Stockholm. He earned the title of Grandmaster by coming in second in the Stockholm tournament, and qualified for the 1953 Candidates Tournament. Petrosian placed fifth in the 1953 Candidates Tournament, a result which marked the beginning of a stagnant period in his career. He seemed content drawing against weaker players and maintaining his title of Grandmaster rather than improving his chess or making an attempt at becoming World Champion. This attitude was illustrated by his result in the 1955 USSR Championship: out of 19 games played, Petrosian was undefeated, but won only four games and drew the rest, with each of the draws lasting twenty moves or less. Although his consistent playing ensured decent tournament results, it was looked down upon by the public and by Soviet chess media and authorities. Near the end of the event, journalist Vasily Panov wrote the following comment about the tournament contenders: \"Real chances of victory, besides Botvinnik and Smyslov, up to round 15, are held by Geller, Spassky and Taimanov. I deliberately exclude Petrosian from the group, since from the very first rounds the latter has made it clear that he is playing for an easier, but also honourable conquest—a place in the interzonal quartet.\" This period of complacency ended with the 1957 USSR Championship, where out of 21 games played, Petrosian won seven, lost four, and drew the remaining 10. Although this result was only good enough for seventh place in a field of 22 competitors, his more ambitious approach to tournament play was met with great appreciation from the Soviet chess community. He went on to win his first USSR Championship in 1959, and later that year in the Candidates Tournament he defeated Paul Keres with a display of his often-overlooked tactical abilities. Petrosian was awarded the title of Master of Sport of the USSR in 1960, and won a second Soviet title in 1961. His excellent playing continued through 1962 when he qualified for the Candidates Tournament for what would be his first World Championship match.", "After playing in the 1962 Interzonal in Stockholm, Petrosian qualified for the Candidates Tournament in Curaçao along with Pal Benko, Miroslav Filip, Bobby Fischer, Efim Geller, Paul Keres, Viktor Korchnoi, and Mikhail Tal. Petrosian, representing the Soviet Union, won the tournament with a final score of 171⁄2 points, followed by fellow Soviets Geller and Keres each with 17 points and the American Fischer with 14. Fischer later accused the Soviet players of arranging draws and having \"ganged up\" on him to prevent him from winning the tournament. As evidence for this claim, he noted that all 12 games played between Petrosian, Geller, and Keres were draws. Statisticians pointed out that when playing against each other, these Soviet competitors averaged 19 moves per game, as opposed to 39.5 moves when playing against other competitors. Although responses to Fischer's allegations were mixed, FIDE later adjusted the rules and format to try to prevent future collusion in the Candidates matches. Having won the Candidates Tournament, Petrosian earned the right to challenge Mikhail Botvinnik for the title of World Chess Champion in a 24-game match. In addition to practicing his chess, Petrosian also prepared for the match by skiing for several hours each day. He believed that in such a long match, physical fitness could become a factor in the later games. This advantage was increased by Botvinnik being much older than Petrosian. Whereas a multitude of draws in tournament play could prevent a player from taking first place, draws did not affect the outcome of a one-on-one match. In this regard, Petrosian's cautious playing style was well-suited for match play, as he could simply wait for his opponent to make mistakes and then capitalize on them. Petrosian won the match against Botvinnik with a final score of 5 to 2 with 15 draws, securing the title of World Champion.", "Upon becoming World Champion, Petrosian campaigned for the publication of a chess newspaper for the entire Soviet Union rather than just Moscow. This newspaper became known as \"64\". Petrosian studied for a degree of Master of Philosophical Science at Yerevan State University; his thesis, dated 1968, was titled \"Chess Logic, Some Problems of the Logic of Chess Thought\". In 1966, three years after Petrosian had earned the title of World Chess Champion, he was challenged by Boris Spassky. Petrosian defended his title by winning rather than drawing the match, a feat that had not been accomplished since Alexander Alekhine defeated Efim Bogoljubov in the 1934 World Championship. However, Spassky would defeat Efim Geller, Bent Larsen, and Viktor Korchnoi in the next candidates cycle, earning a rematch with Petrosian, in Moscow in 1969. Spassky won the match by 121⁄2–101⁄2.", "Along with a number of other Soviet chess champions, he signed a petition condemning the actions of the defector Viktor Korchnoi in 1976. It was the continuation of a bitter feud between the two, dating back at least to their 1974 Candidates semifinal match in which Petrosian withdrew after five games while trailing 31⁄2–11⁄2 (+3−1=1). His match with Korchnoi in 1977 saw the two former colleagues refuse to shake hands or speak to each other. They even demanded separate eating and toilet facilities. Petrosian went on to lose the match and was subsequently fired as editor of Russia's largest chess magazine, \"64\". His detractors condemned his reluctance to attack and some put it down to a lack of courage. At this point, however, Botvinnik spoke out on his behalf, stating that he only attacked when he felt secure and his greatest strength was in defence. Some of his late successes included victories at Lone Pine 1976 and in the 1979 Paul Keres Memorial tournament in Tallinn (12/16 without a loss, ahead of Tal, Bronstein, and others). He shared first place (with Portisch and Hübner) in the Rio de Janeiro Interzonal the same year, and won second place in Tilburg in 1981, half a point behind the winner Beliavsky. It was here that he played his last famous victory, a miraculous escape against the young Garry Kasparov.", "Petrosian lived in Moscow from 1949. In the 1960s and 1970s, he lived at 59 Pyatnitskaya Street. When asked by Anthony Saidy whether he is Russian, Petrosian replied: \"Abroad, they call us all Russians. I am a Soviet Armenian.\" In 1952, Petrosian married Rona Yakovlevna (née Avinezer, 1923–2005), a Russian Jew born in Kiev, Ukraine. A graduate of the Moscow Institute of Foreign Languages, she was an English teacher and interpreter. She is buried at the Jewish section of the in Moscow. They had two sons: Vartan and Mikhail. The latter was Rona's son from the first marriage. His hobbies included soccer, backgammon, cross-country skiing, table tennis, and gardening. Petrosian died of stomach cancer on August 13, 1984, in Moscow and is buried in the Moscow Armenian Cemetery.", "Petrosian was partially deaf and wore a hearing aid during his matches, which sometimes led to strange situations. On one occasion he offered a draw to Svetozar Gligorić, which Gligorić initially refused in surprise, but then changed his mind in a few seconds and re-offered the draw. However, Petrosian did not even respond, instead went ahead and won the game. As it later turned out, he switched off his hearing aid, and did not hear when Gligorić re-offered the draw. In 1971, he played a candidates match against Robert Hübner in a noisy area in Seville, which did not disturb him, but frustrated Hübner so much that he finally withdrew from the match.", "In 1987, World Chess Champion Garry Kasparov unveiled a memorial at Petrosian's grave which depicts the laurel wreath of World Champion and an image contained within a crown of the sun shining above the twin peaks of Mount Ararat – the national symbol of Petrosian's Armenian homeland. On July 7, 2006, a monument honouring Petrosian was opened in the Davtashen district of Yerevan, in the street named after Petrosian. Petrosian was also honoured on the Armenian dram, with his image on the 2,000 dram banknote.", "Petrosian was not selected for the Soviet Olympiad side until 1958; he had already been a Candidate twice by that time. But he then made ten straight Soviet Olympiad teams from 1958 to 1978, won nine team gold medals, one team silver medal, and six individual gold medals. His overall performance in Olympiad play is impressive: +78−1=50 (only one game lost, to Robert Hübner, out of 129 played), for 79.8 per cent, the third all-time best performance after Anatoly Karpov (+43−2=23 for 80.1 per cent) and Mikhail Tal (+65−2=34 for 81.2 per cent). His Olympiad results follow: Petrosian also made the Soviet team for the first eight European Team Championships (from 1957 to 1983). He won eight team gold medals, and four board gold medals. His totals in Euroteams play, according to olimpbase.org, are (+15−0=37), for 64.4 per cent. His Euroteams results follow:", "Petrosian was a conservative, cautious, and highly defensive chess player who was strongly influenced by Aron Nimzowitsch's idea of prophylaxis. He made more effort to prevent his opponent's offensive capabilities than he did to make use of his own. He very rarely went on the offensive unless he felt his position was completely secure. He usually won by playing consistently until his aggressive opponent made a mistake, securing the win by capitalizing upon this mistake without revealing any weaknesses of his own. This style of play often led to draws, especially against other players who preferred to counterattack. Nonetheless, his patience and mastery of defence made him extremely difficult to beat. He was undefeated at the 1952 and 1955 Interzonals, and in 1962 he did not lose a single tournament game. Petrosian's consistent ability to avoid defeat earned him the nickname \"Iron Tigran\". He was considered to be the hardest player to beat in the history of chess by the authors of a 2004 book. Petrosian preferred to play openings that did not commit his pieces to any particular plan. As black, Petrosian enjoyed playing the Sicilian Defence, Najdorf Variation and the French Defence. As white, he often played the English Opening. Petrosian would often move the same piece multiple times in a few moves, confusing his opponents in the opening and threatening draws by threefold repetition in the endgame. In a game against Mark Taimanov during the 1955 USSR Chess Championship, Petrosian moved the same rook 6 times in a 24-move game, with 4 of those moves occurring on consecutive turns. He had a strong affinity for knights rather than bishops, a characteristic that is attributed to the influence of Aron Nimzowitsch. A number of illustrative metaphors have been used to describe Petrosian's style of play. Harold C. Schonberg said that \"playing him was like trying to put handcuffs on an eel. There was nothing to grip.\" He has been described as a centipede lurking in the dark, a tiger looking for the opportunity to pounce, a python who slowly squeezes his victims to death, and as a crocodile who waits for hours to make a decisive strike. Boris Spassky, who succeeded Petrosian as World Chess Champion, described his style of play as such: \"Petrosian reminds me of a hedgehog. Just when you think you have caught him, he puts out his quills.\" Petrosian's style of play, although highly successful for avoiding defeats, was criticized as being dull. Chess enthusiasts saw his \"ultraconservative\" style as an unwelcome contrast to the popular image of Soviet chess as \"daring\" and \"indomitable\". His 1971 Candidates Tournament match with Viktor Korchnoi featured so many monotonous draws that the Russian press began to complain. However, Svetozar Gligorić described Petrosian as being \"very impressive in his incomparable ability to foresee danger on the board and to avoid any risk of defeat.\" Petrosian responded to his criticisms by saying: \"They say my games should be more 'interesting'. I could be more 'interesting'—and also lose.\" Petrosian was, in the words of future World Champion Vladimir Kramnik, \"the first defender with a capital D\". Another consequence of Petrosian's style of play was that he did not score many victories, which in turn meant he seldom won tournaments even though he often finished 2nd or 3rd. However, his style was extremely effective in matches. Petrosian could also occasionally play in an attacking, sacrificial style. In his 1966 match with Spassky, he won Game 7 and Game 10 this way. Boris Spassky subsequently stated: \"It is to Petrosian's advantage that his opponents never know when he is suddenly going to play like Mikhail Tal.\" (Tal was known as the most aggressive attacker of his era.)", "Petrosian was known for his use of the \"positional exchange sacrifice\", where one side sacrifices a rook for the opponent's bishop or knight. Kasparov discussed Petrosian's use of this motif: One of Petrosian's most famous examples of the positional exchange sacrifice is from his game against Samuel Reshevsky in Zurich 1953 (see diagram). Reshevsky, as White, appears to have an advantage due to his strong, which may become mobile after Bf3 and d4–d5. Petrosian realized he was in a difficult position because of the passive placement of his pieces, relegated to defensive roles. He further understood that White might also advance on the with h2–h4–h5, provoking weaknesses that would make it more difficult to defend later on. Faced with these threats, Petrosian devised a plan to maneuver his knight to the square d5, where it would be prominently placed in the centre, and blockade the advance of White's pawns. With the rook vacated from e7, the black knight is free to move to d5, where it will be attacking the pawn on c3, and help support an eventual advance of his pawn with...b5–b4. The game was eventually drawn on move 41.", "Petrosian was an expert against the King's Indian Defence, and he often played what is now known as the Petrosian System: 1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 g6 3.Nc3 Bg7 4.e4 d6 5.Nf3 0-0 6.Be2 e5 7.d5. This variation closes the centre early in the game. One of the tactical ideas for White is to play Bg5, pinning Black's knight to his queen. Black can respond by either moving his queen (usually...Qe8) or by playing...h6, though the latter move weakens Black's kingside pawn structure. Two of Black's responses to the Petrosian Variation were developed by grandmasters Paul Keres and Leonid Stein. The Keres Variation arises after 7...Nbd7 8.Bg5 h6 9.Bh4 g5 10.Bg3 Nh5 11.h4, and the Stein Variation begins an immediate queenside offensive with 7...a5. The Queen's Indian Defence also has a variation developed by Petrosian: 1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 e6 3.Nf3 b6 4.a3, with the idea of preventing...Bb4+. This system received much attention in 1980 when it was used by the young Garry Kasparov to defeat several grandmasters. Today the Petrosian Variation is still considered the most pressing variation, with the greatest score in Master games. Other Petrosian variations can be found in the Grünfeld Defence after 1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 g6 3.Nc3 d5 4.Nf3 Bg7 5.Bg5, and the French Defence after 1.e4 e6 2.d4 d5 3.Nc3 Bb4 4.e5 Qd7. Some authorities refer to a variation of the Caro–Kann Defence with his name, along with former world champion Vassily Smyslov: the Petrosian–Smyslov Variation, 1.e4 c6 2.d4 d5 3.Nc3 dxe4 4.Nxe4 Nd7." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Family and early life.", "Childhood and family history.", "Education and early law career.", "Cincinnati law practice and marriage.", "Civil War.", "West Virginia and South Mountain.", "Army of the Shenandoah.", "Post-war politics.", "U.S. Congressman from Ohio.", "Governor of Ohio.", "Private life and return to politics.", "Election of 1876.", "Republican nomination and campaign against Tilden.", "Disputed electoral votes.", "Presidency (1877–1881).", "Inauguration.", "The South and the end of Reconstruction.", "Civil service reform.", "Great Railroad Strike.", "Currency debate.", "Foreign policy.", "Indian policy.", "Great Western Tour of 1880.", "Hayes's White House.", "Judicial appointments.", "Later life and death.", "Legacy and honors." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Rutherford Birchard Hayes was born in Delaware, Ohio, on October 4, 1822, to Rutherford Hayes, Jr. and Sophia Birchard. Hayes's father, a Vermont storekeeper, had taken the family to Ohio in 1817. He died ten weeks before Rutherford's birth. Sophia took charge of the family, raising Hayes and his sister, Fanny, the only two of the four children to survive to adulthood. She never remarried, and Sophia's younger brother, Sardis Birchard, lived with the family for a time. He was always close to Hayes and became a father figure to him, contributing", "Hayes attended the common schools in Delaware, Ohio, and enrolled in 1836 at the Methodist Norwalk Seminary in Norwalk, Ohio. He did well at Norwalk, and the next year transferred to the Webb School, a preparatory school in Middletown, Connecticut, where he studied Latin and Ancient Greek. Returning to Ohio, he attended Kenyon College in Gambier in 1838. He enjoyed his time at Kenyon, and was successful scholastically; while there, he joined several student societies and became interested in Whig politics. He graduated with highest honors in 1842 and addressed the class as its valedictorian.", "Hayes moved to Cincinnati in 1850, and opened a law office with John W. Herron, a lawyer from Chillicothe. Herron later joined a more established firm and Hayes formed a new partnership with William K. Rogers and Richard M. Corwine. He found business better in Cincinnati, and enjoyed its social attractions, joining the Cincinnati Literary Society and the Odd Fellows Club. He also attended the Episcopal Church in Cincinnati but did not become a member. Hayes courted his future wife, Lucy Webb, during his time there. His mother had encouraged him to get to know Lucy years earlier, but Hayes had believed she was too young and focused his attention on other women. Four years later, Hayes began to spend more time with Lucy. They became engaged in 1851 and married on December 30, 1852, at Lucy's mother's house. Over the next five years, Lucy gave birth to three sons: Birchard Austin (1853), Webb Cook (1856), and", "", "As the Southern states quickly began to secede after Lincoln's election to the presidency in 1860, Hayes was lukewarm about civil war to restore the Union. Considering that the two sides might be irreconcilable, he suggested that the Union \"[l]et them go.\" Though Ohio had voted for Lincoln in 1860, Cincinnati voters turned against the Republican party after secession. Its residents included many from the South, and they voted for the Democrats and Know-Nothings, who combined to sweep the city", "The division spent the following winter and spring near Charleston, Virginia (present-day West Virginia), out of contact with the enemy. Hayes saw little action until July 1863, when the division skirmished with John Hunt Morgan's cavalry at the Battle of Buffington Island. Returning to Charleston for the rest of the summer, Hayes spent the fall encouraging the men of the 23rd Ohio to reenlist, and many did. In 1864, the Army command structure in West Virginia was reorganized, and Hayes's division was assigned to George", "", "While serving in the Army of the Shenandoah in 1864, Hayes was nominated by Republicans for the House of Representatives from Ohio's 2nd congressional district. Asked by friends in Cincinnati to leave the army to campaign, he refused, saying that an \"officer fit for duty who at this crisis would abandon his post to electioneer for a seat in Congress ought to be scalped.\" Instead, Hayes wrote several letters to the voters explaining his political positions and was elected by a 2,400-vote majority over the incumbent, Democrat Alexander Long. When the 39th Congress assembled in December 1865, Hayes was sworn in as a part of a large Republican majority. Hayes identified with the party's moderate wing, but was willing to vote with the radicals for the sake of party unity. The major legislative", "A popular Congressman and former Army officer, Hayes was considered by Ohio Republicans to be an excellent standard-bearer for the 1867 election campaign. His political views were more moderate than the Republican party's platform, although he agreed with the proposed amendment to the Ohio state constitution that would guarantee suffrage to black male Ohioans. Hayes's opponent, Allen G. Thurman, made the proposed amendment the centerpiece of the campaign and opposed black suffrage. Both men campaigned vigorously, making speeches across the state, mostly focusing on the suffrage question. The election was mostly a disappointment to Republicans, as the amendment failed to pass and Democrats gained a majority in the state legislature. Hayes thought at first that he, too, had lost, but the final tally showed that he had won", "As Hayes prepared to leave office, several delegations of reform-minded Republicans urged him to run for United States Senate against the incumbent Republican, John Sherman. Hayes declined, preferring to preserve party unity and retire to private life. He especially looked forward to spending time with his children, two of whom (daughter Fanny and son Scott) had been born in the past five years. Initially, Hayes tried to promote railway extensions to his hometown, Fremont. He also managed some real estate he had acquired in Duluth, Minnesota. Not entirely removed from politics, Hayes held out some hope of a cabinet appointment, but was disappointed to receive only an appointment as assistant U.S. treasurer at Cincinnati, which he turned down. He agreed to be nominated for his old House seat in 1872 but was not disappointed when he lost the election to Henry B. Banning, a fellow Kenyon College alumnus. In 1873, Lucy gave birth to another son, Manning Force Hayes. That same year, the", "", "Hayes's success in Ohio immediately elevated him to the top ranks of Republican politicians under consideration for the presidency in 1876. The Ohio delegation to the 1876 Republican National Convention was united behind him, and Senator John Sherman did all in his power to get Hayes the nomination. In June 1876, the convention assembled with James G. Blaine of Maine as the favorite. Blaine started with a significant lead in the delegate count, but could not muster a majority. As he failed to gain votes, the delegates looked elsewhere for a nominee and settled on Hayes on the seventh ballot. The convention selected Representative William A. Wheeler from New York for vice president, a man about whom Hayes had recently asked, \"I am ashamed to say: who is Wheeler?\" The Democratic nominee was Samuel J. Tilden, the governor of New York. Tilden was considered a formidable adversary who, like Hayes, had a reputation for honesty. Also like Hayes, Tilden was a hard-money man and supported civil service reform. In", "On November 11, three days after election day, Tilden appeared to have won 184 electoral votes, one short of a majority. Hayes appeared to have 166, with the 19 votes of Florida, Louisiana, and South Carolina still in doubt. Republicans and Democrats each claimed victory in the three latter states, but the results in those states were rendered uncertain because of fraud by both parties. To further complicate matters, one of the three electors from Oregon (a state Hayes had won) was disqualified, reducing Hayes's total to 165, and raising the disputed votes to 20. If Hayes was not awarded all 20 disputed votes, Tilden would be elected president. There was considerable debate about which person or house of Congress was authorized to decide between the competing slates of electors, with the Republican Senate and the Democratic House each claiming priority. By January 1877, with the question still unresolved, Congress and President Grant agreed to submit the matter to a bipartisan Electoral Commission, which would be authorized to determine the fate of the disputed electoral votes. The Commission was to be made up", "", "Because March 4, 1877, was a Sunday, Hayes took the oath of office privately on Saturday, March 3, in the Red Room of the White House, the first president to do so in the Executive Mansion. He took the oath publicly on March 5 on the East Portico of the United States Capitol. In", "Hayes had firmly supported Republican Reconstruction policies throughout his career, but the first major act of his presidency was an end to Reconstruction and the return of the South to \"home rule\". Even without the conditions of the Wormley's Hotel agreement, Hayes would have been hard-pressed to continue his predecessors' policies. The House of Representatives in the 45th Congress was controlled by a majority of Democrats, and they refused to appropriate enough funds for the army to continue to garrison the South. Even among Republicans, devotion to continued military Reconstruction was fading in the face of persistent Southern insurgency and violence. Only two states were still under Reconstruction's sway when Hayes assumed the presidency and, without troops to enforce the voting rights laws, these soon fell to Democratic control. Hayes's later attempts to protect the rights of southern blacks were ineffective, as were his attempts to rebuild Republican strength in the South. He did, however, defeat Congress's efforts to curtail federal power to monitor federal elections. Democrats in Congress passed an army appropriation bill in 1879 with a rider that", "Hayes took office determined to reform the system of civil service appointments, which had been based on the spoils system since Andrew Jackson's presidency. Instead of giving federal jobs to political supporters, Hayes wished to award them by merit according to an examination that all applicants would take. Hayes's call for reform immediately brought him into conflict with the Stalwart, or pro-spoils, branch of the Republican party. Senators of both parties were accustomed to being consulted about political appointments and turned against Hayes. Foremost among his enemies was New York Senator Roscoe Conkling, who fought Hayes's reform efforts at every turn. To show his commitment to reform, Hayes appointed one of", "In his first year in office, Hayes was faced with the United States' largest labor uprising to date, the Great Railroad Strike of 1877. To make up for financial losses suffered since the panic of 1873, the major railroads had cut their employees' wages several times in 1877. In July of that year, workers at the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad walked off the job in Martinsburg, West Virginia, to protest their reduction in pay. The strike quickly spread to workers of the New York Central, Erie, and Pennsylvania railroads, with the strikers soon numbering in the thousands. Fearing a riot, Governor Henry M. Mathews asked Hayes to send federal troops to Martinsburg, and Hayes did so, but when the troops arrived there was no riot, only a peaceful protest. In Baltimore, however, a riot did erupt on July 20, and Hayes ordered the troops at Fort McHenry to assist the governor in suppressing it. Pittsburgh exploded into riots", "Hayes confronted two issues regarding the currency, the first of which was the coinage of silver, and its relation to gold. In 1873, the Coinage Act of 1873 stopped the coinage of silver for all coins worth a dollar or more, effectively tying the dollar to the value of gold. As a result, the money supply contracted and the effects of the Panic of 1873 grew worse, making it more expensive for debtors to pay debts they had contracted when currency was less valuable. Farmers and laborers, especially, clamored for the return of coinage in both metals, believing the increased money supply would restore wages and property values. Democratic Representative Richard P. Bland of Missouri proposed a bill to require the United States to coin as much silver as miners could sell the government, thus increasing the money supply and aiding debtors. William B. Allison, a Republican from Iowa, offered an amendment in the Senate limiting the coinage to two to four million dollars per month, and the resulting Bland–Allison Act passed", "Most of Hayes's foreign-policy concerns involved Latin America. In 1878, following the Paraguayan War, he arbitrated a territorial dispute between Argentina and Paraguay. Hayes awarded the disputed land in the Gran Chaco region to Paraguay, and the Paraguayans honored him by renaming a city (Villa Hayes) and a department (Presidente Hayes) in his honor. Hayes became concerned over the plans of Ferdinand de Lesseps, the builder of the Suez Canal, to construct a canal across the Isthmus of Panama, then part of Colombia. Worried about a repetition of French adventurism in Mexico, Hayes interpreted the Monroe Doctrine firmly. In a message to Congress, Hayes explained his opinion on the canal: \"The policy of this country is a canal under American control... The United States cannot consent to the surrender of this control to any European power or any combination of European powers.\" The Mexican border also drew Hayes's attention. Throughout the 1870s, \"lawless bands\" often crossed the border on raids into Texas. Three months after taking office, Hayes granted the Army the power to pursue bandits, even", "Interior Secretary Carl Schurz carried out Hayes's American Indian policy, beginning with preventing the War Department from taking over the Bureau of Indian Affairs. Hayes and Schurz carried out a policy that included assimilation into white culture, educational training, and dividing Indian land into individual household allotments. Hayes believed his policies would lead to self-sufficiency and peace between Indians and whites. The allotment system under the Dawes Act, later signed by President Cleveland in 1887, was favored by liberal reformers at the time, including Schurz, but instead proved detrimental to American Indians. They lost much of their land through sales of what the government classified as \"surplus lands\", and more to unscrupulous white speculators who tried to get the Indians to sell their allotments. Hayes and Schurz reformed the Bureau of Indian Affairs to reduce fraud and gave Indians responsibility for policing their reservations, but they were generally understaffed. Hayes dealt with several conflicts with Indian tribes. The Nez Perce, led by Chief Joseph, began an uprising in June 1877 when Major General Oliver O. Howard ordered them to", "In 1880, Hayes embarked on a 71-day tour of the American West, becoming the second sitting president to travel west of the Rocky Mountains. (Hayes's immediate predecessor, Ulysses Grant, visited Utah in 1875.) Hayes's traveling party included his wife and William T. Sherman, who helped organize the trip. Hayes began his trip in September 1880, departing", "Hayes and his wife Lucy were known for their policy of keeping an alcohol-free White House, giving rise to her nickname \"Lemonade Lucy.\" The first reception at the Hayes White House included wine, but Hayes was dismayed at drunken behavior at receptions hosted by ambassadors around Washington, leading him to follow his wife's temperance", "Hayes appointed two Associate Justices to the Supreme Court. The first vacancy occurred when David Davis resigned to enter the Senate during the election controversy of 1876. On taking office, Hayes appointed John Marshall Harlan to the seat. A former candidate for governor of Kentucky, Harlan had been Benjamin Bristow's campaign manager at the 1876 Republican convention, and Hayes had earlier considered him for attorney general. Hayes submitted the nomination in October 1877, but it aroused some dissent in the Senate because of Harlan's limited experience in public office. Harlan was nonetheless confirmed and served on the court for 34 years, voting (usually in the minority) for aggressive enforcement of the civil rights laws. In 1880, a second seat became", "Hayes declined to seek re-election in 1880, keeping his pledge that he would not run for a second term. He was gratified with the election of fellow Ohio Republican James A. Garfield to succeed him, and consulted with him on appointments for the next administration. After Garfield's inauguration, Hayes and his family returned to Spiegel Grove. In 1881, he was elected a companion of the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States. He served as commander-in-chief (national president) of the Loyal Legion from 1888 until his death in 1893. Although he remained a loyal Republican, Hayes was not too disappointed in Grover Cleveland's election to the presidency in 1884, approving of the New York Democrat's views on civil service reform. He was also pleased at the progress of the political career of William McKinley, his army comrade and political protégé. Hayes became an advocate for educational charities, advocating federal education subsidies for all children. He believed that education was the best way to heal the rifts in American society and allow individuals to improve themselves. Hayes was appointed to the Board of Trustees of The Ohio State University, the school he helped", "Following the donation of his home to the state of Ohio for the Spiegel Grove State Park, he was reinterred there in 1915. The next year the Hayes Commemorative Library and Museum, the country's first presidential library, opened on the site, funded by contributions from the state of Ohio and Hayes's family. An 1878 dispute between Argentina and Paraguay that Hayes had arbitrated and decided in favor of Paraguay, giving Paraguay 60% of its current territory, later led to the naming of a province in the region after him: Presidente Hayes Department (capital: Villa Hayes); an official holiday: Laudo Hayes Firm Day, the anniversary of the decision, celebrated in Presidente Hayes province; a local soccer team: Club Presidente Hayes (also known as \"Los Yanquis\"), based in the national capital, Asuncion; a postage stamp, the design of which was chosen in a contest run by the U.S. Embassy; and even a young girl's wish: a girl who came out of a coma got her fondest wish—a trip to the Hayes Presidential Center in Fremont, Ohio. Also named for Hayes is Hayes County, Nebraska. Hayes was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1890. Rutherford B. Hayes High School in Hayes's hometown of Delaware, Ohio, was named in his honor. Hayes Hall, built in 1893, at the Ohio State University is also named in his honor. It is the campus's oldest remaining building, and was placed on the National Register of Historic Places on July 16, 1970, due to its front facade, which remains virtually untouched from its original appearance. Hayes knew the building would be named in his honor, but he did not live to see it completed." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Childhood and early life.", "Education, marriage and early career.", "Civil War.", "Buell's command.", "Chief of staff for Rosecrans.", "Congressional career.", "Election in 1862; Civil War years.", "Reconstruction.", "Tariffs and finance.", "Crédit Mobilier scandal; Salary Grab.", "Minority leader; Hayes administration.", "U.S. Senate election, 1880.", "Legal career and other activities.", "Presidential election of 1880.", "Republican nomination.", "Campaign against Hancock.", "Presidency, 1881.", "Cabinet and inauguration.", "Supreme Court nomination.", "Reforms.", "Civil rights and education.", "Foreign policy and naval reform.", "Assassination.", "Guiteau and shooting.", "Treatment and death.", "Funeral, memorials and commemorations.", "Legacy and historical view.", "Works cited." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "James Garfield was born the youngest of five children on November 19, 1831, in a log cabin in Orange Township, now Moreland Hills, Ohio. Orange Township had been in the Western Reserve until 1800, and like many who settled there, Garfield's ancestors were from New England, his ancestor Edward Garfield immigrating from Hillmorton, Warwickshire, England, to Massachusetts around 1630. James's father Abram had been born in Worcester, New York, and came to Ohio to woo his childhood sweetheart, Mehitabel Ballou, only to find her married. He instead wed her sister Eliza, who had been born in New Hampshire. James was named for an older brother who died in infancy. In early 1833, Abram and Eliza Garfield joined the Church of Christ, a decision that shaped their youngest son's life. Abram died later that year; James was raised in poverty in a household led by the strong-willed Eliza. He was her favorite child, and the two remained close for the rest of his life. Eliza", "At Geauga Academy, which he attended from 1848 to 1850, Garfield learned academic subjects for which he had not previously had time. He shone as a student, and was especially interested in languages and elocution. He began to appreciate the power a speaker had over an audience, writing that the speaker's platform \"creates some excitement. I love agitation and investigation and glory in defending unpopular truth against popular error.\" Geauga was coeducational, and Garfield was attracted to one of his fellow students, Lucretia Rudolph, whom he later married. To support himself at Geauga, he worked as a carpenter's assistant and a teacher. The need to go from town to town to find work as a teacher disgusted Garfield, and he thereafter developed a dislike of what he called \"place-seeking\", which became, he said, \"the law of my life.\" In later years, he astounded his friends by letting positions pass that could have been his with a little politicking. Garfield had attended church more to please his mother than to worship God, but in his late teens underwent a religious awakening, and attended many camp meetings, at one of which he was born again on March 4, 1850, baptized into Christ by being submerged in the icy waters of the Chagrin River. After leaving Geauga, Garfield worked for a year at various jobs, including teaching. Finding that some New Englanders worked their way through college, Garfield determined to do the same, and sought a school that could prepare him for the entrance examinations. From 1851 to 1854, he attended the Western Reserve Eclectic Institute (later named Hiram College) in Hiram, Ohio, a school run by the Disciples. While there, he was most interested in the study of Greek and Latin, but was inclined to learn about and discuss any new thing he encountered. Securing a position on entry", "After Abraham Lincoln's election as president, several Southern states announced their secession from the Union to form a new government, the Confederate States of America. Garfield read military texts while anxiously awaiting the war effort, which he regarded as a holy crusade against the Slave Power. In April 1861, the rebels bombarded Fort Sumter, one of South's last federal outposts, beginning the Civil War. Although he had no military training, Garfield knew that his place was in the Union Army. At Governor William Dennison's request, Garfield deferred his military ambitions to remain in the legislature, where he helped appropriate the funds to raise and equip Ohio's volunteer regiments. Afterward, the legislature adjourned and Garfield spent the spring and early summer on a speaking tour of northeastern Ohio, encouraging enlistment in the new regiments. Following a trip to Illinois to purchase muskets, Garfield returned to Ohio and, in August 1861, received a commission as a colonel in the 42nd Ohio Infantry regiment. The 42nd Ohio existed only on paper, so Garfield's first task was to fill its ranks. He did so quickly, recruiting many of his neighbors and former students. The regiment traveled to Camp Chase, outside Columbus, Ohio, to complete training. In December, Garfield was ordered to bring the 42nd to Kentucky, where they joined the Army of the Ohio under Brigadier General Don Carlos Buell.", "Buell quickly assigned Garfield the task of driving Confederate forces out of eastern Kentucky, giving him the 18th Brigade for the campaign, which, besides his own 42nd, included the 40th Ohio Infantry, two Kentucky infantry regiments and two cavalry units. They departed Catlettsburg, Kentucky, in mid-December, advancing through the valley of the Big Sandy River. The march was uneventful until Union forces reached Paintsville, Kentucky, on January 6, 1862, where Garfield's cavalry engaged the rebels at Jenny's Creek. Confederate troops under Brigadier General Humphrey Marshall held the town in numbers roughly equal", "Generals' chiefs of staff were usually more junior officers, but Garfield's influence with Rosecrans was greater than usual, with duties extending beyond communication of orders to actual management of his Army of the Cumberland. Rosecrans had a voracious appetite for conversation, especially when unable to sleep; in Garfield, he found \"the first well read person in the Army\" and the ideal candidate for discussions that ran deep into the night. The two became close despite Garfield's being 12 years Rosecrans's junior, and they discussed everything, especially religion; Rosecrans, who had converted from Methodism to Roman Catholicism, softened Garfield's view of his faith. Garfield recommended that Rosecrans replace wing commanders Alexander McCook and Thomas Crittenden, whom he believed ineffective, but Rosecrans ignored the suggestion. With Rosecrans, Garfield devised the Tullahoma Campaign to pursue and trap Confederate General Braxton Bragg in Tullahoma. After initial Union success, Bragg retreated toward Chattanooga, where Rosecrans stalled and requested more troops and supplies. Garfield argued for", "", "While serving in the Army in early 1862, Garfield was approached by friends about running for Congress from Ohio's newly redrawn, heavily Republican 19th district. He was worried that he and other state-appointed generals would get obscure assignments, and running for Congress would allow him to resume his political career. The fact that the new Congress would not hold its first regular session until December 1863 allowed him to continue his war service for a time. Home on medical leave, he refused to campaign for the nomination, leaving that to political managers who secured it at the local convention in September 1862 on the eighth ballot. In October, he defeated D.B. Woods by a two-to-one margin in the general election for a seat in the 38th Congress. Soon after his nomination, Garfield", "Garfield was as firm a supporter of black suffrage as he had been of abolition, though he admitted that the idea of African Americans as whites' political equals gave him \"a strong feeling of repugnance.\" President Johnson sought the rapid restoration of the Southern states during the months between his accession and the meeting of Congress in December 1865; Garfield hesitantly supported this policy as an experiment. Johnson, an old friend, sought Garfield's backing, and their conversations led Garfield to assume that Johnson's differences with Congress were not large. When Congress assembled in December (to Johnson's chagrin without the elected representatives of the Southern states, who were excluded), Garfield urged conciliation on his colleagues, although he feared that Johnson, a former Democrat, might join other Democrats to gain political control. Garfield foresaw conflict even before February 1866, when Johnson vetoed a bill to extend the life of the Freedmen's Bureau, charged with aiding the former slaves. By April, Garfield had concluded that Johnson was either \"crazy or drunk with opium.\" The conflict between the branches of government was the major issue of the 1866 campaign, with Johnson taking", "Throughout his political career, Garfield favored the gold standard and decried attempts to increase the money supply through the issuance of paper money not backed by gold, and later, through the free and unlimited coinage of silver. In 1865, he was placed on the House Ways and Means Committee, a long-awaited opportunity to focus on financial and economic issues. He reprised his opposition to the greenback, saying, \"Any party which commits itself to paper money will go down amid the general disaster, covered with the curses of a ruined people.\" In 1868 Garfield gave a two-hour speech on currency in the House, which was widely applauded as his best oratory to that point; in it he advocated a gradual resumption of specie payments, that is, the government paying out silver and gold, rather than paper money that could not be redeemed. Tariffs had been raised to high levels during", "The Crédit Mobilier of America scandal involved corruption in the financing of the Union Pacific Railroad, part of the transcontinental railroad that was completed in 1869. Union Pacific officers and directors secretly purchased control of the Crédit Mobilier of America company, then contracted with it to undertake construction of the railroad. The railroad paid the company's grossly inflated invoices with federal funds appropriated to subsidize the project, and the company was allowed to purchase Union Pacific securities at par value, well below the market rate. Crédit Mobilier showed large profits and stock gains, and distributed substantial dividends. The high expenses meant that Congress was called upon to appropriate", "With the Democratic takeover of the House of Representatives in 1875, Garfield lost his chairmanship of the Appropriations Committee. The Democratic leadership in the House appointed Garfield as a Republican member of Ways and Means. With many of his leadership rivals defeated in the 1874 Democratic landslide, and Blaine elected to the Senate, Garfield was seen as the Republican floor leader and the likely Speaker should the party regain control of the chamber. Garfield thought the land grants given to expanding railroads was an unjust practice. He also opposed some monopolistic practices by corporations, as well as the power sought by workers' unions. Garfield supported", "President Hayes suggested that Garfield run for governor in 1879, seeing that as a road that would likely put Garfield in the White House. Garfield preferred to seek election as a U.S. Senator. Rivals were spoken of for", "Garfield was one of three attorneys who argued for the petitioners in the landmark Supreme Court case \"Ex parte Milligan\" in 1866. His clients were pro-Confederate northern men who had been found guilty and sentenced to death by a military court for treasonous activities. The case turned on whether the defendants should instead have been tried by a civilian court, and resulted in a ruling that civilians could not be tried before military tribunals while the civil courts were operating. The oral argument was Garfield's first court appearance. Jeremiah Black had taken him in as a junior partner a year before, and assigned the case to him in light of his highly regarded oratory skills. With the result, Garfield instantly achieved", "", "Having just been elected to the Senate with Sherman's support, Garfield entered the 1880 campaign season committed to Sherman as his choice for the Republican presidential nominee. Even before the convention began, however, a few Republicans, including Wharton Barker of Philadelphia, thought Garfield the best choice for the nomination. Garfield denied any interest in the position, but the attention was enough to make Sherman suspicious of his lieutenant's ambitions. Besides Sherman, the early favorites for the nomination were Blaine and former President Grant, but several other candidates attracted delegates as well. During this period, the Republican Party was split into two factions: The Stalwarts, who supported the existing federal government patronage system; and the Half-Breeds, who supported civil service reform. As the convention began, Senator Roscoe Conkling of New York (the floor leader for the Stalwarts, who supported former President Ulysses S. Grant), proposed that the delegates pledge to support the eventual nominee in the general election. When three West Virginia delegates declined to be so bound, Conkling sought to expel them from the convention. Garfield rose to defend the men, giving a passionate speech", "Despite including a Stalwart on the ticket, animosity between the Republican factions carried over from the convention, and Garfield traveled to New York to meet with party leaders there. After convincing the Stalwart crowd to put aside their differences and unite for the coming campaign, Garfield returned to Ohio, leaving the active campaigning to others, as was traditional at the time. Meanwhile, the Democrats settled on their nominee, Major General Winfield Scott Hancock of Pennsylvania, a career military officer. Hancock and the Democrats expected to carry the Solid South, while much of the North was considered safe territory for Garfield and the Republicans; most of the campaign would involve a few close states, including New York and Indiana. Practical differences between the candidates were few, and Republicans began the campaign with", "", "Between his election and his inauguration, Garfield was occupied with assembling a cabinet that would establish peace between Conkling's and Blaine's warring factions. Blaine's delegates had provided much of the support for Garfield's nomination, and the Maine senator received the place of honor: Secretary of State. Blaine was not only the president's closest advisor, he was obsessed with knowing all that took place in the White House, and was even said to have spies posted there in his absence. Garfield nominated William Windom of Minnesota as Secretary of the Treasury, William H. Hunt of Louisiana as Secretary of the Navy, Robert Todd Lincoln as Secretary of War, and Samuel J. Kirkwood of Iowa as Secretary of the Interior. New York was represented by Thomas Lemuel James as Postmaster General. Garfield appointed Pennsylvania's Wayne MacVeagh, an adversary of Blaine's, as Attorney General. Blaine tried to sabotage the appointment by convincing Garfield to name an opponent of MacVeagh, William E. Chandler, as Solicitor General under MacVeagh. Only Chandler's rejection by the Senate forestalled MacVeagh's resignation over the matter. Distracted by cabinet maneuvering, Garfield's inaugural address was not up to his typical oratorical standards. In one high point, Garfield emphasized the", "In 1880, President Hayes had nominated Stanley Matthews to the Supreme Court of the United States. The U.S. Senate declined to act on the Matthews nomination. In March 1881, Garfield re-nominated Matthews to the Supreme Court. The Senate confirmed Matthews to the high", "Grant and Hayes had both advocated civil service reform, and by 1881, civil service reform associations had organized with renewed energy across the nation. Garfield sympathized with them, believing that the spoils system damaged the presidency and distracted from more important concerns. Some reformers were disappointed that Garfield had advocated limited tenure only to minor office seekers and had given appointments to his old friends, but many remained loyal and supported Garfield. Corruption in the post office also cried out for reform. In April 1880, there had been a congressional investigation into corruption in the Post Office Department, in which profiteering rings allegedly", "Garfield believed that the key to improving the state of African American civil rights would be found in education aided by the federal government. During Reconstruction, freedmen had gained citizenship and suffrage that enabled them to participate in government, but Garfield believed their rights were being eroded by Southern white resistance and illiteracy, and was concerned that blacks would become America's permanent \"peasantry.\" He answered by proposing a \"universal\" education system funded by the federal government. Congress and the northern white public, however, had lost interest in African-American rights, and", "Entering the presidency, Garfield had little foreign policy experience, so he leaned heavily on Blaine. Blaine, a former protectionist, now agreed with Garfield on the need to promote freer trade, especially within the Western Hemisphere. Their reasons were twofold: firstly, Garfield and Blaine believed that increasing trade with Latin America would be the best way to keep Great Britain from dominating the region. Secondly, by encouraging exports, they believed they could increase American prosperity. Garfield authorized Blaine to call for a Pan-American conference in 1882 to mediate disputes among the Latin American nations and to serve as a forum for talks on increasing trade. At the same time, they hoped to negotiate a peace in the War of the Pacific then being fought by Bolivia, Chile, and Peru. Blaine favored a resolution", "", "Garfield was shot by Charles J. Guiteau, a disgruntled office seeker, at the Baltimore and Potomac Railroad Station in Washington, D.C. on July 2, 1881. After eleven weeks of intensive care Garfield died in Elberon, New Jersey, the second of four presidents to be assassinated, following Abraham Lincoln. Guiteau had followed various professions in his life, but in 1880 had determined to gain federal office by supporting what he expected would be the winning Republican ticket. He composed a speech, \"Garfield vs. Hancock\", and got it printed by the Republican National Committee. One means of persuading the voters in that", "Garfield was struck by two shots; one glanced off his arm while the other pierced his back, shattering a rib and embedding itself in his abdomen. \"My God, what is this?\" he exclaimed. Guiteau, as he was led away, stated, \"I did it. I will go to jail for it. I am a Stalwart and Arthur will be President.\" Among those at the station was Robert Todd Lincoln, who was deeply upset, thinking back to when his father Abraham Lincoln was assassinated 16 years earlier. Garfield was taken on a mattress upstairs to a private office, where several doctors examined him, probing the wound with unwashed fingers. At his request, Garfield was taken back to the White House, and his wife, then in New Jersey, was sent for. Blaine sent word to Vice President Arthur in New York City, who received threats against his life because of his animosity toward Garfield and Guiteau's statements. Although Joseph Lister's pioneering work in antisepsis was known to American doctors, with Lister himself having visited America in 1876, few of them had confidence in it, and none of his advocates were among Garfield's treating physicians. The physician who took charge at the depot and then at the White House was Doctor Willard Bliss. A noted physician and surgeon, Bliss was an old friend of Garfield, and about a dozen doctors, led by Bliss, were soon probing the wound with unsterilized fingers and instruments. Garfield was given morphine for the pain, and asked Bliss to frankly tell him his chances, which Bliss put at one in a hundred. \"Well,", "Garfield's funeral train left Long Branch on the same special track that brought him there, traveling over tracks blanketed with flowers and past houses adorned with flags. His body was transported to the Capitol and then continued on to Cleveland for burial. More than 70,000 citizens, some waiting over three hours, passed by Garfield's coffin as his body lay in state at the United States Capitol rotunda; later, on September 25, 1881, in Cleveland, more than 150,000—a number equal to the entire population of that city—likewise paid their respects. His body was temporarily interred in a vault in Cleveland's Lake View Cemetery until his permanent memorial was built. Memorials to Garfield were erected across the country. On April 10, 1882, seven months after Garfield's death, the U.S. Post Office issued a postage stamp in his honor, the second stamp issued by the U.S. to honor an assassinated president. In 1884, sculptor Frank Happersberger completed a monument on the grounds of the San Francisco Conservatory of Flowers. In 1887, the James A. Garfield Monument was dedicated in Washington. Another monument, in Philadelphia's Fairmount Park, was erected in 1896. In Victoria, Australia, Cannibal Creek was", "For a few years after his assassination, Garfield's life story was seen as an exemplar of the American success story—that even the poorest boy might someday become President of the United States. Peskin noted that, \"In mourning Garfield, Americans were not only honoring a president; they were paying tribute to a man whose life story embodied their own most cherished aspirations.\" As the rivalry between Stalwarts and Half-Breeds faded from the scene in the late 1880s and after, so too did memories of Garfield. Beginning in 1882, the year after Garfield's death, the U.S. Post Office began issuing postage stamps honoring the late president. Despite his short term as president, nine different issues were printed over the years. In the 1890s, Americans became disillusioned with politicians, and looked elsewhere for inspiration, focusing on industrialists, labor leaders, scientists, and others as their heroes. Increasingly, Garfield's short time as president was forgotten. The 20th century saw no revival for Garfield. Thomas Wolfe deemed the presidents of the Gilded Age, including Garfield, \"lost Americans\" whose \"gravely vacant and bewhiskered faces mixed, melted, swam together.\" The politicians", "Books Periodicals Online" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Apical meristems.", "Shoot apical meristems.", "Root apical meristem.", "Intercalary meristem.", "Floral meristem.", "Apical dominance.", "Diversity in meristem architectures.", "Role of the KNOX-family genes.", "Primary meristems.", "Secondary meristems.", "Indeterminate growth of meristems.", "Cloning.", "Induced meristems." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Apical meristems are the completely undifferentiated (indeterminate) meristems in a plant. These differentiate into three kinds of primary meristems. The primary meristems in turn produce the two secondary meristem types. These secondary meristems are also known as lateral meristems because they are involved in lateral growth. There are two types of apical meristem tissue: shoot apical meristem (SAM), which gives rise to organs like the leaves and flowers, and root apical meristem (RAM), which provides the meristematic cells for future root growth. SAM and RAM cells divide rapidly and are considered indeterminate, in that they do not possess any defined end status. In that sense, the meristematic cells are frequently compared to the stem cells in animals, which have an analogous behavior and function. The apical meristems are layered where the number of layers varies according to plant type. In general the outermost layer is called the tunica while the innermost layers are the corpus. In monocots, the tunica determine the physical characteristics of the leaf edge and margin. In dicots, layer two of the corpus determine the characteristics of the edge of the leaf. The corpus and tunica play a critical part of the plant physical appearance as all plant cells are formed from the meristems. Apical meristems are found in two locations: the root and the stem. Some Arctic plants have an apical meristem in the lower/middle parts of the plant. It is thought that this kind of meristem evolved because it is advantageous in Arctic conditions.", "Shoot apical meristems are the source of all above-ground organs, such as leaves and flowers. Cells at the shoot apical meristem summit serve as stem cells to the surrounding peripheral region, where they proliferate rapidly and are incorporated into differentiating leaf or flower primordia. The shoot apical meristem is the site of most of the embryogenesis in flowering plants. Primordia of leaves, sepals, petals, stamens, and ovaries are initiated here at the rate of one every time interval, called a plastochron. It is where the first indications that flower development has been evoked are manifested. One of these indications might be the loss of apical dominance and the release of otherwise dormant cells to develop as auxiliary shoot meristems, in some species in axils of primordia as close as two or three away from the apical dome. The shoot apical meristem consists of 4 distinct cell groups: The four distinct zones mentioned above are maintained by a complex signalling pathway. In \"Arabidopsis thaliana\", 3 interacting \"CLAVATA\" genes are required to regulate the size of the stem cell reservoir in the shoot apical meristem by controlling the rate of cell division. CLV1 and CLV2 are predicted to form a receptor complex (of the LRR receptor-like kinase family) to which CLV3 is a ligand. CLV3 shares some homology with the ESR proteins of maize, with a short 14 amino acid region being conserved between the proteins. Proteins that contain these conserved regions have been grouped into the CLE family of proteins. CLV1 has been shown to interact with several cytoplasmic proteins that are most likely involved in downstream signalling. For example, the CLV complex has been found to be associated with Rho/Rac small GTPase-related proteins. These proteins may act as an intermediate between the CLV complex and a mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), which is often involved in signalling cascades. KAPP is a kinase-associated protein phosphatase that has been shown to interact with CLV1. KAPP is thought to act as a negative regulator of CLV1 by dephosphorylating it. Another important gene in plant meristem maintenance is \"WUSCHEL\" (shortened to \"WUS\"), which is a target of CLV signaling in addition to positively regulating CLV, thus forming a feedback loop. \"WUS\" is expressed in the cells below the stem cells of the meristem and its presence prevents the differentiation of the stem cells. CLV1 acts to promote cellular differentiation by repressing \"WUS\" activity outside of the central zone containing the stem cells. The function of \"WUS\" in the shoot apical meristem is linked to the phytohormone cytokinin. Cytokinin activates histidine kinases which then phosphorylate histidine phosphotransfer proteins. Subsequently, the phosphate groups are transferred onto two types of Arabidopsis response regulators (ARRs): Type-B ARRS and Type-A ARRs. Type-B ARRs work as transcription factors to activate genes downstream of cytokinin, including A-ARRs. A-ARRs are similar to B-ARRs in structure; however, A-ARRs do not contain the DNA binding domains that B-ARRs have, and which are required to function as transcription factors. Therefore, A-ARRs do not contribute to the activation of transcription, and by competing for phosphates from phosphotransfer proteins, inhibit B-ARRs function. In the SAM, B-ARRs induce the expression of \"WUS\" which induces stem cell identity. \"WUS\" then suppresses A-ARRs. As a result, B-ARRs are no longer inhibited, causing sustained cytokinin signaling in the center of the shoot apical meristem. Altogether with CLAVATA signaling, this system works as a negative feedback loop. Cytokinin signaling is positively reinforced by WUS to prevent the inhibition of cytokinin signaling, while WUS promotes its own inhibitor in the form of CLV3, which ultimately keeps WUS and cytokinin signaling in check.", "Unlike the shoot apical meristem, the root apical meristem produces cells in two dimensions. It harbors two pools of stem cells around an organizing center called the quiescent center (QC) cells and together produces most of the cells in an adult root. At its apex, the root meristem is covered by the root cap, which protects and guides its growth trajectory. Cells are continuously sloughed off the outer surface of the root cap. The QC cells are characterized by their low mitotic activity. Evidence suggests that the QC maintains the surrounding stem cells by preventing their differentiation, via signal(s) that are yet to be discovered. This allows a constant supply of new cells in the meristem required for continuous root growth. Recent findings indicate that QC can also act as a reservoir of stem cells to replenish whatever is lost or damaged. Root apical meristem and tissue patterns become established in the embryo in the case of the primary root, and in the new lateral root primordium in the case of secondary roots.", "In angiosperms, intercalary meristems occur only in monocot (in particular, grass) stems at the base of nodes and leaf blades. Horsetails also exhibit intercalary growth. Intercalary meristems are capable of cell division, and they allow for rapid growth and regrowth of many monocots. Intercalary meristems at the nodes of bamboo allow for rapid stem elongation, while those at the base of most grass leaf blades allow damaged leaves to rapidly regrow. This leaf regrowth in grasses evolved in response to damage by grazing herbivores.", "When plants begin flowering, the shoot apical meristem is transformed into an inflorescence meristem, which goes on to produce the floral meristem, which produces the sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels of the flower. In contrast to vegetative apical meristems and some efflorescence meristems, floral meristems cannot continue to grow indefinitely. Their future growth is limited to the flower with a particular size and form. The transition from shoot meristem to floral meristem requires floral meristem identity genes, that both specify the floral organs and cause the termination of the production of stem cells. \"AGAMOUS\" (\"AG\") is a floral homeotic gene required for floral meristem termination and necessary for proper development of the stamens and carpels. \"AG\" is necessary to prevent the conversion of floral meristems to inflorescence shoot meristems, but is identity gene \"LEAFY\" (\"LFY\") and \"WUS\" and is restricted to the centre of the floral meristem or the inner two whorls. This way floral identity and region specificity is achieved. WUS activates AG by binding to a consensus sequence in the AG’s second intron and LFY binds to adjacent recognition sites. Once AG is activated it represses expression of WUS leading to the termination of the meristem. Through the years, scientists have manipulated floral meristems for economic reasons. An example is the mutant tobacco plant \"Maryland Mammoth.\" In 1936, the department of agriculture of Switzerland performed several scientific tests with this plant. \"Maryland Mammoth\" is peculiar in that it grows much faster than other tobacco plants.", "Apical dominance is the phenomenon where one meristem prevents or inhibits the growth of other meristems. As a result, the plant will have one clearly defined main trunk. For example, in trees, the tip of the main trunk bears the dominant shoot meristem. Therefore, the tip of the trunk grows rapidly and is not shadowed by branches. If the dominant meristem is cut off, one or more branch tips will assume dominance. The branch will start growing faster and the new growth will be vertical. Over the years, the branch may begin to look more and more like an extension of the main trunk. Often several branches will exhibit this behavior after the removal of apical meristem, leading to a bushy growth. The mechanism of apical dominance is based on auxins, types of plant growth regulators. These are produced in the apical meristem and transported towards the roots in the cambium. If apical dominance is complete, they prevent any branches from forming as long as the apical meristem is active. If the dominance is incomplete, side branches will develop. Recent investigations into apical dominance and the control of branching have revealed a new plant hormone family termed strigolactones. These compounds were previously known to be involved in seed germination and communication with mycorrhizal fungi and are now shown to be involved in inhibition of branching.", "The SAM contains a population of stem cells that also produce the lateral meristems while the stem elongates. It turns out that the mechanism of regulation of the stem cell number might be evolutionarily conserved. The \"CLAVATA\" gene \"CLV2\" responsible for maintaining the stem cell population in \"Arabidopsis thaliana\" is very closely related to the Maize gene \"FASCIATED EAR 2\"(\"FEA2\") also involved in the same function. Similarly, in Rice, the \"FON1-FON2\" system seems to bear a close relationship with the CLV signaling system in \"Arabidopsis thaliana\". These studies suggest that the regulation of stem cell number, identity and differentiation might be an evolutionarily conserved mechanism in monocots, if not in angiosperms. Rice also contains another genetic system distinct from \"FON1-FON2\", that is involved in regulating stem cell number. This example underlines the innovation that goes about in the living world all the time.", "Genetic screens have identified genes belonging to the KNOX family in this function. These genes essentially maintain the stem cells in an undifferentiated state. The KNOX family has undergone quite a bit of evolutionary diversification while keeping the overall mechanism more or less similar. Members of the KNOX family have been found in plants as diverse as Arabidopsis thaliana, rice, barley and tomato. KNOX-like genes are also present in some algae, mosses, ferns and gymnosperms. Misexpression of these genes leads to the formation of interesting morphological features. For example, among members of \"Antirrhineae\", only the species of the genus Antirrhinum lack a structure called spur in the floral region. A spur is considered an evolutionary innovation because it defines pollinator specificity and attraction. Researchers carried out transposon mutagenesis in \"Antirrhinum majus\", and saw that some insertions led to formation of spurs that were very similar to the other members of \"Antirrhineae\", indicating that the loss of spur in wild \"Antirrhinum majus\" populations could probably be an evolutionary innovation. The KNOX family has also been implicated in leaf shape evolution \"(See below for a more detailed discussion)\". One study looked at the pattern of KNOX gene expression in \"A. thaliana\", that has simple leaves and \"Cardamine hirsuta\", a plant having complex leaves. In \"A. thaliana\", the KNOX genes are completely turned off in leaves, but in \"C.hirsuta\", the expression continued, generating complex leaves. Also, it has been proposed that the mechanism of KNOX gene action is conserved across all vascular plants, because there is a tight correlation between KNOX expression and a complex leaf morphology.", "Apical meristems may differentiate into three kinds of primary meristem: These meristems are responsible for primary growth, or an increase in length or height, which were discovered by scientist Joseph D. Carr of North Carolina in 1943.", "There are two types of secondary meristems, these are also called the \"lateral meristems\" because they surround the established stem of a plant and cause it to grow laterally (i.e., larger in diameter).", "Though each plant grows according to a certain set of rules, each new root and shoot meristem can go on growing for as long as it is alive. In many plants, meristematic growth is potentially indeterminate, making the overall shape of the plant not determinate in advance. This is the primary growth. Primary growth leads to lengthening of the plant body and organ formation. All plant organs arise ultimately from cell divisions in the apical meristems, followed by cell expansion and differentiation. Primary growth gives rise to the apical part of many plants. The growth of nitrogen-fixing root nodules on legume plants such as soybean and pea is either determinate or indeterminate. Thus, soybean (or bean and Lotus japonicus) produce determinate nodules (spherical), with a branched vascular system surrounding the central infected zone. Often, Rhizobium infected cells have only small vacuoles. In contrast, nodules on pea, clovers, and Medicago truncatula are indeterminate, to maintain (at least for some time) an active meristem that yields new cells for Rhizobium infection. Thus zones of maturity exist in the nodule. Infected cells usually possess a large vacuole. The plant vascular system is branched and peripheral.", "Under appropriate conditions, each shoot meristem can develop into a complete, new plant or clone. Such new plants can be grown from shoot cuttings that contain an apical meristem. Root apical meristems are not readily cloned, however. This cloning is called asexual reproduction or vegetative reproduction and is widely practiced in horticulture to mass-produce plants of a desirable genotype. This process is also known as mericloning. Propagating through cuttings is another form of vegetative propagation that initiates root or shoot production from secondary meristematic cambial cells. This explains why basal 'wounding' of shoot-borne cuttings often aids root formation.", "Meristems may also be induced in the roots of legumes such as soybean, \"Lotus japonicus\", pea, and \"Medicago truncatula\" after infection with soil bacteria commonly called Rhizobia. Cells of the inner or outer cortex in the so-called \"window of nodulation\" just behind the developing root tip are induced to divide. The critical signal substance is the lipo-oligosaccharide Nod factor, decorated with side groups to allow specificity of interaction. The Nod factor receptor proteins NFR1 and NFR5 were cloned from several legumes including \"Lotus japonicus\", \"Medicago truncatula\" and soybean (\"Glycine max\"). Regulation of nodule meristems utilizes long-distance regulation known as the autoregulation of nodulation (AON). This process involves a leaf-vascular tissue located LRR receptor kinases (LjHAR1, GmNARK and MtSUNN), CLE peptide signalling, and KAPP interaction, similar to that seen in the CLV1,2,3 system. LjKLAVIER also exhibits a nodule regulation phenotype though it is not yet known how this relates to the other AON receptor kinases." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Start and end of day." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "Midnight marks the beginning and ending of each day in civil time throughout the world. As the dividing point between one day and another, midnight defies easy classification as either part of the preceding day or of the following day. Though there is no global unanimity on the issue, most often midnight is considered the start of a new day and is associated with the hour 00:00. Even in locales with this technical resolution, however, vernacular references to midnight as the end of any given day may be common. Strictly speaking, it is incorrect to use \"a.m.\" and \"p.m.\" when referring to noon or midnight. The abbreviation a.m. stands for \"ante meridiem\" or \"before noon\", and p.m. stands for \"post meridiem\" or \"after noon\". Since noon is neither before nor after noon, and midnight is exactly twelve hours before and after noon, neither abbreviation is correct. However, many digital representations of time are configured to require an \"a.m.\" or \"p.m.\" designation, preventing the correct absence of such designators at midnight. In such cases, there is no international standard defining which arbitrary selection is best. In the United States and Canada, digital clocks and computers commonly display 12 a.m at midnight. The 30th edition of the \"U.S. Government Style Manual (2008)\", in sections 9.54 and 12.9b, recommended the use of \"12 a.m.\" for midnight and \"12 p.m.\" for noon. However, the previous 29th edition of the \"U.S. Government Printing Office Style Manual (2000)\", in section 12.9, recommended the opposite. There is no further record documenting this change. The US National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) recommends avoiding confusion altogether by using \"00.01 am\" and the date instead of \"midnight.\" There are several common approaches to identifying and distinguishing the precise start and end of any given day." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography.", "Virginia Falls.", "Rabbitkettle Hotsprings.", "Flora and fauna.", "History.", "Park history.", "In fiction." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "There are several different landforms in the park that have taken millions of years to form, and give it a diversity not seen in any other national park in Canada. Sediment left by an ancient inland sea 500-200 million years ago had since become pressed into layers of rock. These layers were stacked about deep and are peppered with fossils, remnants of these ancient sea beds. As the continents shifted, the North American and Pacific Plates collided, the force of which pushed the layers of rock upwards. Ridges of rock bent and broke, leaving behind the ranges seen today. This same action also caused volcanic activity, sending molten lava into but not through the sedimentary rock. While there are no volcanoes in the park, towers of heated rock called igneous batholiths were sent upwards, pushing the sediment further up. The top layer of sedimentary rock was eventually eroded away, resulting in granite towers that form the Ragged Range. Over the last 2 million years, glaciers have covered most of North America, creating most of the land formations seen today. While previous ice ages affected the park area, the most recent, the Wisconsin Ice Age (85,000-10,000 years ago) touched only the most western and eastern parts of the park. This has left many geological features in the park much more time to develop than most of North America had. The central feature of the park is the South Nahanni River which runs the length of the park, beginning near Moose Ponds and ending when it meets the Liard River near Nahanni Butte. The South Nahanni is a rare example of an antecedent river. The mountains rose slowly enough, and the river was powerful enough that the river maintained its course over its history, meaning it has the same path today as it did before the mountains rose. As the river was meandering, the canyons it carved also meander. Most visitors only visit the portions from Virginia Falls (\"Nailicho\") down. There are four main canyons that line the South Nahanni River, named by prospectors, numbering them as they travelled up the river. The fourth canyon, also called Painted Canyon or Five Mile Canyon due to its length, begins with Virginia Falls, and was created as the falls eroded the limestone surrounding the river, working its way upstream. Third canyon runs through Funeral Range, around long. Because its walls are composed of a stratum of shale, sandstones and limestone this canyon has long slopes instead of steep, flat walls like the lower canyons. Big Bend, a point where the river does a 45 degree turn, marks the end of Third and the beginning of Second Canyon. At long, it runs through the Headless Range. The final canyon is considered the most beautiful. Beginning after Deadmen Valley, First Canyon boasts the highest, most vertical walls, cutting through very resistant limestone. It ends near Kraus Hotsprings, making it about long. Following this, the river slows and braids into different channels, passing through the park boundary, and coming together again near the village of Nahanni Butte. Soon after the town, the South Nahanni River joins the Liard River. Notable mountains in the park include Mount Nirvana (), officially an unnamed peak, which at is the highest mountain in the Northwest Territories. Slightly further north lies Mount Sir James MacBrien (), the territories second highest peak at, and Lotus Flower Tower (, ) both of which form part of the Cirque of the Unclimbables ().", "At Virginia Falls or \"Nailicho\" in Dene (), the river plunges in a thunderous plume. Including the Sluice Box Rapids above the falls, it is more than twice the height of Niagara Falls. In the centre of the falls is a dramatic spire of resistant rock, called Mason's Rock after Bill Mason, the famous Canadian canoeist, author, and filmmaker. The falls were initially located downstream at the east end of Fourth Canyon, and over the centuries carved through the limestone rock that surrounds the river. This continuous erosion shifted the falls upstream and created the Fourth Canyon. Due to the mist, the immediate vicinity of the falls is home to several rare orchid species. There is a proposal to rename the falls after former Prime Minister of Canada, Pierre Trudeau. Downstream from the falls, there are many notable rapids on the river including Figure Eight, George's Riffle, and Lafferty's Riffle.", "The Rabbitkettle (\"Gahnîhthah\") Hotsprings and tufa mounds () are the largest of tufa mounds in Canada. The largest of the mounds, the North Mound, is high and across. The source of the springs comes from deep in the Earth's crust, near the base of the granite batholiths that form the Ragged Range. The volcanic activity that raised the mountains still heats the water deep below the surface of the Earth. The heated water percolates upwards, dissolving calcium carbonate from limestone deposits on its way by. When it reaches the surface springs, the water cools and the calcium carbonate particles are released. These microscopic particles settle to form porous calcite rims around the pools of water. These pools range in size from that of a bathtub to that of a fingernail. This process takes a great deal of time, and it is believed that the mounds themselves are around 10,000 years old, their creation beginning at the end of the last ice age. These rare and fragile features are protected as a Zone 1, Special Preservation Area, and all visitors must be accompanied by Parks Canada staff in order to minimize impact and visitors to the North Mound are required to be barefoot.", "The park's sulphur hot springs, alpine tundra, mountain ranges, and forests of spruce and aspen are home to many species of birds, fish and mammals. The park lies within three of Canada's ecozones, the Taiga Cordillera in the west, the Taiga Plains in the east and a small southern portion in the Boreal Cordillera. According to Parks Canada there are 42 mammal, 180 bird, 16 fish and a few amphibian species found in the park. In the \"State of the Park Report 2009\" the NWT government showed ten species that the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) had listed as special concern, threatened, or endangered that Nahanni National Park Reserve provides seasonal and year-round habitat for. These include common nighthawk, grizzly bear, olive-sided flycatcher, peregrine falcon, rusty blackbird, short-eared owl, wood bison, woodland caribou, wolverine and yellow rail. In addition the bull trout (Dolly Varden) and the Nahanni aster are listed but without a status and the Canada warbler and western toad are listed as possibly existing in the park. Mammal species found in the park include; black bear, timber wolf, moose, shrew, vole, Arctic ground squirrel, marmot, mink, beaver, pine marten, lynx, snowshoe hare, river otter, muskrat, and red fox. Birds include the American kestrels, bald and golden eagles, loons, red-necked grebes, sharp-shinned hawks and trumpeter swans. It also includes the only known nesting site of the whooping crane. Fish found in the park include, Arctic grayling, burbot, inconnu, lake trout, lake chub, lake whitefish, longnose dace, longnose sucker, mountain whitefish, northern pike, round whitefish, slimy sculpin, spoonhead sculpin, spottail shiner and trout-perch. The diverse range of soils offers several specialized and uncommon habitats. More than 700 species of vascular plants and 300 species of both bryophytes and lichen can be found in the park, giving it a richer variety than any other area in the NWT. Nahanni aster is a very rare subspecies of aster found only in the Park.", "The Dene, sometimes called Slavey, peoples have used the lands around Nahanni National Park Reserve for thousands of years. The first human occupation of the area is estimated to have occurred 9,000-10,000 years ago. Evidence of prehistoric human use has been found at Yohin Lake and a few other sites within the park. The local oral history contains many references to the Naha tribe, a mountain-dwelling people who used to raid settlements in the adjacent lowlands. These people are said to have rather quickly and mysteriously disappeared. First contact with European fur traders expanding into the region occurred in the 18th century, and was increased with Alexander Mackenzie's exploration of the Mackenzie River (Deh Cho), and building of trading posts at Fort Simpson and Fort Liard. At both of these John McLeod, a Scottish explorer of the area, was to serve as manager. During the 19th century, most Dene families left their nomadic lifestyles and settled into more permanent communities, often close to the trading posts. Permanent settlements were established at locations such as Nahanni Butte, Fort Liard and Fort Simpson. In the late 19th century, the Mountain Indians of the Nahanni region would travel down the Nahanni River each spring in mooseskin boats to trade the winter take of furs. These boats, based on the York boats used by the Hudson's Bay Company, were up to in length. Constructed from six to ten untanned moose hides sewn together and stretched over a spruce pole frame, these boats would transport entire families, their dogs and cargo of furs down the river during high water. Upon arrival the boat was dismantled and the hides traded along with the furs. Following a visit to the forts, these people would return to the high country with only what they could carry on their pack dogs. The stories of the Naha, and dangerous landscape that they inhabited, grew in stature with the Klondike Gold Rush as some explorers attempted to use the Nahanni as a path to the famous gold fields of the Yukon, or to try and make their fortune on the Flat and South Nahanni Rivers. Although no significant gold was found, legends of haunted valleys and lost gold emerged after the headless corpses of Métis prospectors Willie and Frank McLeod were found around 1908. The Lost McLeod Mine, a legendary lost mine somewhere in the park, is supposed to have been where the two brothers found their gold. In the years that followed, mysterious deaths of other prospectors added to the legends. The names of park features such as Deadmen Valley, Headless Creek, Headless Range and the Funeral Range, bear testimony to these stories and legends. In later years Albert Faille was a prospector in the area and met writer Raymond M. Patterson. The latter's works brought minor fame to Faille. In 1947 author Pierre Berton was sent by \"The Vancouver Sun\" to cover the north. He, along with pilot Russ Baker, flew up the Headless Valley. In 1964, explorer parachutist Jean Poirel from Montreal jumped at its source north of Yellowknife, followed by his teammate Bertrand Bordet. Jean Poirel imagined the idea of going down the river with inflatable dinghies. During the following four consecutive expeditions in the valley Jean Poirel discovered more than 250 caverns. The most important contained 116 Dall sheep’s skeletons (carbon-14 dated to 2500 years BC); Jean Poirel named it \"Valerie Cavern\" after his daughter. He took topographic notes and drew detailed maps, paving the way for the park's creation. During his last expedition in 1972, he escorted Pierre Trudeau, who came in person to evaluate this superb and fascinating region.", "Originally established in 1972, by then Prime Minister Pierre Elliot Trudeau, the park was in area. The park was in \"reserve\" status pending settlement of outstanding Aboriginal land claims in the region. In 2003, an agreement between the Dehcho First Nations and Parks Canada gave temporary protection to. In August 2007, the federal government added an extra. In a novel form of cooperation between federal government and native groups, the Naha Dehe Consensus Team was formed in June 2000 by Canada and the Dehcho First Nations. Their original main tasks included: In 2003, these were completed and the purpose of the team changed, now dealing with cooperative management issues, according to the Interim Park Management Arrangement, until the Dehcho Process is completed. On 9 June 2009 the Government of Canada, with the Dehcho First Nations, announced legislation that will increase the area of Nahanni National Park to cover, including 91% of the Greater Nahanni ecosystem in the Dehcho Region and most of the South Nahanni River watershed. The new park area is estimated to be the home of around 500 grizzly bears, two herds of woodland caribou, as well as species of alpine sheep and goats and other species. The new boundary will include the highest mountains and largest ice fields in the Northwest Territories. With the expansion of the park there have been several added designated landing sites. Because most access to the park is done by aircraft and air access is restricted in the park, there are set places aircraft can land. Before the expansion these were limited to Virginia Falls and Rabbitkettle Lake. Now there are five more: the Bunny Bar, Island Lake, Honeymoon Lake, Glacier Lake, and Seaplane Lake. However, only Virginia Falls and Glacier Lake are designated for day use visitation, meaning all other sites require visitors to stay overnight in the park. A visitor centre in Fort Simpson features displays on the history, culture and geography of the area. The park was among the world's first four natural heritage locations to be inscribed as World Heritage Sites by UNESCO in 1978. The South Nahanni River achieved Canadian Heritage River status in 1987. Presently around 800–1000 people visit the park every year, most of which are overnight visitors who travel down the South Nahanni. The park is open year-round, but most visitors come in June, July, and August. Virginia Falls is the only area of the park where a reservation is required, which must be done months in advance to prevent overcrowding. For safety reasons, all visitors must register with park officials upon entering the park boundaries, and deregister within 24 hours of leaving. There is a park office in Nahanni Butte at the end of the river, where visitors can deregister. The only practical way to get to Nahanni National Park is by floatplane or by helicopter, usually from Fort Simpson but other communities and locations offering a gateway into the park include: Watson Lake, Muncho Lake, Fort Nelson and Inconnu Lodge. Some people do hike in from the Nahanni Range Road at Tungsten to the west of the park. In 2007 the park was voted one of the Seven Wonders of Canada in a competition sponsored by CBC Television's \"The National\" and CBC Radio One's \"Sounds Like Canada\". The park was the subject of a short film in 2011's \"National Parks Project\", directed by Kevin McMahon and scored by Shad, Jace Lasek and Olga Goreas.", "The area was featured in \"Sick Heart River\", a fictional river in the Nahanni area, by John Buchan, 1st Baron Tweedsmuir who was the Governor General of Canada. Buchan had not visited the Nahanni but had travelled down the Mackenzie and wanted to visit the area. \"The River\", a book by Cheryl Kaye Tardif, is based on stories and legends from the area." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "History.", "Middle Ages.", "15th and 16th centuries.", "17th and 18th centuries.", "19th century.", "20th century.", "21st century.", "Government.", "Geography and environment.", "Boundaries.", "Geography.", "Climate.", "Environment.", "Green belt.", "Demographics.", "Bristol conurbation.", "Economy.", "Culture.", "Arts.", "Architecture.", "Sport.", "Dialect.", "Religion.", "Bars and nightlife.", "Media.", "Education.", "Transport.", "Rail.", "Roads.", "Public transport.", "Cycling.", "Air.", "International relations.", "Freedom of the City." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The most ancient recorded name for Bristol is the archaic Welsh \"Caer Odor\" (the fort on the chasm), which is consistent with modern understanding that early Bristol developed between the River Frome and Avon Gorge. It is most commonly stated that the Saxon name \"Bricstow\" was a simple calque of the existing Celtic name, with \"Bric\" (meaning a break) a literal translation of Odor, and the common Saxon suffix \"Stow\" replacing Caer. Alternative etymologies are supported by numerous orthographic variations in medieval documents, with", "Archaeological finds, including flint tools believed to be between 300,000 and 126,000years old made with the Levallois technique, indicate the presence of Neanderthals in the Shirehampton and St Annes areas of Bristol during the Middle Palaeolithic. Iron Age hill forts near the city are at Leigh Woods and Clifton Down, on the side of the Avon Gorge, and on Kings Weston Hill near Henbury. A Roman settlement, Abona, existed at what is now Sea Mills (connected to Bath by a Roman road); another was at the present-day Inns Court. Isolated Roman villas and small forts and settlements were also scattered throughout the area.", "Bristol was founded by 1000; by about 1020, it was a trading centre with a mint producing silver pennies bearing its name. By 1067 Brycgstow was a well-fortified \"burh\", and that year the townsmen beat off a raiding party from Ireland led by three of Harold Godwinson's sons. Under Norman rule, the town had one of the strongest castles in southern England. Bristol was the place of exile for Diarmait Mac Murchada, the Irish king of Leinster, after being overthrown. The Bristol merchants subsequently played a prominent role in funding Richard Strongbow de Clare and the Norman invasion of Ireland. The port developed in the", "During the 15th century Bristol was the second most important port in the country, trading with Ireland, Iceland and Gascony. It was the starting point for many voyages, including Robert Sturmy's (1457–58) unsuccessful attempt to break the Italian monopoly of Eastern Mediterranean trade. New exploration voyages were launched by Venetian John Cabot, who in 1497 made landfall in North America. A 1499 voyage, led by merchant William Weston of Bristol, was the first expedition commanded by an Englishman to North America. During the first decade of the 16th century Bristol's merchants undertook a series of exploration voyages to North America", "Fishermen from Bristol, who had fished the Grand Banks of Newfoundland since the 16th century, began settling Newfoundland permanently in larger numbers during the 17th century, establishing colonies at Bristol's Hope and Cuper's Cove. Growth of the city and trade came with the rise of England's American colonies in the 17th century. Bristol's location on the west side of Great Britain gave its ships an advantage in sailing to and from the New World, and the city's merchants made the most of it. The 18th century saw an expansion of Bristol's role in the Atlantic trade in Africans taken for slavery to the Americas. Bristol and later Liverpool became centres of the Triangular Trade. Manufactured goods were shipped to West Africa and exchanged for Africans; the enslaved captives were transported across the Atlantic to the Americas in the Middle Passage under brutal conditions. Plantation goods such as sugar, tobacco, rum, rice, cotton and a few slaves (sold to the aristocracy as house servants) returned across the Atlantic to England. Some household slaves were baptised in the hope this would lead them to be freed. The", "The city was associated with Victorian engineer Isambard Kingdom Brunel, who designed the Great Western Railway between Bristol and London Paddington, two pioneering Bristol-built oceangoing steamships ( and ), and the Clifton Suspension Bridge. The new railway replaced the Kennet and Avon Canal, which had fully opened in 1810 as the main route for the transport of goods between Bristol and London. Competition from Liverpool (beginning around 1760), disruptions of maritime commerce due to war with France (1793) and the abolition of the slave trade (1807) contributed to Bristol's failure to keep pace with the newer manufacturing centres of Northern England and the West Midlands. The tidal Avon Gorge, which had secured the port during the Middle Ages, had become a liability. An 1804–09 plan to improve the city's port with a floating harbour designed by William Jessop was a costly error, requiring high harbour fees. During the 19th century, Samuel Plimsoll, known as \"the sailor's friend,\" campaigned to make the seas safer; shocked by", "From a population of about 330,000 in 1901, Bristol grew steadily during the 20th century, peaking at 428,089 in 1971. Its Avonmouth docklands were enlarged during the early 1900s by the Royal Edward Dock. Another new dock, the Royal Portbury Dock, opened across the river from Avonmouth during the 1970s. As air travel grew in the first half of the century, aircraft manufacturers built factories. The unsuccessful Bristol International Exhibition was held on Ashton Meadows in the Bower Ashton area in 1914. After the premature closure of the exhibition the site was used, until 1919, as barracks for the Gloucestershire Regiment during World War I. Bristol was heavily damaged by Luftwaffe raids during World War II; about 1,300 people living or working in the city were killed and nearly 100,000 buildings were damaged, at least 3,000 beyond repair. The original central shopping area, near the bridge and castle, is now a park containing two bombed churches and fragments of the castle. A third bomb-damaged church nearby, St Nicholas, has been restored and is a museum", "From 2018, there were lively discussions about a new explicative plaque under a commemorative statue of one of the city's major benefactors in the 17th and 18th centuries. The plaque", "Bristol City council consists of 70 councillors representing 35 wards, with between one and three per ward serving four-year terms. Councillors are elected in thirds, with elections held in three years out of every four-year period. Thus, since wards do not have both councillors up for election at the same time, two-thirds of the wards participate in each election. Although the council was long dominated by the Labour Party, the Liberal Democrats have grown strong in the city and (as the largest party) took minority control of the council after the 2005 United Kingdom general election. In 2007, Labour and the Conservatives united to defeat the Liberal Democrat administration; Labour ruled the council as a minority administration, with Helen Holland as council leader. In February 2009, the Labour group resigned and the Liberal Democrats re-entered office with a minority administration. In the June 2009 council elections the Liberal Democrats gained four seats and, for the first time, overall control of the city council. In 2010 they increased their representation to 38 seats, giving them a majority of 6. In 2011, they lost their majority; leading to a hung council. In the 2013 local elections, in which a third of the city's wards were up for election, Labour gained 7seats and the Green Party doubled their seats from 2to 4. The Liberal Democrats lost 10 seats. These trends were continued into the next election in May 2014, in which Labour gained three seats to take their total to 31, the Green Party won two more seats, the Conservative party gained one seat, and UKIP won their first-ever seat on the council. The Liberal Democrats lost a further seven seats. On 3 May 2012, Bristol held a referendum on the question of a directly elected mayor replacing one elected by the council. There were 41,032 votes in favour of a directly elected mayor and 35,880 votes against, with a 24% turnout. An election for the new post was held on 15 November 2012, and Independent candidate George Ferguson became Mayor of Bristol. The Lord Mayor of Bristol, not to be confused with the Mayor of Bristol, is a figurehead elected each May by the city council. Councillor Faruk Choudhury was selected by his fellow councillors for the position in 2013. At 38, he was the youngest person to serve as Lord Mayor of Bristol and the first Muslim elected to the office. Bristol constituencies in the House of Commons also included parts of other local authority areas until the 2010 general election, when their boundaries were aligned with the county boundary. The city is divided into Bristol West, East, South and North West. At the 2017 general election, Labour won all four of the Bristol constituencies, gaining the Bristol North West seat, seven years after losing it to the Conservatives. The city has a tradition of political activism. Edmund Burke, MP for the Bristol constituency for six years beginning in 1774, insisted that he was a Member of Parliament first and a representative of his constituents' interests second. Women's-rights advocate Emmeline Pethick-Lawrence (1867–1954) was born in Bristol, and the left-winger Tony Benn served as MP for Bristol South East in 1950–1960 and again from 1963–83. In 1963 the Bristol Bus Boycott, following the Bristol Omnibus Company's refusal to hire Black drivers and conductors, drove the passage of the UK's 1965 Race Relations Act. The 1980 St. Pauls riot protested against racism and police harassment and showed mounting dissatisfaction with the socioeconomic circumstances of the city's Afro-Caribbean residents. Local support of fair trade was recognised in 2005, when Bristol became a fairtrade zone. Bristol is both a city and a county, since King Edward III granted it a county charter in 1373. The county was expanded in 1835 to include suburbs such as Clifton, and it was named a county borough in 1889 when that designation was introduced.", "", "Bristol's boundaries are defined in several ways, depending on whether they are those of the city, the developed area, or Greater Bristol. The narrowest definition of the city is the city council boundary, which includes a large section of the western Severn", "Bristol is part of a limestone area running from the Mendip Hills in the south to the Cotswolds in the northeast. The rivers Avon and Frome cut through the limestone to the underlying clay, creating Bristol's characteristically hilly landscape. The Avon flows from Bath in the east, through flood plains and areas which were marshes before the city's growth. To the west the Avon cuts through the limestone to form the Avon Gorge, aided by glacial meltwater after the last ice age.<ref name=\"10.1144/GSL\"></ref> The gorge, which helped protect Bristol Harbour, has been quarried for", "The climate is oceanic (Köppen: \"Cfb)\", milder than most places in England and United Kingdom. Located in southern England, Bristol is one of the warmest cities in the UK with a mean annual temperature of approximately. It is among the sunniest, with 1,541–1,885hours of sunshine per year. Although the city is partially sheltered by the Mendip Hills, it is exposed to the Severn Estuary and the Bristol Channel. Annual rainfall increases from north to south, with totals north of the Avon in the range and south of the river. Rain is fairly evenly distributed throughout the year, with autumn and winter the wetter seasons. The Atlantic Ocean influences Bristol's weather, keeping", "Bristol was ranked as Britain's most sustainable city (based on its environmental performance, quality of life, future-proofing and approaches to climate change, recycling and biodiversity), topping environmental charity Forum for the Future's 2008 Sustainable Cities Index. Local initiatives include Sustrans (creators of the National Cycle Network, founded as Cyclebag in 1977) and Resourcesaver, a", "The city has green belt mainly along its southern fringes, taking in small areas within the Ashton Court Estate, South Bristol crematorium and cemetery, High Ridge", "In 2014, the Office for National Statistics estimated the Bristol unitary authority's population at 442,474, making it the 43rd-largest ceremonial county in England. The ONS, using Census 2001 data, estimated the city's population at 441,556. According to the 2011 census, 84% of the population was White (77.9% White British, 0.9% White Irish, 0.1% Gypsy or Irish Travellers and 5.1% Other White); 3.6% mixed-race (1.7% white-and-black Caribbean, 0.4% white-and-black African, 0.8% white and Asian and 0.7% other mixed); 5.5% Asian (1.6% Pakistani, 1.5% Indian, 0.9% Chinese, 0.5% Bangladeshi, and 1% other Asian); 6% Black (2.8% African, 1.6% Caribbean, 1.6% Other Black), 0.3% Arab and 0.6% with other heritage. Bristol is unusual among major British towns and cities in its larger black than Asian population. These statistics apply to the Bristol Unitary Authority area, excluding areas of the urban area (2006 estimated population 587,400) in South Gloucestershire, Bath and North East Somerset (BANES) and North Somerset—such as Kingswood, Mangotsfield, Filton and Warmley. 56.2% of the 209,995 Bristol residents who are employed commute to work using either a car, van, motorbike or taxi, 2.2% commute by rail and 9.8% by bus, while 19.6% walk.", "The population of Bristol's contiguous urban area was put at 551,066 by the ONS based on Census 2001 data. In 2006 the ONS estimated Bristol's urban-area population at 587,400, making it England's sixth-most populous city and tenth-most populous urban area. At it", "Bristol has a long history of trade, originally exporting wool cloth and importing fish, wine, grain and dairy products; later imports were tobacco, tropical fruits and plantation goods. Major imports are motor vehicles, grain, timber, produce and petroleum products. Since the 13th century, the rivers have been modified for docks; during the 1240s, the Frome was diverted into a deep, man-made channel (known as Saint Augustine's Reach) which flowed into the River Avon. Ships occasionally departed Bristol for Iceland as early as 1420, and speculation exists that sailors (fishermen who landed on the Canadian coast to salt/ smoke their catch) from Bristol made landfall in the Americas before Christopher Columbus or John Cabot. Beginning in the early 1480s, the Bristol Society of Merchant Venturers sponsored exploration of the North Atlantic in search of trading opportunities. In 1552, Edward VI granted a royal charter to the Merchant Venturers to manage the port. Among explorers to depart from the port after Cabot were Martin Frobisher, Thomas James, after whom James Bay, on southern coast of Hudson Bay is named and Martin Pring, who discovered Cape Cod and the southern New England coast in 1603. By 1670 the city had 6,000tons of shipping (of which half was imported tobacco), and by the late 17th and early 18th centuries shipping played a significant role in the slave trade. During the 18th century, Bristol was Britain's second-busiest port; business was conducted in the trading area around The Exchange in Corn Street over bronze tables known as Nails. Although the Nails are cited as originating the phrase \"cash on the nail\" (immediate payment), the phrase was probably in use before their installation. The city's economy also relies on the aerospace, defence, media, information technology, financial services and tourism industries. The Ministry of Defence (MoD)'s Procurement Executive, later known as the Defence Procurement Agency and Defence Equipment and Support, moved to its headquarters to Abbey Wood, Filton, in 1995. This organisation, with a staff of 12,000 to 13,000, procures and supports MoD equipment. One of the UK's most popular tourist destinations, Bristol was selected in 2009 as one of the world's top-ten cities by international travel publishers Dorling Kindersley in their \"Eyewitness\" guides for young adults. Bristol is one of the eight-largest regional English cities that make up the Core Cities Group, and is ranked as a gamma world city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network, the fourth-highest-ranked English city. In 2017 Bristol's gross domestic product was £88.448billion. Its per capita GDP was £46,000 ($65,106, €57,794), which was some 65% above the national average, the third-highest of any English city (after London and Nottingham) and the sixth-highest of any", "", "Bristol has a thriving current and historical arts scene. Some of the modern venues and modern digital production companies have merged with legacy production companies based in old buildings around the city. In 2008 the city was a finalist for the 2008 European Capital of Culture, although the title was awarded to Liverpool. The city was designated \"City of Film\" by UNESCO in 2017 and has been a member of the Creative Cities Network since then. The Bristol Old Vic, founded in 1946 as an offshoot of The Old Vic in London, occupies the 1766 Theatre Royal (607 seats) on King Street; the 150-seat New Vic (a studio-type theatre), and a foyer and bar", "Bristol has 51 Grade I, 500 Grade II* and over 3,800 Grade II listed buildings in a variety of architectural styles, from medieval to modern. During the mid-19th century Bristol Byzantine, a style unique to the city, was developed, and several examples have survived. Buildings from most architectural periods of the United Kingdom can be seen in the city. Surviving elements of the fortifications and castle date to the medieval period, and the Church of St James dates back to the 12th century. The oldest Grade I listed buildings in", "Bristol is represented by professional teams in all the major national sports. Bristol City and Bristol Rovers are the city's main football clubs. Bristol Bears (rugby union) and Gloucestershire County Cricket Club are also based in the city. The two Football League clubs are Bristol City and Bristol Roversthe former being the only club from the city to play in the precursor to the Premier League. Non-league clubs include Bristol Manor Farm, Hengrove Athletic, Brislington, Roman Glass St George and Bristol Telephones. Bristol City, formed in 1897, were Division One runners-up in 1907 and lost the FA Cup final in 1909. In the First Division in 1976, they then sank to the bottom professional tier before reforming after a 1982 bankruptcy. Bristol City were promoted to the second tier of English football in 2007, losing to Hull City in the playoff for promotion to the Premier League that season. Bristol City Women are based at South Gloucestershire and Stroud College. Bristol Rovers, the oldest professional football team in the city, were formed in 1883 and promoted back into the football league in 2015. They were third-tier champions twice (Division Three South in 1952–53 and Division Three in 1989–90), Watney Cup Winners (1972) and runners-up for the Johnstone's Paint Trophy (2006–07) although have never played in England's top Division. The club has planning permission for a new 21,700-capacity all-seater stadium at the University of the West of England's Frenchay campus. Construction was due to begin in mid-2014, but in March 2015 the sale of the Memorial Stadium site (needed to finance the new stadium) was in jeopardy. Bristol Manor Farm are the highest-ranked non-league club within the city boundaries. They play their games at The Creek, Sea Mills in the north of Bristol. Formed in 1960, the club currently play in the Southern League Division One South having", "A dialect of English (West Country English), known as Bristolian, is spoken by longtime residents, who are known as Bristolians. Bristol natives have a rhotic accent, in which the post-vocalic \"r\" in ’car’ and ’card’ is pronounced (unlike in Received Pronunciation). The unique feature of this accent is the ’Bristol (or terminal) l’, in which \"l\" is appended to words ending in \"a\" or \"o\". Whether this is a broad \"l\" or a \"w\" is a subject of debate, with ’area& pronounced ’areal’ or ’areaw’. The ending of ’Bristol’ is another example of the Bristol \"l\". Bristolians pronounce \"-a\" and \"-o\" at the end of a", "In the 2011 United Kingdom census, 46.8% of Bristol's population identified as Christian and 37.4% said they were not religious; the English averages were 59.4% and 24.7%, respectively. Islam is observed by 5.1% of the population, Buddhism by 0.6%, Hinduism by 0.6%, Sikhism by 0.5%, Judaism by 0.2% and other religions 0.7%; 8.1% did not identify with a", "Bristol has been awarded Purple Flag status on many of its districts which shows that it meets or surpasses the standards of excellence in managing the evening and night-time economy. DJ Mag's top 100 club list ranked Motion as the 19th-best club in the world in 2016. This is up 5 spots from 2015. Motion is host to some of the world's top DJs, and leading producers. Motion is a complex made up of different rooms, outdoor space and a terrace that looks over the river Avon. In 2011 Motion was transformed from a skate park, into the rave spot it is today. In:Motion is an annual series which takes place each autumn and delivers 12 weeks", "Bristol is home to the regional headquarters of BBC West and the BBC Natural History Unit based at Broadcasting House, which produces television, radio and online content with a natural history or wildlife theme. These include nature documentaries, including \"The Blue Planet\" and \"Planet Earth\". The city has a long association with David Attenborough's authored documentaries, including \"Life on Earth\". Bristol has two daily newspapers, the \"Western Daily Press\" and the \"Bristol Post\", (both owned by Reach plc); and a Bristol edition of the free \"Metro\" newspaper (owned by DMGT). Aardman Animations is an Oscar-winning animation studio founded and still based in Bristol. They created famous characters such as Wallace and Gromit and Morph. Its films include \"Chicken Run\" (2000), \"Early Man (2018)\", shorts such as \"Creature", "Bristol has two major institutions of higher education: the University of Bristol, a redbrick chartered in 1909, and the University of the West of England, opened as Bristol Polytechnic in 1969, which became a university in 1992. The University of Law also has a campus in the city. Bristol has two further education institutions (City of Bristol College and South Gloucestershire and Stroud College) and two theological colleges: Trinity College, and Bristol Baptist College. The city has 129 infant, junior and primary schools, 17 secondary schools, and three learning centres. After a section of north London, Bristol has England's second-highest number of independent school places. Independent schools in the city include Clifton College, Clifton High School, Badminton School, Bristol Grammar School, Queen Elizabeth's Hospital (the only all-boys school) and the Redmaids' School (founded in 1634 by John Whitson, which claims to be England's", "", "Bristol has two principal railway stations. Bristol Temple Meads (near the city centre) has Great Western Railway services which include high-speed trains to London Paddington and local, regional and CrossCountry trains. Bristol Parkway, north of the city centre, has high-speed Great Western Railway services to Swansea, Cardiff Central and London Paddington and CrossCountry services to Birmingham and the North East. Limited service to London Waterloo via Clapham Junction from Bristol Temple Meads is operated by South Western Railway, and there", "The M4 motorway connects the city on an east–west axis from London to West Wales, and the M5 is a north–south west axis from Birmingham to Exeter. The M49 motorway is a shortcut between the M5 in the south and the M4 Severn Crossing in the west, and the M32 is a spur from the M4 to the city centre. The Portway connects the M5 to the", "Public transport in the city consists primarily of a First West of England bus network. Other providers are Abus, Stagecoach West, Stagecoach South West and Wessex Bus. Bristol's bus service has been criticised as unreliable and expensive, and in 2005 FirstGroup was fined for delays and safety violations. Although the city council has included a light rail system in its local transport plan since 2000, it has not yet funded the project; Bristol was offered European Union funding for the system, but the Department for Transport did not provide the required additional funding. As of 2019,", "Bristol was designated as England's first \"cycling city\" in 2008 and one of England's 12 \"Cycling demonstration\" areas. It is home to Sustrans, the sustainable transport charity. The Bristol and", "The runway, terminal and other facilities at Bristol Airport (BRS), Lulsgate, have been upgraded since 2001.", "Bristol was among the first cities to", "The following people and military units have received the Freedom of the City of Bristol." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "It was opened in 1937 although there had already existed stadiums at the site; the earliest opened in 1910. The inaugural match took place on 18 April 1937 when AIK played against Malmö FF, AIK won the match 4–0. Råsunda has a capacity of 35,000–36,608 depending on usage. The 1910 stadium hosted some of the football and some of the shooting events at the 1912 Summer Olympics. The stadium was the home stadium for AIK, and was used for many derbies between Stockholm clubs. It also hosted the headquarters of the Swedish Football Association, and staged 75% of the home matches of the national football team each year, with most other matches being played at Ullevi in Gothenburg. These two stadiums are \"UEFA 4-star rated football stadiums\". The record attendance was 52,943 and was set on 26 September 1965, when Sweden played West Germany. West Germany won the match 2-1. The last major concert held at the stadium was on 7 June 1986, when British rock band Queen kicked off their final tour, The Magic Tour, at Råsunda. That night Queen played to about 37,500 fans. Råsunda was the first of two stadiums to have hosted the World Cup finals for both men and women. It hosted the men's final in the 1958 World Cup and the women's final in the 1995 Women's World Cup. The other stadium with this honor is the Rose Bowl in Pasadena, California, USA (men in 1994 World Cup, women in 1999 Women's World Cup). On 1 April 2006, the Swedish Football Association announced a plan to switch to a new stadium to be built in Solna. The new arena was completed and ready for sporting events in 2012, and the Råsunda Stadium will be subsequently demolished. The new stadium has a capacity for 50,000 spectators. The name of the new arena is Friends Arena. Swedbank bought the name for 150 million SEK but decided to name it in support of the non profit organization \"Friends\" in 2012. The last event held at the Råsunda Stadium was the Europa League's match AIK - S.S.C. Napoli, played on 22 November 2012, finished 1-2. Edinson Cavani scored the last goal which closed the glorious history of the stadium. Fabege AB and Peab AB signed an agreement to acquire Råsunda Football Stadium and existing office buildings from the Swedish Football Association on 11 December 2009. All activities on the arena remained until Friends Arena stood finished.", "http://www.fastighetssverige.se/artikel/sa-har-blir-nya-rasunda-10654/" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Composition history.", "Performance history.", "Other early performances.", "Roles.", "Synopsis.", "Overture.", "Act 1.", "Act 2.", "Act 3.", "Act 4.", "Instrumentation.", "Frequently omitted numbers.", "Critical discussion.", "Other uses of the melodies.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Beaumarchais's earlier play \"The Barber of Seville\" had already made a successful transition to opera in a version by Paisiello. Beaumarchais's \"Mariage de Figaro\" was at first banned in Vienna; Emperor Joseph II stated that \"since the piece contains much that is objectionable, I therefore expect that the Censor shall either reject it altogether, or at any rate have such alterations made in it that he shall be responsible for the performance of this play and for the impression it may make\", after which the Austrian Censor duly forbade performing the German version of the play. Mozart's librettist managed to get official approval from the emperor for an operatic version which eventually achieved great success. The opera was the first of three collaborations between Mozart and Da Ponte; their later collaborations were \"Don Giovanni\" and \"Così fan tutte\". It was Mozart who originally selected Beaumarchais's play and brought it to Da Ponte, who turned it into a libretto in six weeks, rewriting it in poetic Italian and removing all of the original's political references. In particular, Da Ponte replaced Figaro's climactic speech against inherited nobility with an equally angry aria against unfaithful wives. The libretto was approved by the Emperor before any music was written by Mozart. The Imperial Italian opera company paid Mozart 450 florins for the work; this was three times his (low) yearly salary when he had worked as a court musician in Salzburg. Da Ponte was paid 200 florins.", "\"Figaro\" premiered at the Burgtheater in Vienna on 1 May 1786, with a cast listed in the \"Roles\" section below. Mozart himself conducted the first two performances, conducting seated at the keyboard, the custom of the day. Later performances were conducted by Joseph Weigl. The first production was given eight further performances, all in 1786. Although the total of nine performances was nothing like the frequency of performance of Mozart's later success, \"The Magic Flute\", which for months was performed roughly every other day, the premiere is generally judged to have been a success. The applause of the audience on the first night resulted in five numbers being encored, seven on 8 May. Joseph II, who, in addition to his empire, was in charge of the Burgtheater, was concerned by the length of the performance and directed his aide as follows: To prevent the excessive duration of operas, without however prejudicing the fame often sought by opera singers from the repetition of vocal pieces, I deem the enclosed notice to the public (that no piece for more than a single voice is to be repeated) to be the most reasonable expedient. You will therefore cause some posters to this effect to be printed. The requested posters were printed up and posted in the Burgtheater in time for the third performance on 24 May. The newspaper \"Wiener Realzeitung\" carried a review of the opera in its issue of 11 July 1786. It alludes to interference probably produced by paid hecklers, but praises the work warmly: Mozart's music was generally admired by connoisseurs already at the first performance, if I except only those whose self-love and conceit will not allow them to find merit in anything not written by themselves. The \"public\", however... did not really know on the first day where it stood. It heard many a \"bravo\" from unbiased connoisseurs, but obstreperous louts in the uppermost storey exerted their hired lungs with all their might to deafen singers and audience alike with their \"St!\" and \"Pst\"; and consequently opinions were divided at the end of the piece. Apart from that, it is true that the first performance was none of the best, owing to the difficulties of the composition. But now, after several performances, one would be subscribing either to the \"cabal\" or to \"tastelessness\" if one were to maintain that Herr \"Mozart's\" music is anything but a masterpiece of art. It contains so many beauties, and such a wealth of ideas, as can be drawn only from the source of innate genius. The Hungarian poet Ferenc Kazinczy was in the audience for a May performance, and later remembered the powerful impression the work made on him: [Nancy] Storace [see below], the beautiful singer, enchanted eye, ear, and soul. – Mozart directed the orchestra, playing his fortepiano; but the joy which this music causes is so far removed from all sensuality that one cannot speak of it. Where could words be found that are worthy to describe such joy? Joseph Haydn appreciated the opera greatly, writing to a friend that he heard it in his dreams. In summer 1790 Haydn attempted to produce the work with his own company at Eszterháza, but was prevented from doing so by the death of his patron, Nikolaus Esterházy.", "The Emperor requested a special performance at his palace theater in Laxenburg, which took place in June 1786. The opera was produced in Prague starting in December 1786 by the Pasquale Bondini company. This production was a tremendous success; the newspaper \"Prager Oberpostamtszeitung\" called the work \"a masterpiece\", and said \"no piece (for everyone here asserts) has ever caused such a sensation.\" Local music lovers paid for Mozart to visit Prague and hear the production; he listened on 17 January 1787, and conducted it himself on the 22nd. The success of the Prague production led to the commissioning of the next Mozart/Da Ponte opera, \"Don Giovanni\", premiered in Prague in 1787 (see Mozart and Prague). The work was not performed in Vienna during 1787 or 1788, but starting in 1789 there was a revival production. For this occasion Mozart replaced both arias of Susanna with new compositions, better suited to the voice of Adriana Ferrarese del Bene who took the role. To replace \"\" he wrote \"\" – \"[come and fly] To the desire of [the one] who adores you\" (K. 577) in July 1789, and to replace \"\" he wrote \"\" – \"A joyous emotion\", (K. 579), probably in mid-1790. The opera premiered in London in 1789 at the Covent Garden Theatre and an English translated version was performed in Philadelphia in 1793.", "The voice types which appear in this table are those listed in the critical edition published in the \"Neue Mozart-Ausgabe\". In modern performance practice, Cherubino and Marcellina are usually assigned to mezzo-sopranos, and Figaro to a bass-baritone.", "\"The Marriage of Figaro\" continues the plot of \"The Barber of Seville\" several years later, and recounts a single \"day of madness\" () in the palace of Count Almaviva near Seville, Spain. Rosina is now the Countess; Dr. Bartolo is seeking revenge against Figaro for thwarting his plans to marry Rosina himself; and Count Almaviva has degenerated from the romantic youth of \"Barber\" into a scheming, bullying, skirt-chasing baritone. Having gratefully given Figaro a job as head of his servant-staff, he is now persistently trying to exercise his \"droit du seigneur\" – his right to bed a servant girl on her wedding night – with Figaro's bride-to-be, Susanna, who is the Countess's maid. He keeps finding excuses to delay the civil part of the wedding of his two servants, which is arranged for this very day. Figaro, Susanna, and the Countess conspire to embarrass the Count and expose his scheming. He retaliates by trying to compel Figaro legally to marry a woman old enough to be his mother, but it turns out at the last minute that she really is his mother. Through Figaro's and Susanna's clever manipulations, the Count's love for his Countess is finally restored.", "The overture is in the key of D major; the tempo marking is \"presto\"; i.e. very fast. The work is well known and often played independently as a concert piece.", "\"A partly furnished room, with a chair in the centre.\" Figaro happily measures the space where the bridal bed will fit while Susanna tries on her wedding bonnet in front of a mirror (in the present day, a more traditional French floral wreath or a modern veil are often substituted, often in combination with a bonnet, so as to accommodate what Susanna happily describes as her wedding ). (Duet: \"\" – \"Five, ten, twenty\"). Figaro is quite pleased with their new room; Susanna far less so (Duettino: \"\" – \"If the Countess should call you during the night\"). She is bothered by its proximity to the Count's chambers: it seems he has been making advances toward her and plans on exercising his \"droit du seigneur\", the purported feudal right of a lord to bed a servant girl on her wedding night before her husband can sleep with her. The Count had the right abolished when he married Rosina, but he now wants to reinstate it. The Countess rings for Susanna and she rushes off to answer. Figaro, confident in his own resourcefulness, resolves to outwit the Count (Cavatina: \"Se vuol ballare signor contino\" – \"If you want to dance, sir count\"). Figaro departs, and Dr. Bartolo arrives with Marcellina, his old housekeeper. Figaro had previously borrowed a large sum of money from her, and, in lieu of collateral, had promised to marry her if unable to repay at the appointed time; she now intends to enforce that promise by suing him. Bartolo, seeking revenge against Figaro for having facilitated the union of the Count and Rosina (in \"The Barber of Seville\"), agrees to represent Marcellina \"pro bono\", and assures her, in comical lawyer-speak, that he can win the case for her (aria: \"\" – \"Vengeance\"). Bartolo departs, Susanna returns, and Marcellina and Susanna exchange very politely delivered sarcastic insults (duet: \"\" – \"After you, brilliant madam\"). Susanna triumphs in the exchange by congratulating her rival on her impressive age. The older woman departs in a fury. Cherubino then arrives and, after describing his emerging infatuation with all women, particularly with his \"beautiful godmother\" the Countess (aria: \"\" – \"I don't know anymore what I am\"), asks for Susanna's aid with the Count. It seems the Count is angry with Cherubino's amorous ways, having discovered him with the gardener's daughter, Barbarina, and plans to punish him. Cherubino wants Susanna to ask the Countess to intercede on his behalf. When the Count appears, Cherubino hides behind a chair, not wanting to be seen alone with Susanna. The Count uses the opportunity of finding Susanna alone to step up his demands for favours from her, including financial inducements to sell herself to him. As Basilio, the music teacher, arrives, the Count, not wanting to be caught alone with Susanna, hides behind the chair. Cherubino leaves that hiding place just in time, and jumps onto the chair while Susanna scrambles to cover him with a dress. When Basilio starts to gossip about Cherubino's obvious attraction to the Countess, the Count angrily leaps from his hiding place (terzetto: \"\" – \"What do I hear!\"). He disparages the \"absent\" page's incessant flirting and describes how he caught him with Barbarina under the kitchen table. As he lifts the dress from the chair to illustrate how he lifted the tablecloth to expose Cherubino, he finds... the self same Cherubino! The count is furious, but is reminded that the page overheard the Count's advances on Susanna, something that the Count wants to keep from the Countess. The young man is ultimately saved from punishment by the entrance of the peasants of the Count's estate, a preemptive attempt by Figaro to commit the Count to a formal gesture symbolizing his promise that Susanna would enter into the marriage unsullied. The Count evades Figaro's plan by postponing the gesture. The Count says that he forgives Cherubino, but he dispatches him to his own regiment in Seville for army duty, effective immediately. Figaro gives Cherubino mocking advice about his new, harsh, military life from which all luxury, and especially women, will be totally excluded (aria: \"Non più andrai\" – \"No more gallivanting\").", "\"A handsome room with an alcove, a dressing room on the left, a door in the background (leading to the servants' quarters) and a window at the side.\" The Countess laments her husband's infidelity (aria: \"Porgi, amor, qualche ristoro\" – \"Grant, love, some comfort\"). Susanna comes in to prepare the Countess for the day. She responds to the Countess's questions by telling her that the Count is not trying to seduce her; he is merely offering her a monetary contract in return for her affection. Figaro enters and explains his plan to distract the Count with anonymous letters warning him of adulterers. He has already sent one to the Count (via Basilio) that indicates that the Countess has a rendezvous of her own that evening. They hope that the Count will be too busy looking for imaginary adulterers to interfere with Figaro and Susanna's wedding. Figaro additionally advises the Countess to keep Cherubino around. She should dress him up as a girl and lure the Count into an illicit rendezvous where he can be caught red-handed. Figaro leaves. Cherubino arrives, sent in by Figaro and eager to co-operate. Susanna urges him to sing the song he wrote for the Countess (aria: \"Voi che sapete che cosa è amor\" – \"You ladies who know what love is, is it what I'm suffering from?\"). After the song, the Countess, seeing Cherubino's military commission, notices that the Count was in such a hurry that he forgot to seal it with his signet ring (which would be necessary to make it an official document). Susanna and the Countess then begin with their plan. Susanna takes off Cherubino's cloak, and she begins to comb his hair and teach him to behave and walk like a woman (aria of Susanna: \"Venite, inginocchiatevi\" – \"Come, kneel down before me\"). Then she leaves the room through a door at the back to get the dress for Cherubino, taking his cloak with her. While the Countess and Cherubino are waiting for Susanna to come back, they suddenly hear the Count arriving. Cherubino hides in the closet. The Count demands to be allowed into the room and the Countess reluctantly unlocks the door. The Count enters and hears a noise from the closet. He tries to open it, but it is locked. The Countess tells him it is only Susanna, trying on her wedding dress. At this moment, Susanna re-enters unobserved, quickly realizes what's going on, and hides behind a couch (Trio: \"Susanna, or via, sortite\" – \"Susanna, come out!\"). The Count shouts for her to identify herself by her voice, but the Countess orders her to be silent. Furious and suspicious, the Count leaves, with the Countess, in search of tools to force the closet door open. As they leave, he locks all the bedroom doors to prevent the intruder from escaping. Cherubino and Susanna emerge from their hiding places, and Cherubino escapes by jumping through the window into the garden. Susanna then takes Cherubino's former place in the closet, vowing to make the Count look foolish (duet: \"Aprite, presto, aprite\" – \"Open the door, quickly!\"). The Count and Countess return. The Countess, thinking herself trapped, desperately admits that Cherubino is hidden in the closet. The enraged Count draws his sword, promising to kill Cherubino on the spot, but when the door is opened, they both find to their astonishment only Susanna (Finale: \"Esci omai, garzon malnato\" – \"Come out of there, you ill-born boy!\"). The Count demands an explanation; the Countess tells him it is a practical joke, to test his trust in her. Shamed by his jealousy, the Count begs for forgiveness. When the Count presses about the anonymous letter, Susanna and the Countess reveal that the letter was written by Figaro, and then delivered by Basilio. Figaro then arrives and tries to start the wedding festivities, but the Count berates him with questions about the anonymous note. Just as the Count is starting to run out of questions, Antonio the gardener arrives, complaining that a man has jumped out of the window and damaged his carnations while running away. Antonio adds that he tentatively identified the running man as Cherubino, but Figaro claims it was he himself who jumped out of the window, and pretends to have injured his foot while landing. Figaro, Susanna, and the Countess attempt to discredit Antonio as a chronic drunkard whose constant inebriation makes him unreliable and prone to fantasy, but Antonio brings forward a paper which, he says, was dropped by the escaping man. The Count orders Figaro to prove he was the jumper by identifying the paper (which is, in fact, Cherubino's appointment to the army). Figaro is at a loss, but Susanna and the Countess manage to signal the correct answers, and Figaro triumphantly identifies the document. His victory is, however, short-lived: Marcellina, Bartolo, and Basilio enter, bringing charges against Figaro and demanding that he honor his contract to marry Marcellina, since he cannot repay her loan. The Count happily postpones the wedding in order to investigate the charge.", "\"A rich hall, with two thrones, prepared for the wedding ceremony.\" The Count mulls over the confusing situation. At the urging of the Countess, Susanna enters and gives a false promise to meet the Count later that night in the garden (duet: \"Crudel! perchè finora\" – \"Cruel girl, why did you make me wait so long\"). As Susanna leaves, the Count overhears her telling Figaro that he has already won the case. Realizing that he is being tricked (recitative and aria: \"Hai già vinta la causa!... Vedrò, mentr'io sospiro\" – \"You've already won the case!\"... \"Shall I, while sighing, see\"), he resolves to punish Figaro by forcing him to marry Marcellina. Figaro's hearing follows, and the Count's judgment is that Figaro must marry Marcellina. Figaro argues that he cannot get married without his parents' permission, and that he does not know who his parents are, because he was stolen from them when he was a baby. The ensuing discussion reveals that Figaro is Rafaello, the long-lost illegitimate son of Bartolo and Marcellina. A touching scene of reconciliation occurs. During the celebrations, Susanna enters with a payment to release Figaro from his debt to Marcellina. Seeing Figaro and Marcellina in celebration together, Susanna mistakenly believes that Figaro now prefers Marcellina to her. She has a tantrum and slaps Figaro's face. Marcellina explains, and Susanna, realizing her mistake, joins the celebration. Bartolo, overcome with emotion, agrees to marry Marcellina that evening in a double wedding (sextet: \"Riconosci in questo amplesso\" – \"Recognize in this embrace\"). All leave, before Barbarina, Antonio's daughter, invites Cherubino back to her house so they can disguise him as a girl. The Countess, alone, ponders the loss of her happiness (aria: \"Dove sono i bei momenti\" – \"Where are they, the beautiful moments\"). Meanwhile, Antonio informs the Count that Cherubino is not in Seville, but in fact at his house. Susanna enters and updates her mistress regarding the plan to trap the Count. The Countess dictates a love letter for Susanna to send to the Count, which suggests that he meet her (Susanna) that night, \"under the pines\". The letter instructs the Count to return the pin which fastens the letter (duet: \"Sull'aria...che soave zeffiretto\" – \"On the breeze... What a gentle little zephyr\"). A chorus of young peasants, among them Cherubino disguised as a girl, arrives to serenade the Countess. The Count arrives with Antonio and, discovering the page, is enraged. His anger is quickly dispelled by Barbarina, who publicly recalls that he had once offered to give her anything she wants in exchange for certain favors, and asks for Cherubino's hand in marriage. Thoroughly embarrassed, the Count allows Cherubino to stay. The act closes with the double wedding, during the course of which Susanna delivers her letter to the Count (Finale: \"Ecco la marcia\" – \"Here is the procession\"). Figaro watches the Count prick his finger on the pin, and laughs, unaware that the love-note is an invitation for the Count to tryst with Figaro's own bride Susanna. As the curtain drops, the two newlywed couples rejoice.", "\"The garden, with two pavilions. Night.\" Following the directions in the letter, the Count has sent the pin back to Susanna, giving it to Barbarina. However, Barbarina has lost it (aria: \"L'ho perduta, me meschina\" – \"I have lost it, poor me\"). Figaro and Marcellina see Barbarina, and Figaro asks her what she is doing. When he hears the pin is Susanna's, he is overcome with jealousy, especially as he recognises the pin to be the one that fastened the letter to the Count. Thinking that Susanna is meeting the Count behind his back, Figaro complains to his mother, and swears to be avenged on the Count and Susanna, and on all unfaithful wives. Marcellina urges caution, but Figaro will not listen. Figaro rushes off, and Marcellina resolves to inform Susanna of Figaro's intentions. Marcellina sings an aria lamenting that male and female wild beasts get along with each other, but rational humans can't (aria: \"Il capro e la capretta\" – \"The billy-goat and the she-goat\"). (This aria and Basilio's ensuing aria are usually omitted from performances due to their relative unimportance, both musically and dramatically; however, some recordings include them.) Motivated by jealousy, Figaro tells Bartolo and Basilio to come to his aid when he gives the signal. Basilio comments on Figaro's foolishness and claims he was once as frivolous as Figaro was. He tells a tale of how he was given common sense by \"Donna Flemma\" (\"Dame Prudence\") and learned the importance of not crossing powerful people. (aria: \"In quegli anni\" – \"In those years\"). They exit, leaving Figaro alone. Figaro muses bitterly on the inconstancy of women (recitative and aria: \"Tutto è disposto... Aprite un po' quegli occhi\" – \"Everything is ready... Open those eyes a little\"). Susanna and the Countess arrive, each dressed in the other's clothes. Marcellina is with them, having informed Susanna of Figaro's suspicions and plans. After they discuss the plan, Marcellina and the Countess leave, and Susanna teases Figaro by singing a love song to her beloved within Figaro's hearing (aria: \"Deh vieni, non-tardar\" – \"Oh come, don't delay\"). Figaro is hiding behind a bush and, thinking the song is for the Count, becomes increasingly jealous. The Countess arrives in Susanna's dress. Cherubino shows up and starts teasing \"Susanna\" (really the Countess), endangering the plan. (Finale: \"Pian pianin le andrò più presso\" – \"Softly, softly I'll approach her\") The Count gets rid of him by striking out in the dark. His punch actually ends up hitting Figaro, but the point is made and Cherubino runs off. The Count now begins making earnest love to \"Susanna\" (really the Countess), and gives her a jeweled ring. They go offstage together, where the Countess dodges him, hiding in the dark. Onstage, meanwhile, the real Susanna enters, wearing the Countess' clothes. Figaro mistakes her for the real Countess, and starts to tell her of the Count's intentions, but he suddenly recognizes his bride in disguise. He plays along with the joke by pretending to be in love with \"my lady\", and inviting her to make love right then and there. Susanna, fooled, loses her temper and slaps him many times. Figaro finally lets on that he has recognized Susanna's voice, and they make peace, resolving to conclude the comedy together (\"Pace, pace, mio dolce tesoro\" – \"Peace, peace, my sweet treasure\"). The Count, unable to find \"Susanna\", enters frustrated. Figaro gets his attention by loudly declaring his love for \"the Countess\" (really Susanna). The enraged Count calls for his people and for weapons: his servant is seducing his wife. (Ultima scena: \"Gente, gente, all'armi, all'armi\" – \"Gentlemen, to arms!\") Bartolo, Basilio and Antonio enter with torches as, one by one, the Count drags out Cherubino, Barbarina, Marcellina and the \"Countess\" from behind the pavilion. All beg him to forgive Figaro and the \"Countess\", but he loudly refuses, repeating \"no\" at the top of his voice, until finally the real Countess re-enters and reveals her true identity. The Count, seeing the ring he had given her, realizes that the supposed Susanna he was trying to seduce was actually his wife. Ashamed and remorseful, he kneels and pleads for forgiveness himself (\"Contessa perdono!\" – \"Countess, forgive me!\"). The Countess, more kind than he (\"Più docile io sono\" – \"I am more mild\"), forgives her husband and all are contented.", "\"The Marriage of Figaro\" is scored for two flutes, two oboes, two clarinets, two bassoons, two horns, two trumpets, timpani, and strings; the \"recitativi secchi\" are accompanied by a keyboard instrument, usually a fortepiano or a harpsichord, often joined by a cello. The instrumentation of the \"recitativi secchi\" is not given in the score, so it is up to the conductor and the performers. A typical performance usually lasts around 3 hours.", "Two arias from act 4 are often omitted: one in which Marcellina regrets that people (unlike animals) abuse their mates (\"\"), and one in which Don Basilio tells how he saved himself from several dangers in his youth, by using the skin of a donkey for shelter and camouflage (\"\"). Mozart wrote two replacement arias for Susanna when the role was taken over by Adriana Ferrarese in the 1789 revival. The replacement arias, \"Un moto di gioia\" (replacing \"Venite, inginocchiatevi\" in act 2) and \"Al desio di chi t'adora\" (replacing \"Deh vieni, non tardar\" in act 4), in which the two clarinets are replaced with basset horns, are normally not used in modern performances. A notable exception was a series of performances at the Metropolitan Opera in 1998 with Cecilia Bartoli as Susanna.", "Lorenzo Da Ponte wrote a preface to the first published version of the libretto, in which he boldly claimed that he and Mozart had created a new form of music drama: In spite... of every effort... to be brief, the opera will not be one of the shortest to have appeared on our stage, for which we hope sufficient excuse will be found in the variety of threads from which the action of this play \"[i.e. Beaumarchais's]\" is woven, the vastness and grandeur of the same, the multiplicity of the musical numbers that had to be made in order not to leave the actors too long unemployed, to diminish the vexation and monotony of long recitatives, and to express with varied colours the various emotions that occur, but above all in our desire to offer as it were a new kind of spectacle to a public of so refined a taste and understanding. Charles Rosen (in \"The Classical Style\") proposes to take Da Ponte's words quite seriously, noting the \"richness of the ensemble writing\", which carries forward the action in a far more dramatic way than recitatives would. Rosen also suggests that the musical language of the classical style was adapted by Mozart to convey the drama: many sections of the opera musically resemble sonata form; by movement through a sequence of keys, they build up and resolve musical tension, providing a natural musical reflection of the drama. As Rosen writes: The synthesis of accelerating complexity and symmetrical resolution which was at the heart of Mozart's style enabled him to find a musical equivalent for the great stage works which were his dramatic models. \"The Marriage of Figaro\" in Mozart's version is the dramatic equal, and in many respects the superior, of Beaumarchais's work. This is demonstrated in the closing numbers of all four acts: as the drama escalates, Mozart eschews \"recitativi\" altogether and opts for increasingly sophisticated writing, bringing his characters on stage, revelling in a complex weave of solo and ensemble singing in multiple combinations, and climaxing in seven- and eight-voice tutti for acts 2 and 4. Mozart cleverly uses the sound of two horns playing together to represent cuckoldry, in the act 4 aria \"\". Verdi later used the same device in Ford's aria in \"Falstaff\". Johannes Brahms said \"In my opinion, each number in \"Figaro\" is a miracle; it is totally beyond me how anyone could create anything so perfect; nothing like it was ever done again, not even by Beethoven.\"", "A musical phrase from the act 1 trio of \"The Marriage of Figaro\" (where Basilio sings \"\") was later reused, by Mozart, in the overture to his opera \"Così fan tutte\". Mozart also quotes Figaro's aria \"Non più andrai\" in the second act of his opera \"Don Giovanni\"; it is also used as a military march. Further, Mozart used it in 1791 in his Five Contredanses, K. 609, No. 1. Mozart reused the music of the \"Agnus Dei\" of his earlier (\"Coronation Mass\") for the Countess's \"\", in C major instead of the original F major. Mozart also reused the motif that begins his early bassoon concerto in another aria sung by the Countess, \"Porgi, amor\". Franz Liszt quoted the opera in his \"Fantasy on Themes from Mozart's Figaro and Don Giovanni\". In 1819, Henry R. Bishop wrote an adaptation of the opera in English, translating from Beaumarchais's play and re-using some of Mozart's music, while adding some of his own. In his 1991 opera, \"The Ghosts of Versailles\", which includes elements of Beaumarchais's third \"Figaro\" play (\"La Mère coupable\") and in which the main characters of \"The Marriage of Figaro\" also appear, John Corigliano quotes Mozart's opera, especially the overture, several times.", "Notes Sources" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early biography.", "Business career.", "Entertainment.", "RKO.", "Real estate.", "Aviation and aerospace.", "Round-the-world flight.", "Hughes D-2 and XF-11.", "Fatal crash of the Sikorsky S-43.", "Near-fatal crash of the XF-11.", "H-4 Hercules.", "Hughes Aircraft.", "Airlines.", "\"The Conqueror\" and a buyout.", "Howard Hughes Medical Institute.", "Glomar Explorer and the taking of K-129.", "Personal life.", "Early romances.", "Buys luxury yacht, kills pedestrian with car.", "Marriage to Jean Peters.", "Connections to Richard Nixon and Watergate.", "Last years and death.", "Physical decline.", "Later years as a Las Vegas recluse.", "Death.", "Estate.", "Archive." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "3", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Records locate the birthplace of Howard Hughes as either Humble or Houston, Texas. The date remains uncertain because of conflicting dates from various sources. He repeatedly claimed Christmas Eve as his birthday. A 1941 affidavit birth certificate of Hughes, signed by his aunt Annette Gano Lummis and by Estelle Boughton Sharp, states that he was born on December 24, 1905, in Harris County, Texas. However, his certificate of baptism, recorded on October 7, 1906, in the parish register of St. John's Episcopal Church in Keokuk, Iowa, listed his date of birth as September 24, 1905, without any reference to the place of birth. Howard Robard Hughes Jr. was the son of Allene Stone Gano (1883–1922) and of Howard R. Hughes Sr. (1869–1924), a successful inventor and businessman from Missouri. He had English, Welsh and some French Huguenot ancestry, and was a descendant of John Gano (1727–1804), the minister who allegedly baptized George Washington. His father patented (1909) the two-cone roller bit, which allowed rotary drilling for petroleum in previously inaccessible places. The senior Hughes made the shrewd and lucrative decision to commercialize the invention by leasing the bits instead of selling them, obtained several early patents, and founded the Hughes Tool Company in 1909. Hughes' uncle was the famed novelist, screenwriter, and film-director Rupert Hughes. At a young age, Hughes showed interest in science and technology. In particular, he had great engineering aptitude and built Houston's first \"wireless\" radio transmitter at age 11. He went on to be one of the first licensed ham-radio operators in Houston, having the assigned callsign W5CY", "Hughes enjoyed a highly successful business career beyond engineering, aviation, and filmmaking; many of his career endeavors involved varying entrepreneurial roles. The Summa Corporation was the name adopted for the business interests of Howard Hughes after he sold the tool division of Hughes Tool Company in 1972. The company served as the principal holding company for Hughes' business ventures and investments. It is primarily involved in aerospace and defense, electronics, mass media, manufacturing, and hospitality industries, but has maintained a strong presence in a wide variety of industries including real estate, petroleum drilling and oilfield services, consulting, entertainment, and engineering. Much of his fortune was later used for philanthropic causes, notably towards health care and medical research.", "His first film, \"Swell Hogan,\" directed by Ralph Graves, was a disaster. His next two films, \"Everybody's Acting\" (1926) and \"Two Arabian Knights\" (1927), were financial successes, the latter winning the first Academy Award for Best Director of a comedy picture. \"The Racket\" (1928) and \"The Front Page\" (1931) were also nominated for Academy Awards. Hughes spent $3.5 million to make the flying film \"Hell's Angels\" (1930). \"Hell's Angels\" received one Academy Award nomination for Best Cinematography. He produced another hit, \"Scarface\" (1932), a production delayed by censors' concern over its violence. \"The Outlaw\" premiered in 1943, but was not released nationally until 1946. The film featured Jane Russell, who received considerable attention from industry censors, this time owing to Russell's revealing costumes.", "During the 1940s to the late 1950s, the Hughes Tool Company ventured into the film industry when it obtained partial ownership of the RKO companies which included RKO Pictures, RKO Studios, a chain of movie theaters known as RKO Theatres and a network of radio stations known as the RKO Radio Network. In 1948, Hughes gained control of RKO, a struggling major Hollywood studio, by acquiring the 929,000 shares owned by Floyd Odlum's Atlas Corporation, for $8,825,000. Within weeks of acquiring the studio, Hughes dismissed 700 employees. Production dwindled to 9 pictures that first year Hughes was in control, while before, RKO averaged 30 per year. Production was shut down for six months during which time investigations were conducted of each employee who remained with RKO as far as their political leanings were concerned. Only after ensuring that the stars under contract to RKO had no suspect affiliations would Hughes approve completed pictures to be sent back for re-shooting. This was especially true of the women who were under contract to RKO at that time. If Hughes felt that his stars did not properly represent the political views of his liking or if a film's anti-communist politics were not sufficiently clear, he pulled the plug. In 1952, an abortive sale to a Chicago-based group connected to the mafia with no experience in the industry disrupted studio operations", "According to Noah Dietrich, \"Land became a principal asset for the Hughes empire.\" This investment sheltered the profits his companies made. Hughes acquired 1200 acres in Culver City for Hughes Aircraft, bought 7 sections [4,480 acres] in Tucson for his Falcon missile plant, and purchased 25,000 acres near Las Vegas. Beyond extending his business prowess in the manufacturing, aviation, entertainment, and hospitality industries, Hughes was a successful real estate investor. Hughes was deeply involved in the American real estate industry where he amassed vast holdings of undeveloped land both in Las Vegas and in the desert surrounding the city that had gone unused during his lifetime. In 1968, the Hughes Tool Company purchased the North Las Vegas Air Terminal. Originally known as Summa Corporation, The Howard Hughes Corporation was formed in 1972 when the oil tools business of Hughes Tool Company, then", "Another portion of Hughes' business interests lay in aviation, airlines, and the aerospace and defense industries. Hughes was a lifelong aircraft enthusiast and pilot. He survived four airplane accidents: one in a Thomas-Morse Scout while filming \"Hell's Angels\", one while setting the air speed record in the Hughes Racer, one at Lake Mead in 1943, and the near fatal crash of the Hughes XF-11 in 1946. At Rogers Airport in Los Angeles, he learned to fly from pioneer aviators, including Moye Stephens and J.B. Alexander. He set many world records and commissioned the construction of custom aircraft for himself while heading Hughes Aircraft at the airport in Glendale, CA. Operating from there, the most technologically important aircraft he commissioned was the Hughes H-1 Racer. On September 13, 1935, Hughes, flying the H-1,", "On July 14, 1938, Hughes set another record by completing a flight around the world in just 91 hours (three days, 19 hours, 17 minutes), beating the previous record set in 1933 by Wiley Post in a single engine Lockheed Vega by almost four days. Hughes returned home ahead of photographs of his flight. Taking off from New York City, Hughes continued to Paris, Moscow, Omsk, Yakutsk, Fairbanks, Minneapolis, then returning to New York City. For this flight he flew a Lockheed 14 Super Electra (NX18973, a twin-engine transport with a four-man crew) fitted with the latest radio and navigational equipment. Harry Connor was the co-pilot, Thomas Thurlow the navigator, Richard Stoddart the engineer, and Ed Lund the mechanic. Hughes wanted the flight to be a triumph of American aviation technology, illustrating that safe, long-distance air", "The Hughes D-2 was conceived in 1939 as a bomber with five crew members, powered by 42-cylinder Wright R-2160 Tornado engines. In the end it appeared as two-seat fighter-reconnaissance aircraft designated the D-2A, powered by two Pratt & Whitney R-2800-49 engines. The aircraft was constructed using the Duramold process. The prototype was brought to Harper's Dry Lake California in great secrecy in 1943 and first flew on June 20 of that year. Acting on a recommendation of", "In the spring of 1943, Hughes spent nearly a month in Las Vegas, test flying his Sikorsky S-43 amphibian aircraft, practicing touch-and-go landings on Lake Mead in preparation for flying the H-4 Hercules. The weather conditions at the lake during the day were ideal and he enjoyed Las Vegas at night. On May 17, 1943, Hughes flew the Sikorsky from California carrying two CAA aviation inspectors, two of his employees,", "Hughes was involved in another near-fatal aircraft accident on July 7, 1946, while performing the first flight of the prototype U.S. Army Air Forces reconnaissance aircraft, the XF-11, near Hughes airfield at Culver City, California. An oil leak caused one of the contra-rotating propellers to reverse pitch, causing the aircraft to yaw sharply and lose altitude rapidly. Hughes attempted to save the aircraft by landing it at the Los Angeles Country Club golf course, but just seconds before reaching the course, the XF-11 started to drop dramatically and crashed in the Beverly Hills neighborhood surrounding the country club. When the XF-11 finally came to a halt after destroying three houses, the fuel tanks exploded, setting fire to the aircraft and a nearby home at 808 North Whittier Drive, owned by Lt Col. Charles E. Meyer. Hughes managed to pull himself out of the flaming wreckage but lay beside the aircraft until he was rescued by Marine Master Sgt. William L. Durkin, who happened to be in the area", "The War Production Board (not the military) originally contracted with Henry Kaiser and Hughes to produce the gigantic HK-1 Hercules flying boat for use during World War II to transport troops and equipment across the Atlantic as an alternative to seagoing troop transport ships that were vulnerable to German U-boats. The project was opposed by the military services, thinking it would siphon resources from higher priority programs, but was advocated by Hughes' powerful allies in Washington, D.C. After disputes, Kaiser withdrew from the project and Hughes elected to continue it as the H-4 Hercules. However, the aircraft was not completed until after the end of World War II. The Hercules was the world's largest flying boat, the largest aircraft made from wood, and, at, had the longest wingspan of any aircraft (the next largest wingspan was about ). (The Hercules is no longer the longest nor heaviest aircraft ever built; both of those titles are currently held by the Antonov An-225 \"Mriya\".) The Hercules flew only once for", "Hughes Aircraft Company, a division of Hughes Tool Company, was founded by Hughes in 1932, in a rented corner of a Lockheed Aircraft Corporation hangar in Burbank, California, to build the H-1 racer. During and after World War II, Hughes fashioned his company into a major defense contractor. The Hughes Helicopters division started in 1947 when helicopter manufacturer Kellett sold their latest design to Hughes for production. The company was a major American aerospace and defense contractor manufacturing numerous technology related products that include spacecraft vehicles, military aircraft, radar systems, electro-optical systems, the first working laser, aircraft computer systems, missile systems, ion-propulsion engines (for space travel), commercial satellites, and other electronics systems. In", "In 1939, at the urging of Jack Frye, president of Transcontinental & Western Airlines, the predecessor of Trans World Airlines (TWA), Hughes began to quietly purchase a majority share of TWA stock, and took a controlling interest in the airline by 1944. Although he never had an official position with TWA, Hughes handpicked the board of directors, which included Noah Dietrich, and often issued orders directly to airline staff. Hughes Tool Co. purchased the first 6 Stratoliners Boeing manufactured. Hughes used one personally, and the other 5 he let TWA operate. Hughes is commonly credited as the driving force behind the Lockheed Constellation airliner, which Hughes and Frye ordered in 1939 as a long-range replacement for TWA's fleet of Boeing 307 Stratoliners, Hughes personally financed TWA's acquisition of 40 Constellations for $18 million, the largest aircraft order in history up to that time. The Constellations were among the highest-performing commercial aircraft of the late 1940s and 1950s, and allowed TWA to pioneer nonstop transcontinental service. During World War II, Hughes leveraged political connections in Washington to obtain rights for TWA to serve Europe, making it the only U.S. carrier with a combination of domestic and transatlantic routes. After the Boeing 707 was announced, Hughes opted to pursue a more advanced jet aircraft for TWA and approached Convair in late 1954. Convair proposed two concepts to Hughes, but Hughes was unable to decide which concept to adopt, and Convair eventually abandoned its initial jet project after the mockups of the 707 and Douglas DC-8 were unveiled. Even after competitors such as United Airlines, American Airlines and Pan American World Airways had placed large orders for the 707, Hughes only placed eight orders for 707s through the Hughes Tool Company and forbade TWA from using the aircraft. After finally beginning to reserve 707 orders in 1956, Hughes embarked on a plan to build his own \"superior\" jet aircraft for TWA, applied for CAB permission to sell Hughes aircraft to TWA, and began negotiations with the state", "Hughes had made numerous business partnerships through industrialist and producer, David Charnay. Their friendship and many partnerships began with the film \"The Conqueror\", which was first released to the public in 1956. The film caused many controversies due to its critical flop and radioactive location used in St. George, Utah that eventually led to Hughes buying up nearly every copy of the film he could, only to watch the film at home repeatedly for many nights in a row. Charnay later bought Four Star, the film and television production company that produced \"The Conqueror.\" Hughes and Charnay's most published dealings were with a contested AirWest leveraged buyout (LBO). Charnay led the LBO buyout group that involved Howard Hughes and their partners acquiring Air West. Hughes, Charnay, as well as three others were indicted. The complexity of this LBO was the first of its kind. The indictment, made", "In 1953, Hughes launched the Howard Hughes Medical Institute in Miami, Florida (currently located in Chevy Chase, Maryland) with the expressed goal of basic biomedical research, including trying to understand, in Hughes' words, the \"genesis of life itself\", due to his lifelong interest in science and technology. Hughes' first will, which he signed in 1925 at the age of 19, stipulated that a portion of his estate should be used to create a medical institute bearing his name. When a major battle with the IRS loomed ahead, Hughes gave all his stock in the Hughes Aircraft Company to the Institute, thereby turning the aerospace and defense contractor into a for-profit entity of a fully tax-exempt charity. Hughes' internist,", "In 1972, during the cold war era, Hughes was approached by the CIA through his longtime partner, David Charnay, to help secretly recover the Soviet submarine K-129, which had sunk near Hawaii four years earlier. Hughes' involvement provided the CIA with a plausible cover story, conducting expensive civilian marine research at extreme depths and the mining of undersea manganese nodules. The recovery plan used the special-purpose salvage vessel \"Glomar Explorer\". In the summer of 1974, \"Glomar Explorer\" attempted to raise the Soviet vessel. However, during the recovery a mechanical failure in the ship's grapple caused half of", "", "In 1929, Hughes' wife, Ella, returned to Houston and filed for divorce. Hughes dated many famous women, including Billie Dove, Faith Domergue, Bette Davis, Ava Gardner, Olivia de Havilland, Katharine Hepburn, Hedy Lamarr, Ginger Rogers, Janet Leigh, Rita Hayworth, Mamie Van Doren and Gene Tierney. He also proposed to Joan Fontaine several times, according to her autobiography \"No Bed of Roses\". Jean Harlow accompanied him to the premiere of \"Hell's Angels\", but Noah Dietrich wrote many years later that the relationship was strictly professional, as Hughes apparently disliked Harlow personally. In his 1971", "In 1933, Hughes made a purchase of an unseen luxury steam yacht named the \"Rover\", which was previously owned by British shipping magnate Lord Inchcape. \"I have never seen the \"Rover\" but bought it on the blueprints, photographs and the reports of Lloyd's surveyors. My experience is that the English are the most honest race in the world.\" Hughes renamed the yacht \"Southern Cross\" and later sold her to Swedish entrepreneur Axel Wenner-Gren. On July 11, 1936, Hughes struck and killed a pedestrian named Gabriel S. Meyer with his car at the corner of 3rd Street and Lorraine in Los Angeles. After the crash, Hughes was taken to the", "On January 12, 1957, Hughes married actress Jean Peters at a small hotel in Tonopah, Nevada. The couple met in the 1940s, before Peters became a film actress. They had a highly publicized romance in 1947 and there was talk of marriage, but she said she could not combine it with", "Shortly before the 1960 Presidential election, Richard Nixon was alarmed when it was revealed that his brother, Donald, received a $205,000 loan from Hughes. It has long been speculated that Nixon's drive to learn what the Democrats were planning in 1972 was based in part on his belief that the Democrats knew about a later bribe that his friend Bebe Rebozo had received from Hughes after Nixon took office. In late 1971, Donald Nixon was collecting intelligence for his brother in preparation for the upcoming presidential election. One of his sources was John H.", "", "Hughes was eccentric, and suffered from a severe obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). Dietrich wrote that Hughes always ate the same thing for dinner, a New York strip steak cooked medium rare, dinner salad, and peas, but only the smaller ones, pushing the larger ones aside. For breakfast, Hughes wanted his eggs cooked the way his family cook, Lily, made them. Hughes had a \"phobia about germs\", and \"his passion for secrecy became a mania.\" While directing \"The Outlaw\", Hughes became fixated on a small flaw in one of Jane Russell's blouses, claiming that the fabric bunched up along a seam and gave the appearance of two nipples on each breast. He", "The wealthy and aging Hughes, accompanied by his entourage of personal aides, began moving from one hotel to another, always taking up residence in the top floor penthouse. In the last ten years of his life, 1966 to 1976, Hughes lived in hotels in many cities—including Beverly Hills, Boston, Las Vegas, Nassau, Freeport, and Vancouver. On November 24, 1966 (Thanksgiving Day), Hughes arrived in Las Vegas by railroad car and moved into the Desert Inn. Because he refused to leave the hotel and to avoid further conflicts with the owners, Hughes bought the Desert Inn in early 1967. The hotel's eighth floor became the nerve center of Hughes' empire and the ninth-floor penthouse became his personal residence. Between 1966 and 1968, he bought several other hotel-casinos, including the Castaways, New Frontier, the Landmark Hotel and Casino, and the Sands. He bought the small Silver Slipper casino for the sole purpose of moving its trademark neon silver slipper; visible from Hughes' bedroom, as it had apparently kept him awake at night. After Hughes left the Desert Inn, hotel employees discovered that his drapes had not been opened during the time he lived there and had rotted through. Hughes wanted to change the image of Las Vegas to something more glamorous. He wrote in a memo to an aide, \"I like to think of Las Vegas in terms of a well-dressed man in a dinner jacket and a beautifully jeweled and furred female getting out of an expensive car.\" Hughes bought several local television stations (including KLAS-TV). Hughes' considerable business holdings were overseen by a small panel unofficially dubbed \"The Mormon Mafia\" because of the many Latter-day Saints on the committee, led by Frank William Gay. In addition to supervising day-to-day business operations and Hughes' health, they also went to great pains to satisfy Hughes' every whim. For example, Hughes once became fond of Baskin-Robbins' banana", "Hughes is reported to have died on April 5, 1976, at 1:27 p.m. on board an aircraft, Learjet 24B N855W, owned by Robert Graf and piloted by Jeff Abrams. He was en route from his penthouse at the Acapulco Fairmont Princess Hotel in Mexico to the Methodist Hospital in Houston. His reclusiveness and possibly his drug use made him practically unrecognizable. His hair, beard, fingernails, and toenails were long—his tall frame now weighed barely, and the FBI had to use fingerprints to conclusively", "Approximately three weeks after Hughes' death, a handwritten will was found on the desk of an official of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints in Salt Lake City, Utah. The so-called \"Mormon Will\" gave $1.56 billion to various charitable organizations (including $625 million to the Howard Hughes Medical Institute), nearly $470 million to the upper management in Hughes' companies and to his aides, $156 million to first cousin William Lummis, and $156 million split equally between his two ex-wives Ella Rice and Jean Peters. A further $156 million was endowed to a gas-station owner, Melvin Dummar, who told reporters that in 1967, he found a disheveled and dirty man lying along U.S. Route 95, just north of Las Vegas. The man asked for a ride to Vegas. Dropping him off at the Sands Hotel, Dummar said the man told", "The moving image collection of Howard Hughes is held at the Academy Film Archive. The collection consists of over 200 items including 35mm and 16mm elements of feature films, documentaries, and television programs made or accumulated by Hughes." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Sacagawea.", "Phonology.", "Vowels.", "Consonants.", "Morphology.", "Gender.", "Number.", "Person.", "Modality.", "Time.", "Place.", "Word order.", "Unconjugated verbs.", "Case.", "Use." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Linguists working on Hidatsa since the 1870s have considered the name of Sacagawea, a guide and interpreter on the Lewis and Clark Expedition, to be of Hidatsa origin. The name is a compound of two common Hidatsa nouns, \"cagáàga\" 'bird' and \"míà\" 'woman'. The compound is written as \"Cagáàgawia\" 'Bird Woman' in modern Hidatsa orthography and pronounced ( is pronounced between vowels in Hidatsa). The double in the name indicates a long vowel and the diacritics a falling pitch pattern. Hidatsa is a pitch-accent language that does not have stress so all syllables in are pronounced with roughly the same relative emphasis. However, most English speakers perceive the accented syllable (the long é) as stressed. In faithful rendering of the name \"Cagáàgawia\" to other languages, it is advisable to emphasize the second, long, syllable, not the last as is common in English.", "", "Hidatsa has five vowels and two diphthongs. It lacks nasal vowels, which is a way it differs from other Siouan languages. (Boyle 2007) The /a/ vowel has three sounds. The long ‘a:’ sounds like the ‘a’ in the English word, ‘father’; ‘ǎ’ has the sound of the ‘a’ in the English word ‘what’; and an obscure sound, ‘ạ’, which represents the short ‘u’ sound in English, like in the word ‘fun’. The /e/ vowel also has three sounds. Unmarked ‘e’ has the English sound ‘ai’, like the initial syllable in the word ‘air’; ‘ě’ has the short English ‘e’ sound, such as in the word ‘den’; ‘e:’ has the sound of the English long ‘e’, like the sound of the ‘e’ in ‘they’. The /i/ vowel has only two sounds. The ‘ǐ’ in Hidatsa sounds like the short ‘i’ sound in English, like in the word ‘pin’; the long ‘i:’ sounds like the English ‘i’ in the word ‘marine’. The /o/ and /u/ vowels have one sound each, the ‘o’ in the English word ‘bone’ and the ‘u’ in the English word ‘tune’, respectively. (Matthews 1877) The /e/ and /o/ vowels are rare and appear as long sounds. Length, as demonstrated in the table above, is phonemically distinct. There is evidence of this within some minimal and near-minimal pairs in the language: (1) e/e: [gáre] /káre/ ‘to stick into’ [garée] /karé:/ ‘to vomit’ (2) a/a: [miŕa] /wiŕa/ ‘wood’ [miíraa] /wiíra:/ ‘goose’ (3) i/i: [máashii] /wáaši:/ ‘holy story’ [máashi] /wáaši/ ‘to buy, to hire’", "Hidatsa has ten consonant phonemes: Unlike the Mississippi Valley Siouan languages, Hidatsa does not have the glottalized or the aspirated stops of Proto-Siouan. It has only one series of voiceless oral stop, /p,t,k/, which are voiced intervocalically as [b,d,g]. Hidatsa has one voiceless affricate, /t͡s/. The two fricatives, /ʃ/ and /x/, are voiceless when they are unaspirated. They are not voiced intervocalically. Hidatsa has three sonorants: two glides, /w/ and /r/, as well as /h/. The glides are realized as [m] and [ŋ] after a pause, most frequently at the beginning of a word.", "", "In Hidatsa, the usage of different words creates a division between masculine and feminine. Words may stand alone or be added to common gender words. Nouns of the masculine gender:'matsé' ('man'), ṡikàka ('young man'), 'itàka' ('old man'), the terms used for male relations ('itsùka', 'idìṡi', etc.) and their compounds (such as'makadiṡta-maste' and 'itakaḣe') are the masculine nouns for humans. The word 'kedapi' by itself means \"bull\" but designates the maleness of any of the lower animals in its suffix form, with or without the interposition of the adverb 'adu'. Nouns of the feminine gender:'mia' ('woman'), kaduḣe ('old woman'), the terms used for female relations ('idu', 'itakiṡa', etc.) and their compounds (such as'miakaza', meaning \"a young woman\") are feminine nouns for humans. The word'mika', meaning\" a mare,\" the designation for females of the lower animals, with or without the interposition of 'adu'.", "Hidatsa nouns do not change forms to mark the difference between singular and plural. Some nouns are known to be singular or plural from only the original meaning of the word or how they are used in a sentence. In other cases, numeral adjectives or adjectives such as ahu ('many'), etsa ('all') and kauṡta ('few') are the only indications at discerning number.", "There are five simple pronouns:'ma' and'mi', sometimes contracted to'm', refer to the first person; 'da' and 'di', sometimes contracted to 'd', to the second person; and 'i' to the third person. They are normally incorporated into other words but can stand out for repetition or emphasis. Both'ma' and 'da' are the proper nominative forms, used as the nominatives of transitive verbs, but they may also be used as the nominative of certain intransitive verbs in an active sense, such as 'amaki' (\"he sits\") and 'adamaki' (\"you sit\"). They may also be prefixed, suffixed, or inserted into verbs, such as 'kikidi' (\"he hunts\"), 'dakikidi' (\"you hunt\"), and 'amakakạṡi' (\"I write\"). 'Ma' (\"my\") is used in the possessive case and is prefixed to the noun to indicate the possessed, in 'intimate or nontransferable' possession; examples include words such as'maṡạki' (\"my hand\"), from the original word'saki' (\"hand\").", "There are three modes in Hidatsa: infinitive, indicative, and imperative. They are shown in the conjugations of verbs. The infinitive is the same as the third person indicative, which is the simple form of the verb. However, finite verbs are much more commonly used in speech. For example, \"I try to cough\" would be produced as'mahua mamahets' (\"I cough, I try\") rather than as 'hua mamahets' (\"to cough, I try)\"). In the third person, no distinction is made between the infinitive and the indicative modes. The simple form of the verb is the third person indicative; it is modified by incorporated pronouns for the first and the second persons. The imperative mode has five forms. The first form uses the same form as the second person indicative, which uses verbs that have incorporated pronouns suffixed. The second is made by final ‘i’ or ‘e’ of the infinitive to ‘a’ or using an infinitive ending in a or u. The third is formed by dropping the final ‘i’ of verbs ending in ‘ki’ and sometimes of those ending in ‘ti’. The fourth form adds the auxiliary ‘da’ to the second form of the imperative, usually placed after the verb. The fifth form is made by adding ‘diha’ instead of ‘da’. The fourth and the fifth forms are used when immediate compliance with the order is desired.", "In Hidatsa, there are two distinct conjugations of verbs related to time: one for the indefinite and one for future time. The indefinite tense is shown by the simple form of the verb, with or without the incorporated pronouns, and it is used for both past and present time. In the future tense, indicative mode,'mi' and'miha' are added to the indefinite for the first person, 'di' and 'diha' for the second person. In the third person, the form is the same as in the indefinite.", "Most adverbs of place are formed from nouns by suffixing the prepositions 'du', 'ha', 'ka', 'koa', and 'ta'. Some examples include 'dumàta' (\"the middle\"), 'dumàtadu' (\"through the middle\"), 'dumàtaka' (\"the middle\"), 'dumàtakoa' (\"at the middle\"), and 'dumàtata' (\"facing in the direction of the middle\"). Words formed so are used in the same way as the English adverbs 'windward' and 'forward'.", "In Hidatsa, word order is subject-object-verb.", "Since there is no copula in Hidatsa, all adjectives, adverbs, and nouns that are used as predicates of nouns are regarded as intransitive verbs. They do not undergo a change of form to denote different modes and tenses. They may take the incorporated pronouns'mi' and 'di' for their nominatives, which are prefixed. Verbs beginning with consonants are usually prefixed in full: 'liié' (\"old, to be old\") and 'liie' (\"he, she, or it is or was old\" or \"you are or were old\"). Before verbs beginning with vowels, the pronouns are often contracted. Transitive verbs used in the third person or impersonally in a passive sense, with pronouns in the objective case prefixed, also look like unconjugated intransitive verbs.", "Hidatsa nouns are not inflected to indicate case except (arguably) in the possessive. Possession is shown by the use of possessive pronouns, which are before the noun that is possessed. They are consided to be prefixed to it. Two kinds of possessions are indicated in Hidatsa: intimate (or non-transferable) possession, such as parts of the body, relationships, and anything else that cannot be relinquished; examples are the words 'idakoa' (\"his friend or comrade\") and 'iko'pa' (\"her friend or comrade\"). Initimate possession is shown by the simple possessive pronouns 'i', 'di', and'ma' as well as the contractions'm' and 'd': 'ạki' (\"hand\") can turn into 'iṡạki' (\"his or her hand\") 'diṡạki' (\"your hand\"), and'maṡạki' (\"my hand\"). The other type, acquired possession, indicates transferable possession, anything that can be given to another. It is shown by compound possessive pronouns 'ita', 'dita', and'mata'. They are all formed by adding '-ta' to the simple pronouns:'midaki' (\"a shield\"), 'itamidaki', (\"his shield\"), 'ditamidaki', (\"your shield\"),'matamidaki', (\"my shield\"). The position of a word in a sentence and the conjugation of the verb that follows usually show whether it is in the nominative or the objective case. Often, it is unmistakable in context.", "By the Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale, originally proposed by linguist Joshua Fishman in 1991, the status of the language is at level 7, or 'Shifting': \"The child-bearing generation can use the language among themselves, but it is not being transmitted to children.\" Research by linguist Victor Golla in 2007 found that out of an ethnic population of 600, only 200 people are able to speak Hidatsa. There are 6 monolingual speakers, and only 50 speak the language semi-fluently; the most proficient speakers are ages 30 and older, and children are familiar with the language only in passing. Conversations in Hidatsa primarily take place between elders in the privacy of the home. Revitalization is still possible since a good number of speakers are of child-bearing age, but emphasis on Hidatsa-language education must be stressed while that is still the case." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Vatican euro design.", "First series (2002–2005).", "Second series (2005).", "Third series (2006–2013).", "Fourth series (2014–2016).", "Fifth series (2017–present).", "Future changes to national sides.", "€2 commemorative coins." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "For images of the common side and a detailed description of the coins, see euro coins.", "The initial series of Vatican euro coins featured an effigy of Pope John Paul II. They were issued only in collector sets and bore an extreme markup with the 2002 collector set costing well over a thousand euro.", "Following the death of Pope John Paul II in April 2005, the Vatican issued special coins during the period of Sede vacante depicting the emblem of the Apostolic Chamber (i.e. two crossed keys beneath an umbraculum, or umbrella) and the coat of arms of the Camerlengo of the Holy Roman Church, at the time Cardinal Eduardo Martínez Somalo.", "When the new pope was elected, the third series of Vatican euro coins were issued on 27 April 2006 and feature the effigy of Pope Benedict XVI. The coins carry an inscription \"Città del Vaticano\" and the twelve stars of Europe. The details of this design are published in the Official Journal of the European Union.", "A series of Vatican euro coins featuring effigies of Pope Francis was released in March 2014. Three different images of Francis were used.", "A series of Vatican euro coins featuring the coat of arms of Pope Francis was issued from 2017 onwards. Starting March 2017, the eight denominations of Vatican euro coins no longer bore the Pope's image and now feature the papal coat of arms of Pope Francis.", "The Commission of the European Communities issued a recommendation on 19 December 2008, a common guideline for the national sides and the issuance of euro coins intended for circulation. One section of this recommendation stipulates that: This change means that there will be no more \"Sede Vacante\" series of the \"regular\" Vatican euro coins, although the issue of \"commemorative\" \"Sede Vacante\" series (usually gold and silver coins), having legal tender in Vatican City only, remains possible. Circulating €2 commemorative Sede Vacante coins would also be possible, if the Sede Vacante period occurs in a year in which the Vatican has not already released two €2 commemorative coins of another subject. Such a coin was indeed minted for the Sede Vacante of 2013.", "In addition, in 2014 the Vatican issued commemorative €20 and €50 coins honoring Pope John XXIII and Pope John Paul II respectively. Both popes were canonized in April 2014." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Performance history.", "Roles.", "Instrumentation.", "Synopsis.", "Act 1.", "Act 2.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The first performance of Mozart's setting took place at the Burgtheater in Vienna on 26 January 1790. It was given only five times before the run was stopped by the death of the Emperor Joseph II and the resulting period of court mourning. It was performed twice in June 1790 with the composer conducting the second performance, and again in July (twice) and August (once). After that it was not performed in Vienna during Mozart's lifetime. The first British performance was in May 1811 at the King's Theatre, London. \"Così fan tutte\" was not performed in the United States until 1922, when it was given at the Metropolitan Opera. According to William Mann, Mozart disliked prima donna Adriana Ferrarese del Bene, da Ponte's arrogant mistress for whom the role of Fiordiligi had been created. Knowing her idiosyncratic tendency to drop her chin on low notes and throw back her head on high ones, Mozart filled her showpiece aria \"Come scoglio\" with constant leaps from low to high and high to low in order to make Ferrarese's head \"bob like a chicken\" onstage. The subject matter (see synopsis below) did not offend Viennese sensibilities of the time, but in the 19th and early 20th centuries was considered risqué, vulgar, and even immoral. The opera was rarely performed, and when it did appear it was presented in one of several bowdlerised versions. After World War II it regained a place in the standard operatic repertoire and is now frequently performed.", "While the use of modern fach titles and voice categories for these roles has become customary, Mozart was far more general in his own descriptions of the voice types: Fiordiligi (soprano), Dorabella (soprano), Guglielmo (bass), Ferrando (tenor), Despina (soprano), and Don Alfonso (bass). Occasionally these modern voice types are varied in performance practice. Don Alfonso is frequently performed by baritones such as Thomas Allen and Bo Skovhus and Dorabella is almost always performed by a mezzo-soprano. In the ensembles, Guglielmo's music lies lower than Alfonso's, and accordingly has been performed by basses such as James Morris and Wladimiro Ganzarolli, and Despina is occasionally (though far less often than the other three instances cited here) performed by a mezzo, such as Cecilia Bartoli, Frederica von Stade, Agnes Baltsa and Ann Murray. Ferrando and Fiordiligi, however, can only be sung by a tenor and a soprano because of the high tessitura of their roles.", "The instrumentation is as follows:", "Mozart and Da Ponte use the theme of \"fiancée swapping\", which dates back to the 13th century; notable earlier versions are found in Boccaccio's \"Decameron\" and Shakespeare's play \"Cymbeline\". Elements from Shakespeare's \"The Taming of the Shrew\" are also present. Furthermore, it incorporates elements of the myth of Procris as found in Ovid's \"Metamorphoses\", vii.", "\"Scene 1: A coffeehouse\" In a cafe, Ferrando and Guglielmo (two officers) express certainty that their fiancées (Dorabella and Fiordiligi, respectively) will be eternally faithful. Don Alfonso expresses skepticism and claims that there is no such thing as a faithful woman. He lays a wager with the two officers, claiming he can prove in a day's time that those two, like all women, are fickle. The wager is accepted: the two officers will pretend to have been called off to war; soon thereafter they will return in disguise and each attempt to seduce the other's lover. The scene shifts to the two women, who are praising their men (duet: \"Ah guarda sorella\"—\"Ah look sister\"). Alfonso arrives to announce the bad news: the officers have been called off to war. Ferrando and Guglielmo arrive, brokenhearted, and bid farewell (quintet: \"Sento, o Dio, che questo piede è restio\"—\"I feel, oh God, that my foot is reluctant\"). As the boat with the men sails off to sea, Alfonso and the sisters wish them safe travel (trio: \"Soave sia il vento\"—\"May the wind be gentle\"). Alfonso, left alone, gloatingly predicts that the women (like all women) will prove unfaithful (arioso: \"Oh, poverini, per femmina giocare cento zecchini?\"—\"Oh, poor little ones, to wager 100 sequins on a woman\"). \"Scene 2: A room in the sisters' home\" Despina, the maid, arrives and asks what is wrong. Dorabella bemoans the torment of having been left alone (aria: \"Smanie implacabili\"—\"Torments implacable\"). Despina mocks the sisters, advising them to take new lovers while their betrotheds are away (aria: \"In uomini, in soldati, sperare fedeltà?\"—\"In men, in soldiers, you hope for faithfulness?\"). After they leave, Alfonso arrives. He fears Despina will recognize the men through their disguises, so he bribes her into helping him to win the bet. The two men then arrive, dressed as mustachioed Albanians (sextet: \"Alla bella Despinetta\"—\"Meet the pretty Despinetta\"). The sisters enter and are alarmed by the presence of strange men in their home. The \"Albanians\" tell the sisters that they were led by love to them (the sisters). However, the sisters refuse to give in. Fiordiligi asks the \"Albanians\" to leave and pledges to remain faithful (aria: \"Come scoglio\"—\"Like a rock\"). The \"Albanians\" continue the attempt to win over the sisters' hearts, Guglielmo going so far as to point out all of his manly attributes (aria: \"Non siate ritrosi\"—\"Don't be shy\"), but to no avail. Ferrando, left alone and sensing victory, praises his love (aria: \"Un'aura amorosa\"—\"A loving breath\"). \"Scene 3: A garden\" The sisters are still pining. Despina has asked Don Alfonso to let her take over the seduction plan. Suddenly, the \"Albanians\" burst in the scene and threaten to poison themselves if they are not allowed the chance to woo the sisters. As Alfonso tries to calm them, they drink the \"poison\" and pretend to pass out. Soon thereafter, a \"doctor\" (Despina in disguise) arrives on the scene and, using magnet therapy, is able to revive the \"Albanians\". The men, pretending to hallucinate, demand a kiss from Dorabella and Fiordiligi (whom the \"Albanians\" call goddesses) who stand before them. The sisters refuse, even as Alfonso and the doctor (Despina) urge them to acquiesce.", "\"Scene 1: The sisters' bedroom\" Despina urges them to succumb to the \"Albanians\"' overtures (aria: \"Una donna a quindici anni\"—\"A fifteen year old woman\"). After she leaves, Dorabella confesses to Fiordiligi that she is tempted, and the two agree that a mere flirtation will do no harm and will help them pass the time while they wait for their lovers to return (duet: \"Prenderò quel brunettino\"—\"I will take the brunette one\"). \"Scene 2: The garden\" Dorabella and the disguised Guglielmo pair off, as do the other two. The conversation is haltingly uncomfortable, and Ferrando departs with Fiordiligi. Now alone, Guglielmo attempts to woo Dorabella. She does not resist strongly, and soon she has given him a medallion (with Ferrando's portrait inside) in exchange for a heart-shaped locket (duet: \"Il core vi dono\"—\"I give you my heart\"). Ferrando is less successful with Fiordiligi (Ferrando's aria: \"Ah, lo veggio\"—\"Ah, I see it\" and Fiordiligi's aria: \"Per pietà, ben mio, perdona\"—\"Please, my beloved, forgive\"), so he is enraged when he later finds out from Guglielmo that the medallion with his portrait has been so quickly given away to a new lover. Guglielmo at first sympathises with Ferrando (aria: \"Donne mie, la fate a tanti\"—\"My ladies, you do it to so many\"), but then gloats, because his betrothed is faithful. \"Scene 3: The sisters' room\" Dorabella admits her indiscretion to Fiordiligi (\"È amore un ladroncello\"—\"Love is a little thief\"). Fiordiligi, upset by this development, decides to go to the army and find her betrothed. Before she can leave, though, Ferrando arrives and continues his attempted seduction. Fiordiligi finally succumbs and falls into his arms (duet: \"Fra gli amplessi\"—\"In the embraces\"). Guglielmo is distraught while Ferrando turns Guglielmo's earlier gloating back on him. Alfonso, winner of the wager, tells the men to forgive their fiancées. After all: \"Così fan tutte\"—\"All women are like that\". \"Scene 4:\" The scene begins as a double wedding for the sisters and their \"Albanian\" grooms. Despina, in disguise as a notary, presents the marriage contract, which all sign. Directly thereafter, military music is heard in the distance, indicating the return of the officers. Alfonso confirms the sisters' fears: Ferrando and Guglielmo are on their way to the house. The \"Albanians\" hurry off to hide (actually, to change out of their disguises). They return as the officers, professing their love. Alfonso drops the marriage contract in front of the officers, and, when they read it, they become enraged. They then depart and return moments later, half in Albanian disguise, half as officers. Despina has been revealed to be the notary, and the sisters realize they have been duped. All is ultimately forgiven, as the entire group praises the ability to accept life's unavoidable good times and bad times.", "Notes Citations Sources Further reading" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Concert venue." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Telia Parken, originally named just Parken, was built on the site of former Denmark national stadium, Idrætsparken, from 1990 to 1992. The last national team match in Idrætsparken was a 0–2 Euro 1992 qualification loss to Yugoslavia on 14 November 1990, and on 9 September 1992 Parken was opened with a 1–2 defeat in a friendly game against Germany. The stadium was rebuilt by investors Baltica Finans A/S in turn of the guarantee from the Danish Football Association, that all national matches would be played at Parken for 15 years. The re-construction, tore down and re-built three of the original four stands, cost 640 million Danish kroner. In 1998, Baltica Finans sold the stadium to F.C. Copenhagen for 138 million DKK, and the club now owns both the stadium and the adjacent office buildings in the company of Parken Sport & Entertainment. Parken was included in UEFA's list of 4-star stadiums in the autumn of 1993, making Parken eligible for hosting the finals of the Europa League (then named UEFA Cup) as well as the now defunct Cup Winners' Cup. Being a 4-star stadium, Parken can not apply for the biggest European club game, the UEFA Champions League final, as that demands 50,000 seats. On 2 June 2007, Parken was the venue for the UEFA Euro 2008 qualifier fan attack. On 1 May 2014 a new stadium covering Wi-Fi solution, powered by Telia was published. The deal provides free high speed Wi-Fi for all spectators at any event at the stadium. The agreement includes a 7 year long naming sponsorship, and on 17 July 2014, the stadium name was changed to Telia Parken.", "Parken is also used as a concert venue, and hosted the Eurovision Song Contest 2001. As a direct consequence of this, and to make Parken a more useful venue in general, a retractable roof was applied to the existing structure in 2000 and 2001. Musicians like Coldplay, Beyoncé, Jay-Z, Whitney Houston, Take That, Pink, Madonna, Britney Spears, AC/DC, Pink Floyd, Eric Clapton, Red Hot Chili Peppers, Celine Dion, Tiësto, Depeche Mode, The Rolling Stones, U2, Bon Jovi, The Black Eyed Peas, Pet Shop Boys, Kashmir, Pharrell, Mew, Robbie Williams, George Michael, R.E.M., Metallica, Bruce Springsteen, Muse, Tina Turner, David Bowie, Elton John, Roger Waters, Paul McCartney, Lady Gaga, Justin Bieber, One Direction, Guns N' Roses, Volbeat and Michael Jackson have performed at Parken. The biggest concert ever held in Parken was a performance by Michael Jackson on 14 August 1997, during his \"HIStory\" tour, with 60,000 tickets sold, a second show was held on the 29th in which Michael got a surprise birthday party after the performance of \"You Are Not Alone\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Transport.", "In popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The first written record of Rataje nad Sázavou dates back to 1156. It acknowledges that Rataje existed as a stronghold and market place. There are not any written reports about the exact date of its origin but it was probably about 946. A castle, partly brick, partly wooden was founded on the place of the current castle in the middle of the 10th century. The castle was built as a border fortress of the Zlic region. This was proved by finding bronze and ceramic ornaments from 1890 when a road around the castle was built. Rataje was rebuilt after a large fire in the middle of the 13th century. It was the property of the king at that time. John of Luxembourg gave Rataje to Henry of Lipa. The lords of Lipa also built a lower castle called Pirkštejn. Hynek Ptacek of Lipa and Pirkštejn gained Rataje in 1420. He was the highest hofmeister and münzmeister of the Bohemian kingdom, an administrator of the royal towns including Kutna Hora and a guardian of the future king, Jiri of Podebrady. This is the most important holder of Rataje and is buried in the family tomb in the local church. Many noble families owned Rataje later on. For example, Ladislav, Vaclav and Jan of Malešice started the reconstruction of the Renaissance part of the chateau in the era from 1531 to 1579. In 1656 William Francis of Talmberk started the reconstruction of the entire chateau and his son Frantisek Maxmilian Leopold finished it. Rataje was held by the Liechtenstein family from 1772 to 1919. The municipality of Rataje bought the chateau in 1933 and placed a municipal office, post office, police station and school there. Although the village once had several hotels these are now largely closed as of 2016.", "There are two railway tracks (014 and 212) and four railway stations: Rataje n. Sáz., Rataje n. Sáz. předměstí, Rataje n. Sáz. zastavka, Rataje n. Sáz. Ivaň.", "The town's 1403 recreation was prominently featured in Czech role-playing game." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Military career.", "Operation Entebbe.", "Personal letters.", "Biographical film and play.", "Legacy.", "The Jonathan Institute." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Yonatan Netanyahu was born in New York City, the eldest son of Zila (\"née\" Segal; 1912–2000) and Benzion Netanyahu (1910–2012), a professor emeritus of history at Cornell University. His mother had been born in Petah Tikva, in what is now Israel, which was then in the Ottoman Empire's Mutasarrifate of Jerusalem, while his father was born in Warsaw and immigrated to Palestine in 1920. He was named after his paternal grandfather, rabbi Nathan Mileikowsky, and Colonel John Henry Patterson, who formerly commanded the Jewish Legion and attended his circumcision. His two brothers are Benjamin and Iddo. Benjamin (nicknamed \"Bibi\") was elected Prime Minister of Israel in 1996, in 2009 and reelected in both 2013 and 2015. Iddo, the youngest of the three, is a radiologist and writer. All three brothers served in Sayeret Matkal. Netanyahu's family returned to the newly independent state of Israel in 1949 when he was two and settled in Jerusalem. In 1956 the family again moved to the United States before returning to Israel in 1958. Netanyahu attended high school at Gymnasia Rehavia in Jerusalem. In 1963, when he was in 11th grade, the family returned to the United States, where he attended Cheltenham High School in Wyncote, Pennsylvania. He was a classmate of Baseball Hall of Fame member Reggie Jackson. While in high school, he began contemplating his purpose in life, when he wrote in a 1963 letter, \"The trouble with the youth here is that their lives are meager in content. I ought to be ready at every moment of my life to confront myself and say—'This is what I've done'.\" After graduating in June 1964, he returned to Israel to enlist in the Israel Defense Forces. He joined the Paratroopers Brigade and fought in the Six-Day War. Netanyahu married his long-time girlfriend Tirza (\"Tuti\") on August 17, 1967. Shortly after their wedding, they flew to the U.S., where Yoni enrolled at Harvard University. He took classes in philosophy and mathematics, excelling in both, and was on the Dean's List at the end of his first year. However, feeling restless at being away from Israel, especially with Israel skirmishing against Egypt during the War of Attrition, Yoni transferred to Jerusalem's Hebrew University in 1968. In early 1969, he left his studies and returned to the army. His father described those decisions, saying \"He was dreaming of resuming his studies and planned to do so time and again. Yet he always conditioned his return to Harvard on the relaxation of the military tensions.\" In 1972, he and Tuti were divorced. Netanyahu was living with his girlfriend of two years, Bruria, at the time of his death.", "After graduating high school, Netanyahu joined the Israeli Defense Forces in 1964. He volunteered to serve in the Paratroopers Brigade, and excelled in the Officer Training Course. He was eventually given command of a paratroopers company. In 1967 he considered college, but the constant threat of war made him stay in Israel: \"This is my country and my homeland. It is here that I belong,\" he wrote. On June 5, 1967, during the Six-Day War, his battalion fought the battle of Um Katef in Sinai, then reinforced the Golan Heights battle. During the Golan Heights battle, he was wounded while helping rescue a fellow soldier who lay wounded deep behind enemy lines. He was decorated for valor after that war. After being wounded, he returned to the U.S. to study at Harvard. But after a year he felt the need to return to Israel to rejoin the army. \"At this time,\" he wrote in a letter, \"I should be defending my country. Harvard is a luxury I cannot afford.\" He next returned to Harvard in the summer of 1973, but again gave up academic life for Israel's military. By 1970 he was leading an anti-terrorist reconnaissance unit, Sayeret Matkal (Israeli special forces), and in the summer of 1972 was appointed as the unit's deputy commander. That year he commanded a raid Operation Crate 3 in which senior Syrian officers were captured as a bargaining chip to be later exchanged in return for captive Israeli pilots. The following year he participated in Operation Spring of Youth, in which the terrorists and leadership of Black September were selectively killed by Sayeret Matkal, Shayetet-13 and the Mossad. During the Yom Kippur War in October 1973, Netanyahu commanded a Sayeret Matkal force in the Golan Heights that killed more than 40 Syrian commandos in a battle which thwarted the Syrian commandos' raid in the Golan's heartland. During the same war, he also rescued Lieutenant Colonel Yossi Ben Hanan from Tel Shams, while Ben Hanan was lying wounded behind Syrian lines. Following the war, Netanyahu was awarded Medal of Distinguished Service (), Israel's third highest military decoration, for his rescue of Ben Hanan. Netanyahu then volunteered to serve as an armor commander, due to the heavy casualties inflicted on the Israeli Armored Corps during the war, with a disproportionate number of these in the officer ranks. Netanyahu excelled in Tank Officers course, and was given command of the Barak Armored Brigade, which had been shattered during the war. Netanyahu turned his brigade into the leading military unit in the Golan Heights.", "Netanyahu was killed in action on July 4, 1976, while commanding the rescue mission during Operation Entebbe. He was the only Israeli soldier killed during the raid (along with three hostages, all of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine members, and dozens of Ugandan soldiers). The commonly accepted version of his death is that Netanyahu fired on Ugandan soldiers, and was shot in response by an African from the airport's control tower. The family refused to accept this verdict, and insisted instead that he was killed by the German commanding the hijackers. Netanyahu was shot outside the building being stormed, and would soon die in the arms of Efraim Sneh, commander of the mission's medical unit. The operation itself was a success, and was renamed as \"Mivtsa Yonatan\" (\"Operation Jonathan\" in English) in his honor. Netanyahu was buried in Jerusalem's Military Cemetery at Mount Herzl on July 6 following a military funeral attended by enormous crowds and top-ranking officials. Shimon Peres, then Defense Minister, said during the eulogy that \"a bullet had torn the young heart of one of Israel's finest sons, one of its most courageous warriors, one of its most promising commanders – the magnificent Yonatan Netanyahu.\" There are memorial trees that have been planted in his honor in front of his graduating high school, Cheltenham High School, and a memorial plaque is located in the lobby.", "In 1980 many of Netanyahu's personal letters were published. Author Herman Wouk describes them as a \"remarkable work of literature, possibly one of the great documents of our time.\" Many of his letters were written hurriedly under trying conditions in the field, but according to a review in the \"New York Times\", give a \"convincing portrayal of a talented, sensitive man of our times who might have excelled at many things yet chose clearsightedly to devote himself to the practice and mastery of the art of war, not because he liked to kill or wanted to, but because he knew that, as always in human history, good is no match for evil without the power to physically defend itself.\" Letter to his parents, March 6, 1969: Letter to his brother Benjamin, December 2, 1973: Letter to his parents, April 13, 1974: Letter to his girlfriend Bruria, Dec., 1974:", "The film \"Follow Me\", released in May 2012, is based on Netanyahu's life story and his final mission, leading the successful rescue of Israeli hostages at Entebbe, at the cost of his life. The narration during the film uses transcripts from his personal letters and other spoken words. \"To Pay the Price\" is a play by Peter-Adrian Cohen based in part on Netanyahu's letters. The play, produced by North Carolina's Theatre Or, opened off Broadway in New York in June 2009 during the Festival of Jewish Theater and Ideas. The play had been scheduled to run at the New Repertory Theatre company near Boston, Massachusetts. The run was canceled by the Netanyahu family because the theater was intending to run the play as a companion piece to \"My Name Is Rachel Corrie\".", "Author Herman Wouk wrote that Netanyahu was already a legend in Israel even before his death at the age of 30. Wouk wrote:He was a taciturn philosopher-soldier of terrific endurance, a hard-fibered, charismatic young leader, a magnificent fighting man. On the Golan Heights, in the Yom Kippur War, the unit he led was part of the force that held back a sea of Soviet tanks manned by Syrians, in a celebrated stand; and after Entebbe, \"Yoni\" became in Israel almost a symbol of the nation itself. Today his name is spoken there with somber reverence. Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu said his own \"hard line against all terrorists\" came as a result of the death of his brother.", "Netanyahu's father commented in 1977 that Yoni would have been disappointed with the West's reactions against terrorism. \"He would, I think, express great dismay and concern at the weakness and indecision displayed by some democracies toward this phenomenon,\" he said. \"He felt that there are principles that must be upheld if civilization itself is to survive.\" In 1979, the Jonathan Institute was founded by Benjamin Netanyahu in order to sponsor international conferences on terrorism. One of its first speakers, U.S. Senator Henry M. Jackson, then Chairman of the Armed Services Committee, who gave a talk titled \"Terrorism as a Weapon in International Politics\", described the purpose of the conference and its relation to Jonathan Netanyahu. The two conferences organized by the Jonathan Institute, were held in Jerusalem in July 1979 and in Washington, D.C. in June 1984. Both were attended by government officials, and attracted significant press coverage." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Soviet Plan.", "Strategic aims and deception.", "Success of deception.", "Operations Rail War and Concert.", "Disposition of forces.", "\"Feste Plätze\".", "The battle – first phase: Tactical breakthrough.", "Vitebsk-Orsha Offensive.", "Mogilev Offensive.", "Bobruysk Offensive.", "Second phase: Strategic offensive against Army Group Centre.", "Minsk Offensive.", "Polotsk Offensive.", "Third phase: strategic offensive operations in the north.", "Šiauliai Offensive.", "Vilnius Offensive.", "Belostock Offensive.", "Lublin–Brest Offensive.", "Kaunas Offensive.", "Osovets Offensive.", "Aftermath.", "References.", "Notes." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Germany's Army Group Centre had previously proven tough to counter as the Soviet defeat in Operation Mars had shown. But by June 1944, despite shortening its front line, it had been exposed following the defeats of Army Group South in the battles that followed the Battle of Kursk, the Battle of Kiev, the Dnieper-Carpathian Offensive and the Crimean Offensive in the late summer, autumn, and winter of 1943–44. In the north, Army Group North was also pushed back, leaving Army Group Center's lines protruding towards the east and at risk of losing contact with neighbouring army groups. The German High Command expected the next Soviet offensive to fall against Army Group North Ukraine (Field Marshal Walter Model), while it lacked intelligence capabilities to divine the Soviet intentions. The Wehrmacht had redeployed one-third of Army Group Centre's artillery, half of its tank destroyers, and 88 per cent of tanks to the south. The entire operational reserve on the Eastern front (18 Panzer and mechanised divisions, stripped from Army Groups North and Centre) was deployed to Model's sector. Army Group Centre had a total of only 580 tanks, tank destroyers, and assault guns. They were opposed by over 4,000 Soviet tanks and self-propelled guns. German lines were thinly held; for example, the 9th Army sector had 143 soldiers per km of the front. Operation Bagration, in combination with the neighbouring Lvov-Sandomierz Offensive, launched a few weeks later in Ukraine, allowed the Soviet Union to recapture Belorussia and Ukraine within its 1941 borders, advance into German East Prussia, but more importantly, the Lvov-Sandomierz operation allowed the Red Army to reach the outskirts of Warsaw after gaining control of Poland east of the Vistula river. The campaign enabled the next operation, the Vistula–Oder Offensive, to come within sight of the German capital. The Soviets were initially surprised at the success of the Belorussian operation which had nearly reached Warsaw. The Soviet advance encouraged the Warsaw uprising against the German occupation forces. The battle has been described as the triumph of the Soviet theory of the \"operational art\" because of the complete coordination of all the strategic front movements and signals traffic to fool the enemy about the target of the offensive. The military tactical operations of the Red Army successfully avoided the mobile reserves of the Wehrmacht and continually \"wrong-footed\" the German forces. Despite the massive forces involved, Soviet front commanders left their adversaries completely confused about the main axis of attack until it was too late.", "", "The Russian word \"maskirovka\" is roughly equivalent to the English word \"camouflage\", but it has broader application in military use. During World War II the term was used by Soviet commanders to describe measures to create deception with the goal of inflicting surprise on the Wehrmacht forces. The \"Oberkommando des Heeres\" expected the Soviets to launch a major Eastern Front offensive in the summer of 1944. The Stavka (Soviet High Command) considered a number of options. The timetable of operations between June and August had been decided on by 28 April 1944. The Stavka rejected an offensive in either the L'vov sector or the Yassy-Kishinev sectors owing to the presence of powerful enemy mobile forces equal in strength to the Soviet strategic fronts. Instead they suggested four options: an offensive into Romania and through the Carpathian Mountains, an offensive into the western Ukrainian SSR aimed at the Baltic coast, an attack into the Baltic, and an offensive in the Belorussian SSR. The first two options were rejected as being too ambitious and open to flank attack. The third option was rejected on the grounds the enemy was too well prepared. The only safe option was an offensive into Belorussia which would enable subsequent offensives from Ukraine into Poland and Romania. The Soviet and German High Commands recognised western Ukraine as a staging area for an offensive into Poland. The Soviets, aware that the enemy would anticipate this, engaged in a maskirovka campaign to catch the German armoured forces off guard by creating a crisis in Belorussia that would force the Germans to move their powerful armoured forces, fresh from their victory in the First Jassy–Kishinev Offensive in April–June 1944, to the central front to support Army Group Centre. This was the primary purpose of Bagration. In order to maximize the chances of success, the maskirovka was a double bluff. The Soviets left four tank armies in the L'vov-Peremyshl area and allowed the Germans to know it. The attack into Romania in April–June further convinced the Soviets that the Axis forces in Romania needed removing and kept the Germans concerned about their defences there and in southern Poland, while drawing German forces to the L'vov sector. Once the offensive against Army Group Centre, which lacked mobile reserves and support, had been initiated, it would create a crisis in the central sector that would force the German armoured forces north to Belorussia from Poland and Romania, despite the presence of powerful Soviet concentrations threatening German-occupied Poland. The intent of the Soviets to strike their main blow towards the Vistula can be seen in the Red Army's (albeit fragmented) order of battle. The Soviet general staff studies of both the Belorussian and L'vov-Sandomierz operations reveal that the L'vov-Przemyśl operation received the overwhelming number of tank and mechanized corps. Six guards tank corps and six tank corps along with three guards mechanized and two mechanized corps were committed to the L'vov operation. This totaled twelve tank and five mechanized corps. In contrast, Operation Bagrations Baltic and Belorussian Fronts were allocated just eight tank and two mechanized corps. The 1st Belorussian Front (an important part of the L'vov-Peremshyl operation) is not mentioned on the Soviet battle order for the offensive. It contained a further six armies and was to protect the flank of the Lublin–Brest Offensive as well as engage in offensive operations in that area. The bulk of tactical resources, in particular anti-tank artillery, was allocated to the 1st Ukrainian Front, the spearhead of the Vistula, L'vov-Premyshl operation. Thirty-eight of the 54 anti-tank regiments allocated to the Belorussian-Baltic-Ukrainian operations were given to the 1st Ukrainian Front. This demonstrates that the Soviet plans for the L'vov operation were a major consideration and whoever planned the offensive was determined to hold the recently captured territory. The target for this operation was the Vistula bridgehead and the enormous anti-tank artillery forces helped repulse big counter-attacks by German armoured formations in August–October 1944. One American author suggests that these Soviet innovations were enabled, in part, by the provision of over 220,000 Dodge and Studebaker trucks by the United States to motorize the Soviet infantry. Most of the aviation units, fighter aircraft and assault aviation (strike aircraft) were given to the L'vov operation and the protection of the 1st Ukrainian Front. Of the 78 fighter and assault aviation divisions committed to Bagration, 32 were allocated to the L'vov operation, nearly fifty per cent of the aviation groups committed to Bagration and contained more than was committed to the Belorussian operation. This concentration of aviation was to protect the Vistula bridgeheads against air attack and to assault German counteroffensives from the air.", "Towards the beginning of June 1944, the German High Command, Army Group Center and the army commands had identified a large part of the concentration against Army Group Centre, although they still considered that the main operation would be against Army Group North Ukraine. On 14 June, the Chief of Staff of Army Group Centre told General Kurt Zeitzler, the Chief of the Army General Staff, that \"...the Russian concentration here [in front of 9th Army] and at the Autobahn clearly indicates that the enemy attack will be aimed at the wings of the Army Group\". On 10 June the Oberkommando des Heeres (OKH) adopted the opinion of Army Group Centre in its estimate of the enemy situation: On 19 June Army Group Centre noted in its estimate of the enemy situation that the concentration of enemy air forces had become greater (4,500 out of 11,000) and that this left new doubts regarding OKH's estimate. OKH saw no grounds for this supposition. Shortly before the beginning of the Soviet offensive, the army commands had detected some enemy forces near the front and had identified the places where the main Soviet attacks would take place, with the exception of 6th Guards Army near Vitebsk. The Soviet strategic reserves were not detected.", "The start of Operation Bagration involved many Soviet partisan formations in the Belorussian SSR, which were instructed to resume their attacks on railways and communications. From 19 June large numbers of explosive charges were placed on rail tracks and though many were cleared, they had a significant disruptive effect. The partisans were also used to mop up encircled German forces once the breakthrough and exploitation phases of the operation were completed.", "The Stavka had committed approximately 1,670,300 combat and support personnel, approximately 32,718 artillery pieces and mortars, 5,818 tanks and assault guns and 7,799 aircraft. Army Group Centre's strength was 486,000 combat personnel (849,000 total, including support personnel). The army group had 3,236 field guns and other artillery pieces (not including mortars) but only 495 operational tanks and assault guns and 920 available aircraft, of which 602 were operational. Army Group Centre was seriously short of mobile reserves: the demotorized 14th Infantry Division was the only substantial reserve formation, though the 20th Panzer Division, with 56 tanks, was positioned in the south near Bobruisk and the Panzergrenadier Division Feldherrnhalle, still in the process of forming, was also held in reserve. Furthermore, the Germans were supported by collaborationist troops such as the Lithuanian Security Police. The relatively static lines in Belorussia had enabled the Germans to construct extensive field fortifications, with multiple trench lines to a depth of several kilometres and heavily mined defensive belts. Besides the pro-German and pro-Soviet forces, some third-party factions were also involved in the fighting during Operation Bagration, most notably several resistance groups of the Polish Home Army. The latter mostly fought both the German as well as the Soviet-led troops. Some Home Army partisan factions regarded the Soviet Union as the greater threat, however, and negotiated ceasefires or even \"ad-hoc\" alliances with the German occupation forces. Such deals were condemned by the Home Army's leadership, and several partisan officers who cooperated with the Germans against the Soviets were subsequently court-martialed.", "The Wehrmacht's forces were based on logistic lines of communications and centres, which on Hitler's orders were declared \"Feste Plätze\" (fortified towns to be held at all costs) by OKH. General Jordan of 9th Army was very worried at how vulnerable this immobility made the army, correctly predicting that \"if a Soviet offensive breaks out the Army will either have to go over to a mobile defence or see its front smashed\". Because the initial offensive in Belarus was thought to be a feint, the \"Feste Plätze\" spanned the entire length of the Eastern Front. Army Group Centre had \"Feste Plätze\" at Vitebsk, Orsha, Mogilev, Baranovichi, Minsk, Babruysk, Slutsk, Vilnius.", "Operation Bagration was launched on a staggered schedule, with partisan attacks in the rear beginning on 19–20 June. On the night of 21–22 June, the Red Army launched probing attacks on German frontline positions, combined with bombing raids on Wehrmacht's lines of communication. The main offensive began in the early morning of 23 June, with an artillery bombardment of unprecedented scale against the defensive works. The initial assault achieved breakthroughs almost everywhere. The first phase of Soviet deep operations, the \"deep battle\", envisaged breaking through the tactical zones and forward German defences. Once these tactical offensives had been successful, fresh operational reserves exploited the breakthrough and the operational depths of the enemy front using powerful mechanized and armoured formations to encircle enemy concentrations on an Army Group Scale.", "Army Group Centre's northern flank was defended by the 3rd Panzer Army under the command of Georg-Hans Reinhardt; the lines ran through marshy terrain in the north, through a salient round the city of Vitebsk, to a sector north of the main Moscow–Minsk road, held by the 4th Army. It was opposed by the 1st Baltic Front of Hovhannes Bagramyan, and Ivan Chernyakhovsky's 3rd Belorussian Front, which were given the task of breaking through the defences to the north and south of Vitebsk and cutting off the salient. In the north, the 1st Baltic Front pushed the German IX corps over the Dvina, while encircling the LIII Corps in the city of Vitebsk by 24 June, opening a gash in the frontline of wide. The Soviet command inserted its mobile forces to begin exploitation in the operational depth. To the south, the 3rd Belorussian Front attacked the VI Corps, pushing it so far to the south that it came under the command of the 4th Army. The LIII Corps had received permission to retreat on 24 June with three divisions, while leaving one division behind in the \"fester Platz Vitebsk\". However, by the time the order arrived, the city was already encircled. General Friedrich Gollwitzer, the commander of the Vitebsk \"strongpoint\", decided to disobey the order and have all units of his corps break out at the same time. Abandoning its heavy equipment, the corps began a breakout attempt in the morning of 26 June but quickly ran into Soviet roadblocks outside the city. Vitebsk was taken by 29 June, the entire LIII Corps of 28,000 men eliminated from the German order of battle. The 3rd Belorussian Front simultaneously opened operations against the 4th Army's XXVII Corps holding Orsha and the main Moscow-Minsk highway. Despite a tenacious German defense, Orsha was liberated by 26 June, and the 3rd Belorussian Front's mechanized forces were able to penetrate far into the German rear, reaching the Berezina River by 28 June. The central sector of Soviet operations was against the long front of 4th Army, under the command of Kurt von Tippelskirch. Soviet plans envisaged the bulk of it, the XXXIX Panzer Corps and XII Corps, being encircled while pinned down by attacks from the 2nd Belorussian Front in the parallel Mogilev Offensive Operation. By far the most important Soviet objective, however, was the main Moscow–Minsk road and the town of Orsha, which the southern wing of Chernyakhovsky's 3rd Belorussian Front was ordered to take. A breakthrough in this area, against General Paul Völckers' XXVII Corps, would form the northern pincer of the encirclement. The Minsk highway was protected by extensive defensive works manned by the 78th Assault Division, a specially reinforced unit with extra artillery and assault gun support. Orsha itself had been designated a \"Fester Platz\" (stronghold) under 78th Division's commander. The Soviet assault on this sector opened on 23 June with a massive artillery barrage that destroyed defensive positions, flattened bunkers, and detonated ammunition stores. Infantry from the 11th Guards Army, 5th Army and 31 Army then attacked the German positions, breaking through the first defensive belt on the same day. The German deployment of its only reserve division was met the next day with the insertion of the massed Soviet tank brigades, which achieved the operational breakthrough. By 25 June, Soviet forces began to advance into the German rear. Völckers' position was further threatened by the near-collapse of the 3rd Panzer Army's VI Corps, immediately to the north. By midnight on 25 June, the 11th Guards Army had shattered the remnant of VI Corps, and 26 June saw the German forces in retreat. Soviet tank forces of the 2nd Guards Tank Corps were able to push up the road towards Minsk at speed, with a subsidiary force breaking off to encircle Orsha, which was liberated on the evening of 26 June. The main exploitation force, Pavel Rotmistrov's 5th Guards Tank Army, was then committed through the gap in the German lines. VI Corps finally crumbled completely; its commander, General Georg Pfeiffer, was killed on 28 June after losing contact with his divisions. Achieving complete success, the operation effectively ceased with the arrival of 5th Guards Tank Army's forward units at the Berezina River on 28 June.", "The centre of the 4th Army was holding the tip of the Byelorussian bulge, with the bulk of its forces on a shallow bridgehead east of the Dnieper River. The Mogilev Offensive opened with an intense artillery barrage against the German defensive lines on the morning of 23 June. The goal of the 2nd Belorussian Front (Colonel-General Gyorgy Zakharov) was to pin the 4th Army near Mogilev while the developing Vitebsk-Orsha and Bobruysk Offensives encircled it. East of Mogilev, General Robert Martinek's XXXIX Panzer Corps attempted to hold its lines in the face of an assault by the 49th Army during which the latter suffered heavy casualties. The 4th Army commander, Tippelskirch, requested that the army allowed to withdraw on 25 June. When the permission was not forthcoming, he authorised his units to withdraw to the Dnieper; this was countermanded by the Army Group commander, Busch, who instructed Tippelskirch to order the units to return to their positions. This was however impossible as a cohesive frontline no longer existed. With the front collapsing, Busch met with Hitler on 26 June and received the authorisation to pull the army back to the Berezina River, west of Mogilev. The 49th Army forced the Dnieper crossings on the evening of 27 June and fought its way into the city during the night, while mobile units enveloped the garrison from the northwest. During the day both the German XII Corps and XXXIX Panzer Corps began falling back towards the Berezina crossings. Travel was nearly impossible by day, due to the omnipresence of the Soviet air force, while Soviet tanks columns and roadblocks provided constant obstacles. The main body of 4th Army arrived at the crossing on 30 June. It largely completing the crossing by 2 July, under heavy Soviet bombardment, but they were retreating into a trap. The Mogilev Offensive fulfilled all its immediate objectives; not only was the city itself taken, but the 4th Army was successfully prevented from disengaging in time to escape encirclement in the Minsk Offensive, which commenced immediately afterwards.", "The Bobruysk Offensive, against the German 9th Army on the southern flank of Army Group Centre, was opened by the 1st Belorussian Front of Konstantin Rokossovsky on 23 June but suffered heavy losses attempting to penetrate the German defenses. Rokossovsky ordered additional bombing and artillery preparation and launched further attacks the next day. The 3rd Army broke through in the north of the sector, trapping the German XXXV Army Corps against the Berezina. The 65th Army then broke through the XXXXI Panzer Corps to the south; by 27 June, the two German corps were encircled in a pocket east of Bobruysk under constant aerial bombardment. Some elements of the 9th Army managed to break out of Bobruysk on 28 June, but up to 70,000 soldiers were killed or taken prisoner. The 1st Belorussian Front's forces liberated Bobruysk on 29 June after intense street fighting.", "The second phase of the operation involved the entire operation's most significant single objective: the retaking of Minsk, capital of the Belorussian SSR. It would also complete the large-scale encirclement and destruction, set up by the first phase, of much of Army Group Centre.", "From 28 June, the main exploitation units of the 3rd Belorussian Front (the 5th Guards Tank Army and an attached cavalry-mechanised group) began to push on to secure crossings of the Berezina, followed by the 11th Guards Army. In the south, exploitation forces of the 1st Belorussian Front began to close the lower pincer of the trap developing around the German 4th Army. The Germans brought back the 5th Panzer Division into Belorussia to cover the approaches to Minsk, while the units of Fourth Army began to withdraw over the Berezina crossings, where they were pounded by heavy air bombardment. After forcing crossings of the Berezina, Soviet forces closed in on Minsk. The 2nd Guards Tank Corps was the first to break into the city in the early hours of 3 July; fighting erupted in the centre, which was finally cleared of German rearguards by the following day. The 5th Guards Tank Army and 65th Army closed the encirclement to the west of Minsk, trapping the entire German Fourth Army, and much of the remnants of the 9th Army. Over the next few days, the pocket east of Minsk was reduced: only a fraction of the 100,000 soldiers in it escaped. Minsk had been liberated, and Army Group Centre utterly destroyed, in possibly the greatest single defeat suffered by the Wehrmacht in the whole war. Between 22 June and 4 July 1944, Army Group Centre lost 25 divisions and 300,000 men. In the few subsequent weeks, the Germans lost another 100,000 men.", "The Polotsk Offensive had the dual objective of taking Polotsk itself, and of screening the northern flank of the main Minsk Offensive against a possible German counter-offensive from Army Group North. The 1st Baltic Front successfully pursued the retreating remnants of the 3rd Panzer Army back towards Polotsk, which was reached by 1 July. German forces attempted to organise a defense using rear-area support units and several divisions hurriedly transferred from Army Group North. Units of the 1st Baltic Front's 4th Shock Army and 6th Guards Army fought their way into the city over the next few days, and successfully cleared it of German forces by 4 July.", "As German resistance had almost completely collapsed, Soviet forces were ordered to push on as far as possible beyond the original objective of Minsk, and new objectives were issued by the Stavka. This resulted in a third phase of offensive operations, which should be regarded as a further part of Operation Bagration. Field Marshal Walter Model, who had taken over command of Army Group Centre on 28 June when Ernst Busch was dismissed, hoped to reestablish a defensive line running through Lida using what was left of the 3rd Panzer, 4th and 9th Armies along with new reinforcements.", "The Šiauliai Offensive covered the operations of the 1st Baltic Front between 5 and 31 July against the remnants of the 3rd Panzer Army; its main objective was the Lithuanian city of Šiauliai (; ). The 43rd, 51st, and 2nd Guards Armies attacked towards Riga on the Baltic coast with 3rd Guards Mechanised Corps attached. By 31 July, the coast on the Gulf of Riga had been reached. 6th Guards Army covered Riga and the extended flank of the penetration towards the north. A hurriedly organised German counter-attack managed to restore the severed connection between the remnants of Army Group Centre and Army Group North. In August, the Germans attempted to retake Šiauliai in Operation Doppelkopf and Operation Cäsar, but they failed.", "The Vilnius Offensive was conducted by units of the 3rd Belorussian Front subsequent to their completion of the Minsk Offensive; they were opposed by the remnants of 3rd Panzer Army and the 4th Army. Units of the 4th Army, principally the 5th Panzer Division, attempted to hold the key rail junction of Molodechno, but failed. It was taken by units of the 11th Guards Army, 5th Guards Tank Army and 3rd Guards Cavalry Corps on 5 July. German forces continued a precipitate retreat, and Soviet forces reached Vilnius, held by units of the 3rd Panzer Army, by 7 July. By 8 July, the city had been encircled, trapping the garrison, who were ordered to hold fast at all costs. Soviet forces then fought their way into the city in intense street-by-street fighting (alongside an Armia Krajowa uprising, Operation Ostra Brama). On 12 July, 6th Panzer Division counter-attacked and temporarily opened an escape corridor for the besieged troops, but the majority of them were lost when the city fell on 13 July (this phase of the operation is commonly known as the Battle of Vilnius). On 23 July, the 4th Army commander, Hoßbach, in agreement with Model, committed the newly arrived 19th Panzer Division into a counter-attack with the intention of cutting off the Soviet spearheads in the Augustow Forest. This failed.", "The Belostock Offensive covered the operations of 2nd Belorussian Front between 5 and 27 July, with the objective of the Polish city of Białystok (Belostock). The 40th and 41st Rifle Corps of 3rd Army, on the front's left wing, took Białystok by storm on 27 July, after two days of fighting.", "The Lublin-Brest Offensive was carried out by Marshal Rokossovsky's 1st Belorussian Front between 18 July and 2 August, and developed the initial gains of Operation Bagration toward eastern Poland and the Vistula. The 47th and 8th Guards Armies reached the Bug River by 21 July, and the latter reached the eastern bank of the Vistula by 25 July. Lublin was taken on 24 July; the 2nd Tank Army was ordered to turn north, towards Warsaw, to cut off the retreat of forces from Army Group Centre in the Brest area. Brest was taken on 28 July and the Front's left wing seized bridgeheads over the Vistula by 2 August. This effectively completed the operation, the remainder of the summer being given over to defensive efforts against a series of German counter-attacks on the bridgeheads. The Operation ended with the defeat of German Army Group North Ukraine and Soviet bridgeheads over the Vistula river west of Sandomierz.", "The Kaunas Offensive covered the operations of Chernyakhovsky's 3rd Belorussian Front from 28 July to 28 August, towards the Lithuanian city of Kaunas, subsequent to their completion of the offensive against Vilnius. By 30 July all Wehrmacht resistance on the approaches to the Neman River had retreated or been annihilated. Two days later the city of Kaunas was under Soviet control.", "This offensive covered the operations of 2nd Belorussian Front from 6–14 August, after their completion of the Belostock Offensive, with the objective of the fortified area at Osowiec on one of the tributaries of the Narew River. The very large fortress complex there secured the approaches to East Prussia through the region's marshes. German forces were able to stabilise their line of defense along the Narew, which they held until the East Prussian Offensive of January 1945.", "This was by far the greatest Soviet victory in numerical terms. The Red Army recaptured a vast amount of Soviet and captured some of Baltic states and Polish territory whose population had suffered greatly under the German occupation. The advancing Soviets found cities destroyed, villages depopulated, and much of the population killed or deported by the occupiers. In order to show the outside world the magnitude of the victory, some 57,000 German prisoners, taken from the encirclement east of Minsk, were paraded through Moscow: even marching quickly and twenty abreast, they took 90 minutes to pass. The German army never recovered from the materiel and manpower losses sustained during this time, having lost about a quarter of its Eastern Front manpower, exceeding even the percentage of loss at Stalingrad (about 17 full divisions). These losses included many experienced soldiers, NCOs and commissioned officers, which at this stage of the war the \"Wehrmacht\" could not replace. An indication of the completeness of the Soviet victory is that 31 of the 47 German divisional or corps commanders involved were killed or captured. Of the German generals lost, nine were killed, including two corps commanders; 22 captured, including four corps commanders; Major-General Hahne, commander of 197th Infantry Division disappeared on 24 June, while Lieutenant-Generals Zutavern and Philipp of the 18th Panzergrenadier and 134th Infantry Divisions committed suicide. Overall, the near-total destruction of Army Group Centre was very costly for the Germans. Exact German losses are unknown, but newer research indicates around 400,000 overall casualties. Soviet losses were also substantial, with 180,040 killed and missing, 590,848 wounded and sick, together with 2,957 tanks, 2,447 artillery pieces, and 822 aircraft also lost. The offensive cut off Army Group North and Army Group North Ukraine from each other, and weakened them as resources were diverted to the central sector. This forced both Army Groups to withdraw from Soviet territory much more quickly when faced with the following Soviet offensives in their sectors. The end of Operation Bagration coincided with the destruction of many of the strongest units of the \"Wehrmacht\" engaged against the Allies on the Western Front in the Falaise Pocket in Normandy, during Operation Overlord. After these stunning victories, on both eastern and western fronts, supply problems rather than German resistance slowed the subsequent rapid Allied advance, and it eventually ground to a temporary halt. However, the Germans were able to transfer armoured units from the Italian front, where they could afford to give ground, to resist the Soviet advance near Warsaw. This was one of the largest Soviet operations of WWII with 2.3 million troops engaged, three Axis armies eliminated, and vast amounts of Soviet territory recaptured.", "", "<!-- this material is orphaned, it is not pointed to by any corresponding" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Composition history.", "Performance history.", "Synopsis.", "Act 1.", "Act 2.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Rossini wrote \"L'Italiana in Algeri\" when he was 21. Rossini stated that he composed the opera in 18 days, though other sources claim that it took him 27 days. Rossini entrusted the composition of the recitatives as well as the aria \"Le femmine d'Italia\" to an unknown collaborator. The opera is notable for Rossini's mixing of opera seria style with opera buffa. The overture is widely recorded and performed today, known for its distinct opening of slow, quiet pizzicato basses, leading to a sudden loud burst of sound from the full orchestra. This \"surprise\" reflects Rossini's early admiration for Joseph Haydn, whose Symphony No. 94 in G major, \"The Surprise Symphony\", is so named for the same shocking and semi-comic effect.", "The work was first performed at the Teatro San Benedetto, Venice on 22 May 1813. It was a notable success and Rossini made progressive changes to the work for later performances in Vicenza, Milan and Naples, during the following two years. The opera was first presented in London at His Majesty's Theatre on 28 January 1819 and on 5 November 1832 in New York. It fell somewhat out of favour as the 19th century progressed, but notable performances were presented from the 1920s in \"Turin (1925), Rome (1927) and London (1935)\" and it has been revived frequently since World War II with many successful productions. In the 21st century, Rossini’s opera continues to be performed regularly.", "", "\"The palace of the Bey of Algiers\" Elvira accompanied by her slave Zulma regrets the loss of the love of her husband, the Turkish Bey Mustafà. Left alone with Haly (since the Italian 'h' is silent, this corresponds to the name Ali, more familiar in the English-speaking world), Captain of the Corsairs, Mustafà reveals his plan to marry Elvira off to Lindoro, his Italian slave. The Bey is bored with his submissive harem, desiring a new challenge to his virility: he wants an Italian girl, and Haly must find one! Lindoro enters alone and sings about Isabella, his true love (\"Languir per una bella\"). Mustafà comes in to explain Lindoro's impending marriage. The enthusiastic Bey describes the attractions of the match, while Lindoro struggles to refuse (\"Se inclinassi a prender moglie\"). \"The seashore\" A ship has been wrecked in a storm. Its passengers include Isabella, in search of Lindoro, and Taddeo, her travelling companion and would-be lover. Isabella enters with a sorrowful cavatina \"Cruda sorte! Amor tiranno!\", however she is not afraid (\"Già so per pratica\") and will master the situation. Haly and his men take them prisoner. She passes off Taddeo as her uncle. Haly is delighted to learn she is an Italian – exactly what the Bey wanted! Left to consider their fate, Isabella is irritated by Taddeo's jealousy of Lindoro (\"Ai capricci della sorte\"), but they resolve to join forces. \"The palace\" Back in the palace, Lindoro and Elvira do not wish to marry, but Mustafà offers Lindoro passage on a ship returning to Italy if he takes Elvira. Lindoro agrees, admitting a vague possibility of marrying her in Italy. Haly enters with news of the arrival of the Italian beauty. Mustafà is elated (\"Già d'insolito ardore nel petto agitare\"). Surrounded by eunuchs (\"Viva, viva il flagel delle donne\"), Mustafà receives Isabella in a grand hall. He is enchanted, though she is rather amused by his appearance (\"Oh! Che muso, che figura!\"). At that moment, Lindoro, Elvira and Zulma arrive to say goodbye to Mustafà (\"Pria di dividerci da voi, Signore\"). Lindoro and Isabella are astonished to come face to face. Recovering herself, Isabella asks about Elvira, learning she is Mustafà's ex-wife, to be remarried to Lindoro! The act ends with an ensemble of confusion (\"Confusi e stupidi\").", "\"In the palace\" Elvira and Zulma (who have remained in Algiers after all) note Isabella's skill with men. Mustafà reveals his strategy for seducing Isabella: he installs Lindoro as Isabella's servant and his informer, and Taddeo will also be induced to help. Elvira and Zulma must tell Isabella he is coming to take coffee with her. Isabella and Lindoro are alone. He explains that he had no intention of marrying Elvira. They agree to escape together and Lindoro sings of his happiness (\"Ah come il cor di giubilo\"). Mustafà enters with a reluctant Taddeo, acclaimed by the Turks as \"Lord Kaimakan\" (\"Viva il grande Kaimakan\"). He dislikes interceding with Isabella for the Bey, but is frightened to refuse (\"Ho un gran peso sulla testa\"). \"In her apartment\" Isabella is dressing in Turkish style. Zulma and Elvira deliver Mustafà's message: he is coming for coffee. Isabella orders three cups. Elvira should wait in a side room. As Mustafà approaches, Isabella sings a romantic cavatina, \"Per lui che adoro\" - she will receive him. Mustafà tells Taddeo to leave when he sneezes (\"Ti presento di mia man\"). Isabella greets Mustafà warmly and he sneezes, but Taddeo ignores the signal. Isabella calls for coffee and then – to Mustafà's horror and amazement – invites Elvira to join them. \"Elsewhere in the palace\" Haly sings in praise of the women of Italy (\"Le femmine d'Italia\"). The Italians enter, and Taddeo reveals to a surprised Lindoro that he is not her uncle but her lover (he himself is unaware of the other man's true identity). Lindoro tells Mustafà that Isabella will declare him her adored \"pappataci\" (literally a \"silent eater\": a man unable to resist the opposite sex). This, as Lindoro explains (\"Pappataci! Che mai sento!\"), is an Italian custom and a great honour, as the \"pappataci\" enjoy an idyllic life dedicated to eating, drinking and sleeping. Zulma and Haly speculate about Isabella's real intentions and the quantity of alcohol ordered for the ceremony. \"Isabella's apartment\" She addresses the Italian slaves who will be \"pappataci\" in the ceremony - she will lead them to freedom (\"Pensa alla patria\"). The ceremony begins (\"Dei pappataci s'avanza il coro\"); Mustafà is delighted with his new honour and changes into appropriate costume. Isabella explains his obligations. He must swear an oath of eating, drinking, and keeping silent, repeating the words after Taddeo. Following that his oath is tested, under provocation by Isabella and Lindoro. A European ship lies alongside the palace: time to escape! Taddeo finally realizes who Lindoro is, but decides to go along with them anyway. Elvira, Zulma and Haly find the Bey still acting as a mad \"pappataci\". Suddenly recovering his sanity, Mustafà calls his troops but they are all drunk. The Italians bid farewell and Mustafà begs Elvira's forgiveness. No more Italian girls for him!", "Notes Sources" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Composition history.", "Performance history.", "Synopsis.", "Act 1.", "Act 2." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Rossini's opera recounts the events of the first of the three plays by French playwright Pierre Beaumarchais that revolve around the clever and enterprising character named Figaro, the barber of the title. Mozart's opera \"The Marriage of Figaro,\" composed 30 years earlier in 1786, is based on the second part of the Beaumarchais trilogy. The first Beaumarchais play was originally conceived as an opéra comique, but was rejected as such by the Comédie-Italienne. The play as it is now known was premiered in 1775 by the Comédie-Française at the Théâtre des Tuileries in Paris. Other operas based on the first play were composed by Giovanni Paisiello (his \"Il barbiere di Siviglia\" premiered in 1782), by Nicolas Isouard in 1796, and then by Francesco Morlacchi in 1816. Though the work of Paisiello triumphed for a time, only Rossini's version has stood the test of time and continues to be a mainstay of operatic repertoire. On 11 November 1868, two days before Rossini's death, the composer (1842–1877) premiered an opera based on the same libretto as Rossini's work, bearing a dedication to Rossini. The premiere was not a failure, but critics condemned the \"audacity\" of the young composer and the work is now forgotten. Rossini was well known for being remarkably productive, completing an average of two operas per year for 19 years, and in some years writing as many as four. Musicologists believe that, true to form, the music for \"Il barbiere di Siviglia\" was composed in just under three weeks, although the famous overture was actually recycled from two earlier Rossini operas, \"Aureliano in Palmira\" and \"Elisabetta, regina d'Inghilterra\" and thus contains none of the thematic material in \"Il barbiere di Siviglia\" itself.", "Luigi Zamboni, for whom Rossini wrote the role of Figaro had urged Rossini and Francesco Sforza-Cesarini, the cash-strapped impresario of the Teatro Argentina, to engage his sister-in-law, Elisabetta Gafforini, as Rosina. However, her fee was too high and in the end they settled on Geltrude Righetti. The premiere of Rossini's opera at the Teatro Argentina in Rome (20 February 1816) was a disaster: the audience hissed and jeered throughout, and several on-stage accidents occurred. Furthermore, many of the audience were supporters of one of Rossini's rivals, the veteran Giovanni Paisiello, who played on mob mentality to provoke the rest of the audience to dislike the opera. Paisiello had already composed \"The Barber of Seville\" and took Rossini's new version to be an affront to his version. In particular, Paisiello and his followers were opposed to the use of basso buffo, which is common in comic opera. The second performance, however, was successful. The original French play, \"Le Barbier de Séville\", had a similar story: poorly received at first, only to become a favorite within a week. The opera was first performed in England on 10 March 1818 at the King's Theatre in London in Italian, soon followed on 13 October at the Covent Garden Theatre by an English version translated by John Fawcett and Daniel Terry. It was first performed in America on 3 May 1819 in English (probably the Covent Garden version) at the Park Theatre in New York. It was given in French at the Théâtre d'Orléans in New Orleans on 4 March 1823, and became the first opera ever to be performed in Italian in New York, when Manuel Garcia (who played Almaviva) and his Italian troupe opened their first season there with \"Il barbiere\" on 29 November 1825 at the Park Theatre. The cast of eight had three other members of his family, including the 17-year-old Maria-Felicia, later known as Maria Malibran. The role of Rosina was originally written for a contralto. According to music critic Richard Osborne, writing in \"The New Grove Dictionary of Opera\", \"it is important to record the degree to which singers have sometimes distorted Rossini's intentions. The most serious distortion has been the upward transposition of the role of Rosina, turning her from a lustrous alto into a pert soprano.\" However, it has also been noted that Rossini, who frequently altered his music for specific singers, wrote a new aria for the second act for Joséphine Fodor-Mainvielle, a soprano who had sung Rosina in the 1818 London premiere, and sang the new aria c. 1820 at the Théâtre-Italien in Paris, where it was published. The singing lesson in act 2 has often been turned into \"a show-stopping cabaret.\" Adelina Patti was known to include Luigi Arditi's \"Il bacio\", the Bolero from Verdi's \"I vespri siciliani\", the Shadow Song from Meyerbeer's \"Dinorah\", and Henry Bishop's \"Home! Sweet Home!\". Nellie Melba followed suit, accompanying herself on the piano in the final song. Pauline Viardot began the practice of inserting Alexander Alyabyev's \"Nightingale\". Maria Callas sang a cut-down version of Rossini's own \"Contro un cor.\" Once after Patti had sung a particularly florid rendition of the opera's legitimate aria, 'Una voce poco fa', Rossini is reported to have asked her: \"Very nice, my dear, and who wrote the piece you have just performed?\" The piece is a staple of the operatic repertoire Because of a scarcity of true contraltos, the role of Rosina has most frequently been sung by a coloratura mezzo-soprano (with or without pitch alterations, depending on the singer), and has in the past, and occasionally in more recent times, been sung by coloratura sopranos such as Marcella Sembrich, Maria Callas, Roberta Peters, Gianna D'Angelo, Victoria de los Ángeles, Beverly Sills, Lily Pons, Diana Damrau, Edita Gruberová, Kathleen Battle and Luciana Serra. Famous recent mezzo-soprano Rosinas include Marilyn Horne, Teresa Berganza, Lucia Valentini Terrani, Susanne Marsee, Cecilia Bartoli, Joyce DiDonato, Jennifer Larmore, Elīna Garanča, Isabel Leonard and Vesselina Kasarova. Famous contralto Rosinas include Ewa Podleś.", "", "\"The square in front of Bartolo's house\" In a public square outside Bartolo's house a band of musicians and a poor student named Lindoro are serenading, to no avail, the window of Rosina (\"Ecco, ridente in cielo\"; \"There, laughing in the sky\"). Lindoro, who is really the young Count Almaviva in disguise, hopes to make the beautiful Rosina love him for himself – not his money. Almaviva pays off the musicians who then depart, leaving him to brood alone. Rosina is the young ward of the grumpy, elderly Bartolo and she is allowed very little freedom because Bartolo plans to marry her once she is of age and thus appropriate her not inconsiderable dowry. Figaro approaches singing (Aria: \"Largo al factotum della città\"; \"Make way for the factotum of the city\"). Since Figaro used to be a servant of the Count, the Count asks him for assistance in helping him meet Rosina, offering him money should he be successful in arranging this. (Duet: \"All'idea di quel metallo\"; \"At the idea of that metal\"). Figaro advises the Count to disguise himself as a drunken soldier, ordered to be billeted with Bartolo, so as to gain entrance to the house. For this suggestion, Figaro is richly rewarded. \"A room in Bartolo's house with four doors\" The scene begins with Rosina's cavatina, \"Una voce poco fa\" (\"A voice a little while ago\"). (This aria was originally written in the key of E major, but it is sometimes transposed a semitone up into F major for coloratura sopranos to perform, giving them the chance to sing extra, almost traditional, cadenzas, sometimes reaching high Ds or even Fs.) Knowing the Count only as Lindoro, Rosina writes to him. As she is leaving the room, Bartolo and Basilio enter. Bartolo is suspicious of the Count, and Basilio advises that he be put out of the way by creating false rumours about him (this aria, \"La calunnia è un venticello\" – \"Calumny is a little breeze\" – is almost always sung a tone lower than the original D major). When the two have gone, Rosina and Figaro enter. Figaro asks Rosina to write a few encouraging words to Lindoro, which she has actually already written. (Duet: \"Dunque io son...tu non m'inganni?\"; \"Then I'm the one...you're not fooling me?\"). Although surprised by Bartolo, Rosina manages to fool him, but he remains suspicious. (Aria: \"A un dottor della mia sorte\"; \"To a doctor of my class\"). Count Almaviva, disguised as a soldier and pretending to be drunk, enters the house and demands to be quartered there. In fear of the drunken man, Berta the housekeeper rushes to Bartolo for protection. Bartolo tells the \"soldier\" that he (Bartolo) has an official exemption which excuses him from the requirement to quarter soldiers in his home. Almaviva pretends to be too drunk and belligerent to understand, and dares Bartolo to brawl. While Bartolo searches his cluttered desk for the official document which would prove his exemption, Almaviva whispers to Rosina that he is Lindoro in disguise, and passes a love-letter to her. Bartolo suspiciously demands to know what is in the piece of paper in Rosina's hands, but she fools him by handing over her laundry list. Bartolo and the Count argue loudly. Basilio enters; then Figaro, who warns that the noise of the argument is rousing the whole neighborhood. Finally, the noise attracts the attention of the Officer of the Watch and his troops, who crowd into the room. Bartolo demands that the Officer arrest the \"drunken soldier\". The Officer starts to do so, but Almaviva quietly reveals his true identity to the Officer, and he (the Officer) backs off and stands down. Bartolo and Basilio are astonished and mystified; Figaro laughs quietly at them. (Finale: \"Fredda ed immobile, come una statua\"; \"Cold and still, just like a statue\"). The confusion intensifies and causes everyone to suffer headaches and auditory hallucinations (\"Mi par d'esser con la testa in un'orrida fucina; dell'incudini sonore l'importuno strepitar.\"; \"My head seems to be in a fiery forge: the sound of the anvils deafens the ear.\")", "\"A room in Bartolo's house with a piano\" Almaviva again appears at the doctor's house, this time disguised as a priest who is also a singing tutor and pretending to act as substitute for the supposedly ailing Basilio, Rosina's regular singing teacher. Initially, Bartolo is suspicious, but does allow Almaviva to enter when the Count gives him Rosina's letter. He describes his plan to discredit Lindoro whom he believes to be one of the Count's servants, intent on pursuing women for his master. While Almaviva pretends to give Rosina her singing lesson, Figaro arrives to shave Bartolo. Bartolo demurs, but Figaro makes such a scene he agrees, but in order not to leave the supposed music master alone with Rosina, the doctor has Figaro shave him right there in the music room. When Basilio suddenly appears, he is bribed by a full purse from Almaviva and persuaded to leave again, with much discussion of how ill he looks. (Quintet: \"Don Basilio! – Cosa veggo!\"; \"Don Basilio! – What do I see?\"). Figaro begins to shave Bartolo, but Bartolo overhears the lovers conspiring, and angrily drives everybody away. The scene returns to the location of act 1 with a grill looking out onto the square. Bartolo orders Basilio to have the notary ready to marry him to Rosina that evening. He also explains his plot to come between the lovers. Basilio leaves and Rosina arrives. Bartolo shows Rosina the letter she wrote to \"Lindoro\", and persuades her that this is evidence that Lindoro is merely a flunky of Almaviva and is toying with her at Almaviva's behest. Rosina believes him and agrees to marry him. During an instrumental interlude, the music creates a thunder storm to indicate the passage of time. The Count and Figaro climb up a ladder to the balcony and enter the room through a window. Rosina shows Almaviva the letter and accuses him of betraying her. Almaviva reveals his identity and the two reconcile. While Almaviva and Rosina are enraptured by one another, Figaro keeps urging them to leave. Two people are heard approaching the front door, who later turn out to be Basilio and the notary. However, when the Count, Rosina, and Figaro attempt to leave by way of the ladder, they discover it has been removed. The marriage contract requires two witnesses; Figaro is one, but another is needed. The Count makes Basilio an offer he can't refuse: the choice of accepting a bribe and being a witness to his marriage or receiving two bullets in the head (an easy choice, Basilio says). He and Figaro witness the signatures to a marriage contract between the Count and Rosina. Bartolo barges in, accompanied by the Officer and the men of the watch, but too late; the marriage is already complete. The befuddled Bartolo (who was the one who had removed the ladder) is pacified by being allowed to retain Rosina's dowry. The opera concludes with an anthem to love (\"Amor e fede eterna, si vegga in noi regnar!\")(May love and faith eternally be seen to reign in us)" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Work.", "\"My Name Is Red\".", "\"Snow\".", "\"The Museum of Innocence\".", "\"The Red-Haired Woman\".", "Non-fiction.", "Style.", "Personal life.", "Trial.", "Pamuk's statements.", "Prosecution.", "International reaction.", "Charges dropped.", "Interplay.", "Awards and honours.", "Nobel Prize.", "Other awards and honours.", "Honours." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3" ], "content": [ "Pamuk was born in Istanbul, in 1952, and he grew up in a wealthy yet declining upper class family; an experience he describes in passing in his novels \"The Black Book\" and \"Cevdet Bey and His Sons\", as well as more thoroughly in his personal memoir \"Istanbul: Memories and the City\". Pamuk's paternal grandmother was Circassian. He was educated at Robert College secondary school in Istanbul and went on to study architecture at the Istanbul Technical University since it was related to his real dream career, painting. He left the architecture school after three years, however, to become a full-time writer, and graduated from the Institute of Journalism at the University of Istanbul in 1976. From ages 22 to 30, Pamuk lived with his mother, writing his first novel and attempting to find a publisher. He describes himself as a Cultural Muslim who associates the historical and cultural identification with the religion while not believing in a personal connection to God.", "He started writing regularly in 1974. His first novel, \"Karanlık ve Işık\" (\"Darkness and Light\") was a co-winner of the 1979 Milliyet Press Novel Contest (Mehmet Eroğlu was the other winner). This novel was published with the title \"Cevdet Bey ve Oğulları\" (\"Mr. Cevdet and His Sons\") in 1982, and won the Orhan Kemal Novel Prize in 1983. It tells the story of three generations of a wealthy Istanbul family living in Nişantaşı, the district of Istanbul where Pamuk grew up. Pamuk won a number of critical prizes for his early work, including the 1984 Madarali Novel Prize for his second novel \"Sessiz Ev\" (\"Silent House\") and the 1991 Prix de la Découverte Européenne for the French translation of this novel. His historical novel \"Beyaz Kale\" (\"The White Castle\"), published in Turkish in 1985, won the 1990 Independent Award for Foreign Fiction and extended his reputation abroad. On 19 May 1991, \"The New York Times\" Book Review stated, \"\"A new star has risen in the east—Orhan Pamuk.\"\" He started experimenting with postmodern techniques in his novels, a change from the strict naturalism of his early works. Popular success took a bit longer to come to Pamuk, but his 1990 novel \"Kara Kitap\" (\"The Black Book\") became one of the most controversial and popular books in Turkish literature, due to its complexity and richness. In 1992, he wrote the screenplay for the movie \"Gizli Yüz\" (\"Secret Face\"), based on \"Kara Kitap\" and directed by a prominent Turkish director, Ömer Kavur. Pamuk's fifth novel \"Yeni Hayat\" (\"New Life\") caused a sensation in Turkey upon its 1994 publication and became the fastest-selling book in Turkish history. By this time, Pamuk had also become a high-profile figure in Turkey, due to his support for Kurdish political rights. In 1995, Pamuk was among a group of authors tried for writing essays that criticized Turkey's treatment of the Kurds. In 1999, Pamuk published his book of essays \"Öteki Renkler\" (\"Other Colors\"). In 2019, the 66-year-old Nobel Laureate held an exhibit spotlighting an array of photos of Istanbul taken from his own balcony, named \"Balkon: Photos by Orhan Pamuk\". The exhibition consists of pictures of \"subtle and ever-changing view of Istanbul\" taken by Pamuk from his balcony in late 2012 and early 2013, said Yapı Kredi Culture and Arts Publishing. Curated by Gerhard Steidl, the German publisher of his photo book \"Balkon\", the exhibit runs through 27 April at the Yapı Kredi Culture and Arts building on Istanbul's teeming Istiklal Street. The exhibit features more than 600 photos selected from over 8,500 taken by Pamuk using a telephoto lens over a five-month period, \"a period of intense creativity,\" according to the statement.", "Pamuk's international reputation continued to increase when he published \"Benim Adım Kırmızı\" (\"My Name is Red\") in 1998. The novel blends mystery, romance, and philosophical puzzles in a setting of 16th century Istanbul. It opens a window into the reign of Ottoman Sultan Murat III in nine snowy winter days of 1591, inviting the reader to experience the tension between East and West from a breathlessly urgent perspective. \"My Name Is Red\" has been translated into 24 languages and in 2003 won the International Dublin Literary Award, the world's most lucrative literary prize. Asked what impact winning this last award (currently $127,000) had on his life and work, Pamuk replied: Nothing changed in my life since I work all the time. I've spent 30 years writing fiction. For the first 10 years, I worried about money and no one asked how much money I made. The second decade I spent money and no one was asking about that. And I've spent the last 10 years with everyone expecting to hear how I spend the money, which I will not do.", "Pamuk followed this with the novel \"Kar\", published in 2002 (English translation: \"Snow\", 2004). Set in the border city of Kars, it explores the conflict between Islamism and Westernism in modern Turkey. Snow follows Ka, an expatriate Turkish poet, as he wanders around the snowy Kars and gets caught up in the muddle of aimless Islamists, MPs, headscarf advocates, secularists, and a number of factions who die and kill in the name of highly contradictory ideals. \"The New York Times\" listed \"Snow\" as one of its Ten Best Books of 2004. In conversation with Carol Becker in the Brooklyn Rail about creating sympathetic characters in the political novel, Pamuk said: I strongly feel that the art of the novel is based on the human capacity, though it’s a limited capacity, to be able to identify with “the other.” Only human beings can do this. It requires imagination, a sort of morality, a self-imposed goal of understanding this person who is different from us, which is a rarity.", "In May 2007, Pamuk was among the jury members at the Cannes Film Festival headed by British director Stephen Frears. He completed his next novel, \"Masumiyet Müzesi\" (\"The Museum of Innocence\") in the summer of 2008 - the first novel he published after receiving the 2006 Nobel Prize in Literature. Pamuk created an actual Museum of Innocence, consisting of everyday objects tied to the narrative, and housed them at an Istanbul house he purchased. Pamuk collaborated on a documentary \"The Innocence Of Memories\" that expanded on his Museum of Innocence. Pamuk stated that \"(Museum of Dreams will) tell a different version of the love story set in Istanbul through objects and Grant Gee’s wonderful new film\". In both \"Snow\" and the \"Museum of Innocence\" Pamuk describes tragic love-stories, where men fall in love with beautiful women at first sight. It has been noted that Pamuk's portrayals of women and the reasons men fall in love with them are powerful in their intensity, yet superficial in the way these love stories originate. Pamuk's heroes tend to be educated men who fall tragically in love with beauties, but who seem doomed to a decrepit loneliness. In 2013, Pamuk invited Grazia Toderi, whose work he admired, to design a work for the Museum of Innocence in Istanbul. Their collaboration culminated in the exhibition \"Words and Stars\". \"Words and Stars\" opened on 2 April 2017, at the MART (Museo di Arte Moderna e Contemporanea di Trento e Rovereto), and which explores \"the inclination of man to explore space and innate vocation to question the stars.\" The show was curated by Gianfranco Maraniello. It also showed from 4 November 2016 to 29 March 2017 from 5–6 November 2016 at the Palazzo Madama, Piazza Castello, Turin, and at \"Infini-to, the Planetarium of Turin (Infini.to - Planetario di Torino, Museo dell'Astronomia e dello Spazio)\" by invitation.", "Pamuk’s tenth novel, \"The Red-Haired Woman\" (2016) is the story of a well-digger and his apprentice looking for water on barren land. It is also a novel of ideas in the tradition of the French \"conte philosophique\". In mid-1980s Istanbul, Master Mahmut and his apprentice use ancient methods to dig new wells; this is the tale of their back-breaking struggle, but it is also an exploration—through stories and images—of ideas about fathers and sons, authoritarianism and individuality, state and freedom, reading and seeing. This short, compelling novel is at once a realist text investigating a murder which took place thirty years ago near Istanbul, and a fictional inquiry into the literary foundations of civilizations, comparing two fundamental myths of the West and the East respectively: Sophocles’s \"Oedipus Rex\" (a story of patricide) and Ferdowsi’s tale of \"Rostam and Sohrab\" (a story of filicide). Throughout runs the demonic voice of the eponymous red-haired woman.", "Pamuk published a memoir/travelogue \"Istanbul—Hatıralar ve Şehir\" in 2003 (English version, \"Istanbul—Memories and the City\", 2005). Pamuk's \"Other Colours\" – a collection of non-fiction and a story — was published in the UK in September 2007. Asked how personal his book \"Istanbul: Memories and the City\" was, Pamuk replied: I thought I would write \"Memories and the City\" in six months, but it took me one year to complete. And I was working twelve hours a day, just reading and working. My life, because of so many things, was in a crisis; I don’t want to go into those details: divorce, father dying, professional problems, problems with this, problems with that, everything was bad. I thought if I were to be weak I would have a depression. But every day I would wake up and have a cold shower and sit down and remember and write, always paying attention to the beauty of the book. Honestly, I may have hurt my mother, my family. My father was dead, but my mother is still alive. But I can’t care about that; I must care about the beauty of the book.", "Pamuk's books are characterized by a confusion or loss of identity brought on in part by the conflict between Western and Eastern values. They are often disturbing or unsettling, and include complex plots and characters. His works are also redolent with discussion of and fascination with the creative arts, such as literature and painting. Pamuk's work often touches on the deep-rooted tensions between East and West and tradition and modernism/secularism. Pamuk speaks about \"the angel of inspiration\" when he discusses his creativity: \"I am just listening to an inner music, the mystery of which I don't completely know. And I don't want to know.\" \"I am most surprised by those moments when I have felt as if the sentences, dreams, and pages that have made me so ecstatically happy have not come from my own imagination – that another power has found them and generously presented them to me.\" A group of writers assert that some parts of Pamuk's works are heavily influenced by works of other writers, and some chapters are almost totally quoted from other books. Pamuk himself said that his works have been inspired by the writings of rebel poet Kazi Nazrul Islam. One of the writers, nationalist popular-historian Murat Bardakçı, accused him of counterfeiting and plagiarism in the \"Hurriyet\", a Turkish newspaper. Another accusation is that Pamuk's novel \"The White Castle\" contains exact paragraphs from Fuad Carim's \"Kanuni Devrinde İstanbul\" (\"Istanbul in the Time of the Kanuni\") novel. After a question raised at the 2009 Boston Book Festival as to whether he wanted to respond to these accusations, Pamuk responded, \"No I do not. Next question?\". However, many attributed such accusations to their ignorance about postmodern literature, and the literary technique of intertextuality which Pamuk almost always uses in his novels in full disclosure.", "Pamuk's elder brother Şevket Pamuk, who sometimes appears as a fictional character in Orhan Pamuk's works, is a professor of economics, internationally recognised for his work in history of economics of the Ottoman Empire, working at Boğaziçi University in Istanbul. Pamuk also has a younger half-sister Hümeyra Pamuk, who is a journalist. On 1 March 1982, Pamuk married historian Aylin Türegün. From 1985 to 1988, while his wife was a graduate student at Columbia University, Pamuk assumed the position of visiting scholar there, using the time to conduct research and write his novel \"The Black Book\" at the university's Butler Library. This period also included a visiting fellowship at the University of Iowa. Pamuk returned to Istanbul, a city to which he is strongly attached. He and his wife had a daughter named Rüya (born 1991), whose name means \"dream\" in Turkish. In 2001, they were divorced. In 2006, Pamuk returned to the U.S. to take a position as a visiting professor at Columbia, where he was a Fellow with Columbia's Committee on Global Thought and held an appointment in Columbia's Middle East and Asian Languages and Cultures department and at its School of the Arts. In the 2007–2008 academic year Pamuk returned to Columbia to jointly teach comparative literature classes with Andreas Huyssen and David Damrosch. Pamuk was also a writer-in-residence at Bard College. In autumn 2009, Pamuk was Harvard's Charles Eliot Norton Lecturer, delivering a series of lectures entitled \"The Naive and Sentimental Novelist\". Orhan publicly acknowledged his relationship with Kiran Desai, Booker prize winner of Indian origin. In January 2011, Turkish-Armenian artist Karolin Fişekçi told \"Hürriyet Daily News\" that Pamuk had a two-and-a-half-year relationship with her during the same time (2010–12), a statement expressly denied by Pamuk. Since 2011 he's in a relationship with Aslı Akyavaş.", "In 2005, after Pamuk made a statement regarding the Armenian Genocide and mass killings of Kurds, a criminal case was opened against the author based on a complaint filed by ultra-nationalist lawyer Kemal Kerinçsiz. The charges were dropped on 22 January 2006. In Bilecik, his books were burnt in a nationalist rally. Pamuk has subsequently stated his intent was to draw attention to freedom of speech issues. However, Kemal Kerinçsiz, the lawyer who had originally pressed charges against Pamuk, appealed to the Supreme Court of Appeal which ordered the court in Şişli to re-open the case. On 27 March 2011, Pamuk was found guilty and ordered to pay 6,000 liras in total compensation to five people for, among others, having insulted their honor.", "The criminal charges against Pamuk resulted from remarks he made during an interview in February 2005 with the Swiss publication \"Das Magazin\", a weekly supplement to a number of Swiss daily newspapers: the \"Tages-Anzeiger\", the \"Basler Zeitung\", the \"Berner Zeitung\" and the \"Solothurner Tagblatt.\" In the interview, Pamuk stated, \"Thirty thousand Kurds have been killed here, and a million Armenians. And almost nobody dares to mention that. So I do.\" Turkish historians were divided over the remarks. Pamuk stated that he was consequently subjected to a hate campaign that forced him to flee the country. He returned later in 2005, however, to face the charges against him. In an interview with \"BBC News\", he said that he wanted to defend freedom of speech, which was Turkey's only hope for coming to terms with its history: \"What happened to the Ottoman Armenians in 1915 was a major thing that was hidden from the Turkish nation; it was a taboo. But we have to be able to talk about the past.\" However, when Turkish television, CNN TURK asked Pamuk about his speech, he admitted that he said that \"Armenians were killed\" but he rejected that he said \"Turks killed Armenians\" and he estimated the number of deaths (as 1 million) in that speech.", "At the time, Article 301 of the Turkish Penal Code stated: \"A person who publicly insults the Republic or Turkish Grand National Assembly, shall be punishable by imprisonment of between six months to three years.\" Pamuk was charged with violating this law in the interview. In October, after the prosecution had begun, Pamuk reiterated his views in a speech given during an award ceremony in Germany: \"I repeat, I said loud and clear that one million Armenians and 30,000 Kurds were killed in Turkey.\" Article 301's old form before 2005 (and also the new form after the amendments in 2008) required that prosecution under the article needs to be approved by the Ministry of Justice. A few minutes after Pamuk's trial started on 16 December, the judge found that this approval had not yet been received and suspended the proceedings. In an interview published in the \"Akşam\" newspaper the same day, the then Justice Minister Cemil Çiçek said he had not yet received Pamuk's file but would study it thoroughly once it came. On 29 December 2005, Turkish state prosecutors dropped the charge that Pamuk insulted Turkey's armed forces, although the charge of \"insulting Turkishness\" remained.", "The charges against Pamuk caused an international outcry and led to questions in some circles about Turkey's proposed entry into the European Union. On 30 November, the European Parliament announced that it would send a delegation of five MEPs led by Camiel Eurlings, to observe the trial. EU Enlargement Commissioner Olli Rehn subsequently stated that the Pamuk case would be a \"litmus test\" of Turkey's commitment to the EU's membership criteria. On 1 December, Amnesty International released a statement calling for Article 301 to be repealed and for Pamuk and six other people awaiting trial under the act to be freed. PEN American Center also denounced the charges against Pamuk, stating: \"PEN finds it extraordinary that a state that has ratified both the United Nations International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, and the European Convention on Human Rights, both of which see freedom of expression as central, should have a Penal Code that includes a clause that is so clearly contrary to these very same principles.\" On 13 December, eight world-renowned authors—José Saramago, Gabriel García Márquez, Günter Grass, Umberto Eco, Carlos Fuentes, Juan Goytisolo, John Updike and Mario Vargas Llosa—issued a joint statement supporting Pamuk and decrying the charges against him as a violation of human rights. In 2008, in an open online poll, Pamuk was voted as the fourth most intellectual person in the world on the list of Top 100 Public Intellectuals by \"Prospect Magazine\" (United Kingdom) and \"Foreign Policy\" (United States).", "On 22 January 2006, Turkey's Justice Ministry refused to issue an approval of the prosecution, saying that they had no authority to open a case against Pamuk under the new penal code. With the trial in the local court, it was ruled the next day that the case could not continue without Justice Ministry approval. Pamuk's lawyer, Haluk İnanıcı, subsequently confirmed that charges had been dropped. The announcement occurred in a week when the EU was scheduled to begin a review of the Turkish justice system.", "EU enlargement commissioner Olli Rehn welcomed the dropping of charges, saying \"This is obviously good news for Mr. Pamuk, but it's also good news for freedom of expression in Turkey\". However, some EU representatives expressed disappointment that the justice ministry had rejected the prosecution on a technicality rather than on principle. An Ankara-based EU diplomat reportedly said, \"It is good the case has apparently been dropped, but the justice ministry never took a clear position or gave any sign of trying to defend Pamuk\". Meanwhile, the lawyer who had led the effort to try Pamuk, Kemal Kerinçsiz, said he would appeal the decision, saying, \"Orhan Pamuk must be punished for insulting Turkey and Turkishness, it is a grave crime and it should not be left unpunished.\" In 2006, the magazine \"Time\" listed Pamuk in the cover article \"TIME 100: The People Who Shape Our World\", in the category \"Heroes & Pioneers\", for speaking up. In April 2006, on the BBC's \"HARDtalk\" program, Pamuk stated that his remarks regarding the Armenian Genocide were meant to draw attention to freedom of expression issues in Turkey rather than to the massacres themselves. On 19–20 December 2006, a symposium on \"Orhan Pamuk and His Work\" was held at Sabancı University, Istanbul. Pamuk himself gave the closing address. In January 2008, 13 ultranationalists, including Kemal Kerinçsiz, were arrested by Turkish authorities for participating in a Turkish nationalist underground organisation, named \"Ergenekon\", allegedly conspiring to assassinate political figures, including several Christian missionaries and Armenian intellectual Hrant Dink. Several reports suggest that Pamuk was among the figures this group plotted to kill. The police informed Pamuk about the assassination plans eight months before the Ergenekon investigation.", "", "On 12 October 2006, the Swedish Academy announced that he had been awarded the 2006 Nobel Prize in Literature, confounding pundits and oddsmakers who had concluded that Syrian poet Ali Ahmad Said, known as Adunis, was most likely to receive that year's award. There were concerns within Turkey that the decision to award the Nobel Prize to Pamuk was politically motivated. In its citation, the Academy said: \"In the quest for the melancholic soul of his native city, [Pamuk] has discovered new symbols for the clash and interlacing of cultures.\" Pamuk held his Nobel Lecture on 7 December 2006 at the Swedish Academy, Stockholm. The lecture was entitled \"\"Babamın Bavulu\"\" (\"My Father's Suitcase\") and was given in Turkish. In the lecture he allegorically spoke of relations between Eastern and Western civilizations using the theme of his relationship with his father. Pamuk's books broke a record and sold over 200,000 copies after the announcement of his success, leading to him becoming Sweden's best-selling recipient of the Nobel Prize in Literature.", "", "In 2005, Pamuk received the €25,000 Peace Prize of the German Book Trade for his literary work, in which \"Europe and Islamic Turkey find a place for one another.\" The award presentation was held at Paul's Church, Frankfurt." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Overview.", "Operating carriers." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The classification and name were brought into use in May 1993. Unlike the equivalent day-running counterparts EuroCity and InterCity trains, the EuroNight trains tend to run during the nighttime and are equipped with various cars for accommodating sleep services. Nearly all EuroNight trains require reservations and additional fare-supplements in addition to the regular cost of a ticket from the destination to the arrival point. These supplements vary in price depending on whether the traveler wishes to sit in a regular seat, a couchette \"lying bed\" which offers a padded, felt bed with a blanket and small pillow, or a sleeping bed which allows a mattress bed with full bedding (sheets, comforters, pillows). Nearly all EuroNight services are international services (though a few large nations, including France and Germany, operate EN services nationally) and are jointly operated by various national rail companies, with many rail companies sharing cars on the route. EN trains developed and became the standard night-train service for all Western and most Central European nations, receiving special designation from the older D-Nacht services (many of which still operate in Central and Eastern Europe). EN trains have special criteria that rail companies must match in order to receive the EN designation. Train numbers follow the \"EN\" designation. Many routes also have accompanying names that originally designated the route in the 19th and 20th centuries (EN 264 still operated on the classic Orient Express route from Vienna to Strasbourg, until its cancellation and withdrawal in 2009 for example).", "The following carriers currently have designated cars and train conductors who work the EN lines. Many railway companies share cars on the same train line between routes; for example, EN 235 between Vienna and Rome share cars of both the ÖBB and Trenitalia. Deutsche Bahn operated the additional City Night Line hotel-quality night services between Germany, Italy, the Czech Republic, Switzerland, and The Netherlands. Two of those, the \"Kopernikus\" and the \"Canopus\", are designated EuroNight trains as EN 458/459. However, Deutsche Bahn terminated all of its own night train services by December 2016." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Classification.", "Eastern Sami languages.", "Geographic distribution.", "History.", "Written languages and sociolinguistic situation.", "Orthographies.", "Official status.", "Norway.", "Sweden.", "Finland.", "Russia." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The Sámi languages form a branch of the Uralic language family. According to the traditional view, Sámi is within the Uralic family most closely related to the Finnic languages (Sammallahti 1998). However, this view has recently been doubted by some scholars, who argue that the traditional view of a common Finno-Sami protolanguage is not as strongly supported as had been earlier assumed, and that the similarities may stem from an areal influence on Samic from Finnic. In terms of internal relationships, the Sami languages are divided into two groups: western and eastern. The groups may be further divided into various subgroups and ultimately individual languages. (Sammallahti 1998: 6-38.) Parts of the Sami language area form a dialect continuum in which the neighbouring languages may be mutually intelligible to a fair degree, but two more widely separated groups will not understand each other's speech. There are, however, some sharp language boundaries, in particular between Northern Sami, Inari Sami and Skolt Sami, the speakers of which are not able to understand each other without learning or long practice. The evolution of sharp language boundaries seems to suggest a relative isolation of the language speakers from each other and not very intensive contacts between the respective speakers in the past. There is some significance in this, as the geographical barriers between the respective speakers are no different from those in other parts of the Sami area.", "\"The above figures are approximate.\"", "The Sami languages are spoken in Sápmi in Northern Europe, in a region stretching over the four countries Norway, Sweden, Finland and Russia, reaching from the southern part of central Scandinavia in the southwest to the tip of the Kola Peninsula in the east. The borders between the languages do not align with the ones separating the region's modern nation states. During the Middle Ages and early modern period, now-extinct Sami languages were also spoken in the central and southern parts of Finland and Karelia and in a wider area on the Scandinavian Peninsula. Historical documents as well as Finnish and Karelian oral tradition contain many mentions of the earlier Sami inhabitation in these areas (Itkonen, 1947). Also, loanwords as well as place-names of Sami origin in the southern dialects of Finnish and Karelian dialects testify of earlier Sami presence in the area (Koponen, 1996; Saarikivi, 2004; Aikio, 2007). These Sami languages, however, became extinct later, under the wave of the Finno-Karelian agricultural expansion.", "The Proto-Samic language is believed to have formed in the vicinity of the Gulf of Finland between 1000 BC to 700 AD, deriving from a common Proto-Sami-Finnic language (M. Korhonen 1981). However, reconstruction of any basic proto-languages in the Uralic family have reached a level close to or identical to Proto-Uralic (Salminen 1999). According to the comparative linguist Ante Aikio, the Proto-Samic language developed in South Finland or in Karelia around 2000–2500 years ago, spreading then to northern Fennoscandia. The language is believed to have expanded west and north into Fennoscandia during the Nordic Iron Age, reaching central Scandinavia during the Proto-Scandinavian period ca. 500 AD (Bergsland 1996). The language assimilated several layers of unknown Paleo-European languages from the early hunter-gatherers, first during the Proto-Sami phase and second in the subsequent expansion of the language in the west and the north of Fennoscandia that is part of modern Sami today. (Aikio 2004, Aikio 2006).", "At present there are nine living Sami languages. The largest six of the languages have independent literary languages; the three others have no written standard, and of them, there are only a few, mainly elderly, speakers left. The ISO 639-2 code for all Sami languages without their own code is \"smi\". The seven written languages are: The other Sami languages are critically endangered or moribund and have very few speakers left. Pite Sami has about 30–50 speakers, and a dictionary and an official orthography is under way. A descriptive grammar (Wilbur 2014) has been published. Ume Sami likely has under 20 speakers left, and ten speakers of Ter Sami were known to be alive in 2004. The last speaker of Akkala Sami is known to have died in December 2003, and the eleventh attested variety, Kemi Sami, became extinct in the 19th century. An additional Sami language, Kainuu Sami, became extinct in the 18th century, and probably belonged to the Eastern group like Kemi Sami, although the evidence for the language is limited.", "The Sami languages use Latin alphabets, with these respective additional letters. Note that the letter Đ is a capital D with a bar across it (Unicode U+0110) also used in Serbo-Croatian etc., and is not the capital eth (Ð; U+00D0) found in Icelandic, Faroese or Old English, to which it is almost identical. The different characters used on the different sides of the Swedish/Norwegian border merely are orthographic standards based on the Swedish and Norwegian alphabet, respectively, and do not denote different pronunciations. Kildin Sami now uses an extended version of Cyrillic (in three slightly different variants): Аа А̄а̄ Ӓӓ Бб Вв Гг Дд Ее Е̄е̄ Ёё Ё̄ё̄ Жж Зз Һһ/ʼ Ии Ӣӣ Йй Јј/Ҋҋ Кк Лл Ӆӆ Мм Ӎӎ Нн Ӊӊ Ӈӈ Оо О̄о̄ Пп Рр Ҏҏ Сс Тт Уу Ӯӯ Фф Хх Цц Чч Шш (Щщ) Ьъ Ыы Ьь Ҍҍ Ээ Э̄э̄ Ӭӭ Юю Ю̄ю̄ Яя Я̄я̄ The Skolt Sami standard uses ʹ (U+02B9) as a soft sign, but other apostrophes (like'(U+0027), ˊ (U+02CA) or ́ (U+00B4)) are also sometimes used in published texts.", "", "Adopted in April 1988, Article 110a of the Norwegian Constitution states: \"It is the responsibility of the authorities of the State to create conditions enabling the Sami people to preserve and develop its language, culture and way of life\". The Sami Language Act went into effect in the 1990s. Sámi is an official language alongside Norwegian in the \"administrative area for Sámi language\", that includes eight municipalities in the northern half of Norway, namely Kautokeino, Karasjok, Gáivuotna – Kåfjord – Kaivuono, Nesseby, Porsanger, Tana, Tysfjord, Lavangen and Snåsa. In 2005 Sámi, Kven, Romanes and Romani were recognised as \"regional or minority languages\" in Norway within the framework of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.", "On 1 April 2000, Sami became one of five recognized minority languages in Sweden. It can be used in dealing with public authorities in the municipalities of Arjeplog, Gällivare, Jokkmokk, and Kiruna. In 2011, this list was enlarged considerably. In Sweden the University of Umeå teaches North, Ume and South Sami, and Uppsala University has courses in North, Lule and South Sami.", "In Finland, the Sami language act of 1991 granted the Northern, Inari, and Skolt Sami the right to use their languages for all government services. The \"Sami Language Act of 2003\" (; ; ; ; ) made Sami an official language in Enontekiö, Inari, Sodankylä and Utsjoki municipalities. Some documents, such as specific legislation, are translated into these Sami languages, but knowledge of any of these Sami languages among officials is not common. As the major language in the region is Finnish, Sami speakers are essentially always bilingual with Finnish. Language nest daycares have been set up for teaching the languages to children. In education, Northern Sami, and to a more limited degree, Inari and Skolt Sami, can be studied at primary and secondary levels, both as a mothertongue (for native speakers) and as a foreign language (for non-native speakers).", "In Russia, Sámi has no official status, neither on the national, regional or local level, and no formal recognition as a minority language. Sámi has been taught at the Murmansk University since 2012; before then, Sámi was taught at the Institute of Peoples of the North (Институт народов севера) in Saint Petersburg." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Episodes.", "Television series.", "Other Media.", "Spin-offs." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "While working on Mondo Media, Rhode Montijo drew on a piece of scrap paper a character who would later become Shifty. He then drew on a spreadsheet poster a yellow rabbit that bore some resemblance to Cuddles and wrote \"Resistance is futile\" underneath it. Rhode hung the drawing up in his workstation so other people could see his idea, and eventually the idea was pitched to and accepted by the Mondo Media executives. In 1999, Mondo gave Aubrey Ankrum, Rhode Montijo and Kenn Navarro a chance to do a short for them. They came up with a short named \"Banjo Frenzy\", which featured a dinosaur (an earlier version of Lumpy) killing three woodland animals, a squirrel, a rabbit and a beaver (earlier versions of Giggles, Cuddles and Toothy) with a banjo. From there, Mondo gave them their own Internet series, which they named \"Happy Tree Friends\". After its internet debut in 1999, \"Happy Tree Friends\" became an unexpected success, getting over 15 million hits each month and screenings at film festivals. Mondo Media CEO John Evershed attributes the success of the series to animator Kenn Navarro. \"He had a clear vision for that show and he's just a brilliant animator. He has created something that is pretty universal. I envision kids watching \"Happy Tree Friends\" 20 or 30 years from now the same way that they watch \"Tom and Jerry\" now. So really it's Kenn Navarro.\" In 2014, after the episode \"Dream Job\" was released, Mondo Media announced plans to produce a feature film based on the series, but in 2016, Kenn Navarro tweeted that he was unaware of work being done on a film, but that his team were \"in talk to do more shorts\". Later, when a fan asked Kenn Navarro about the film, he replied: \"\"a treatment that [I] and the writers did was all the work (that [I] know of) for the movie\" In December 2016, Mondo Media released five all-new episodes for purchase online. The episodes were bundled as a set named \"Happy Tree Friends: Still Alive\" and came with some additional bonus material such as background designs, animated storyboards, the animation process and a writer's session video. Upon purchase, the buyer was allowed to download the DRM free video files to their own computer. In January 2017 Kenn Navarro tweeted \"As I understand, sales were ok but fell below what was expected.\"", "", "The television series was first shown at Comic-Con 2006 and some of the episodes were shown on the website a few weeks prior to the show's television premiere. The TV series would premiere on September 25, 2006 at midnight on G4's late-night block, \"Barbed Wire Biscuit\" (later renamed \"Midnight Spank\") The web series also aired on the network's animation anthology series; \"Happy Tree Friends and Friends\" and \"G4's Late Night Peepshow\". The Canadian channel Razer (now MTV2 (Canadian TV channel)) aired the show in syndication with then-sibling television network Citytv. Internationally, the series was broadcast on MTV in Europe and Latin America, and Animax in South Africa.", "Fall Out Boy's 2007 music video for their song \"The Carpal Tunnel of Love\" was directed by Kenn Navarro and stars characters from the series. The band members also make a cameo as animated characters. A video game titled \"\" was released on June 25, 2008. It was developed by Stainless Games and Sega for Xbox Live Arcade on the Xbox 360 and the PC. There was also an iOS game titled Happy Tree Friends: Deadeye Derby released in 2014.", "A spin-off series called \"Ka-Pow!\" aired in September 2008. It is anthology of action-oriented stories starring The Mole, Flippy, Splendid and Buddhist Monkey. A total of six episodes have been produced. In 2014, Kenn Navarro created \"D_Void\", a show similar to \"Happy Tree Friends\". So far only 2 episodes have been produced." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Romanian Navy during the War of Independence.", "Creation of the Romanian Black Sea Fleet.", "Involvement in the Potemkin mutiny.", "Romanian Navy during World War I.", "Romanian Navy during the interwar period.", "The 1937 naval program and subsequent developments.", "World War II and postwar.", "World War II Romanian Black Sea Fleet warships.", "Command, control and organisation.", "Bases.", "Naval infantry.", "Equipment.", "Sea Fleet.", "Future equipment." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The Romanian Navy was founded in 1860 as a river flotilla on the Danube. After the unification of Wallachia and Moldavia, Alexandru Ioan Cuza, the ruling Domnitor of the Romanian Principalities, decided on 22 October 1860 by order no. 173 to unify the navies into a single flotilla. The navy was French-trained and organized. Officers were initially sent to Brest Naval Training Centre in France, as the Military School in Bucharest did not have a naval section. The first Commander-in-chief of the navy was Colonel Nicolae Steriade. The base was first established in 1861 at Izmail, but it was later relocated in 1864 at Brăila and in 1867 at Galați. The equipment was modest at best, with 3 ships from Wallachia and 3 from Moldavia, manned by 275 sailors. The main goal of the navy was to organize, train and expand this small force. The first seamen's training school was established in 1872 at Galați for officers, petty officers and sailors. The first acquisition of the Romanian Navy was the steamboat \"\"Prințul Nicolae Conache Vogoride\"\". The ship was purchased in 1861 and was later transformed into a warship at Meyer naval shipyard in Linz, being christened \"\"România\"\" when it was launched at Galați harbor. In 1867, the royal yacht \"\"Ștefan cel Mare\"\" (Stephen the Great) entered service. In October 1873, the \"Fulgerul\" gunboat, ordered by the Romanian state as the first purpose-built warship in the history of the Romanian Navy, was finished at the Toulon shipyard in France. However, the ship was unarmed, so she would be allowed passage through the Turkish straits. After arriving in Romania in April 1874, she was fitted with a Krupp cannon in a mild steel turret at the Galați shipyard. The next ship to enter service with the Romanian Navy was the spar torpedo boat in 1875. These ships represented the Romanian Flotilla during the War of Independence.", "During the War of Independence, the name used in Romanian historiography to refer to the 1877–1878 Russo-Turkish war, the Romanian Navy sailed under the Russian flag. The main task of the Romanian Flotilla Corps was to transport Russian troops, equipment and supplies across the Danube and to protect the bridges across the river by using mine barrages in key points. The main success of the war was the sinking of the Turkish river monitor \"\"Seyfî\"\" near Măcin by a group of spar torpedo boats including \"\"Rândunica\"\" and the Russian \"Carevitch\" and \"Ksenya\" crafts. Another notable success was the sinking of the Turkish river monitor \"\"Podgoriçe\"\" (Podgorica) by the Romanian coastal artillery on 7 November 1877. After the war, the navy transported the Romanian troops back across the Danube. The small, but successful navy had demonstrated the need for a strong Danube flotilla in order to secure the southern border of Romania. Three rearmament plans were implemented: during 1883–1885, 1886–1888 and 1906–1908. These plans mainly concentrated on the Danube flotilla. In 1898, the \"Flotilla Corps\", as it was known until then, was organized in two sections: the Danube fleet and the Black Sea fleet. The riverine base was at Galați, while the maritime base was at Constanța, which was now part of Romania.", "The Romanian Black Sea Fleet was founded in the summer of 1890, 10 years after Romania acquired its first sea-going warship: the gunboat. The newly-created division consisted of: the small protected cruiser, the training ship, the three \"Smeul\"-class torpedo boats and the fore-mentioned \"Grivița\".", "On 2 July 1905, during the mutiny of the, the Romanian protected cruiser engaged the as the latter was trying to sneak into the Romanian port of Constanța. \"Elisabeta\" fired two warning shots, first a blank charge then an explosive charge, forcing the torpedo boat to retreat. Later that day, \"Potemkin\" and \"Ismail\" left Romanian waters. During the night of 7 July, however, \"Potemkin\" returned to the Romanian port, this time accepting to surrender to the Romanian authorities in exchange for the latter giving asylum to the crew. On the noon of 8 July, Captain Negru, the commander of the port, came aboard the \"Potemkin\" and hoisted the Romanian flag before allowing the warship to enter the inner harbor. On 10 July, after negotiations with the Romanian Government, \"Potemkin\" was handed over to Imperial Russian authorities and taken to Sevastopol.", "After the War of Independence, two naval rearmament programs were proposed for the Black Sea flotilla. The 1899 program called for six coastal battleships, four destroyers and twelve torpedo boats. None of these ships were ever built, while the battleship \"Potemkin\" was returned 1 day after being acquired. The 1912 naval program envisioned six 3,500-ton light cruisers, twelve 1,500-ton destroyers and a submarine. Four destroyers (and allegedly a submarine) were actually ordered from Italy, but they were not delivered as the Italian Navy requisitioned them in 1914. Three 340-ton coastal submarines were ordered from France in early 1917, but these were also requisitioned at the end of the year and completed for the French Navy as the \"O'Byrne\" class. The largest Romanian Black Sea ship was the old cruiser, laid down in 1888. The protected cruiser had guarded the mouths of the river Danube during the Second Balkan War, but she was disarmed when World War I began. Her armament was emplaced on the bank of the Danube River to protect against possible attacks by Austro-Hungarian river monitors, and she remained in Sulina for the duration of the war. The Romanian Black Sea squadron also had four old gunboats from the 1880s, which were of limited value, and three old \"Năluca\"-class torpedo boats, built in France. The Romanian Navy had to rely on the armed merchant ships of the state merchant marine, known as SMR (\"Serviciul Maritim Român\"). The steam liners \"Regele Carol I\", \"România\", \"Împăratul Traian\" and \"Dacia\" were converted into auxiliary cruisers. The Danube Flotilla was more modern, and consisted of four river monitors (\"Lascăr Catargiu\",, \"Ion C. Brătianu\" and \"Alexandru Lahovari\") and eight British-built torpedo boats. The four river monitors were built in 1907 at Galați. They were armed with three 12-cm cannons each. In 1918, \"Mihail Kogălniceanu\" was converted to a sea-going monitor. The British torpedo boats from the \"Căpitan Nicolae Lascăr Bogdan\" class were built during 1906–1907 and weighed 50 tons each. There were also approximately six older gunboats used for border patrol, minelayers and other auxiliary ships used for transport or supply. The Romanian Navy had a secondary role during World War I and only had light losses. The river monitors participated in the defense of Turtucaia and later secured the flank of the Romanian and Russian defenders in Dobruja. The main success of the war was the mining of an Austro-Hungarian river monitor.", "Following the end of World War I, the Kingdom of Romania took possession of three Austro-Hungarian river monitors (renamed after the newly incorporated territories of \"Ardeal\", \"Basarabia\" and \"Bucovina\"), and in 1921 purchased four Italian patrol boats. These ships, together with the ones already in service, made Romania's Danube flotilla the most powerful riverine fleet in the world until World War II. The main focus of the Romanian Navy during the interwar period was the Black Sea fleet. In 1920, two of the initial four \"Aquila\"-class scout cruisers (officially designated as destroyers) ordered from Italy were received. These were renamed and. Four gunboats were purchased from the French Navy: \"Stihi\", \"Dumitrescu\", \"Lepri\" and. Another gunboat of the same class was bought for spares. Seven torpedo boats were received as war reparations from Austria-Hungary. The torpedo boat \"Fulgerul\" however was lost during the trip to Romania when she capsized and sank in the Bosphorus in 1922., and, three of these old torpedo boats, will later see service in World War II. In 1926, two additional destroyers were ordered from Italy: \"Regele Ferdinand\" and \"Regina Maria\" of the Regele Ferdinand class destroyer, together with the Romanian Navy's first submarine,, and the submarine tender. These ships were commissioned between 1930 and 1936. The expansion of the Romanian Navy during the interwar period required more training facilities and ships. The first step towards this issue was taken in 1920, when a naval college was founded at Constanța. In 1938, the sail ship \"Mircea\" was built in Hamburg by the Blohm & Voss shipyard as a training vessel for the Romanian Navy. The SMR (\"Serviciul Maritim Român\", the Romanian state merchant marine) was also endowed with a number of new ships: the steamer \"Oituz\", the ex-German freighters \"Ardeal\", \"Peleș\", \"Alba Iulia\" and \"Suceava\" (all of them commissioned between 1932–1933), the passenger liners \"Basarabia\" and \"Transilvania\" (bought from Germany in 1938) and four new freighters from Italy just before the start of the Second World War: \"Balcic\", \"Cavarna\", \"Mangalia\" and \"Sulina\". In 1940, the SMR had 17 merchant ships with a total of over 72,000 tons of shipping.", "In 1937, a new rearmament program was proposed. The new plan envisioned a cruiser, four small destroyers, three submarines, two minelayers and ten motor torpedo boats. These warships were to be built locally at the Galați shipyard, where a new dry dock was developed. The anti-aircraft escort minelayer was laid down at the Galați shipyard in August 1938, launched in June 1939 and commissioned during the first half of 1941. She replaced the planned cruiser as the largest warship yielded by the 1937 program. She was employed in minelaying operations as well as convoy escort missions. Her main armament consisted of 10.5 cm SK C/32 naval guns, much like the German anti-aircraft cruisers and. Her sister ship, \"Cetatea Albă\", was laid down in 1939, but abandoned at an early stage. Her construction was transferred to Germany and in 1940 she was completed by the Blohm & Voss shipyard in Hamburg. \"Cetatea Albă\" had the same standard displacement and top speed as her sister. It is not known, however, if her armament consisted of more than two 102 mm dual-purpose main guns, two 37 mm anti-aircraft guns and 135 mines. \"Cetatea Albă\" was likely never commissioned. The four planned destroyers were replaced by four German M-class minesweepers. These were built locally from German materials in 1943. They were 500-ton vessels armed each with two 88 mm main guns, five anti-aircraft guns (two 37 mm and three 20 mm) and two depth charge throwers. Two of the three planned submarines were laid down at the Galați shipyard in 1938, launched in May 1941 and commissioned in May 1943. The first one was, a 620-ton attack submarine armed with one 105 mm deck gun, one 37 mm anti-aircraft gun and six 533 mm torpedo tubes (4 bow and 2 stern). Her smaller sister ship, \"Rechinul\", was a 585-ton minelaying submarine armed with one 20 mm anti-aircraft gun, four 533 mm torpedo tubes and 40 mines. The third planned submarine was replaced by five Italian CB midget submarines, commissioned in late 1943. The two minelayers were acquired in 1941. Three of the ten planned motor torpedo boats were built by Vospers in the United Kingdom and acquired in 1940. They were named \"Viforul\", and \"Vijelia\". Six more MTBs, of the Power type, were built locally as the class. They were laid down in 1939 and commissioned in 1943. The planned number of MTBs was exceeded in August 1943, when seven Italian MAS were also commissioned. These were followed by four 65-ton German S-boats in August 1944, each armed with two 500 mm torpedo tubes.", "In 1941, The Royal Romanian Navy had four destroyers (\"Mărășești\", \"Mărăști\", \"Regele Ferdinand\" and \"Regina Maria\"), one submarine (\"Delfinul\"), two minelayers (\"Amiral Murgescu\" and \"Cetatea Albă\", also employed as a destroyer escorts), three auxiliary minelayers, three motor torpedo boats (\"Viforul\", \"Vijelia\", and ), three gunboats, fifteen small auxiliary vessels and twenty seaplanes. \"Mărăști\" had a cracked shaft and could not exceed the speed of 24 knots. As a result, \"Mărăști\" never ventured far from the coast. \"Delfinul\", the only Axis submarine present in the Black Sea in 1941, was obsolete and mechanically unreliable. In comparison, the Soviet Black Sea Fleet had a battleship, three medium cruisers, three light cruisers, three flotilla leaders, eight modern destroyers, five old destroyers, two large torpedo boats, 47 submarines and many other auxiliary and small vessels. The overwhelming superiority of the Soviet Navy forced the Royal Romanian Navy to conduct mainly defensive operations throughout the entire war and its warships rarely hazarded further east than Cape Sarych. The two \"Regele Ferdinand\"-class destroyers were the most powerful surface units available to the Axis powers during the naval war in the Black Sea but were mostly used for convoy escort. The Romanian-built minelayer/destroyer escort \"Amiral Murgescu\" and the three auxiliary minelayers of the Romanian Navy played an important role in the defence of Constanța in 1941 and later in securing the merchant convoy routes to the Bosphorus and the supply routes to Odessa and Sevastopol. Mines were the main cause of Soviet submarine losses in the Black Sea naval war. Wartime additions to the fleet included 3 KFK naval trawlers and 3 landing craft of the MFP type. The Royal Romanian Navy was involved in the evacuation of Axis forces from Crimea in 1944. The Romanian naval commander, Rear Admiral Horia Macellariu, was awarded the German Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross after \"Operation 60,000\", the contingency plan for the evacuation of Crimea. Until King Michael's Coup, the Romanian Navy retreated behind the protection of the coastal mine barrages and anti-aircraft defences of Constanța as the Soviet Air Force began to launch heavy air attacks. On the capitulation of Romania in August 1944, the German warships were ordered to leave Romanian harbours. However, when the Soviet minesweeper \"T-410 Vzryv\", accompanied by \"Amiral Murgescu\", was sunk by a German submarine, the Soviet Navy accused the Royal Romanian Navy of betrayal and seized all vessels using this excuse on 5 September 1944. By this late stage of the war, only one destroyers (\"Regina Maria\"), one leader (\"Mărășești\"), two gunboats (\"Dumitrescu\" and \"Ghiculescu\"), one minelayer (\"Amiral Murgescu\") and three motor torpedo boats were still operational. The rest of the warships were in repairs after the evacuation of Crimea and the Soviet air attacks of the last couple of months or had been relegated to training duties. The Soviet Navy moved all Romanian warships to Caucasian ports. They were not return until after the war. The older vessels were received in September 1945, while the more modern ones (such as the \"Regele Ferdinand class\") were kept by the Soviet Black Sea Fleet until the early 1950s. A number of warships were never returned. The largest Romanian warship loss of the entire war was the accidental sinking of the gunboat \"Lepri\". The gunboat ran into a Romanian mine laid by the minelayer \"Aurora\" near Sulina in January 1941, when hostilities between the Soviet Union and the Axis had not begun. While the Royal Romanian Navy had light losses throughout the war, the state merchant navy was practically non-existent by late 1944: every ship of the \"SMR\" was sunk or damaged by the Soviet Navy and Air Force because of the light Romanian and German forces in the Black Sea that were unable to provide adequate protection. The following is a list of battles and operations of the World War II Black Sea Campaign involving the Romanian Navy: The Romanian Naval Forces were reorganized during the Soviet occupation of Romania as the Romanian People's Navy. Under the Romanian People’s Navy, the \"Nava Majestăţii Sale\" (NMS) designation (or “His/her Majesty Sale”) that is given to each ship under Romanian Royal Navy was abolished.", "Romanian naval forces in the Black Sea consisted of four destroyers, four torpedo boats, eight submarines, three minelayers, one submarine tender, three gunboats and one training ship.", "The Romanian Navy is organized in one Frigate Flotilla and one Riverine Flotilla. Equipment includes two Type 22 frigates, one \"Mărășești\" class frigate, four corvettes (two Tetal-I and two Tetal-II), three Tarantul-I missile corvettes, three Osa class torpedo boats, one minelayer, four minesweepers, three \"Mihail Kogălniceanu\" class river patrol monitors, five Smârdan-class river monitor and other small crafts and auxiliary ships. As of 2015, ca. 7,150 men and women serve in the Romanian Navy. The main base of the Romanian Navy is located at Constanţa. The current chief of the Romanian Navy, succeeding Admiral Aurel POPA on 18 December 2013, is Rear Admiral Alexandru Mirsu. The commanding officer of the River Flotilla is Rear Admiral Cornel Rogozan. The Romanian Naval Forces ordered three IAR 330 Puma Naval helicopters, with the last one being commissioned in December 2008. The helicopters are in a similar configuration to those of the Romanian Air Force, including the SOCAT upgrade package; the Navy Pumas also have flotation gear fitted under the nose and main undercarriage fairings. They are currently operated from Navy frigates for search and rescue, medevac and maritime surveillance missions.", "As of 2011, the naval bases are in:", "The 307th Marine Battalion ('Batalionul 307 Infanterie Marină') is the coastal defence unit of the Romanian Navy. The unit was formed in the mid 1970s for the defence of the Danube Delta and Romanian Black Sea shore. It was initially located at 2 Mai village near Mangalia, but since 1975 the Marine Battalion was moved to Babadag, Tulcea County. \"The 307 Marine Battalion is destined to carry out military operations in an amphibious river and lagoon environment, the security of objectives in the coastal area, the Danube Delta and the support of local authorities in case of a civil emergency.\" Its base is near the largest military training range in Romania. The battalion is organized into infantry, reconnaissance, sniper, mortars, anti-tank artillery, engineers, communications, logistic and naval support units. Standard equipment includes PA md. 86 assault rifles, PM md. 64 light machine guns, Md. 66 machine guns, 60/82/120mm mortars, AG-7 and AG-9 launchers, 76mm Md. 82 mountain howitzers, 13 ABC-79M and 3 TABC-79M armoured personnel carriers. The 307th Marine Battalion was involved in military exercises with similar troops from United States, the Netherlands, Spain, Portugal, Italy and Ukraine that were organized locally or abroad. Also, two companies from this unit have participated in the KFOR mission \"Joint Enterprise\" in 2008–09. Since June 1st 2018, the 307th Marine Battalion has been redesignated as 307th Marine Regiment.", "", "For the river fleet and auxiliary vessels see List of active Romanian Navy ships.", "The Romanian government plans to acquire new vessels to modernize the Romanian Naval Forces. This plan includes:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early career.", "Club career.", "Barcelona.", "Manchester United.", "Standard Liège.", "Middlesbrough.", "International career.", "Style of play.", "Coaching career.", "Personal life.", "Honours.", "Club.", "International." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Born in L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Catalonia, Valdés started his career with FC Barcelona's youth team when he joined from Peña Cinco Copas on 1 July 1992. That September, he moved with his family to Tenerife and had to leave the club, but returned three years later. After returning, he made quick progress through the youth teams.", "", "Valdés made his first team debut against Legia Warszawa in the third qualifying round of the UEFA Champions League on 14 August 2002. The early part of the 2002–03 season saw Valdés play deputy to Argentine international Roberto Bonano, but the arrival of Radomir Antić as the new manager in January 2003 saw regular first-team opportunities for Valdés. In the 2003–04 season, he emerged as first-choice goalkeeper, and in the 2004–05 season, he played in almost all of Barcelona's matches, helping Barcelona to their first league title in six years. He also won the Zamora Trophy as the best goalkeeper in Spain that season. In the 2005–06 season, Valdés helped Barça to the European Double. He played a big part in Barça's 2005–06 UEFA Champions League title and in the final against Arsenal, he denied Thierry Henry twice from point-blank range. His efforts saw him singled out for praise from Frank Rijkaard. The \"Zamora\" title, however, eluded him, as Valdés came third after Santiago Cañizares and the winner, José Manuel Pinto. On 17 June 2007, the last round of La Liga, Valdés matched a goalkeeping record held by former Barcelona goalkeeper Andoni Zubizarreta by starting, and never being substituted, in all 38 matches of the La Liga season. Valdés set the Barcelona club record for not conceding a goal in European competition with a clean sheet against Rangers on 7 November 2007, which saw him re-write the Barça record books after not conceding a goal for 466 minutes. Valdés was beaten twice by Olympique Lyonnais captain Juninho Pernambucano through a 45-yard free kick and a late penalty kick at the Stade de Gerland, ending his streak. In the 2006–07 and 2007–08 seasons, however, Barça failed to win a major trophy. On 1 April 2008, Valdés made his 250th appearance for Barcelona. On 27 May 2009, Barcelona beat Manchester United 2–0 in the 2009 UEFA Champions League Final to complete an unprecedented Treble of La Liga, Champions League, and Copa del Rey. In the match, Valdés made two saves from attempts by Cristiano Ronaldo in both halves. In the first half, he saved a long-range free kick, and in the second half, he saved the other from Ronaldo, coming from a tight angle following a low cross from Dimitar Berbatov. On 16 May 2010, Valdés won his fourth title as Barcelona clinched a second successive Spanish league title with Pep Guardiola's side, ending the season with 99 points. On 29 August 2011, Valdés played his 410th match with Barcelona and equaled Andoni Zubizarreta's record as Barcelona's goalkeeper with the most appearances. In 2012, Valdés made a goalkeeping error against Real Madrid in the Supercopa de España that culminated in Ángel Di María scoring a decisive goal and narrowing down Barcelona's two-goal advantage. Real Madrid went on to win the Super Cup in the second leg at the Estadio Santiago Bernabéu. On 1 May 2013, in a 3–0 Champions League semi-final loss to FC Bayern Munich at Camp Nou, Valdés made his 100th appearance in the competition, becoming the 17th player to do so. Later that month, Valdés announced that he would not renew his Barcelona contract, which was due to expire at the end of the 2013–14 season. He cited the pressure of representing the club and stated that he had declared his wish to leave early enough for the club to find a replacement. On 26 March 2014, in a 3–0 victory against Celta de Vigo, Valdés tore his anterior cruciate ligament in the 22nd minute of the match and was substituted off, and was ruled out for the rest of the season, ending his Barcelona career and ruling him out of the 2014 FIFA World Cup.", "In January 2014, prior to the conclusion of his contract with Barcelona, Valdés signed a pre-contract agreement to join Ligue 1 side Monaco at the end of the season; however, Valdés' injury led to Monaco pulling out of the agreement. On 23 October 2014, Manchester United offered Valdés the chance to complete his rehabilitation from a knee injury and to work his way back to fitness with the club. He was offered a contract in January 2015, and on 8 January signed an 18-month deal, with the option of a further year, as backup for compatriot David de Gea. As part of a compensation package for reneging on their deal with Valdés, Monaco agreed to pay the difference between the £150,000 weekly wage he stood to earn with them and the lower salary offered by Manchester United. Valdés played his first match since his knee injury on 26 January, featuring for United's Under-21 team in a 2–1 home win over Liverpool. Before the game, he gave a team talk based on the teachings of his former manager Guardiola. He made his first-team debut on 17 May against Arsenal at Old Trafford, replacing the injured De Gea for the final 16 minutes and conceding an own goal by Tyler Blackett for a 1–1 draw. A week later he made his first start for the team in their last game of the season away to Hull City, keeping a clean sheet in a goalless draw which relegated the opponents. On 15 July 2015, Manchester United manager Louis van Gaal announced that Valdés had been placed on the transfer list after it was claimed he had refused to play in a reserve game. The following month, he was not given a squad number for the upcoming season. A transfer to Turkey's Beşiktaş fell through as personal terms could not be agreed. Despite subsequently being named in Manchester United's Premier League squad, reports confirmed Valdés was only named to conform to Premier League rules and not being offered a way back.", "On 23 January 2016, Manchester United announced that Valdés would be moving to Belgian club Standard Liège on a six-month loan deal. He made his debut a week later in a 2–0 win at OH Leuven in the Belgian Pro League. On 20 March, Valdés won the 2016 Belgian Cup Final, beating Club Brugge 2–1. His loan spell was cut short on 29 April after the club decided to allow more youth players the opportunity to play in games at the end of the season.", "On 7 July 2016, Valdés signed a two-year deal on a free transfer at Premier League newcomers Middlesbrough, managed by compatriot Aitor Karanka. On 13 August 2016, Valdés made his debut in a 1–1 draw against Stoke City. On 22 October 2016, Valdés kept his first clean sheet of the season in a 0–0 draw against Arsenal. The club entered the relegation zone in March 2017 after a 2–0 loss to Stoke City, with Karanka sacked later that month. Valdés, as well as fellow goalkeeper Brad Guzan, left the club on 1 July 2017. Although he had offers from several clubs in Spain to prolong his career, Valdés retired from professional football in August 2017; after remaining without a club for the first half of the 2017–18 season, he later confirmed his official retirement in January 2018.", "On 16 August 2005, Valdés was called up for a friendly game against Uruguay, but did not take the field. After being overlooked by various coaches of the Spanish national side for several years, on 20 May 2010, he was included by Vicente del Bosque in Spain's final 23-man squad for the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa as the second-choice goalkeeper behind Iker Casillas wearing the number 12 shirt. On 3 June 2010, Valdés earned his first cap, starting in a friendly match between Spain and South Korea at Tivoli-Neu in Innsbruck, Austria. Valdés was part of the Spanish squads that won the 2010 FIFA World Cup and UEFA Euro 2012, despite not playing in either tournament. He was also in the Spanish squad which reached the final of the 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup in Brazil. His sole appearance in a major tournament came in their last group game, keeping a clean sheet in a 3–0 win over Nigeria at the Estádio Castelão in Fortaleza.", "In his prime, Valdés was considered to be a successful and generally high quality goalkeeper, albeit somewhat inconsistent, and is regarded as one of Barcelona's best ever goalkeepers. An authoritative presence in the area, with good reflexes, handling, positioning, and shot-stopping abilities, he was known for his agility and composure in goal, as well as his ability to produce decisive saves, in particular after not being tested for long stretches of time; however, he was also prone to errors on occasion, in particular in his early career. In addition to his goalkeeping abilities, he was known in particular for his vision, footwork, distribution, control and skill with the ball at his feet, which enabled him to play the ball out on the ground or launch an attack from the back; throughout his career, he also stood out for his intelligence, ability to read the game, and his speed and bravery when coming off his line to claim the ball on the ground in one on one situations, and also excelled at anticipating opponents outside his area who had beaten the offside trap, and often functioned as a sweeper-keeper.", "On 1 June 2018, Valdés returned to football as a manager by acquiring his UEFA Pro Licence alongside compatriots such as Xavi, Raúl and Xabi Alonso. Valdés started coaching amateur side ED Moratalaz's youth ranks, where he achieved two regional titles. On 19 July 2019, Valdés returned to Barcelona to coach its Juvenil A side. His return however was short lived, as he was sacked nearly 3 months later, on 7 October.", "Valdés was born to José Manuel Valdés and Águeda Arribas and has two brothers, Ricardo and Álvaro. He married his long-time partner, Colombian model Yolanda Cardona, in June 2017. The couple have two sons, Dylan and Kai, and a daughter, Vera.", "", "Barcelona Standard Liège", "Spain" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Music career.", "1999–2002: Dream Street.", "2004–2006: \"Beautiful Soul\" and \"Right Where You Want Me\".", "2007–2009: Songwriting and \"Departure\".", "2010–2014: \"Have It All\" and \"In Technicolor\".", "2018–present: \"The Resolution\".", "Other ventures.", "Acting career.", "Fragrance.", "Philanthropy.", "Personal life." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "McCartney was born in Ardsley, Westchester, New York, the son of Ginger (Sarber) and Scott McCartney. He began performing in local community musicals at the age of seven, when he debuted his role in \"Oliver!\", before joining the national tour of \"The King and I\" at age ten along with \"Phil of the Future\" star Ricky Ullman. There he played the character of Louis. In 1998, he sang with the group Sugar Beats and can be heard on their 1998, 1999, and 2000 CD releases.", "", "In 1999, McCartney joined the American pop boy band Dream Street, and was a member until 2002. He has described the experience as a good \"stepping stone\" for his solo career. The group earned a gold record with their debut CD. At fifteen, he began work on a solo career with a local band, featuring musicians Dillon Kondor (guitar), Peter Chema (bass), Katie Spencer (keyboards), Alex Russeku (drums), Karina LaGravinese (background vocals), Sharisse Francisco (background vocals), and under the management of Ginger McCartney and Sherry Goffin Kondor, who co-produced his first album, \"Beautiful Soul\". McCartney released his first solo EP in July 2003. The album featured three songs: \"Beautiful Soul\", \"Don't You\", \"Why Don't You Kiss Her\". In 2004, he performed a duet with Anne Hathaway, \"Don't Go Breaking My Heart\", which is featured on the \"Ella Enchanted\" soundtrack.", "McCartney's debut solo album, \"Beautiful Soul\", which was two years in the making, was released on September 28, 2004, in the United States and over a year later in Europe. He categorized it as a \"pop record\" with twists of urban. The album featured four songs that he co-wrote. \"Beautiful Soul\" reached number 15 on the \"Billboard\" 200. The album has been certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America, denoting over one million units of shipment to US retailers; it is his highest-certified album as of early 2009. By mid-2006, the album had sold more than 1.5 million copies. The album's lead single of the same name reached number 16 on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100. McCartney was one of the artists to win multiple awards at the 2005 Teen Choice Awards, including Choice Crossover Artist, Choice Male Artist and Choice Breakout, Male. The following year, he won Favorite Male Singer at the Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards. His first headlining tour, also named Beautiful Soul, began on May 2, 2005 at the Crest Theatre in Sacramento, California. The United States portion of the tour spanned 56 stops, ending on September 10, 2005 at the Madera District County Fair in Madera, California. In the fall of 2005, McCartney toured Australia, and opened for the Backstreet Boys in Europe in the summer of 2005. His July 9 performance at California's Great America in Santa Clara, California was recorded, released as \"Live: The Beautiful Soul Tour\" in November 2005. After the filming of \"Keith\" wrapped, McCartney began working on his second album, \"Right Where You Want Me\", co-writing all but one of the songs featured in it. \"Right Where You Want Me\" is more mature than his debut, reflecting his musical and personal growth since he recorded his debut album at age 15. Released by Hollywood Records on September 19, 2006, the album reached number 14 on the \"Billboard\" 200. The lead single of the album, \"Right Where You Want Me\", began receiving airplay on July 11, 2006. Although he did not launch a full tour, he did various promotional shows in Italy and the United States. He has contributed to numerous Disney soundtracks including \"Disneymania 2\", \"Radio Disney Jingle Jams\", \"A Cinderella Story\", \"That's So Raven\", \"Stuck in the Suburbs\", \"Lizzie McGuire Total Party!\", \"Disneymania 3\", \"Sydney White\", \"Radio Disney Jams, Vol. 7\", \"Radio Disney Jams, Vol. 8\", \"DisneyMania 4\", \"Hannah Montana\", \"Radio Disney: Party Jams\", \"That's So Raven Too!\", \"Radio Disney Jams, Vol. 9\", \"Radio Disney Jams, Vol. 11\", and \"\". McCartney also appeared on the Disney Channel teen sitcoms \"The Suite Life of Zack & Cody\" and \"Hannah Montana\". He also voices 'Terence' in the \"Tinker Bell\" franchise.", "In the fall of 2007, McCartney co-wrote the hit song \"Bleeding Love\" with Ryan Tedder of OneRepublic, produced by McCartney and Tedder for McCartney's third album, but gave it away to British singer Leona Lewis for her debut album, \"Spirit\". The song was nominated for Record of the Year at the 2009 Grammy Awards. McCartney recorded his own version, which was released on some editions of his \"Departure\" album. McCartney released his third album, \"Departure\", on May 20, 2008 in the United States and Canada. Musically, it is a departure from his early works, showcasing more mature themes. The album has reached number 14 on the \"Billboard\" 200. The album's lead single, \"Leavin'\", was released in March 2008, and reached number 10 on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100, giving McCartney his highest-charting single to date. The single was certified platinum by the RIAA, selling over two million downloads on iTunes, becoming McCartney's highest-certified single as of early 2009. The second single, \"It's Over\", was released on August 26, 2008, and reached #62 on the Hot 100. McCartney promoted \"Departure\" on a co-headlining tour with Jordin Sparks, which began in August 2008 and ended in September. He also did solo shows at theaters and small venues to support the album while on tour with Sparks. Sparks also approached him to write some material for her. McCartney re-released \"Departure\" on April 7, 2009. The re-release, \"Departure: Recharged\", featured four new songs: \"Body Language\", \"Oxygen\", \"Crash & Burn\" and \"In My Veins\". The re-release also features a remix of \"How Do You Sleep?\" with rapper-actor Ludacris. The third single from the album was released from the re-release and was the remix of \"How Do You Sleep?\". It was much more successful than the second single, reaching #26 on the Hot 100, The fourth and final single from the album was also released from the re-release and was a new version of \"Body Language\" featuring T-Pain. The single reached #35 on the Hot 100.", "The lead single from his fourth studio album \"Have It All\", \"Shake\", was sent to radio on September 8, 2010 and was released digitally on September 21, 2010. The song peaked at #54 on the Hot 100. On October 18, 2010, it was announced that \"Have It All\" would be released in January 2011. On November 30, it was announced that the album release would be pushed up to December 28, 2010, the Tuesday following Christmas. On December 3, 2010, McCartney announced through his Facebook page that he pushed the release date for the album back to early 2011. On April 7, 2011, McCartney responded to a question on his Twitter page about the delay, saying it hinged on pickup of \"Locke & Key\". On November 3, McCartney said via his WhoSay page \"2012 is still the magic year for the record to finally come out.\" On May 6, 2012, McCartney's mother said on Twitter that the replacement of the President of his label, Hollywood Records in January 2012 was delaying the release of his album. In the March 2013 issue of \"Glamouholic\" magazine that he has covered, an exclusive interview was conducted and he confirmed the release of his anticipated fourth studio album, after all the disbandments of his record label, within this year. \"Have It All\", however, would go on to never be officially released. On May 13, it was confirmed on \"On Air with Ryan Seacrest\" that McCartney would be joining the Backstreet Boys and DJ Pauly D on their In a World Like This Tour, which kicked off on August 2, 2013. On August 13, the singer released \"Back Together\", the lead single from his fifth studio album, published by the independent label Eight0Eight Records. He performed it live on the \"Today\" show on August 15, 2013. On December 10, 2013, McCartney released a four-song EP titled In \"Technicolor, Part 1\", followed by the single \"Superbad\", released on May 6, 2014. McCartney's fifth studio album, \"In Technicolor\" was released on July 22, 2014. The third single off the album, \"Punch Drunk Recreation\", was released on November 19, 2014.", "On March 23, 2018, McCartney announced the release of his new single \"Better With You\" which would be the lead single off \"The Resolution\", the music video also features actress Danielle Campbell. He later released a second single titled \"Wasted\", followed by the live album \"The Resolution Tour Live\". In 2020, McCartney competed on the third season of \"The Masked Singer\" as the \"Turtle\". He finished as the runner-up.", "", "McCartney appeared with The Who's Roger Daltrey in \"A Christmas Carol\" at Madison Square Garden. From 1998–2001, McCartney played Adam Chandler Jr. in the ABC soap opera \"All My Children\", a role for which he earned two Young Artist Awards and two Daytime Emmy Award nominations. He also later starred in the short-lived series \"Summerland\", which aired on The WB for two seasons, playing orphaned teenager Bradin Westerly. In 2005, McCartney appeared as himself on the Disney Channel show \"The Suite Life of Zack & Cody\". In 2007, he starred as himself on the Disney Channel show \"Hannah Montana\". In 2008, McCartney was also featured as the voice of JoJo McDodd in \"Horton Hears a Who!\" McCartney also voiced Theodore in the live-action \"Alvin and the Chipmunks\" film series, in addition to voicing Terence in the \"Tinker Bell\" film series. He also voices Robin in the \"Young Justice\" series. In 2008, McCartney co-starred along with Elisabeth Harnois in an independent teenage drama feature film, \"Keith\", directed by Todd Kessler. It is his movie debut, and features McCartney in the title role. \"Keith\" was released on September 19, 2008. According to \"Entertainment Weekly\", in December 2008, McCartney was negotiating to play against type in the role of the Fire Nation's Prince Zuko in M. Night Shyamalan's feature film adaptation of \"\". In February 2009, British actor Dev Patel replaced McCartney, whose tour dates conflicted with a boot camp scheduled for the cast to train in martial arts. McCartney has expressed an interest in directing and producing films and even considered enrolling in a film school. McCartney appeared as a recurring character in the ABC Family series \"Greek\" for several episodes playing a star football talent who joins Kappa Tau. His character eventually decides to depledge the fraternity after citing pressures between football and Greek life combined with Rusty stealing his girlfriend Jordan. McCartney also worked in several installments of the Square Enix video game series \"Kingdom Hearts\". He was featured as Roxas in \"Kingdom Hearts II\" in 2006, and reprised the role in 2009 in \"Kingdom Hearts 358/2 Days\". He also provided the voice work for Ventus, a character in the video game of the same series \"Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep\". He reprised both roles in \"\", released in 2012, as well as in \"Kingdom Hearts III\", released in 2019. McCartney also starred in the horror film \"Chernobyl Diaries\", released on May 25, 2012. He has been added to the Season 7 (2013) cast of the Lifetime Network series \"Army Wives\", portraying a young soldier deployed to Afghanistan with an 18-year-old wife at home. In the summer of 2014, McCartney had a guest-starring role in the ABC Family series \"Young & Hungry\". McCartney played \"Cooper\", a computer hacker with a romantic interest in the show's lead, played by Emily Osment. In 2016, McCartney appeared on \"Fear the Walking Dead\" as Reed, an aggressive member of a group of pirates. Jesse McCartney's acting career also includes voice over work (or voice acting) with \"Breathe Bible\".", "In June 2011, McCartney introduced a new women's fragrance called Wanted By Jesse.", "In 2005, McCartney participated in \"Come Together Now\", a charity single to benefit the victims of the 2004 Asian tsunami and the 2005 Hurricane Katrina. Later in 2005, McCartney signed on as an official supporter of Little Kids Rock, a nonprofit organization that provides free musical instruments and instruction to children in underserved public schools throughout the U.S.A. He sits on LKR's Honorary Board of Directors. He has donated proceeds of his 2005 tour for disaster relief, recorded radio spots promoting the \"Kids For A Drug-Free America\" campaign, is a spokesperson for the St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, and is involved in the charity \"SPACE\", which was co-founded by a childhood friend of his mother's. McCartney performed at the Hope Rocks concert in 2005 to benefit the City of Hope Cancer Center. He appeared in the Concert for Hope October 25, 2009 with Miley Cyrus and Demi Lovato.", "In September 2019, he got engaged to his girlfriend of seven years, Katie Peterson." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Design and development.", "The special \"R.30/16\" test aircraft.", "Operational service.", "Discovered crash site.", "Variants." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In September 1914, at the start of World War I, Ferdinand von Zeppelin visualised the concept of a \"Riesenflugzeug\" (R) bomber, to be larger than the then-nascent Friedel-Ursinus twin-engined military aircraft. Using engineers from the Robert Bosch GmbH, he created the \"Versuchsbau Gotha-Ost\" (VGO) consortium in a rented hangar at the Gotha factory. Alexander Baumann became his chief engineer, although later the team included other noted engineers including Zeppelin's associate Claudius Dornier, the 1915 pioneer of all-metal aircraft construction in Hugo Junkers and Baumann's protogé Adolph Rohrbach. Almost all of these Zeppelin-Staaken \"Riesenflugzeug\" designs used some variation of either pusher configuration and/or push-pull configuration in their engine layout, orientation and placement of their powerplants. The first \"Riesenflugzeug\" built was the VGO.I flying in April 1915, using three engines; two pusher and one tractor, with a span, four-bay interplane strut layout for its slightly swept-back leading edge biplane configuration, maintained throughout the entire Zeppelin-Staaken R-series of aircraft during World War I. The VGO.I was built for the Marine-Fliegerabteilung (Imperial German naval Air service) and served on the Eastern Front Later modified with two extra engines, it crashed during tests at Staaken. A similar machine, the VGO.II was also used on the Eastern Front. Baumann was an early expert in light-weight construction techniques and placed the four engines in nacelles mounted between the upper and lower wing decks to distribute the loads to save weight in the wing spars. The next aircraft, the VGO.III was a six-engined design The 160 hp Maybach engines were paired to drive the three propellers. It served with \"Riesenflugzeug Abteilung\" (Rfa) 500. In 1916 VGO moved to the Berlin suburb of Staaken, to take advantage of the vast Zeppelin sheds there. The successor to the VGO III became the Staaken R.IV (IdFlieg number R.12/15), the only \"one-off\" Zeppelin-Staaken R-type to survive World War I, powered by a total of six engines, driving three propellers: a tractor configuration system in the nose and two pusher-mount nacelle mounts between the wings. By the autumn of 1916, Staaken was completing its R.V, the R.VI prototype, and R.VII versions of the same design, and Idflieg selected the R.VI for series production over the 6-engined R.IV and other Riesenflugzeug designs, primarily those of Siemens-Schuckertwerke AG. With four direct-drive engines in a tandem push-pull arrangement, and a fully enclosed cockpit, the R.VI design required none of the complex gearboxes of other R-types. Each R.VI bomber cost 557,000 marks and required the support of a 50-man ground crew. The R.VI required a complex 18-wheel undercarriage consisting of twin nosewheels and a quartet of four-wheeled groupings for its main gear to support its weight, and carried two mechanics in flight, seated between the engines in open niches cut in the center of each nacelle. The bombs were carried in an internal bomb bay located under the central fuel tanks, with three racks each capable of holding seven bombs. The R.VI was capable of carrying the 1000 kg PuW bomb. Although designed by Versuchsbau, because of the scope of the project, the production R.VI's were manufactured by other firms: seven by Schütte-Lanz using sheds at Flugzeugwerft GmbH Staaken, Berlin; six by Automobil und Aviatik A.G. (Aviatik) (the original order was for three); and three by Albatros Flugzeugwerke. 13 of the production models were commissioned into service before the armistice and saw action. One R.VI was as a float-equipped seaplane for the Marine-Fliegerabteilung (Imperial German Naval Air Service), with the designation Type L and s/n 1432, using Maybach engines. After the first flight on 5 September 1917 the Type \"L\" crashed during testing on June 3, 1918. The Type 8301, of which four were ordered and three delivered, was developed from the R.VI by elevating the fuselage above the lower wing for greater water clearance, eliminating the bomb bays, and enclosing the open gun position on the nose.", "R.VI serial number R.30/16 was the earliest known supercharged aircraft to fly, with a fifth engine - a Mercedes D.II - installed in the central fuselage, driving a Brown-Boveri four-stage supercharger at some 6,000 rpm. This enabled the R.30/16 to climb to an altitude of. The idea of supercharging an aircraft's propeller-driving piston engines with an extra powerplant used solely to power a supercharger was not attempted again by Germany until later in World War II, when both the Dornier Do 217P and Henschel Hs 130E experimental bomber designs each revived the idea as the \"Höhen-Zentrale-Anlage\" system. The R.30/16 aircraft was later fitted with four examples of one of the first forms of variable-pitch propellers, believed to have been ground-adjustable only.", "The R.VI equipped two \"Luftstreitkräfte\" (Imperial German Army Air Service) units, \"Riesenflugzeug-Abteilung\" (Rfa) 500 and Rfa 501, with the first delivered June 28, 1917. The units first served on the Eastern Front, based at Alt-Auz and Vilua in Kurland until August 1917. Almost all missions were flown at night with bomb loads, operating between altitude. Missions were of three to five hours' duration. Rfa 501 transferred to Ghent, Belgium, to attack France and Great Britain, arriving September 22, 1917, at Sint-Denijs-Westrem airdrome. Rfa 501 later moved its base to Scheldewindeke airdrome south of group headquarters at Gontrode, while Rfa 500 was based at Castinne, France, with its primary targets French airfields and ports. Rfa 501, with an average of five R.VI's available for missions, conducted 11 raids on Great Britain between September 28, 1917, and May 20, 1918, dropping of bombs in 30 sorties. Aircraft flew individually to their targets on moonlit nights, requesting directional bearings by radio after takeoff, then using the River Thames as a navigational landmark. Missions on the round trip lasted seven hours. None were lost in combat over Great Britain (compared to 28 Gotha G bombers shot down over England), but two crashed returning to base in the dark. Four R.VI's were shot down in combat (one-third of the operational inventory), with six others destroyed in crashes, of the 13 commissioned during the war. Six of the 18 eventually built survived the war or were completed after the armistice.", "Very little remains of these giant bombers, although nearly a century after the end of World War I amateur historians of the \"Poelcapelle 1917 Association vzw\" working in Poelkapelle, northeast of Ypres, identified a wreck that was found in 1981 by Daniel Parrein, a local farmer who was plowing his land. For a while it was thought that the wreck was that of French ace Georges Guynemer's SPAD S.XIII; however that was discounted when repair tools were found at the site, and further research pointed that the engine was a Mercedes D.IVa, possibly of a Gotha G bomber. A comparison of recovered parts was inconclusive, since the parts were common to a number of aircraft other than the Gotha G. In 2007 the researchers, Piet Steen with some help of Johan Vanbeselaere, finally made a conclusive identification after visiting one of the few partial specimens (the distinctive engine nacelles) in a Kraków air museum. With the help of the Polish aviation historians, parts were identified as those of Zeppelin-Staaken R.VI R.34/16, which crashed on 21 April 1918 after a mission against the Royal Air Force airfield at Saint-Omer, France. The R.VI was shot down, apparently by anti-aircraft fire of the British 2nd Army, while trying to cross the front line, killing all seven crew members. The first true production Zeppelin-Staaken Riesenflugzeug was the R.VI. This giant aircraft was powered either by four 245hp (183KW) Maybach MbIV engines or four 260hp(194KW) Mercedes D.IVa engines. The fuselage was similar to the previous aircraft but the cockpit was extended forwards, enclosed and glazed with a gunners cockpit in the extreme nose. Other improvements included aluminium alloy structure in the triple finned biplane tail unit, which was built with inverse camber to improve the stabilising downforce. Eighteen R.VIs were built serialled 'R25' to 'R39' and 'R52' to 'R54' all except 'R30', which was used exclusively as a supercharged engine test-bed, saw service in the \"Luftstreitkräfte\" with Rfa500 and Rfa 501 on the western front stationed in the Ghent area. Air raids on England by R.VIs began on 17 September 1917. Many air raids attributed to Gotha bombers were, in fact, carried out by Zeppelin-Staaken R.VI or R.XIV bombers, with direct hits on the Royal Hospital Chelsea with the first 1,000kg bomb dropped on England, on 16/17 February 1918. St Pancras Station was attacked the next night. During the campaign from 18 December 1917 to 20 May 1918 the R.VIs of Rfa501 made eleven raids dropping 27,190kg (28tons) of bombs. Eighteen built. Differing little from the R.IV, the R.VII had a revised arrangement of struts in the tail unit. The sole R.VII, serialled R 14/15, crashed during its delivery flight to the front line. One built. The R.XIV closely resembled previous Zeppelin-Staaken Riesenflugzeug differing only in engine installation and details. The five Maybach MbIV engines were arranged as push-pull pairs in the nacelles, with the engineer accommodated between the engines, and a single tractor engine in the nose.", "Three R.XIVs were built, serialled R 43/16 to R 45/16, of which R 43/16 was shot down by Capt. Archibald Buchanan Yuille of No. 151 Squadron RAF. The R.XV also carried on the five engine layout of the R.XIV but introduced a large central fin in the tail unit. Three R.XVs were built, serialled R 46/16 to R 48/16 but there is no evidence that they carried out operational flights. This aircraft was essentially an R.VI fitted with large long duralumin floats. Allocated the serial no. 1432 by the \"Kaiserliche Marine\" the aircraft was wrecked during trials. One built. In a further attempt to develop a useful large seaplane for the \"Kaiserliche Marine\", Zeppelin-Staaken used R.VI wings mated to an all new fuselage, which incorporated the large central fin of the R.XV, suspended midway between the mainplanes, all supported by floats similar to the 'Type \"L\"'. Three were built, serialled 8301, 8303 and 8304, of which 8301 was also tested with a land undercarriage, the existence of 8302 has not been confirmed." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot summary.", "Development." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "\"Johnny Mnemonic\" is a data trafficker who has undergone cybernetic surgery to have a data storage system implanted in his head. The system allows him to store digital data too sensitive to risk transmission on computer networks. To keep the cargo secure, the data is locked by a password known only to the intended recipient. Johnny enters a trance-like state while the data is being transferred or the password is being set, making him unaware of the contents and unable to retrieve them. He makes a modest living in the Sprawl by physically transporting sensitive information for corporations, underworld crime rings or wealthy individuals. As the story opens, Johnny has arranged to meet with his most recent customer, Ralfi Face, at the Drome bar. Ralfi is overdue to retrieve the hundreds of megabytes of data he has stored in Johnny's head. To add to his troubles, Johnny has learned that Ralfi has placed a contract on him, although the reasons are unclear. Johnny finds Ralfi at his usual table, accompanied by his bodyguard Lewis. Johnny threatens them with a sawed-off shotgun in his bag, but Lewis incapacitates him with a neural disruption device hidden under the table. Ralfi reveals that the data was, unknown to him at the time, stolen from the Yakuza, who are very interested in ensuring it is not revealed. Johnny is rescued by Molly, a \"Razorgirl\" who has undergone extensive body modifications, most notably razor-sharp blades under her fingers. She joins the action at the table, looking for a job. When Lewis tries to attack her, she cuts his wrist tendons and takes the incapacitating control device from him. Ralfi offers to pay her off, but she turns off the device and frees Johnny. Johnny immediately offers a higher bid to hire her as a bodyguard. Johnny and Molly take Ralfi as they exit the bar, but a Yakuza assassin waiting outside cuts Ralfi to pieces with a monomolecular wire hidden in a prosthetic thumb. Johnny fires his shotgun at the assassin but misses due to the man's enhanced reflexes. Molly is delighted to be facing another professional. Johnny decides that the only way to save himself from the same fate as Ralfi is to get the data out of his head, which can be done only by using a SQUID to retrieve the password. Molly takes him to an amusement park to meet Jones, a cybernetically enhanced dolphin retired from Navy service. Jones' previous assignment was to locate and hack into enemy mines using the SQUID and other sensors implanted in his skull. Since he is now addicted to heroin, the result of the Navy's efforts to keep its dolphins loyal, Molly trades him a batch in exchange for finding the password. Johnny then has Molly read it out so he can enter his retrieval trance, with recorders capturing all the data. They upload a snippet to a Yakuza communications satellite and threaten to release the rest unless Johnny is left alone. To deal with the Yakuza assassin, who is still following them, Molly leads Johnny to the Lo Teks, a group of anti-technology outcasts who live in a suspended hideout near the top of the geodesic domes covering the Sprawl. At Molly's request, the Lo Teks allow the assassin to climb up so she can face him on the \"Killing Floor,\" a sprung-floor arena wired to synthesizers and amplifiers. Molly dances around the assassin, causing discordant noise to blare from the sound system. She eventually tricks him into slicing off his own hand with his thumb wire. Overwhelmed by the noise and the strange environment, he jumps through a hole in the floor and falls to his death. The story closes nearly a year later, with Johnny now living among the Lo Teks. He and Molly have gone into business for themselves, using Jones' SQUID to retrieve traces of all the data he has ever carried and blackmailing former clients with it.", "In Gibson's 1984 novel \"Neuromancer\", the first of the Sprawl trilogy, Molly relates the rest of Johnny's story to the protagonist, Case. Molly claims that after achieving success, Johnny was murdered by a vat-grown Yakuza ninja." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Russian service.", "Shenzhen Minsk World, China." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Named after the capital city of Belarus, \"Minsk\" was laid down in 1972, launched on 30 September 1975, completed on 27 September 1978, and decommissioned on 30 June 1993. \"Minsk\" operated with the Pacific Fleet. Shortly after the Sino-Vietnamese War of 1979, \"Minsk\" was deployed to the South China Sea, making a port of call at Cam Ranh Bay, Vietnam, in September 1980. She visited Vietnam again in 1982 during her second deployment before sailing onto the Indian Ocean. In 1984, \"Minsk\", the landing ship \"Aleksandr Nikolayev\", and Vietnam forces conducted the Soviet Navy's first amphibious landing in Vietnam. The carrier was retired as a result of a major accident (details not known) which required the facilities at the Chernomorskiy yard, in Mykolayiv, located in the newly independent Ukraine (the reasons for not attempting a repair are not known).", "In 1995 \"Minsk\" was sold for scrap to a South Korean company. Due to protests from South Korean environmentalists, the ship was resold to the Chinese state-owned Guangdong Ship Dismantling Company. The ship was again saved from the scrapyard when a group of Chinese video-game arcade owners formed the Shenzhen Minsk Investment Company to buy the ship for $4.3 million. \"Minsk\" became the centerpiece of a military theme park in Yantian district, Shatoujiao (沙头角) sub-district, Shenzhen called Minsk World. However, the Shenzhen Minsk company went bankrupt in 2006, and the carrier was put up for auction on 22 March 2006. On 31 May 2006, the carrier was sold in Shenzhen for 128 million RMB to CITIC Shenzhen. The ship was again sold to Dalian Yongjia Group, a real estate company in Dalian in North China, on 1 January 2013. On 3 April 2016, Chinese news reported the aircraft carrier had been towed to a new destination, Zhoushan for refit, because of the decline of the number of tourists after 2006. After the refit is completed, the ship would be taken to Nantong on the Yangtse River in Jiangsu Province and moored to the west of Sutong Yangtze River Bridge as part of a new theme park that will be opened in 2017. But until 2018, the project has been in the process of being delayed." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography.", "History and culture.", "Demographics.", "Cityscape.", "Main sights.", "Parks and natural areas.", "Schools.", "Ingolstadt School of Management.", "THI University of Applied Sciences.", "Sports.", "Literary references.", "International relations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Covering an urban area of, Ingolstadt is geographically Bavaria's fourth-largest city after Munich, Nuremberg and Augsburg. At its largest point the city is about from east to west and from north to south about. The city boundary has a length of. The city boundary is about away from the geographic centre of Bavaria in Kipfenberg. The old town is approximately above sea level and the highest point, located in the district of Pettenhofen, is. The lowest point of the Schutter confluence with the Danube is at above sea level. Ingolstadt uses Central European Time as throughout Germany; the average time lag is 14 minutes. The city is expanding at the northern and southern banks of the Danube in a wide flat bowl. The Ingolstadt basin borders the Jura foothills, located south and is to the north of the Donau-Isar-Hügelland. In the southwest is the Donaumoos while in the east the lowland forests of the Danube reach into the urban area. It is the second largest hardwood floodplain on the Danube. The Sandrach, the former Southern main branch of the Danube, partly forms the Southern city border. In the north, the Schutter flows through from the west reaching the Danube near to the Altstadt.", "Ingolstadt was first mentioned in a document of Charlemagne on 6 February 806 as \"Ingoldes stat\", the place of Ingold. Circa 1250, Ingolstadt was granted city status. Ingolstadt was the capital of the Duchy of Bavaria-Ingolstadt between 1392 and 1447. Ingolstadt was then united with Bavaria-Landshut. Louis VII, Duke of Bavaria ordered the building of the New Castle as well as the Church of Our Lady (Münster zur Schönen Unseren Lieben Frau), also known as \"Upper Parish\" (Obere Pfarr), whose form was strongly influenced by French Gothic architecture. In 1472 Louis IX, Duke of Bavaria founded the University of Ingolstadt which became the Ludwig-Maximilians-University. In 1800 it was moved to Landshut and in 1826 eventually to Munich. The University of Ingolstadt was an important defender of the Roman Catholic Church during the Reformation era, led by such notable scholars as Johann Eck. Ingolstadt is where William IV, Duke of Bavaria wrote and signed the Bavarian Reinheitsgebot in 1516. In the Battle of Ingolstadt in May 1525, the Black Company – a unit of Franconian farmers and knights fighting on the side of the peasants during the German Peasants' War – took their last stand at Ingolstadt against the Swabian League, all eventually being defeated and killed. On 30 April 1632, the German field marshal Johann Tserclaes, Count of Tilly died at Ingolstadt during a Swedish siege of the city. The field marshal had been badly wounded in a previous engagement with the Swedes under King Gustavus Adolphus. Ingolstadt proved to be the first fortress in Germany that held out for the entire length of the Swedish siege, and the Swedes eventually withdrew. The remains of Gustavus Adolphus' horse can be seen in the City Museum. The horse was shot from under the king by one of the cannons inside the fortress, a cannon known as \"The Fig\". When the Swedes withdrew, the city preserved the remains of the king's horse, eventually putting the on display. It has remained thus for almost 400 years. In 1748, Adam Weishaupt, the founder of the Order of Illuminati, was born in Ingolstadt. After the French invasion in 1799 the fortress was demolished and the university was relocated to Landshut. Originally a fortress city, Ingolstadt is enclosed by a medieval defensive wall. The Bavarian fortress (1537–1930) now holds the museum of the Bavarian army. During World War I, future French president Charles de Gaulle was detained there as a prisoner of war. A sappers' drill ground lies next to the river, and two military air bases are located nearby, one used for testing aircraft. The long military tradition of the city is reflected in today's civil and cultural life. Former \"off-limit\" military training areas have been converted into well-used public parks. Adolf Scherzer composed the \"Bayerischen Defiliermarsch\". Mary Shelley's \"Frankenstein\" was set at the \"Ingolstädter Alte Anatomie\" (Old Anatomy Building), now a museum for medical history. Marieluise Fleißer set her play \"Pioneers in Ingolstadt\" (1928) in the city. In 1945, the car manufacturer Auto Union first arrived in the city. The company's original factories in Chemnitz and Zwickau (both then in Soviet controlled East Germany) were shattered during the war, and were seized by the Russians as reparations. Auto Union executives initially started a spare parts operation in Ingolstadt in the immediate post war period, with a view to relocating the entire company to the region. With the help of Marshall Plan aid, Auto Union was formally re-founded in Ingolstadt in 1949, ultimately evolving into the modern-era Audi company, after it was taken over by Volkswagen in 1964. Today, Audi is the region's largest employer and now dominates the economy of the city.", "Population development since 1450:", "", "As one of five ducal residences of medieval Bavaria—besides Landshut, Munich, Straubing and Burghausen—the city of Ingolstadt features many Gothic buildings, such as the \"Herzogskasten\" ('old ducal castle', ca. 1255) and the New Castle, which was built from 1418 onwards. The largest church is the Gothic hall church of Our Lady (Liebfrauenmunster), which was begun in 1425. The church was built to serve as a second parish church besides Saint Maurice as well as the burial place for Louis and his family and intended to be the official burial place for the future Dukes of Bavaria-Ingolstadt. Its peculiar and rare angle of footprint was emulated in the 20th century built Cathedral of Newark. Also the churches of Saint Maurice (1235) and of the Gnadenthal and Franciscans monasteries date from the Gothic era. The Kreuztor (1385) is one of the remaining gates of the old city wall and to this day the key landmark of the city. The Gothic Old City Hall was constructed in the 14th century, and later altered several times. The Baroque era is represented by the Old Anatomy Building of the university (1723–1736, designed by Gabriel de Gabrieli) and the church St. Maria de Victoria, which was built by the Asam brothers (1732–1736). The church of the Augustinians of Johann Michael Fischer (1736) was completely destroyed in World War II. Many buildings of the neo-classical fortification of Leo von Klenze have been preserved, such as the \"Reduit Tilly\" and the towers \"Baur\" and \"Triva\". As well as being the home of the headquarters of the car manufacturer Audi, the town is also home to Audi's museum mobile, which is open to the public and presents historic exhibits and offers guided tours.", "Ingolstadt is a green city with numerous parks, green spaces and forests. The most prominent of these is the \"Glacis\", formerly an open space in front of the city walls, now surrounding the historic city center. It functions as a \"green belt\" and a buffer area between traffic, residential areas and schools. It is possible to traverse it using spacious paths for pedestrians and cyclists, with a good view of the site of the former fortifications, including a well-preserved section of the ditch. The biggest park in the city, at about 50 acres, is the, which contained the former Ingolstadt State Fortress, and was the site of the Landesgartenschau in 1992, is also a part of the Glacis. Klenzepark is north of the Danube river, opposite the Ingolstadt old town. In the warm seasons about 100,000 visitors use the park every month, mostly young people. While about 75% of the park visitors come from Ingolstadt and the surrounding area, the remaining approximately 25% travel from more distant places. The biggest forest in Ingolstadt is the Auwald (\"riverside forest\", also called \"Schüttel\"). It is found on both the northern and southern banks of the Danube, and is one of the biggest well-preserved river forests in Germany, extending mainly from Neuburg to Ingolstadt with extensions to the city center. The forest serves as a natural reserve, with parts containing unique vegetation or acting as a wildlife reserve. The Danube river runs through Ingolstadt, flowing west to east. In the area of Ingolstadt, the Danube is between 80 and 100 meters wide, and flows past Ingolstadt's old town.", "", "Ingolstadt is home to the Ingolstadt School of Management, which is the department of business administration and economics of the Catholic University of Eichstätt-Ingolstadt. In national rankings, the business school regularly scores among the top ten. The faculty maintains a large network of partner universities for international educational exchange. The Ingolstadt School of management offers bachelor's and master's degrees in business administration. Among the academic programs offered are also an executive MBA and doctoral degrees.", "The University of Applied Sciences Ingolstadt is a university for technology, computer sciences and business administration. With approximately 6,000 students, it is the biggest educational institution in Ingolstadt. Several scholarship programmes supported by companies such as Siemens and Conti Temic (Continental AG) provide gifted students with financial assistance during their studies. These students deepen their practical experience by working at these organizations. The University of Applied Sciences Ingolstadt offers several undergraduate and graduate programmes. Every programme is listed under the top 10 in Germany.", "The sports life of the city is based on the 83 registered sports clubs. The biggest sports club is the MTV 1881 Ingolstadt, with over 3000 registered members in 16 branches. In total, the sports clubs in Ingolstadt have more than 41,000 members. Ingolstadt is especially known for ice hockey and association football. ERC Ingolstadt, founded in 1964, plays in the German Ice Hockey League since the 2002-03 season. With the exception of its season of debut and 2007–08, the club has reached the national play-offs every year, and has reached the semi-finals three times. They won the German Ice Hockey League Championship in 2014. The football club FC Ingolstadt 04 came into existence in 2004 after the merger of the football branches of MTV Ingolstadt and ESV Ingolstadt. In the 2007-08 season, it was promoted from the third highest division at the time, Regionalliga Süd to 2. Bundesliga. In the 2008-09 season, it was relegated at the penultimate place, but was promoted again in 2010-11 and remained in 2. Bundesliga till 2015. In 2015, Ingolstadt won the 2. Bundesliga and were promoted to the country's highest league, the Bundesliga. During their first season in the Bundesliga, Ingolstadt finished in 11th place. They were relegated to 2. Bundesliga by the end of the 2016-17 season.", "Ingolstadt is one of the many settings in Mary Shelley's novel \"Frankenstein\". Primarily, Victor Frankenstein attends university in Ingolstadt. The musical version of the novel, \"Frankenstein – A New Musical\" has many scenes set in Ingolstadt. Ingolstadt is also a pivotal location in \"The Illuminatus! Trilogy\" by Robert Shea and Robert Anton Wilson. The sixth scene of \"Mother Courage and Her Children\" by \"Bertolt Brecht\" is set in Ingolstadt, when count Tilly died in 1632, during the \"Thirty Years War\" Rainer Werner Fassbinder's 1971 film Pioneers in Ingolstadt is set in the town. \"The X-Files\" episode \"The Post-Modern Prometheus\" makes a reference to the University of Ingolstadt. This was an allusion to \"Frankenstein\", as the episode contained numerous Frankenstein references, and the full title of \"Frankenstein\" is \"\"Frankenstein: or, The Modern Prometheus\"\". In the Terra Ignota series, Ingolstadt is the capital of Gordian, one of the world's seven Hives.", "Ingolstadt is twinned with:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Education.", "Career.", "Copenhagen Consensus.", "\"The Skeptical Environmentalist\".", "Formal accusations of scientific dishonesty.", "Response of the academic community.", "Recognition.", "Continued debate and criticism.", "Personal life.", "Discussions in the media.", "Documentary film." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "3", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Lomborg was an undergraduate at the University of Georgia, earned an M.A. degree in political science at the University of Aarhus in 1991, and a PhD degree in political science at the University of Copenhagen in 1994.", "Lomborg lectured in statistics in the Department of Political Science at the University of Aarhus as an assistant professor (1994–1996) and associate professor (1997–2005). He left the university in February 2005 and in May of that year became an adjunct professor in Policy-making, Scientific Knowledge and the Role of Experts at the Department of Management, Politics and Philosophy, Copenhagen Business School. Early in his career, his professional areas of interest lay in the simulation of strategies in collective action dilemmas, simulation of party behavior in proportional voting systems, and the use of surveys in public administration. In 1996, Lomborg's paper, \"Nucleus and Shield: Evolution of Social Structure in the Iterated Prisoner's Dilemma\", was published in the academic journal, \"American Sociological Review\". Later, Lomborg's interests shifted to the use of statistics in the environmental arena. In 1998, Lomborg published four essays about the state of the environment in the leading Danish newspaper \"Politiken\", which according to him \"resulted in a firestorm debate spanning over 400 articles in major metropolitan newspapers.\" This led to the \"Skeptical Environmentalist\", whose English translation was published as a work in environmental economics by Cambridge University Press in 2001. He later edited \"Global Crises, Global Solutions\", which presented the first conclusions of the Copenhagen Consensus, published in 2004 by the Cambridge University Press. In 2007, he authored a book entitled \".\" In March 2002, the newly elected center-right prime minister, Anders Fogh Rasmussen, appointed Lomborg to run Denmark's new Environmental Assessment Institute (EAI). On 22 June 2004, Lomborg announced his decision to resign from this post to go back to the University of Aarhus, saying his work at the Institute was done and that he could better serve the public debate from the academic sector.", "Lomborg and the Environmental Assessment Institute founded the Copenhagen Consensus in 2002, which seeks to establish priorities for advancing global welfare using methodologies based on the theory of welfare economics. A panel of prominent economists was assembled to evaluate and rank a series of problems every four years. The project was funded largely by the Danish government and was co-sponsored by \"The Economist\". A book summarizing the conclusions of the economists' first assessment, \"Global Crises, Global Solutions\", edited by Lomborg, was published in October 2004 by Cambridge University Press. In 2006, Lomborg became director of the newly established Copenhagen Consensus Center, a Danish government-funded institute intended to build on the mandate of the EAI, and expand on the original Copenhagen Consensus conference. Denmark withdrew its funding in 2012 and the Center faced imminent closure. Lomborg left the country and reconstituted the Center as a non-profit organization in the United States. The Center was based out of a \"Neighborhood Parcel Shipping Center\" in Lowell, Massachusetts, though Lomborg himself was based in Prague in the Czech Republic. In 2015, Lomborg described the Center's funding as \"a little more than $1m a year...from private donations\", of which Lomborg himself was paid $775,000 in 2012. In April 2015, it was announced that an alliance between the Copenhagen Consensus Center and the University of Western Australia would see the establishment of the Australian Consensus Centre, a new policy research center at the UWA Business School. The University described the Center's goals as a \"focus on applying an economic lens to proposals to achieve good for Australia, the region and the world, prioritizing those initiatives which produce the most social value per dollar spent.\". This appointment came under intense scrutiny, particularly when leaked documents revealed that the Australian government had approached UWA and offered to fund the Consensus Centre, information subsequently confirmed by a senior UWA lecturer. Reports indicated that Prime Minister Tony Abbott's office was directly responsible for Lomborg's elevation. $4 million of the total funding for the Center was to be provided by the Australian federal government, with UWA not contributing any funding for the centre. On 8 May 2015, UWA cancelled the contract for hosting the Australian Consensus Centre as \"the proposed centre was untenable and lacked academic support\". The Australian federal education minister, Christopher Pyne, said that he would find another university to host the ACC. In July 2015, Flinders University senior management began quietly canvassing its staff about a plan to host the renamed Lomborg Consensus Centre at the University, likely in the Faculty of Social and Behavioural Sciences. A week later the story was broken on Twitter by the NTEU (National Tertiary Education Union) and Scott Ludlam. The story appeared the next day in \"The Australian\", but described as \"academic conversations\" with no mention of Bjorn Lomborg's involvement and portrayed as a grassroots desire for the Centre by the University. The following week, a story appeared in \"The Guardian\" quoting two Flinders University academics and an internal document demonstrating staff's withering rejection of the idea. Flinders staff and students vowed to fight against the establishment of any Centre or any partnership with Lomborg, citing his lack of scientific credibility, his lack of academic legitimacy and the political nature of the process of establishing the Centre with the Abbott federal government. The Australian Youth Climate Coalition and 350.org launched a national campaign to support staff and students in their rejection of Lomborg. On 21 October 2015, education minister Simon Birmingham told a senate committee the offered funding had been withdrawn. It was subsequently unclear whether the Australian Government would honour its original commitment and transfer the funds directly to the Centre to cover the costs incurred, in particular given Lomborg's unique expertise and contribution. Several of Bjørn Lomborg's articles in newspapers such as The Wall Street Journal and The Telegraph have been checked by Climate Feedback, a worldwide network of scientists who collectively assess the credibility of influential climate change media coverage. The Climate Feedback reviewers assessed that the scientific credibility ranged between \"low\" and \"very low\". The Climate Feedback reviewers come to the conclusion that in one case Lomborg \"practices cherry-picking\", in a second case he \"had reached his conclusions through cherry-picking from a small subset of the evidence, misrepresenting the results of existing studies, and relying on flawed reasoning\", in a third case \"[his] article [is in] blatant disagreement with available scientific evidence, while the author does not offer adequate evidence to support his statements\", and, in a fourth case, \"The author, Bjorn Lomborg, cherry-picks this specific piece of research and uses it in support of a broad argument against the value of climate policy. He also misrepresents the Paris Agreement to downplay its potential to curb future climate change.\"", "In 2001, he attained significant attention by publishing \"The Skeptical Environmentalist\", a controversial book whose main thesis is that many of the most-publicized claims and predictions on environmental issues are wrong. In the chapter on climate change in \"The Skeptical Environmentalist\", he states: \"This chapter accepts the reality of man-made global warming but questions the way in which future scenarios have been arrived at and finds that forecasts of climate change of 6 degrees by the end of the century are not plausible\". Cost–benefit analyses, calculated by the Copenhagen Consensus, ranked climate mitigation initiatives lowest on a list of international development initiatives when first done in 2004. In a 2010 interview with the \"New Statesman\", Lomborg summarized his position on climate change: \"Global warming is real – it is man-made and it is an important problem. But it is not the end of the world.\"", "After the publication of \"The Skeptical Environmentalist\", Lomborg was formally accused of scientific dishonesty by a group of environmental scientists, who brought a total of three complaints against him to the Danish Committees on Scientific Dishonesty (DCSD), a body under Denmark's Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation (MSTI). Lomborg was asked whether he regarded the book as a \"debate\" publication, and thereby not under the purview of the DCSD, or as a scientific work; he chose the latter, clearing the way for the inquiry that followed. The charges claimed that \"The Skeptical Environmentalist\" contained deliberately misleading data and flawed conclusions. Due to the similarity of the complaints, the DCSD decided to proceed on the three cases under one investigation. In January 2003, the DCSD released a ruling that sent a mixed message, finding the book to be scientifically dishonest through misrepresentation of scientific facts, but Lomborg himself not guilty due to his lack of expertise in the fields in question. That February, Lomborg filed a complaint against the decision with the MSTI, which had oversight over the DCSD. In December, 2003, the Ministry annulled the DCSD decision, citing procedural errors, including lack of documentation of errors in the book, and asked the DCSD to re-examine the case. In March 2004, the DCSD formally decided not to act further on the complaints, reasoning that renewed scrutiny would, in all likelihood, result in the same conclusion.", "The original DCSD decision about Lomborg provoked a petition signed by 287 Danish academics, primarily social scientists, who criticised the DCSD for evaluating the book as a work of science, whereas the petitioners considered it clearly an opinion piece by a non-scientist. The Danish Minister of Science, Technology, and Innovation then asked the Danish Research Agency (DRA) to form an independent working group to review DCSD practices. In response to this, another group of Danish scientists collected over 600 signatures, primarily from the medical and natural sciences community, to support the continued existence of the DCSD and presented their petition to the DRA.", "The alumni network of the Cambridge Programme for Sustainability Leadership (CPSL) voted \"The Skeptical Environmentalist\" among its list of the top 50 sustainability books.", "The rulings of the Danish authorities in 2003–2004 left Lomborg's critics frustrated. Lomborg claimed vindication as a result of MSTI's decision to set aside the original finding of DCSD. \"The Lomborg Deception\", a 2010 Yale University Press book by Howard Friel, analyzed the ways in which Lomborg has \"selectively used (and sometimes distorted) the available evidence\", and that the sources Lomborg provides in the footnotes do not support—and in some cases are in direct contradiction to—Lomborg's assertions in the text of the book; Lomborg has denied these claims in a 27-page argument-by-argument response. Friel has written a reply to this response, in which he admits two errors, but otherwise in general rejects Lomborg's arguments. Arthur Rörsch, Thomas Frello, Ray Soper and Adriaan De Lange published an article in 2005 in the \"Journal of Information Ethics\", in which they concluded that most criticism against Lomborg was unjustified, and that the scientific community misused its authority to suppress Lomborg. The claim that the accusations against Lomborg were unjustified was challenged in the next issue of \"Journal of Information Ethics\" by Kåre Fog, one of the original plaintiffs. Fog reasserted his contention that, despite the ministry's decision, most of the accusations against Lomborg were valid. He also rejected what he called \"the Galileo hypothesis\", which he describes as the conception that Lomborg is just a brave young man confronting old-fashioned opposition. Fog and other scientists have continued to criticize Lomborg for what one called \"a history of misrepresenting\" climate science. In 2014, the government of Australia offered the University of Western Australia $4 million to establish a \"consensus centre\" with Lomborg as director. The university accepted the offer, setting off a firestorm of opposition from its faculty and students and from climate scientists around the world. In April 2015 the university reversed the decision and rejected the offer. The government continued to seek a sponsor for the proposed institution. On 21 October 2015 the offered funding was withdrawn. (For further details see the \"Copenhagen Consensus\" sub-section of the \"Career\" section, above.) Lomborg's approach evolved in directions more compatible with action to restrain climate change. In April 2015 he gained further attention when he issued a call for all subsidies to be removed from fossil fuels on the basis that \"a disproportionate share of the subsidies goes to the middle class and the rich\"...making fossil fuel so \"inexpensive that consumption increases, thus exacerbating global warming\". In publications such as the \"Wall Street Journal\" he argued that the most productive use of resources would be a massive increase in funding for research to make renewable energy economically competitive with fossil fuels.", "Lomborg is gay and a vegetarian. As a public figure he has been a participant in information campaigns in Denmark about homosexuality, and states that \"Being a public gay is to my view a civic responsibility. It's important to show that the width of the gay world cannot be described by a tired stereotype, but goes from leather gays on parade-wagons to suit-and-tie yuppies on the direction floor, as well as everything in between\".", "After the release of \"The Skeptical Environmentalist\" in 2001, Lomborg was subjected to intense scrutiny and criticism in the media, where his scientific qualifications and integrity were both attacked and defended. The verdict of the Danish Committees for Scientific Dishonesty fueled this debate and brought it into the spotlight of international mass media. By the end of 2003 Lomborg had become an international celebrity, with frequent appearances on radio, television and print media around the world. He is also a regular contributor to Project Syndicate since 2005.", "Bjørn Lomborg released a documentary feature film, \"Cool It\", on 12 November 2010 in the US. The film in part explicitly challenged Al Gore's 2006 Oscar-winning environmental awareness documentary, \"An Inconvenient Truth\", and was frequently presented by the media in that light, as in the \"Wall Street Journal\" headline, \"Controversial 'Cool It' Documentary Takes on 'An Inconvenient Truth'.\" The film received a media critic collective rating of 51% from Rotten Tomatoes and 61% from Metacritic. \"The Atlantic\" review by Clive Crook, who describes himself in the article as a \"friend\" of Lomborg's and having taken \"his side in the controversy that followed the publication of the \"Skeptical Environmentalist\"--a terrific book,\" called it \"An urgent, intelligent, and entertaining account of the climate policy debate, with a strong focus on cost-effective solutions.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Club career.", "West Ham United.", "Chelsea.", "2003–04 season.", "2004–05 season.", "2005–06 season.", "2006–07 season.", "2007–08 season.", "2008–09 season.", "2009–10 season.", "Liverpool.", "2010–11 season.", "Loan at Lille.", "Return to Liverpool.", "Return to West Ham.", "Aston Villa.", "Coventry City.", "Tampa Bay Rowdies and retirement.", "International career.", "International goals.", "Style of play.", "Personal life.", "Honours." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Cole was born in Paddington, London, and lived there until he moved to Somers Town at the age of six. He was adopted by George and Susan Cole, and grew up with brother Nicky and sister Charly.", "", "Cole is a product of the West Ham United youth system. He was long touted as the hottest prospect in English football, with Manchester United reportedly offering to pay £10 million for his services as a 16-year-old. Playing in a mould similar to former England favourite Paul Gascoigne, he progressed through the West Ham ranks before making his first-team debut aged 17 on 2 January 1999 in an FA Cup third round tie against Swansea City, and eight days later made his Premier League debut, away to Manchester United. In 1999, Cole was part of West Ham's victorious FA Youth Cup-winning squad (alongside Michael Carrick), defeating Coventry City 9–0 on aggregate in the final. Cole played only eight Premier League games in his first season but in the following season, he made 22 Premier League appearances, was a member of the West Ham team which won the 1999 UEFA Intertoto Cup, scored his first goal for West Ham, in a 3–2 League Cup win at Birmingham City on 30 November 1999 and scored his first Premier League goal, in a 5–4 home win against Bradford City, on 12 February 2000. In January 2003, then West Ham manager Glenn Roeder gave Cole the club captain's armband at the age of 21. Cole's last game for West Ham came on 11 May 2003 in a 2–2 draw with Birmingham City, a game which saw West Ham relegated from the Premier League. Cole won the \"Hammer of the Year award\" for 2003.", "On 6 August 2003, Cole signed for Chelsea for a fee of £6.6 million after he had rejected a new contract with West Ham. He was the sixth player signed after the club's takeover by billionaire Roman Abramovich, among those were his former West Ham teammate Glen Johnson. Manager Claudio Ranieri saw Cole as the perfect replacement for Gianfranco Zola, whom the club had released earlier that year, and West Ham declared that the transfer was enough for them not to sell any more players that summer.", "A week after signing for the club, Cole made his debut in a UEFA Champions League qualifier away to MŠK Žilina. He came on as a substitute for fellow new signing Damien Duff with 21 minutes remaining and caused Michal Drahno to score an own goal to conclude a 2–0 victory. On 17 August, he played his first Premier League game for the club, again replacing Duff for the last 15 minutes in a 2–1 victory over Liverpool at Anfield. He scored his first goal on 29 October in the League Cup against Notts County, replacing Jesper Grønkjær in the 70th minute and netting the last goal in a 4–2 victory which put Chelsea into the last 16. On 17 December, in the next round, he started away to Aston Villa, finishing Hernán Crespo's cross to equalise in an eventual 1–2 defeat. Cole's only other goal of the season was his only one in the league campaign, ending a one-two with Frank Lampard to open the scoring after five minutes away to Newcastle United, albeit in a 1–2 defeat.", "Cole took advantage of injuries to wingers Duff and Arjen Robben to become a regular member of Chelsea's Premier League title winning team in 2004–05. He started in the League Cup Final at the Millennium Stadium on 27 February, making way for Johnson after 81 minutes of an eventual 3–2 win after extra time against Liverpool. His form saw him hit a run of goals towards the end of the season, and he scored a goal on 9 March against Norwich City blasted in from 20 yards off his weaker left foot Cole scored ten goals for Chelsea in 2004–05 and ended the season with a Premier League champions' medal.", "In the first half of the 2005–06 season, Cole secured himself in the Chelsea first-team lineup, ahead of Shaun Wright-Phillips and Damien Duff. Cole also extended his contract with Chelsea for another four seasons. He ended his season by scoring one of the goals in Chelsea's 3–0 win over Manchester United, which earned the Premier League title for the team. He was subsequently named in the PFA Team of the Year.", "In January 2007, Cole underwent surgery for a stress fracture on his foot he suffered in late 2006. He made his return for Chelsea in the first leg of Chelsea's 1–1 draw in the Champions League quarter-final tie against Valencia. He started for Chelsea in their victory over Manchester United in the 2007 FA Cup Final, and went on to be substituted at half-time.", "In 2007–08, Cole scored a low driven shot that tucked into the corner against West Ham, opting not celebrate against his former club. He scored another goal in the League Cup semi-finals against Everton which sent Chelsea to another final. Cole played in the 2008 UEFA Champions League Final, which Chelsea lost on penalties to Manchester United; he was substituted in extra time for Nicolas Anelka, who missed Chelsea's crucial penalty.", "On 17 August 2008, Cole scored the first Premier League goal of the management of Luiz Felipe Scolari in a 4–0 win against Portsmouth. After surgery on his knee to repair an injury he picked up in the FA Cup clash with Southend United, Cole missed the rest of the season.", "Cole did not play for Chelsea in the 2009–10 pre-season due to cruciate ligament damage in his knee, suffered in January 2009. He made a return to the starting line-up in Chelsea's League Cup match against Queens Park Rangers on 23 September 2009 in which he was also handed the captain's armband. Cole made his first 2009–10 Premier League appearance for Chelsea against Blackburn Rovers, playing in attacking midfield in a 5–0 win. On 8 November 2009, he played his 250th game for Chelsea, coming on as a substitute against Manchester United in the 62nd minute for Deco, on his 28th birthday. On 3 April 2010, Cole scored the first goal in a 2–1 win at Old Trafford against Manchester United in a potential title deciding game. Described as a \"clever flick\", his goal helped Chelsea win and overtake Manchester United at the top of the league as they were at the end of the season. He came on as a substitute as Chelsea won the 2010 FA Cup Final, his second appearance in an FA Cup Final for Chelsea. His contract with Chelsea expired on 30 June 2010, making him a free agent. Cole ended his career at Chelsea having won three Premier League titles, two FA Cups and a League Cup.", "", "Cole joined Liverpool on a free transfer after signing a four-year deal in July 2010. He was manager Roy Hodgson's first signing at the club and was given the number 10 shirt. Cole was to receive £90,000-a-week wages and was advertised as a major coup by the club. Club captain Steven Gerrard even claimed Cole was as technically good as Lionel Messi. After leaving the club in 2013, Cole said that joining Liverpool was a mistake due to not feeling a connection with the club or fans. Cole made his Liverpool debut on 5 August 2010 against Rabotnički in the UEFA Europa League assisting the opening goal for David N'Gog in a 2–0 win. His league debut, against Arsenal at Anfield on 15 August 2010, lasted just 45 minutes as he was sent off for a challenge on Laurent Koscielny. In his next match, on 19 August 2010, Cole missed a penalty against Trabzonspor in the UEFA Europa League third qualifying round first leg, though Liverpool still won 1–0. Cole played in Jamie Carragher's testimonial match, where he scored his first goal for the club. He then scored his first competitive goal for the club against Steaua București in a Europa League group stage match at Anfield on 16 September 2010, converting just 27 seconds into the game. Liverpool ended up winning 4–1. He scored his first Premier League goal for Liverpool in a 2–1 win against Bolton Wanderers on 3 January 2011. On 17 February, Cole played his first match under new manager Kenny Dalglish in a 0–0 draw against Sparta Prague in the Europa League, in which he came on as a first-half substitute for the injured Fábio Aurélio. Cole scored his first and only goal under Kenny Dalglish's tenure in a 5–0 win against Birmingham City at Anfield in April.", "On 31 August 2011, Cole signed for French champions Lille on a season-long loan. On his debut against Saint-Étienne, he gained his first assist after a solo run where he took on and beat four players to set up the third goal in Lille's 3–1 victory. Cole got another assist in his second Lille appearance against Bordeaux, assisting an Eden Hazard goal in a 1–1 draw. On 24 September, he scored his first goal for Lille, against Lorient, in a 1–1 draw. On 23 October, Cole came on as a 60th-minute substitute for Idrissa Gueye and scored his second goal for Lille in the 3–1 win over Lyon. Following his successful substitute appearance, he was included in the starting line-up for Lille's Round of 16 Coupe de la Ligue match against Ligue 2 club Sedan on 26 October. In the match, Cole scored the team's second goal in the 40th minute, which turned out to be decisive in a 3–1 win. Cole closed out the first half of the Ligue 1 season by scoring a goal in Lille's 4–4 draw with Nice on 21 December. Cole netted his first hat-trick for Lille in a 6–0 victory over amateur club Chantilly in the Coupe de France Round of 64 on 7 January 2012. Cole scored his fourth league goal of the season in a 4–1 triumph over Ajaccio on 15 April, firing the ball just inside the post following a cross from Nolan Roux. The final appearance in his loan with Lille came in their 4–1 final day victory over Nancy, he provided an assist for one of Eden Hazard's three goals and was later substituted off in the 64th minute by Nolan Roux. The playmaker underwent a career renaissance during his loan spell with Lille, scoring on four occasions in 27 league appearances and providing three assists. Following the season, Lille manager Rudi Garcia declared his desire to keep Cole at the club. On 5 June 2012, however, he confirmed that Cole would not remain at Lille after stating that new Liverpool manager Brendan Rodgers wanted the player to rejoin the Liverpool squad.", "After a one-year loan to Lille, Cole returned to Liverpool with new manager Brendan Rodgers saying he wanted to have him in the squad for the upcoming season. He played three pre-season matches, against Toronto FC, Roma, and Tottenham Hotspur. On 2 August 2012, Cole started his first Liverpool game for over a year, playing in the Europa League first leg qualifier victory over FC Gomel. He was substituted after just 23 minutes being replaced by Raheem Sterling after tweaking his hamstrings. On 18 August 2012, he was able to return as a substitute in Liverpool's 3–0 defeat to West Bromwich Albion. On 22 November 2012, Cole was given a start against BSC Young Boys in the Europa League, providing a cross to Jonjo Shelvey to score the opener and then scoring Liverpool's second, in the 2–2 draw. On 9 December 2012, he scored the equaliser as Liverpool beat his former club West Ham 3–2.", "In January 2013, West Ham signed Cole on a free transfer from Liverpool, with Cole returning to his first professional club on an 18-month deal. He made his second \"debut\" on 5 January in an FA Cup third round tie against Manchester United. The game finished 2–2 with Cole providing the assists for both of West Ham's goals which were scored by James Collins. Cole scored his first league goal on his return to West Ham in a 1–1 home draw with Queens Park Rangers on 19 January 2013, scoring from close range after Carlton Cole's shot had been saved by QPR goalkeeper Júlio César. Cole scored his second West Ham goal since his return on 25 February 2013 in a 2–3 defeat to Tottenham, putting the Hammers 2–1 up by turning with the ball to score. On 17 August 2013, Cole scored West Ham's first Premier League goal of the 2013–14 campaign, netting the first in a 2–0 home victory over newly promoted Cardiff City. Cole was ruled out of action for six weeks with a hamstring tear in September 2013. On 30 November 2013, he scored his second goal of the season in a home victory over Fulham, coming off the bench to complete the 3–0 victory. At the end of the 2013–14 season, and the end of Cole's 18-month contract, his departure from West Ham was confirmed. In his second spell, he had played in 37 games in all competitions, scoring five goals.", "In June 2014, Cole signed a two-year contract with Aston Villa on a free transfer after he was released by West Ham. His debut for the club came on 27 August, starting and being replaced by Andreas Weimann in the 62nd minute as they lost 0–1 to League One club Leyton Orient in the second round of the League Cup. Cole's first Premier League game was on 18 October, coming on for the final nine minutes in place of Christian Benteke in a 0–3 defeat away to Everton. On 29 November, Cole made his first start for Villa away to Burnley, opening the scoring in a 1–1 draw. He was an unused substitute on 30 May 2015 in the FA Cup Final, which Villa lost 0–4 to Arsenal.", "On 16 October 2015, Cole signed for Coventry City on a 35-day, emergency loan deal, and made his debut four days later, playing for just under an hour in an away 0–0 draw against Rochdale. His debut goal came on 3 November in a 4–3 home win against Barnsley, a free-kick which put Coventry 4-2 up. In November, his loan with Coventry was extended until 3 January 2016. On 7 January 2016, Cole signed on a free transfer on a deal lasting until the end of the season.", "On 4 May 2016, Cole signed with the Tampa Bay Rowdies in the North American Soccer League (NASL), signing a contract through the end of the 2017 NASL season, with a club option for 2018. He made his debut ten days later, playing the full 90 minutes of a 1–1 home draw against Rayo OKC. Two weeks later, away to Minnesota United, he scored his first goal to open a 2–0 win, assisting Eric Avila for the other; he was voted the league's Player of the Week. On 19 October, Cole was one of ten players nominated for the NASL Golden Ball award. In June 2018, Cole was promoted to assistant coach with the Rowdies, while still acting as a player as well. Cole retired from professional football on 13 November 2018. He has since taken up a coaching role at Chelsea.", "As an England schoolboy international, Cole scored seven goals in an 8–1 victory against Spain in an England Schoolboys game, as well as playing for England's under-17 team, where he scored the winning goal against Norway in a final of the Nordic Tournament. Cole made his senior international debut against Mexico in May 2001. He was a member of England's 2002 World Cup squad, making one substitute appearance in the tournament. Cole was also a squad member at UEFA Euro 2004, but did not play. Cole's displays in England's friendlies leading up to the 2006 World Cup enhanced his reputation ahead of the summer's finals in Germany. In May 2006, he was confirmed in the England squad for the World Cup, ahead of Chelsea teammate Shaun Wright-Phillips. He played on the left side of midfield in England's opening game against Paraguay on 10 June 2006. On 20 June 2006, England drew with Sweden in Group B play, with a final score of 2–2. Cole scored a volley in the 34th minute of the match and got an assist in the 85th when he sent in a ball to Steven Gerrard, with this contribution earning him the Man of the match award. Cole lined up for the England squad for the first time since the 2006 World Cup in the 1–1 friendly draw against the Netherlands, on 15 November 2006 providing an assist for Wayne Rooney from a cross. After another injury, he returned to start the friendly against Brazil at Wembley Stadium on 1 June 2007. Cole scored his seventh goal for England in June 2007, in Euro 2008 qualifying, away to Estonia. On 7 February 2008, Cole was one of the 23-man squad selected for the friendly against Switzerland which they won 2–1, courtesy of Jermaine Jenas and Shaun Wright-Phillips goals. For Jenas' goal, Cole skipped down the left and crossed to Jenas. Cole was named Man of the match for his performance. In August 2008, Cole scored a late equalising goal in a 2–2 draw at Wembley against the Czech Republic after coming on as a substitute. He then scored England's two goals in the next fixture after coming on as a second-half substitute in the 2–0 defeat of Andorra in the opening match for 2010 World Cup qualifying. In England's next World Cup qualifier, against Croatia, he suffered a head injury in a clash with Croatian defender Robert Kovač which resulted in the Croat's sending off. Cole was named in the final 23-man selection for England's 2010 World Cup squad. He played, and scored, in a 3–0 victory against Platinum Stars, of South Africa's Premier Soccer League, in an unofficial warm-up game. However, he was limited to only two substitute appearances in the tournament itself, as England lost to Germany in the second round in what was to be his final international appearance.", "\"Scores and results list England's goal tally first\"", "A clever, versatile, and technically gifted midfielder, Cole is capable of playing in several offensive midfield positions, as an attacking midfielder, winger or supporting striker. A quick, strong and creative player, Cole is known in particular for his dribbling skills, and is capable of both scoring and creating goals due to his vision, passing and striking ability. His dribbling and overall flair was praised by Pelé, who stated that, \"He has the skills of a Brazilian,\" during Cole's spell at Chelsea. Despite his talent, some pundits have argued that he has failed to live up to the potential he demonstrated in his youth, partially due to the recurring injuries he sustained throughout his career.", "Cole married fitness instructor Carly Zucker in June 2009. Joe had been dating Carly since 2002 and proposed to her in 2007. The couple have a daughter, Ruby Tatiana Cole, born in March 2010, and a son, Harrison \"Harry\" Cole, born in October 2012. In November 2009, Cole was caught driving his Audi A4 at 105 mph on a 70 mph section of dual carriageway in Claygate, Surrey. At the subsequent court case, Cole was warned he could lose his driving licence and was ordered to pay £600 costs. He has launched an appeal concerning his driving ban. Cole is a wearer of contact lenses. He has worn them since his early days at Chelsea.", "West Ham United Chelsea Individual" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Definitions." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "The term \"CEE\" includes the Eastern Bloc (Warsaw Pact) countries west of the post-World War II border with the former Soviet Union; the independent states in former Yugoslavia (which were not considered part of the Eastern bloc); and the three Baltic states – Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania (which chose not to join the CIS with the other 12 former republics of the USSR). The CEE countries are further subdivided by their accession status to the European Union (EU): the eight first-wave accession countries that joined the EU on 1 May 2004 (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Poland, Hungary, and Slovenia), the two second-wave accession countries that joined on 1 January 2007 (Romania and Bulgaria) and the third-wave accession country that joined on 1 July 2013 (Croatia). According to the World Bank 2008 analysis, the transition to advanced market economies is over for all 10 countries that joined the EU in 2004 and 2007. The CEE countries include the former socialist states, which extend west of Russia, Belarus, Ukraine, Moldova; south of Finland and the Baltic Sea; north of Greece; and east of Austria, Italy, and Germany: According to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, \"Central and Eastern European Countries (CEECs) is an OECD term for the group of countries comprising Albania, Bulgaria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Romania, the Slovak Republic, Slovenia, and the three Baltic States: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania.\" The term \"Central and Eastern Europe\" (abbreviated \"CEE\") has displaced the alternative term \"East-Central Europe\" in the context of transition countries, mainly because the abbreviation \"ECE\" is ambiguous: it commonly stands for \"Economic Commission for Europe\", rather than \"East-Central Europe\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Production.", "History.", "Chemical composition.", "Comparison to brie.", "Packaging.", "Camembert from other countries." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The first camembert was made from unpasteurized milk, and the AOC variety \"Camembert de Normandie\" (approximately 10% of the production) is required by law to be made only with unpasteurized milk. Many modern cheesemakers, however, use pasteurized milk for reasons of safety, compliance with regulations, or convenience. The cheese is made by inoculating warmed cow milk with mesophilic bacteria, then adding rennet and allowing the mixture to coagulate. The curd is then cut into roughly 1 cm (1/2 inch) cubes, salted, and transferred to low cylindrical camembert molds. The molds are turned every six to twelve hours to allow the whey to drain evenly from the cut curds; after 48 hours, each mold contains a flat, cylindrical, solid cheese mass weighing generally 250 grams (about 9 oz). At this point the fresh cheese is hard, crumbly, and bland. The surface of each cheese is then sprayed with an aqueous suspension of the mold \"Penicillium camemberti\", and the cheeses are left to ripen for a legally required minimum of three weeks. This affinage produces the distinctive bloomy, edible rind and creamy interior texture characteristic of the cheese. Once the cheeses are sufficiently ripe, they are wrapped in paper and may be placed in wooden boxes for transport.", "Camembert was reputedly first made in 1791 by Marie Harel, a farmer from Normandy, following advice from a priest who came from Brie. However, the origin of the cheese known today as Camembert is more likely to rest with the beginnings of the industrialization of the cheesemaking process at the end of the 19th century. In 1890, an engineer, M. Ridel, devised the wooden box that was used to carry the cheese and helped to send it for longer distances, in particular to America, where it became very popular. These boxes are still used today. Before fungi were understood, the color of Camembert rind was a matter of chance, most commonly blue-grey, with brown spots. From the early 20th century onwards, the rind has been more commonly pure white, but it was not until the mid-1970s that pure white became standard. The cheese was famously issued to French troops during World War I, becoming firmly fixed in French popular culture as a result. It has many other roles in French culture, literature, and history. It is now internationally known, and many local varieties are made around the world. The variety named \" was granted a protected designation of origin in 1992 after the original AOC in 1983. The AOC Camembert can only be made from raw, unpasteurized milk from Normandes cows. Problems with hygiene regulations have caused restrictions on importation and sale in some countries, notably the US.", "Camembert cheese gets its characteristic odor from many compounds. These include diacetyl (buttery flavoring for popcorn), 3-methylbutanal, methional (degradation product of methionine), 1-octen-3-ol and 1-octen-3-one (degradation products of fats), phenethyl acetate, 2-undecanone, δ-decalactone, butyric acid, and isovaleric acid (odor of gym socks). Overripe camembert contains an unpleasant, excessive amount of ammonia, which is produced by the same microorganisms required for ripening.", "Brie cheese is a similar soft cheese, also made from cow's milk. However, there are differences such as its origin, typical market shape, size, and flavor. Brie originates from the Île de France while camembert comes from Normandy. Traditionally, brie was produced in large wheels, either or in diameter, and thus ripened more slowly than the smaller camembert cheeses. When sold, brie segments typically have been cut from the larger wheels (although some brie is sold as small, flat cylinders), and therefore its sides are not covered by the rind. By contrast, camembert is ripened as a small round cheese in diameter by thick and fully covered by rind. This ratio change between rind and paste makes camembert slightly stronger when compared to a brie ripened for the same amount of time. Once the rind is cut on camembert it typically has a more pungent aroma than brie. In terms of taste, camembert has a stronger, slightly sour, and sometimes chalky taste. The texture of camembert is softer than brie, and if warmed camembert will become creamier, whereas brie warms without losing as much structure.", "Typically camembert tends to be sold whole in thin, round, wooden containers made from poplar. Modern variations in packaging include cartons and tin cans, with a ring-pull tab for opening (Camembert in metallic boxes does not exist on the French market). The cardboard boxes are reserved for the low-cost camemberts. The product is the same as in the wooden container, wrapped dry in a paper/foil wrapper, and not immersed in brine or oil.", "A similar cheese is produced in Hungary under the same name, the Czech Republic under the name'and in Slovakia as'or \". A Camembert-type cheese is also manufactured in Cornwall, UK, and marketed as \"Cornish Camembert\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Design and development.", "Description.", "Operational history.", "Operators." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The C.IV had a single-bay wing cellule and was powered by a Benz Bz.III. It was soon replaced in production by the definitive C.V with a two-bay wing cellule and either a C.III N.A.G. or Benz Bz.IV. Predictably, the more powerful Benz engine gave significantly better performance. The C.V's main designer was Heinrich Oelerich, and it was produced in larger numbers than any other German aircraft during World War I. About 2000 were manufactured by DFW and about 1,250 licence manufactured by Aviatik (as the DFW C.V(Av) or Aviatik C.VI), Halberstadt, LVG, and Schütte-Lanz. A further development was the C.VI, a sturdier aircraft with balances added to the ailerons. Only a single example of this was built, but it was followed by three aircraft designated F37 in the closing stages of the war, which may have received the Idflieg designation DFW C.VII, though this is not certain. Following the war, the DFW F37 was fitted with the BMW IV engine, and in this configuration broke the world altitude record in 1919, reaching a height of. However, since this flight was in breach of the Armistice, it was not recognised by the FAI. After this exploit, this F37 had its original Benz engine restored, and was converted into a passenger \"limousine\" by the addition of a richly upholstered interior and a canopy to enclose it. Now designated the DFW P1 Limousine, it could carry three passengers and was demonstrated by DFW at the ELTA exhibition in Amsterdam in 1919, flying passengers.", "The C.V was a biplane of mixed, mostly wooden construction. The fuselage was a wooden frame, covered with plywood, with a tail consisting of a metal frame, covered with canvas. The wings were of two-spar wooden construction, rectangular in shape and covered in canvas. The opper wing had a slighter greater span and was fitted with ailerons. The conventional landing gear was fixed, with a straight common axle and a rear skid. The straight-six engine was fitted with a long, vertical, chimney-like exhaust pipe (LVG-produced planes had horizontal exhaust pipe) and was covered with an aerodynamic cover, but these were often left off. The engine drove a two-blade wooden propeller in diameter. Engine cooling was inimically provided by radiators on each side of the fuselage, later aircraft used a radiator at the front of the upper wing.", "The C.V and its related designs were used as a multi role combat aircraft, for reconnaissance, observation, and bombing by Germany and Bulgaria during World War I. Six aircraft were delivered to Bulgaria in 1917. In the hands of a skilled pilot it could outmaneuver most allied fighters of the period. It remained in service until early 1918 though 600 were still in use by the Armistice of 11 November 1918. Most were thereafter scrapped according to the Treaty of Versailles in 1919. Poland seized 11 aircraft in 1919 and manufactured further 13 in 1920 from seized parts. Several other C.Vs were bought in 1920. They were used by the Polish Air Force in Polish-Soviet war. Two were used post-war in Finland, four in the Netherlands, two in Switzerland and a number in Estonia. Eight aircraft were converted to civilian ones and used by \"Deutsche Luft Rederei\". Seven copies were built by the \"Darzhavna Aeroplanna Rabotilnitsa\" (Bulgarian state aircraft workshops) in 1925 as the DAR Uzunov-1 (DAR U-1) and used as a trainer for Bulgaria's secret air force. Only one fuselage of a C.V(Av) survives in the Polish Aviation Museum in Kraków. <br>", "\"Post-War Operators:\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Performance history.", "Opéra-Comique premiere.", "Outside France.", "20th century and beyond.", "Films.", "Synopsis.", "Act 1.", "Act 2." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The opening night was \"a barely averted disaster.\" Apparently the lead tenor was frequently off pitch. The noted French tenor Gilbert Duprez, who was present, later observed in his \"Souvenirs d'un chanteur\": \"Donizetti often swore to me how his self-esteem as a composer had suffered in Paris. He was never treated there according to his merits. I myself saw the unsuccess, almost the collapse, of \"La fille du régiment\".\" It received a highly negative review from the French critic and composer Hector Berlioz (\"Journal des débats\", 16 February 1840), who claimed it could not be taken seriously by either the public or its composer, although Berlioz did concede that some of the music, \"the little waltz that serves as the entr'acte and the trio \"dialogué\"... lack neither vivacity nor freshness.\" The source of Berlioz's hostility is revealed later in his review: What, two major scores for the Opéra, \"Les martyrs\" and \"Le duc d'Albe\", two others at the Théâtre de la Renaissance, \"Lucie de Lammermoor\" and \"L'ange de Nisida\", two at the Opéra-Comique, \"La fille du régiment\" and another whose title is still unknown, and yet another for the Théâtre-Italien, will have been written or transcribed in one year by the same composer! M[onsieur] Donizetti seems to treat us like a conquered country; it is a veritable invasion. One can no longer speak of the opera houses of Paris, but only of the opera houses of M[onsieur] Donizetti. The critic and poet Théophile Gautier, who was not a rival composer, had a somewhat different point of view: \"M[onsieur] Donizetti is capable of paying with music that is beautiful and worthy for the cordial hospitality which France offers him in all her theatres, subsidized or not.\" Despite its bumpy start, the opera soon became hugely popular at the Opéra-Comique. During its first 80 years, it reached its 500th performance at the theatre in 1871 and its 1,000th in 1908.", "The opera was first performed in Italy at La Scala, Milan, on 3 October 1840, in Italian with recitatives by Donizetti replacing the spoken dialogue. It was thought \"worthless\" and received only six performances. It was not until 1928 when Toti Dal Monte sang Marie that the opera began to be appreciated in Italy. \"La fille du régiment\" received its first performance in America on 7 March 1843 at the Théâtre d'Orléans in New Orleans. The New Orleans company premiered the work in New York City on 19 July 1843 with Julie Calvé as Marie. The \"Spirit of the Times\" (22 July) counted it a great success, and, although the score was \"thin\" and not up to the level of \"Anna Bolena\" or \"L'elisir d'amore\", some of Donizetti's \"gems\" were to be found in it. The \"Herald\" (21 July) was highly enthusiastic, especially in its praise of Calvé: \"Applause is an inadequate term,... vehement cheering rewarded this talented prima donna.\" Subsequently the opera was performed frequently in New York, the role of Marie being a favorite with Jenny Lind, Henriette Sontag, Pauline Lucca, Anna Thillon and Adelina Patti. First given in England in Italian, it appeared on 27 May 1847 at Her Majesty's Theatre in London (with Jenny Lind and Luigi Lablache). Later—on 21 December 1847 in English—it was presented at the Surrey Theatre in London. W. S. Gilbert wrote a burlesque adaptation of the opera, \"La Vivandière\", in 1867.", "The Metropolitan Opera gave the first performances with Marcella Sembrich, and Charles Gilibert (Sulpice) during the 1902/03 season. It was then followed by performances at the Manhattan Opera House in 1909 with Luisa Tetrazzini, John McCormack, and Charles Gilibert, and again with Frieda Hempel and Antonio Scotti in the same roles at the Met on 17 December 1917. It was revived at the Royal Opera, London, in 1966 for Joan Sutherland. On 13 February 1970, in concert at Carnegie Hall, Beverly Sills sang the first performance in New York since Lily Pons performed it at the Metropolitan Opera House in 1943. This opera is famous for the aria \"\" (sometimes referred to as \"\"), which has been called the \"Mount Everest\" for tenors. It features eight high Cs (a ninth, frequently inserted, is not written). Luciano Pavarotti broke through to stardom via his 1972 performance alongside Joan Sutherland at the Met, when he \"leapt over the 'Becher's Brook' of the string of high Cs with an aplomb that left everyone gasping.\" More recently, in a 20 February 2007 performance of the opera at La Scala, Juan Diego Flórez sang \"\", and then, on popular demand, repeated it, breaking a tradition against encores at La Scala that had lasted nearly three-quarters of a century. Flórez repeated this feat on 21 April 2008, the opening night of Laurent Pelly's production (which had been originally staged in 2007 at Covent Garden in London) at the Metropolitan Opera in New York, with Natalie Dessay as Marie. A live performance of this Met production, without an encore of \"\"Ah! mes amis\"\", was cinecast via Metropolitan Opera Live in HD to movie theaters worldwide on 26 April 2008. On 3 March 2019, Mexican tenor Javier Camarena also sang an encore of the aria at the Met, singing 18 high Cs in a performance which was broadcast live worldwide via Metropolitan Opera radio and cinecast worldwide via Metropolitan Opera Live in HD. As a non-singing role, the Duchess of Crakenthorp is often played by non-operatic celebrities, including actresses such as Dawn French, Bea Arthur, Hermione Gingold, and Kathleen Turner, or by retired opera greats such as Kiri Te Kanawa and Montserrat Caballé. In 2016, US Supreme Court Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg, a lifelong opera fan, played the Duchess on opening night of the Washington National Opera's production. Today, the opera is frequently performed to the point that it has become part of the standard repertoire.", "The opera was filmed in a silent film in 1929; a sound film with Anny Ondra in 1933 in German and separately in French; in 1953; and in 1962 with John van Kesteren as Tonio.", "", "War is raging in the Tyrols and the Marquise of Berkenfield, who is traveling in the area, is alarmed to the point of needing smelling salts to be administered by her faithful steward, Hortensius. While a chorus of villagers express their fear, the Marquise does the same: \"Pour une femme de mon nom\" / \"For a lady of my family, what a time, alas, is war-time\". As the French can be seen to be moving away, all express their relief. Suddenly, and provoking the fear of the remaining women who scatter, Sergeant Sulpice of the Twenty-First Regiment of the French army [in the Italian version it is the Eleventh] arrives and assures everyone that the regiment will restore order. Marie, the vivandière (canteen girl) of the Regiment, enters, and Sulpice is happy to see her: (duet: Sulpice and Marie: \"Mais, qui vient? Tiens, Marie, notre fille\" / \"But who is this? Well, well, if it isn't our daughter Marie\"). Then, as he questions her about a young man she has been seen with, she identifies him as Tonio, a Tyrolean [in the Italian version: Swiss]. At that moment, Tonio is brought in as a prisoner, because he has been seen prowling around the camp. Marie saves him from the soldiers, who demand that he must die, by explaining that he had saved her life when she nearly fell while mountain-climbing. All toast Tonio, who pledges allegiance to France, and Marie is encouraged to sing the regimental song: (aria: \"Chacun le sait, chacun le dit\" / \"Everyone knows it, everyone says it\"). Sulpice leads the soldiers off, taking Tonio with them, but he runs back to join her. She quickly tells him that he must gain the approval of her \"fathers\": the soldiers of the Regiment, who found her on the battlefield as an abandoned baby, and adopted her. He proclaims his love for her (aria, then love duet with Marie: \"Depuis l'instant où, dans mes bras\" / \"Ever since that moment when you fell and / I caught you, all trembling in my arms...\"), and then the couple express their love for each other. At that point, Sulpice returns, surprising the young couple, who leave. The Marquise arrives with Hortensius, initially afraid of the soldier, but is calmed by him. The Marquise explains that they are trying to return to her castle and asks for an escort. When hearing the name Berkenfield, Sulpice immediately recognizes it from a letter found with Marie as an infant. It is discovered that Marie is actually the Marquise's long-lost niece. Marie returns and is surprised to be introduced to her aunt. The Marquise commands that Marie accompany her and that she will be taught to be a proper lady. Marie bids farewell to her beloved regiment just as Tonio enters announcing that he has enlisted in their ranks: (aria: \"Ah! mes amis, quel jour de fête\" / \"Ah, my friends, what an exciting day\"). When he proclaims his love for Marie, the soldiers are horrified, but agree to his pleading for her hand. However, they tell him that she is about to leave with her aunt: (Marie, aria: \"Il faut partir\" / \"I must leave you!\"). In a choral finale in which all join, she leaves with the Marquise and Tonio is enraged.", "Marie has been living in the Marquise's castle for several months. In a conversation with Sulpice, the Marquise describes how she has sought to modify most of Marie's military manners and make her into a lady of fashion, suitable to be married to her nephew, the Duke of Crakenthorp. Although reluctant, Marie has agreed and Sulpice is asked to encourage her. Marie enters and is asked to play the piano, but appears to prefer more martial music when encouraged by Sulpice and sings the regimental song. The Marquise sits down at the piano and attempts to work through the piece with Marie who becomes more and more distracted and, along with Sulpice, takes up the regimental song. Marie is left alone: (aria: \"Par le rang et par l'opulence\" / \"They have tried in vain to dazzle me\"). As she is almost reconciled to her fate, she hears martial music and is joyously happy (cabaletta: \"Oh! transport! oh! douce ivresse\" / \"Oh bliss! oh ectasy!\"), and the Regiment arrives. With it is Tonio, now an officer. The soldiers express their joy at seeing Marie, and Marie, Tonio and Sulpice are joyfully reunited (trio, Marie, Sulpice, Tonio: \"Tous les trois réunis\" / \"We three are reunited\"). Tonio mentions he has just learned a secret, via his uncle the burgermeister, that he cannot reveal. The Marquise enters, horrified to see soldiers. Tonio asks for Marie's hand, explaining that he risked his life for her (aria, Tonio: \"Pour me rapprocher de Marie, je m'enrôlai, pauvre soldat\" / \"In order to woo Marie, I enlisted in the ranks\"), but she dismisses him scornfully. Tonio reveals that he knows that the Marquise never had a niece. She orders him to leave and Marie to return to her chambers; after they leave, the Marquise confesses the truth to Sulpice: Marie is her own illegitimate daughter. In the circumstances, Sulpice promises that Marie will agree to her mother's wishes. The Duchess of Crakenthorp, her son the groom-to-be, and the wedding entourage arrive at the Marquise's castle. Marie enters with Sulpice, who has given her the news that the Marquise is her mother. Marie embraces her and decides she must obey. But at the last minute the soldiers of the Regiment storm in (chorus: soldiers, then Tonio: \"Au secours de notre fille\" / \"Our daughter needs our help\") and reveal that Marie was a canteen girl. The wedding guests are offended by that fact, but are then impressed when Marie sings of her debt to the soldiers (aria, Marie: \"Quand le destin, au milieu de la guerre\" / \"When fate, in the confusion of war, threw me, a baby, into their arms\"). The Marquise is deeply moved, admits she is Marie's mother, and gives her consent to Marie and Tonio, amid universal rejoicing (final chorus: \"Salut à la France!\" / \"Hurrah for France! For happy times!\")." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Performance history.", "Synopsis.", "Act 1.", "Act 2.", "Act 3.", "Act 4.", "Arrangements.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Originally, Donizetti had been composing an opera by the name of \"Le Duc d'Albe\" as his second work for the Opéra in Paris. However, the director, Léon Pillet, objected to an opera without a prominent role for his mistress, mezzo-soprano Rosine Stoltz. Donizetti therefore abandoned \"Le Duc d'Albe\" and borrowed heavily from \"L'ange de Nisida\", an unrealized project from 1839, to create \"La Favorite\". Donizetti wrote the entire final act in three to four hours, with the exception of the cavatina and a part of a duet, which were added at the rehearsal stage.", "The Opéra's original production (Paris, 1840) had costumes designed by Paul Lormier and sets produced by two teams of scenic artists: René-Humanité Philastre and Charles-Antoine Cambon (Acts I and III), Charles Séchan, Léon Feuchère, Jules Diéterle and Édouard Desplechin (Acts II and IV). Revivals at the Palais Garnier, on 25 January 1875 and 3 February 1896, increased the scale of the staging but remained true to the original concept of 1840. The opera continued to be performed each season at the Opéra up to 1894, remaining in its repertoire until 1918, as well as maintaining a presence in the French provinces through this period. In 1897, Arturo Toscanini conducted the work in Bergamo for the Donizetti centenary. It was revived in Padua under the title of \"Leonora di Guzman\" in 1842, and at La Scala as \"Elda\" in 1843 with Marietta Alboni in the title role, though Donizetti himself was not involved in these productions. The London premiere was in English at Drury Lane in 1843 with soprano Emma Romer, and then in French two years later at Covent Garden, and in Italian at Her Majesty's in 1847. New Orleans first saw the piece in 1843 in French (followed by a performance in New York by the New Orleans French Opera Company), and the Metropolitan Opera mounted a production 1895. Italian revivals in the mid-20th century took place at La Scala Milan in 1934 with Ebe Stignani and Pertile, in Rome a year later with Cobelli and Gigli, followed by further revivals in both cities, several featuring Stignani in the title role. In 1978, the opera was revived at the Metropolitan Opera (in Italian) with Shirley Verrett and Luciano Pavarotti, having not been heard since Enrico Caruso sang it there in 1905, 72 years previously. Among other performances, the Bavarian State Opera presented a new production of the work in the original French version in 2016, with Elīna Garanča, tenor Matthew Polenzani and Mariusz Kwiecień in the leading roles.", "A love triangle involving the King of Castile, Alfonso XI, his mistress ('the favourite') Leonora, and her lover Fernando, the story unfolds against the background of the Moorish invasions of Spain and power struggles between church and state.", "\"Scene 1\" In the Monastery of St James, the monks are making their way to worship. Superior Balthazar (bass), father of the Queen of Castile, enters with Fernand (tenor). Balthazar knows that Fernand is preoccupied by something. Fernand confesses that he has fallen in love with a beautiful, but as yet unknown, lady. His faith in God remains, but he wishes to leave the monastery in search of her. Balthazar angrily sends Fernand out of the monastery, warning him of the dangers of the outside world. He predicts that Fernand will one day return to the cloisters, a disappointed if wiser man. \"Scene 2\" Fernand has found his lady, Léonor (mezzo-soprano), declared his love and received it in return, but he is still unaware of her real identity. She has arranged to meet him on the island of Leon, to which he is brought blindfolded by boat. He is met by Inès (soprano), her companion, who impresses upon him the need for secrecy. Léonor enters. She tells him that they can never marry and that they must not meet again, but nevertheless hands him a document to help him in his future. Shortly afterwards the arrival of the King is announced and Léonor leaves. Fernand is left to speculate about her elevated social position. Reading the document she has left him, he finds a commission in the army — an opportunity for advancement.", "Alphonse (baritone) has defeated the Moors and taken Alcazar. In conversation with the courtier Don Gaspar (tenor), the King expresses his pleasure at Fernand's bravery. Alone, the King expresses his love for Léonor and his desire to divorce the Queen and marry her. He realizes that this will provoke the opposition of his powerful father-in-law Balthazar who is ultimately backed by the Pope. Léonor enters and expresses her anguish at remaining his mistress rather than his Queen. The King suspects that he is losing her affection. Don Gaspar enters with news that a letter has been discovered revealing that Léonor has a lover. She makes no denial, but at that moment Balthazar enters intent on forcing the King to abandon his plans for the royal divorce.", "Alphonse is to honour Fernand for his role in the war. He asks Fernand what reward he would like and Fernand asks to marry the woman who has inspired him in his bravery. Alphonse asks who she is and Fernand points to Léonor. The King is astonished to learn that Fernand is his successful rival. In an abrupt change of mind, he orders Fernand and Léonor to marry within one hour. Léonor is left with mixed feelings of apprehension and delight. She decides that Fernand must be informed about her past and sends Inès to him. However, unknown to Léonor, Inès is arrested before she can see him. Fernand only learns the truth after the wedding ceremony. Considering himself dishonoured by the King he breaks his sword, leaves Léonor and entrusts himself to Balthazar.", "Balthazar's daughter, the Queen, has died of jealousy and grief, and her body has been sent to him at the Monastery of St James. Prayers are being said for her repose. Fernand is preparing to enter his new religious life. Léonor enters in a state of exhaustion and faints before the cross. At first Fernand rejects her, but eventually moved by her love and sincerity, he is willing to give himself to her again, but it is too late, Léonor collapses once more and dies in his arms.", "In 1840, Richard Wagner made arrangements of the work for piano, for flute, and for a violin duo. Antonio Pasculli composed a concerto on themes from the opera for oboe and piano/orchestra (c. 1879).", "Notes Sources" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Stalinization.", "De-Stalinization.", "Prague Spring.", "Normalization.", "Dissent and independent activity (1970s and 1980s).", "Ethnic groups.", "Minorities.", "Hungarians.", "Germans.", "Poles.", "Roma.", "Ukrainians and Rusyns.", "Jews." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3" ], "content": [ "On 25 February 1948, President Edvard Beneš gave in to the demands of Communist Prime Minister Klement Gottwald and appointed a Cabinet dominated by Communists. While it was nominally still a coalition, the \"non-Communists\" in the cabinet were mostly fellow travelers. This gave legal sanction to the KSČ coup, and marked the onset of undisguised Communist rule in Czechoslovakia. On 9 May, the National Assembly, purged of dissidents, passed a new constitution. It was not a completely Communist document; since a special committee prepared it in the 1945–48 period, it contained many liberal and democratic provisions. It reflected, however, the reality of Communist power through an addition that declared Czechoslovakia a people's republic – a preliminary step towards socialism and, ultimately, communism – ruled by the dictatorship of the proletariat, and also gave the Communist Party the leading role in the state. For these reasons, Beneš refused to sign the so-called Ninth-of-May Constitution. Nevertheless, elections were held on 30 May, and voters were presented with a single list from the National Front, the former governing coalition which was now a broad patriotic organisation under Communist control. Beneš resigned on 2 June, and Gottwald became president twelve days later. Within the next few years, bureaucratic centralism under the direction of KSČ leadership was introduced. So-called \"dissident\" elements were purged from all levels of society, including the Catholic Church. The ideological principles of Marxism-Leninism and pervaded cultural and intellectual life. The entire education system was submitted to state control. With the elimination of private ownership of means of production, a planned economy was introduced. Czechoslovakia became a satellite state of the Soviet Union; it was a founding member of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (Comecon) in 1949 and of the Warsaw Pact in 1955. The attainment of Soviet-style \"socialism\" became the government's avowed policy. Although in theory Czechoslovakia remained a multi-party state, in reality the Communists had complete control of the country. Political participation became subject to KSČ approval. The KSČ also prescribed percentage representation for non-Marxist parties. The National Assembly, purged of dissidents, became a mere rubber stamp for KSČ programmes. In 1953, an inner cabinet of the National Assembly, the Presidium, was created. Composed of KSČ leaders, the Presidium served to convey party policies through government channels. Regional, district, and local committees were subordinated to the Ministry of Interior. Slovak autonomy was constrained; the KSS was reunited with the KSČ but retained its own identity. After consolidating power, Klement Gottwald began a series of mass purges against both political opponents and fellow Communists, numbering in the tens of thousands. Children from blacklisted families were denied access to good jobs and higher education, there was widespread emigration to West Germany and Austria, and the educational system was reformed to give opportunities to working-class students. Although Gottwald originally sought a more independent line, a quick meeting with Stalin in 1948 convinced him otherwise and so he sought to impose the Soviet model on the country as thoroughly as possible. By 1951, Gottwald's health deteriorated and he was suffering from heart disease and syphilis in addition to alcoholism. He made few public appearances in his final year of life. Gottwald died on 14 March 1953 from an aortic", "De-Stalinization had a late start in Czechoslovakia. The KSČ leadership virtually ignored the Soviet law announced by Nikita Khrushchev 25 February 1956 at the 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. In Czechoslovakia that April, at the Second Writers' Congress, several authors criticized acts of political repression and attempted to gain control of the writers' congress. The writers' rebellion was suppressed, however, and the conservatives retained control. Students in Prague and Bratislava demonstrated on May Day of 1956, demanding freedom of speech and access to the Western press. The Novotný regime condemned these activities and introduced a policy of neo-Stalinism. After the Hungarian Revolution of October 1956 had been suppressed by Russian tanks and troops, many Czechs lost courage. The 1958 KSČ Party Congress (XI. Congress, 18 June − 21 June) formalized the continuation of Stalinism. In the early 1960s, the Economy of Czechoslovakia became severely stagnated. The industrial growth rate was the lowest in Eastern Europe. Food imports strained the balance of payments. Pressures both from Moscow and from within the party precipitated a reform movement. In 1963 reform-minded Communist intellectuals produced a proliferation of critical articles. Criticism of economic planning merged with more generalized protests against KSČ bureaucratic control and ideological conformity. The KSČ leadership responded. The purge trials of 1949-54 were reviewed, for example, and some of those purged were rehabilitated. Some hardliners were removed from top levels of government and replaced by younger, more liberal communists. Jozef Lenart replaced Prime Minister Viliam Široký in September 1963. The KSČ organized committees to review economic policy. In 1965, the party approved the New Economic Model, which had been drafted under the direction of economist and theoretician", "Dubček carried the reform movement a step further in the direction of liberalism. After Novotný's fall, censorship was lifted. The media—press, radio, and television—were mobilized for reformist propaganda purposes. The movement to democratize socialism in Czechoslovakia, formerly confined largely to the party intelligentsia, acquired a new, popular dynamism in the spring of 1968. In April the KSČ Presidium adopted the Action Programme that had been drafted by a coalition headed by Dubček and made up of reformers, moderates, centrists, and conservatives. The program proposed a \"new model of socialism,\" profoundly \"democratic\" and \"national,\" that is, adapted to Czechoslovak conditions. The National Front and the electoral system were to be democratized, and Czechoslovakia was to be federalized. Freedom of assembly and expression would be guaranteed in constitutional law. The New Economic Model was to be implemented. The Action Program also reaffirmed the Czechoslovak alliance with the Soviet Union and other socialist states. The reform movement, which rejected Stalinism as the road to communism, remained committed to communism as a goal. The Action Program stipulated that reform must proceed under KSČ direction. In subsequent months, however, popular pressure mounted to implement reforms forthwith. Radical elements found expression: anti-Soviet polemics appeared in the press; the Social Democrats began to form a separate party; new unaffiliated political clubs were created. Party conservatives urged the implementation of repressive measures, but Dubček counselled moderation and reemphasized KSČ leadership. In May he announced that the Fourteenth Party Congress would convene in an early session on 9 September. The congress would incorporate the Action Program into the party statutes, draft a federalization law, and elect a new (presumably more liberal) Central Committee. On 27 June, Ludvík Vaculík, a lifelong communist and a candidate member of the Central Committee, published a manifesto entitled the \"Two Thousand Words\". The manifesto expressed concern about conservative elements within the KSČ and \"foreign\" forces as well. (Warsaw Pact maneuvers were held in Czechoslovakia in late June.) It called on the \"people\" to take the initiative in implementing the reform program. Dubček, the party Presidium, the National Front, and the cabinet sharply denounced the manifesto. The Soviet leadership was alarmed. In mid-July a Warsaw Pact conference was held without Czechoslovak participation. The Warsaw Pact nations drafted a letter to the KSČ leadership referring to the manifesto as an \"organizational and political platform of counterrevolution.\" Pact members demanded the reimposition of censorship, the banning of new political parties and clubs, and the repression of \"rightist\" forces within the party. The Warsaw Pact nations declared the defence of Czechoslovakia's socialist gains to be not only the task of Czechoslovakia but also the mutual task of all Warsaw Pact countries. The KSČ rejected the Warsaw Pact ultimatum, and Dubček requested bilateral talks with the Soviet Union. Soviet leader Brezhnev hesitated to intervene militarily in Czechoslovakia. Dubček's Action Program proposed a \"new model of socialism\"—\"democratic\" and \"national.\" Significantly, however, Dubček did not challenge Czechoslovak commitment to the Warsaw Pact. In the early spring of 1968, the Soviet leadership adopted a wait-and-see attitude. By midsummer, however, two camps had formed: advocates and opponents of military intervention. The pro-interventionist coalition viewed the situation in Czechoslovakia as \"counterrevolutionary\" and favoured the defeat of Dubček and his supporters. This coalition was headed by the Ukrainian party leader Petro Shelest and included communist bureaucrats from Belarus and from the non-Russian national republics of the western part of the Soviet Union (the Baltic republics). The coalition members feared the awakening of nationalism within their respective republics and the influence of the Ukrainian minority in Czechoslovakia on Ukrainians in the Soviet Union. Bureaucrats responsible for political stability in Soviet cities and for the ideological supervision of the intellectual community also favoured a military solution. Within the Warsaw Pact, only the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) and Poland were strongly interventionist. Walter Ulbricht and Władysław Gomułka—party leaders of East Germany and Poland, respectively—viewed liberalism as threatening to their own positions. The Soviet Union agreed to bilateral talks with Czechoslovakia to be held in July at Cierna nad Tisou, Slovak-Soviet border. At the meeting, Dubček defended the program of the reformist wing of the KSČ while pledging commitment to the Warsaw Pact and Comecon. The KSČ leadership, however, was divided. Vigorous reformers—Josef Smrkovský, Oldřich Černík, and František Kriegel—supported Dubček. Conservatives—Vasil Biľak, Drahomír Kolder, and Oldřich Švestka—adopted an anti-reformist stance. Brezhnev decided on compromise. The KSČ delegates reaffirmed their loyalty to the Warsaw Pact and promised to curb \"antisocialist\" tendencies, prevent the revival of the Czechoslovak Social Democratic Party, and control the press more effectively. The Soviets agreed to withdraw their troops (stationed in Czechoslovakia since the June maneuvers) and permit the 9 September party congress. On 3 August, representatives from the Soviet Union, East Germany, Poland, Hungary, Bulgaria, and Czechoslovakia met in Bratislava and signed the Bratislava Declaration. The declaration affirmed unshakable fidelity to Marxism-Leninism and proletarian internationalism and declared an implacable struggle against \"bourgeois\" ideology and all \"antisocialist\" forces. The Soviet Union expressed its intention to intervene in a Warsaw Pact country if a \"bourgeois\" system—a pluralist system of several political parties—was ever established. After the Bratislava conference, Soviet troops left Czechoslovak territory but remained along Czechoslovak borders. Dubček did not attempt to mobilize the Czechoslovak army to resist an invasion. The KSČ party congress remained scheduled for 9 September. In the week following the Bratislava conference, it became an open secret in Prague that most of Dubček's opponents would be removed from the Central Committee. The Prague municipal party organization prepared and circulated a blacklist. The antireformist coalition could hope to stay in power only with Soviet assistance. KSČ anti-reformists, therefore, made efforts to convince the Soviets that the danger of political instability and \"counterrevolution\" did indeed exist. They used the Kaspar Report, prepared by the Central Committee's Information Department, headed by Jan Kašpar, to achieve this end. The report provided an extensive review of the general political situation in Czechoslovakia as it might relate to the forthcoming party congress. It predicted that a stable Central Committee and a firm leadership could not necessarily be expected as the outcome of the congress. The party Presidium received the report on 12 August. Two Presidium members, Kolder and Alois Indra, were instructed to evaluate the report for the 20 August meeting of the Presidium. Kolder and Indra viewed the Kašpar Report with alarm and, some observers think, communicated their conclusions to the Soviet ambassador, Stepan Chervonenko. These actions are thought to have precipitated the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia. As the KSČ Presidium convened on 20 August, the anti-reformists planned to make a bid for power, pointing to the imminent danger of counterrevolution. Kolder and Indra presented a resolution declaring a state of emergency and calling for \"fraternal assistance.\" The resolution was never voted on, because the Warsaw Pact troops entered Czechoslovakia that same day (in the night of 20 August-21).", "Dubček remained in office only until April 1969. Anti-Soviet demonstrations, following Czechoslovakia's victory over the Soviet team in the World Ice Hockey Championships in March, precipitated Soviet pressures for a KSČ Presidium reorganization. Gustáv Husák, (a centrist and one of the Slovak \"bourgeois nationalists\" imprisoned by the KSČ in the 1950s), was named first secretary (title changed to general secretary in 1971). Only centrists and the hardliners led by Vasil Bilak continued in the Presidium. A program of \"normalization\"—the restoration of continuity with the prereform period—was initiated. Normalization entailed thoroughgoing political repression and the return to ideological conformity One of the few changes proposed by the Action Programme during the Prague Spring that was actually achieved was the federalization of the country. Although it was mostly a formality during the normalization period, Czechoslovakia had been federalized under the Constitutional Law of Federation of 27 October 1968. The newly created Federal Assembly (i.e., federal parliament), which replaced the National Assembly, was intended to work in close cooperation with the Czech National Council and the Slovak National Council (i.e., national parliaments). The Gustáv Husák regime amended the law in January 1971 so that, while federalism was retained in form, central authority was effectively restored. In the meantime, a Slovak parliament and government had been created, including all ministries except for defence and foreign affairs. Besides, a so-called no-majorisation principle requiring consensus between the Czech and Slovak republics at the Federal Assembly in Prague was enacted. But due to the fact that neither governments nor parliaments made political decisions under the regime, it remained just a formality. Decisions were taken \"by the politburo of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia. There was one communist party and it was situated in Prague\". Deciding about Slovak affairs in Slovakia was not allowed to happen. At the official Fourteenth Party Congress in May 1971, party chief Husák announced the 1968 Fourteenth Party Congress had been abrogated, that \"normalization\" had", "Through the 1970s and 1980s, the government's emphasis on obedience, conformity, and the preservation of the status quo was challenged by individuals and organized groups aspiring to independent thinking and activity. Although only a few such activities could be deemed political by Western standards, the state viewed any independent action, no matter how innocuous, as a defiance of the party's control over all aspects of Czechoslovak life. The government's response to such activity was harassment, persecution, and, in some instances, imprisonment. In the context of international detente, Czechoslovakia had signed the United Nations Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights and the Covenant on Civil and Political Rights in 1968. In 1975 these were ratified by the Federal Assembly, which, according to the Constitution of 1960, is the highest legislative organization. The Helsinki Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe's \"Final Act\" (also known as the Helsinki Accords), signed by Czechoslovakia in 1975, also included guarantees of human rights. The first organized opposition emerged under the umbrella of Charter 77. On 6 January 1977, a manifesto called Charter 77 appeared in West German newspapers. The document was immediately translated and reprinted throughout the world. The original manifesto reportedly was signed by 243 people; among them were artists, former public officials, and other prominent figures, such as Zdeněk Mlynář, secretary of the KSČ Central Committee in 1968; Václav Slavík, a Central Committee member in 1968; and Ludvík Vaculík, author of \"Two Thousand Words.\" Charter 77 defined itself as \"a loose, informal, and open community of people\" concerned with the protection of civil and human rights. It denied oppositional intent and based its defense of rights on legally binding international documents signed by the Czechoslovak government and on guarantees of civil rights contained in the Czechoslovak Constitution. The Charter 77 group declared its objectives to be the following: to draw attention to individual cases of human rights infringements; to suggest remedies; to make general proposals to strengthen rights and freedoms and the mechanisms designed to protect them; and to act as intermediary in situations of conflict. The Charter had over 800 signatures by the end of 1977, including workers and youth; by 1985 nearly 1,200 Czechoslovaks had signed the Charter. The Husák regime, which claimed that all rights derive from the state and that international covenants are subject to the internal jurisdiction of the state, responded with fury to the Charter. The text was never published in the official media. Signatories were arrested and interrogated; dismissal from employment often followed. The Czechoslovak press launched vicious attacks against the Charter. The public was mobilized to sign either individual condemnations or various forms of \"anti-Charters.\" Closely associated with Charter 77, the", "", "The roughly 6% of the population who were neither Czech nor Slovak in the 1980s have had an uneven history in the postwar era. The highly centralized rule of the KSČ undermined the political leverage that the First Republic's multiparty politics had permitted to ethnic minorities. Beyond this, however, the sheer decrease in the German, who before their expulsion had amounted to 3 million citizens, having had played a large role in the area for centuries, as well as the decrease Ukrainian populations of Czechoslovakia would have limited their influence in any event. The events of the late 1960s brought calls for reform from ethnic minorities. The government's response was Constitutional Act No. 144 (October 1968), which defined the status of ethnic groups in Czechoslovakia and acknowledged the full political and cultural rights of legally recognized minorities. Minorities were granted the right, with state approval, to their own cultural organizations. The emphasis has been on cultural activities; minority organizations have had no right to represent their members in political affairs.", "In the 1980s, Hungarians were the largest enumerated minority ethnic group. In 1989 approximately 560,000 Hungarians (concentrated in southern Slovakia) made up 11% of Slovakia's population. Despite significant anti-Hungarian sentiment in Slovakia, the postwar exchange of Slovaks in Hungary for Hungarians in Slovakia met with only limited success; the proportion of Hungarians in the population has changed little since 1930 (see History). Although Hungarians were a distinct minority of the total population, they were highly visible in the border regions of Slovakia. There, Hungarians constituted nearly half the population of some districts. Furthermore, 20% lived in exclusively Hungarian settlements. Given Hungary's long domination of Slovakia, Hungarian-Slovak relations have not been easy; the two groups are separated by substantial", "With the expulsion of the Germans in 1945, Czechoslovakia lost over one-fifth of its population. Some 165,000 Germans escaped deportation and remained scattered along the country's western border in the former Sudetenland. Through the mid-1970s, Germans represented a declining proportion of the population; younger Germans increasingly were assimilated", "Poles (approximately 71,000 in 1984) were concentrated in the Cieszyn Silesia on the northeastern border of the Czech Socialist Republic. In addition to a large community of resident Poles, a substantial number commuted across the border from Poland to work or to take advantage of the relative abundance of Czechoslovak consumer goods. Official policies toward the Poles (resident or not) have attempted to limit", "Before World War II, Romani people in Czechoslovakia were considered Czechoslovak citizens of Romani nationality. After the war, since they did not possess the properties of a nationality according to communist criteria, they were regarded by the communist government as merely a special ethnic group. Based on this, the state approached the matter not as a question of nationality but as a social and political question. Eastern Slovakia had a sizable Roma minority. About 66% of the country's Roma lived in Slovakia in the 1980s, where they constituted about 4% of the population. Estimates of their exact numbers vary, but observers agree that their postwar birthrate has been phenomenal. In the early 1970s, there were approximately 200,000 to 300,000 Roma in the country. In 1980 estimates ranged from 250,000 to 400,000. Roma intelligentsia agitated unsuccessfully for inclusion of the Romani People in the 1968 Constitutional Act No. 144, and they remained the largest unrecognized minority in Czechoslovakia. Policy makers have found them a conundrum. The Roma population combines continued high rates of crime and", "Czechoslovakia lost most of its Ukrainian and Rusyn (Ruthenian) population when Carpatho-Ukraine was ceded to the Soviet Union after World War II. In 1983 the remaining 48,000 or so Ukrainians and Ruthenians", "A very small fraction of Czechoslovakia's pre–World War II Jewish community remained in the 1980s. Estimates of both the prewar and the postwar Jewish population are imprecise. Calculations based on either religious preference or the number of Yiddish speakers ignored the large numbers of assimilated Jews in Bohemia and Slovakia. Most estimates put the pre–World War II population in the neighborhood of 250,000. In 1975 Malcolm Browne stated that there were some 5,000 practicing Jews remaining in Czechoslovakia, including about 1,200 in Prague, which once had a large, vibrant Jewish community dating back to the Middle Ages. Some anti-Jewish sentiment still existed in the 1980s. The government's vehemently anti-Israeli stance, coupled with a persistent failure to distinguish between Israelis and Jews, gave anti-Semitic attitudes continued prominence. Official denunciations of dissidents having purportedly Jewish names added a distinctly anti-Semitic flavor. One Charter 77 signer was condemned as \"an international adventurer\" and another, more pointedly, as \"a foreigner without fatherland who was never integrated into the Czech community\"—notorious euphemisms long used in anti-Jewish rhetoric. Officials alleged that the signers were under orders from \"anticommunist and Zionist centers.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "History.", "First World War.", "Roles and missions.", "RNAS Armoured Car Section.", "Organisations.", "Ranks.", "Officer ranks.", "Other ranks." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "In 1908, the British Government recognised the military potential of aircraft. The Prime Minister, H. H. Asquith, approved the formation of an \"Advisory Committee for Aeronautics\" and an \"Aerial Sub-Committee of the Committee of Imperial Defence\". Both committees were composed of politicians, army officers and Royal Navy officers. On 21 July 1908 Captain Reginald Bacon, who was a member of the Aerial Navigation sub-committee, submitted to the First Sea Lord Sir John Fisher that a rigid airship based on the German Zeppelin be designed and constructed by the firm of Vickers. After much discussion on the Committee of Imperial Defence the suggestion was approved on 7 May 1909. The airship, named \"Mayfly\", never flew and broke in half on 24 September 1911. The then First Sea Lord, Sir Arthur Wilson, recommended that rigid airship construction be abandoned. On 21 June 1910, Lt. George Cyril Colmore became the first qualified pilot in the Royal Navy. After completing training, which Colmore paid for out of his own pocket, he was issued with Royal Aero Club Certificate Number 15. In November 1910, the Royal Aero Club, thanks to one of its members, Francis McClean, offered the Royal Navy two aircraft with which to train its first pilots. The Club also offered its members as instructors and the use of its airfield at Eastchurch on the Isle of Sheppey. The Admiralty accepted and on 6 December the Commander-in-Chief, The Nore promulgated the scheme to the officers under his jurisdiction and requested that applicants be unmarried and able to pay the membership fees of the Royal Aero Club. The airfield became the Naval Flying School, Eastchurch. Two hundred applications were received, and four were accepted: Lieutenant C. R. Samson, Lieutenant A. M. Longmore, Lieutenant A. Gregory and Captain E. L. Gerrard, RMLI.", "After prolonged discussion on the Committee of Imperial Defence, the Royal Flying Corps was constituted by Royal Warrant on 13 April 1912. It absorbed the nascent naval air detachment and also the Air Battalion of the Royal Engineers. It consisted of two wings with the Military Wing making up the Army element and Naval Wing, under Commander C. R. Samson. A Central Flying School staffed by officers and men of both the navy and the army was created at Upavon for the pilot training of both wings, and opened on 19 June 1912 under the command of Captain Godfrey Paine, a naval officer. The Naval Wing, by the terms of its inception was permitted to carry out experimentation at its flying school at Eastchurch. The Royal Flying Corps, although formed of two separate branches, allowed for direct entry to either branch through a joint Special Reserve of Officers, although soon the Navy inducted new entries into the Royal Naval Reserve. In the summer of 1912, in recognition of the air branch's expansion, Captain Murray Sueter was appointed Director of the newly formed Air Department at the Admiralty. Sueter's remit as outlined in September 1912 stated that he was responsible to the Admiralty for \"all matters connected with the Naval Air Service.\" In the same month as the Air Department was set up, four naval seaplanes participated in Army Manoeuvres. In 1913 a seaplane base on the Isle of Grain and an airship base at Kingsnorth were approved for construction. The same year provision was made in the naval estimates for eight airfields to be constructed, and for the first time aircraft participated in manoeuvres with the Royal Navy, using the converted cruiser \"Hermes\" as a seaplane carrier. On 16 April ten officers of the Navy Service graduated from the Central Flying School. As of 7 June 44 officers and 105 other ranks had been trained at the Central Flying School and at Eastchurch, and 35 officers and men had been trained in airship work. Three non-rigid airships built for the army, the \"Willows\", \"Astra-Torres\" and the \"Parseval\" were taken over by the navy. On 1 July 1914, the Admiralty made the Royal Naval Air Service, forming the Naval Wing of the Royal Flying Corps, part of the Military Branch of the Royal Navy.", "By the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914, the RNAS had 93 aircraft, six airships, two balloons and 727 personnel. The Navy maintained twelve airship stations around the coast of Britain from Longside, Aberdeenshire in the northeast to Anglesey in the west. On 1 August 1915 the Royal Naval Air Service officially came under the control of the Royal Navy. In addition to seaplanes, carrier-borne aircraft, and other aircraft with a legitimate \"naval\" application the RNAS also maintained several crack fighter squadrons on the Western Front, as well as allocating scarce resources to an independent strategic bombing force at a time when such operations were highly speculative. Inter-service rivalry even affected aircraft procurement. Urgently required Sopwith 11⁄2 Strutter two-seaters had to be transferred from the planned RNAS strategic bombing force to RFC squadrons on the Western Front because the Sopwith firm were contracted to supply the RNAS exclusively. This situation continued, although most of Sopwith's post-1915 products were not designed specifically as naval aircraft. Thus RNAS fighter squadrons obtained Sopwith Pup fighters months before the RFC, and then replaced these first with Sopwith Triplanes and then Camels while the hard-pressed RFC squadrons soldiered on with their obsolescent Pups. On 23 June 1917, after the Second Battle of Gaza, RNAS aircraft attacked Tulkarm in the Judean Hills. On 1 April 1918, the RNAS was merged with the RFC to form the Royal Air Force. At the time of the merger, the Navy's air service had 55,066 officers and men, 2,949 aircraft, 103 airships and 126 coastal stations. The RNAS squadrons were absorbed into the new structure, individual squadrons receiving new squadron numbers by effectively adding 200 to the number so No. 1 Squadron RNAS (a famous fighter squadron) became No. 201 Squadron RAF. The Royal Navy regained its own air service in 1937, when the Fleet Air Arm of the Royal Air Force (covering carrier borne aircraft, but not the seaplanes and maritime reconnaissance aircraft of Coastal Command) was returned to Admiralty control and renamed the Naval Air Branch. In 1952, the service returned to its pre-1937 name of the Fleet Air Arm.", "The main \"naval\" roles of the RNAS (ignoring for the minute the service's direct field \"support\" of the RFC) were fleet reconnaissance, patrolling coasts for enemy ships and submarines, and attacking enemy coastal territory. The RNAS systematically searched of the Channel, the North Sea and the vicinity of the Strait of Gibraltar for U-boats. In 1917 alone, they sighted 175 U-boats and attacked 107. Because of the technology of the time the attacks were not very successful in terms of submarines sunk, but the sightings greatly assisted the Navy's surface fleets in combatting the enemy submarines. It was the RNAS which provided much of the mobile cover using armoured cars, during the withdrawal from Antwerp to the Yser, in 1914 (see RNAS Armoured Car Section below). Later in the war, squadrons of the RNAS were sent to France to directly support the RFC. The RNAS was also at one stage entrusted with the air defence of London. This led to its raids on airship stations in Germany, in places as far from the sea as the manufacturing site at Friedrichshafen. Before techniques were developed for taking off and landing on ships, the RNAS had to use seaplanes in order to operate at sea. Beginning with experiments on the old cruiser HMS \"Hermes\", special seaplane tenders were developed to support these aircraft. It was from these ships that a raid on Zeppelin bases at Cuxhaven, Nordholz Airbase and Wilhelmshaven was launched on Christmas Day of 1914. This was the first attack by British ship-borne aircraft; the first ship-borne aircraft raid was launched by the Japanese seaplane carrier \"Wakamiya\" on 6 September. A chain of coastal air stations was also constructed. This was followed with the Tondern raid, again against Zeppelins, which was the first instance of carrier launched aircraft.", "The RNAS engaged in interservice rivalry on land as well as in the air, possessing for a time the UK's only mechanised land forces in the form of the RNAS Armoured Car Section made up of squadrons of Rolls-Royce Armoured Cars. Commanded by Commander Charles Samson, the section was originally equipped with unarmoured touring cars and intended to provide line of communications security and to pick up aircrew who had been forced to land in hostile territory. Samson saw the possibilities when he armed one vehicle with a Maxim gun and ambushed a German car near Cassel on 4 September 1914. He then had a shipbuilders in Dunkirk add boilerplate to his Rolls Royce and Mercedes vehicles. The new armoured car squadrons were soon used to great effect forming part of Naval mechanised raiding columns against the Germans. By November 1914 the Section had become the Royal Naval Armoured Car Division (RNACD) eventually expanding to 20 squadrons. As trench warfare developed, the armoured cars could no longer operate on the Western Front and were redeployed to other theatres including the Middle East, Romania and Russia. In the summer of 1915 the RNACD was disbanded and the army took over control of armoured cars, with the units soon coming under the command of the Motor Branch of the Machine Gun Corps. However RNAS experience of the Western Front would not be lost, No. 20 Squadron RNAS was retained under Naval control to further develop armoured vehicles for land battle, these personnel later becoming the nucleus of the team working under the Landship Committee that developed the first tanks. The RAF later inherited some ex-RNAS armoured cars left in the Middle East, and during the Second World War, the Number 1 Armoured Car Company RAF played an important role in the defence of RAF Habbaniya when the base was attacked by Iraqi nationalists.", "Unlike the RFC, the RNAS was organized on a non-central basis so there were several No 1 Squadrons. Even wings numbers were not consistently given to the same unit, so there are many exceptions in historic data. At the start of the war there were three wings 1, 2 and 3. As the war progressed, other wings were formed. Squadrons serving in France were given numbers from 1 to 17. At the formation of the Royal Air Force on 1 April 1918, they became 201 to 217 squadrons of the RAF. Squadrons serving in the Eastern Mediterranean were given letters (A to G, and Z). In 1918, Squadron A became Squadron 222; Squadron B became Squadron 223; Squadron C became Squadron 220; and Squadron D became Squadron 221, all of the RAF. Squadron Z was transferred to the Royal Greek Navy.", "", "In the RNAS both pilots and observers held appointments as well as their normal Royal Navy ranks, and wore insignia appropriate to the appointment instead of the rank. The insignia consisted of standard Royal Navy cuff stripes corresponding to their normal ranks, surmounted by an eagle (for pilots) or a winged letter \"O\" (for observers). In addition, Squadron Commanders and Squadron Observers with less than eight years' seniority had their insignia surmounted by two eight-pointed stars, one above the other, while Flight Commanders and Flight Observers had their insignia surmounted by one such star. After the RNAS merged with the Royal Flying Corps to form the Royal Air Force in 1918, the RNAS pilot appointments became the basis of certain RAF officer ranks, most notably Wing Commander and Flight Lieutenant.", "The following grades were introduced for other ranks in the RNAS and were announced in the London Gazette in 1914." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "Szczepanik was born in the Austrian Partition, in the village of Rudniki near Mościska (now Mostyska, Ukraine) but relocated as infant with his mother to Zręcin in the industrial region of Krosno, where he grew up. His birthplace was controlled by Austria-Hungary between 1772–1918 after the partitions of Poland. Szczepanik graduated from a teachers' college and spent a lot of time reading scientific literature and journals. He moved to Vienna after his attempt to advance the Jacquard loom from France (invented in 1801) was rejected by some local weavers for fear of losing business. His knowledge of fabric however, enabled him to create the first ballistic vest using silk. Spanish king Alfonso XIII (who used it in 1901) awarded him an order for its invention. Szczepanik was granted awards by other royal courts. The Emperor Franz Joseph of Austria relieved him of mandatory military service fascinated with \"photosculpture\" – known also as \"photoplastigraphy\" – introduced to him by Szczepanik. It was based on an idea patented in 1859 by François Willème (1830–1905) for producing portrait sculpture using synchronized photo projections. The Emperor gave him a pair of pistols for that as a souvenir. Before World War I, Szczepanik carried out experiments with photography and image projection, as well as with small format color film. He holds patents for a new weaving method, a system of obtaining tri-color photography rasters, and equipment for sound recording and playback. Following the discoverer's idea, Agfa corporation produced its Agfacolor reversible paper; color films were also made for the first time, projecting 24 frames per second. Szczepanik's more significant discoveries also include the colorimeter (a color control tool), an electric rifle, and a color image weaving method, together with the automation of their production. Szczepanik also worked on a moving wing aircraft, a duplex rotor helicopter, a dirigible, and a submarine. Mark Twain met Szczepanik and described him in two of his articles: \"The Austrian Edison keeping school again\" (1898) and \"From The Times of 1904\" (1898)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Development.", "Origins.", "Testing and production.", "Improvements and changes.", "Advanced Super Hornet.", "Design.", "Overview.", "Airframe changes.", "Radar signature reduction measures.", "Avionics.", "Operational history.", "United States Navy.", "Royal Australian Air Force.", "Kuwait Air Force.", "Potential operators.", "Canada.", "Finland.", "Germany.", "Malaysia.", "Spain.", "Switzerland.", "Others.", "Failed bids.", "Belgium.", "Brazil.", "Denmark.", "India.", "Poland.", "United States Marine Corps.", "Others.", "Operators." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The Super Hornet is an evolutionary redesign of the McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet. The Super Hornet's unique wing and tail configuration can be traced back to an internal Northrop project P-530, ; this had started as a substantial rework of the lightweight F-5E with a larger wing, twin tail fins and a distinctive leading edge root extension (LERX). Later flying as the Northrop YF-17 \"Cobra\", it competed in the United States Air Force's Lightweight Fighter (LWF) program to produce a smaller and simpler fighter to complement the larger McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle; the YF-17 lost the competition to the YF-16. The Navy directed that the YF-17 be redesigned into the larger F/A-18 Hornet to meet a requirement for a multi-role fighter to complement the larger and more expensive Grumman F-14 Tomcat serving in fleet defense interceptor and air superiority roles. The Hornet proved to be effective but limited in combat radius. The concept of an enlarged Hornet was first proposed in the 1980s, which was marketed by McDonnell Douglas as \"Hornet 2000\". The Hornet 2000 concept was an advanced F/A-18 with a larger wing and a longer fuselage to carry more", "The Super Hornet was first ordered by the U.S. Navy in 1992. The Navy retained the F/A-18 designation to help sell the program to Congress as a low-risk \"derivative\", though the Super Hornet is largely a new aircraft. The Hornet and Super Hornet share many characteristics, including avionics, ejection seats, radar, armament, mission computer software, and maintenance/operating procedures. The initial F/A-18E/F retained most of the avionics systems from the F/A-18C/D's configuration at the time. The design would be expanded in the Super Hornet with an empty weight slightly greater than the F-15C. The Super Hornet first flew on 29 November 1995. Initial production on the F/A-18E/F began in 1995. Flight testing started in 1996 with the F/A-18E/F's first carrier landing in 1997. Low-rate production began", "The Block II Super Hornet incorporates an improved active electronically scanned array (AESA) radar, larger displays, the joint helmet mounted cueing system, and several other avionics replacements. Avionics and weapons systems that were under development for the prospective production version of the Boeing X-32 were used on the Block II Super Hornet. New-build aircraft received the APG-79 AESA radar beginning in 2005. In January 2008, it was announced that 135 earlier production aircraft were to be retrofitted with AESA radars. In 2008, Boeing discussed the development of a Super Hornet Block III with the U.S. and Australian military, featuring additional stealth capabilities and extended range. In 2010, Boeing offered prospective Super Hornet customers the \"International Roadmap\", which included conformal fuel tanks, enhanced engines, an enclosed weapons pod (EWP), a", "Boeing and Northrop Grumman self-funded a prototype of the Advanced Super Hornet. The prototype features a 50% reduction in frontal radar cross-section (RCS), conformal fuel tanks (CFT), and an enclosed weapons pod. Features could also be integrated onto the EA-18G Growler; using CFTs on the EA-18 fleet was speculated as useful to releasing underwing space and drag margin for the Next Generation Jammer. Flight tests of the Advanced Super Hornet began on 5 August 2013 and continued for three weeks, testing the performance of CFTs, the enclosed weapons pod (EWP), and signature enhancements. The U.S. Navy was reportedly pleased with the Advanced Super Hornet's flight test results, and hopes it will provide future procurement options. In March 2013, the U.S. Navy was considering the widespread adoption of conformal fuel tanks, which would allow the Super Hornet to carry of additional fuel. Budgetary pressures from the", "", "The Super Hornet is largely a new aircraft at about 20% larger, heavier empty weight, and heavier maximum weight than the original Hornet. The Super Hornet carries 33% more internal fuel, increasing mission range by 41% and endurance by 50% over the \"Legacy\" Hornet. The empty weight of the Super Hornet is about less than that of the F-14 Tomcat which it replaced, while approaching, but not matching, the F-14's payload and range. As the Super Hornet is significantly heavier than the legacy Hornet, the catapult and arresting systems must be set differently. To aid safe flight operations", "The forward fuselage is unchanged, but the remainder of the aircraft shares little with earlier F/A-18C/D models. The fuselage was stretched by to make room for fuel and future avionics upgrades and increased the wing area by 25%. However, the Super Hornet has 42% fewer structural parts than the original Hornet design. The General Electric F414 engine, developed from the Hornet's F404, has 35% additional thrust over most of the aircraft's flight envelope. The Super Hornet can return to an aircraft carrier with a", "Survivability is an important feature of the Super Hornet design. The U.S. Navy took a \"balanced approach\" to survivability in its design. This means that it does not rely on very low-observable technology, i.e. stealth. Instead, its design incorporates a combination of signature reduction, advanced electronic-warfare capabilities, reduced ballistic vulnerability, the use of standoff weapons, and innovative tactics that collectively enhance the safety of the fighter and crew in an affordable manner. The F/A-18E/F's radar cross-section was reduced greatly from some aspects, mainly the front and rear. The design of the engine inlets reduces the aircraft's frontal radar cross-section. The alignment of the leading", "Initially, the Super Hornet's avionics and software had a 90% commonality with that of the F/A-18C/D fleet at the time. Differences include an up-front Touchscreen control display; a large multipurpose color liquid-crystal display; and a fuel display. The Super Hornet has a quadruplex digital fly-by-wire system, as well as a digital flight-control system that detects and corrects for battle damage. Initial production models used the APG-73 radar, later replaced by the AN/APG-79 active electronically scanned array (AESA). The AN/ASQ-228 ATFLIR (Advanced Targeting Forward Looking InfraRed), is the main electro-optical sensor and laser designator pod for the Super Hornet. The communications equipment consist of an AN/ARC-210 VHF/UHF radio and a MIDS-JTRS low volume terminal for HAVE QUICK, SINCGARS and Link 16 connectivity. The defensive countermeasures of Block I aircraft includes the AN/ALR-67(V)3 radar warning receiver, the AN/ALE-47 countermeasures dispenser, the AN/ALE-50 towed decoy and the AN/ALQ-165 Airborne Self-Protect Jammer (ASPJ). Block II aircraft replace the ALQ-165 with the AN/ALQ-214 Integrated Defensive Countermeasures", "", "The Super Hornet entered fleet service with the U.S. Navy in 1999. It achieved initial operating capability (IOC) in September 2001 with the U.S. Navy's Strike Fighter Squadron 115 (VFA-115) at Naval Air Station Lemoore, California. VFA-115 was also the first unit to take their F/A-18 Super Hornets into combat. On 6 November 2002, two F/A-18Es conducted a \"Response Option\" strike in support of Operation Southern Watch on two surface-to-air missile launchers at Al Kut, Iraq and an air defense command and control bunker at Tallil air base. One of the pilots dropped JDAM bombs from the Super Hornet for the first time during combat. In support of Operation", "On 3 May 2007, the Australian Government signed an A$2.9 billion contract to acquire 24 F/A-18Fs for the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) as an interim replacement for aging F-111s. The total cost with training and support over 10 years was expected to be A$6 billion (US$4.6 billion). The order was controversial. Air Vice Marshal (ret.) Peter Criss, a former Air Commander, said he was \"absolutely astounded\" that $6 billion would be spent on an interim aircraft, and cited evidence given by the U.S. Senate Armed Services Committee that the Super Hornet Block I's specific excess power is inferior to the MiG-29 and Su-30 being operated, or ordered, by multiple air forces in South", "In May 2015, it was reported that the Kuwait Air Force was planning to order 28 F/A-18E/Fs with options for an additional 12. However, in June 2015 it was reported that Kuwait was considering a split purchase between the Eurofighter Typhoon and the F/A-18E/F. On 11 September 2015, Kuwait", "", "The Super Hornet has been a contender to replace the CF-18 Hornet, a version of the F/A-18A and B models, operated by the Royal Canadian Air Force. Like the older Hornet, the Super Hornet's design is well-suited to Northern Canada's rugged forward operational airfields, while its extended range removes its predecessor's main deficiency. Due to commonalities, training and integration would be straightforward in transitioning to the Super Hornet. In 2010, Canada decided on sole source selection of the F-35A. Boeing claimed that Canada had ignored the Super Hornet's radar cross-section characteristics during evaluation. By April 2012, Canada was reportedly reviewing its F-35 procurement. In September 2013, Boeing provided Canada with data on its Advanced Super Hornet, suggesting that a fleet of 65 aircraft would cost $1.7 billion less than a fleet of F-35s. The US Navy buys Super Hornets for $52 million per aircraft, while the advanced model costs $6–$10 million more per aircraft, dependant on options selected. As a result of the 2015 Canadian", "In June 2015, a working group set up by the Finnish MoD proposed starting the so-called HX Fighter Program to replace the Finnish Air Force's current fleet of F/A-18C/D Hornets, which will reach the end of their service life by the end of the 2020s. The group recognises five potential types: Boeing F/A-18E/F Advanced Super Hornet, Dassault Rafale, Eurofighter Typhoon, Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II and Saab JAS 39 Gripen. In", "Germany requires a replacement for its aging Panavia Tornado fleet which includes both Tornado IDS (interdictor/strike) and ECR (Electronic Combat/Reconnaissance) variants. Germany considered ordering the F-35, Eurofighter Typhoon, the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet and the EA-18G Growler. In April 2020, Germany announced its replacement for its Panavia Tornado aircraft will be a split purchase of 30 Super Hornets, 15 EA-18G", "Boeing offered Malaysia Super Hornets as part of a buy-back package for its existing Hornets in 2002. However, the Super Hornet procurement was halted in 2007 after the government decided to purchase the Sukhoi Su-30MKM instead. But Chief Gen. Datuk Nik Ismail Nik Mohamaed of the Royal Malaysian Air Force (RMAF)", "Spain is looking for 68-72 fighters to replace F/A-18A/B Hornet. Possible participants", "Boeing first offered the Super Hornet to the Swiss Air Force as a replacement for Swiss F-5E Tigers before withdrawing from the competition on 30 April 2008. The Swiss Air Force was at one point intending to buy the rival Saab Gripen, but this was blocked by Swiss voters in 2014. In March 2018, Swiss officials named contenders in its Air 2030 program: The Saab Gripen, Dassault Rafale,", "The United Arab Emirates was reported to have asked for information on the Super Hornet in 2010. In early 2011, Bulgaria was considering the F/A-18 Super Hornet, among other aircraft, as a replacement for its MiG-21 fleet. After initially selecting the Saab Gripen, the newly elected governing coalition has restarted the program and indicated that the Super Hornet is again under consideration. The decision is expected by July 2018. In December 2018, the Bulgarian Ministry of Defence selected the offer for 8 F-16V from the United States for an estimated 1.8 billion lev ($1.05 billion) as the preferred option, and recommended the government to start talks with the US. In 2014, Boeing is working with Korean Airlines to offer the Advanced Super Hornet to the Republic of Korea Air Force as an alternative to their KF-X fighter program. Although a fighter based on the Super Hornet would save money, downgrading the program would not give South Korean industry as much knowledge as it would from developing a new fighter.", "", "On 12 March 2014, Belgian newspaper \"De Morgen\" reported that Boeing is in talks with the Belgian Ministry of Defence about the Super Hornet as a candidate to replace Belgium's aging F-16", "Boeing proposed the Super Hornet to the Brazilian government. It was reported that the Super Hornet was selected as one of three finalists in Brazil's fighter competition in October 2008. Brazil has put forward", "In 2008, the Royal Danish Air Force was offered the Super Hornet as one of three fighters in a Danish competition to replace 48 F-16AM/BMs. The other contenders were the F-35A Joint Strike Fighter and the Eurofighter Typhoon. Denmark is a level-3 partner in the JSF program. The", "For India's MMRCA competition, Boeing offered a customized variant called F/A-18IN, which included Raytheon's APG-79 AESA radar. In August 2008, Boeing submitted an industrial participation proposal to India describing partnerships with companies in India. The Indian Air Force (IAF) extensively evaluated the Super Hornets and conducted field trials", "During the 2010s, Poland sought to purchase 64 multirole combat aircraft from 2021 to replace the Polish Air Force's fleet of Sukhoi Su-22M4 ground attack aircraft and Mikoyan MiG-29 fighter aircraft. In November 2017, the Armament Inspectorate launched the acquisition process. On 22", "The United States Marine Corps has avoided the Super Hornet program over fears that any Super Hornet buys will be at the cost of the F-35B STOVL fighters that they intend to", "On 10 March 2009, Boeing offered the Super Hornet for Greece's Next-Generation Fighter Program. On 1 August 2010, \"The Sunday Times\" reported that the British government was considering canceling orders for the F-35B and buying the Super Hornet instead for its \"Queen Elizabeth\" class aircraft carriers, claiming a saving of around £10 billion as a result. An industry source claimed that the Super Hornet could be ski jump launched without catapults. In the end, the UK opted for a STOVL aircraft carrier equipped with F-35Bs.", "Each U.S. Navy deployable \"Fleet\" VFA squadron has a standard unit establishment of 12 aircraft." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Character history.", "Augmentations.", "Portrayal in other media.", "Literary analysis.", "References in pop culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In all three stories, Molly is a physically tough (but not instantly imposing) bodyguard/mercenary cyborg. She is referred to as a \"razorgirl\" or \"street samurai\" throughout his stories and also as \"Steppin' Razor\" by the residents of Zion, a Rastafarian enclave aboard a space station. A useful contact for dealing with gangs and black market elements, she tends to show little remorse for the opponents she ruthlessly dispatches in the course of her objectives. In fact she shows few deep emotions towards anyone outside of hatred, suspicion or amused contempt. Nevertheless, Molly is always regarded throughout the book as a loyal, morally strong character, opposed to the progressing decay of human relations in the world Gibson depicts. An exception to her cold, somewhat cynical approach to life was her relationship with Johnny (of \"Johnny Mnemonic\"), for whom she still mourned at the time of \"Neuromancer\". This is part of the personal history she relates to its protagonist, Case, in addition to the revelation that she worked as a \"meat puppet\" (a prostitute) in a \"puppet parlor\" (a brothel where people loan out their bodies while maintained in a blanked-out state) to pay for her considerable cybernetic enhancements. Another pseudonym, used when she rents a hotel room in \"Neuromancer\", is \"Rose Kolodny\", the name by which the Turing Police refer to her. The Turing Police may have simply gotten the name from the hotel's registry, but it is sometimes speculated to be her original name. The later trilogy books speculate that she is \"SINless\", having been an unrecorded birth and never having been issued a \"Single Identity Number\". This would give her the advantage of being more difficult to track in the cyberspace environment. Critic Larry McCaffery asserts that the name \"Molly\" is a reference to her status as a gun moll. William Gibson has stated that he derived inspiration for the character from the image of Chrissie Hynde on the cover of the first Pretenders album.", "Molly's metabolism, sensory input, and reflexes are artificially heightened by means of electronic implants and other advanced medical procedures. She has razor-sharp retractable blades underneath her fingernails, each double-edged and four centimeters in length. Appearing at first glance to be wearing mirrored sunglasses, Molly has in fact had her eye sockets sealed with vision-enhancing mirrored lenses, installed by the skilled black-market surgeons of Chiba City. To accommodate the inset lenses her tear ducts have been re-routed to her mouth; on the very rare occasions she cries, she either spits out or swallows the tears. She never lets others touch the lenses as it would leave messy fingerprints requiring extra cleaning.", "The 1995 film version of \"Johnny Mnemonic\" replaced Molly with a character named Jane who did not have modifications to her eyes or to her fingers. Jane did share the modified nervous system but used a single razor attached to the tip of flexible spring rod as a weapon. In the 2003 BBC Radio adaptation of \"Neuromancer\", Molly was played by the English actress Nicola Walker. Sasha Grey took on the role in \"Case\", a six-hour dramatic contemporary adaptation of the novel staged in New York City in November 2009.", "The character has been described as one of Gibson's most complex characters.", "Molly is the subject of a song called \"Mirrorshades\" by the group Information Society." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Location.", "Biogradska Gora National Park.", "Exploring the park.", "Ecology.", "History of the Park.", "Historical events." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Biogradska Gora is located in the mountainous region of Bjelasica in the central part of Montenegro between the rivers Tara and Lim, and is surrounded by three municipalities: Kolašin, Berane and Mojkovac. It is the most northeasterly of the five national parks in Montenegro.", "The National Park is 54 km2 in area. Basic elements of the Park are: untouched forest, large mountain slopes and tops over 2,000 meters high, six glacial lakes, five at an altitude of 1,820 meters and one easy accessible low land lake (Šiško, Mali Šiško, Ursulovačko, Pešica, and Ševarina) located at the very entrance to the park, Biogradsko Lake. Swift streams cut through scenery of Biogradska Gora, green pastures and clear lakes reflecting centennial forests. The Park is renowned as a unique geomorphological region and, as such, it is attractive for scientific research. The seat of the park is in Kolašin. The national park abounds in cultural and historic heritage consisting of sacral monuments national building and archeological localities. Numerous authentic buildings of traditional architecture are found throughout the pastures and villages next to the virgin forest reserve on the Bjelasica mountain range.", "The park, between Mojkovac and Kolasin, is accessible by car via Highway E65 or by bus from Podgorica or Bijelo Polje. The park has developed infrastructure for tourists, including a visitors center, hiking trails, campsites, and a restaurant. Visitors have several options in addition to hiking, mountain biking, swimming, fishing and exploring some areas with their four-wheel drive vehicles. An open-air train takes tourists along a 3.5 km track from the entrance of the park to Lake Biograd where row boats and bicycles are available for rent. The visitor centre is nearby featuring traditional furniture from this region and a restaurant and lookout. Three other lookouts are available at higher elevations at various locations within the park: Crna Glava, Zekova Glava, and Bendovac. Used by shepherds as summer homes in the past, the wooden cottages or \"katuns\" along the trails can be rented for overnight stays for \"traditional, rustic food and lifestyle\", according to one source. Overnight camping is also allowed in the park.", "Although it is the one of smallest of five national parks in Montenegro, Biogradska Gora National Park contains great diversity of flora and fauna. There are 26 different habitats of plants with 220 different plants, 150 species of birds, and 10 species of mammals live in this Park and in its forest, there are 86 species of trees and shrubs. In the waters of the park exist three species of trout and 350 species of insects. Rainfall is extremely high in the area, averaging up to 100 inches per year, and allows the growth of temperate rainforest. One of the unique features of the park is its virgin forest, Biogradska Gora (16 km2) with trees over five hundred years old. In the very heart of virgin forest is Biogradsko Lake, the largest glacier lake in this National park. The most common tree species around the lake are European beech, sycamore maple and European ash, and on the slopes beech and silver fir. This National Park is recognized as an Important Plant Area, an Important Fungus Area and an Important Bird Area by UNESCO, which also provides the following additional specifics:There is a great number of dynamic and complex eco-systems, high degree of refugial features of habitats as well as a considerable number of endemic and rare plant and animal species", "When Kolašin was liberated from Turkish rule in 1878, people from the Morača and Rovca presented a part of the forest to King Nikola I Petrović-Njegoš of Montenegro. This forest was known as \"Branik Kralja Nikole\" and was protected. Biogradska Gora was proclaimed a National Park in 1952. International protection (via UNESCO) was added in 1977 as part of the Man and the Biosphere Programme (MAB). Open to visitors for a modest charge, it is popular in the summer for tourists seeking a cooler environment than the coast.", "Nearby the National Park, a battle occurred with forces of the Ottoman Empire facing Montenegrins in the 1858 Battle of Kolašin. There were also important battles fought in the First Balkan War of 1912 and this region represented the center of activities of partisans in World War II. For years back, shepherds used rich pasture in this region for grazing sheep and cattle." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Role.", "Transiting the Turkish Straits.", "History.", "1990s.", "2000–2010.", "2011–2012 Mediterranean deployment.", "2013–2014 deployment.", "Mid-life refit.", "2016 Syrian campaign.", "Post-Syrian operations.", "Refit.", "PD-50 sinking.", "Fire." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3" ], "content": [ "The design of \"Admiral Kuznetsov\" class implies a mission different from that of the United States Navy's carriers. The term used by her builders to describe the Russian ships is (TAVKR) – \"heavy aircraft-carrying cruiser\" – intended to support and defend strategic missile-carrying submarines, surface ships, and naval missile-carrying aircraft of the Russian Navy. \"Admiral Kuznetsov\"s main fixed-wing aircraft is the multi-role Sukhoi Su-33. It can perform air superiority, fleet defence, and air support missions and can also be used for direct fire support of amphibious assault, reconnaissance and placement of naval mines. The carrier also carries the Kamov Ka-27 and Kamov Ka-27S helicopters for anti-submarine warfare, search and rescue, and small transport. For take-off of fixed wing aircraft, \"Admiral Kuznetsov\" uses a ski-jump at the end of her bow. On take-off aircraft accelerate toward and up the ski-jump using their afterburners. This results in the aircraft leaving the deck at a higher angle and elevation than on an aircraft carrier with a flat deck and catapults. The ski-jump take-off is less demanding on the pilot, since the acceleration is lower, but results in a clearance speed of only requiring an aircraft design which will not stall at those speeds. The \"cruiser\" role is facilitated by \"Admiral Kuznetsov\"s complement of 12 long-range surface-to-surface anti-ship P-700 Granit (NATO reporting name: Shipwreck) cruise missiles. As a result, this armament is the basis for the ship's Russian type designator of \"heavy aircraft-carrying missile cruiser\".", "\"Admiral Kuznetsov\"s designation as an aircraft-carrying cruiser is very important under the Montreux Convention, as it allows the ship to transit the Turkish Straits. The Convention prohibits countries from sending an aircraft carrier heavier than 15,000 tons through the Straits. Since the ship was built in the Ukrainian SSR, \"Admiral Kuznetsov\" would have been stuck in the Black Sea if Turkey had refused permission to pass into the Mediterranean Sea. However, the Convention does not limit the displacement of capital ships operated by Black Sea powers. Turkey allowed \"Admiral Kuznetsov\" to transit the Straits, and no signatory to the Montreux Convention ever issued a formal protest of her classification as an aircraft-carrying cruiser.", "", "\"Admiral Flota Sovetskogo Soyuza Kuznetsov\", constructed at Chernomorskiy Shipyard, also known as Nikolayev South Shipyard, in Nikolayev, now Mykolaiv, Ukrainian SSR, was launched in 1985, and became fully operational in 1995. An official ceremony marking the start of construction took place on 1 September 1982; in fact she was laid down in 1983. The vessel was first named \"Riga\", then the name was changed to \"Leonid Brezhnev\", this was followed by \"Tbilisi\". Finally, on 4 October 1990, she was renamed \"Admiral Flota Sovetskovo Soyuza N.G. Kuznetsov\", referred to in short as \"Admiral Kuznetsov\". The ship was 71% complete by mid-1989. In November 1989 she undertook her first aircraft operation trials. In December 1991, she sailed from the Black Sea to join the Northern Fleet. Only from 1993 on did she receive aircraft. From 23 December 1995 through 22 March 1996 \"Admiral Kuznetsov\" made her first 90-day Mediterranean deployment with 13 Su-33, 2 Su-25 UTG, and 11 helicopters aboard. The deployment of the Russian Navy's flagship was undertaken to mark the 300th anniversary of the establishment of the Russian Navy in October 1696. The deployment was to allow the carrier, which was accompanied by a frigate, destroyer and oiler, to adapt to the Mediterranean climate and to perform continuous flight operations until 21:00 each day, as the Barents Sea only receives about one hour of sunlight during this time of year. During that period the carrier lay at anchor off the port of Tartus, Syria. Her aircraft often made flights close to the Israeli shore line and were escorted by Israeli F-16s. During the deployment, a severe water shortage occurred due to evaporators breaking down. At the end of 1997 she remained immobilized in a Northern Fleet shipyard, awaiting funding for major repairs, which were halted when they were only 20% complete. The overhaul was completed in July 1998, and the ship returned to active service in the Northern fleet on 3 November 1998.", "\"Admiral Kuznetsov\" remained in port for two years before preparing for another Mediterranean deployment scheduled for the winter of 2000–2001. This deployment was cancelled due to the explosion and sinking of the nuclear-powered submarine. \"Admiral Kuznetsov\" participated in the \"Kursk\" rescue and salvage operations in late 2000. Plans for further operations were postponed or cancelled. In late 2003 and early 2004, \"Admiral Kuznetsov\" went to sea for inspection and trials. In October 2004, she participated in a fleet exercise of the Russian Navy in the Atlantic Ocean. During a September 2005 exercise, a Su-33 accidentally fell from the carrier into the Atlantic Ocean. On 27 September 2006, it was announced that \"Admiral Kuznetsov\" would return to service in the Northern Fleet by the year's end, following another modernization to correct some technical issues. Admiral Vladimir Masorin, Commander-in-Chief of the Russian Navy, also stated that Su-33 fighters assigned to her would return after undergoing their own maintenance and refits. From 5 December 2007 through 3 February 2008 \"Admiral Kuznetsov\" made its second Mediterranean deployment. On 11 December 2007, \"Admiral Kuznetsov\" passed by Norwegian oil platforms in the North Sea, outside Bergen, Norway. Su-33 fighters and Kamov helicopters were launched from \"Admiral Kuznetsov\" while within international waters; Norwegian helicopter services to the rigs were halted due to the collision risk with the Russian aircraft. \"Admiral Kuznetsov\" later participated in an exercise on the Mediterranean Sea, together with 11 other Russian surface ships and 47 aircraft, performing three tactical training missions using live and simulated air and surface missile launches. \"Admiral Kuznetsov\" and her escorts returned to Severomorsk on 3 February 2008. Following maintenance, she returned to sea on 11 October 2008 for the Stability-2008 strategic exercises held in the Barents Sea. On 12 October 2008, Russian President Dmitry Medvedev visited the ship during the exercise. From 5 December 2008 through 2 March 2009, \"Admiral Kuznetsov\" made her third Mediterranean deployment. On 5 December 2008, she and several other vessels left Severomorsk for the Atlantic for a combat training tour, including joint drills with Russia's Black Sea Fleet and visits to several Mediterranean ports. On 7 January 2009, a small fire broke out onboard \"Admiral Kuznetsov\" while anchored off Turkey. The fire, caused by a short-circuit, led to the death of one crew member by carbon monoxide poisoning. On 16 February 2009, she was involved in a large oil spill, along with other Russian naval vessels, while refuelling off the south coast of Ireland. On 2 March 2009, \"Admiral Kuznetsov\" returned to Severomorsk, and on September 2010 she left dry dock after scheduled repairs and preparations for a training mission in the Barents Sea, later that month.", "The Russian Main Navy Staff announced that \"Admiral Kuznetsov\" would begin a deployment to the Atlantic and Mediterranean in December 2011. In November 2011, it was announced that \"Admiral Kuznetsov\" would lead a squadron to Russia's naval facility in Tartus. A Russian naval spokesman announced via the \"Izvestia\" daily that \"The call of the Russian ships in Tartus should not be seen as a gesture towards what is going on in Syria... This was planned already in 2010 when there were no such events there\" noting that \"Admiral Kuznetsov\" would also be making port calls in Beirut, Genoa and Cyprus. On 29 November 2011, Army General Nikolay Makarov, Chief of the Russian General Staff, said that Russian ships in the Mediterranean were due to exercises rather than events in Syria, and noted that \"Admiral Kuznetsov\"s size does not allow her to moor in Tartus. On 6 December 2011, \"Admiral Kuznetsov\" and her escort ships departed the Northern Fleet homebase for a Mediterranean deployment to exercise with ships from the Russian Baltic and Black Sea Fleets. On 12 December 2011, \"Admiral Kuznetsov\" and her escorts, were spotted northeast of Orkney off the coast of northern Scotland, the first such time she had deployed near the UK. shadowed the group for a week; due to severe weather, the group took shelter in international waters in the Moray Firth, some from the UK coast. \"Admiral Kuznetsov\" then sailed around the top of Scotland and into the Atlantic past western Ireland, where she conducted flight operations with her Sukhoi Su-33 'Flanker' jets and Kamov Ka-27 helicopters in international airspace. On 8 January 2012, \"Admiral Kuznetsov\" anchored near shore outside Tartus while other ships from her escort entered the port to use the leased Russian naval support facility to replenish their supplies, after which all ships continued their deployment on 9 January. On 17 February 2012, \"Admiral Kuznetsov\" returned to her homebase of Severomorsk.", "On 1 June 2013, it was announced that the ship would return to the Mediterranean by the end of the year, and on 17 December, \"Admiral Kuznetsov\" departed her homebase for the Mediterranean. On 1 January 2014, \"Admiral Kuznetsov\" celebrated New Year's Day while at anchor in international waters of the Moray Firth off northeast Scotland. The anchorage allowed replenishment of ship's supplies and respite for the crew from stormy weather off the southwest coast of Norway. She then proceeded to the Mediterranean Sea, docking in Cyprus on 28 February. In May 2014, the ship and her task group: the \"Kirov\"-class nuclear-powered cruiser \"Petr Velikiy\"; tankers; \"Sergey Osipov\", \"Kama\" and \"Dubna\"; ocean-going tug \"Altay\" and Ropucha-class landing ship \"Minsk\" (a part of the Black Sea Fleet), passed the UK while sailing for home. Despite financial and technical problems, resulting in limited operations for the ship, it is expected that \"Admiral Kuznetsov\" will remain in active service until at least 2030.", "In April 2010, it was announced that by late 2012, the ship would enter Severodvinsk Sevmash shipyard for a major refit and modernization, including upgrades to obsolete electronics and sensor equipment, installation of a new anti-aircraft system (Pantsir-M) and an increase of the air wing with the removal of the P-700 Granit anti-ship missiles. Possible upgrades include exchanging the troublesome steam powerplant to gas-turbine, or even nuclear propulsion, and installation of catapults to the angled deck. The Navy expected to acquire Mikoyan MiG-29K aircraft for \"Admiral Kuznetsov\" by 2011; this later was confirmed by a defense sub-contractor The MiG-29Ks would replace the 19 carrier-based Su-33 fighters, a resource set to expire by 2015. Producing more Su-33s is possible but not cost-effective for such small volumes; the MiG-29K is more convenient as the Indian Navy also placed an order for a total for 45, reducing development and manufacture costs. India paid $730 million for the development and delivery of 16 MiG-29Ks; 24 more for the Russian Navy would cost about $1 billion.", "Following ongoing maintenance, \"Admiral Kuznetsov\" set sail on 15 October 2016 from the Kola Bay for the Mediterranean, accompanied by seven other Russian Navy vessels including the nuclear-powered battlecruiser \"Pyotr Velikiy\" and two Udaloy-class destroyers. The carrier was accompanied by an ocean-going tugboat, as a precaution due to potential propulsion failure. The airwing included 6-8 Su-33 fighters, four Mig-29KR/KUBR multi-role aircraft, Ka-52K \"Katran\" navalised attack helicopters, Ka-31R \"Helix\" AEW&C helicopters and Ka-27PS \"Helix-D\" search and rescue helicopters. All the Su-33 aircraft had been upgraded with the Gefest SVP-24 bombsights for free-fall bombs, giving them a limited ground-attack capability. Analysts, including Mikhail Barabanov of the Moscow Defense Brief, suggested that a lack of trained pilots restricted the number of fixed-wing aircraft that could be deployed from the carrier. On 21 October, the \"Admiral Kuznetsov\" battle group sailed through the English Channel, escorted by Royal Navy ships, while UK Defence Minister Michael Fallon speculated that the taskforce was designed to \"test\" the British naval response. On 26 October 2016, the ship was reported to have passed through the Strait of Gibraltar and refuelled at sea off North Africa the following day. On 3 November 2016, the \"Admiral Kuznetsov\" battle group paused off the east coast of Crete. On 14 November 2016, a MiG-29K crashed into the sea after taking off from the carrier. The pilot ejected safely from the plane and was rescued by helicopter. According to initial reports from Russian officials, the crash was a result of technical malfunction, but it was later revealed that the plane had actually run out of fuel waiting to land while the crew was attempting to repair a broken arresting wire. The carrier commander could have diverted the aircraft to land at a nearby airbase, but hesitated in the hope that the arrestor gear would be repaired in time. On 15 November 2016, \"Admiral Kuznetsov\", took part in \"a large-scale operation against the positions of terrorist groups Islamic State and Al-Nusra, in the provinces of Idlib and Homs\" in Syria by launching Su-33 fighter strikes. This was the first time a Russian aircraft carrier would take part in combat operations. Russian Defence Ministry later reported that at least 30 militants had been killed as a result of those strikes, including 3 field commanders, among them\" \"Abul Baha al-Asfari, leader of Al-Nusra reserves in the provinces of Homs and Aleppo. Al-Asfari had also planned and led several insurgent attacks on the city of Aleppo itself. The Su-33s reportedly used precision bombs. On 3 December 2016, an Su-33 crashed into the sea after attempting to land on the carrier. The plane crashed on its second attempt to land on the aircraft carrier in good weather conditions. The pilot was safely recovered by a search and rescue helicopter. Initially it was suspected that the plane missed the wires and failed to go around, falling short of the bow of the warship, but later it was revealed that the arresting cable failed to hold the aircraft, and was damaged in the attempt. Following the two incidents, the air wing was transferred to shore at Khmeimim Air Base near Latakia, Syria to continue military operations while the carrier's arresting gear issues were addressed.", "In early January 2017, it was announced that \"Admiral Kuznetsov\" and her battlegroup would be ceasing operations in Syria and returning to Russia as part of a scaling back of Russian involvement in the conflict. During her deployment off Syria, aircraft from \"Admiral Kuznetsov\" carried out 420 combat missions, hitting 1,252 hostile targets. On 11 January 2017, \"Admiral Kuznetsov\" was conducting live-fire training exercises in the Mediterranean off the coast of Libya. The Russian defence ministry announced that on 11 January, \"Admiral Kuznetsov\" was visited by Libya′s military leader Khalifa Haftar, who had a video conference with Russian defence minister Sergey Shoygu while on board. On 20 January, \"Admiral Kuznetsov\" was sighted passing west through the Strait of Gibraltar and six days later she was escorted back along the English Channel by three Eurofighter Typhoons of the Royal Air Force and the Type 23 frigate. She arrived back in Severomorsk on 9 February. On 23 February 2017, President Vladimir Putin said that the ship′s deployment to the Mediterranean had been his personal initiative.", "The carrier started an overhaul and modernisation in the first quarter of 2017. This is expected to extend its service life by 25 years. \"Admiral Kuznetsov\" is expected to undergo modernization at the 35th Ship Repair Plant in Murmansk between 2020 and 2021, upgrading the ship's power plant and electronics systems.", "On 30 October 2018, \"Admiral Kuznetsov\" was damaged when Russia's biggest floating dry dock, \"PD-50\", sank and one of the dock's 70-ton cranes crashed onto the ship's flight deck leaving behind a hole in the flight deck. One person was reported missing and four injured as the dry dock sank in Kola Bay. \"Admiral Kuznetsov\" was in the process of being removed from the dock when the incident happened, and was towed to a nearby yard after the incident. According to Alexei Rakhmanov, the president of the United Shipbuilding Corporation, the cost for repairs of the damage was estimated to be RUB70 million (about US$1 million) and should not affect the timing of the currently underway overhaul and modernization of the ship. Although it is unclear how the overhaul and repair schedule would not be affected with the dry dock sunk. The fallen crane was removed within two to three months. In late May 2019, seven months later, information posted on Digital Forensic Research Lab's blog suggested that repair work of the aircraft carrier was underway. That same month it was also announced that two graving docks in Roslyakovo, Murmansk Oblast would be merged and enlarged to accommodate \"Admiral Kuznetsov\", with work taking 1.5 years.", "In December 2019, a major fire broke out on board \"Admiral Kuznetsov\" as work continued on the ship's refit. Two people died and fourteen suffered injuries from the fire and smoke inhalation. The fire damage on the Admiral Kuznetsov is estimated at 500 million rubles." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "The Maserati brothers.", "Orsi ownership.", "Withdrawal from racing.", "Citroën ownership.", "Crisis years.", "De Tomaso era.", "The Biturbo.", "De Tomaso-FIAT years.", "FIAT ownership.", "Ferrari.", "The Maserati and Alfa Romeo Group under FIAT Group.", "Automobiles.", "Current and upcoming models.", "Maserati Quattroporte.", "Maserati Ghibli.", "Maserati GranTurismo and GranCabrio.", "Maserati Levante.", "Maserati MC20.", "Maserati Alfieri.", "Motorsport." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "3", "2", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The Maserati brothers, Alfieri, Bindo, Carlo, Ettore, and Ernesto, were all involved with automobiles from the beginning of the 20th century. Alfieri, Bindo, and Ernesto built 2-litre Grand Prix cars for Diatto. In 1926, Diatto suspended the production of race cars, leading to the creation of the first Maserati and the founding of the Maserati marque. One of the first Maseratis, driven by Alfieri, won the 1926 Targa Florio. Maserati began making race cars with 4, 6, 8, and 16 cylinders (two straight-eights mounted parallel to one another). The trident logo of the Maserati car company, designed by Mario Maserati, is based on the Fountain of Neptune in Bologna's Piazza Maggiore. In 1920, one of the Maserati brothers used this symbol in the logo at the suggestion of family friend Marquis Diego de Sterlich. It was considered particularly appropriate for the sports car company due to the fact that Neptune represents strength and vigour; additionally the statue is a characteristic symbol of the company's original home city. Alfieri Maserati died in 1932, but three other brothers, Bindo, Ernesto, and Ettore kept the firm going.", "In 1937, the remaining Maserati brothers sold their shares in the company to the Adolfo Orsi family, who, in 1940, relocated the company headquarters to their home town of Modena, where it remains to this day. The brothers continued in engineering roles with the company. Racing successes continued, even against the giants of German racing, Auto Union and Mercedes. In back-to-back wins in 1939 and 1940, an 8CTF won the Indianapolis 500, making Maserati the only Italian manufacturer ever to do so. The second world war then intervened and Maserati abandoned car making to produce components for the Italian war effort. During this time, Maserati worked in fierce competition to construct a V16 town car for Benito Mussolini before Ferry Porsche of Volkswagen built one for Adolf Hitler. This failed, and the plans were scrapped. Once peace was restored, Maserati returned to making cars; the A6 series did well in the post-war racing scene. Key people joined the Maserati team. Alberto Massimino, a former FIAT engineer with both Alfa Romeo and Ferrari experience, oversaw the design of all racing models for the next ten years. With him joined engineers Giulio Alfieri, Vittorio Bellentani, and Gioacchino Colombo. The focus was on the best engines and chassis to succeed in car racing. These new projects saw the last contributions of the Maserati brothers, who, after their 10-year contract with Orsi expired, went on to form O.S.C.A.. This new team at Maserati worked on several projects: the 4CLT, the A6 series, the 8CLT, and, pivotally for the future success of the company, the A6GCS. The famous Argentinian grand prix driver Juan-Manuel Fangio raced for Maserati for a number of years in the 1950s, achieving a number of stunning victories including winning the world championship in 1957 in the 250F. Other racing projects in the 1950s were the 200S, 300S, 350S, and 450S, followed in 1961 by the famous \"Tipo\" 61.", "Maserati retired from factory racing participation because of the \"Guidizzolo tragedy\" during the 1957 Mille Miglia, though they continued to build cars for privateers. Maserati became more and more focused on building road-going grand tourers. The 1957 3500 GT marked a turning point in the marque's history, as its first ground-up grand tourer design and first series-produced car. Production jumped from a dozen to a few hundred cars a year. Chief engineer Giulio Alfieri took charge of the project and turned the 3.5-litre inline six from the 350S into a road-going engine. Launched with a Carrozzeria Touring 2+2 coupé aluminium body over superleggera structure, a steel-bodied short wheelbase Vignale 3500 GT Convertible open top version followed in 1960. The 3500 GT's success, with over 2,200 made, was critical to Maserati's survival in the years following withdrawal from racing. The 3500 GT also provided the underpinnings for the small-volume V8-engined 5000 GT, another seminal car for Maserati. Born from the Shah of Persia's whim of owning a road car powered by the Maserati 450S racing engine, it became one of the fastest and most expensive cars of its days. The third to the thirty-fourth and last example produced were powered by Maserati's first purely road-going V8 engine design. In 1962, the 3500 GT evolved into the Sebring, bodied by Vignale and based on the convertibile chassis. Next came the two-seater Mistral coupé in 1963 and Spider in 1964, both powered by a six-cylinder engine and styled by Pietro Frua. In 1963, the company's first saloon was launched, the Quattroporte, also styled by Frua. If the 5000 GT inaugurated the marque's first road-going V8, the Quattroporte's \"Tipo 107\" 4.2-litre DOHC V8 was the forefather of all Maserati V8s up to 1990. The Ghia-designed Ghibli coupé was launched in 1967. It was powered by a 4.7-litre dry sump version of Maserati's quad cam V8. The Ghibli Spyder and high performance 4.9-litre Ghibli SS followed.", "In 1968, Maserati was taken over by Citroën. Adolfo Orsi remained the nominal president, but Maserati was controlled by its new owner. The relationship started as a joint venture, made public in January 1968, in which Maserati would design and manufacture an engine for Citroën's upcoming flagship called SM. Launched in 1970, the SM was a four-seat front-wheel-drive coupé, powered by a Maserati \"Tipo C114\" 2.7-litre 90° V6 engine; this engine and its gearbox had been used in other vehicles, such as rally-prepared DSs used by Bob Neyret in Bandama Rally, and in the Ligier JS2. With secure financial backing, new models were launched and built in much greater numbers than years prior. Citroën borrowed Maserati's expertise and engines for the SM and other vehicles, and Maserati incorporated Citroën's technology, particularly in hydraulics. Engineer Giulio Alfieri was key to many of the ambitious designs of this period. The first new arrival was the 1969 Indy—a Vignale-bodied four-seater GT with a traditional V8 drivetrain, 1,100 units of the Indy were made. In 1971, the Bora was the company's first series production mid-engine model, an idea agreed with administrator Guy Malleret shortly after the 1968 takeover. The Bora ended Maserati's reputation for producing fast but technologically out of date cars, being the first Maserati with four wheel independent suspension. In contrast, competitor Lamborghini had used independent suspension in 1964. In 1972, the Bora was transformed to the Merak, now employing a \"Tipo 114\" SM-derived V6 enlarged to 3.0-litres. Citroën never developed a 4-door version of the SM - instead Maserati developed the Quattroporte II, which shared most of its mechanical parts with the SM, including the mid-engine, front-wheel-drive layout, and six headlight arrangement. To power this large car, Alfieri developed a V8 engine from the SM's V6 on the behest of Factory Manager Guy Malleret. The engine was rated at and fitted to a lightly modified SM, which proved that the chassis could easily handle the power increase. Citroën's and Maserati's financial difficulties hampered the type homologation process; the development costs for the stillborn saloon further aggravated Maserati's situation. Only a dozen Quattroporte IIs were ever produced, all with the V6. The replacement for the successful Ghibli was the Bertone-designed Khamsin, a front-engine grand tourer introduced in 1972 and produced until 1974; it combined the traditional Maserati V8 GT layout with modern independent suspension, unibody construction, and refined Citroën technologies such as DIRAVI power steering.", "Meanwhile, the 1973 oil crisis put the brakes on the ambitious expansion of Maserati; demand for fuel-hungry sports cars and grand tourers shrank drastically. Austerity measures in Italy meant that the domestic market contracted by 60-70%. All of the main Italian GT car manufacturers were heavily affected, having to lay off workers in order to empty lots of unsold cars. Maserati received the hardest blow, as its home market sales accounted for over half of the total—in contrast with Ferrari's 20%. In this situation, the only Maserati automobile that continued to sell in appreciable numbers was the small-displacement Merak. In 1974, with the 1973–75 recession at its climax, things took a turn for the worse. Citroën went bankrupt and its incorporation into PSA Peugeot Citroën begun. The year closed with domestic sales tumbling from 1973's 360 to 150 units, and losses exceeding the share capital. On 22 May 1975, a press release from Citroën management abruptly announced Maserati had been put into liquidation. The workforce immediately picketed the factory, but production was not halted. Trade unions, the mayor of Modena, and local politicians mobilised to save the 800 jobs; industry minister Carlo Donat-Cattin even flew to Paris to meet Citroën chairman Francois Rollier. An agreement was reached in June, after several meetings and assemblies. During one of these meetings, Citroën liquidators disclosed that a possible Italian buyer had showed up, and the name of Alejandro de Tomaso was put forth for the first time. Citroën accepted to suspend liquidation as requested by the Italian government, which on its part guaranteed six months of special redundancy fund to pay the salaries.", "On 8 August 1975, an agreement was signed at the Ministry of Industry in Rome, and property of Maserati passed from Citroën to Italian state-owned holding company GEPI and Alejandro de Tomaso, an Argentinian industrialist and former racing driver, became president and CEO. As of December 1979, GEPI's quota amounted to 88.75% of Maserati, the remaining 11.25% stake was being controlled by de Tomaso through a holding company which grouped his automotive interests in Maserati and Innocenti. Beginning in 1976, new models were introduced, sharing their underpinnings—but not their engines—with De Tomaso cars; first came the Kyalami grand tourer, derived from the De Tomaso Longchamp, restyled by Frua and powered by Maserati's own V8. Following the Kyalami was the Giugiaro-designed Quattroporte III based on the De Tomaso Deauville, which was introduced in 1976 and put on sale in 1979. The Bora's sales dwindled down; the Khamsin was discontinued between 1982 and 1983. Progressively stripped of its Citroën-derived parts, the Merak continued to sell over one hundred units a year, until 1982.", "The 1980s saw the company largely abandoning the mid-engine sports car in favour of a compact front-engine, rear-drive coupé, the Biturbo. Of fairly conventional construction, the Biturbo's highlight was its twin-turbocharged V6 engine, the first for a production car. This engine, descending from the 90° V6 engineered by Guilio Alfieri, was fitted in a large number of models, all sharing key components; every new Maserati launched up to the 1990s would be based on the Biturbo's platform. The Biturbo family was extremely successful at exploiting the aspirational image of the \"Maserati\" name—selling 40,000 units. In 1983 and 1984, the range was extended to include saloons (the 425 and 420) and a cabriolet (the Zagato-bodied Spyder), respectively on a long and short wheelbase of the Biturbo platform. During 1984, Chrysler bought a 5% share in Maserati. Following an agreement between De Tomaso's friend and Chrysler head Lee Iacocca, a joint venture was signed. Maserati would go on to produce a car for export to the American market, the Chrysler TC by Maserati, with Chrysler-sourced engines. In July of that same year, a merger between Maserati and Nuova Innocenti was decided; it was carried out in 1985. Chrysler upped its stake to 15.6% by underwriting three quarters of a 75 billion Lire capital raise in 1986. New Biturbo-based cars and model evolutions were launched year after year. In 1984, it was the 228, a large coupé built on the long wheelbase saloon chassis, with a new 2.8-litre version of the twin-turbocharged V6. Weber Fuel injection was phased in starting in 1986, bringing improved reliability and a host of new model variants. The same year, the ageing Quattroporte III was updated and marketed as the luxurious Royale, built to order in an handful of examples a year; its discontinuation in 1990 marked the disappearance of Maserati's four-cam V8 engine, a design that could trace its roots back to the 450S racer and the legendary 5000 GT. In 1987, the 2.8-litre 430 topped the saloon range. 1988 brought the Karif, a two-seater, based on the short wheelbase Spyder chassis. Meanwhile, the Biturbo name was dropped altogether, as updated coupés and saloons were updated and became the 222 and 422. 1989 marked the reintroduction of an eight-cylinder grand tourer: the Shamal, built on a modified short wheelbase Biturbo chassis, clad in new muscular bodywork styled by Marcello Gandini. It was powered by an all-new twin-turbocharged 32-valve V8 engine paired to a 6-speed gearbox. 2.0-litre, 24-valve V6 engines were also added to the Shamal range.", "In October 1989, De Tomaso bought the remaining GEPI quota. In December, FIAT entered in Maserati's history. Maserati and Innocenti were separated; Innocenti Milano S.p.A., the company that sold Innocenti cars, continued its business under a 51% FIAT Auto ownership. All of the Modena and Lambrate plants went to a newly created company, the still existent Maserati S.p.A.; 49% of it was owned by FIAT Auto and 51% was controlled by De Tomaso through the old company, Officine Alfieri Maserati. In the early '90s, a mid-engine sports car was developed, the Chubasco—which was to début in 1992. It featured Gandini-designed body, a V8 powertrain, and a backbone chassis. The project was cancelled, as it proved too expensive. Starting in 1990, the entire range of the Biturbo received a facelift designed by Marcello Gandini, on the lines of the Shamal's styling. The last version of the Biturbo coupé was called Racing. It was a transitional model in which several features to be found on the upcoming Ghibli were tested. The Ghibli II was introduced in 1992. It was a six-cylinder coupé, with modified Biturbo underpinnings dressed by new Gandini bodywork (toned down from the Shamal) and the latest evolution of the 24-valve twin-turbocharged V6 with record breaking specific output. The underpinnings of the stillborn Chubasco gave birth to the Maserati Barchetta, a small open top mid-engine sports car styled by Synthesis Design's Carlo Gaino. A one-make racing series was held in 1992 and 1993, using the Barchetta Corsa racing version; the road-going Barchetta Stradale was never put into production. Just 17 units of the Barchetta were produced. Between 1992 and 1994, all models save for the Ghibli and Shamal were progressively discontinued.", "On 19 May 1993, 17 years after having rescued it from liquidation, Alejandro De Tomaso sold his 51% stake in Maserati to FIAT, which became the sole owner. In 1994, the aging Quattroporte III/Royale was replaced by the Quattroporte IV which was ultimately based on Biturbo underpinnings. Styled by Marcello Gandini, it was initially available with a V6 engine shared with the Ghibli II. A more powerful V8 variant was made available in 1996 and \"Seicilindri\" and \"Ottocilindri\" (six and eight cylindres in Italian) badging was introduced to distinguish between the two models. The engine of the V8 model was a development of the Shamal's V8. Over two decades after the ill-fated Chrysler TC by Maserati during Chrysler's brief ownership stake in Maserati, the two companies became interconnected again when FIAT purchased majority control of Chrysler in 2011 as a result of Chrysler's bankruptcy.", "In July 1997, FIAT sold a 50% share in the company to Maserati's long-time arch-rival Ferrari (Ferrari itself being owned by FIAT). In 1999, Ferrari took full control, making Maserati its luxury division. A new factory was built, replacing the existing 1940s-era facility. The steps taken by the new parent company resulted in the improved Quattroporte Evoluzione which was introduced at the March 1998 Geneva Motor Show. In 1998, a new chapter began in Maserati's history when the company launched the 3200 GT. This two-door coupé is powered by a 3.2 L twin-turbocharged V8 derived from the Shamal engine, which is rated at. The last links to the de Tomaso era were cut in 2002, when the 3200 GT was replaced by the Maserati Coupé and Spyder; evolved from the 3200, these cars used an all-new, naturally aspirated, dry sump 4.2-litre V8 with a transaxle gearbox. In turn Coupé and Spyder were replaced by the GranTurismo and GranCabrio. Meanwhile, two new models have been shown to the public: the MC12 road supersports and successful GT racer with a Ferrari Enzo–derived chassis and engine and the new Quattroporte, a luxury saloon with the 4.2-litre V8 engine of the Gran Turismo. Nowadays, Maserati is back in business and successfully selling automobiles on a global basis. In 2001, Ferrari decided to change all of the old tooling and installed high-tech devices in the Modena factory. Since early 2002, Maserati once again entered the United States market, which has quickly become its largest market worldwide. The company has also re-entered the racing arena with their Trofeo and, in December 2003, the MC12 (formerly known as the MCC), which was developed according to FIA GT regulations and has since competed with great success in the world FIA GT championship, winning the teams championship three consecutive times from 2005 to 2007. The MC12 has also been raced in various national GT championship as well as in the American Le Mans series. The MC12 is based on the Enzo Ferrari sports car; 50 street-legal homologation models (roadsters and coupés) have been sold.", "The Maserati and Alfa Romeo group, under FIAT Group, started in 2005, when Maserati was split off from Ferrari and partnered with Alfa Romeo. On 9 June 2005, the 20,000th Maserati, a Quattroporte V, left the factory. In the second quarter of 2007, Maserati made profit for the first time in 17 years under FIAT ownership. On January 22, 2010, FIAT announced that it had created a new partnership/brand group for Alfa Romeo, Maserati, and Abarth. The group was led by Harald J. Wester, the current CEO of Maserati. Sergio Marchionne stated that \"[the] purpose of bringing the Alfa Romeo, Maserati and Abarth brands under the same leadership is to emphasize and leverage the value of the shared qualities of the three brands in terms of their sporting characteristics and performance.\" Abarth stayed under Wester's leadership until 2013, leaving Maserati and Alfa Romeo in the brand group, led by Wester. Although Maserati and Alfa Romeo are in a brand group, Alfa Romeo is structured under FCA Italy S.p.A., which itself is structured under FCA, whereas Maserati is structured solely under FCA. In addition, in an interview with Wester in 2015, he clarified that his \"role at Maserati is different from that in the Alfa Romeo as the latter is better integrated into the FIAT Group\" and that \"the new Alfa car won't share any parts with the current Maserati model. I'm not planning any technical merging of these two makes.\" In 2013, Maserati started its expansion with the Quattroporte VI, which was designed to better compete with the Mercedes-Benz S-Class. This was followed by the introduction of the Ghibli, which was slated to compete against the Mercedes-Benz E-Class and the BMW 5 Series. On May 6, 2014, Maserati confirmed production of the Levante SUV and the Alfieri (previously a 2+2 concept sports car that was named after Alfieri Maserati). The Alfieri has not started production as yet. At this event, it was revealed that 2014 will be the last year of production for the GranTurismo and GranTurismo Convertible, although production of the GranTurismo was extended until 2016, with a facelifted GranTurismo still being unveiled in 2018. The model was finally phased out in November 2019. Along with their expansion, Maserati started their re-entrance into the high-performance car field, in order to compete with brands such as Mercedes-AMG, BMW M, Porsche, Jaguar, and in certain cases, Ferrari. This was done by introducing Maserati models that have high power output engines, higher performance components, and better handling. The top-of-the-line variants of the Quattroporte VI, Ghibli, and Levante have V8 engines with all-wheel drive, in order to better compete with their rival offerings. Maserati sales in 2013 was 15,400 units, which is up from just over 6,000 units worldwide in 2012 (2013 included the release of the new Quattroporte and Ghibli towards the end of the year, and thus the first year to fully represent the sales inclusive of these models is 2014). In May, 2014, Maserati sold a company record of over 3,000 cars worldwide, causing them to increase production of the Ghibli and Quattroporte. For that same month in the United States, Maserati sold 1,114 vehicles, which is up 406.19% over the same month in the previous year in the United States. Maserati's best month of sales in the United States was September 2014, with 1,318 units sold.<ref name=\"autoblog.com 10/14\"></ref> The month in 2014 where the increase on sales for the same month of the previous year was the highest was May, with a volume increase of 406.19%. The sales target for 2018 was 75,000 units worldwide. 2014 marked a historic record of 13,411 total units sold in North America for the year, a 169% increase versus 2013, boasting the highest-ever overall sales year for Maserati North America, Inc. Worldwide, in 2014 Maserati sold about 36,500 cars, a 136% increase over 2013. Harald J. Wester stated that Maserati would not surpass the 70,000 sales per year mark, and that Maserati would maintain its current position in the higher end of the luxury sports car market, rather than expanding downmarket and making vehicles smaller and less expensive than the Ghibli and Levante (such as those similar to the Audi Q5 and Mercedes-Benz C-Class), as other FCA brands, specifically Alfa Romeo, are in those market spaces. Since 2009, Marco Tencone was the head designer of Maserati cars, although, in late 2015, he was announced as remaining in executive positions at Lancia and FIAT only.", "", "", "Italian for \"four-door,\" the Maserati Quattroporte is a sports luxury saloon. The sixth generation of the Quattroporte was introduced in 2013. The Quattroporte is currently available in S Q4, GTS and Diesel trim. The S Q4 has an advanced four wheel drive system, and a 404-horsepower twin-turbochrged V6 engine. The GTS is rear wheel drive, and has a 523-horsepower V8. A Quattroporte Diesel model is offered on selected markets, rated at 275 horsepower (250 hp in Italy) and 442 ft-lbs of torque. The sixth-generation of the Quattroporte has grown in size in order to better compete with the roomier luxury saloons like the Mercedes-Benz S-Class. Since 2018, the Quattroporte S Q4 has been upgraded and is now rated at from its V6, and the GTS is rated at, both with all-wheel drive (for the V8 to increase performance).", "The first presentation of the Ghibli was on 20 April 2013 in Shanghai. It is a sports executive saloon that competes against the BMW 5 Series, Mercedes E-Class and Audi A6. The car, along with the new Quattroporte, is built in the Italian factory of Grugliasco, Turin (former Bertone). The base Ghibli is rated at 330 horsepower, the Ghibli Diesel at 275 horsepower (also 250 in Italy only), and the Ghibli S Q4 at 410 horsepower. Since 2018, the base Ghibli is rated at 350 horsepower and the S Q4 at 450 horsepower. An upgraded Ghibli will be first Maserati's electrified model and is expected to be presented in Beijing at Auto China 2020.", "The Maserati GranTurismo is a grand tourer introduced in 2007. The GranTurismo has a 4.7-litre V8, rated at in Sport trim and for the MC Stradale. A convertible (GranCabrio) version is also available in standard, Sport, and MC models. The final production year for the Maserati GranTurismo was scheduled to be 2014, but it was revived in 2018 with a V8, again in rear wheel drive form.", "The Maserati Levante is a crossover SUV introduced in 2014. It has been anticipated with the Maserati Kubang concept SUV in September 2003 at the Frankfurt Motor Show and again in 2011. It was announced, at the Paris Motor Show held in Paris in September 2012. The Levante is assembled in Mirafiori Plant, in Turin. Production was confirmed on May 6, 2014. The Levante is offered with a 3.0-litre V6 rated at either 350 or 425 horsepower states of tune. All models have all-wheel drive.", "The Maserati MC20 is an upcoming 2-door, mid-engined sports car that is planned to debut in May 2020. It will feature an electric drivetrain option for the first time for Maserati.", "The Maserati Alfieri is a concept 2+2 presented at the Geneva Motor Show in 2014. The concept was based on the lighter chassis of the GranTurismo MC Stradale, although it had a shorter wheelbase. The concept was introduced with a 4.7 litre V8 rated at. The Alfieri was confirmed for production in 2016 at a FIAT Chrysler Automobiles event on May 6, 2014. The production version will have three different V6 engine choices, rated at,, and, respectively. The 450 horsepower and 520 horsepower versions only have an all-wheel drive system. Though as of yet, production has not begun.", "Throughout its history, Maserati has participated in various forms of motorsports including Formula One, sportscar racing and touring car racing, both as a works team and through private entrants. Notable drivers include Juan Manuel Fangio and Prince Bira of Siam. Maserati developed fifteen GranTurismo MC racecars, homologated for the European Cup and National Endurance Series, one of which was raced by GT motorsport organization Cool Victory in Dubai in January, 2010." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Mississippian culture and exploration.", "City founding (French and Spanish Louisiana period).", "19th century.", "20th century.", "21st century.", "Geography.", "Architecture.", "Neighborhoods.", "Topography.", "Climate.", "Flora and fauna.", "Demographics.", "Economy.", "Major companies and institutions.", "Education.", "Colleges and universities.", "Primary and secondary schools.", "Culture.", "Sports.", "Professional sports.", "Amateur sports.", "Chess.", "Parks.", "Government.", "Structure.", "State and federal government.", "Crime.", "Media.", "Transportation.", "Roads and highways.", "Metrolink Light Rail and Subway.", "Airports.", "Port authority.", "Railroad service.", "Bus service.", "Taxi.", "Sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The area that would become St. Louis was a center of the Native American Mississippian culture, which built numerous temple and residential earthwork mounds on both sides of the Mississippi River. Their major regional center was at Cahokia Mounds, active from 900 to 1500. Due to numerous major earthworks within St. Louis boundaries, the city was nicknamed as the \"Mound City\". These mounds were mostly demolished during the city's development. Historic Native American tribes in the area included the Siouan-speaking Osage people, whose territory extended west, and the Illiniwek. European exploration of the area was first recorded in 1673, when French explorers Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette traveled through the Mississippi River valley. Five years later, La Salle claimed the region for France as part of \"La Louisiane.\" The earliest European settlements in the area were built in Illinois Country (also known as Upper Louisiana) on the east side of the Mississippi", "The founding of St. Louis was preceded by a trading business between Gilbert Antoine de St. Maxent and Pierre Laclède (Liguest) in the fall of 1763. Maxent invested in a Mississippi River expedition led by Laclède, who searched for a location to base the company's fur trading operations. Though Ste. Genevieve was already established as a trading center, he sought a place less prone to flooding. He found an elevated area overlooking the flood plain of the Mississippi River, not far south from its confluence with the Missouri", "The city elected its first municipal legislators (called trustees) in 1808. Steamboats first arrived in St. Louis in 1817, improving connections with New Orleans and eastern markets. Missouri was admitted as a state in 1821. St. Louis was incorporated as a city in 1822, and continued to develop largely due to its busy port and trade connections. Immigrants from Ireland and Germany arrived in St. Louis in significant numbers starting in the 1840s, and the population of St. Louis grew", "The city hosted the 1904 World's Fair and the 1904 Summer Olympics, becoming the first non-European city to host the Olympics. Permanent facilities and structures remaining from the fair are Forest Park and associated structures within its boundaries: the St. Louis Art Museum, the St. Louis Zoo and the Missouri History Museum, as well as Tower Grove Park and the Botanical Gardens. After the Civil War, social and racial discrimination in housing and employment were common in St. Louis. In 1916, during the Jim Crow Era, St. Louis passed", "Urban revitalization continued in the new century. Gentrification has taken place in the Washington Avenue Historic District, Central West End and Forest Park Southeast neighborhoods. This helped St. Louis win the World Leadership Award for urban renewal in 2006. In 2017 the US Census Bureau estimated that St. Louis had a population of 308,826 which is", "", "The architecture of St. Louis exhibits a variety of commercial, residential, and monumental architecture. St. Louis is known for the Gateway Arch, the tallest monument constructed in the United States at. The Arch pays homage to Thomas Jefferson and St. Louis's position as the gateway to the West. Architectural influences reflected in the area include French Colonial, German, early American, and modern architectural styles. Some notable post-modern commercial skyscrapers were built downtown in the 1970s and 1980s, including the One US Bank Plaza (1976), the AT&T Center (1986), and One Metropolitan Square (1989), which is the tallest building in St. Louis. One US Bank Plaza, the local headquarters for US Bancorp, was constructed for", "The city is divided into 79 government-designated neighborhoods. The neighborhood divisions have no legal standing, although some neighborhood associations", "According to the United States Census Bureau, St. Louis has a total area of, of which is land and (6.2%) is water. The city is built on bluffs and terraces that rise 100–200 feet above the western banks of the Mississippi River, in the Midwestern United States just south of the Missouri-Mississippi confluence. Much of the area is a fertile and gently rolling prairie that features low hills and broad, shallow valleys. Both the Mississippi River and the Missouri River have cut large valleys with wide flood plains. Limestone and dolomite of the Mississippian epoch underlie the area, and parts of the city are karst in nature. This is particularly true of the area south of", "The urban area of St. Louis has a damp subtropical climate (Köppen: \"Cfa\"); however, its metropolitan region even to the south may present a hot-summer humid continental climate (\"Dfa\"), which shows the effect of the urban heat island in the city. The city experiences hot, humid summers and chilly to cold winters. It is subject to both cold Arctic air and hot, humid tropical air from the Gulf of Mexico. The average annual temperature recorded at nearby Lambert–St. Louis International Airport, is. Both temperatures can be seen on an", "Before the founding of the city, the area was mostly prairie and open forest. Native Americans maintained this environment, good for hunting, by burning underbrush. Trees are mainly oak, maple, and hickory, similar to the forests of the nearby Ozarks; common understory trees include eastern redbud, serviceberry, and flowering dogwood. Riparian areas are forested with mainly American sycamore. Most of the residential areas of the city are planted with large native shade trees. The largest native forest area is found in Forest Park. In autumn, the changing color of the trees is notable. Most species here are typical of the eastern woodland, although numerous decorative non-native species are found. The most notable invasive species is Japanese honeysuckle, which officials are trying to manage because of its damage to native trees. It is removed from some parks. Large mammals found in the city include urbanized coyotes and white-tailed deer.", "St. Louis grew slowly until the American Civil War, when industrialization and immigration sparked a boom. Mid-19th century immigrants included many Irish and Germans; later there were immigrants from southern and eastern Europe. In the early 20th century, African American and white migrants came from the South; the former as part of the Great Migration out of rural areas of the Deep South. Many came from Mississippi and Arkansas. After years of immigration, migration, and expansion, the city reached its peak population in 1950. That year, the Census Bureau reported St. Louis's population as 82% White and 17.9% African American. After World War II, St. Louis began losing population to the suburbs, first because of increased demand for new housing, unhappiness with city services, ease of commuting by highways, and later, white flight. St. Louis's population decline has resulted in a significant increase of abandoned residential housing units and vacant lots throughout the city proper; this blight has attracted much wildlife (such as deer and coyotes) to the many abandoned overgrown lots. St. Louis has lost 64.0% of its population since the 1950 United States Census, the highest percent of any city that had a population of 100,000 or more at the time of the 1950 Census. Detroit, Michigan, and Youngstown, Ohio, are the only other cities that have had population declines of at least 60% in the same time frame. The population of the city of St. Louis has been in decline since the 1950 census; during this period the population of the St. Louis Metropolitan Area, which includes more than one county, has grown every year and continues to do so. A big factor in the decline has been the rapid increase in suburbanization. According to the 2010 United States Census, St. Louis had 319,294 people living in 142,057 households, of which 67,488 households were families. The population density was 5,158.2 people per square mile (1,990.6/km2). About 24% of the population was 19 or younger, 9% were 20 to 24, 31% were 25 to 44, 25% were 45 to 64, and 11% were 65 or older. The median age was about 34 years. The population was about 49.2% African American, 43.9% White (42.2% Non-Hispanic White), 2.9% Asian, 0.3% Native American/Alaska Native, and 2.4% reporting two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3.5% of the population. The African-American population is concentrated in the north side of the city (the area north of Delmar Boulevard is 94.0% black, compared with 35.0% in the central corridor and 26.0% in the south side of St. Louis). Among the Asian-American population in the city, the largest ethnic group is Vietnamese (0.9%), followed by Chinese (0.6%) and Indians (0.5%). The Vietnamese community has concentrated in the Dutchtown neighborhood of south St. Louis; Chinese are concentrated in the Central West End. People of Mexican descent are the largest Latino group, and make up 2.2% of St. Louis's population. They have the highest concentration in the Dutchtown, Benton Park West (Cherokee Street), and Gravois Park neighborhoods. People of Italian descent are concentrated in The Hill. In 2000, the median income for a household in the city was $29,156, and the median income for a family was $32,585. Males had a median income of $31,106; females, $26,987. Per capita income was $18,108. Some 19% of the city's housing units were vacant, and slightly less than half of these were vacant structures not for sale or rent. In 2010, St. Louis's per-capita rates of online charitable donations and volunteerism were among the highest among major U.S. cities. , 91.05% (270,934) of St. Louis city residents age 5 and older spoke English at home as a primary language, while 2.86% (8,516) spoke Spanish, 0.91% (2,713) Serbo-Croat, 0.74% (2,200) Vietnamese, 0.50% (1,495) African languages, 0.50% (1,481) Chinese, and French was spoken as a main language by 0.45% (1,341) of the population over the age of five. In total, 8.95% (26,628) of St. Louis's population age 5 and older spoke a mother language other than English.", "The gross domestic product of the St. Louis metro area was $160 billion in 2016, up from $155 billion the previous year. The gross metropolitan product of Greater St. Louis was $146 billion in 2014, the 21st-highest in the country, up from $144 billion in 2013, $138.4 billion in 2012, and $133.1 billion in 2011. The St. Louis metropolitan area had a per-capita GDP of $48,738 in 2014, up 1.6% from the previous year. In 2007, manufacturing in the city conducted nearly $11 billion in business, followed by the health care and social service industry with $3.5 billion; professional or technical services with $3.1 billion; and the retail trade with $2.5 billion. The health care sector was the area's biggest employer with 34,000 workers, followed by administrative and support jobs, 24,000; manufacturing, 21,000, and food service, 20,000.", ", the St. Louis Metropolitan Area is home to ten Fortune 500 companies, the 7th-most among U.S. cities. They include Express Scripts, Emerson Electric, Monsanto, Reinsurance Group of America, Centene, Graybar Electric, and Edward Jones Investments. Other notable corporations headquartered in the region include Arch Coal, Wells Fargo Advisors (formerly A.G. Edwards), Energizer Holdings, Patriot Coal, Post Foods, United Van Lines, and Mayflower Transit, Post Holdings, Olin, and Enterprise Holdings (a parent company of several car rental companies). Notable corporations with operations in St. Louis include Cassidy Turley, Kerry Group, Mastercard, TD Ameritrade, and BMO Harris Bank. Health", "", "The city is home to three national research universities, University of Missouri-St. Louis, Washington University in St. Louis and St. Louis University, as classified under the Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education. Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis has been ranked among the top 10 medical schools in the country by US News & World Report for as long as the list has been", "The St. Louis Public Schools (SLPS) operate more than 75 schools, attended by more than 25,000 students, including several magnet schools. SLPS operates under provisional accreditation from the state of Missouri and is under the governance of a state-appointed school board called the Special Administrative Board, although a local board continues to exist without legal authority over the district. Since 2000, charter schools have operated in", "With its French past and waves of Catholic immigrants in the 19th and 20th centuries, from Ireland, Germany and Italy, St. Louis is a major center of Roman Catholicism in the United States. St. Louis also boasts the largest Ethical Culture Society in the United States and is one of the most generous cities in the United States, ranking ninth in 2013. Several places of worship in the city are noteworthy, such as the Cathedral Basilica of St. Louis, home of the world's largest mosaic installation. Other notable churches include the Basilica of St. Louis, King of France, the oldest Roman Catholic cathedral west of the Mississippi River and the oldest church in St. Louis; the St. Louis Abbey, whose distinctive architectural style garnered multiple awards at the time of its completion in 1962; and St. Francis de Sales Oratory, a neo-Gothic church completed in 1908 in South St. Louis and the second largest church in the city. The city is identified with music and the performing arts, especially its association with blues, jazz, and ragtime. St. Louis is home to the St. Louis Symphony, the second oldest symphony orchestra in the United States. Until 2010, it was also home to KFUO-FM, one of the oldest classical music FM radio stations west of the Mississippi River. Opera Theatre", "St. Louis is home to the St. Louis Cardinals of Major League Baseball, the St. Louis Blues of the National Hockey League, notable and collegiate-level soccer teams. It is one of nine North American cities to have won titles in all four major leagues (MLB, NFL, NHL and NBA), having joined the prestigious group with the 2019 Stanley Cup championship for the Blues, and is one of three American cities to have hosted an Olympic Games. The following table lists the professional sports teams in the St Louis area:", "St. Louis is home to two major league sports teams. The St. Louis Cardinals are one of the most successful franchises in Major League Baseball. The Cardinals have won 19 National League (NL) titles (the most pennants for the league franchise in one city) and 11 World Series titles (second to the New York Yankees and the most by any NL franchise), recently in 2011. They play at Busch Stadium. Previously, the St. Louis Browns played in the American League (AL) from 1902 to 1953, before moving to Baltimore, Maryland to become the current incarnation of the Orioles. The 1944 World Series was an all-St. Louis World", "St. Louis has hosted the Final Four of both the women's and men's college basketball NCAA Division I championship tournaments, and the Frozen Four collegiate ice hockey tournament. St. Louis University has won 10 NCAA Men's Soccer Championships, and the city has hosted the College Cup several times. In addition", "St. Louis is home to the Chess Club and Scholastic Center of St. Louis (CCSCSL) where the U.S. Chess Championship is held. St. Louisan Rex Sinquefield founded the CCSCSL and moved the World Chess Hall of", "The city operates more than 100 parks, with amenities that include sports facilities, playgrounds, concert areas, picnic areas, and lakes. Forest Park, located on the western edge of city, is the largest, occupying 1,400 acres of land, making it almost twice as large as Central Park in New York City. The park is home to five major institutions, including the St. Louis Art Museum, the St. Louis Zoo, the St. Louis Science Center, the Missouri History Museum, and the Muny amphitheatre. Another significant park in the city is Gateway Arch National Park, which was known as the Jefferson National Expansion Memorial until 2018 and is located on the riverfront in downtown St. Louis. The centerpiece of the park is the tall Gateway Arch, a National Memorial designed by noted architect", "The city of St. Louis has a strong mayor–council government with legislative authority and oversight vested in the Board of Aldermen of the City of St. Louis and with executive authority in the Mayor of St. Louis and six other elected officials. The Board of Aldermen is made up of 28 members (one elected from each of the city's wards) plus a board president who is elected citywide. The 2014 fiscal year budget topped $1 billion for the first time, a 1.9% increase over the $985.2 million budget in 2013. 238,253 registered voters lived in the city in 2012, down from 239,247 in 2010, and 257,442 in 2008.", "The mayor is the chief executive officer of the city and is responsible for appointing city department heads including; the director of public safety, the director of streets & traffic, the director of health, the director of human services, the director of the airport, the director of parks & recreation, the director of workforce development, the director of the Community Development Agency, the director of economic development, the director of public utilities, the director of the Civil Rights Enforcement Agency,", "St. Louis is split between 11 districts in the Missouri House of Representatives: all of the 76th, 77th, 78th, 79th, 80th, 81st, 82nd, and 84th, and parts of the 66th, 83rd, and 93rd, which are shared with St. Louis County. The 5th Missouri Senate district is entirely within the city, while the 4th is shared with St. Louis County. At the federal level, St. Louis is the heart of, which also includes part of northern St. Louis County. A Republican has not represented a significant portion of St. Louis in the U.S. House since 1953. Correspondingly, despite voting Republican prior to 1928 in", "The city of St. Louis has,, the highest murder rate, per capita, in the United States, with 188 homicides in 2015 (59.3 homicides per 100,000) and ranks No. 13 of the most dangerous cities in the world by homicide rate. Detroit, Flint, Memphis, Birmingham, and Baltimore have higher overall violent crime rates than St. Louis, when comparing other crimes such as rape, robbery, and aggravated assault. Despite these high crime rates relative to other American cities, St. Louis index crime rates have declined almost every year since the peak in 1993 (16,648), to the 2014 level of 7,931 (which is the sum of violent crimes and property crimes) per 100,000. In 2015, the index crime rate reversed the 2005–2014 decline to a level of 8,204. Between 2005 and 2014, violent crime has declined by 20%, although rates of violent crime remains 6", "Greater St. Louis commands the 19th-largest media market in the United States, a position roughly unchanged for over a decade. All of the major U.S. television networks have affiliates in St. Louis, including KTVI 2 (Fox), KMOV 4 (CBS), KSDK 5 (NBC), KETC 9 (PBS), KPLR-TV 11 (CW), KDNL 30 (ABC), WRBU 46 (Ion), and WPXS 51 Daystar Television Network. Among the area's most popular radio stations are KMOX (AM sports and talk, notable as the longtime flagship station for St. Louis Cardinals broadcasts), KLOU (FM oldies), WIL-FM (FM country), WARH (FM adult hits), and KSLZ (FM Top 40 mainstream). St. Louis also supports public radio's KWMU, an NPR affiliate, and community radio's KDHX. KZQZ is a popular Oldies station. All-sports stations, such as KFNS 590 AM \"The Fan\", WXOS \"101.1 ESPN\",", "Road, rail, ship, and air transportation modes connect the city with surrounding communities in Greater St. Louis, national transportation networks, and international locations. St. Louis also supports a public transportation network that includes bus and light rail service.", "Four interstate highways connect the city to a larger regional highway system. Interstate 70, an east–west highway, runs from the northwest corner of the city to downtown St. Louis. The north–south Interstate 55 enters the city at the south near the Carondelet neighborhood and runs toward the center of the city, and both Interstate 64 and Interstate 44 enter the city on the west, running parallel to the east. Two of the four interstates (Interstates 55 and 64) merge south of Gateway Arch National Park and leave the city on the Poplar Street Bridge into", "The St. Louis metro area is served by MetroLink (known as Metro) and is the 11th-largest light rail system in the country with of double track light rail. The Red Line and The Blue Line both serve all the stations in the inner city, and branch to different destinations beyond in the suburban areas. Both lines enter the city north of Forest Park on the western edge of the city or on the Eads Bridge in", "St. Louis is served by two passenger airports. St. Louis Lambert International Airport, owned and operated by the City of St. Louis, is 11 miles northwest of downtown along highway I-70 between I-170 and I-270 in St. Louis County. It is the largest and busiest airport in the state. In 2016, when the airport had more than 255 daily departures to about 90 domestic and international locations, it served more than 15 million passengers. The airport serves as a focus hub city for Southwest Airlines; it was once", "River transportation is available through the Port of St. Louis, which is 19.3 miles of riverbank on the Mississippi River that handles more than 32 million tons of freight annually. The Port", "Inter-city rail passenger train service in the city is provided by Amtrak at the Gateway Multimodal Transportation Center downtown. Amtrak trains terminating in the city include the \"Lincoln Service\" to Chicago and the \"Missouri River Runner\" to Kansas City, Missouri. St. Louis is an intermediate stop on the \"Texas Eagle\" route which provides long-distance passenger service between Chicago, San Antonio, and three days a week, to Los Angeles. St. Louis is the nation's third largest freight rail hub, moving Missouri exports such as fertilizer, gravel, crushed stone, prepared foodstuffs, fats, oils, nonmetallic mineral products, grain, alcohol, tobacco", "Local bus service in the city of St. Louis is provided by the Bi-State Development Agency via MetroBus, with more than 75 routes connecting to MetroLink light rail transit and stops in the city and region.", "Taxicab service in the city is provided by private companies regulated by the Metropolitan Taxicab Commission. Rates vary by vehicle type, size, passengers and distance, and", "St. Louis has 16 sister cities." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Nomenclature.", "Origins.", "Origin theories.", "Population genetics.", "Genetic disease studies.", "Language.", "The Irish state and Irish Travellers.", "Population.", "Ireland.", "Diaspora.", "United Kingdom.", "United States.", "Religion.", "Education.", "Sports.", "Health.", "Marriage.", "Social conflict and controversies.", "Discrimination and prejudice.", "Pejorative names.", "Work and income.", "Social identity.", "Violence and crime.", "Land disputes.", "List of Travellers' organisations.", "Depictions and documentaries.", "See also." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Travellers refer to themselves as \"Minkiers\" or \"Pavees\", or in Irish as (\"the walking people\"). \"Pikey\" or \"pikie\" is a slang term, which is pejorative and is a derogatory term aimed towards Travellers. It is used in the US, UK and Ireland to refer to Travellers. In a pejorative sense it means \"a lower-class person\", perhaps 'coarse' or 'disreputable'. It is not well received among Irish Travellers or Romani, as it is an ethnic slur.", "The historical origins of Irish Travellers as a distinct group is still unknown. It continues to be the subject of academic and popular debate. Research has been complicated by the fact that the group appears to have no written records of its own. Deeper documentation of Shelta and the Travellers dates to the 1830s, but knowledge of Irish Travellers has been seen from the 1100s, as well as the 1500s-1800s. Many decrees against begging in England were directed at Travellers, passed by King Edward VI around 1551. One such decree was the “Acte for tynckers and pedlers”. The identity of Irish Travellers resembles other itinerant communities, some aspects being self-employment, family networks, birth, marriage, and burial rituals, taboos and folklore. Because they worked with metal, Travellers had to travel throughout Ireland and work on making various items such as ornaments, jewellery and horse harnesses to make a living. As a result, by 1175, they were referred to as “tinkler,” “tynkere,” or Tinkers, as well as Gypsies, all of which are derogative names to refer to their itinerant way of life.", "Many different theories have been put forward to explain the origins of Ireland's itinerant population. It has been suggested Travellers are related to Romani due to a similarly itinerant lifestyle, but genetic testing has shown no evidence for a recent ancestral component between Travellers and Romani Gypsies. One idea is of their being distantly related to a Celtic group that invaded Ireland. Another theory is of a pre-Gaelic origin, where Travellers are descended from a community that lived in Ireland before the arrival of the Celts. Once Ireland was claimed as Celtic, this group was seen as lower class. There is also a theory that an indigenous, itinerant community of craftsmen are the ancestors of Travellers, and they never settled down like the Celts. Other speculations on their origin are that they were descended from those Irish who were made homeless during the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland in the 1650s, or made homeless in either the 1741 or the 1840s famine due to eviction. According to a 2003 book by Jane Helleiner, current scholarship is investigating the background of Gaelic Ireland before the English Tudor conquest. The mobile nature and traditions of a Gaelic society based on pastoralism rather than land tenure before this event implies that Travellers represent descendants of the Gaelic social order marginalised during the change-over to an English landholding society. An early example of this mobile element in the population, and how displacement of clans can lead to increased nomadism within aristocratic warrior societies, is that of the Clan Murtough O' Connors, displaced after the Norman invasion.", "Present genetic evidence indicates that they are genetically Irish. In 2011, researchers at the Royal College of Surgeons in Dublin and the University of Edinburgh analysed DNA samples from 40 Travellers. The study provided evidence that Irish Travellers are a distinct Irish ethnic minority, who have been distinct from the settled Irish community for at least 1000 years; the report claimed that they are as distinct from the settled community as Icelanders are from Norwegians. However, this apparent distance may be the effect of genetic drift within a small homogeneous population and may therefore exaggerate the distance between the two populations. A genetic analysis of Irish Travellers found evidence to support: (1) Irish ancestry; (2) several distinct subpopulations; and (3) the distinctiveness of the midland counties due to Viking influence. In 2017 a further genetic study using profiles of 50 Irish Travellers, 143 European Roma, 2232 settled Irish, 2039 British and 6255 European or worldwide individuals confirmed ancestral origin within the general Irish population. An estimated time of divergence between the settled population and Travellers was set at a minimum of 8 generations ago, with generations at 30 years, hence 240 years and a maximum of 14 generations or 420 years ago. The best fit was estimated at 360 years ago, giving an approximate date in the 1650s. This date coincides well with the final destruction of Gaelic society following the 1641 Rebellion and during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms in which Cromwell's forces devastated the country. Irish Travellers are not an entirely homogeneous group, instead reflecting some of the variation also seen in the settled population. Four distinct genetic clusters were identified in the 2017 study, and these match social groupings within the community.", "Genetic studies by Miriam Murphy, David Croke, and other researchers identified certain genetic diseases such as galactosemia that are more common in the Irish Traveller population, involving identifiable allelic mutations that are rarer among the rest of the community. Two main hypotheses have arisen, speculating whether: They concluded that: \"The fact that Q188R is the sole mutant allele among the Travellers as compared to the non-Traveller group may be the result of a founder effect in the isolation of a small group of the Irish population from their peers as founders of the Traveller sub-population. This would favour the second, endogenous, hypothesis of Traveller origins.\" More specifically, they found that Q188R was found in 100% of Traveller samples, and in 89% of other Irish samples, indicating that the Traveller group was typical of the larger Irish population.", "Irish Travellers speak English and sometimes one of two dialects of Shelta—Gammon (or Gamin) and Irish Traveller Cant. Shelta has been dated back to the 18th century but may be older. Cant, which derives from Irish, is a combination of English and Shelta. Shelta is a secret language. Irish Travellers do not like to share the language with outsiders, named “Buffers”, or non-Travellers. When speaking Shelta in front of Buffers, Travellers will disguise the structure so as to make it seem like they are not speaking Shelta at all. There is fear that if outsiders know the entirety of the language, it will be used to bring further discrimination to the Traveller community.", "There was no specific state focus on Travellers prior to the creation of an independent Irish state in 1922. Issues with traditionally travelling groups came under loosely defined vagrancy laws, originating from when Ireland was part of the United Kingdom. In 1959 the 1959–63 government of Ireland established a \"Commission on Itinerancy\" in response to calls to deal with the \"itinerant problem\". This was made up of senior representatives of the Irish state, judges, Gardaí, religious organisations and numerous farming lobby groups such as Macra na Feirme. The Commission had no Traveller representatives, neither were they consulted. The Commission had the following terms of reference: The Commission's 1963 report defined \"itinerant\" as \"a person who had no fixed place of abode and habitually wandered from place to place, but excluding travelling show-people and travelling entertainers\". It recommended assimilation of travellers by settling them in fixed dwellings, viewing the Netherlands' approach to its travelling minority as a model. This assimilation was to be achieved by the effective criminalisation of nomadism, and the report paved the way for an increasing state emphasis on criminal laws and penalties for trespass. At the time, about 60% Irish travellers lived in barrel-roofed horse-drawn wagons, with almost 40% still using tents in summer (fewer in winter). The Travelling People Review Body (1981–83) advocated integration rather than assimilation, with provision for serviced halting sites. The Body's membership included travellers. The Task Force on the Travelling Community (1993–95) moved to an intercultural paradigm. On 30 May 2019 the Oireachtas (Irish parliament) established a joint committee \"on Key Issues affecting the Traveller Community\".", "", "The 2016 census in the Republic of Ireland reported the number of Irish Travellers as 30,987, up from 29,495 in 2011. In 2006 the number was 22,369. A further 1,700 to 2,000 were estimated to live in Northern Ireland. From the 2006 Irish census it was determined that 20,975 dwell in urban areas and 1,460 were living in rural areas. With an overall population of just 0.5% some areas were found to have a higher proportion, with high Traveller concentrations in Clare, Dublin, Galway and Limerick. There were found to be 9,301 Travellers in the 0–14 age range, comprising 41.5% of the Traveller population, and a further 3,406 of them were in the 15–24 age range, comprising 15.2%. Children of age range 0–17 comprised 48.7% of the Traveller population. Following the findings of the All Ireland Traveller Health Study (estimates for 2008), the figure for Northern Ireland was revised to 3,905 and that for the Republic to 36,224.", "", "In 2011, for the first time, the census category \"Irish Traveller\" was introduced as part of the broader Gypsy/Traveller section. The self reported figure for collective Gypsy/Traveller populations were 63,193 but estimates of Irish Travellers living in Great Britain range are about 15,000 as part of a total estimation of over 300,000 Romani and other Traveller groups in the UK. The London Boroughs of Harrow and Brent contain significant Irish Traveller populations. In addition to those on various official sites there are a number who are settled in local authority housing. These are mostly women who wish their children to have a chance at a good education. They and the children may or may not travel in the summer but remain in close contact with the wider Irish Traveller community. There are also a number of Irish Traveller communities in the Home Counties.", "An estimated 10,000 people in the United States are descendants of Travellers who left Ireland, mostly between 1845 and 1860 during the Great Famine. However, there are no official population figures regarding Irish Travellers in the United States as the US census does not recognise them as an ethnic group. While some sources estimate their population in the US to be 10,000, others suggest their population is 40,000. According to research published in 1992, Irish travellers in the US divide themselves up into groups that are based on historical residence: Ohio Travellers, Georgia Travellers, Texas Travellers, and Mississippi Travellers. The Georgia Travelers' camp is made up of about eight hundred families, the Mississippi Travelers, about three hundred families, and the Texas Travelers, under fifty families.\" The largest and most affluent population of about 2,500 lives in Murphy Village, outside of the town of North Augusta, South Carolina. Other communities exist in Memphis, Tennessee, Hernando, Mississippi, and near White Settlement, Texas, where the families stay in their homes during the winter, and leave during the summer, while smaller enclaves can be found across Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi. Irish Travellers in the US are said to speak English and Shelta, a form of Cant. The Cant spoken in the US is similar to the Cant spoken in Ireland, but differs in some respects in that the language has transformed into a type of pidgin English over the generations. They typically work in asphalting, spray-painting, laying linoleum, or as itinerant workers to earn their living.", "Travellers have a distinctive approach to religion; the vast majority of them are practising Roman Catholics and they also pay particular attention to issues of healing. They have been known to follow a strict code of behaviour that dictates some of their moral beliefs and influences their actions.", "Traveller children often grow up outside educational systems. The Irish Traveller Movement, a community advocacy group, promotes equal access to education for Traveller children. In December 2010, the Irish Equality Tribunal ruled in favour of a traveller child in an anti-discrimination suit which covered the admission practices of CBS High School Clonmel in County Tipperary. In July 2011, the secondary school in Clonmel successfully appealed the decision of the Equality Tribunal that its admission criteria were indirectly discriminatory against children from the Traveller community.", "Irish Travellers have a long history of bare-knuckle boxing. Toughness and the ability to fight are viewed as particularly important among Traveller men, and their involvement in boxing has extended to traditional amateur and professional boxing. Irish Traveller Francie Barrett represented Ireland at the 1996 Olympics, while Andy Lee fought for Ireland at the 2004 Olympics and later became the first Traveller to win a professional boxing world championship when he won the WBO middleweight title in 2014. Tyson Fury is of Irish Traveller heritage and defeated long-reigning Wladimir Klitschko in 2015 to become the unified heavyweight world champion. In the Traveller community, bare-knuckle boxing is seen as a way to resolve disputes and uphold family honour, as shown in the 2011 documentary \"Knuckle\". This behaviour can lead to injuries, notably \"fight bite\" where, when punching an opponent, a tooth may cut the hand and bacteria in the opponent's mouth may infect the wound. This infection can lead to permanent disability if the afflicted is not provided treatment, which is common among Travellers as they often view seeking medical help as weakness. Apart from boxing, Irish Travellers, including women, are involved in sports such as football (soccer) and handball.", "The health of Irish Travellers is significantly poorer than that of the general population in Ireland. This is evidenced in a 2007 report published in Ireland, which states that over half of Travellers do not live past the age of 39 years. (By comparison, median life expectancy in Ireland is 81.5 years.) Another government report of 1987 found: From birth to old age, they have high mortality rates, particularly from accidents, metabolic and congenital problems, but also from other major causes of death. Female Travellers have especially high mortality compared to settled women. In 2007, the Department of Health and Children in the Republic of Ireland, in conjunction with the Department of Health, Social Services and Public Safety in Northern Ireland, commissioned the University College Dublin's School of Public Health and Population Science to conduct a major cross-border study of Travellers' welfare. The study, including a detailed census of Traveller population and an examination of their health status, was expected to take up to three years to complete. The main results of the study were published in 2010. The birth rate of Irish Travellers has decreased since the 1990s, but they still have one of the highest birth rates in Europe. The birth rate for the Traveller community for the year 2005 was 33.32 per 1,000, possibly the highest birth rate recorded for any community in Europe. On average there are ten times more driving fatalities within the Traveller community. At 22%, this represents the most common cause of death among Traveller males. Some 10% of Traveller children die before their second birthday, compared to just 1% of the general population. In Ireland, 2.6% of all deaths in the total population were for people aged under 25, versus 32% for the Travellers. In addition, 80% of Travellers die before the age of 65. According to the National Traveller Suicide Awareness Project, Traveller men are over six times more likely to kill themselves than the general population.", "Teenage marriage is common among Irish Travellers. Couples tend to marry very young. According to Judith Okely, \"there is no large time span between puberty and marriage\" of Travellers. Okely wrote in 1983 that the typical marriage age for females was 16–17 and the typical marriage age for males was 18–19. the average age of an Irish Traveller was 22.4 and 52.2% were aged under 20. Yet only 252 15–19-year-old enumerated Irish Travellers identified themselves as married. In contrast, the Department of the Environment, Community and Local Government (DEHLG) \"definition of a family includes unmarried Traveller men over 18 as a unit\" because, according to Abdalla et al., \"it is understood that they will marry at this age and require an additional unit of accommodation.\" Irish Travellers generally marry other Irish Travellers. Consanguineous marriage is common among Irish Travellers. Irish Travellers lived as cohabiters who \"married at one time without religious or civil ceremony.\" Into the early 20th century about one-third of Irish Travellers were \"married according to the law.\" According to Christopher Griffin, arranged Irish Traveller marriages in the early 21st century \"safeguard the girl's by securing a man who won't mistreat her.\" According to Julie Bindel, in \"Standpoint\", some Irish Traveller females in the UK are forced into marriages, but Bindel points out that data is difficult to obtain because \"the line between an arranged marriage and a forced one is not always clear.\"", "", "Travellers are often reported as the subject of explicit political and cultural discrimination, with politicians being elected on promises to block Traveller housing in local communities and individuals frequently refused service in pubs, shops and hotels. A 2011 survey by the Economic and Social Research Institute of Ireland concluded that there is widespread ostracism of Travellers in Ireland, and the report concluded that it could hurt the long-term prospects for Travellers, who \"need the intercultural solidarity of their neighbours in the settled community.... They are too small a minority, i.e., 0.5 per cent, to survive in a meaningful manner without ongoing and supportive personal contact with their fellow citizens in the settled community.\" The general prejudice against Travellers hinders efforts by the central government to integrate Travellers into Irish society. Because Travellers are a minority group within Ireland and the United Kingdom, they have always faced discrimination on the basis of their ethnicity as Travellers. They experience discrimination in not having equal access to education, being denied service in pubs, shops, and hotels, and being subject to derogatory language. In 2016, the USA's Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for the United Kingdom stated that Irish Travellers (among other groups) widely reported discrimination in the country, and highlighted that the High Court had ruled the government had illegally discriminated against Travellers by unlawfully subjecting planning applications to special scrutiny.", "Travellers are often referred to by the terms \"tinkers\", \"gipsies/gypsies\", \"itinerants\", or, pejoratively, they are referred to as \"knackers\" in Ireland. Some of these terms refer to services that were traditionally provided by the group: tinkering or tinsmithing, for example, being the mending of tinware such as pots and pans, and knackering being the acquisition of dead or old horses for slaughter. The term \"gypsy\" first appears in records which date back to the 16th century when it was originally used to refer to the continental Romani people in England and Scotland, who were mistakenly thought to be Egyptian. Other derogatory names for itinerant groups have been used to refer to Travellers including the word \"pikey\".", "According to the 2002 Irish census, \"the labour force participation rate for male Travellers (72%) slightly exceeded that for total males (70%) while the rate for female Travellers (38%) was considerably below that for females in general (47%). Unemployment among male Travellers measured 73 per cent according to the self-assessed principal economic status question on the census form. The national measure of unemployment for males on a comparable basis was 9.4 per cent according to the 2002 census results. Corresponding rates for females were 63 per cent for female Travellers and 8 per cent for the female population overall.\" Many Travellers are breeders of dogs such as greyhounds or lurchers and have a long-standing interest in horse trading. The main fairs associated with them are held annually at Ballinasloe (County Galway), Puck Fair (County Kerry), Ballabuidhe Horse Fair (County Cork), the twice yearly Smithfield Horse Fair (Dublin inner city) and Appleby (England). They are often involved in dealing scrap metals, e.g., 60% of the raw material for Irish steel is sourced from scrap metal, approximately 50% (75,000 metric tonnes) segregated by the community at a value of more than £1.5 million. Such percentages for more valuable non-ferrous metals may be significantly greater. Since the majority of Irish Travellers' employment is either self-employment or wage labour, income and financial status varies greatly from family to family. Many families choose not to reveal the specifics of their finances, but when explained it is very difficult to detect any sort of pattern or regular trend of monthly or weekly income. To detect their financial status many look to the state of the possessions: their trailer, motor vehicle, domestic utensils, and any other valuables.", "Irish Travellers are recognised in British and Irish law as an ethnic group. An ethnic group is defined as one whose members identify with each other, usually on the basis of a presumed common genealogy or ancestry. Ethnic identity is also marked by the recognition from others of a group's distinctiveness and by common cultural, linguistic, religious, behavioural or biological traits. The European Parliament Committee of Enquiry on Racism and Xenophobia found them to be among the most discriminated-against ethnic groups in Ireland and yet their status remains insecure in the absence of widespread legal endorsement. Travellers are often viewed by settled people in a negative light, perceived as insular, anti-social, 'drop-outs' and'misfits', or believed to be involved in criminal and mendicant behaviour, or settling illegally on land owned by others.", "In 1960 a government body was set up to conduct research into the Travelling Community in the Republic of Ireland. The Commission on Itinerancy operated under the auspices of the Department of Justice, the persons were appointed by the Junior Minister Charles Haughey. One finding was: that \"public brawling fuelled by excessive drinking further added to settled people's fear of Travellers\". Furthermore \"feuding was felt to be the result of a dearth of pastimes and [of] illiteracy, historically comparable to features of rural Irish life before the Famine.\" In 2008 a faction fight riot broke out in D'Alton Park, Mullingar involving up to 65 people of the Nevin, Dinnegan and McDonagh families. The court hearing in 2010 resulted in suspended sentences for all the defendants. The cause may have been an unpaid gambling debt linked to a bare-knuckle boxing match. A 2011 report, conducted by the Irish Chaplaincy in Britain, \"Voices Unheard: A Study of Irish Travellers in Prison\" (Mac Gabhann, 2011) found that social, economic and educational exclusion were contributing factors to the \"increasingly high levels of imprisonment\" of Irish Travellers. In 2016, Irish Travellers from the southern East Coast of the United States pled guilty to charges of perpetrated scams on homeowners and government agencies. By 2017, 52 had pled guilty to violations of the federal Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act (RICO).", "A common complaint against Travellers in the United Kingdom is that of unauthorised Traveller sites being established on privately owned land or on council-owned land not designated for that purpose. Under the government's \"\"Gypsy and Traveller Sites Grant\"\", designated sites for Travellers' use are provided by councils, and funds are made available to local authorities for the construction of new sites and maintenance and extension of existing sites. However, Travellers make frequent use of other, non-authorised sites. These include public \"common land\" and private plots such as large fields and other privately owned land. A famous example was Dale Farm in Essex. The Travellers claim that there is an under-provision of authorised sites. The Gypsy Council estimates an under-provision amounts to insufficient sites for 3,500 people. The passing of the Caravan Sites Act 1968, for some time, safeguarded their right to a site, but the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994 repealed part II of the 1968 act, removing the duty on local authorities in the UK to provide sites for Travellers and giving them the power to close down existing sites. In Northern Ireland, opposition to Travellers' sites has been led by the Democratic Unionist Party.", "The following are some of the Travellers' representative organisations formed since the 1960s:", "Irish Travellers have been depicted, usually negatively but sometimes with some care and sympathy, in film, radio, print, and television. Shows like \"The Riches\" (2007–2008), the American television series featuring Eddie Izzard and Minnie Driver, take a deeper look into the Traveller lifestyle. The documentary series \"Big Fat Gypsy Weddings\" (2010, 2011, and 2012) has been commercially successful in the United Kingdom, offering glimpses of Traveller life as viewed at real-life weddings. A 1997 American film, \"Traveller\", starring Bill Paxton and Mark Wahlberg, also explored the Travellers in America. In his 1993 documentary \"Rules of the Road\" German filmmaker Oliver Herbrich portrayed the Travellers in Ireland and the UK as a nomadic ethnic group forced to adapt to settled lifestyle.", "Advocacy: Similar groups:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "19th century.", "20th century.", "New Deal era.", "21st century.", "Name and symbols.", "Political positions.", "Economic policies.", "Environmental policies.", "Immigration.", "Foreign policy and national defense.", "Social policies.", "Abortion and embryonic stem cell research.", "Civil rights.", "Gun ownership.", "Drugs.", "LGBT issues.", "Voting rights.", "Democracy.", "Composition.", "Republican presidents." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The Republican Party was founded in the Northern states in 1854 by forces opposed to the expansion of slavery, ex-Whigs, and ex-Free Soilers. The Republican Party quickly became the principal opposition to the dominant Democratic Party and the briefly popular Know Nothing Party. The party grew out of opposition to the Kansas–Nebraska Act, which repealed the Missouri Compromise and opened Kansas Territory and Nebraska Territory to slavery and future admission as slave states. The Republicans called for economic and social modernization. They denounced the expansion of slavery as a great evil, but did not call for ending it in the Southern states. The first public meeting of the general anti-Nebraska movement, at which the", "The 1896 realignment cemented the Republicans as the party of big businesses while Theodore Roosevelt added more small business support by his embrace of trust busting. He handpicked his successor William Howard Taft in 1908, but they became enemies as the party split down the middle. Taft defeated Roosevelt for the 1912 nomination and Roosevelt ran on the ticket of his new Progressive (\"Bull Moose\") Party. He called for social reforms, many of which were later championed by New Deal Democrats in the 1930s. He lost and", "The New Deal coalition of Democrat Franklin D. Roosevelt controlled American politics for most of the next three decades, excluding the two-term presidency of Republican Dwight D. Eisenhower. After Roosevelt took office in 1933, New Deal legislation sailed through Congress and the economy moved sharply upward from its nadir in early 1933. However, long-term unemployment remained a drag until 1940. In the 1934 midterm elections, 10 Republican senators went down to defeat, leaving the GOP with only 25 senators against 71 Democrats. The House of Representatives likewise had overwhelming Democratic majorities. The Republican Party factionalized into a majority \"Old Right\" (based in the Midwest) and a liberal wing based in the Northeast that supported much of the New Deal. The Old Right sharply attacked the \"Second New Deal\" and said it represented class warfare and socialism. Roosevelt was re-elected in a landslide in 1936; however, as his second term began, the economy declined, strikes soared, and he failed to take control of the Supreme Court or to purge the Southern conservatives from the Democratic Party. Republicans made a major comeback in the 1938 elections and had new rising stars such as Robert A. Taft of Ohio on the right and Thomas E. Dewey of New York on the left. Southern conservatives joined with most Republicans to form the conservative coalition, which dominated domestic issues in Congress until 1964. Both parties split on foreign policy issues, with the anti-war isolationists dominant in the Republican Party and the interventionists who wanted to stop Adolf Hitler dominant in the Democratic Party. Roosevelt won a third and fourth term in 1940 and 1944, respectively. Conservatives abolished most of the New Deal during the war, but they did not attempt to reverse Social Security or the agencies that regulated business. Historian George H. Nash argues: Unlike the \"moderate\", internationalist, largely eastern bloc of Republicans who accepted (or at least acquiesced in) some of the \"Roosevelt Revolution\" and the essential premises of President Truman's foreign policy, the Republican Right at heart was counterrevolutionary. Anti-collectivist, anti-Communist,", "A Republican ticket of George W. Bush and Dick Cheney won the 2000 and 2004 presidential elections. With the inauguration of Bush as president, the Republican Party remained fairly cohesive for much of the 2000s as both strong economic libertarians and social conservatives opposed the Democrats, whom they saw as the party of bloated, secular, and liberal government. The Bush-era rise of what were known as \"pro-government conservatives\"—a core part of the President's base—meant that a considerable group of the Republicans advocated for increased government spending and greater regulations covering both the economy and people's personal lives as well as for an activist, interventionist foreign policy. Survey groups such as the Pew Research Center found that social conservatives and free market advocates remained the other two main groups within the party's coalition of support, with all three being roughly equal in number. However, libertarians and libertarian-leaning conservatives increasingly found fault with what they saw as Republicans' restricting of vital civil liberties while corporate welfare and the national debt hiked considerably under Bush's tenure. In contrast, some social conservatives expressed dissatisfaction with the party's support for economic policies that conflicted with their moral values. Bush campaigned as a \"compassionate conservative\" in 2000, wanting to better appeal to immigrants and minority voters. The goal was to prioritize drug rehabilitation programs and aide for prisoner reentry into society, a move intended to capitalize on President Clinton's tougher crime initiatives such as the 1994 crime bill passed under his administration.", "The party's founding members chose the name Republican Party in the mid-1850s as homage to the values of republicanism promoted by Thomas Jefferson's Republican Party. The idea for the name came from an editorial by the party's leading publicist, Horace Greeley, who called for \"some simple name like 'Republican' [that] would more fitly designate those who had united to restore the Union to its true mission of champion and promulgator of Liberty rather than propagandist of slavery\". The name reflects the 1776 republican values of civic virtue and opposition to aristocracy and corruption. It is important to note that \"republican\" has a variety of meanings around the world and the Republican Party has evolved such that the meanings no longer always align. The term \"Grand Old Party\" is a traditional nickname for the Republican Party and the abbreviation \"GOP\" is a commonly used designation. The term originated in 1875 in the \"Congressional Record\", referring to the party associated with", "", "Republicans believe that free markets and individual achievement are the primary factors behind economic prosperity. Republicans frequently advocate in favor of fiscal conservatism during Democratic administrations; however, they have shown themselves willing to increase federal debt when they are in charge of the government (the implementation of the Bush tax cuts, Medicare Part D and the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017 are examples of this willingness). Despite pledges to roll back government spending, Republican administrations have since the late 1960s sustained previous levels of government spending. Modern Republicans advocate the theory of supply side economics, which holds that lower tax rates increase economic growth. Many Republicans oppose higher tax rates for higher earners, which they believe are unfairly targeted at those who create jobs and wealth. They believe private spending is more efficient than government spending. Republican lawmakers have also", "Historically, progressive leaders in the Republican Party supported environmental protection. Republican President Theodore Roosevelt was a prominent conservationist whose policies eventually led to the creation of the National Park Service. While Republican President Richard Nixon was not an environmentalist, he signed legislation to create the Environmental Protection Agency in 1970 and had a comprehensive environmental program. However, this position has changed since the 1980s and the administration of President Ronald Reagan, who labeled environmental regulations a burden on the economy. Since then, Republicans have increasingly taken positions against environmental regulation, with some Republicans rejecting the scientific consensus on climate change. In 2006, then-California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger broke from Republican orthodoxy to sign several bills imposing caps on carbon emissions in California. Then-President George W. Bush opposed mandatory caps at a national level. Bush's decision not to regulate carbon dioxide as a pollutant was challenged in the Supreme Court by 12 states, with the court ruling against the Bush administration in 2007. Bush also publicly opposed ratification of the Kyoto Protocols which sought to limit greenhouse gas emissions and thereby combat climate change; his position was heavily criticized by climate scientists.", "In the period 1850–1870, the Republican Party was more opposed to immigration than Democrats, in part because the Republican Party relied on the support of anti-Catholic and anti-immigrant parties, such as the Know-Nothings, at the time. In the decades following the Civil War, the Republican Party grew more supportive of immigration, as it represented manufacturers in the Northeast (who wanted additional labor) whereas the Democratic Party came to be seen as the party of labor (which wanted fewer laborers to compete with). Starting in the 1970s, the parties switched places again, as the Democrats grew more supportive of immigration than Republicans. Republicans are", "Some in the Republican Party support unilateralism on issues of national security, believing in the ability and right of the United States to act without external support in matters of its national defense. In general, Republican thinking on defense and international relations is heavily influenced by the theories of neorealism and realism, characterizing conflicts between nations as struggles between faceless forces of an international structure as opposed to being the result of the ideas and actions of individual leaders. The realist school's influence shows in Reagan's Evil Empire stance on the Soviet Union and George W. Bush's Axis of evil stance. Since the September 11, 2001 attacks, many in the party have supported neoconservative policies with regard to the War on Terror, including the 2001 war in Afghanistan and the 2003 invasion of Iraq.", "The Republican Party is generally associated with social conservative policies, although it does have dissenting centrist and libertarian factions. The social conservatives support laws that uphold their traditional values, such as opposition to same-sex marriage, abortion, and marijuana. Most conservative Republicans also oppose gun control, affirmative action, and illegal immigration.", "A majority of the party's national and state candidates are anti-abortion and oppose elective abortion on religious or moral grounds. While many advocate exceptions in the case of incest, rape or the mother's life being at risk, in 2012 the party approved a platform advocating banning abortions without exception. There were not highly polarized differences between the Democratic Party and the Republican Party prior to the \"Roe v. Wade\" 1973 Supreme Court ruling (which", "Republicans are generally against affirmative action for women and some minorities, often describing it as a \"quota system\" and believing that it", "Republicans generally support gun ownership rights and oppose laws regulating guns. Party members and Republican-leaning independents are twice more likely to own a gun than Democrats and Democratic-leaning independents. The National Rifle Association, a special interest group in support of gun ownership, has consistently aligned themselves with the Republican Party. Following gun control measures under the Clinton administration, such as the Violent", "Republicans have historically supported the War on Drugs and oppose the legalization of drugs.", "Republicans have historically opposed same-sex marriage, while being divided on civil unions and domestic partnerships, with the issue being one that many believe helped George W. Bush win re-election in 2004. In both 2004 and 2006, President Bush, Senate Majority Leader Bill Frist, and House Majority Leader John Boehner promoted the Federal Marriage Amendment, a proposed constitutional amendment which would legally restrict the definition of marriage to heterosexual couples. In both attempts, the amendment failed to secure enough votes to invoke cloture and thus ultimately was never passed. As more states legalized same-sex marriage in the 2010s, Republicans increasingly supported allowing each state to decide its own marriage policy. As of 2014, most state GOP platforms expressed opposition to same-sex marriage. The 2016 GOP Platform defined marriage as \"natural marriage, the union of one man and one woman,\"", "Virtually all restrictions on voting have in recent years been implemented by Republicans. Republicans, mainly at the state level, argue that the restrictions (such as purging voter rolls, limiting voting locations, and prosecuting double voting) are vital to prevent voter fraud, claiming that voter", "Towards the end of the 1990s and in the early 21st century, the Republican Party increasingly resorted to \"constitutional hardball\" practices. A number of scholars have asserted that the House speakership of Republican Newt Gingrich played a key role in undermining democratic norms in the United States, hastening political polarization, and increasing partisan prejudice. According to Harvard University political scientists Daniel Ziblatt and Steven Levitsky, Gingrich's speakership had a profound and lasting impact on American politics and the health of American democracy. They argue that Gingrich instilled a \"combative\" approach in the Republican Party, where hateful language and hyper-partisanship became commonplace, and where democratic norms were abandoned. Gingrich frequently questioned the patriotism of Democrats, called them corrupt, compared them to fascists, and accused them of wanting to destroy the United States. Gingrich was also involved in several major government shutdowns. Scholars have also characterized Mitch McConnell's tenure as Senate Minority Leader and Senate Majority Leader during the Obama presidency as one where obstructionism", "In the Party's early decades, its base consisted of Northern white Protestants and African Americans nationwide. Its first presidential candidate, John C. Frémont, received almost no votes in the South. This trend continued into the 20th century. Following the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Voting Rights Act of 1965, the Southern states became more reliably Republican in presidential politics, while Northeastern states became more reliably Democratic. Studies show that Southern whites shifted to the Republican Party due to racial conservatism. While scholars agree that a racial backlash played a central role in the racial realignment of the two parties, there is a dispute as to the extent in which the racial realignment was a top-driven elite process or a bottom-up process. The \"Southern Strategy\" refers primarily to \"top-down\" narratives of the political realignment of the South which suggest that Republican leaders consciously appealed to many white Southerners' racial grievances in order to gain their support. This top-down narrative of the Southern Strategy is generally believed to be the primary force that transformed Southern politics following the civil rights era. Scholar Matthew Lassiter argues that \"demographic change played a more important role than racial demagoguery in the emergence of a two-party system in the American South\". Historians such as Matthew Lassiter, Kevin M. Kruse and Joseph Crespino, who have presented an alternative, \"bottom-up\" narrative, which Lassiter has called the \"suburban strategy\". This narrative recognizes the centrality of racial backlash to the political realignment of the South, but suggests that this backlash took the form of a defense of \"de facto\" segregation in the suburbs rather than overt resistance to racial integration and that the story of this backlash is a national rather than a strictly Southern one. The Party's 21st-century base consists of groups such as older white men; white, married Protestants; rural residents; and non-union workers without college degrees, with urban residents, ethnic minorities, the unmarried and union workers having shifted to the Democratic Party. The suburbs have become a major battleground. According to a 2015 Gallup poll, 25% of Americans identify as Republican and 16% identify as leaning Republican. In comparison, 30% identify as Democratic and 16% identify as leaning Democratic. The Democratic Party has typically held an overall edge in party identification since Gallup began polling on the issue in 1991. In 2016, \"The New York Times\" noted that the Republican Party was strong in the South, the Great Plains, and the Mountain States. The 21st century Republican Party also draws strength from rural areas of the United States.", "As of 2020, there have been a total of 19 Republican presidents." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Origin and early history.", "Aircraft.", "Structure and growth.", "Squadrons.", "Wings.", "Brigades.", "Stations.", "Canada.", "First World War.", "1914–15: Initial actions with the British Expeditionary Force.", "Markings.", "Roles and responsibilities.", "Wireless telegraphy and photo-reconnaissance.", "Artillery observation.", "Covert operations.", "Aerial bombardment.", "Ground attack—army support.", "Home defence.", "Saint-Omer.", "Trenchard in command in France.", "1916–1917.", "Italy.", "Other theatres of operations.", "1918.", "Amalgamation with the RNAS.", "Recruitment and training.", "Parachutes.", "End of the war.", "Commanders and personnel.", "Commanders." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "With the growing recognition of the potential for aircraft as a cost-effective method of reconnaissance and artillery observation, the Committee of Imperial Defence established a sub-committee to examine the question of military aviation in November 1911. On 28 February 1912 the sub-committee reported its findings which recommended that a flying corps be formed and that it consist of a naval wing, a military wing, a central flying school and an aircraft factory. The recommendations of the committee were accepted and on 13 April 1912 King George V signed a royal warrant establishing the Royal Flying Corps. The Air Battalion of the Royal Engineers became the Military Wing of the Royal Flying Corps a month later on 13 May. The Flying Corps' initial allowed strength was 133 officers, and by the end of that year it had 12 manned balloons and 36 aeroplanes. The RFC originally came under the responsibility of Brigadier-General Henderson,", "Aircraft used during the", "On its inception in 1912 the Royal Flying Corps consisted of a Military and a Naval Wing, with the Military Wing consisting of three squadrons each commanded by a major. The Naval Wing, with fewer pilots and aircraft than the Military Wing, did not organise itself into squadrons until 1914; it separated from the RFC that same year. By November 1914 the Royal Flying Corps, even taking the loss of the Naval Wing into account, had expanded sufficiently to warrant the creation of wings consisting of two or more squadrons. These wings were commanded by lieutenant-colonels. In October 1915 the Corps had undergone further expansion which justified the creation of brigades, each commanded by a brigadier-general. Further expansion led to the creation of divisions, with the Training Division being established in August 1917 and RFC Middle East being raised to divisional status in December 1917. Additionally, although the Royal Flying Corps in France was never titled as a division, by March 1916 it comprised several brigades and its commander (Trenchard) had received a promotion to major-general, giving it in effect divisional status. Finally, the air raids on London and the south-east of England led to the creation of the London Air Defence Area in August 1917 under the command of Ashmore who was promoted to major-general.", "Two of the first three RFC squadrons were formed from the Air Battalion of the Royal Engineers: \"No. 1 Company\" (a balloon company) becoming No. 1 Squadron, RFC, and \"No. 2 Company\" (a 'heavier-than-air' company) becoming No. 3 Squadron, RFC. A second heavier-than-air squadron, No. 2 Squadron, RFC, was also formed on the same day. No. 4 Squadron, RFC was formed from No. 2 Sqn in August 1912, and No. 5 Squadron, RFC from No. 3 Sqn in July 1913. By the end of March 1918, the Royal Flying Corps comprised some 150 squadrons. The composition of an", "Wings in the Royal Flying Corps consisted of a number of squadrons. When the Royal Flying Corps was established it was intended to be a joint service. Owing to the rivalry between the British Army and Royal Navy, new terminology was thought necessary in order to avoid marking the Corps out as having a particularly Army or Navy ethos. Accordingly, the Corps was originally split into two wings: a Military Wing (i.e. an army wing) and a Naval Wing. By 1914, the Naval Wing had become the Royal Naval Air Service, having gained its independence from the Royal Flying Corps. By November 1914 the Flying Corps had significantly expanded and it was felt necessary to create organizational units which would control collections of squadrons; the term \"wing\" was reused for these new organizational units. The Military Wing", "Following Sir David Henderson's return from France to the War Office in August 1915, he submitted a scheme to the Army Council which was intended to expand the command structure of the Flying Corps. The Corps' wings would be grouped in pairs to form brigades and the commander of each brigade would hold the temporary rank of brigadier-general. The scheme met with Lord Kitchener's approval and", "All operating locations were officially called \"Royal Flying Corps Station \"name\"\". A typical Squadron may have been based at four Stations – an Aerodrome for the HQ, and three Landing Grounds, one per each flight. Stations tended to be named after the local railway station, to simplify the administration of rail travel warrants. Typically a training airfield consisted of a grass square. There were three pairs plus one single hangar, constructed of wood or brick, x in size. There were up to 12 canvas Bessonneau hangars as the aircraft, constructed from wood, wire and fabric, were liable to weather damage. Other airfield buildings were typically wooden or Nissen huts. Landing Grounds were often L-shaped, usually arrived at by removing a hedge boundary between two fields, and thereby allowing landing runs in two directions of. Typically they would be manned by only", "The Royal Flying Corps Canada was established by the RFC in 1917 to train aircrew in Canada. Air Stations were established in southern Ontario at the following locations:", "The RFC was also responsible for the manning and operation of observation balloons on the Western front. When the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) arrived in France in August 1914, it had no observation balloons and it was not until April 1915 that the first balloon company was on strength, albeit on loan from the French Aérostiers. The first British unit arrived 8 May 1915, and commenced operations during the Battle of Aubers Ridge. Operations from balloons thereafter continued throughout the war. Highly hazardous in operation, a balloon could only be expected to last a fortnight before damage or destruction. Results were also highly dependent on the expertise of the observer and was subject to the weather conditions. To keep the balloon out of the range of artillery fire, it was necessary to locate the balloons some distance away from the front line or area of military operations. However, the stable platform offered by a kite-balloon made it more suitable for the cameras of the day than an aircraft. For the first half of the war, as with the land armies deployed, the French air force vastly outnumbered the RFC, and accordingly did more of the fighting. Despite the primitive aircraft, aggressive leadership by RFC commander Hugh Trenchard and the adoption of a continually offensive stance operationally in efforts to pin the enemy back led to many brave fighting exploits and high casualties – over 700 in 1916, the rate worsening thereafter, until the RFC's nadir in April 1917 which was dubbed 'Bloody April'. This aggressive, if costly, doctrine did however provide the Army General Staff with vital and up-to-date intelligence on German positions and numbers through continual photographic and observational reconnaissance throughout the war.", "At the start of the war, numbers 2, 3, 4 and 5 Squadrons were equipped with aeroplanes. No. 1 Squadron had been equipped with balloons but all these were transferred to the Naval Wing in 1913; thereafter No. 1 Squadron reorganised itself as an 'aircraft park' for the British Expeditionary Force. The RFC's first casualties were before the Corps even arrived in France: Lt Robert R. Skene and Air Mechanic Ray Barlow were killed on 12 August 1914 when their (probably overloaded) plane crashed at Netheravon on the way to rendezvous with the", "Early in the war RFC aircraft were not marked with any national insignia. Union Flag markings in various styles were painted on the wings (and sometimes the fuselage sides and/or rudder) at a squadron level, when RFC aircraft were fired upon by \"friendly\" ground forces but the large red St. George's cross was liable to be mistaken for the \"Eisernes Kreuz\" (iron cross) markings of German aircraft. By", "", "Later in September, during the First Battle of the Aisne which followed, the RFC made use of wireless telegraphy to assist with artillery targeting and took aerial photographs for the first time. From 16,000 feet a photographic plate could cover some of front line in sharp detail. In 1915 Lieutenant-Colonel JTC Moore-Brabrazon designed the first practical aerial camera. These semi-automatic cameras became", "One of the initial and most important uses of RFC aircraft was observing artillery fire behind the enemy front line at targets that could not be seen by ground observers. The fall of shot of artillery fire were easy enough for the pilot to see, providing he was looking in the right place at the right time; apart from this the problem was communicating corrections to the battery. Development of procedures had been the responsibility of No 3 Squadron and the Royal Artillery in 1912–13. These methods usually depended on the pilot being tasked to observe the fire against a specific target and report the fall of shot relative to the target, the battery adjusted their aim, fired and the process was repeated until the target was effectively engaged. One early communication method was for", "An unusual mission for the RFC was the delivery of spies behind enemy lines. The first mission took place on the morning of 13 September 1915 and was not a success. The plane crashed, the pilot and spy were badly injured and they were both", "The obvious potential for aerial bombardment of the enemy was not lost on the RFC, and despite the poor payload of early war aircraft, bombing missions were undertaken. Front line squadrons (at the prompting of the more inventive pilots) devised several methods of carrying, aiming and dropping bombs. Lieutenant Conran of No 3 Squadron attacked an enemy troop column by dropping hand grenades over the side of his cockpit; the noise of the grenades caused the horses to stampede. At No 6 Squadron, Captain Louis Strange managed to destroy two canvas-covered trucks with home-made petrol bombs. In March 1915 a bombing raid was flown, with Captain Strange flying a modified Royal Aircraft Factory B.E.2c, to carry four 20 lb Cooper bombs on wing", "Aircraft were increasingly engaged in ground attack operations as the war wore on, aimed at disrupting enemy forces at or near the front line and during offensives. While formal tactical bombing raids were planned and usually directed at specific targets, ground-attack was usually carried out by individual pilots or small flights against targets of opportunity. Although the fitted machine guns were the primary armament for ground attack, bomb racks holding 20 lb Cooper bombs were soon fitted to many single-seat aircraft. Ground attack sorties were carried out at very low altitude and were often highly effective, in spite of the primitive nature of the weaponry involved, compared with", "In the UK the RFC Home Establishment was not only responsible for training air and ground crews and preparing squadrons to deploy to France, but providing squadrons for home defence, countering the German Zeppelin raids and later Gotha raids. The RFC (and the Royal Naval Air Service) initially had limited success against the German raids, largely through the problem of locating the attackers and having aircraft of sufficient performance to reach the operating altitude of the German raiders. With the bulk of the operational squadrons engaged in France few could be spared for home defence in the UK. Therefore, training squadrons were called on to supply home defence aircraft and aircrews for the duration of the war. Night flying and defence missions were often flown by instructors in aircraft deemed worn-out and often obsolete for front-line service, although the pilots selected as instructors were often among the most experienced in the RFC. The RFC officially took over the role of Home Defence in December 1915 and at that time had 10 permanent airfields. By December 1916 there were 11 RFC home defence squadrons:", "As the war moved into the period of the mobile warfare commonly called the Race to the Sea, the Corps moved forward again. On 8 October 1914 the RFC arrived in Saint-Omer and a headquarters was established at the aerodrome next", "Hugh Trenchard was the commander of the Royal Flying Corps in France from August 1915 until January 1918. Trenchard's time in command was characterised by three priorities. First was his emphasis on support to and co-ordination with ground forces. This support started with reconnaissance and artillery co-ordination and later encompassed tactical low-level bombing of enemy ground forces. While Trenchard did not oppose the strategic bombing of Germany in", "Before the Battle of the Somme (1916) the RFC mustered 421 aircraft, with 4 kite-balloon squadrons and 14 balloons. These made up four brigades, which worked with the four British armies. By the end of the Somme offensive in November 1916, the RFC had lost 800 aircraft and 252 aircrew killed (all causes) since July 1916, with 292 tons of bombs dropped and 19,000 Recce photographs taken. As 1917 dawned the Allied Air Forces felt the effect of the German Air Force's increasing superiority in both organisation and equipment (if not numbers). The recently formed \"Jastas\", equipped with the Albatros fighter, inflicted very heavy", "The disastrous defeat of the Italian Army by Austro-Hungarian and German forces in the Battle of Caporetto led to the transfer of 3 RFC Sopwith", "RFC Squadrons were also deployed to the Middle East and the Balkans. In July 1916 the Middle-East Brigade of the RFC was formed under the command of Brigadier General W G H Salmond, concentrating RFC units based in Macedonia, Mesopotamia, Palestine and East Africa under one unified", "The German Offensive in March 1918 was an all-out effort to win the war before the German economy collapsed from the pressures exerted on it by the Royal Navy's blockade and the strains of war In the weeks following the launch of the attack, RFC crews flew unceasingly, with all types of aircraft bombing and strafing ground forces, often", "On 17 August 1917, General Jan Smuts presented a report to the War Council on the future of air power. Because of its potential for the 'devastation of enemy lands and the destruction of industrial and populous centres on a vast scale', he recommended a new air service be formed that would be on a level with the Army and Royal Navy. Pilots were seconded to the RFC", "Many pilots were initially seconded to the RFC from their original regiments by becoming an observer. Some RFC ground crew (often NCO's or below) also volunteered for these flying duties as they then received supplementary flying pay. There was no formal training for observers until 1917 and many were sent on their first sortie with only a brief introduction to the aircraft from the pilot. Once certified as fully qualified the observer was awarded the coveted half-wing brevet. Once awarded this could not be forfeited so it essentially amounted to a decoration. Originally in the RFC, as in most early air forces, the observer was nominally in command of the aircraft with the pilot having the role of a \"chauffeur\". In practice, this was reversed at an early stage in the RFC, so that the pilot normally commanded the aircraft. Most operational two seaters of the period did not have dual controls (an exception was the F.K. 8), so that the death or incapacity of the pilot normally meant an inevitable crash – but nonetheless many observers gained at least rudimentary piloting skills, and it was very common for experienced observers to be selected for pilot training. Applicants for aircrew generally entered the RFC as a cadet via the depot pool for basic training. The cadet would then generally pass on to the School of Military Aeronautics at either Reading or Oxford. Following this period of theoretical learning the cadet was posted to a Training Squadron, either in the UK or overseas. Colonel Robert Smith-Barry, a former CO of 60 Squadron, appalled at the poor standard of newly trained pilots and high fatality rate during training in 1915–16, formulated a comprehensive curriculum for pilot training, and with the agreement of Trenchard, returned to the UK", "Parachuting from balloons and aircraft, with very few accidents, had been a popular \"stunt\" for several years before the war. In 1915 inventor Everard Calthrop offered the RFC his patented parachute. On 13 January 1917, Captain Clive Collett, a New Zealander, made the first British military parachute jump from a heavier-than-air craft. The jump, from 600 feet, was successful but although parachutes were issued to the crews of observation balloons, the", "At the end of the war there were 5,182 pilots in service (constituting 2% of total RAF personnel). In comparison, the casualties from the RFC/RNAS/RAF for 1914–18 totalled 9,378 killed or missing, with 7,245 wounded. Some 900,000 flying hours on operations were logged, and 6,942 tons of bombs dropped. The RFC claimed some 7,054 German aircraft and balloons either destroyed, sent 'down out of control' or 'driven down'. Eleven RFC members received the Victoria Cross during the First World War. Initially the RFC did not believe in publicising the victory totals and exploits of their aces. Eventually, however, public", "", "The following had command of the RFC in the" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Design and development.", "Production.", "Operational history.", "Withdrawal from service." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "The Triplane began as a private venture by the Sopwith Aviation Company. The fuselage and empennage closely mirrored those of the earlier Pup, but chief engineer Herbert Smith gave the new aircraft three narrow-chord wings to provide the pilot with an improved field of view. Ailerons were fitted to all three wings. By using the variable incidence tailplane, the aircraft could be trimmed to fly hands-off. The introduction of a smaller 8 ft span tailplane in February 1917 improved elevator response. The Triplane was initially powered by the 110 hp Clerget 9Z nine-cylinder rotary engine, but most production examples were fitted with the 130 hp Clerget 9B rotary. At least one Triplane was tested with a 110 hp Le Rhône rotary engine, but this did not provide a significant improvement in performance. The initial \"prototype of what was to be referred to simply as the Triplane\" first flew on 28 May 1916, with Sopwith test pilot Harry Hawker at the controls. Within three minutes of takeoff, Hawker startled onlookers by looping the aircraft, serial N500, three times in succession. The Triplane was very agile, with effective, well-harmonised controls. When maneuvering, however, the Triplane presented an unusual appearance. One observer noted that the aircraft looked like \"a drunken flight of steps\" when rolling. In July 1916, N500 was sent to Dunkirk for evaluation with \"A\" Naval Squadron, 1 Naval Wing. It proved highly successful. The second prototype, serial N504, was fitted with a 130 hp Clerget 9B. N504 first flew in August 1916 and was eventually sent to France in December. This aircraft served as a conversion trainer for several squadrons.", "Between July 1916 and January 1917, the Admiralty issued two contracts to Sopwith for a total of 95 Triplanes, two contracts to Clayton & Shuttleworth Ltd. for a total of 46 aircraft, and one contract to Oakley & Co. Ltd. for 25 aircraft. Seeking modern aircraft for the Royal Flying Corps, the War Office also issued a contract to Clayton & Shuttleworth for 106 Triplanes. In February 1917, the War Office agreed to exchange its Triplane orders for the Admiralty's SPAD S.VII contracts. Production commenced in late 1916. Sopwith and Clayton & Shuttleworth completed their RNAS production orders, but Oakley, which had no prior experience building aircraft, delivered only three Triplanes before its contract was cancelled in October 1917. For unknown reasons, the RFC Triplane contract issued to Clayton & Shuttleworth was simply cancelled rather than being transferred to the RNAS. Total production amounted to 147 aircraft.", "No. 1 Naval Squadron became fully operational with the Triplane by December 1916, but the squadron did not see any significant action until February 1917, when it relocated from Furnes to Chipilly. No. 8 Naval Squadron received its Triplanes in February 1917. Nos. 9 and 10 Naval Squadrons equipped with the type between April and May 1917.<ref name=\"Franks p55/68\"> Franks 2004, pp. 54, 68.</ref> The only other major operator of the Triplane was a French naval squadron based at Dunkirk, which received 17 aircraft.<ref name=\"Franks p62/63\"> Franks 2004, pp. 62–63.</ref> The Triplane's combat debut was highly successful. The new fighter's exceptional rate of climb and high service ceiling gave it a marked advantage over the Albatros D.III, though the Triplane was slower in a dive. The Germans were so impressed by the performance of the Triplane that it spawned a brief triplane craze among German aircraft manufacturers. Their efforts resulted in no fewer than 34 different prototypes, including the Fokker V.4, prototype of the successful Fokker Dr.I. Pilots nicknamed the aircraft the \"Tripehound\" or simply the \"Tripe\". The Triplane was famously flown by \"B\" Flight 10 Naval Squadron, better known as \"Black Flight\". This all-Canadian flight was commanded by the ace Raymond Collishaw. Their aircraft, named \"Black Maria\", \"Black Prince\", \"Black George\", \"Black Death\" and \"Black Sheep\", were distinguishable by their black-painted fins and cowlings. Black Flight claimed 87 German aircraft in three months while equipped with the Triplane. Collishaw scored 34 of his eventual 60 victories in the aircraft, making him the top Triplane ace.", "The Triplane's combat career was comparatively brief, in part because the Triplane proved difficult to repair. The fuel and oil tanks were inaccessible without dismantling the wings and fuselage. Even relatively minor repairs had to be made at rear echelon repair depots. Spare parts became difficult to obtain during the summer of 1917, resulting in the reduction of No. 1 Naval Squadron's complement from 18 to 15 aircraft. The Triplane also gained a reputation for structural weakness because the wings of some aircraft collapsed in steep dives. This defect was attributed to the use of light gauge bracing wires in the 46 aircraft built by subcontractor Clayton & Shuttleworth. Several pilots of No. 10 Naval Squadron used cables or additional wires to strengthen their Triplanes. In 1918, the RAF issued a technical order for the installation of a spanwise compression strut between the inboard cabane struts of surviving Triplanes. One aircraft, serial N5912, was fitted with additional mid-bay flying wires on the upper wing while used as a trainer. Another drawback of the Triplane was its light armament. Contemporary Albatros fighters were armed with two guns but most Triplanes carried one synchronised Vickers machine gun. Efforts to fit twin guns to the Triplane met with mixed results. Clayton & Shuttleworth built six experimental Triplanes with twin guns. Some of these aircraft saw combat service with Nos. 1 and 10 Naval Squadrons in July 1917 but performance was reduced and the single gun remained standard.<ref name=\"Franks p13/69\"> Franks 2004, pp. 13, 69.</ref> Triplanes built by Oakley would have featured twin guns, an engineering change which severely delayed production. In June 1917, No. 4 Naval Squadron received the first Sopwith Camels and the advantages of the sturdier, better-armed fighter quickly became evident. Nos. 8 and 9 Naval Squadrons re-equipped with Camels between early July and early August 1917. No. 10 Naval Squadron converted in late August, turning over its remaining Triplanes to No. 1 Naval Squadron. No. 1 operated Triplanes until December, suffering heavy casualties as a consequence. By the end of 1917, surviving Triplanes were used as advanced trainers with No. 12 Naval Squadron. Six British aces scored all of their victories entirely on Sopwith Triplanes. These were John Albert Page (7), Thomas Culling (6), Cyril Askew Eyre (6), F. H. Maynard (6), Gerald Ewart Nash (6) and Anthony Arnold (5)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "History.", "Geography.", "Tourism." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The name is derived from some Slavic personal name beginning with \"Ľub-\" with a possessive suffix \"-ov\". \"Ľúbiť\" – to love, derived personal names are \"Ľubomír\", \"Ľubota\" (potentially the Czech House of Lubota) and others. E.g. \"Ľubtov\" (pronunciation \"Ľuptov\") - Ľubota's castle or his territory. The form \"Ľuptov\" has been preserved in Orava and in a frequent Slovak surname \"Ľupták\" (Liptovian).", "The first known inhabitants came to Liptov during the Neolithic age around 6000 years ago. Celts represent an important time period of Liptov during the Iron Age. The Celtic tribal village can be seen in the archeological site of Havránok near Liptovský Mikuláš. The first settlements of Slavic people in Liptov region began approximately in the 6th century BC. The first written evidence about Liptov came from 1231 AD during the rule of the Hungarian king Andrew II when Liptov was a permanent comitatus (county) of the Kingdom of Hungary. The dissolution of Austro-Hungarian monarchy in 1918 led to the creation of Czechoslovakia as a successor country, including Liptov as one of the integral regions of the new state. After the dissolution of Czechoslovakia in 1993, Liptov became the region of present-day Slovakia. There are currently three remains of castles that were built in the Liptov region. They are the Likava castle, the Liptov castle, and the Liptovský Hrádok castle. Liptov is also a place where the legendary Slovak figure of the 17th and 18th century, Juraj Jánošík, was sentenced to death.", "Historical and cultural centres of Liptov are the towns of Liptovský Mikuláš, Ružomberok and Liptovský Hrádok. Liptov is surrounded by the highest mountains in Slovakia: High Tatras, West Tatras and Chočské vrchy from the north, Low Tatras from the south and Greater Fatra from the west. The longest Slovak river of Váh runs through Liptov and fills the important water reservoir of Liptovská Mara. There are two Slovak national parks with the highest level of protection in the territory of Liptov, they are the Tatra National Park and the Low Tatras National Park.", "Liptov is one of the most visited regions in Slovakia. There are four public caves: Demänovská Cave of Liberty, Demänovská Ice Cave, Važecká Cave and Stanišovská Cave, the biggest ski resort in Slovakia, Jasná, ski park Malinô Brdo, thermal parks of Tatralandia in Liptovský Mikuláš and Bešeňová and water worlds Gothal in Liptovská Osada and Thermal Paradise in Liptovský Ján as well as a UNESCO World Heritage Site of Vlkolínec. The list of museums and galleries include: Liptov Museum and Ľudovít Fulla Gallery in Ružomberok, Slovak Museum of Nature Protection and Spelology, Gallery of P.M. Bohúň and the Centre of Koloman Sokol in Liptovský Mikuláš. Liptov has a rich tradition of folklore culture. The annual folklore festival in the village of Východná is the biggest folklore event in Slovakia attracting thousands of visitors from all around Europe. The Liptov region has a number of fine churches. In Svätý Kríž, south of the reservoir, is a large 'articular' wooden church belonging to the same group as the one in Hronsek, near Banská Bystrica (see the article in the section on Banská Bystrica Region). This is one of the largest wooden religious buildings in Europe and, like the buildings at Pribylina, was also rescued from the water (it was originally built in the now-vanished village of Paludza). And in the small village of Nižné Matiašovce, at the start of the precipitous route from Liptov to Zuberec (in the Orava valley), is a beautiful wooden-roofed church with defensive stone walls and bastions. Liptov has two other big tourist draws: a pair of large geo-thermal aquaparks, at Bešeňová (near Ružomberok) and Tatralandia (near Liptovský Mikuláš); and the Demänovská valley. On the way up the tree-lined Demänovská valley, are two large limestone cave complexes open to the public, the first of which is an ice cave (where the subterranean climate has formed a sort of underground glacier). The second, the Demänovská Cave of Freedom, is a huge complex of galleries featuring many stalactites and stalagmites." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name.", "History.", "Elevation.", "Ascents.", "Before 1800.", "Celebrities.", "National excursions.", "Access.", "Cultural images.", "Early development.", "Popular culture.", "Visual arts." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The name Kriváň, first recorded as \"Kriwan\" in 1639, is derived from the root \"kriv-\" meaning \"bent\" or \"crooked\". It reflects the angled appearance of its shape when viewed from the west and south, characterized in the work from 1639 as an \"oxtail\" (\"cauda bubula\" in the Latin original). The Slovak name is used in other languages including in Polish, rather than its potential Polonized version (\"Krzywań\"), except occasionally in Podhale in the immediate vicinity of the Tatras. Two adjacent peaks in the nearby Malá Fatra range carry the same name, and so does the village of Kriváň farther away in southern Slovakia.", "", "Based merely on visual observation, Kriváň competed for the status of the highest mountain in the High Tatras with Lomnický štít, which dominates the view from the east, until 1793 when the latter was accurately identified as the higher of the two (but wrongly as the highest peak in the mountain range, an error corrected by Ludwig Greiner in 1837): [Kriváň] is generally said to be the highest of all the Alps in the Carpathian chain; but this opinion is not supposed to be founded upon any measurement. The relative elevations of the two mountains were determined by the English natural historian Robert Townson, who ascended both peaks in August 1793 and also made an early recorded comment on Kriváň's aesthetic appeal: The weather was very fine, and the Krivan, having got in the night a cap of snow, looked sublime. [...] 1888 yards above the village of Vasetz <nowiki>[</nowiki>Važec<nowiki>]</nowiki>; the Krivan is therefore something lower than the Lomnitz Peak <nowiki>[</nowiki>Lomnický štít<nowiki>].</nowiki> The exact elevation of Kriváň is currently recognized as Kriváň is believed to have the greatest height from its base in the whole Tatras, as it rises from the bottom of the Kôprova valley or from Tri Studničky up to.", "", "A travel book \"Ungarisher oder Dacianisher Simplicissimus\" written by Daniel Georg Speer in 1693 mentions a current legend (may have more ancient roots) explaining how Krivan got its shape. Lucifer (the carrier of light) flew over Tatras carrying some people to hell. His foot tripped on the tip of Krivan which got bent, and losing his balance he dropped the sinners who populated since the county of Liptov. Records of explorations by miners in the Kriváň massif date to the first half of the 15th century. Their presence increased during the gold rush of the 16th century. Although they may not have been the first to do so, it is probable that some of the miners reached the top of Kriváň; remnants of their shacks have survived below Priehyba Ridge at the elevation of about 2,000 m (6,560 ft.) through the present, and the highest, long abandoned, Terézia Shaft is merely about 60 m (200 ft.) below the summit. The commercial exploitation of the meager deposits discovered at Kriváň proved to be barely viable. It was abandoned in the 18th century. The Scottish doctor Townson who ascended it in 1793 provided some evidence that Kriváň was already a recognized occasional destination for tourists in the second half of the 18th century. His guide from Važec had been to the top several times before and Townson saw him collect small coins from under a summit stone where hikers would leave them for luck. The first recorded ascent of Kriváň was by the Lutheran Pastor Andreas Jonas Czirbes from Spišská Nová Ves on 4 August 1773.", "The first celebrity to attempt ascent of Kriváň was the 30-year-old Habsburg Archduke Joseph in 1806, but the plan was abandoned due to inclement weather although parts of the winding road to the old gold mine high on the slopes had already been improved and a campsite built. The first VIP actually to reach the summit was the 43-year-old King Frederick Augustus II of Saxony in 1840. The plaque placed at the top to commemorate the first monarch who stood there was gradually destroyed by activists in the 1850s-1860s, who would have wished the inscription to include a comment in Slovak and who objected to where the inscription spoke of the Hungarian (ethnic) nation in reference to all the subjects of the Kingdom of Hungary. Lower nobleman Gašpar Fejérpataky Belopotocký, an influential publisher based at Liptovský Mikuláš merely 20 miles from Kriváň, and his six friends climbed to the top of Kriváň on 24 Sept. 1835, which he described in the literary journal \"Hronka\" in 1837. The account may have stimulated its readers who lived farther away to follow their steps. The ascent that became most memorable in Slovak culture was by Ľudovít Štúr, then a 25-year-old teaching assistant of Slovak at the Bratislava Lutheran \"Lýceum\" (a preparatory high school and college). In the summer of 1841 he traveled through the Slovak counties with his private Greek student Prince Aristarchos and stopped at Michal Miloslav Hodža's parish at Liptovský Mikuláš, whose younger brother Juraj was Štúr's student at the lýceum. Štúr and a group of locals, Fejérpataky Belopotocký among them, hiked to the top of Kriváň on 16 August, its first recorded ascent that included women.", "A similar hike, without Štúr, took place the following year, and then sporadically later. Their organizers called them \"national excursions\" with increasing frequency. They were constituted as an annual late-August event by the authorities at Poprad in 1955 in order to commemorate the anniversary of the uprising of 1944. The attendance reached 480 people in 1981. They have continued with a broader national designation through the present. The National Ascent of Kriváň (\"Národný výstup na Kriváň\") is an annual two-day event on the third weekend in August organized by the Slovak Tourist Club, Matica slovenská, and the towns of Vysoké Tatry and Liptovský Mikuláš. The number of persons allowed to ascend the summit on each of the event days is limited to 300.", "The three marked hiking routes to Kriváň start at different locations, but all ultimately converge at the elevation of about 2,145 m (7,035 ft.) for the final ca. 350-meter (1,150-foot) steep, rocky ascent to the summit − the only segment where both hands may be needed to maintain balance in places. The historical winding road built by miners for horse-drawn ore carts and used by hikers in the past, including the participants of the revered 1841 excursion, is between the green and blue trails and links up with the green trail above the timberline below Priehyba Ridge. The road is not marked, the Tatra National Park management decreed it off limits. It is partly obscured by shrubby mountain pines at higher elevations. Kriváň has been favored by those appreciative of its aesthetic and historical allure, as well as by those who seek vistas from the top. Polls of nature lovers at large as well as of connoisseurs have consistently rated it as Slovakia's most beautiful mountain. The 360-degree view from the top is among the best in Slovakia with the scenery ranging from the populated valleys of upper Liptov, Spiš, and distant parts of Podhale, to the rugged drops of its north face, and many of the notable peaks of the Tatras including Giewont over Zakopane, Rysy, Lomnický štít, and Gerlach, the highest peak of the Carpathians. The panorama is framed by the Western and Low Tatras, and by mountain ranges beyond them in good visibility.", "", "The mountain is mentioned by Nikolai Gogol as the abode of two Cossack brothers, Ivan and Petro, in his short story 'The Terrible Vengeance', written in 1832. After lower nobleman Gašpar Fejérpataky Belopotocký (1794-1874) published an account of his 1835 ascent of Kriváň in the literary journal \"Hronka\" in 1837, its editor-in-chief Karol Kuzmány (1806-1866) wrote the novella \"Ladislav\" (1838), whose title character, taking the long way home from Italy via Germany and the Polish Podhale, hikes to the summit of Kriváň where he and his friends talk about brotherhood among the Slavs, sing ethnically-nationally arousing songs, and imbibe Tokaj wine. Both works may have motivated the hike by Ľudovít Štúr and friends in 1841 that inspired him to write two poems published in 1842. Romantic poets soon became fervent admirers of the eye-catching mountain. Eugen V. Šparnensis (1827-after 1853) called Kriváň a marker of his homeland, the Slovaks were \"Kriváň's children\" for Janko Kráľ, Samo Chalupka's poem saw the mountain as a symbol of their place among the nations.", "The significance the intellectuals began to ascribe to Kriváň and its images they created were gradually adopted by popular culture. An early instance is the poem \"Oh, Below Kriváň\" (\"Hej, pod Kriváňom\"; originally: \"Hej, pod Muráňom\") by Samuel Tomášik (1813-1887), which came to be seen as an anonymous folk song and is sometimes featured as such on folk albums. Likewise, the Polish poem \"Kriváň, High Kriváň!\" (\"Krywaniu, Krywaniu wysoki!\") by Kazimierz Przerwa-Tetmajer was labeled as a folk song and the author of the verses was not credited when its rock version by Skaldowie was released in 1972.", "The short film \"Up the North Face of Kriváň\" (\"Severnou stenou na Kriváň\"; 1947) directed by Karol Skřipský with original music by Šimon Jurovský documented the first winter ascent of the Kriváň North Face, which, unlike the southern slopes of the massif, requires technical climbing. The mountain featured as an attractive backdrop in several films including \"Native Country\" (\"Rodná zem\"; dir. Josef Mach, 1954). It has appeared in numerous paintings, including by Ján Hála (1946), Miloš Alexander Bazovský (1956), Andrej Doboš (1967), and Ladislav Čemický (1979). The role of Kriváň in popular awareness and high culture was highlighted when a country-wide vote in 2005 selected it to be one of the images on Slovakia's euro coins." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Comparison with RADIUS.", "Applications.", "History.", "Protocol Description.", "Packet Format.", "Version.", "Message Length.", "Flags.", "Commands.", "Application-ID.", "Hop-by-Hop Identifier.", "End-to-End Identifier.", "Attribute-Value Pairs (AVP).", "State machines.", "Message flows.", "RFCs." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The name is a play on words, derived from the RADIUS protocol, which is the predecessor (a diameter is twice the radius). Diameter is not directly backwards compatible but provides an upgrade path for RADIUS. The main features provided by Diameter but lacking in RADIUS are: Also: Like RADIUS, it is intended to work in both local and roaming AAA situations. It uses TCP or SCTP unlike RADIUS which uses UDP. Unlike RADIUS it includes no encryption, but can be protected by transport level security (IPSEC or TLS). The base size of the AV identifier is 32 bit unlike RADIUS which uses 8 bit as the base AV identifier size. Like RADIUS, it supports stateless as well as stateful modes. Like RADIUS, it supports application layer acknowledgment and defines failover. Diameter is used for many different interfaces defined by the 3GPP standards, with each interface typically defining new commands and attributes.", "A \"Diameter Application\" is not a software application but is a protocol based on the Diameter base protocol defined in RFC 6733 and RFC 7075 (Obsoletes: RFC 3588). Each application is defined by an application identifier and can add new command codes and/or new mandatory AVPs (Attribute-Value Pair). Adding a new optional AVP does not require a new application. Examples of Diameter applications: (Generic Bootstrapping Architecture): Bootstrapping Server Function", "The Diameter protocol was initially developed by Pat R. Calhoun, Glen Zorn, and Ping Pan in 1998 to provide a framework for authentication, authorization and accounting (AAA) that could overcome the limitations of RADIUS. RADIUS had issues with reliability, scalability, security and flexibility. RADIUS cannot deal effectively with remote access, IP mobility and policy control. The Diameter protocol defines a policy protocol used by clients to perform policy, AAA, and resource control. This allows a single server to handle policies for many services. Like RADIUS, Diameter provides AAA functionality, but uses TCP and SCTP instead of UDP, therefore delegating detection and handling of communication problems to those protocols. The Diameter protocol is enhanced further by the development of the 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS). The Cx, Dh, Dx, Rf, Ro, Sh and Zh interfaces are supported by Diameter applications. Through the use of extensions, the protocol was designed to be extensible to support proxies, brokers, strong security, mobile IP, network-access servers (NASREQ), accounting and resource management.", "The Diameter base protocol is defined by RFC 6733 (Obsoletes: RFC 3588) and defines the minimum requirements for an AAA protocol. \"Diameter Applications\" can extend the base protocol by adding new commands, attributes, or both. Diameter security is provided by IPsec or TLS. The IANA has assigned TCP and SCTP port number 3868 to Diameter.", "The packet consists of a Diameter header and a variable number of Attribute-Value Pairs, or AVPs, for encapsulating information relevant to the Diameter message.", "This field indicates the version of the Diameter Base Protocol. As of 2014, the only value supported is 1.", "The Message Length field indicates the length of the Diameter message in bytes, including the header fields and the padded AVPs.", "The \"R\" (Request) bit – If set, the message is a request. If cleared, the message is an answer. The \"P\" (Proxiable) bit – If set, the message MAY be proxied, relayed or redirected. If cleared, the message MUST be locally processed. The \"E\" (Error) bit – If set, the message contains a protocol error, and the message will not conform to the CCF described for this command. Messages with the \"E\" bit set are commonly referred to as error messages. This bit MUST NOT be set in request messages. The \"T\" (Potentially re-transmitted message) bit – This flag is set after a link failover procedure, to aid the removal of duplicate requests. It is set when resending requests not yet acknowledged as an indication of a possible duplicate due to a link failure.", "Each command Request/Answer pair is assigned a command code. Whether it is the request or answer is identified via the ’R’ bit in the Command Flags field of the header. The values 0-255 are reserved for RADIUS backward compatibility. The values 256-16777213 are for permanent, standard commands allocated by IANA. The values 16777214 and 16777215 (hex 0xFFFFFE and 0xFFFFFF) are reserved for experimental and testing purposes. A Command Code is used to determine the action that is to be taken for a particular message. Some common Diameter commands defined in the protocol (base and applications) are:", "Application-ID is used to identify for which Diameter application the message is applicable. The application can be an authentication application, an accounting application, or a vendor-specific application. Diameter agents conforming to a certain Diameter extension publicize its support by including a specific value of in the Auth-Application-Id Attribute of the Capabilities-Exchange-Request (CER) and Capabilities-Exchange-Answer (CEA) command. The value of the Application-ID field in the header is the same as any relevant Application-Id AVPs contained in the message. For instance, the value of the Application-ID and of the Auth-Application-Id Attribute in the Credit-Control-Request (CCR) and Credit-Control-Answer (CCA) Command for the Diameter Credit-Control Application is 4.", "The Hop-by-Hop Identifier is an unsigned 32-bit integer field (in network byte order) that is used to match the requests with their answers as the same value in the request is used in the response. The Diameter protocol requires that relaying and proxying agents maintain transaction state, which is used for failover purposes. Transaction state implies that upon forwarding a request, its Hop-by-Hop Identifier is saved; the field is replaced with a locally unique identifier, which is restored to its original value when the corresponding answer is received. The request’s state is released upon receipt of the answer. Received answers that do not match a known Hop-by-Hop Identifier are ignored by the Diameter agent. In case of redirecting agents, the Hop-by-Hop Identifier is maintained in the header as the Diameter agent responds with an answer message.", "The End-to-End Identifier is an unsigned 32-bit integer field (in network byte order) that is used to detect duplicate messages along with the combination of the Origin-Host AVP. When creating a request, the End-to-End Identifier is set to a locally unique value. The End-to-End Identifier is not modified by Diameter agents of any kind, and the same value in the corresponding request is used in the answer.", "For simplicity, \"V\" bit Means Vendor Specific; \"M\" bit means Mandatory; \"P\" bit means Protected. The \"V\" bit, known as the Vendor-Specific bit, indicates whether the optional Vendor-ID field is present in the AVP header. When set the AVP Code belongs to the specific vendor code address space. The \"M\" bit, known as the Mandatory bit, indicates whether support of the AVP is required. If an AVP with the \"M\" bit set is received by a Diameter client, server, proxy, or translation agent and either the AVP or its value is unrecognized, the message \"must\" be rejected. Diameter Relay and redirect agents \"must not\" reject messages with unrecognized AVPs. The \"P\" bit indicates the need for encryption for end-to-end security.", "The RFC 3588 defines a core state machine for maintaining connections between peers and processing messages. This is part of the basic protocol functionality and all stacks should support it and as such abstract from the connectivity related operations. Additionally, application specific state machines can be introduced either later or at a higher abstraction layer. The RFC 3588 defines an authorization and an accounting state machine.", "The communication between two diameter peers starts with the establishment of a transport connection (TCP or SCTP). The initiator then sends a Capabilities-Exchange-Request (CER) to the other peer, which responds with a Capabilities-Exchange-Answer (CEA). For RFC3588 compliant peers TLS (Transport Layer Security) may optionally be negotiated. For RFC6733 compliant peers TLS negotiation may optionally happen before the CER/CEA. The connection is then ready for exchanging application messages. If no messages have been exchanged for some time either side may send a Device-Watchdog-Request (DWR) and the other peer must respond with Device-Watchdog-Answer. Either side may terminate the communication by sending a Disconnect-Peer-Request (DPR) which the other peer must respond to with Disconnect-Peer-Answer. After that the transport connection can be disconnected.", "The Diameter protocol is currently defined in the following IETF RFCs: Obsolete RFCs are indicated with strikethrough text." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Composition history.", "Performance history.", "19th century.", "20th century and beyond.", "Synopsis.", "Act 1: Jerusalem.", "Act 2: The Impious One.", "Act 3: The Prophecy.", "Act 4: The Broken Idol.", "Historicity.", "Critical reaction.", "Music.", "Instrumentation.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The success of Verdi's first opera, \"Oberto\", led Bartolomeo Merelli, La Scala's impresario, to offer Verdi a contract for three more works. After the failure of his second opera \"Un giorno di regno\" (completed in 1840 towards the end of a brutal two-year period during which both of his infant children and then his 26-year-old wife died), Verdi vowed never to compose again. In \"An Autobiographical Sketch\", written in 1879, Verdi tells the story of how he came to be twice persuaded by Merelli to change his mind and to write the opera. The distance of 38 years from the event may have led to a somewhat romanticized view; or, as Verdi scholar Julian Budden puts it: \"he was concerned to weave a protective legend about himself [since] it was all part of his fierce independence of spirit.\" However, in \"\" (\"Where there's a will...\") – written ten years closer to the event – the zoologist Michele Lessona provides a different account of the events, as allegedly recounted by Verdi himself. After a chance meeting with Merelli close to La Scala, the impresario gave him a copy of Temistocle Solera's libretto which had been rejected by the composer Otto Nicolai. Verdi describes how he took it home, and threw \"it on the table with an almost violent gesture.... In falling, it had opened of itself; without my realising it, my eyes clung to the open page and to one special line: 'Va pensiero, sull' ali dorate'.\" While it has been noted that \"Verdi read it enthusiastically\" (and certainly he states that, while he attempted to sleep, he was kept awake and read and re-read the libretto three times), others have stated that he read the libretto very reluctantly or, as recounted by Lessona, that he \"threw the libretto in a corner without looking at it anymore, and for the next five months he carried on with his reading of bad novels... [when] towards the end of May he found himself with that blessed play in his hands: he read the last scene over again, the one with the death of Abigaille (which was later cut), seated himself almost mechanically at the piano... and set the scene to music.\" Nevertheless, Verdi still refused to compose the music, taking the manuscript back to the impresario the next day. But Merelli would accept no refusal and he immediately stuffed the papers back into Verdi's pocket and \"not only threw me out of his office, but slammed the door in my face and locked himself in\". Verdi claims that gradually he worked on the music: \"This verse today, tomorrow that, here a note, there a whole phrase, and little by little the opera was written\" so that by the autumn of 1841 it was complete. At the very least, both Verdi's and Lessona's versions end with a complete score.", "", "The opening performances, limited to only eight because the season was coming to an end, were \"a colossal success.\" But, when the new season opened on 13 August 1842, about an additional 60 performances had been added by the end of that year. Numerous Italian and foreign theatres put on this opera in the years immediately following, including La Fenice in Venice in December 1842. In 1843 Donizetti conducted it in Vienna, and other stagings took place that year in Lisbon and Cagliari. But the definitive name of \"Nabucco\" for the opera (and its protagonist) was first used at a performance at the San Giacomo Theatre of Corfu in September, 1844. Nonetheless, a more plausible alternative for the establishment of this abbreviated form claims that it was the result of a revival of the opera in Teatro del Giglio of Lucca. The opera was first given in London at Her Majesty's Theatre on 3 March 1846 under the name of \"Nino\", since the depiction of biblical characters on stage \"was not considered proper\". In the US it appeared at the Astor Opera House in New York on 4 April 1848.", "\"Nabucco\" is frequently heard around the world today. It has been on the Metropolitan Opera's roster since it was first presented there during the 1960/61 season. When the Metropolitan opened its season in September 2001, eleven days after the destruction of the World Trade Center, the chorus began by singing \"Va pensiero\" in honor of the victims of the attack. \"Nabucco\" is also regularly performed at the Arena di Verona. Among the performances preserved on DVD are those at the Arena di Verona (1981 and 2007); La Scala (1987), Opera Australia (1996), Vienna State Opera (2001), Metropolitan Opera (2002), Genoa's Teatro Carlo Felice (2004), Teatro Municipale di Piacenza (2004), and Austria's St. Margarethen Opera Festival (2007). Many other companies have also performed it, including San Francisco Opera in 1982, Sarasota Opera in 1995 and 2019, London's Royal Opera House in 1996, Lyric Opera of Chicago in 1997 and 2016, the New National Theatre Tokyo in 1998, Teatro Colón in 2000, Baltimore Opera in 2006, and the Teatro Regio di Parma in 2008 as part of their on-going \"Festival Verdi\". \"Nabucco\" was presented by the Michigan Opera Theatre and the San Diego Opera as part of their 2009–2010 seasons. The Israeli Opera celebrated its 25th anniversary in 2010 with \"Nabucco\" at Masada, and performed it again in June 2019, accompanied by the Jerusalem Symphony Orchestra, in The Sultan's Pool, just outside the wall surrounding the Old City of Jerusalem. It was performed at the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden in 1972 with Colin Davis and March 2013 in a new co-production with La Scala, directed by, which was relayed to cinemas and subsequently released on DVD. Seattle Opera produced its first-ever staging of \"Nabucco\" in August 2015.", "", "\"Interior of the Temple of Solomon\" The Israelites pray as the Babylonian army advances on their city (\"Gli arredi festivi giù cadano infranti\" / \"Throw down and destroy all festive decorations\"). The High Priest Zaccaria tells the people not to despair but to trust in God (\"D'Egitto là su i lidi\" / \"On the shores of Egypt He saved the life of Moses\"). The presence of a hostage, Fenena, younger daughter of Nabucco, King of Babylon, may yet secure peace (\"Come notte a sol fulgente\" / \"Like darkness before the sun\"). Zaccaria entrusts Fenena to Ismaele, nephew of the King of Jerusalem and a former envoy to Babylon. Left alone, Fenena and Ismaele recall how they fell in love when Ismaele was held prisoner by the Babylonians, and how Fenena helped him to escape to Israel. Nabucco's supposed elder daughter, Abigaille, enters the temple with Babylonian soldiers in disguise. She, too, loves Ismaele. Discovering the lovers, she threatens Ismaele: if he does not give up Fenena, Abigaille will accuse her of treason. If Ismaele returns Abigaille's love, however, Abigaille will petition Nabucco on the Israelites' behalf. Ismaele tells Abigaille that he cannot love her and she vows revenge. Nabucco enters with his warriors (\"Viva Nabucco\" / \"Long live Nabucco\"). Zaccaria defies him, threatening to kill Fenena if Nabucco attacks the temple. Ismaele intervenes to save Fenena, which removes any impediment from Nabucco destroying the temple. He orders this, while Zaccaria and the Israelites curse Ismaele as a traitor.", "\"Scene 1: Royal apartments in Babylon\" Nabucco has appointed Fenena regent and guardian of the Israelite prisoners, while he continues the battle against the Israelites. Abigaille has discovered a document that proves she is not Nabucco's real daughter, but the daughter of slaves. She reflects bitterly on Nabucco's refusal to allow her to play a role in the war with the Israelites and recalls past happiness (\"Anch'io dischiuso un giorno\" / \"I too once opened my heart to happiness\"). The High Priest of Bel informs Abigaille that Fenena has released the Israelite captives. He plans for Abigaille to become ruler of Babylon, and with this intention has spread the rumour that Nabucco has died in battle. Abigaille determines to seize the throne (\"Salgo già del trono aurato\" / \"I already ascend the golden throne\"). \"Scene 2: A room in the palace\" Zaccaria reads over the Tablets of Law (\"Vieni, o Levita\" / \"Come, oh Levite!\"), then goes to summon Fenena. A group of Levites accuse Ismaele of treachery. Zaccaria returns with Fenena and his sister Anna. Anna tells the Levites that Fenena has converted to Judaism, and urges them to forgive Ismaele. Abdallo, a soldier, announces the death of Nabucco and warns of the rebellion instigated by Abigaille. Abigaille enters with the High Priest of Bel and demands the crown from Fenena. Unexpectedly, Nabucco himself enters; pushing through the crowd, he seizes the crown and declares himself not only king of the Babylonians but also their god. The high priest Zaccaria curses him and warns of divine vengeance; an incensed Nabucco in turn orders the death of the Israelites. Fenena reveals to him that she has embraced the Jewish religion and will share the Israelites' fate. Nabucco is furious and repeats his conviction that he is now divine (\"Non son più re, son dio\" / \"I am no longer King! I am God!\"). There is a crash of thunder and Nabucco promptly loses his senses. The crown falls from his head and is picked up by Abigaille, who pronounces herself ruler of the Babylonians.", "\"Scene 1: The Hanging Gardens of Babylon\" Abigaille is now Queen of Babylon. The High Priest of Bel presents her with the death warrant for the Israelites, as well as for Fenena. Nabucco, still insane, tries to reclaim the throne without success. Though his consent to the death warrant is no longer necessary, Abigaille tricks him into signing it. When Nabucco learns that he has consigned his (true) daughter to death, he is overcome with grief and anger. He tells Abigaille that he is not in fact her father and searches for the document evidencing her true origins as a slave. Abigaille mocks him, produces the document and tears it up. Realizing his powerlessness, Nabucco pleads for Fenena's life (\"Oh di qual onta aggravasi questo mio crin canuto\" / \"Oh, what shame must my old head suffer\"). Abigaille is unmoved and orders Nabucco to leave her. \"Scene 2: The banks of the River Euphrates\" The Israelites long for their homeland (\"Va, pensiero, sull'ali dorate\" / \"Fly, thought, on golden wings\"). The high priest Zaccaria once again exhorts them to have faith: God will destroy Babylon. The Israelites are inspired by his words.", "\"Scene 1: The royal apartments, Babylon\" Nabucco awakens, still confused and raving. He sees Fenena in chains being taken to her death. In despair, he prays to the God of the Hebrews. He asks for forgiveness, and promises to rebuild the temple in Jerusalem and convert to Judaism if his prayers are answered (\"Dio di Giuda\" / \"God of Judah!\"). Miraculously, his strength and reason are immediately restored. Abdallo and loyal soldiers enter to release him. Nabucco resolves to rescue Fenena and the Israelites as well as to punish the traitors. \"Scene 2: The Hanging Gardens of Babylon\" Fenena and the Israelite prisoners are led in to be sacrificed (\"Va! La palma del martirio\" / \"Go, win the palm of martyrdom\"). Fenena serenely prepares for death. Nabucco rushes in with Abdallo and other soldiers. He declares that he will rebuild the Temple of Jerusalem and worship the God of the Israelites, ordering the destruction of the idol of Bel. At his word, the idol falls to the ground of its own accord and shatters into pieces. Nabucco tells the Israelites that they are now free and all join in praise of Jehovah. Abigaille enters, supported by soldiers. She has poisoned herself. She begs forgiveness of Fenena, prays for God's mercy and dies. Zaccaria proclaims Nabucco the servant of God and king of kings.", "The historical Nebuchadnezzar II (c. 634–562 BC) took Jerusalem in 597 BC, but the madness plot of the opera differs from both archeological and biblical records of him. In the Book of Daniel, his madness lasts for seven years before his conversion to Judaism. But in the opera it only lasts for the time between the order to kill Fenena and the Jews, and it being carried out. The biblical story of seven years of madness followed by conversion bears more similarity to the Dead Sea Scrolls' story of Nabonidus (556–539 BC), father of Belshazzar in the Cylinders of Nabonidus, than to the historical Nebuchadnezzar. Nabonidus was the last king of Babylon, five kings later than Nebuchadnezzar, and Belshazzar was a temporary regent during Nabonidus' reign. Historical and biblical records agree that the Jews were freed and their temple was rebuilt not by the Babylonians but by Cyrus the Great following his conquest of Babylon in 539 BC. Babylonians addressed their own god as \"Bel\" (Italian: Belo), but the proper name of the deity is Marduk, who assumed the title of \"lord\" after his exaltation. The title \"Bel\" was in fact used also in connection with Nergal. Anachronisms in the opera include the use and tearing of paper documents. In this period such documents would probably have been written on clay tablets in cuneiform.", "The opera was an instant success, dominating Donizetti's and Giovanni Pacini's operas playing nearby. While the public went mad with enthusiasm, the critics tempered their approval of the opera. One critic who found \"Nabucco\" revolting was Otto Nicolai, the composer to whom the libretto was first offered. A Prussian, Nicolai felt at odds with emotional Italian opera while he lived near Milan. After refusing to accept the libretto proposal from Merelli, Nicolai began work on another offer called \"Il Proscritto\". Its disastrous premiere in March 1841 forced Nicolai to cancel his contract with Merelli and return to Vienna. From there he learned of the success of \"Nabucco\" and was enraged. \"Verdi's operas are really horrible,\" he wrote. \"He scores like a fool – technically he is not even professional – and he must have the heart of a donkey and in my view he is a pitiful, despicable composer... \"Nabucco\" is nothing but \"rage, invective, bloodshed and murder.\" However, Nicolai's opinions were in the minority and, today, he has become comparatively obscure. \"Nabucco\" secured Verdi's success until his retirement from the theatre, twenty-nine operas (including some revised and updated versions) later. Music historians have long perpetuated a powerful myth about the famous \"Va, pensiero\" chorus sung in the third act by the Hebrew slaves. Scholars have long believed the audience, responding with nationalistic fervor to the slaves' powerful hymn of longing for their homeland, demanded an encore of the piece. As encores were expressly forbidden by the Austrian authorities ruling northern Italy at the time to prevent public protests, such a gesture would have been extremely significant. However, recent scholarship puts this and the corresponding myth of \"Va, pensiero\" as the national anthem of the Risorgimento to rest. Although the audience did indeed demand an encore, it was not for \"Va, pensiero\" but rather for the hymn \"Immenso Jehova,\" sung by the Hebrew slaves to thank God for saving His people. In light of these new revelations, Verdi's position as the musical figurehead of the Risorgimento has been correspondingly revised. At Verdi's funeral however, the crowds in the streets spontaneously broke into \"Va, pensiero\".", "The overture, often played outside the context of the complete work in orchestral concerts, mostly consists of themes from the opera, including the Chorus of Hebrew Slaves and the warlike music when the Israelites curse Ismaele for his betrayal. A stage band is used extensively in the opera, both for the march accompanying Nabucco on his arrival and for Fenena's funeral march. Propulsive energetic rhythms are a notable feature of much of the music, contrasted with more lyrical moments, providing dramatic pace. Both the bass Zaccaria in his prayer \"Vieni o Levita\", a quiet piece with the unusual accompaniment of six cellos, and the baritone Nabucco in his mad scene and other passages, are given music of great expressiveness, providing outstanding opportunities for the singers, but the tenor role of Ismaele is comparatively minor, unusual for a Verdi opera. The music for Abigaille is extremely demanding, requiring a soprano who can sing both very low and very high with dramatic force and is also capable of virtuoso vocal decoration. More than any of the soloists, however, the chorus, used in a new and dramatic fashion, is at the centre of the opera.", "\"Nabucco\" is scored for two flutes (one doubling piccolo), two oboes (one doubling English horn), two clarinets in A, two bassoons, four horns in D, two trumpets in D, three trombones (two tenor, one bass), one cimbasso, timpani, bass drum, cymbals, side drum, triangle, two harps, strings, and an onstage banda.", "Notes Cited sources Other sources" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Parasite fighters.", "1910s.", "1920s.", "1930s.", "1940s.", "1950s.", "Drone motherships.", "Examples." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Until the middle of the 20th century there was military interest in parasite fighters – fighter aircraft intended to be carried into a combat zone by a larger aircraft, such as a bomber. If the bomber were threatened, the parasite would be released to defend it. Parasite fighters have never been highly successful and have seldom been used in combat. A major disadvantage of a parasite aircraft was that it reduced the payload capacity of the carrier aircraft. Projects for this type were designed to overcome the great disparity in range between bombers and their escort fighters. Development of aerial refueling has made parasite fighters obsolete.", "The first parasite fighters were launched and recovered from trapezes mounted externally to military airships. In 1915 Neville Usborne and another British officer worked on a plan to lift a BE.2C fighter under a SS-class non-rigid airship. This would allow the fighter to reach the height of a raiding Zeppelin rapidly while also conserving fuel. In the first experimental flight on 21 February 1916, the envelope lost pressure and the plane was prematurely separated from it at 4,000 feet. Both the officers were killed and there was no further experimentation with small airships. In May 1916 a Bristol Scout flown by Flt. Lt. M. J. Day was mounted above the top wing of a Porte Baby flying boat flown by Sqn. Ldr John Cyril Porte, and was successfully released at a height of 1000 ft (300 m). Although successful the scheme, intended to provide long-range defence against Zeppelins, was not pursued. In 1918 the Royal Air Force experimented with launching Sopwith Camel fighters from HM Airship 23. The Germans also experimented with the idea, suspending an Albatros D.III fighter aeroplane below a Zeppelin and releasing it at altitude: the intention was to use the aeroplane to defend airships against the British seaplane patrols encountered over the North Sea. Although the single trial, made on 25 January 1918, was successful the experiments were not continued. On 12 December 1918, in a test to determine the feasibility of carrying fighter aircraft on dirigibles, the airship C-1 lifted a US Army Curtiss JN-4 aircraft to 2,500 feet over Fort Tilden, New York, and at that height released it for a free flight back to base. The airship was piloted by Lieutenant George Crompton, Dirigible Officer at NAS Rockaway, and the airplane by Lieutenant A. W. Redfield, USA, commander of the 52nd Aero Squadron based at Mineola (Long Island, NY).", "The British Imperial Airship Scheme of 1924 envisaged a commercial airship that could also carry five fighter aircraft if put into military use, but this requirement was abandoned. In 1925 first the DH.53 light aeroplane and then Gloster Grebes had been launched from the airship R.33.", "In 1930, the US Navy airship was used to test the trapeze system developed to launch and recover fixed wing aircraft from rigid airships. The tests were a success, and the purpose built airships and were designed to carry parasite aircraft inside a hangar bay within the hull. The airships could carry up to five single-seat Curtiss F9C Sparrowhawks for scouting or two-seat Fleet N2Y-1s for training. In 1934, two two-seat Waco UBF XJW-1 biplanes equipped with skyhooks were delivered to the USS \"Macon\". The temporary system was removed from the \"Los Angeles\", which never carried any aircraft on operational flights. In 1930, the \"Los Angeles\" also tested the launching of a glider over Lakehurst, New Jersey. Although operations of these parasite aircraft were quite successful, the ultimate loss of both airships (\"Akron\" in 1933 and \"Macon\" in 1935) put an end to the program. The first bombers to carry parasite fighters did so as part of the Zveno experiments carried out in the Soviet Union by Vladimir Vakhmistrov from 1931. Up to five fighters of various types were carried by Tupolev TB-1 and Tupolev TB-3 bombers.", "In August 1941, these combinations would fly the only combat missions ever undertaken by parasite fighters. TB-3s carrying Polikarpov I-16SPB dive bombers attacked the Cernavodă bridge and Constantsa docks, in Romania. After that, this squadron, based in the Crimea, carried out a tactical attack on a bridge over the river Dnieper at Zaporozhye, which had been captured by advancing German troops. Later in World War II, the \"Luftwaffe\" experimented with the Messerschmitt Me 328 as a parasite fighter, but problems with its pulsejet engines could not be overcome. Other late-war rocket-powered projects such as the Arado E.381 and Sombold So 344 never left the experimental stage. By contrast, the Empire of Japan were able to get the Yokosuka MXY7 Ohka kamikaze rocket plane type into active service, typically using the Mitsubishi G4M (Betty) bomber class to carry them within range. However, their effectiveness proved minimal in part because Allied air naval defense took advantage of the weight of the parasitical aircraft payload slowing the carrying bombers, making them vulnerable to interception before the rocket plane could launch.", "During the early years of the Cold War, the United States Air Force experimented with a variety of parasite fighters to protect its Convair B-36 bombers, including the dedicated XF-85 Goblin, and methods of either carrying a Republic F-84 Thunderjet in the bomber's bomb bay (the FICON project), or attached to the bomber's wingtips (Project Tom-Tom). One configuration studied for the XF-85/B-36 combination was for a B-36 to drop the XF-85 for a dash across enemy territory for bombing or reconnaissance and for the pilot to hook onto a different B-36 on the other side of the enemy territory. These projects were all soon abandoned, partly because aerial refueling appeared as a much safer solution to extend the range of fighters.", "As of 2014, DARPA is working on a project to launch and recover unmanned aerial vehicles from larger aircraft.", "Examples that have flown include:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Design.", "Air group." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "\"Ulyanovsk\" was based upon the 1975 Project 1153 Orel, which did not get beyond blueprints. The initial commissioned name was to be \"Kremlin\", but was later given the name \"Ulyanovsk\" after the Soviet town of Ulyanovsk, which was originally named Simbirsk but later renamed after Vladimir Lenin's original name because he was born there. It would have been 85,000 tonnes in displacement (larger than the older carriers but smaller than contemporary of the U.S. Navy). \"Ulyanovsk\" would have been able to launch the full range of fixed-wing carrier aircraft, as it was equipped with two catapults as well as a ski jump. The configuration would have been very similar to U.S. Navy carriers though with the typical Soviet practice of adding anti-ship missile (ASM) and surface-to-air missile (SAM) launchers. Its hull was laid down in 1988, but construction was cancelled at 20% complete in January 1991 and a planned second unit was never laid down. Scrapping began on 4 February 1992 and was completed by the end of October 1992.", "The \"Ulyanovsk\" air group was to include 68 aircraft with the following planned composition: The ship was equipped with two \"Mayak\" steam catapults made by the Proletarian factory, a ski-jump, and 4 arresting gear. For storing aircraft, it had a 175×32×7.9-m hangar deck with aircraft elevated to the flight deck by 3 elevators with carrying capacities of 50 tons (two on the starboard side and one on the port). The stern housed the \"Luna\" optical landing guidance system." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Classification.", "History.", "Origin.", "Sale.", "Transfer to China.", "Modernization and refit.", "Sea trials and handover.", "Aircraft handling." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The \"Kuznetsov\"-class ships were originally designated by the Soviet Navy as \"\" (\"tyazholiy avianesushchiy kreyser\", TAKR or TAVKR), meaning \"heavy aircraft-carrying cruiser\". In addition to aircraft, the ships were designed to carry P-700 Granit anti-ship cruise missiles that also form the main armament of the s. This multirole capability allowed the ships to avoid classification as aircraft carriers, thus allowing them to pass through the Turkish Straits between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean Sea. Under the Montreux Convention, aircraft carriers larger than 15,000 tons are not permitted to pass through the Straits, but there is no displacement limit on other types of capital ship from Black Sea powers. In contrast, the People's Liberation Army Navy considers \"Liaoning\" to be an aircraft carrier. Since China is not located on the Black Sea and thus not considered a Black Sea power under the Montreux Convention, it does not need and cannot use the tonnage exemption for non-aircraft carrier capital ships. The ship was completed as an aircraft carrier, and cruise missiles were never installed. \"Liaoning\" is equipped only with air defence weapons and must use its aircraft for surface attack.", "", "The ship was laid down as \"Riga\" at Shipyard 444 (now Mykolaiv South) in Mykolaiv, Ukrainian SSR, on 6 December 1985. Design work was undertaken by the \"Nevskoye Planning and Design Bureau\". Launched on 4 December 1988, the carrier was renamed \"Varyag\" in late 1990, after a previous similarly-named cruiser launched in 1899. When the Soviet Union collapsed in 1991, the ship was only 68% complete. Construction was halted, and the ship was put up for sale. The name \"Varyag\" was then adopted by another cruiser launched in 1983.", "Ukraine approached China, India, and Russia as potential buyers. China sent a high-level delegation in 1992, which reported that the ship was in good condition and recommended a purchase. However, the Chinese government declined to purchase the ship because of the international diplomatic situation at the time. Unable to find a buyer, Ukraine left the ship to deteriorate in the elements. In 1998, the rusting hulk was sold at auction for $20 million to Agencia Turistica E Diversoes Chong Lot Limitada, a company from Macau. Chong Lot proposed to tow \"Varyag\" to Macau, where the ship would be converted into a $200 million floating hotel and casino. Western observers were suspicious, since Chong Lot had no listed telephone number, was not located at its listed address, and was run by former officers in the Chinese Navy. Officials in Macau also denied Chong Lot's application to operate a casino. However, analysts noted that \"Varyag\" had deteriorated too much to be used as an operational warship and pointed out that the Chinese Navy was concentrating on submarines. The Soviet carriers and had also been sold to China as tourist attractions. In January 2015, further details emerged in an interview with Hong Kong-based businessman Xu Zengping by the \"South China Morning Post\". Xu, a former military basketball player, reported that he had been commissioned by the PLAN to purchase the vessel on its behalf, with the floating hotel and casino as a cover story. He was warned that the Chinese Navy did not have the budget to buy the ship, and the Chinese government did not support the purchase. However, Xu was so impressed when touring the ship that he resolved to purchase it using his personal funds. The previous year, Xu had borrowed HK$230 million from a Hong Kong business friend, spending HK$6 million to create Chong Lot as a Macau shell corporation. He described a harrowing negotiation in Kiev, lubricated by bribery and liquor, which helped to arrange victory at the auction. As a precaution, he shipped 40 tonnes of the carrier's blueprints to China overland in eight trucks.", "The passage from Ukraine to China was even more troublesome than the purchase. In June 2000, \"Varyag\" was taken under tow. As the tugboat approached the Bosphorus, Turkey denied permission for the ship to pass through, citing the risk that a gust of wind would turn the ship widthwise and block the entire strait. \"Varyag\" spent the next 16 months being towed around the Black Sea, accruing towing charges of $8,500 a day as Chong Lot stopped paying its bills. The tugboat operator compared its fate to the Yellow Fleet that was stuck in the Suez Canal for eight years, and French thrillseekers even landed a helicopter on the ship. Meanwhile, Chinese officials negotiated with Turkey, offering trade and tourism concessions. In August 2001, Turkey relented and agreed to allow the ship to pass. On 1 November 2001, the Bosphorus was cleared of all other traffic as \"Varyag\" was towed through. On 2 November, \"Varyag\" also passed through the Dardanelles without incident. On 4 November, \"Varyag\" was caught in a force 10 gale and broke adrift while passing the Greek island of Skyros. The ship was taken back under tow on 6 November, after one sailor died while attempting to attach the tow lines. The Suez Canal does not permit passage of \"dead\" ships – those without an on-board power source – so the hulk was towed through the Strait of Gibraltar, around the Cape of Good Hope, and through the Straits of Malacca at an average speed of across the journey. The tugboat fleet called for supplies en route at Piraeus, Greece; Las Palmas, Canary Islands; Maputo, Mozambique; and Singapore. \"Varyag\" entered Chinese waters on 20 February 2002, and arrived 3 March at the Dalian naval shipyard in northeast China. The costs included $25 million to the Ukrainian government for the hull, nearly $500,000 in transit fees and $5 million for 20 months of towing fees. Xu Zengping estimated in 2015 that his total out of pocket cost was at least US$120 million. He insisted that he had never been reimbursed by the Chinese government, and had spent the last 18 years repaying his debts, in part by selling properties such as his home. A source familiar with the acquisition explained that the naval official, Ji Shengde, who initiated the mission had been in prison because of smuggling. Contrary to initial reports that the ship had no engines, Xu reported that all four original engines remained intact at the time of purchase, but had been shut down and preserved in grease seals. A refit restored them to working order in 2011.", "701st Institute was tasked to redesign \"Varyag\" with Zhu Yingfu (朱英富) and Wu Xiaoguang (吴晓光) were assigned respectively as the general designer and deputy general designer. Wang Zhiguo (王治国) was assigned as the general system engineer, and Yang Lei (杨雷) was assigned the general supervisor. The workload of converting \"Varyag\" for operational use was equivalent to building ten new destroyers. \"Varyag\" was moved in June 2005 to a dry dock at Dalian (). Her hull was sandblasted, scaffolding erected, and the ship's island was painted in a red marine primer to treat metal corrosion. Observers have noted the installation of Type 348 active electronically scanned array (AESA) Radar (four arrays) and Sea Eagle radar. The air defence system consists of the Type 1130 CIWS and the FL-3000N missile system. The anti-ship missile tubes would not be used, freeing up internal space for hangar or storage use. Russia has explored similar modifications to her sister ship \"Admiral Kuznetsov\". On 8 June 2011, General Chen Bingde made the first public acknowledgement of the ship's refit. On 27 July 2011, the Chinese Defence Ministry announced it was refitting the vessel for \"scientific research, experiment and training\". In 2018, Asia Times reported that Sun Bo (executive), a general manager of China Shipbuilding Industry Corporation, had allegedly passed on technical details of the \"Liaoning\" to the Central Intelligence Agency. Sun was a general manager at the Dalian shipyard where the ship's refurbishment was done.", "The ship undertook her first sea trials from 10 August 2011 to 15 August 2011. On 29 November 2011 the carrier left port for her second set of trials. The carrier completed her eighth sea trial between 7 and 21 June 2012 and returned to Dalian. In July 2012, the ship set out for the longest trials thus far, 25 days. The carrier completed sea trials in early August 2012 and loaded Shenyang J-15 aircraft and KJ-88, YJ-83K and YJ-91 missiles in preparation for weapons systems trials. During sea trials, \"Liaoning\" experienced a steam burst in the engine compartment which forced crew to evacuate some parts of the ship, and the ship lost power. The problem was ultimately resolved and power was restored, although the time duration of the problem has not been released by military officials. Her sister ship \"Admiral Kuznetsov\" has also been disabled several times by engine failures. On 23 September 2012, the aircraft carrier was handed over to the PLAN, and was commissioned on 25 September 2012. At the commissioning ceremony, the carrier was officially named \"Liaoning\", in honour of the province in which she was retrofitted. On 26 December 2012, the \"People's Daily\" reported that it would take four to five years for \"Liaoning\" to reach full capacity. As it is currently a training ship, \"Liaoning\" is not assigned to any of China's operational fleets. According to geopolitical analysts, China could use \"Liaoning\" and its future carriers to intimidate other smaller countries that have territorial claims in the South China Sea, as well as extending air control further south of the disputed region. In December 2016 the ship exercised in the Western Pacific, including passing through the Miyako Strait between the Japanese islands of Miyako-jima and Okinawa. On 18 April 2018, Liaoning took part in the navy's live-fire exercises in the South China Sea, involving 76 fighter jets and 48 warships and submarines. The drills came after a large military display presided over by Chinese paramount leader Xi Jinping, and were condemned by Taiwan as \"military intimidation\". In August 2018, \"South China Morning Post\" reported that \"Liaoning\" was berthed at Dalian undergoing its first refit since its commissioning in 2012. The radar above \"Liaoning\"<nowiki>’s</nowiki> bridge and the air traffic control at the rear of the island superstructure was noted to have been removed, and scaffolding was also noted around the command centre. On 21 January 2019, \"Global Times\" reported that Liaoning had completed maintenance and modifications which lasted more than half a year, and had departed Dalian for a possible sea trial in the north Yellow Sea near Dalian, noting that changes were made to the superstructure.", "On 4 November 2012, the People's Liberation Army's website () reported that Shenyang J-15s had performed carrier touch-and-go training. On 25 November 2012, China announced that J-15s had made five successful arrested landings on \"Liaoning\". In June 2013, a second round of flight tests began on board \"Liaoning\", with personnel from the fleet air arm of the Brazilian Navy providing carrier training support to the People’s Liberation Army Navy Air Force who operate the J-15s. In August 2014, based on an article from Chinese state media, Western news outlets reported that two pilots had been killed testing jets slated to operate from \"Liaoning\". Chinese military officials stated such reports were misleading, and clarified that deaths were in fact unrelated with tests on the carrier. The original Chinese article from Xinhua also did not link the deaths with the J-15 nor mention any loss of such aircraft. In August 2014, the Chinese-language \"Shanghai Morning Post\" listed that \"Liaoning\" would carry 36 aircraft: 24 Shenyang J-15 fighters, six Changhe Z-18F anti-submarine warfare (ASW) helicopters, four Changhe Z-18J airborne early warning helicopters and two Harbin Z-9C rescue helicopters. The Chinese carrier aircraft inventory is similar to a balanced combat and support aircraft approach intended for Soviet aircraft carriers, which supported nuclear submarines, large surface combatants, and land-based strike bombers performing anti-access roles. The air wing lacks long-range radar and anti-submarine fixed-wing aircraft, needing support from shore-based aircraft such as Tupolev Tu-154 ASW and Shaanxi Y-8 AWACS aircraft. The U.S. Department of Defense noted that J-15s will have below normal range and armament when operating from the carrier, due to limits imposed by the ski-jump takeoff system. The lack of a carrier onboard delivery aircraft like the United States Navy (USN) Grumman C-2 Greyhound also limits logistics capabilities. \"Liaoning\" would need extensive land-based support to oppose a USN carrier strike group; however, it would be potent against the Vietnam People's Navy and the Philippine Navy. Deficiencies will likely be corrected with future aircraft carriers, which are expected to be larger with conventional takeoff decks and catapult launching for heavier fighters, plus fixed-wing radar and anti-submarine patrol aircraft." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Design and development.", "Operational history.", "Wing failures.", "Experimental engines.", "Postwar.", "Replica and reproduction aircraft." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In February 1917, the Sopwith Triplane began to appear over the Western Front. Despite its single Vickers machine gun armament, the Sopwith swiftly proved itself superior to the more heavily armed Albatros fighters then in use by the \"Luftstreitkräfte\". In April 1917, Anthony Fokker viewed a captured Sopwith Triplane while visiting \"Jasta\" 11. Upon his return to the Schwerin factory, Fokker instructed Reinhold Platz to build a triplane, but gave him no further information about the Sopwith design. Platz responded with the V.4, a small, rotary-powered triplane with a steel tube fuselage and thick cantilever wings, first developed during Fokker's government-mandated collaboration with Hugo Junkers. Initial tests revealed that the V.4 had unacceptably high control forces resulting from the use of unbalanced ailerons and elevators. Instead of submitting the V.4 for a type test, Fokker produced a revised prototype designated V.5. The most notable changes were the introduction of horn-balanced ailerons and elevators, as well as longer-span wings. The V.5 also featured interplane struts, which were not necessary from a structural standpoint, but which minimized wing flexing. On 14 July 1917, \"Idflieg\" issued an order for 20 pre-production aircraft. The V.5 prototype, serial 101/17, was tested to destruction at Adlershof on 11 August 1917.", "The first two pre-production triplanes were designated F.I, in accord with \"Idflieg's\" early class prefix for triplanes. These aircraft, serials 102/17 and 103/17, were the only machines to receive the F.I designation and could be distinguished from subsequent aircraft by a slight convex curve of the tailplane's leading edge. The two aircraft were sent to \"Jastas\" 10 and 11 for combat evaluation, arriving at Markebeeke, Belgium on 28 August 1917. Richthofen first flew 102/17 on 1 September 1917 and shot down two enemy aircraft in the next two days. He reported to the \"Kogenluft\" (\"Kommandierender General der Luftstreitkräfte\") that the F.I was superior to the Sopwith Triplane. Richthofen recommended that fighter squadrons be reequipped with the new aircraft as soon as possible. The combat evaluation came to an abrupt conclusion when \"Oberleutnant\" Kurt Wolff, \"Staffelführer\" of \"Jasta\" 11, was shot down in 102/17 on 15 September, and \"Leutnant\" Werner Voss, \"Staffelführer\" of \"Jasta\" 10, was killed in 103/17 on 23 September. The remaining pre-production aircraft, designated Dr.I, were delivered to \"Jasta\" 11. \"Idflieg\" issued a production order for 100 triplanes in September, followed by an order for 200 in November. Apart from the straight leading edge of the tailplane, these aircraft were almost identical to the F.I. The primary distinguishing feature was the addition of wingtip skids, which proved necessary because the aircraft was tricky to land and prone to ground looping. In October, Fokker began delivering the Dr.I to squadrons within Richthofen's \"Jagdgeschwader\" I. Compared with the Albatros and Pfalz fighters, the Dr.I offered exceptional maneuverability. Though the ailerons were not very effective, the rudder and elevator controls were light and powerful. Rapid turns, especially to the right, were facilitated by the triplane's marked directional instability. \"Vizefeldwebel\" Franz Hemer of \"Jasta\" 6 said, \"The triplane was my favorite fighting machine because it had such wonderful flying qualities. I could let myself stunt – looping and rolling – and could avoid an enemy by diving with perfect safety. The triplane had to be given up because although it was very maneuverable, it was no longer fast enough.\" As Hemer noted, the Dr.I was considerably slower than contemporary Allied fighters in level flight and in a dive. While initial rate of climb was excellent, performance fell off dramatically at higher altitudes because of the low compression of the Oberursel Ur.II, a clone of the Le Rhône 9J rotary engine. As the war continued, chronic shortages of castor oil made rotary operation increasingly difficult. The poor quality of German \"ersatz\" lubricant resulted in many engine failures, particularly during the summer of 1918. The Dr.I suffered other deficiencies. The pilot's view was poor during takeoff and landing. The cockpit was cramped and furnished with materials of inferior quality. Furthermore, the proximity of the gun butts to the cockpit, combined with inadequate crash padding, left the pilot vulnerable to serious head injury in the event of a crash landing.", "On 29 October 1917, \"Leutnant der Reserve\" Heinrich Gontermann, \"Staffelführer\" of \"Jasta\" 15, was performing aerobatics when his triplane broke up. Gontermann was killed in the ensuing crash landing. \"Leutnant der Reserve\" Günther Pastor of \"Jasta\" 11 was killed two days later when his triplane broke up in level flight. Inspection of the wrecked aircraft showed that the wings had been poorly constructed. Examination of other high-time triplanes confirmed these findings. On 2 November, \"Idflieg\" grounded all remaining triplanes pending an inquiry. \"Idflieg\" convened a \"Sturzkommission\" (crash commission) which concluded that poor construction and lack of waterproofing had allowed moisture to damage the wing structure. This caused the wing ribs to disintegrate and the ailerons to break away in flight. In response to the crash investigation, Fokker was forced to improve quality control on the production line, particularly varnishing of the wing spars and ribs, to combat moisture. Fokker also strengthened the rib structures and the attachment of the auxiliary spars to the ribs. Existing triplanes were repaired and modified at Fokker's expense. After testing a modified wing at Adlershof, \"Idflieg\" authorized the triplane's return to service on 28 November 1917. Production resumed in early December. By January 1918, \"Jastas\" 6 and 11 were fully equipped with the triplane. Only 14 squadrons used the Dr.I as their primary equipment. Most of these units were part of \"Jagdgeschwadern\" I, II, or III. Frontline inventory peaked in late April 1918, with 171 aircraft in service on the Western Front. Despite corrective measures, the Dr.I continued to suffer from wing failures. On 3 February 1918, \"Leutnant\" Hans Joachim Wolff of \"Jasta\" 11 successfully landed after suffering a failure of the upper wing leading edge and ribs. On 18 March 1918, Lothar von Richthofen, \"Staffelführer\" of \"Jasta\" 11, suffered a failure of the upper wing leading edge during combat with Sopwith Camels of No. 73 Squadron and Bristol F.2Bs of No. 62 Squadron. Richthofen was seriously injured in the ensuing crash landing. Postwar research revealed that poor workmanship was not the only cause of the triplane's structural failures. In 1929, National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) investigations found that the upper wing carried a higher lift coefficient than the lower wing – at high speeds it could be 2.55 times as much. The triplane's chronic structural problems destroyed any prospect of large-scale orders. Production eventually ended in May 1918, by which time only 320 had been manufactured. The Dr.I was withdrawn from frontline service as the Fokker D.VII entered widespread service in June and July. \"Jasta\" 19 was the last squadron to be fully equipped with the Dr.I. Surviving triplanes were distributed to training and home defense units. Several training aircraft were reengined with the 75 kW (100 hp) Goebel Goe.II. At the time of the Armistice, many remaining triplanes were assigned to fighter training schools at Nivelles, Belgium, and Valenciennes, France. Allied pilots tested several of these triplanes and found their handling qualities to be impressive.", "Several Dr.Is were used as testbeds for experimental engines. One aircraft, designated V.7, was fitted with the Siemens-Halske Sh.III bi-rotary engine. The V.7 exhibited exceptional rate of climb and ceiling, but it proved difficult to handle. Serial 108/17 was used to test the 118 kW (160 hp) Goebel Goe. III, while serial 469/17 was used to test the 108 kW (145 hp) Oberursel Ur. III. None of these engines were used on production aircraft. One triplane was used as a testbed for an experimental Schwade gear-driven supercharger.", "Three triplanes are known to have survived the Armistice. Serial 528/17 was retained as a testbed by the \"Deutschen Versuchsanstalt für Luftfahrt\" (German Aviation Research Institute) at Adlershof. After being used in the filming of two movies, 528/17 is believed to have crashed sometime in the late 1930s. Serial 152/17, in which Manfred von Richthofen obtained three victories, was displayed at the \"Zeughaus\" museum in Berlin. This aircraft was destroyed in an Allied bombing raid during World War II. In 1932, Fokker assembled a Dr.I from existing components. It was displayed in the \"Deutsche Luftfahrt-Sammlung\" in Berlin. In 1943, the aircraft was destroyed in an Allied bombing raid. Today, only a few original Dr.I artifacts survive in museums.", "Large numbers of replica and reproduction aircraft have been built for both individuals and museums. Bitz Flugzeugbau GmbH built two Dr.I replicas for use in Twentieth Century Fox’s 1966 film \"The Blue Max\". Because of the expense and scarcity of authentic rotary engines, most airworthy replicas are powered by a Warner Scarab or Continental R-670 radial engine. A few, however, feature vintage Le Rhône 9J or reproduction Oberursel Ur.II rotary engines." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Career.", "Personal life.", "Philosophical and artistic gestures.", "Artists influenced by Magritte.", "Legacy.", "Magritte Museum." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "René Magritte was born in Lessines, in the province of Hainaut, Belgium, in 1898. He was the oldest son of Léopold Magritte, a tailor and textile merchant, and Régina (née Bertinchamps), who was a milliner before she got married. Little is known about Magritte's early life. He began lessons in drawing in 1910. On 12 March 1912, his mother committed suicide by drowning herself in the River Sambre. This was not her first attempt at taking her own life; she had made many over a number of years, driving her husband Léopold to lock her into her bedroom. One day she escaped, and was missing for days. Her body was later discovered a mile or so down the nearby river. According to a legend, 13-year-old Magritte was present when her body was retrieved from the water, but recent research has discredited this story, which may have originated with the family nurse. Supposedly, when his mother was found, her dress was covering her face, an image that has been suggested as the source of several of Magritte's paintings in 1927–1928 of people with cloth obscuring their faces, including \"Les Amants\".", "Magritte's earliest paintings, which date from about 1915, were Impressionistic in style. During 1916–1918, he studied at the Académie Royale des Beaux-Arts in Brussels, under Constant Montald, but found the instruction uninspiring. He also took classes at the Académie Royale from the painter and poster designer Gisbert Combaz. The paintings he produced during 1918–1924 were influenced by Futurism and by the figurative Cubism of Metzinger. From December 1920 until September 1921, Magritte served in the Belgian infantry in the Flemish town of Beverlo near Leopoldsburg. In 1922, Magritte married Georgette Berger, whom he had met as a child in 1913. Also during 1922, the poet Marcel Lecomte showed Magritte a reproduction of Giorgio de Chirico's \"The Song of Love\" (painted in 1914). The work brought Magritte to tears; he described this as \"one of the most moving moments of my life: my eyes \"saw\" thought for the first time.\" In 1922–1923, Magritte worked as a draughtsman in a wallpaper factory, and was a poster and advertisement designer until 1926, when a contract with Galerie Le Centaure in Brussels made it possible for him to paint full-time. In 1926, Magritte produced his first surreal painting, \"The Lost Jockey\" (\"Le jockey perdu\"), and held his first solo exhibition in Brussels in 1927. Critics heaped abuse on the exhibition. Depressed by the failure, he moved to Paris where he became friends with André Breton and became involved in the Surrealist group. An illusionistic, dream-like quality is characteristic of Magritte's version of Surrealism. He became a leading member of the movement, and remained in Paris for three years. In 1929 he exhibited at Goemans Gallery in Paris with Salvador Dalí, Jean Arp, de Chirico, Max Ernst, Joan Miró, Picabia, Picasso and Yves Tanguy. On 15 December 1929 he participated in the last publication of La Revolution Surrealiste No. 12, where he published his essay \"Les mots et les images\", where words play with images in sync with his work The Treachery of images. Galerie Le Centaure closed at the end of 1929, ending Magritte's contract income. Having made little impact in Paris, Magritte returned to Brussels in 1930 and resumed working in advertising. He and his brother, Paul, formed an agency which earned him a living wage. In 1932, Magritte joined the Communist Party, which he would periodically leave and rejoin for several years. In 1936 he had his first solo exhibition in the United States at the Julien Levy Gallery in New York, followed by an exposition at the London Gallery in 1938. During the early stages of his career, the British surrealist patron Edward James allowed Magritte to stay rent-free in his London home, where Magritte studied architecture and painted. James is featured in two of Magritte's works painted in 1937, \"Le Principe du Plaisir\" (\"The Pleasure Principle\") and \"La Reproduction Interdite\", a painting also known as \"Not to Be Reproduced\". During the of Belgium in World War II he remained in Brussels, which led to a break with Breton. He briefly adopted a colorful, painterly style in 1943–44, an interlude known as his \"Renoir period\", as a reaction to his feelings of alienation and abandonment that came with living in German-occupied Belgium. In 1946, renouncing the violence and pessimism of his earlier work, he joined several other Belgian artists in signing the manifesto \"Surrealism in Full Sunlight\". During 1947–48, Magritte's \"Vache period,\" he painted in a provocative and crude Fauve style. During this time, Magritte supported himself through the production of fake Picassos, Braques, and de Chiricos—a fraudulent repertoire he was later to expand into the printing of forged banknotes during the lean postwar period. This venture was undertaken alongside his brother Paul and fellow Surrealist and \"surrogate son\" Marcel Mariën, to whom had fallen the task of selling the forgeries. At the end of 1948, Magritte returned to the style and themes of his pre-war surrealistic art. In France, Magritte's work has been showcased in a number of retrospective exhibitions, most recently at the Centre Georges Pompidou (2016–2017). In the United States his work has been featured in three retrospective exhibitions: at the Museum of Modern Art in 1965, at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in 1992, and again at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in 2013. An exhibition entitled \"The Fifth Season\" at the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art in 2018 focused on the work of his later years. Politically, Magritte stood to the left, and retained close ties to the Communist Party, even in the post-war years. However, he was critical of the functionalist cultural policy of the Communist left, stating that \"Class consciousness is as necessary as bread; but that does not mean that workers must be condemned to bread and water and that wanting chicken and champagne would be harmful. (...) For the Communist painter, the justification of artistic activity is to create pictures that can represent mental luxury.\" While remaining committed to the political left, he thus advocated a certain autonomy of art. Spiritually, Magritte was an agnostic. Popular interest in Magritte's work rose considerably in the 1960s, and his imagery has influenced pop, minimalist, and conceptual art. In 2005 he was 9th in the Walloon version of \"De Grootste Belg\" (\"The Greatest Belgian\"); in the Flemish version he was 18th.", "Magritte married Georgette Berger in June 1922. Georgette was the daughter of a butcher in Charleroi, and first met Magritte when she was 13 and he was 15. They met again 7 years later in Brussels in 1920 and Georgette, who had also studied art, became Magritte's model, muse, and wife. In 1936 Magritte's marriage became troubled when he met a young performance artist, Sheila Legge, and began an affair with her. Magritte arranged for his friend, Paul Colinet, to entertain and distract Georgette, but this led to an affair between Georgette and Colinet. Magritte and his wife did not reconcile until 1940. Magritte died of pancreatic cancer on 15 August 1967, aged 68, and was interred in Schaerbeek Cemetery, Evere, Brussels.", "Magritte's work frequently displays a collection of ordinary objects in an unusual context, giving new meanings to familiar things. The use of objects as other than what they seem is typified in his painting, \"The Treachery of Images\" (\"La trahison des images\"), which shows a pipe that looks as though it is a model for a tobacco store advertisement. Magritte painted below the pipe \"\"Ceci n'est pas une pipe\"\" (\"This is not a pipe\"), which seems a contradiction, but is actually true: the painting is not a pipe, it is an \"image\" of a pipe. It does not \"satisfy emotionally\"—when Magritte was once asked about this image, he replied that of course it was not a pipe, just try to fill it with tobacco. Magritte used the same approach in a painting of an apple: he painted the fruit and then used an internal caption or framing device to deny that the item was an apple. In these \"\"Ceci n'est pas\"\" works, Magritte points out that no matter how naturalistically we depict an object, we never do catch the item itself. Among Magritte's works are a number of surrealist versions of other famous paintings. Elsewhere, Magritte challenges the difficulty of artwork to convey meaning with a recurring motif of an easel, as in his \"The Human Condition\" series (1933, 1935) or \"The Promenades of Euclid\" (1955), wherein the spires of a castle are \"painted\" upon the ordinary streets which the canvas overlooks. In a letter to André Breton, he wrote of \"The Human Condition\" that it was irrelevant if the scene behind the easel differed from what was depicted upon it, \"but the main thing was to eliminate the difference between a view seen from outside and from inside a room.\" The windows in some of these pictures are framed with heavy drapes, suggesting a theatrical motif. Magritte's style of surrealism is more representational than the \"automatic\" style of artists such as Joan Miró. Magritte's use of ordinary objects in unfamiliar spaces is joined to his desire to create poetic imagery. He described the act of painting as \"the art of putting colors side by side in such a way that their real aspect is effaced, so that familiar objects—the sky, people, trees, mountains, furniture, the stars, solid structures, graffiti—become united in a single poetically disciplined image. The poetry of this image dispenses with any symbolic significance, old or new.\" René Magritte described his paintings as \"visible images which conceal nothing; they evoke mystery and, indeed, when one sees one of my pictures, one asks oneself this simple question, 'What does that mean?'. It does not mean anything, because mystery means nothing either, it is unknowable.\" Magritte's constant play with reality and illusion has been attributed to the early death of his mother. Psychoanalysts who have examined bereaved children have hypothesized that Magritte's back and forth play with reality and illusion reflects his \"constant shifting back and forth from what he wishes—'mother is alive'—to what he knows—'mother is dead'.\"", "Contemporary artists have been greatly influenced by René Magritte's stimulating examination of the fickleness of images. Some artists who have been influenced by Magritte's works include John Baldessari, Ed Ruscha, Andy Warhol, Jasper Johns, Jan Verdoodt, Martin Kippenberger, Duane Michals, Storm Thorgerson, and Luis Rey. Some of the artists' works integrate direct references and others offer contemporary viewpoints on his abstract fixations. Magritte's use of simple graphic and everyday imagery has been compared to that of the pop artists. His influence in the development of pop art has been widely recognized, although Magritte himself discounted the connection. He considered the pop artists' representation of \"the world as it is\" as \"their error,\" and contrasted their attention to the transitory with his concern for \"the feeling for the real, insofar as it is permanent.\" The 2006–2007 LACMA exhibition \"Magritte and Contemporary Art: The Treachery of Images\" examined the relationship between Magritte and contemporary art.", "The 1960s brought a great increase in public awareness of Magritte's work. Thanks to his \"sound knowledge of how to present objects in a manner both suggestive and questioning\", his works have been frequently adapted or plagiarized in advertisements, posters, book covers and the like. Examples include album covers such as \"Beck-Ola\" by The Jeff Beck Group (reproducing Magritte's \"The Listening Room\"), Alan Hull's 1973 album Pipedream which used \"The Philosopher's Lamp\", Jackson Browne's 1974 album \"Late for the Sky\", with artwork inspired by \"The Empire of Light\", Oregon's album \"Oregon\" referring to \"Carte Blanche\", the Firesign Theatre's album \"Just Folks... A Firesign Chat\" based on \"The Mysteries of the Horizon\", and Styx's album \"The Grand Illusion\" incorporating an adaptation of the painting \"The Blank Check\". The Nigerian rapper Jesse Jagz's 2014 album \"\" has cover art inspired by Magritte's works. In 2015 the band Punch Brothers used \"The Lovers\" as the cover of their album \"The Phosphorescent Blues\". The logo of Apple Corps, The Beatles' company, is inspired by Magritte's \"Le Jeu de Mourre\", a 1966 painting. Paul Simon's song \"Rene and Georgette Magritte with Their Dog after the War,\" inspired by a photograph of Magritte by Lothar Wolleh, appears on the 1983 album \"Hearts and Bones\". John Cale wrote a song titled \"Magritte\". The song appears on the 2003 album \"HoboSapiens\". Tom Stoppard wrote a Surrealist play called \"After Magritte\". John Berger scripted the book \"Ways of Seeing\" using images and ideologies regarding Magritte. Douglas Hofstadter's book \"Gödel, Escher, Bach\" uses Magritte works for many of its illustrations. \"The Treachery of Images\" was used in a major plot in L. J. Smith's \"The Forbidden Game\". Magritte's imagery has inspired filmmakers ranging from the surrealist Marcel Mariën to mainstream directors such as Jean-Luc Godard, Alain Robbe-Grillet, Bernardo Bertolucci, Nicolas Roeg, John Boorman and Terry Gilliam. According to Ellen Burstyn, in the 1998 documentary \"The Fear of God: 25 Years of \"The Exorcist\"\", the iconic poster shot for the film \"The Exorcist\" was inspired by Magritte's \"L'Empire des Lumières\". In the 1992 movie \"Toys\", Magritte's work was influential in the entire movie but specifically in a break-in scene, featuring Robin Williams and Joan Cusack in a music video hoax. Many of Magritte's works were used directly in that scene. In the 1999 movie \"The Thomas Crown Affair\" starring Pierce Brosnan, Rene Russo and Denis Leary, the Magritte painting \"The Son of Man\" was prominently featured as part of the plot line. Gary Numan's 1979 album \"The Pleasure Principle\" was a reference to Magritte's painting of the same name. In John Green's fictional novel (2012) and movie (2014), \"The Fault in Our Stars\", the main character Hazel Grace Lancaster wears a tee shirt with Magritte's, \"The Treachery of Images\", (This is not a pipe.) Just prior to leaving her mother to visit her favorite author, Hazel explains the drawing to her confused mother and states that the author's novel has \"several Magritte references\", clearly hoping the author will be pleased with the reference. The official music video of Markus Schulz's \"Koolhaus\" under his Dakota guise was inspired from Magritte's works. A street in Brussels has been named \"Ceci n'est pas une rue\" (This is not a street).", "The Magritte Museum opened to the public on 30 May 2009 in Brussels. Housed in the five-level neo-classical Hotel Altenloh, on the Place Royale, it displays some 200 original Magritte paintings, drawings and sculptures including \"The Return\", \"Scheherazade\" and \"The Empire of Light\". This multidisciplinary permanent installation is the biggest Magritte archive anywhere and most of the work is directly from the collection of the artist's widow, Georgette Magritte, and from Irene Hamoir Scutenaire, who was his primary collector. Additionally, the museum includes Magritte's experiments with photography from 1920 on and the short Surrealist films he made from 1956 on. Another museum is located at 135 Rue Esseghem in Brussels in Magritte's former home, where he lived with his wife from 1930 to 1954. A painting, \"Olympia\" (1948), a nude portrait of Magritte's wife by Magritte, was stolen from this museum on the morning of 24 September 2009 by two armed men. The stolen work is said to be worth about US$1.1 million. \"Olympia\" was returned to the museum early January 2012. The thieves returned the painting because they were unable to sell it on the black market due to its fame." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography.", "Transportation.", "Future.", "Sub-district name change controversy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Písnice consists of two distinct urban areas, separated by an undeveloped strip along the Kunratice bypass road, and its future extension. The southern part, consisting primarily of residential houses, is clustered around the historical village of Písnice. The northern part consists of a tower block housing estate and the grounds of a former meat factory. Písnice is bordered on the north by Libuš, in the west by the village of Cholupice, on the east by Kunratice and the southeast by Hodkovice and the village of Vestec. Písnice is home to a culinary vocational school, an elementary school Písnice, and a voluntary fire brigade. The former meat factory site has been transformed into a Vietnamese commercial, logistical, and cultural complex, known as SAPA. The eastern part of the Modřany Gully park falls within the boundaries of the municipality.", "The main thoroughfare through Písnice is Libušská street, which forms part of an important radial from Krč and Libuš, extending south towards Dolní Břežany. This radial is also the (current) eastern end of the Kunratice bypass road, which leads through some undeveloped areas towards Kunratice and Šeberov. The village of Písnice is the historical terminus of the 113 bus line, although some buses now continue all the way to Točná. Many other lines pass through Písnice towards Dolní Břežany and points south. Yet more bus lines end in the northern part of Písnice.", "In 2023, the final station of the new D line metro should open in Písnice, along with a new maintenance depot for the metro, located in the Bělnice area, south of SAPA. A new major road link between the Prague Ring Road and the planned D3 motorway should be constructed in the near future.", "The fact that Písnice is considerably larger than Libuše in area (3.67 km2 vs. 1.60 km2) and only slightly less populous (4177 vs. 5525) led the district council, on March 6, 2007, to agree to the petition to change the name of the sub-district from \"Prague-Libuš\" to \"Prague-Libuš-Písnice\" (or, according to some, with slightly different spacing as \"Prague - Libuš-Písnice\"). However, changing the name of a sub-district falls within the jurisdiction of the Prague Capital Region government, who have not yet disclosed whether any such proposal was ever received or discussed. In 1974, when Písnice was joined to Libuš, the local committee (a governing structure closely connected with the Communist era) was renamed from the committee of Libuš to the committee of Libuš-Písnice, a fact which has fueled the controversy over the name change." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Uses.", "Hazards and environmental risks.", "Classification.", "European classification.", "Current market.", "Legislation.", "Risk assessment." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In Europe the biocidal products are divided into different product types (PT), based on their intended use. These product types, 22 in total under the BPR, are grouped into four main groups, namely disinfectants, preservatives, pest control, and other biocidal products. For example, the main group \"disinfectants\" contains products to be used for human hygiene (PT 1) and veterinary hygiene (PT 3), main group \"preservatives\" contains wood preservatives (PT 8), the main group \"for pest control\" contains rodenticides (PT 14) and repellents and attractants (PT 19), while the main group \"other biocidal products\" contains antifouling products (PT 21). It should noted that one active substance can be used in several product types, such as for example sulfuryl fluoride, which is approved for use as a wood preservative (PT 8) as well as an insecticide (PT 18). Biocides can be added to other materials (typically liquids) to protect them against biological infestation and growth. For example, certain types of quaternary ammonium compounds (quats) are added to pool water or industrial water systems to act as an algicide, protecting the water from infestation and growth of algae. It is often impractical to store and use poisonous chlorine gas for water treatment, so alternative methods of adding chlorine are used. These include hypochlorite solutions, which gradually release chlorine into the water, and compounds like sodium dichloro-s-triazinetrione (dihydrate or anhydrous), sometimes referred to as \"dichlor\", and trichloro-s-triazinetrione, sometimes referred to as \"trichlor\". These compounds are stable while solids and may be used in powdered, granular, or tablet form. When added in small amounts to pool water or industrial water systems, the chlorine atoms hydrolyze from the rest of the molecule forming hypochlorous acid (HOCl) which acts as a general biocide killing germs, micro-organisms, algae, and so on. Halogenated hydantoin compounds are also used as biocides.", "Because biocides are intended to kill living organisms, many biocidal products pose significant risk to human health and welfare. Great care is required when handling biocides and appropriate protective clothing and equipment should be used. The use of biocides can also have significant adverse effects on the natural environment. Anti-fouling paints, especially those utilising organic tin compounds such as TBT, have been shown to have severe and long-lasting impacts on marine eco-systems and such materials are now banned in many countries for commercial and recreational vessels (though sometimes still used for naval vessels). Disposal of used or unwanted biocides must be undertaken carefully to avoid serious and potentially long-lasting damage to the environment.", "", "The classification of biocides in the \"Biocidal Products Regulation (EU) 528/2012)(BPR)\" is broken down into 22 product types (i.e. application categories), with several comprising multiple subgroups: MAIN GROUP 1: Disinfectants and general biocidal products MAIN GROUP 2: Preservatives MAIN GROUP 3: Pest control MAIN GROUP 4: Other biocidal products", "The global demand on biocides for use in industrial and consumer goods was estimated at US$6.4 billion in 2008, roughly 3% up from the previous year. Affected by the global economic crisis, the market will remain quite sluggish by 2010. The industry overall is further burdened by ever stricter regulations. The market saw a wave of consolidation in 2008, as producers are looking for measures to control cost and to strengthen market position. The most important application area, in quantitative terms, is industrial and public water treatment.", "The EU regulatory framework for biocides has for years been defined by the Directive 98/8/EC, also known as the Biocidal Products Directive (BPD). The BPD was revoked by the Biocidal Products Regulation 528/2012 (BPR), which entered into force on 17 July 2012 with the application date of September 1, 2013. Several Technical Notes for Guidance (TNsG) have been developed to facilitate the implementation of the BPR and to assure a common understanding of its obligations. According to the EU legislation, biocidal products need authorisation to be placed or to remain on the market. Competent Authorities of the EU member states are responsible for assessing and approving the active substances contained in the biocides. The BPR follows some of the principles set previously under the REACH Regulation (Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restrictions of Chemicals) and the coordination of the risk assessment process for both REACH and BPR are mandated to the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA), which assures the harmonization and integration of risk characterization methodologies between the two regulations. The biocides legislation puts emphasis on making the Regulation compatible with the World Trade Organization (WTO) rules and requirements and with the Global Harmonised System for Classification and Labelling (GHS), as well as with the OECD programme on testing methods. Exchange of information requires the use of the OECD harmonised templates implemented in IUCLID – the International Unified Chemical Information Data System (see ECHA and OECD websites). Many biocides in the US are regulated under the Federal Pesticide Law (FIFRA) and its subsequent amendments, although some fall under the Federal Food, Drugs and Cosmetic Act, which includes plant protection products (see websites below). In Europe, the plant protection products are placed on the market under another regulatory framework, managed by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA).", "Due to their intrinsic properties and patterns of use, biocides, such as rodenticides or insecticides, can cause adverse effects in humans, animals and the environment and should therefore be used with the utmost care. For example, the anticoagulants used for rodent control have caused toxicity in non-target species, such as predatory birds, due to their long half-life after ingestion by target species (i.e. rats and mice) and high toxicity to non-target species. Pyrethroids used as insecticides have been shown to cause unwanted effects in the environment, due to their unspecific toxic action, also causing toxic effects in non-target aquatic organisms. In light of potential adverse effects, and to ensure a harmonised risk assessment and management, the EU regulatory framework for biocides has been established with the objective of ensuring a high level of protection of human and animal health and the environment. To this aim, it is required that risk assessment of biocidal products is carried out before they can be placed on the market. A central element in the risk assessment of the biocidal products are the utilization instructions that defines the dosage, application method and number of applications and thus the exposure of humans and the environment to the biocidal substance. Humans may be exposed to biocidal products in different ways in both occupational and domestic settings. Many biocidal products are intended for industrial sectors or professional uses only, whereas other biocidal products are commonly available for private use by non-professional users. In addition, potential exposure of non-users of biocidal products (i.e. the general public) may occur indirectly via the environment, for example through drinking water, the food chain, as well as through atmospheric and residential exposure. Particular attention should be paid to the exposure of vulnerable sub-populations, such as the elderly, pregnant women, and children. Also pets and other domestic animals can be exposed indirectly following the application of biocidal products. Furthermore, exposure to biocides may vary in terms of route (inhalation, dermal contact, and ingestion) and pathway (food, drinking water, residential, occupational) of exposure, level, frequency and duration. The environment can be exposed directly due to the outdoor use of biocides or as the result of indoor use followed by release to the sewage system after e.g. wet cleaning of a room in which a biocide is used. Upon this release a biocidal substance can pass a sewage treatment plant (STP) and, based on its physical chemical properties, partition to sewage sludge, which in turn can be used for soil amendments thereby releasing the substance into the soil compartment. Alternatively, the substance can remain in the water phase in the STP and subsequently end up in the water compartment such as surface water etc. Risk assessment for the environment focuses on protecting the environmental compartments (air, water and soil) by performing hazard assessments on key species, which represent the food chain within the specific compartment. Of special concern is a well functioning STP, which is elemental in many removal processes. The large variety in biocidal applications leads to complicated exposure scenarios that need to reflect the intended use and possible degradation pathways, in order to perform an accurate risk assessment for the environment. Further areas of concern are endocrine disruption, PBT-properties, secondary poisoning, and mixture toxicity. Biocidal products are often composed of mixtures of one or more active substances together with co-formulants such as stabilisers, preservatives and colouring agents. Since these substances may act together to produce a combination effect, an assessment of the risk from each of these substances alone may underestimate the real risk from the product as a whole. Several concepts are available for predicting the effect of a mixture on the basis of known toxicities and concentrations of the single components. Approaches for mixture toxicity assessments for regulatory purposes typically advocate assumptions of additive effects;. This means that each substance in the mixture is assumed to contribute to a mixture effect in direct proportion to its concentration and potency. In a strict sense, the assumption is thereby that all substances act by the same mode or mechanism of action. Compared to other available assumptions, this concentration addition model (or dose addition model) can be used with commonly available (eco)toxicity data and effect data together with estimates of e.g. LC50, EC50, PNEC, AEL. Furthermore, assumptions of additive effects from any given mixture are generally considered as a more precautionary approach compared to other available predictive concepts. The potential occurrence of synergistic effects presents a special case, and may occur for example when one substance increases the toxicity of another, e.g. if substance A inhibits the detoxification of substance B. Currently, predictive approaches cannot account for this phenomenon. Gaps in our knowledge of the modes of action of substances as well as circumstances under which such effects may occur (e.g. mixture composition, exposure concentrations, species and endpoints) often hamper predictive approaches. Indications that synergistic effects might occur in a product will warrant either a more precautionary approach, or product testing.chemical As indicated above, the risk assessment of biocides in EU hinges for a large part by the development of specific emission scenario documents (ESDs) for each product type, which is essential for assessing its exposure of man and the environment. Such ESDs provide detailed scenarios to be used for an initial worse case exposure assessment and for subsequent refinements. ESDs are developed in close collaboration with the OECD Task Force on Biocides and the OECD Exposure Assessment Task Force and are publicly available from websites managed by the Joint Research Centre and OECD (see below). Once ESDs become available they are introduced in the European Union System for the Evaluation of Substances (EUSES), an IT tool supporting the implementation of the risk assessment principles set in the Technical Guidance Document for the Risk Assessment of Biocides (TGD). EUSES enables government authorities, research institutes and chemical companies to carry out rapid and efficient assessments of the general risks posed by substances to man and the environment. Once a biocidal active substance is allowed onto the list of approved active substances, its specifications become a reference source of that active substance (so called'reference active substance'). Thus, when an alternative source of that active substance appears (e.g. from a company that have not participated in the Review Programme of active substances) or when a change appears in the manufacturing location and/or manufacturing process of a reference active substance, then a technical equivalence between these different sources needs to be established with regard to the chemical composition and hazard profile. This is to check if the level of hazard posed to health and environment by the active substance from the secondary source is comparable to the initial assessed active substance. It goes without saying that biocidal products must be used in an appropriate and controlled way. The amount utilized of an active substance should be minimized to that necessary to reach the desired effects thereby reducing the load on the environment and the linked potential adverse effects. In order to define the conditions of use and to ensure that the product fulfils its intended uses, efficacy assessments are carried out as an essential part of the risk assessment. Within the efficacy assessment the target organisms, the effective concentrations, including any thresholds or dependence of the effects on concentrations, the likely concentrations of the active substance used in the products, the mode of action, and the possible occurrence of resistance, cross resistance or tolerance is evaluated. A product cannot be authorized if the desired effect cannot be reached at a dose without posing unacceptable risks to human health or the environment. Appropriate management strategies needs to be taken to avoid the buildup of (cross)resistance. Last but not least, other fundamental elements are the instructions of use, the risk management measures and the risk communication, which is under responsibility of the EU member states. While biocides can have severe effects on human health and/or the environment, their benefits should not be overlooked. To provide some examples, without the above-mentioned rodenticides, crops and food stocks might be seriously affected by rodent activity, or diseases like Leptospirosis might be spread more easily, since rodents can be a vector for diseases. It is difficult to imagine hospitals, food industry premises without using disinfectants or using untreated wood for telephone poles. Another example of benefit is the fuel saving of antifouling substances applied to ships to prevent the buildup of biofilm and subsequent fouling organisms on the hulls which increase the drag during navigation." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "Taxonomy.", "Genera.", "Distribution.", "Ecology.", "Conservation.", "Edibility.", "Lookalikes.", "Toxicity." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Most species of Boletaceae produce large, fleshy mushrooms, with a more or less central stipe. The fruit bodies typically have tubular hymenophores, although a small number of species (e.g. \"Phylloporus\") are lamellate. The spore deposit colours are commonly olivaceous (yellowish-green), yellowish, brownish, or vinaceous (red-wine coloured), and when viewed under the microscope spores are usually fusiform or subfusiform. In many species, parts of the fruit body will turn blue, red, or black when bruised or exposed to the air, as a result of the oxidation of pulvinic acid derivatives, like variegatic, xerocomic, and atrotomentinic acids.", "Boletaceae were first described by the French botanist François Fulgis Chevallier in 1826, as a family distinct from Agaricaceae. Five genera were initially included in Chevallier's circumscription: \"Boletus\" (which is the type genus of the family), \"Cladoporus\" (now synonymous with \"Laetiporus\"), \"Physisporus\" (now \"Perenniporia\"), \"Polyporus\", and \"Fistulina\". However, all of the original genera except \"Boletus\" have since been transferred to different families, and several new Boletaceae genera have been described.", "Rolf Singer, in the 4th edition (1986) of his \"Agaricales in Modern Taxonomy\", included 26 genera and 415 species in Boletaceae. In the \"Dictionary of the Fungi\" (10th edition, 2008), 35 Boletaceae genera were recognised, which collectively contained 787 species. Molecular phylogenetic studies in the 2000s have revised the concept of the family; in a highly cited 2006 publication, Manfred Binder and David Hibbett recognised 38 genera within the family, many of which had remained at the time undescribed. The number of Boletaceae genera increased significantly in the following years, as some of the early-established genera (\"Boletus\", \"Leccinum\", \"Xerocomus\"), further revealed to be highly polyphyletic. In the comprehensive work of Wu and colleagues (2014), seven major clades at subfamily level and 59 generic lineages were uncovered, including four new subfamilies (\"Austroboletoideae\", \"Chalciporoideae\", \"Leccinoideae\", and \"Zangioideae\") and 22 potential new genera. To formally name the generic lineages unravelled by molecular phylogenies, several new genera have since been described from Asia, Europe and North America including, among others, \"Baorangia\", \"Butyriboletus\", \"Caloboletus\", \"Exsudoporus\", \"Imperator\" and \"Rubroboletus\". Some characters traditionally emphasised in morphology-based taxonomy, such as basidiospore ornamentation and \"stuffed\" pore morphology, revealed to be incongruent with molecular taxonomy, suggesting that certain traits evolved more than once within the family. (*) Note that the phylogenetic and taxonomic position of many taxa currently remaining in genus \"Boletus\" has not yet been clarified. The number of species in this genus will therefore significantly reduce in the following years, as more taxa will be transferred to different genera, or found to be synonyms. Many other genera formerly part of this family have been moved into other, smaller families, as work with molecular phylogeny shows that they are more distantly related, even if morphologically similar. Representative of this adjustment, is the move of the slimy-capped genus \"Suillus\" to the family Suillaceae.", "Boletes are found worldwide, on every continent except Antarctica. Well-known and well-described in the temperate latitudes in the northern hemisphere, newer research has shown significant diversity in tropical and southern hemisphere regions as well. E. J. H. Corner found evidence of at least 60 species on the island of Singapore alone. In 1972 he described 140 species from the Malay Peninsula and Borneo and estimated there were at least as many yet to be documented. Over 100 species belonging to 52 genera have been reported from China, which has emerged as one of the worldwide hotspots of Boletaceae diversity. The family is also reasonably well-represented in the Mediterranean region, where many rare or range-restricted species can be found.", "As heterotrophic organisms, the majority Boletaceae species are symbiotic, and form mutually beneficial ectomycorrhizal associations with various trees and shrubs. However, a number of ancestral species in genera \"Buchwaldoboletus\" and \"Pseudoboletus\", are saprotrophic or parasitic. Evidence suggests that some, if not all, species of \"Chalciporus\" might also have a mycoparasitic interaction with other fungi. The exact trophic status of some South American and African boletes, such as species of \"Phylloboletellus\", is nonetheless not yet fully clarified, as fruit bodies are often found without the presence of ectomycorrhizal vegetation. Most frequently associated tree-hosts are members of the Fagaceae, particularly oak (\"Quercus\"), beech (\"Fagus\") and chestnut (\"Castanea\"). Fewer species are associated with conifers, mostly spruce (\"Picea\") and fir (\"Abies\"). In the Mediterranean region, most boletes are strongly associated with evergreen oaks, particularly members of the \"\"Ilex\"\" group, such as the holm oak (\"Quercus ilex\"), the kermes oak (\"Q. coccifera\"), or the golden oak (\"Q. alnifolia\"). Some boletes are also known to grow in association with Cistaceae shrubs, mainly \"Cistus\" and \"Helianthemum\", and at least one species (\"Leccinellum corsicum\") is exclusively associated with rockrose. Most boletes are sensitive to cold and fruit during warm spells in the summer and early months of the autumn, while some have very specific preferences with regards to substrate. For instance, the highly sought after \"Boletus aereus\" is mostly found on acidic soils, whereas the poisonous \"Rubroboletus satanas\" is predominantly calciphilous and mostly occurs on chalk. Other species, such as \"Hemileccinum impolitum\" or \"Leccinellum lepidum\", are indifferent to the substrate and frequently occur on both calcareous and acidic soil.", "A number of Boletaceae species are considered rare, vulnerable or endangered, and some have been included in regional or national Red Lists. \"Rubroboletus dupainii\" is listed among the 33 threatened fungi of Europe, as part of Appendix I of the Bern Convention. \"Rubroboletus rhodoxanthus\" is considered extinct in England and critically endangered in the Czech Republic. Also critically endangered in the Czech Republic are \" Aureoboletus moravicus\", \"Buchwaldoboletus sphaerocephalus\", \"Butyriboletus fuscoroseus\", \"Imperator rhodopurpureus\", \"Leccinum roseotinctum\" and \"Rubroboletus rubrosanguineus\". Eleven species of Boletaceae, \"Boletus aereus\", \"Boletus pinophilus\", \"Butyriboletus regius\", \"Hemileccinum impolitum\", \"Imperator luteocupreus\", \"I. rhodopurpureus\", \"I. torosus\", \"Rubroboletus dupainii\", \"R. lupinus\", \"R. pulchrotinctus\" and \"R. satanas\", are considered vulnerable or endangered in North Macedonia and have been included in the national Red List of fungi. Similarly, twenty species of Boletaceae are included in the Red List of fungi in Bulgaria. Research from the Mediterranean region suggests that many boletes might be under threat from accelerated climate changes and long-term drought. In a ten-year study from the island of Cyprus, most bolete species were found to be rare, highly restricted by low soil moisture and exhibited very erratic fruiting patterns strongly correlating to annual, late summer and early autumn precipitation.", "A large number of boletes are edible, few are delicious and some are considered to be true culinary delicacies. The much sought after king bolete (\"Boletus edulis\"), in particular, is a species of high commercial value and has been described as \"the wild mushroom \"par excellence\"\". In the Province of Parma in northern Italy, the four most sought after boletes, \"Boletus edulis\", \"B. aereus\", \"B. reticulatus\" and \"B. pinophilus\", have been collected and commercially exploited for centuries. Boletes are widely collected and sold in markets throughout Spain, particularly the province of Aragon. Scandinavian cuisine praises boletes. They are a regular feature of Finnish cuisine and, especially the king bolete, is considered an unsurpassed culinary mushroom, widely used in various soups, sauces, casseroles and hotpots. Bolete mushrooms are sometimes also used as pizza topping, not unlike champignons, shiitake, or portobellos. Two species of \"Butyriboletus\", the royal bolete (\"B. regius\") and the butter bolete (\"B. appendiculatus\") are also culinary valued, though much less common than the ceps. In northern Europe, two of the commonest and most frequently collected edible boletes are the bay bolete (\"Boletus badius\"), whose pores bruise blue-green, and the orange birch bolete, which is a \"Leccinum\" with an orange cap and which bruises a bluish grey. Several guidebooks recommend avoiding all red-pored boletes, but both \"B. erythropus\" (\"Neoboletus luridiformis\") and \"Suillellus luridus\" are edible when well-cooked and widely consumed in certain parts of Europe.", "Poisonous or otherwise inedible species are also present in the family, however, such as the unpalatable bitter species \"Boletus calopus\" and the aptly named bitter bolete (\"Tylopilus felleus\"), with a taste compared to bile, as well as some orange-capped species of \"Leccinum\". As the bitter bolete resembles somewhat the king bolete, it can produce literally a bitter disappointment to the mushroom hunter. The rule of thumb is that the bitter bolete has pink pores, and a brownish stipe with a dark brown (sometimes approaching black) reticulum, while the cep has whitish pores, which in maturity become yellowish or sometimes with a faint olivaceous tint, a light-colored (white and/or similar in color to the rest of the stipe) reticulum and white hyphae tufts at the base of the stipe. The bitter bolete also lacks the stuffed or plugged pore appearance (caused by a hyphal mat of cheilocystidia) that is common in the cep and its allies. If uncertain, tasting a small piece of cap context should clinch the identification, since \"Tylopilus felleus\" has a strong, foul bitter taste.", "\"Rubroboletus satanas\" has long been considered to be poisonous, though it is not known to have been responsible for any fatalities and the symptoms are predominantly gastrointestinal in nature. A glycoprotein, bolesatine, is thought to be responsible for the poisonings. When given to mice, Bolesatine causes massive thrombosis, while at lower concentrations it is a mitogen, inducing cell division to human T lymphocytes. A similar compound, bolevenine, has been isolated from the poisonous \"Neoboletus venenatus\" in Japan. More recent studies have associated the poisoning caused by \"R. satanas\" with hyperprocalcitonemia, and classified it as a distinct syndrome among fungal poisonings. Several other boletes are known to cause varying degrees of gastrointestinal symptoms, especially if eaten raw or insufficiently cooked. One incident of death associated with \"Boletus pulcherrimus\" was reported in 1994; a couple developed gastrointestinal symptoms after eating this fungus, with the husband finally succumbing. An autopsy revealed infarction of the midgut." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Composition history.", "Original 1847 version.", "1865 revised version for Paris.", "Performance history.", "Synopsis.", "Act 1.", "Act 2.", "Act 3.", "Act 4.", "Music.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Influenced by his friendship in the 1840s with Andrea Maffei, a poet and man of letters who had suggested both Schiller's \"Die Räuber\" (\"The Robbers\") and Shakespeare's play \"Macbeth\" as suitable subjects for operas, Giuseppe Verdi received a commission from Florence's Teatro della Pergola, but no particular opera was specified. He only started working on \"Macbeth\" in September 1846, the driving reason for that choice being the availability of a particular singer, the baritone Felice Varesi who would sing the title role. With Varesi under contract, Verdi could focus on the music for \"Macbeth\". (Maffei was already writing a libretto for \"I masnadieri\", which was based on the suggested Schiller play, but it could have been substituted for \"Macbeth\" had the baritone not been available.) As a result of various complications, including Verdi's illness, that work was not to receive its premiere until July 1847. Piave's text was based on a prose translation by Carlo Rusconi that had been published in Turin in 1838. Verdi did not encounter Shakespeare's original work until after the first performance of the opera, although he had read Shakespeare in translation for many years, as he noted in an 1865 letter: \"He is one of my favorite poets. I have had him in my hands from my earliest youth\". Writing to Piave, Verdi made it clear how important this subject was to him: \"...This tragedy is one of the greatest creations of man... If we can't make something great out of it let us at least try to do something out of the ordinary\". In spite of disagreements and Verdi's need to constantly bully Piave into correcting his drafts (to the point where Maffei had a hand in re-writing some scenes of the libretto, especially the witches' chorus in Act 3 and the sleepwalking scene), their version follows Shakespeare's play quite closely, but with some changes. Instead of using three witches as in the play, there is a large female chorus of witches, singing in three-part harmony (they are divided in three groups, and every group sings as a single witch, using \"I\" and not \"we\"). The last act begins with an assembly of refugees on the English border, and, in the revised version, ends with a chorus of bards celebrating victory over the tyrant.", "As early as 1852 Verdi was asked by Paris to revise his existing \"Macbeth\" in that city. However, nothing transpired but, again in 1864, Verdi was asked to provide additional music - a ballet and a final chorus - for a production planned at the Théâtre Lyrique (Théâtre-Lyrique Impérial du Châtelet) in Paris. In a letter to his publisher, Giulio Ricordi, asking for a copy of the score, Verdi stated that \"I would like to lengthen several pieces to give the opera more character\", but he quickly realized that the proposed additions would not be sufficient and that an overhaul of the entire opera was required. He went ahead to advise the impresario of the Lyrique, Léon Carvalho, that more time was needed and urged patience: \"I am labouring, labouring, labouring\" he assured the impresario and stressed that he wanted to look at the big picture and not try to hurry along a re-working of an opera he had written so many years before. So began a revision of the original version of 1847 over the winter of 1864/65. Verdi's librettist from years before, Francesco Maria Piave, was pressed into service to expand the opera and the composer exerted his usual pressures on him as he had done from their first collaboration: \"No, no, my dear Piave, it won't do!\" was a typical reaction to a first draft—in this case it was of Lady Macbeth's new act 2 aria \"La luce langue\", the result of which (notes biographer Mary Jane Phillips-Matz) was \"from Verdi's insistence came Lady Macbeth's gripping scene\". With the addition of music for Lady Macbeth, Macbeth's aria in act 3 was completely re-written—as was a considerable amount of the rest of act 3; a ballet was added in act 3; a chorus began act 4; and the ending of act 4 was also changed, Verdi being determined to drop Macbeth's final aria \"Mal per me che m'affidai\" (\"Trusting in the prophecies of Hell\") in favour of an off-stage death, to end with the triumphal chorus. If all these specific demands which were placed on Piave were not enough, Verdi wrote a very lengthy letter to Ricordi outlining what he saw as the dramatic demands of the revision. Some relate to crucial elements in the drama, especially how Banquo's appearances as a ghost should be presented. Ultimately however, Verdi had little power over the staged production, but—in regard to the translation—he did insist that the translator, when considering the act 2 duet between the Macbeth couple, retain the words \"Folie follie\" as written in order to emphasise the dramatic impact which those words created. One final letter, this time in February to Escudier, relates to what Verdi saw as \"the three roles in this opera, and there can only be three\". He then lays out that there is \"\"Lady Macbet, (\"sic\") Macbet,\" (\"sic\") [and the] \"Chorus of Witches\"\", discounting the role of Macduff. and he continues by noting that, for him, \"the Witches rule the drama...They are truly a character, and a character of greatest importance.\" The new version was first performed on 21 April 1865 in a French translation by Charles-Louis-Étienne Nuitter and Alexandre Beaumont, although Verdi had asked for it to be done by Gilbert Duprez, the tenor-turned-teacher in whom he had great confidence and whom he knew from his performances in his first opera for Paris, \"Jérusalem\" in 1847. The composer refused to attend the Paris performance, but provided directions via his publisher, others directly to Escudier. Initially, the reports from Escudier were favourable, but the first performance was poorly received by the critics, something which puzzled the composer: \"I thought I had done quite well with it...it appears I was mistaken\" he stated when he wrote to his Paris publisher, Escudier. Later performances in Paris fared no better. In Italian, the opera was given at La Scala in the autumn of 1865, but few if any others in Italy appear to have been presented. Since its revival in Europe from the 1960s, the revised version of \"Macbeth\" in Italian remains the preferred version for modern performances.", "19th Century The 1847 version, after it was first given on 14 March of that year in Florence, was successful and was performed all over Italy in some 21 locations (some repeated) The first version was given its United States premiere in April 1850 at Niblo's Garden in New York with Angiolina Bosio as Lady Macbeth and Cesare Badiali as Banco, while the United Kingdom premiere took place in October 1860 in Manchester. After the 1865 premiere of the revised version, which was followed by only 13 more performances, the opera generally fell from popularity. It was given in Paris in April 1865 and then occasionally up to about 1900. However, after that, it was rarely performed until after World War II. 20th Century and beyond The US premiere of the later version did not take place until 24 October 1941 in New York, but two European productions, in Berlin in the 1930s and at Glyndebourne in 1938 and 1939, were important in helping the 20th Century revival. The 1938 production was the UK premiere of the revised version and the first to combine the death of Macbeth from the 1847 version with the triumphal ending from the 1865 version, something totally against Verdi's wishes. Glydebourne revived it in the 1950s but it was not until 1959 that it appeared on the Metropolitan Opera's roster for the first time and has often been performed there since then.. The Opera Guild of Montreal also presented it in 1959. Similarly, the first presentations at the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden, with Tito Gobbi (and then others in the title role) took place on 30 March 1960, with other productions presented in 1981 and 2002. The visiting \"Kirov Opera\" (as today's Mariinsky Opera was then known), presented it in London at Covent Garden in 2001. In recent times, the opera has appeared more frequently in the repertories of companies such as the Washington National Opera (2007) and the San Francisco Opera (Nov/Dec 2007) and in many other opera houses worldwide, but almost all productions stage the revised version in Italian. However, the 1847 version was given in concert at the Royal Opera House on 27 June 1997 In 2012, the Grand Théâtre de Genève presented a production of the opera under the direction of Christof Loy. Today, Verdi's \"Macbeth\" receives many performances at opera houses all over the world.", "\"Note: there are several differences between the 1847 and the 1865 versions which are noted below in text in indented brackets\"", "\"Scene 1: A heath\" Groups of witches gather in a wood beside a battlefield, exchanging stories of the \"evils\" they have done. The victorious generals Macbeth and Banco enter. The witches hail Macbeth as Thane of Glamis (a title he already holds by inheritance), Thane of Cawdor, and king \"hereafter.\" Banco is greeted as \"lesser than Macbeth, but greater\", never a king himself, but the progenitor of a line of future kings. The witches vanish, and messengers from the king appear naming Macbeth Thane of Cawdor. Macbeth protests that the holder of that title is still alive, but the messengers reply that the former Thane has been executed as a traitor. Banco, mistrusting the witches, is horrified to find that they have spoken the truth. In a duet, Macbeth and Banco muse that the first of the witches' prophecies has been fulfilled. Macbeth ponders how close he is to the throne, and whether fate will crown him without his taking action, yet dreams of blood and treachery: while Banco ponders on whether the minions of Hell will sometimes reveal an honest truth in order to lead one to future damnation. \"Scene 2: Macbeth's castle\" Lady Macbeth reads a letter from her husband telling of the encounter with the witches. She is determined to propel Macbeth to the throne - by fair means or foul. Lady Macbeth is advised that King Duncan will stay in the castle that night; she is determined to see him killed (\"Or tutti, sorgete\" / \"Arise now, all you ministers of hell\"). When Macbeth returns she urges him to take the opportunity to kill the King. The King and the nobles arrive and Macbeth is emboldened to carry out the murder (\"Mi si affaccia un pugnal?\" / \"Is this a dagger which I see before me?\"), but afterwards is filled with horror. Disgusted at his cowardice, Lady Macbeth completes the crime, incriminating the sleeping guards by smearing them with Duncan's blood and planting on them Macbeth's dagger. Macduff arrives for an appointment with the King, while Banco stands guard, only for Macduff instead to discover the murder. He rouses the castle while Banco also bears witness to the fact of Duncan's murder. The chorus calls on God to avenge the killing (\"Schiudi, inferno,..\" / \"Open wide thy gaping maw, O Hell\").", "\"Scene 1: A room in the castle\" Macbeth is now king: Duncan's son Malcolm has fled the country, suspicion having conveniently fallen on him for his father's murder: but Macbeth is still disturbed by the prophecy that Banco, not he, will found a great royal line. To prevent this he tells his wife that he will have both Banco and his son murdered as they come to a banquet. \"Scene 2: Outside the castle\" A gang of murderers lie in wait. Banco, sensing danger shares his misgivings with his son. (\"Come dal ciel precipita\" / \"O, how the darkness falls from heaven\"). The murderers attack and stab him to death, but his son escapes. \"Scene 3: A dining hall in the castle\" Macbeth receives the guests and Lady Macbeth sings a brindisi (\"Si colmi il calice\" / \"Fill up the cup\"). The assassination is reported to Macbeth, but when he returns to the table the ghost of Banco is sitting in his place. Macbeth raves at the ghost and the horrified guests believe he has gone mad. Lady Macbeth manages to calm the situation once - and even mocks it by calling for a toast to the absent Banco (whose death is not yet public knowledge), only for the ghost to appear a second time and terrify Macbeth into insanity again. Macduff resolves to leave the country, saying it is ruled by a cursed hand and only the wicked may remain: the other guests are terrified by Macbeth's talk of ghosts, phantoms and witches. The banquet ends abruptly with their hurried, frightened departure.", "\"The witches' cave\" The witches gather around a cauldron in a dark cave. Macbeth enters and they conjure up three apparitions for him. The first advises him to beware of Macduff. The second tells him that he cannot be harmed by a man 'born of woman'. The third that he cannot be conquered till Birnam Wood marches against him. (Macbeth: \"O lieto augurio\" / \"O, happy augury! No wood has ever moved by magic power\") Macbeth is then shown the ghost of Banco and his descendants, eight future Kings of Scotland, verifying the original prophecy. (Macbeth: \"Fuggi regal fantasima\" / \"Begone, royal phantom that reminds me of Banco\"). He collapses, but regains consciousness in the castle. A herald announces the arrival of the Queen (Duet: \"Vi trovo alfin!\" / \"I've found you at last\"). Macbeth tells his wife about his encounter with the witches and they resolve to track down and kill Banco's son, as well as Macduff and his family (whom they do not yet know has already fled the country). (Duet: \"Ora di morte e di vendetta\" / \"Hour of death and of vengeance\").", "\"Scene 1: Near the border between England and Scotland\" Scottish refugees stand near the English border (Chorus: \"Patria oppressa\" / \"Down-trodden country\"): In the distance lies Birnam Wood. Macduff is determined to avenge the deaths of his wife and children at the hands of the tyrant (\"Ah, la paterna mano\" / \"Ah, the paternal hand\"). He is joined by Malcolm, the son of King Duncan, and the English army. Malcolm orders each soldier to cut a branch from a tree in Birnam Wood and carry it as they attack Macbeth's army. They are determined to liberate Scotland from tyranny (Chorus: \"La patria tradita\" / \"Our country betrayed\"). \" Scene 2: Macbeth's castle\" A doctor and a servant observe the Queen as she walks in her sleep, wringing her hands and attempting to clean them of blood (\"Una macchia è qui tuttora!\" / \"Yet here's a spot\"). She raves about the deaths of both Duncan and Banco, and even about the deaths of Macduff's family, and that all the perfumes of Arabia would not clean the blood off her hands: all are things that the horrified witnesses would never dare to repeat to any living man. \"Scene 3: The battlefield\" Macbeth has learned that an army of Scottish rebels backed by England is advancing against him, but is reassured by remembering the words of the apparitions, that no man born of woman can harm him. However, in an aria (\"Pietà, rispetto, amore\" / \"Compassion, honour, love\") he contemplates the fact that he is already hated and feared: there will be no compassion, honour and love for him in his old age even if he wins this battle, nor kind words on a royal tomb, only curses and hatred. He receives the news of the Queen's death with indifference. Rallying his troops he learns that Birnam Wood has indeed come to his castle. Battle is joined. Macduff pursues and fights Macbeth who falls wounded. He tells Macbeth that he was not \"born of woman\" but \"untimely ripped\" from his mother's womb. Macbeth responds in anguish (\"Cielo!\" / \"Heaven\") and the two continue fighting, then disappear from view. Macduff returns indicating to his men that he has killed Macbeth. He then turns to Malcolm, hailing him as King. The scene ends with a hymn to victory sung by bards, soldiers, and Scottish women (\"Salve, o re!\"/ \"Hail, oh King!). Malcolm as King, and Macduff as hero, together swear to restore the realm to greatness.", "Baldini's analysis of the structure of the score in relation to the drama (and the comparison between the two versions) is highly detailed and worthy of examination. He notes that it is not always the 1865 material which is better or more suited than that from 1847. Writing in the \"Grove Dictionary\", musicologist Roger Parker sees the opera as revealing Verdi's \"attention to detail and sureness of effect unprecedented in earlier works. This holds true as much for the 'conventional' numbers...as for formal experiments like the Macbeth-Banquo duettino in act 1.\" However, while he is not alone in raising the issue of the contrast between the 1847 version and that of 1865 (\"the passage of 18 years was just too long to allow him to re-enter his original conception at every point\"), in the final analysis for musicologist Julian Budden, the disparity between the versions cannot be reconciled. However, along with Parker, he does concede that \"even the traditional elements are better handled than in \"Attila\" or \"Alzira\" [and] the arias grow organically from the implications of their own material, rather than from the deliberate elaboration of a formula.\"", "Notes Sources" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Design and development.", "Engines on display." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The D.II was based on the Austro-Daimler to a large degree. Like the Austro-Daimler, it was built up from the crankcase, which was milled from two pieces of cast aluminum bolted together at their midline. The cylinders were separately milled from steel and bolted to the top of the crankcase. Steel sleeves were fitted over the cylinders and welded on to form a cooling jacket. Much of this complexity is due to the differential rates of expansion of steel and aluminum, which precluded screwing the cylinders into the crankcase, and the alloys of the era meant that an aluminum cylinder was not possible. Both engines also used a scavenger pump to pump oil out of the crankcase to a separate cylinder, where a second high-pressure pump supplied oil to the engine. This arrangement allowed for a much smaller \"sump\" on the bottom of the crankcase, reducing the overall size of the engine, although in the case of the D.II it was not nearly as much as the Austro-Daimler. Where the D.II differed from the Austro-Daimler was largely in mechanical arrangement. For instance, the D.II featured a single overhead cam, powered by a shaft leading up from the crankshaft at the rear of the engine, whereas the Austro-Daimler had a more conventional valvetrain using pushrods driven from the crankcase. Another unique feature was the ability to shift the camshaft to a half-compression position for starting. The D.II used two carburetors located together on one side of the engine, feeding the cylinders through two manifolds; the Austro-Daimler separated its carburetors to locate them closer to the cylinders they fed. The D.II also used a unique cooling jacket design, with every two cylinders being covered by a single jacket. The D.II was introduced in 1914. It was fairly quickly replaced by the D.III, and ended production around 1916. The D.III was essentially a scaled-up D.II, although it abandoned the paired cooling jackets.", "One surviving example of this engine had been on display at Old Rhinebeck Aerodrome-its crankshaft had sheared, and the engine is rumored to possibly have been brought to New Zealand. Deutsche Museum in Munich has one example on display, this is a cutaway model that was created by Daimler" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "Shapshal was born in Bahçesaray, Crimea and studied at St. Petersburg University, where he was graduated in philology and oriental languages. During his studies he became a strong adopter of Russian orientalist V.Grigorjev's theory about the Khazarian origin of the Crimean Karaites. Immediately after his graduation at 1901 he was invited to serve as the personal tutor of the Iranian crown prince, Mohammad Ali Shah, and became a minister in the Persian government in 1907 (actually he was a Russian spy). In 1911 he returned to Crimea and became Chief Hakham of the Crimean Karaites communities in Crimea. From 1920 to 1927 he lived in Istanbul. Here he was active in the pan-Turkic movement. In 1927 while living in Turkey he was elected the head of the Karaims in Poland and in 1928 moved to Wilno. He denied any connection between Crimean Karaites and Rabbinic Jews. Shapshal is the founder of the Crimean Karaite religion and historical doctrine of Dejudaization. Under this doctrine, he changed the traditional title of \"Hacham\" to \"Gahan\" (\"Ḥakhan\"), which in his opinion goes back to the Khazarian word \"Khagan\". In the mid 1930s, he began to create a theory of the Altai-Turkic origin of the Karaims and the pagan roots of the Karaite religious teaching (worship of sacred oaks, polytheism, led by the god Tengri, the Sacrifice). Shapshal's doctrine is still a topic of critical research and public debate. He made a number of reforms aimed at the Turkification of the Karaims and the eradication of Jewish elements from their culture and language. He issued an order abolishing the teaching of Hebrew in Karaite schools, replaced names of Jewish holidays and months with the Turkic ones, renamed \"Gahan\" the position of \"Hacham\" in consonance with the word \"khan\". According to Shapshal, the doctrine of Anan ben David was close to early Christianity, and Karaites had believed for centuries in Jesus and Mohammed as prophets. Crimean Karaites adopted the law of Moses, but continued to adhere to the ancient Turkic pagan beliefs. Between the efforts to impose a Khazarian origin for the Crimean Karaites was the \"militarization\" process of their history originated in the 20th century's inter-war Poland: the trend of representing the Karaite population of Eastern Europe as a nation of warriors. Shapshal was one of the initiators of this process. In 1939, using his connections with the community of Russian emigrés in Germany, he appealed to the authorities of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Reich with a request to examine the issue of Crimean Karaites' ethnicity. After the occupation by German troops of the areas of Eastern Europe populated by Crimean Karaites, this appellation was observed by the German administration. They involved three major historian specialists on the history of the Karaites: Zelig Kalmanovich, Meir Balaban and Yitzhak (Ignacy) Schiper. Despite the fact that all three had been before the war fierce opponents of the theory of the Turkic origin of the Crimean Karaites, they supported Shapshal's theory in order to save the European Karaites from the Holocaust. Shapshal was instrumental in the formulation of Nazi policy towards the Karaims. As Hakham of Vilnius he was infamous for his confrontations with such Jewish community figures as Zelig Kalmanovich. He was also known for having been forced (under penalty of endangering his own community) to give the Nazis a detailed list of the members of the Crimean Karaites communities of Troki and Vilnius, allowing them to easily discover and arrest Jews who had forged papers stating that they were Crimean Karaites. In 1945 he formally abdicated from Karaite Gahan post, submitting a statement to the Commissioner for Religious Affairs of the Council of Ministers of the Lithuanian SSR, and got a position as a researcher at the Institute of History of the Soviet-dominated Lithuanian Academy of Sciences He co-authored a Karaim–Russian–Polish dictionary (published in 1974) and wrote a number of articles on the Crimean Karaites. Using his position he continued to promote his ideas, including forgery of some evidences regarding the military past of Crimean Karaites, publishing the articles about his \"discoveries\" in the Soviet Union's leading academic journals. Recent studies on Shapshal's archive have shown that his drafts include several versions of the \"original\" documents texts, evidencing forgery. In spite of that, Shapshal's ideas about Karaim warriors were adopted widely in USSR and even abroad. Thus in modern Lithuania, Trakai visitors are often said that Karaim warriors were guards of Trakai Castles. In 1997, a commemorative coin in denominations of 50 LTL was issued in honor of the 600th anniversary of the Tatars and Crimean Karaites in Lithuania. The coin includes the image of Tatar and Karaim warriors. Some of his works (including \"History of the Karaims\") remain unpublished. Part of his collections and books are kept in National Library of Lithuania, the other in a small museum in the old kenesa of Trakai, where he died in 1961. Some of his descendants settled in Israel during the 1990s under the Law of Return." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Design principles.", "History.", "Pioneer years.", "The fighting triplanes.", "Zeppelin killers.", "Bombers, transports and patrol.", "The racing triplanes.", "Private aviation.", "Tandem triplanes." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The triplane arrangement may be compared with the biplane in a number of ways. A triplane arrangement has a narrower wing chord than a biplane of similar span and area. This gives each wing-plane a slender appearance with higher aspect ratio, making it more efficient and giving increased lift. This potentially offers a faster rate of climb and tighter turning radius, both of which are important in a fighter. The Sopwith Triplane was a successful example, having the same wing span as the equivalent biplane, the Sopwith Pup. Alternatively, a triplane has reduced span compared to a biplane of given wing area and aspect ratio, leading to a more compact and lightweight structure. This potentially offers better maneuverability for a fighter, and higher load-capacity with more practical ground handling for a large aircraft type. The famous Fokker Dr.I triplane offered a balance between the two approaches, having moderately shorter span and moderately higher aspect ratio than the equivalent biplane, the Fokker D.VI. Yet a third comparison may be made between a biplane and triplane having the same wing plan: the triplane's third wing provides increased wing area, giving much-increased lift. The extra weight is partially offset by the increased depth of the overall structure, allowing a more efficient construction. The Caproni Ca.4 and Levy-Besson families of large, multi-engined triplanes both had some success with this approach. These advantages are offset to a greater or lesser extent in any given design by the extra weight and drag of the structural bracing and by the loss of lift resulting from aerodynamic interference between the wings in any stacked configuration. The multiplane idea was taken a step further by the quadruplane. No examples were successful, and as biplane design advanced, it became clear that the disadvantages of the triplane and quadruplane outweighed their advantages. In a practical landplane design, the lower set of wings are typically set approximately level with the underside of the aircraft's fuselage, the middle set level with the top of the fuselage, and the top set supported above the fuselage on cabane struts. In a practical flying boat, even the lowest wing must be placed well above the waterline of the hull, creating a tall structure overall.", "The first heavier-than-air craft to carry a person in free flight was a triplane, as far back as 1848 and long before the advent of powered flight. One of the few Danish designs to fly, in 1907, and the first powered type to fly in Germany, was also a triplane. However the triplane has seldom proved a practical solution and few types have ever entered production. The majority of triplane designs emerged during a narrow period from 1908 to 1923. Besides the famous fighting triplanes of the First World War, several larger types became successful bombers, airliners and maritime patrol aircraft, sometimes as different variants of the same basic design, both during and immediately after the war. The last triplane design, a private homebuild, was introduced shortly before the outbreak of the Second World War.", "The first heavier-than-air machine to carry a human on a free, untethered flight was a triplane glider constructed by George Cayley and flown in 1848. It was modern in form, having three stacked wings above the fuselage and a separate stabilising tail with both fin and tailplane. The wings were of typical Cayley kite-like planform having a low aspect ratio. The craft was not large enough to carry an adult so a local boy was chosen as the passenger, but his name is not known. Between 1907 and 1911 a number of pioneers experimented with triplanes, some capable of flight and others not. None proved outstanding, although the series produced by A.V. Roe had some success and sold in small numbers. In 1907 the Danish pioneer Jacob Ellehammer flew a powered triplane and would later receive a prize for flying it in Germany. The French Bousson-Borgnis canard triplane of 1908 was a failure. The Goupy No.1, designed in 1908 by Ambroise Goupy and built by Voisin, was more successful. A few weeks after the Goupy No.1 flew, Hans Grade's triplane became the first German-built aeroplane to fly. In the same year Farman modified his original Voisin machine to triplane configuration, and Dorand constructed a military triplane. In 1909 the American Morris Bokor constructed his own canard triplane and the Frenchman Alfred Groos constructed a triplane which failed to fly. Through 1909 and 1910 the British aviation pioneer A.V. Roe built a series of four experimental triplanes—types I, II, III and IV—and selling a small number of his Type II and III designs, before abandoning the triplane. Alexander Graham Bell was experimenting with an \"octahedral\" wing design and in 1910 built a triplane example, the Oionus I, which failed to fly. In 1911 the Belgian César Battaille constructed a triplane capable of short flights or hops, and the Russian Rodjestveisky also constructed a triplane.", "During World War I, some aircraft manufacturers turned to the triplane configuration for fighter aircraft. In practice these triplanes generally offered inferior performance to the equivalent biplane and, despite a brief vogue around 1917, only four types saw limited production. Nieuport built a series of triplane prototypes between 1915 and 1917, featuring a top wing heavily staggered backwards to improve the pilot's view and a characteristic triangular strut arrangement bracing the three wings. The design resulted in poor handling and was eventually dropped. Sopwith developed three different triplane designs in 1916. One, known simply as the Sopwith Triplane, went into production and became the first military triplane to see operational service. It had equal-span wings of high aspect ratio, mounted on a fuselage very similar to that of the preceding Pup biplane, and braced by one sturdy strut on each side with minimal wire bracing. The type was ordered by both the RFC and RNAS, but the RFC traded theirs for another type and the Sopwith saw service only with the RNAS, where it served with success. The Sopwith type's performance advantage and early successes over the Albatros D.III spurred military interest in the design, especially in Germany and Austria-Hungary. A flurry of fighter prototypes were produced through 1917 and 1918, sometimes reluctantly under pressure from the military. Examples were produced by Albatros, Aviatik, Brandenburg, DFW, Euler, Fokker, Friedrichshafen, LFG Roland, Lloyd, Lohner, Oeffag, Pfalz, Sablating, Schütte-Lanz, Siemens-Schuckert, W.K.F, in Britain by Austin and in the US by Curtiss. Only two companies, Fokker and Curtiss, would see any of their designs into production. Fokker's V.4 prototype of 1917 (identified by some as the V.3) had unusual cantilevered wings without bracing, the uppermost wing being attached only by cabane struts to the fuselage. The wings vibrated excessively in flight and the next prototype, the V.5, featured a single interplane strut on each side, similar to the Sopwith but with no wires called shrouds. This became the prototype of the famous Fokker Dr.I triplane of 1917, which would become immortalised as the aircraft most closely identified in popular culture with Manfred von Richthofen, the \"Red Baron\". Although it had a good rate of climb and was highly manoeuvrable it was not particularly fast. Following the break-up of two examples in the air the type was withdrawn from service for strengthening, and by the time it was re-introduced it was no longer at the forefront of performance. Meanwhile, in the USA the Curtiss company produced many triplane designs between 1916 and 1918. Of these, several fighters and related types entered production, notably the Model L trainer (of which three examples were constructed as floatplanes) and the Model S and Model 18-T fighters. The Curtiss GS-1 prototype of 1918 was unusual in being a floatplane scout from the outset. The performance of the fighting triplanes was soon overtaken by improved biplane fighters. However, as late as 1919 three prototype Sopwith Snarks were flown, and in 1920 and 1921 the heavily armoured Boeing GA-1 and GA-2 ground-attack triplanes proved too heavy to be useful.", "A few British designers pursued the triplane configuration in the anti-Zeppelin role. From 1915, Armstrong Whitworth developed the F.K.5 and F.K.6 prototypes. These were large three-seat types with twin engines and the middle wing of noticeably longer span than the others. Then in 1917 Blackburn produced their single-seat triplane. It was something of a throwback, featuring a pusher propeller and boom-mounted empennage in the manner of an earlier era. The arrangement was intended to allow fitting of an upwards-firing 2-pounder recoilless gun in the forward fuselage. Neither type progressed beyond the prototype stage.", "The French began experimenting with bomber designs in 1915. The Morane-Saulnier TRK and Voisin Triplane prototypes of 1915 and 1916 were not successful. The Voisin design was unusual in having a subsidiary tail boom above the fuselage, helping to support the empennage. French triplanes had more success in the long-range maritime role. Labourdette-Halbronn produced a twin-hulled triplane torpedo bomber prototype, the H.T.1, in 1918 and two prototypes of a modified H.T.2 version in 1919. Besson designed several triplane flying boats between ca. 1917 and 1919, initially in partnership with Levy. The Levy-Besson Alerte of 1917 featured a central wing of greater span than the others and many examples were used for ASW and patrol duties. Their last such design, the 1919 Levy-Besson High Seas had the top wing extended to the same span as the central wing and was also ordered into production, although the run was cancelled after relatively few had been delivered. Besson split from Levy and created his own Besson LB maritime patrol flying boat in the same year, and also the Besson Hydravion école which he exhibited at the Paris 1919 Air Show. He later developed a number of smaller designs for other roles, including Besson H-6 mail plane flown in 1921. The Italian Caproni Ca.4 of 1917 was another successful design and entered service with the Italian air force as a heavy bomber in 1918. Many further variants were produced, both during and after the war. Caproni later re-numbered many of these variants as new types, including the Ca.48 airliner. In Italy's first commercial aviation disaster and one of the earliest – and, at the time, deadliest – airliner accidents, a Ca.48 crashed while flying over Verona, Italy, on August 2, 1919, killing everyone on board (between 14 and 17 people). The unsuccessful Caproni Ca.60 prototype transatlantic seaplane had three sets of triplane wings taken from the Ca.4, making nine wings in all, and is generally classified as a multiplane. Among the many large seaplane designs produced in the US by Curtiss between 1916 and 1918, several were triplanes, however none entered production, including the Wanamaker Triplane prototype. Britain, too, gained its first triplane bomber in 1917 with the single-engined Sopwith Rhino. It was not a success and the Sopwith Cobham, the only twin-engined type that Sopwith ever produced, fared little better two years later. From 1918, the British company Bristol developed a series of heavy triplanes which, like the Caproni design, appeared in different variants aimed at different roles. The first was the Bristol Braemar bomber, flying in 1918 with the Mk II version in 1919. The Bristol Pullman 14-seat transport variant flew in 1920. This was followed by two examples of a new, larger design for a military freighter known as the Bristol Tramp. The Tarrant Tabor, another and much larger British bomber, was built with three wings to carry the six engines required—four more-powerful engines being unavailable. The power imbalance due to the high mounting caused the Tabor to crash on its maiden flight in 1919. Its designer Walter Barling went on to design the similar-sized American Witteman-Lewis XNBL-1 triplane, known as the \"Barling Bomber\", which first flew in 1923. On a smaller scale, the Avro 547 airliner was a modified Avro 504 with an extra wing. Two were built, of which the first flew in 1920. It was sold to Queensland and Northern Territory Aerial Services but proved unsuited to the tough conditions in the Australian Outback. Britain's only triplane contribution to the maritime arena was the Felixstowe Fury prototype of 1918, also known as the Porte Super-Baby. Almost as late as the Barling Bomber, in 1922 the Japanese flew the Mitsubishi 1MT torpedo bomber. It entered production as the Navy Type 10.", "After World War I, several examples of the Curtiss 18-T were used for racing. An 18T-2 nearly won the Curtiss Marine Trophy Race in 1922 (limited to U.S. Navy pilots), but pilot Sandy Sanderson ran out of fuel just before the finish line. In 1921 the \"Cactus Kitten\" racing triplane was created by modifying the \"Texas Wildcat 2\" biplane (which in turn was a modification of the monoplane \"Texas Wildcat\" monoplane), thus becoming the only design in history to have gone from monoplane to biplane to triplane configuration. Also referred to as the Curtiss-Cox racer, being designed and sponsored by Cox from Texas and powered by a 435 hp Curtiss C-12 engine, the Cactus Kitten had a wingspan of 20 ft. In the 1922 Pulitzer race it came 2nd behind a Curtiss biplane. In its triplane configuration it surpassed its monoplane and biplane antecedents in handling and speed and, for a brief period in 1922, the triplane was once again being noticed with the Kitten being touted as the world's fastest plane and being capable of surpassing 200 miles per hour. The same year it was donated to the Navy and used as a trainer for the 1922 Pulitzer race, fame having proven very fleeting. In 1927 a Catron & Fisk CF-10 twin-engined 22-seat airliner was modified with additional fuel tanks and updated engines and named the \"Pride of Los Angeles\". The intention was to enter the Dole Air race, but an in-flight incident caused the aircraft to crash before the race started.", "Some triplanes have been developed for private use. Perhaps the most unusual was the 1917 Curtiss Autoplane, a triplane flying car. The same year, the more conventional Curtiss-Judson Triplane, a one-off and slightly enlarged triplane variant of the Curtiss Model F, was sold for private use. After the war, in France the Besson H-3 private tourer flew in 1921. And in 1923 the German hang-glider enthusiast Hans Richter flew a triplane variant. Following the craze for the homebuilt tandem-wing Mignet Pou du Ciel (Flying Flea), a triplane variant, the American Flea, was produced in America around 1939. In this variant the top wings were fixed and the bottom wing acted as all-flying ailerons.", "A tandem triplane has two sets of triplane wings, fore and aft. Few have been made. The Dufaux triplane of 1908 was Switzerland's first native aircraft design, configured as a tandem triplane with a smaller biplane horizontal stabiliser. The 1909 Roe I Triplane has also been described as a tandem triplane due to its relatively large triplane aft plane. The Fokker V.8 of 1917 was another tandem design although not a true tandem triplane, having a triplane fore wing, biplane rear wing and monoplane tail stabiliser. In 1921, the Italian Gianni Caproni mated three stacks of triplane wings from his Ca.4 series to a single fuselage in a tandem triple triplane arrangement, to create the Caproni Ca.60 \"Noviplano\" prototype transatlantic airliner. It proved unstable and crashed on its second flight. A further example was under construction in Kansas City, USA as late as 1922. Recently, the term \"tandem triplane\" has been used for some new monoplane types that have active \"canard\" foreplane surfaces in addition to conventional wings and horizontal tailplane. A configuration having three comparable lifting surfaces in tandem is more correctly referred to as a \"three surface aircraft\", or sometimes a \"tandem triple\" or \"tandem triplet\", and is not a triplane as such. These modern types may also be compared to the pioneer Voisin-Farman I and Curtiss No. 1 which also had a large main wing with smaller fore and aft planes; the smaller planes were not regarded as part of the main wing arrangement, and they were not described as tandem types." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "Pompedda was born in Ozieri in Sardinia. He studied at seminaries in Sassari and Cuglieri and was ordained a priest in Rome on 23 December 1951. He obtained a doctorate in theology from the Pontifical Gregorian University, and a doctorate \"in utroque iure\" (in civil law and canon law) from the Pontifical Lateran University. He became an officer of the Roman Rota, the general appellate court of the Catholic Church, in 1955, serving as a defender of the bond. He joined the tribunal as an auditor in 1969 and served in that capacity until he became Dean of the Roman Rota in 1993. He was appointed Prefect of the Supreme Tribunal of the Apostolic Signatura, the highest tribunal in the church, in 1999. He resigned this position, as is customary, upon reaching the age of 75, on 18 April 2004, and his resignation was accepted on 27 May 2004. Pompedda was appointed titular Archbishop of \"Bisarcio\" on 29 November 1997 and consecrated on 6 February 1998. He was proclaimed a Cardinal-Deacon of \"Santissima Annunciazione della Beata Vergine Maria a Via Ardeatina\" by Pope John Paul II on 21 February 2001. He was one of the cardinal electors who participated in the 2005 papal conclave that selected Pope Benedict XVI. It was suspected that he may have been the source of information about the conclave published in the Italian journalist Lucio Brunelli in the journal \"Limes\" in September 2005; many also suspected that the information was false. Cardinal Pompedda also served as president of the appellate court of Vatican City and, from 1999, as president of the Court of Cassation of Vatican City. He is credited with drafting \"Universi Dominici Gregis\". Pompedda taught canon law at the Pontifical Gregorian University. He was also involved in the revision of the code of canon law in 1983, the first substantial revision since 1917. He was also the principal editor of \"Universi Dominici Gregis\", the apostolic constitution of Pope John Paul II published in 1995, which set the rules for the \"sede vacante\" and papal conclave. He supported proposals to make it easier to obtain an annulment of marriage, and gave several public lectures in 2003 outlining the changes. He retired before the changes were implemented, and the final document, \"Dignitas connubii\", did not go as far he had expected, reaffirming existing doctrine instead. Pompedda was appointed as the Cardinal Grand Prior of the Sacred Military Constantinian Order of Saint George by order of the Grand Master, the Duke of Castro. In November 2003, he became the Ecclesiastical Counsellor of the Order by appointment of Pope John Paul II. This position continued under Pope Benedict XVI. Cardinal Pompedda died in Rome of a brain hemorrhage. He was buried in a tomb in the cathedral in Ozieri. On 18 February 2010, his remains were reinterred in a specially constructed sarcophagus in the cathedral of Ozieri at the chapel of the Most Holy Sacrament. The requiem mass was celebrated at 5 pm, presided by Bishop Sergio Pintor of Ozieri. At the end of the mass, Mgr Giuseppe Sciacca, judge of the Roman Rota and a long time collaborator of Cardinal Pompedda, read a special message sent for the occasion by Tarcisio Cardinal Bertone, S.D.B., secretary of State, in the name of Pope Benedict XVI." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Military service.", "Congressional and diplomatic career.", "U. S. House service and Minister to Russia.", "Senate service.", "Secretary of State.", "Ambassador to the United Kingdom.", "Presidential election of 1856.", "Presidency (1857–1861).", "Inauguration.", "Personnel.", "Cabinet and administration.", "Judicial appointments.", "Intervention in the Dred Scott case.", "Panic of 1857.", "Utah War.", "Bleeding Kansas.", "1858 mid-term elections.", "Foreign policy.", "Covode Committee.", "Election of 1860.", "Secession.", "Proposed constitutional amendment.", "States admitted to the Union.", "Final years.", "Political views.", "Lifestyle and conjecture.", "Legacy.", "Historical reputation.", "Memorials.", "Popular culture depictions.", "External links." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "James Buchanan was born April 23, 1791 in a log cabin in Cove Gap, Pennsylvania, to James Buchanan Sr. and Elizabeth Speer. His parents were both of Ulster Scot descent; his father emigrated from Milford, Ireland in 1783. Shortly after Buchanan's birth the family moved to a farm near Mercersburg, Pennsylvania, and in 1794 the family moved into the town. His father became the wealthiest resident there, as a merchant, farmer, and real estate investor. Buchanan attended the Old Stone Academy and then Dickinson College in Carlisle, Pennsylvania. He was nearly expelled for bad behavior, but pleaded for a second chance and ultimately graduated with honors on September 19, 1809. Later that year he moved to the state capital at Lancaster. James Hopkins, a leading lawyer there, accepted Buchanan as an apprentice, and in 1812 he was admitted to the Pennsylvania bar. Many other lawyers moved to Harrisburg when it became the state capital in 1812, but Buchanan made Lancaster his lifelong home. His income rapidly rose after he established his practice, and by 1821 he was earning over $11,000 per year (). He handled various types of cases, including a much-publicized impeachment trial, where he successfully defended Pennsylvania Judge Walter Franklin. Buchanan began his political career as a member of the Federalist Party, and was elected to the Pennsylvania House of Representatives (1814–1816). The legislature met for only three months a year, but Buchanan's service helped him acquire more clients. Politically, he supported federally-funded internal improvements, a high tariff, and a national bank. He became a strong critic of Democratic-Republican President James Madison during the War of 1812. He was a Freemason, and served as the Master of Masonic Lodge No. 43 in Lancaster, and as a District Deputy Grand Master of the Grand Lodge of Pennsylvania.", "When the British invaded neighboring Maryland in 1814, he served in the defense of Baltimore as a private in Henry Shippen's Company, 1st", "", "In 1820 Buchanan ran for the U. S. House of Representatives and won, though his Federalist Party was waning. During his tenure in Congress, he became a supporter of Andrew Jackson and an avid defender of states' rights. After the 1824 presidential election, he helped organize Jackson's followers into the Democratic Party, and he became a prominent Pennsylvania Democrat. In Washington, he was personally close with many southern Congressmen, and viewed", "Buchanan returned home and was elected by the Pennsylvania state legislature to succeed William Wilkins in the U. S. Senate. Wilkins in turn replaced Buchanan as the ambassador to Russia. The Jacksonian Buchanan, who was re-elected in 1836 and 1842, opposed the re-chartering of the Second Bank of the United States and sought to expunge a congressional censure of Jackson stemming from the Bank War. Buchanan also opposed a gag rule sponsored by John C. Calhoun that would have suppressed anti-slavery petitions. He joined the majority in blocking the rule, with", "Buchanan was offered the position of Secretary of State in the Polk administration, as well as the alternative of serving on the Supreme Court. He accepted the State Department post and served for the duration of Polk's single term in office. He and Polk nearly doubled the territory of the United States through the Oregon Treaty and the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, which included territory that is now Texas, California, Nevada, New Mexico, Arizona, Utah,", "With the 1848 election of Whig Zachary Taylor, Buchanan returned to private life. He bought the house of Wheatland on the outskirts of Lancaster and entertained various visitors, while monitoring political events. In 1852, he was named president of the Board of Trustees of Franklin and Marshall College in Lancaster, and he served in this capacity until 1866. He quietly campaigned for the 1852 Democratic presidential nomination, writing a public letter that deplored the Wilmot Proviso, which proposed to ban slavery in new territories. He became known as a \"doughface\" due to his sympathy towards the South. At the 1852 Democratic National Convention, he won the support of many southern delegates but failed to win the two-thirds support needed for the presidential nomination, which went to Franklin Pierce. Buchanan declined to serve as the vice presidential nominee, and the convention instead nominated his close friend, William King. Pierce won", "Buchanan's service abroad allowed him to conveniently avoid the debate over the Kansas–Nebraska Act then roiling the country in the slavery dispute. While he did not overtly seek the presidency, he assented to the movement on his behalf. The 1856 Democratic National Convention met in June 1856, producing a platform that reflected his views, including support for the Fugitive Slave Law, which required the return of escaped slaves. The platform also called for an end to anti-slavery agitation, and U.S. \"ascendancy in the Gulf of Mexico.\" President Pierce hoped for re-nomination, while Senator Stephen A. Douglas also loomed as a strong candidate. Buchanan led on the first ballot, boosted by the support of powerful Senators John Slidell, Jesse Bright, and Thomas F. Bayard, who presented Buchanan as an experienced leader appealing to the", "", "Buchanan was inaugurated on March 4, 1857, taking the oath of office from Chief Justice Roger B. Taney. In his inaugural address, Buchanan committed himself to serving only one term, as his predecessor had done. He expressed an abhorrence for the growing divisions over slavery and its status in the territories, while saying that Congress should play no role in determining the status of slavery in the states or territories. He also declared", "", "As his inauguration approached, Buchanan sought to establish an obedient, harmonious cabinet, to avoid the in-fighting that had plagued Andrew Jackson's administration. He chose four Southerners and three Northerners, the latter of whom were all considered to be doughfaces (Southern sympathizers). His objective was to dominate the cabinet, and he chose men who would agree with his views. Concentrating", "Buchanan appointed one Justice, Nathan Clifford, to the Supreme Court of the United States. He appointed seven other federal judges to United States district courts. He also appointed two judges to the United States Court of Claims.", "Two days after Buchanan's inauguration, Chief Justice Taney delivered the \"Dred Scott\" decision, denying the enslaved petitioner's request for freedom. The ruling broadly asserted that Congress had no constitutional power to exclude slavery in the territories. Prior to his inauguration, Buchanan had written to Justice John Catron in January 1857, inquired about the outcome of the case, and suggested that a broader decision, beyond the specifics of the case, would be more prudent. Buchanan hoped that a broad decision protecting slavery in the territories could lay the issue to rest, allowing him", "The Panic of 1857 began in the summer of that year, ushered in by the collapse of 1,400 state banks and 5,000 businesses. While the South escaped largely unscathed, numerous northern cities experienced drastic increases in unemployment. Buchanan agreed with the southerners who attributed the economic collapse to overspeculation. Reflecting his Jacksonian background, Buchanan's response was \"reform not relief.\" While the government was \"without the power to", "The Utah territory, settled in preceding decades by the Latter-day Saints and their leader Brigham Young, had grown increasingly hostile to federal intervention. Young harassed federal officers and discouraged outsiders from settling in the Salt Lake City area. In September 1857, the Utah Territorial Militia, associated with the Latter-day Saints, perpetrated the Mountain Meadows massacre against Arkansans headed for California. Buchanan was offended by the militarism and polygamous behavior of Young. Believing the Latter-day Saints to be in open rebellion, Buchanan in July", "The Kansas–Nebraska Act of 1854 created the Kansas Territory and allowed the settlers there to decide whether to allow slavery. This resulted in violence between \"Free-Soil\" (antislavery) and proslavery settlers, which developed into the \"Bleeding Kansas\" crisis. The antislavery settlers, with the help of Northern abolitionists, organized a government in Topeka. The more numerous proslavery settlers, many from the neighboring slave state Missouri, established a government in Lecompton, giving the Territory two different governments for a time, with two distinct constitutions,", "Douglas's Senate term was coming to an end in 1859, with the Illinois legislature, elected in 1858, determining whether Douglas would win re-election. The Senate seat was the primary issue of the legislative election, marked by the famous debates between Douglas and his Republican opponent for the seat, Abraham Lincoln. Buchanan, working through federal patronage appointees in Illinois, ran candidates for the legislature in competition with both the Republicans and the Douglas Democrats. This could easily have thrown the election to the Republicans, and showed the depth of Buchanan's animosity toward Douglas. In", "Buchanan took office with an ambitious foreign policy, designed to establish U.S. hegemony over Central America at the expense of Great Britain. He hoped to re-negotiate the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, which he thought limited U.S. influence in the region. He also sought to establish American protectorates over the Mexican states of Chihuahua and Sonora, and most importantly, he hoped to achieve his long-term goal of acquiring Cuba. After long negotiations with the British, he convinced them to cede the Bay Islands to Honduras and the Mosquito Coast to Nicaragua. However, Buchanan's ambitions in Cuba and Mexico were", "In March 1860, the House impaneled the Covode Committee to investigate the administration for alleged impeachable offenses, such as bribery and extortion of representatives. The committee, three Republicans and two Democrats, was accused by Buchanan's supporters of being nakedly partisan; they charged its chairman, Republican Rep. John Covode, with acting on a personal grudge from a disputed land grant designed to benefit Covode's railroad company. The Democratic committee members, as well as Democratic witnesses, were enthusiastic in their condemnation of Buchanan.", "The 1860 Democratic National Convention convened in April of that year and, though Douglas led after every ballot, he was unable to win the two-thirds majority required. The convention adjourned after 53 ballots, and re-convened in Baltimore in June. After Douglas finally won the nomination, several southerners refused to accept the outcome, and nominated Vice President Breckinridge as their own candidate. Douglas and Breckinridge agreed on most issues except the protection of slavery. Buchanan, nursing a grudge against Douglas, failed to reconcile the party, and tepidly supported Breckinridge. With the splintering of the Democratic Party, Republican nominee Abraham Lincoln won a four-way election that", "With Lincoln's victory, talk of secession and disunion reached a boiling point, putting the burden on Buchanan to address it in his final speech to Congress, which was anticipated by both factions. In his message, Buchanan denied the right of states to secede but maintained the federal government was without power to prevent them. He placed the blame for the crisis solely on \"intemperate interference of the Northern people with the question of slavery in the Southern States,\" and suggested that if they did not \"repeal their unconstitutional and obnoxious enactments...", "On March 2, 1861, Congress approved an amendment to the United States Constitution that would shield \"domestic institutions\" of the states, including slavery, from the", "Three new states were admitted", "The Civil War erupted within two months of Buchanan's retirement. He supported the Union, writing to former colleagues that, \"the assault upon Sumter was the commencement of war by the Confederate states, and no alternative was left but to prosecute it with vigor on our part.\" He also wrote a letter to his fellow Pennsylvania Democrats, urging them to \"join the many thousands of brave & patriotic volunteers who are already in the field.\" Buchanan was dedicated to defending his actions prior to the Civil War, which was referred to by some as \"Buchanan's War.\" He received threatening letters daily, and stores displayed Buchanan's likeness with the", "Buchanan was often considered by anti-slavery northerners a \"doughface\", a northern man with pro-southern principles. Shortly after his election, he said that the \"great object\" of his administration was \"to arrest, if possible, the agitation of the Slavery question in the North and to destroy sectional parties.\" Buchanan believed the abolitionists were preventing the solution to the slavery problem. He stated, \"Before [the abolitionists] commenced this agitation, a very large and growing party existed in several of the slave states in favor of the gradual abolition of slavery; and now not a voice is heard there in support of such a measure. The abolitionists have postponed the emancipation of the slaves in three or four states for at least half a century.\" In deference to the intentions of the typical slaveholder, he was willing to provide the benefit of the doubt. In his third annual message to Congress, the president claimed that the slaves were \"treated with kindness and humanity.... Both the philanthropy and the self-interest of the master have combined to produce this humane result.\" Buchanan thought restraint was the essence of good self-government. He believed the constitution comprised \"... restraints, imposed", "In 1818, Buchanan met Anne Caroline Coleman at a grand ball in Lancaster, and the two began courting. Anne was the daughter of wealthy iron manufacturer, Robert Coleman. She was also the sister-in-law of Philadelphia judge Joseph Hemphill, one of Buchanan's colleagues. By 1819, the two were engaged, but spent little time together. Buchanan was busy with his law firm and political projects during the Panic of 1819, which took him away from Coleman for weeks at a time. Rumors abounded, as some suggested that he was marrying her only for money; others said he was involved with other (unidentified) women. Letters from Anne revealed she was aware of several rumors. Coleman broke off the engagement, and soon afterward, on December 9, 1819, suddenly died. Buchanan wrote her father for permission to attend the funeral, which was refused. After Coleman's death, Buchanan never courted another woman. At the time of her funeral, he said that, \"I feel happiness has fled from me forever.\" During his presidency, an orphaned niece, Harriet Lane, whom he had adopted, served as official White House hostess.", "", "Though Buchanan predicted that \"history will vindicate my memory,\" historians have criticized Buchanan for his unwillingness or inability to act in the face of secession. Historical rankings of presidents of the United States without exception place Buchanan among the least successful presidents. When scholars are", "A bronze and granite memorial near the southeast corner of Washington, D.C.'s Meridian Hill Park was designed by architect William Gorden Beecher and sculpted by Maryland artist Hans Schuler. It was commissioned in 1916 but not approved by the U.S. Congress until 1918, and not completed and unveiled until June 26, 1930. The memorial features a statue of Buchanan, bookended by male and female classical figures representing law and diplomacy, with engraved text reading: \"The incorruptible statesman whose walk was upon the mountain ranges of the law,\" a quote from a member of Buchanan's cabinet, Jeremiah S.", "Buchanan and his legacy are central to", "Primary sources" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Protected Forest.", "Community Events." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "From its formation in 1850, Komořany estate and surrounding buildings and greater part of Závist was part of the political municipality of Točná. All this locations has belonged together since the times when Komořany belonged the Zbraslav monastery. After World War II Komořany rise to village and became an independent municipality, detaching from Točná. Závist was also separated and newly belongs to Zbraslav. Starting in 1947, the local government of Modřany sought the transfer of the territory of Točná to Modřany. In 1960, the municipality of Točná was merged into the municipality of Cholupice. In 1974, Cholupice was joined to the Capital City of Prague. In 1976, the local government in Cholupice was dissolved, and both villages were attached to the local government in Modřany, which is now part of Prague 12. A remnant of the local committee system (, \"local national committee\") in Točná is the street \"K výboru\" (\"towards the committee\"), which was named in 1974.", "The hilly, forested area to the west of the village, bordered by the Břežaný creek, and the communities of Závist, Komořany and Nouzov, is a protected habitat. The vague outlines of a Celtic oppidum are visible in the high area called \"Šance\". A large plaque commemorating the entomologist František Antonín Nickerl overlooks the Břežaný valley. The forest's steep trails have, in recent years, become popular among mountain bikers. The forest is bisected by the Branišovská switchback, which is limited to light vehicle traffic. Despite traversing a protected area, the road has been used several times as part of a rally race from Zbraslav to Točná.", "The village celebrates several annual events:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and family.", "Childhood and education.", "State politics.", "Marriage and children.", "Congressional career.", "U.S. House of Representatives.", "U.S. Senate.", "Party leader.", "Lawyer and politician.", "Mexican–American War.", "Return to New Hampshire.", "Election of 1852.", "Presidency.", "Train crash and transition.", "Administration and political strife.", "Economic policy and internal improvements.", "Foreign and military affairs.", "Bleeding Kansas.", "1856 election.", "Later life.", "Post-presidency.", "Civil War.", "Final years and death.", "Sites, memorials, and honors.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Franklin Pierce was born on November 23, 1804 in a log cabin in Hillsborough, New Hampshire. He was a sixth-generation descendant of Thomas Pierce, who had moved to the Massachusetts Bay Colony from Norwich, Norfolk, England in about 1634. His father Benjamin was a lieutenant in the American Revolutionary War who moved from Chelmsford, Massachusetts to Hillsborough after the war, purchasing of land. Pierce was the fifth of eight children born to Benjamin and his second wife Anna Kendrick; his first wife Elizabeth Andrews died in childbirth, leaving a daughter.", "By 1824, New Hampshire was a hotbed of partisanship, with figures such as Woodbury and Isaac Hill laying the groundwork for a party of Democrats in support of General Andrew Jackson. They opposed the established Federalists (and their successors, the National Republicans), who were led by sitting President John Quincy Adams. The work of the New Hampshire Democratic Party came to fruition in March 1827, when their pro-Jackson nominee, Benjamin Pierce, won the support of the pro-Adams faction and was elected governor of New Hampshire essentially unopposed. While the younger Pierce had set out to build a career as an attorney,", "On November 19, 1834, Pierce married Jane Means Appleton (March 12, 1806 – December 2, 1863), a daughter of Congregational minister Jesse Appleton and Elizabeth Means. The Appletons were prominent Whigs, in contrast with the Pierces' Democratic affiliation. Jane Pierce was shy, devoutly religious, and pro-temperance, encouraging Pierce to abstain from alcohol. She was somewhat gaunt, and constantly ill from tuberculosis and psychological", "", "Pierce departed in November 1833 for Washington, D.C., where the Twenty-third United States Congress convened its regular session on December 2. Jackson's second term was under way, and the House had a strong Democratic majority, whose primary focus was to prevent the Second Bank of the United States from being rechartered. The Democrats, including Pierce, defeated proposals supported by the newly formed Whig Party, and the bank's charter expired. Pierce broke from his party on occasion, opposing Democratic bills to fund internal improvements with federal money. He saw both the bank and infrastructure spending as unconstitutional, with internal improvements the responsibility of the states. Pierce's first term was fairly uneventful from a legislative standpoint, and he was easily re-elected in March 1835. When not in Washington, he attended to his law practice, and in December 1835 returned to the capital for the Twenty-fourth Congress. As abolitionism grew more vocal in the mid-1830s, Congress was inundated with petitions from anti-slavery groups seeking legislation to restrict slavery in the United States. From the beginning, Pierce found the abolitionists' \"agitation\" to be an annoyance, and saw federal action", "The resignation in May 1836 of Senator Isaac Hill, who had been elected governor of New Hampshire, left a short-term opening to be filled by the state legislature, and with Hill's term as senator due to expire in March 1837, the legislature also had to fill the six-year term to follow. Pierce's candidacy for the Senate was championed by state Representative John P. Hale, a fellow Athenian at Bowdoin. After much debate, the legislature chose John Page to fill the rest of Hill's term. In December 1836, Pierce was elected to the full term, to commence in March 1837, and at age 32, was at the time", "", "Despite his resignation from the Senate, Pierce had no intention of leaving public life. The move to Concord had given him more opportunities for cases, and allowed Jane Pierce a more robust community life. Jane had remained in Concord with her young son Frank and her newborn Benjamin for the latter part of Pierce's senate term, and this separation had taken a toll on the family. Pierce, meanwhile, had begun a demanding but lucrative law partnership with Asa Fowler during congressional recesses. Pierce returned to Concord in early 1842, and", "Active military service was a long-held dream for Pierce, who had admired his father's and brothers' service in his youth, particularly his older brother Benjamin's, as well as that of John McNeil Jr., husband of Pierce's older half-sister Elizabeth. As a legislator, he was a passionate advocate for volunteer militias. As a militia officer himself, he had experience mustering and drilling bodies of troops. When Congress declared war against Mexico in May 1846, Pierce immediately volunteered to join, although no New England regiment yet existed. His hope to fight in the Mexican–American War was one reason he refused an offer to become Polk's Attorney General. General Zachary Taylor's", "Returning to Concord, Pierce resumed his law practice; in one notable case he defended the religious liberty of the Shakers, the insular sect threatened with legal action over accusations of abuse. His role as a party leader, however, continued to take up most of his attention. He continued to wrangle with Senator Hale, who was anti-slavery and had opposed the war, stances that Pierce regarded as needless agitation. The large Mexican Cession of land divided the United States politically, with many in the North insisting that slavery not be allowed there (and offering the Wilmot Proviso to ensure it), while others wanted slavery barred north of the Missouri Compromise line of 36°30′ N. Both proposals were anathema to many Southerners, and the controversy split the Democrats. At the 1848 Democratic National Convention, the majority nominated former Michigan senator Lewis Cass for president, while a minority broke off to become the Free Soil Party, backing former president Van Buren. The Whigs", "As the 1852 presidential election approached, the Democrats were divided by the slavery issue, though most of the \"Barnburners\" who had left the party with Van Buren to form the Free Soil Party had returned. It was widely expected that the 1852 Democratic National Convention would result in deadlock, with no major candidate able to win the necessary two-thirds majority. New Hampshire Democrats, including Pierce, supported his old teacher, Levi Woodbury, by then an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court, as a compromise candidate, but Woodbury's death in September 1851 opened up an opportunity for Pierce's allies to present him as a potential dark horse in the mold of Polk. New Hampshire Democrats felt that, as the state in which their party had most consistently gained Democratic majorities, they should supply the presidential candidate. Other possible standard-bearers included Douglas, Cass, William Marcy of New York, James Buchanan of Pennsylvania, Sam Houston of Texas, and Thomas Hart Benton of Missouri. Despite home state support, Pierce faced obstacles to his nomination, since he had been out of office for a decade, and also lacked the front-runners' national reputation. He publicly declared that such a nomination would be \"utterly repugnant to my tastes and wishes\", but given the desire of New Hampshire Democrats to see one of their own elected, he knew his future influence depended on his availability to run. Thus, he quietly allowed his supporters to lobby for him, with the understanding that his name would not be entered at the convention unless it was clear none of the front-runners could win. To broaden his potential base of southern support as the convention approached, he wrote letters reiterating his support for the Compromise of 1850, including the controversial Fugitive Slave Act. The convention assembled on June 1 in Baltimore, Maryland, and the deadlock occurred as expected. On the first ballot of the 288 delegates, held on June 3, Cass claimed 116, Buchanan 93, and the rest were scattered, without a single vote for Pierce. The next 34 ballots passed with no winner even close, and", "", "Pierce began his presidency in mourning. Weeks after his election, on January 6, 1853, the President-elect's family had been traveling from Boston by train when their car derailed and rolled down an embankment near Andover, Massachusetts. Both Franklin and Jane Pierce survived, but in the wreckage found their only remaining son, 11-year-old Benjamin, crushed to death, his body nearly decapitated. Pierce was not able to hide the gruesome sight from his wife. They both suffered severe depression afterward, which likely affected Pierce's performance as president. Jane Pierce wondered if the train accident was divine punishment for her husband's pursuit and acceptance of high office. She wrote a lengthy letter of apology to \"Benny\" for her failings as a mother. She avoided social functions for much of her first", "In his Cabinet appointments, Pierce sought to unite a party that was squabbling over the fruits of victory. Most in the party had not originally supported him for the nomination, and some had allied with the Free Soil party to gain victory in local elections. Pierce decided to allow each of the party's factions some appointments, even those that had not supported the Compromise of 1850. All of Pierce's cabinet nominations were unanimously and immediately confirmed by the Senate. Pierce spent the first few weeks", "Pierce charged Treasury Secretary James Guthrie with reforming the Treasury, which was inefficiently managed and had many unsettled accounts. Guthrie increased oversight of Treasury employees and tariff collectors, many of whom were withholding money from the government. Despite laws requiring funds to be held in the Treasury, large deposits remained in private banks under the Whig administrations. Guthrie reclaimed these funds", "The Pierce administration aligned with the expansionist Young America movement, with William L. Marcy leading the charge as Secretary of State. Marcy sought to present to the world a distinctively American, republican image. He issued a circular recommending that U.S. diplomats wear \"the simple dress of an American citizen\" instead of the elaborate diplomatic uniforms worn in the courts of Europe, and that they only hire American citizens to work in consulates. Marcy received international praise for his 73-page letter defending Austrian refugee Martin Koszta, who had been captured abroad in mid-1853 by the Austrian government despite his intention to become a U.S. citizen. Davis, an advocate of a southern transcontinental route, persuaded Pierce to send rail magnate James Gadsden", "The greatest challenge to the country's equilibrium during the Pierce administration was the passage of the Kansas–Nebraska Act. Organizing the largely unsettled Nebraska Territory, which stretched from Missouri to the Rocky Mountains, and from Texas north to what is now the Canada–US border, was a crucial part of Douglas's plans for western expansion. He wanted a transcontinental railroad with a link from Chicago to California, through the vast western territory. Organizing the territory was necessary for settlement as the land would not be surveyed nor put up for sale until a territorial government was authorized. Those from slave states had never been content with western limits on slavery, and felt it should be able to expand into territories procured", "Pierce fully expected to be renominated by the Democrats. In reality his chances of winning the nomination were slim, let alone re-election. The administration was widely disliked in the North for its position on the Kansas–Nebraska Act, and Democratic leaders were aware of Pierce's electoral vulnerability. Nevertheless, his supporters began to plan for an alliance with Douglas to deny James Buchanan the nomination. Buchanan had solid political connections and had been safely overseas through most of Pierce's term, leaving him untainted by the Kansas debacle. When balloting began on", "", "After leaving the White House, the Pierces remained in Washington for more than two months, staying with former Secretary of State Marcy. Buchanan altered course from the Pierce administration, replacing all of his appointees. The Pierces eventually moved to Portsmouth, New Hampshire, where Pierce had begun to speculate in property. Seeking warmer weather, he and Jane spent the next three years traveling, beginning with a stay in Madeira and followed by tours of Europe and the Bahamas. In Rome, he visited Nathaniel Hawthorne; the two men spent much time together and the author found the retired president as buoyant as ever. Pierce never lost sight of politics during his travels, commenting regularly on the nation's growing sectional conflict. He insisted that northern abolitionists stand down to avoid a southern secession, writing that the bloodshed of a civil war would", "After efforts to prevent the Civil War ended with the firing on Fort Sumter, Northern Democrats, including Douglas, endorsed Lincoln's plan to bring the Southern states back into the fold by force. Pierce wanted to avoid war at all costs, and wrote to Van Buren, proposing an assembly of former U.S. presidents to resolve the issue, but this suggestion was not acted on. \"I will never justify, sustain or in any way or to any extent uphold this cruel, heartless, aimless, unnecessary war,\" Pierce wrote to his wife. Pierce publicly opposed President Lincoln's order suspending the writ of \"habeas corpus\", arguing that even in a time of war, the country should not abandon its protection of civil liberties.", "Pierce's drinking impaired his health in his last years, but he grew increasingly spiritual. He had a brief relationship with an unknown woman in mid-1865. During this time, he used his influence to improve the treatment of Davis, now a prisoner at Fort Monroe in Virginia. He also offered financial help to Hawthorne's son Julian, as well as to his own nephews. On the second anniversary of Jane's death, Pierce was baptized into his wife's Episcopal faith at St. Paul's Church in Concord. He found this church to be less political than his former Congregational denomination, which had alienated Democrats with anti-slavery rhetoric. He took up the life of an \"old farmer\", as he called himself, buying up property, drinking less, farming the land himself, and hosting visiting relatives. He spent most of his time in Concord and his cottage at Little Boar's Head on", "In addition to his LL.D. from Norwich University, Pierce also received honorary doctorates from Bowdoin College (1853) and Dartmouth College (1860). Two places in New Hampshire have been listed on the National Register of Historic Places specifically because of their association with Pierce. The Franklin Pierce Homestead", "After Pierce died, he mostly passed from the American consciousness, except as one of a series of presidents whose disastrous tenures led to civil war. Pierce's presidency is widely regarded as a failure; he is often described as one of the worst presidents in American history. The public placed him third-to-last among his peers in C-SPAN surveys (2000 and 2009). Part of his failure was in allowing a divided Congress to take the initiative, most disastrously with the Kansas–Nebraska Act. Although he did not lead that fight—Senator Douglas did—Pierce paid the cost in damage to his reputation. The failure of Pierce, as president, to secure sectional conciliation helped bring an end to the dominance of the Democratic Party that had started with Jackson, and led to a period of over seventy years when the Republicans mostly controlled national politics. Historian Eric Foner says, \"His administration turned out to be one of the most disastrous in American history. It witnessed the collapse of the party system inherited from the Age of Jackson\". Biographer Roy Nichols argues: As a national political leader Pierce was an accident. He was honest and tenacious of his views but, as he made up his mind with difficulty and often reversed himself before making a final decision, he gave a general impression of instability. Kind, courteous, generous, he attracted many individuals, but his attempts to satisfy all factions failed and made him many enemies. In carrying out his principles of strict construction he was most in accord with Southerners, who generally had the letter of the law on their side. He failed utterly to realize the depth and the sincerity of Northern feeling against the South and was bewildered at the general flouting of the law and the Constitution, as he described it, by the people of his own New England. At no time did he catch the popular imagination. His inability to cope with the difficult problems that arose early in his administration caused him to lose the respect of great numbers, especially in the North, and his few successes failed to restore public confidence. He was an inexperienced man, suddenly called to assume a tremendous responsibility, who honestly tried to do his best without adequate training or temperamental fitness. Despite a reputation as an able politician and a likable man, during his presidency Pierce served only as a moderator among the increasingly bitter factions that were driving the nation towards civil war. To Pierce, who saw slavery as a question of property rather than morality, the Union was sacred; because of this, he saw the actions of abolitionists, and the more moderate Free Soilers, as divisive and as a threat to the constitutionally-guaranteed rights of southerners. Although he criticized those who sought to limit or end slavery, he rarely rebuked southern politicians who took extreme positions or opposed northern interests. David Potter concludes that the Ostend Manifesto and the Kansas–Nebraska Act were \"the two great calamities of the Franklin Pierce administration... Both brought down an avalanche of public criticism.\" More important, says Potter, they permanently discredited Manifest Destiny and \"popular sovereignty\" as political doctrines. Historian Kenneth Nivison, writing in 2010, takes a more favorable view of Pierce's foreign policy, stating that his expansionism prefaced those of later presidents William McKinley and Theodore Roosevelt, who served at a time when America had the military might to make her desires stick. \"American foreign and commercial policy beginning in the 1890s, which eventually supplanted European colonialism by the middle of the twentieth century, owed much to the paternalism of Jacksonian Democracy cultivated in the international arena by the Presidency of Franklin Pierce.\" Historian Larry Gara, who authored a book on Pierce's presidency, wrote in the former president's entry in \"American National Biography Online\": He was president at a time that called for almost superhuman skills, yet he lacked such skills and never grew into the job to which he had been elected. His view of the Constitution and the Union was from the Jacksonian past. He never fully understood the nature or depth of Free Soil sentiment in the North. He was able to negotiate a reciprocal trade treaty with Canada, to begin the opening of Japan to western trade, to add land to the Southwest, and to sign legislation for the creation of an overseas empire [the Guano Islands Act]. His Cuba and Kansas policies led only to deeper sectional strife. His support for the Kansas–Nebraska Act and his determination to enforce the Fugitive Slave Act helped polarize the sections. Pierce was hard-working and his administration largely untainted by graft, yet the legacy from those four turbulent years contributed to the tragedy of secession and civil war." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Origins and de Havilland.", "Wartime production.", "Airline operations and the first daily international flights.", "Sale to BSA and liquidation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "During 1912, Airco was established by newspaper proprietor and industrialist George Holt Thomas. The firm was initially based at The Hyde in Hendon, north London, England. Starting in August 1914, the aviator William Taylor Birchenough worked as a test pilot for Airco. That same year, learning that Geoffrey de Havilland, who was then at the Royal Aircraft Factory in Farnborough, might be available, Holt Thomas invited de Havilland to join Airco as its chief designer. De Havilland's Airco designs would prove decisive to the company, eventually provide around 30 per cent of all trainers, fighters and bombers used by Britain and the United States during the First World War. De Havilland's designs for Airco were all marked with his initials \"DH\".", "Airco would design and produce numerous aircraft during the wartime years. Its DH.2, a pusher configuration fighter introduced during 1916, contributed to ending the \"Fokker scourge\" of 1915. While early air combat over the Western Front had indicated the need for a single-seat fighter with forward-firing armament, there was no dominant approach to applying armaments to fighters at the time. As no means of firing forward through the propeller of a tractor aeroplane was available to the British, Geoffrey de Havilland designed the DH.2 as a smaller, single-seat development of the earlier two-seat DH.1 pusher design. A total of 453 DH.2s were produced by Airco. Another design produced by de Havilland was the DH.6, which was specifically designed as a military trainer; as this role was normally performed by obsolete service types at the time, it was an unconventional choice to develop a dedicated trainer. The DH.6 possessed relatively gentle flying characteristics, being described as being probably the most \"forgiving\" aircraft of its time, allowing itself to be flown \"crab wise\" in improperly banked turns and able to maintain sustained flight at speeds as low as. At least 2,282 DH.6s were built in the UK during wartime. The DH.4 was a two-seat combat aircraft, intended to perform both aerial reconnaissance and day bomber missions. By the end of production, a total of 1,449 aircraft (from orders for 1,700 aircraft) were constructed in Britain for the Royal Flying Corps (RFC) and the Royal Naval Air Service (RNAS). Production of the DH.4 was performed by a variety of companies beyond Airco themselves; these included F.W. Berwick and Co, Glendower Aircraft Company, Palladium Autocars, Vulcan Motor and Engineering, and the Westland Aircraft Work. Overseas, SABCA of Belgium produced a further 15 DH.4s during 1926. In the United States, several different manufacturers, including the Boeing Airplane Corporation, Dayton-Wright Airplane Company, the Fisher Body Corporation, and the Standard Aircraft Corporation produced a Americanized variant of the DH.4, featuring over 1,000 modifications from the original British design, to equip the American air services. During 1916, the DH.9 was designed as a successor to the DH.4, reusing both its wings and tail unit while adopting a modified fuselage that moved the pilot closer to the gunner/observer and away from the engine and fuel tank, which facilitated communication and was viewed as being a more optimal fighting configuration. However, While the DH.9 was deemed to be suitable for daytime bombing operations, it was found to be incapable of effective nighttime bombing due to the pilot's view being obstructed and visibility via the bombsight being unsuitable. The DH.9's performance in action over the Western Front was typically deemed to have been a disaster; heavy losses of the type were quickly incurred, attributed to both its poor performance and to engine failures, despite the prior derating of its engine to reduce the failure rate. By December 1918, Holt Thomas claimed in an advertisement that Airco was the largest aircraft company in the world, being engaged in the construction of aeroplanes, engines and propellers in large numbers, as well as a number of airships and flying boats. The engines being built included licensed production of Gnome and Le Rhone rotary engines. The company's works at Hendon employed between 7,000 and 8,000 people and had the latest metal-working machinery, in addition to extensive testing equipment, including a materials testing laboratory and a wind tunnel. At one stage, Airco was reportedly completing one new aircraft every 45 minutes on average. During 1920, the aviation periodical Flight Magazine reported that, during the period from August 1914 to November 1918, the D.H. Airco aircraft manufactured in both Britain and the United States had comprised approximately 30 per cent of the total output of aeroplanes of these two allies. Following the Armistice of 11 November 1918 and the end of the conflict, many of the wartime DH.4s and DH.9s, along with the improved DH.9A, served for many years with the newly-created Royal Air Force. These aircraft also formed the basis of early de Havilland-designed airliners, including the company's DH.16 and DH.18 types which were operated by Aircraft Transport and Travel Limited, the first airline established in the United Kingdom, which was also owned by George Holt Thomas.", "Airco decided to enter into the early airline business, established a dedicated subsidiary, Aircraft Transport and Travel (AT&T), for this purpose. On 25 August 1919, the firm commenced the world's first regular daily international service, between Hounslow Heath Aerodrome and Le Bourget Aerodrome, France. A number of DH.16s were used for this service. In addition to operating the London-to-Paris service, AT&T also launched other routes, including one between Croydon Airport and Amsterdam, on behalf of the Dutch airline KLM. On 17 May 1920, an AT&T DH.16 (G-EALU) performed the first KLM service between London and Amsterdam.", "Following the cessation of hostilities, the large number of war-surplus machines, sharp fluctuations in business confidence, and the government's failure, unlike those of USA and France, to provide any form of support, Airco became unprofitable. Thomas endeavoured to sell Airco to a car manufacturer. Airco and BSA, parent company of Daimler, announced on 1 March 1920 that Airco had amalgamated with Birmingham Small Arms Company. Within days BSA discovered Airco was in a far more serious financial state than Thomas had revealed. Thomas was immediately removed from his new seat on the BSA board and all BSA's new acquisitions were placed in liquidation. As a result of the financial situation that it inherited, BSA was unable to issue a dividend to shareholders for the following four years. With help from Thomas, de Havilland bought the group's assets he needed to form the de Havilland Aircraft Company during 1920. Aircraft Transport and Travel had been allowed to continue to operate until December 1920. BSA then bought Aircraft Transport and Travel's aircraft from the liquidator and, in early 1921, established Daimler Airway and Daimler Air Hire under Daimler Hire Limited's Frank Searle." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Career.", "Young grandmaster.", "Uneven results.", "Title contender.", "Challenger.", "World Champion.", "Championship match with Fischer.", "Ex-champion (1973–1985).", "International team results.", "Later tournament career (after 1976).", "Life since 2000.", "Legacy.", "Personal life.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Spassky was born in Leningrad (now Saint Petersburg) to Russian parents. His father Vasili Vladimirovich Spassky served in the military. He came from the family of Vladimir Alexandrovich Spassky, a prominent Russian Orthodox priest of the Kursk Governorate, later a protoiereus of the Russian Church (since 1916), as well as a State Duma deputy (1912–1917) and an active member of the Union of the Russian People. Boris' mother Ekaterina Petrovna Spasskaya (\"nee\" Petrova) was a school teacher. She was born in the Ryadnevo village of the Gdov district (now Pskov Oblast) as an illegitimate daughter of Daria Ivanovna Ivanova (who belonged to local peasants) and Andrei Kupriyanovich Kupriyanov, a landlord who owned houses in Saint Petersburg and Pskov. After some time Daria Ivanovna fled to Petersburg, leaving her daughter with Petr Vasiliev, a relative of hers, who raised Ekaterina under the surname of Petrova. She joined her mother later on. Spassky learned to play chess at the age of 5 on a train evacuating from Leningrad during the siege of Leningrad in World War II. He first drew wide attention in 1947 at age 10, when he defeated Soviet champion Mikhail Botvinnik in a simultaneous exhibition in Leningrad. Spassky's early coach was Vladimir Zak, a respected master and trainer. During his youth, from the age of 10, Spassky often worked on chess for several hours a day with master-level coaches. He set records as the youngest Soviet player to achieve first category rank (age 10), candidate master rank (age 11), and Soviet Master rank (age 15). In 1952, at 15, Spassky scored 50 percent in the Soviet Championship semi-final at Riga, and placed second in the Leningrad Championship that same year, being highly praised by Botvinnik.", "As a statistic encompassing all of the games of his career, Spassky's most-played openings with both the White and Black pieces were the Sicilian Defence and the Ruy Lopez. Spassky has beaten six undisputed World Champions at least twice (not necessarily while they were reigning): Vasily Smyslov, Mikhail Tal, Tigran Petrosian, Bobby Fischer, Anatoly Karpov, and Garry Kasparov.", "Spassky made his international debut in 1953, aged 16, in Bucharest, Romania, finishing tied for fourth place with Laszlo Szabo on 12/19, an event won by his trainer, Alexander Tolush. At Bucharest he defeated Vasily Smyslov, who challenged for the World Championship the following year. He was awarded the title of International Master by FIDE. In his first attempt at the Soviet Championship final, the 22nd in the series, held in Moscow 1955, Spassky tied for third place with 111⁄2/19, after Smyslov and Efim Geller, which was sufficient to qualify him for the Gothenburg Interzonal later that year. The same year, he won the World Junior Chess Championship held at Antwerp, Belgium, scoring 6/7 to qualify for the final, then 8/9 in the final to win by a full point over Edmar Mednis. Spassky competed for the Lokomotiv Voluntary Sports Society. By sharing seventh place with 11/20 at Gothenburg, Spassky qualified for the 1956 Candidates' Tournament, held in Amsterdam, automatically gaining the grandmaster title, and was then the youngest to hold the title. At Amsterdam, he tied for third place with four others in the ten-player field, scoring 91⁄2/18. At the 23rd Soviet final, held in Leningrad in January–February 1956, Spassky shared first place on 111⁄2/19, with Mark Taimanov and Yuri Averbakh, but Taimanov won the subsequent playoff to become champion, defeating Spassky in both their games. Spassky then tied for first in a semifinal for the 24th Soviet championship, thereby qualifying.", "Spassky then went into a slump in world championship qualifying events, failing to advance to the next two Interzonals (1958 and 1962), a prerequisite to earn the right to play for the world championship. This crisis coincided with the hard three final years of his first marriage before his divorce in 1961, the same year that he broke with his trainer Tolush. In the 24th Soviet final, played at Moscow in January–February 1957, Spassky shared fourth place with Tolush, as both scored 13/21, while Mikhail Tal won the first of his six Soviet titles, which began his ascent to the world title in 1960. Spassky's failure to qualify for the Portoroz Interzonal came after a last-round defeat at the hands of Tal, in a nervy game in the 1958 Soviet championship, held at Riga. Spassky had the advantage for much of the game, but missed a difficult win after adjournment, then declined a draw. A win would have qualified Spassky for the Interzonal, and a draw would have ensured a share of fourth place with Yuri Averbakh, with qualification possible via a playoff. Spassky tied for first place at Moscow 1959 on 7/11, with Smyslov and David Bronstein. He shared second place in the 26th Soviet final with Tal, at Tbilisi 1959, finishing a point behind champion Tigran Petrosian, on 121⁄2/19. Soon after Spassky notched a victory at Riga 1959, with 111⁄2/13, one-half point in front of Vladas Mikėnas. Spassky finished in a tie for ninth at the 27th Soviet final in Leningrad, with 10/19, as fellow Leningrader Viktor Korchnoi scored his first of four Soviet titles. Spassky travelled to Argentina, where he shared first place with Bobby Fischer, two points ahead of Bronstein, at Mar del Plata 1960 on 131⁄2/15, defeating Fischer in their first career meeting. Spassky played on board one for the USSR at the 7th Student Olympiad in Leningrad, where he won the silver, but lost the gold to William Lombardy, also losing their individual encounter. Another disappointment for Spassky came at the qualifier for the next Interzonal, the Soviet final, played in Moscow 1961, where he again lost a crucial last-round game, this to Leonid Stein, who thus qualified, as Spassky finished equal fifth with 11/19, while Petrosian won.", "Spassky decided upon a switch in trainers, from the volatile attacker Alexander Tolush to the calmer strategist Igor Bondarevsky. This proved the key to his resurgence. He won his first of two USSR titles in the 29th Soviet championship at Baku 1961, with a score of 141⁄2/20, one-half point ahead of Lev Polugaevsky. Spassky shared second with Polugaevsky at Havana 1962 with 16/21, behind winner Miguel Najdorf. He placed joint fifth, with Leonid Stein at the 30th Soviet championship held in Yerevan 1962, with 111⁄2/19. At Leningrad 1963, the site of the 31st Soviet final, Spassky tied for first with Stein and Ratmir Kholmov, with Stein winning the playoff, which was held in 1964. Spassky won at Belgrade 1964 with an undefeated 13/17, as Korchnoi and Borislav Ivkov shared second place with 111⁄2. He finished fourth at Sochi 1964 with 91⁄2/15, as Nikolai Krogius won. In the 1964 Soviet Zonal at Moscow, a seven-player double round-robin event, Spassky won with 7/12, overcoming a start of one draw and two losses, to advance to the Amsterdam Interzonal the same year. At Amsterdam, he tied for first place, along with Mikhail Tal, Vasily Smyslov and Bent Larsen on 17/23, with all four, along with Borislav Ivkov and Lajos Portisch thus qualifying for the newly created Candidates' Matches the next year. With Bondarevsky, Spassky's style broadened and deepened, with poor results mostly banished, yet his fighting spirit was even enhanced. He added psychology and surprise to his quiver, and this proved enough to eventually propel him to the top.", "Spassky was considered an all-rounder on the chess board, and his adaptable \"universal style\" was a distinct advantage in beating many top grandmasters. In the 1965 cycle, he beat Paul Keres in the quarterfinal round at Riga 1965 with careful strategy, triumphing in the last game to win 6–4 (+4−2=4). Also at Riga, he defeated Efim Geller with mating attacks, winning by 51⁄2–21⁄2 (+3−0=5). Then, in his Candidates' Final match against Mikhail Tal at Tbilisi 1965, Spassky often managed to steer play into quieter positions, either avoiding former champion Tal's tactical strength, or exacting too high a price for complications. Though losing the first game, he won by 7–4 (+4−1=6). Spassky won two tournaments in the run-up to the final. He shared first at the third Chigorin Memorial in Sochi, in 1965 with Wolfgang Unzicker on 101⁄2/15, then tied for first at Hastings 1965–66 with Wolfgang Uhlmann on 71⁄2/9. Spassky lost a keenly fought match to Petrosian in Moscow, with three wins against Petrosian's four, with seventeen draws, though the last of his three victories came only in the twenty-third game, after Petrosian had ensured his retention of the title, the first outright match victory for a reigning champion since the latter of Alekhine's successful defences against Bogoljubov in 1934. Spassky's first event after the title match was the fourth Chigorin Memorial, where he finished tied for fifth with Anatoly Lein as Korchnoi won. Spassky then finished ahead of Petrosian and a super-class field at Santa Monica 1966 (the Piatigorsky Cup), with 111⁄2/18, half a point ahead of Bobby Fischer, as he overcame the American grandmaster's challenge after Fischer had scored 31⁄2/9 in the first cycle of the event. Spassky also won at Beverwijk 1967 with 11/15, one-half point ahead of Anatoly Lutikov, and shared first place at Sochi 1967 on 10/15 with Krogius, Alexander Zaitsev, Leonid Shamkovich, and Vladimir Simagin. As losing finalist in 1966, Spassky was automatically seeded into the next Candidates' cycle. In 1968, he faced Geller again, this time at Sukhumi, and won by the same margin as in 1965 (51⁄2–21⁄2, +3−0=5). He next met Bent Larsen at Malmö, and again won by the score of 51⁄2–21⁄2 after winning the first three games. The final was against his Leningrad rival Korchnoi at Kiev, and Spassky triumphed (+4−1=5), which earned him another match with Petrosian. Spassky's final tournament appearance before the match came at Palma, where he shared second place (+10−1=6) with Larsen, a point behind Korchnoi. Spassky's flexibility of style was the key to victory over Petrosian, by 121⁄2–101⁄2, with the site again being Moscow.", "In Spassky's first appearance after winning the crown, he placed first at San Juan in October 1969 with 111⁄2/15, one and one-half points clear of second. He then played the annual event at Palma, where he finished fifth with 10/17. While Spassky was undefeated and handed tournament victor Larsen one of his three losses, his fourteen draws kept him from seriously contending for first prize, as he came two points behind Larsen. In March–April 1970, Spassky played first board for the Soviet side in the celebrated USSR vs World event at Belgrade, where he scored +1−1=1 in the first three rounds against Larsen before Stein replaced him for the final match, as the Soviets won by the odd point, 201⁄2–191⁄2. He won a quadrangular event at Leiden 1970 with 7/12, a point ahead of Jan Hein Donner, who was followed by Larsen and Botvinnik, the latter of whom was making his final appearance in serious play. Spassky shared first at the annual IBM event held in Amsterdam 1970 with Polugaevsky on 111⁄2/15. He was third at Gothenburg 1971 with 8/11, behind winners Vlastimil Hort and Ulf Andersson. He shared first with Hans Ree at the 1971 Canadian Open in Vancouver. In November and December, Spassky finished the year by tying for sixth with Tal, scoring +4−2=11, at the Alekhine Memorial in Moscow, which was won by Stein and Anatoly Karpov, the latter's first top-class success.", "Spassky's reign as world champion lasted for three years, as he lost to Fischer of the United States in 1972 in the World Chess Championship 1972, popularly known as the Match of the Century. The contest took place in Reykjavík, Iceland, at the height of the Cold War, and consequently was seen as symbolic of the political confrontation between the two superpowers. Spassky accommodated many demands by Fischer, including moving the third game into a side room. The Fischer vs Spassky World championship was the most widely covered chess match in history, as mainstream media throughout the world covered the match. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger spoke with Fischer urging him to play the match, and chess was at its apex. Going into the match, Fischer had never won a game from Spassky in five attempts, losing three. In addition, Spassky had secured Geller as his coach, who also had a plus score against Fischer. However, Fischer won the title match 12/8 (+7−3=11), with one of the three losses by default. The match could be divided into halves, the first won convincingly by Fischer, and the second a close battle. Before Spassky, Mark Taimanov, Bent Larsen, and Tigran Petrosian, had lost to Fischer, but Spassky maintained his composure and competitiveness. It has been suggested that Spassky's preparation was largely bypassed by Fischer, since Spassky and his team wrongly expected Fischer to always play 1. e4 openings as White.", "In February–March 1973, Spassky finished equal third at Tallinn with 9/15, three points behind Tal; he tied for first at Dortmund on 91⁄2/15 (+5−1=9) with Hans-Joachim Hecht and Ulf Andersson. Spassky finished in fourth place at the annual IBM tournament held in Amsterdam, one point behind winners Petrosian and Albin Planinc. In September, Spassky went 10/15 to finish second to Tal in the Chigorin Memorial at Sochi by a point. In the 41st Soviet Championship at Moscow, Spassky scored 111⁄2/17 to win by a full point in a field which included all the top Soviet grandmasters of the time. In the 1974 Candidates' matches, Spassky first defeated American Robert Byrne in San Juan, Puerto Rico by 41⁄2–11⁄2 (+3−0=3); he then lost the semifinal match to Anatoly Karpov in Leningrad, despite winning the first game, (+1−4=6). In Spassky's only tournament action of 1974, he played at Solingen, finishing with 81⁄2/14 (+4−1=9), thus sharing third with Bojan Kurajica, behind joint winners Lubomir Kavalek and Polugaevsky, who scored 10. During 1975, Spassky played two events, the first being the annual tournament at Tallinn, where he finished equal second with Fridrik Olafsson, scoring 91⁄2/15 (+5−1=9), one point behind Keres, the last international event won by the latter before his sudden death in June 1975. In October–November, Spassky finished second to Geller at the Alekhine Memorial in Moscow with a score of 10 points from fifteen games (+6−1=8). In 1976, Spassky was obliged to return to the Interzonal stage, and finished in a tie for tenth place in Manila, well short of qualifying for the Candidates matches, but was nominated to play after Fischer declined his place. Spassky won an exhibition match with Dutch grandmaster Jan Timman at Amsterdam 1977 by 4–2. He triumphed in extra games in his quarterfinal Candidates' match over Vlastimil Hort at Reykjavík 1977 by 81⁄2–71⁄2. This match saw Spassky fall ill, exhaust all his available rest days while recovering; then the healthy Hort used one of his own rest days, to allow Spassky more time to recover; Spassky eventually won the match. Spassky won an exhibition match over Robert Hübner at Solingen, 1977 by 31⁄2–21⁄2, then defeated Lubomir Kavalek, also at Solingen, by 4–2 in another exhibition. His next Candidates' match was against Portisch at Geneva 1977, and Spassky won by 81⁄2–61⁄2, to qualify for the final. At Belgrade 1977–78, Spassky lost to Korchnoi, by (+4−7=7). In this match, Spassky fell behind 21⁄2–71⁄2 after losing the tenth game; however, he then won four consecutive games. After draws in games fifteen and sixteen, Korchnoi won the next two games to clinch the match by the score of 101⁄2–71⁄2. Spassky, as losing finalist, was seeded into the 1980 Candidates' matches, and faced Portisch again, with this match held in Mexico. After fourteen games, the match was 7–7, but Portisch advanced since he had won more games with the black pieces. Spassky missed qualification from the 1982 Toluca Interzonal with 8/13, finishing half a point short, in third place behind Portisch and Eugenio Torre, both of whom thus qualified. The 1985 Candidates' event was held as a round-robin tournament at Montpellier, France, and Spassky was nominated as an organizer's choice. He scored 8/15 to tie for sixth place with Alexander Beliavsky, behind joint winners Andrei Sokolov, Rafael Vaganian, and Artur Yusupov, and one-half point short of potentially qualifying via a playoff. This was Spassky's last appearance at the Candidates' level.", "Spassky played five times for the USSR in Student Olympiads, winning eight medals. He scored 381⁄2/47 (+31−1=15), for 81.91 percent. His complete results are: Spassky played twice for the USSR in the European Team Championships, winning four gold medals. He scored 81⁄2/12 (+5−0=7), for 70.83 percent. His complete results are: Spassky played seven times for the Soviet Olympiad team. He won thirteen medals, and scored 69/94 (+45−1=48), for 73.40 percent. His complete results are: Spassky played board one in the USSR vs Rest of the World match at Belgrade 1970, scoring (+1−1=1) against Larsen. Spassky then represented France in three Olympiads, on board one in each case. For Thessaloniki 1984, he scored 8/14 (+2−0=12). At Dubai 1986, he scored 9/14 (+4−0=10). Finally at Thessaloniki 1988, he scored 71⁄2/13 (+3−1=9). He also played board one for France at the inaugural World Team Championships, Lucerne 1985, where he scored 51⁄2/9 (+3−1=5).", "In his later years, Spassky showed a reluctance to devote himself completely to chess. In 1976, Spassky emigrated to France with his third wife; he became a French citizen in 1978, and has competed for France in the Chess Olympiads. Spassky later lived with his wife in Meudon near Paris. Spassky did, however, score some notable triumphs in his later years. In his return to tournament play after the loss to Korchnoi, he tied for first at Bugojno 1978 on 10/15 with Karpov, with both players scoring +6-1=8 to finish a point ahead of Timman. He was clear first at Montilla–Moriles 1978 with 61⁄2/9. At Munich 1979, he tied for first place with 81⁄2/13, with Yuri Balashov, Andersson and Robert Hübner. He shared first at Baden in 1980, on 101⁄2/15 with Alexander Beliavsky. He won his preliminary group at Hamburg 1982 with 51⁄2/6, but lost the final playoff match to Anatoly Karpov in extra games. His best result during this period was clear first at Linares 1983 with 61⁄2/10, ahead of Karpov and Ulf Andersson, who shared second. At London Lloyds' Bank Open 1984, he tied for first with John Nunn and Murray Chandler, on 7/9. He won at Reykjavík 1985. At Brussels 1985, he placed second with 101⁄2/13 behind Korchnoi. At Reggio Emilia 1986, he tied for 2nd–5th places with 6/11 behind Zoltán Ribli. He swept Fernand Gobet 4–0 in a match at Fribourg 1987. He finished equal first at the Plaza tournament in the New Zealand International Festival of the Arts at Wellington in 1988, with Chandler and Eduard Gufeld. Spassky's Elo rating was in the world top ten continually throughout the early 1980s until it dropped out in 1983, and intermittently throughout the mid 1980s until it dropped out for the final time in 1987. However, Spassky's performances in the World Cup events of 1988 and 1989 showed that he could by this stage finish no higher than the middle of the pack against elite fields. He participated in three of the six events of the World Cup. At Belfort, he scored 8/15 for a joint 4th–7th place, as Garry Kasparov won. At Reykjavík, he scored 7/17 for a joint 15th–16th place, with Kasparov again winning. Finally, at Barcelona, Spassky scored 71⁄2/16 for a tied 8th–12th place, as Kasparov shared first with Ljubomir Ljubojević. Spassky played in the 1990 French Championship at Angers, placing fourth with 101⁄2/15, as Marc Santo Roman won. At Salamanca 1991, he placed 2nd with 71⁄2/11 behind winner Evgeny Vladimirov. Then in the 1991 French Championship at Montpellier, he scored 91⁄2/15 for a tied 4th–5th place, as Santo Roman won again. In 1992, Bobby Fischer, after a twenty-year hiatus from chess, re-emerged to arrange a \"Revenge Match of the 20th century\" against Spassky in Montenegro and Belgrade; this was a rematch of the 1972 World Championship. At the time, Spassky was rated 106th in the FIDE rankings, and Fischer did not appear on the list at all, owing to his inactivity. This match was essentially Spassky's last major challenge. Spassky lost the match with a score of +5−10=15. However, Spassky earned $1.65 million for losing the match. Spassky then played the young prodigy Judit Polgár in a 1993 match at Budapest, losing narrowly by 41⁄2–51⁄2. Spassky continued to play occasional events through much of the 1990s, such as the Veterans vs Women match in Prague, 1995.", "On October 1, 2006, Spassky suffered a minor stroke during a chess lecture in San Francisco. In his first major post-stroke play, he drew a six-game rapid match with Hungarian Grandmaster Lajos Portisch in April 2007. On 27 March 2010, at 73 years old, he became the oldest surviving former World Chess Champion following the death of Vasily Smyslov. On September 23, 2010, ChessBase reported that Spassky had suffered a more serious stroke that had left him paralyzed on his left side. After that he returned to France for a long rehabilitation programme. On August 16, 2012, Spassky left France to return to Russia under disputed circumstances and now lives in an apartment in Moscow. On 25 September 2016, he made a public speech at the opening of the Tal Memorial tournament. He said he had \"the very brightest memories\" of Mikhail Tal and told an anecdote from the 15th Chess Olympiad about Soviet analysis of an adjourned game between Fischer and Botvinnik. He was described by Chess24 as being'sprightly'.", "Spassky's best years were as a youthful prodigy in the mid-1950s, and in the mid- to late 1960s. It is generally believed that he began to lose ambition once he became world champion. Some suggest the first match with Fischer took a severe nervous toll, but others disagree and claim that he was a sportsman who appreciated his opponent's skill. He applauded Fischer in Game 6 of their 1972 match, and defended Fischer when the latter was detained near Narita Airport in 2004. Spassky has been described by many as a universal player. Never a true openings expert, at least when compared to contemporaries such as Geller and Fischer, he excelled in the middlegame and in tactics. Spassky succeeded with a wide variety of openings, including the King's Gambit, 1.e4 e5 2.f4, an aggressive and risky line rarely seen at the top level. The chess game between \"Kronsteen\" and \"McAdams\" in the early part of the James Bond movie \"From Russia With Love\" is based on a game in that opening played between Spassky and David Bronstein in 1960 in which Spassky (\"Kronsteen\") was victorious. His contributions to opening theory extend to reviving the Marshall Attack for Black in the Ruy Lopez (1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.Bb5 a6 4.Ba4 Nf6 5.0-0 Be7 6.Re1 b5 7.Bb3 0-0 8.c3 d5), developing the Leningrad Variation for White in the Nimzo-Indian Defence (1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 e6 3.Nc3 Bb4 4.Bg5), the Spassky Variation on the Black side of the Nimzo-Indian, and the Closed Variation of the Sicilian Defence for White (1.e4 c5 2.Nc3). A variation of the B19 Caro-Kann (1.e4 c6 2.d4 d5 3.Nc3 dxe4 4.Nxe4 Bf5 5.Ng3 Bg6 6.h4 h6 7.Nf3 Nd7 8.h5) also bears his name, as does a rare line in the King's Indian Attack (1.Nf3 Nf6 2.g3 b5!?). Spassky was played by Liev Schreiber in the 2014 film \"Pawn Sacrifice\".", "Boris has been married three times. His first wife (1959–1961) was Nadezda Konstantinovna Latyntceva. Together they have one daughter, Tatiana (born 1960). His second wife was Larisa Zakharovna Solovyova. She gave birth to a son, Vasili Solovyov-Spassky (born 1967). His third marriage, in 1975 in France, was to Marina Yurievna Shcherbachova, granddaughter of the Russian war general and a White movement activist Dmitry Shcherbachev. They have a son, Boris Spassky Jr. (born 1980). His younger sister Iraida Spasskaya (born November 6, 1944) is a four-times champion of the Soviet Union in Russian draughts and the World vice-champion in international draughts (1974). Boris Spassky described himself as an Orthodox Christian, a monarchist and a Russian nationalist. As for my views—I'm a Russian nationalist, and there's nothing scary about it, don't be afraid. Some say that Russian nationalist is a nasty thing, most definitely an antisemite, a racist, a national-Bolshevik. No; for a nationalist God exists and nations that respect each other. I'm a convinced monarchist, I remained a monarchist during the Soviet years and never tried to hide that. I believe that the greatness of Russia is connected to the activity of the national leaders represented by our tsars. What really makes me feel happy in modern Russia—churches come back to life. During his meeting with fans in Kaliningrad in 2005 Spassky stated: \"If only I knew what was going to happen to our country, I would've joined the Communist Party.\" In 2005 Spassky signed the \"Letter of 5,000\" addressed to the Prosecutor General of Russia, along with Igor Shafarevich, Vyacheslav Klykov, Vasily Belov and other activists. The petition suggested that all religious and national Jewish organizations that functioned on the territory of Russia according to the Shulchan Aruch codes should be shut down for extremism, warning about a \"hidden campaign of genocide against the Russian people and their traditional society and values\". Spassky later called his signature a mistake.", "Bibliography" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Works." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Diogenes was a native of the Milesian colony Apollonia Pontica in Thrace, present-day Sozopol on the Black Sea. His father's name was Apollothemis. Nothing is known of the events in his life, except that he lived some time in Athens. Diogenes Laërtius states that \"great jealousy nearly put his life in danger in Athens,\" but there may be confusion with Anaxagoras who is mentioned in the same passage. Like all the \"physiologoi\" (natural philosophers), he wrote in the Ionic dialect. In \"The Clouds\" of Aristophanes, it is thought that some views of Diogenes are transferred to Socrates.", "His most famous work was \"On Nature\" (Περὶ Φύσεως, \"Peri Physeos\"), some fragments of which are preserved, chiefly by Simplicius. Diogenes, like Anaximenes, believed air to be the one source of all being, and all other substances to be derived from it by condensation and rarefaction. This he modified by the theories of his contemporary Anaxagoras, and asserted that air, the primal force, was intelligent: And it seems to me that that which possessed thought is what people call air, and that by this everyone both is governed and has power over everything. For it is this which seems to me to be god and to have reached everything and to arrange everything and to be in everything. And there is not a single thing which does not share in it. The nature of the universe is air, limitless and eternal, from which, as it condenses and rarefies and changes its properties, the other forms come into being. Among his other doctrines, he is said to have believed that there was an infinite number of worlds, and infinite void; that air, densified and rarefied, produced the different worlds; that nothing was produced from nothing, or was reduced to nothing; that the Earth was round, supported in the middle, and had received its shape from the whirling round of the warm vapours, and its concretion and hardening from cold. The longest surviving fragment of Diogenes is that which is inserted by Aristotle in the third book of his \"History of Animals\". It contains a description of the distribution of the blood vessels in the human body. It is notable chiefly because \"here we can read at first hand what in the case of the other Presocratics we learn only indirectly: an attempt to describe in scientific detail the structure and organization of the physical world.\" Diogenite meteorites are named for Diogenes of Apollonia, who was the first to suggest an outer space origin for meteorites: With the visible stars revolve stones which are invisible, and for that reason nameless. They often fall on the ground and are extinguished, like the stone star that came down on fire at Aegospotami." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Species.", "Anatomy.", "Habitat.", "Diet.", "As food.", "River fishing.", "Ice fishing.", "Declines in Native Trout Populations.", "Trout fishing records." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The name 'trout' is commonly used for some species in three of the seven genera in the subfamily Salmoninae: \"Salmo\", Atlantic species; \"Oncorhynchus\", Pacific species; and \"Salvelinus\", which includes fish also sometimes called \"char\" or \"charr\". Fish referred to as trout include:", "Trout that live in different environments can have dramatically different colorations and patterns. Mostly, these colors and patterns form as camouflage, based on the surroundings, and will change as the fish moves to different habitats. Trout in, or newly returned from the sea, can look very silvery, while the same fish living in a small stream or in an alpine lake could have pronounced markings and more vivid coloration; it is also possible that in some species this signifies that they are ready to mate. In general trout that are about to breed have extremely intense coloration. They can look like an entirely different fish outside of spawning season. It is virtually impossible to define a particular color pattern as belonging to a specific breed; however, in general, wild fish are claimed to have more vivid colors and patterns. Trout have fins entirely without spines, and all of them have a small adipose fin along the back, near the tail. The pelvic fins sit well back on the body, on each side of the anus. The swim bladder is connected to the esophagus, allowing for gulping or rapid expulsion of air, a condition known as physostome. Unlike many other physostome fish, trout do not use their bladder as an auxiliary device for oxygen uptake, relying solely on their gills. There are many species, and even more populations, that are isolated from each other and morphologically different. However, since many of these distinct populations show no significant genetic differences, what may appear to be a large number of species is considered a much smaller number of distinct species by most ichthyologists. The trout found in the eastern United States are a good example of this. The brook trout, the aurora trout, and the (extinct) silver trout all have physical characteristics and colorations that distinguish them, yet genetic analysis shows that they are one species, \"Salvelinus fontinalis\". Lake trout (\"Salvelinus namaycush\"), like brook trout, belong to the char genus. Lake trout inhabit many of the larger lakes in North America, and live much longer than rainbow trout, which have an average maximum lifespan of 7 years. Lake trout can live many decades, and can grow to more than.", "Trout are usually found in cool (), clear streams and lakes, although many of the species have anadromous strains as well. Young trout are referred to as troutlet, troutling or fry. They are distributed naturally throughout North America, northern Asia and Europe. Several species of trout were introduced to Australia and New Zealand by amateur fishing enthusiasts in the 19th century, effectively displacing and endangering several upland native fish species. The introduced species included brown trout from England and rainbow trout from California. The rainbow trout were a steelhead strain, generally accepted as coming from Sonoma Creek. The rainbow trout of New Zealand still show the steelhead tendency to run up rivers in winter to spawn. In Australia the rainbow trout was introduced in 1894 from New Zealand and is an extremely popular gamefish in recreational angling. Despite severely impacting the distribution and abundance of native Australian fish, such as the climbing galaxias, millions of rainbow and other trout species are released annually from government and private hatcheries. The closest resemblance of seema trout and other trout family can be found in the Himalayan Region of India, Nepal, Bhutan, Pakistan and in Tian Shan mountains of Kyrgyzstan.", "Trout generally feed on other fish, and soft bodied aquatic invertebrates, such as flies, mayflies, caddisflies, stoneflies, mollusks and dragonflies. In lakes, various species of zooplankton often form a large part of the diet. In general, trout longer than about prey almost exclusively on fish, where they are available. Adult trout will devour smaller fish up to 1/3 their length. Trout may feed on shrimp, mealworms, bloodworms, insects, small animal parts, and eel. Trout who swim the streams love to feed on land animals, aquatic life, and flies. Most of their diet comes from macroinvertebrates, or animals that do not have a backbone like snails, worms’ insects, etc. they also eat flies, most people who try to use lures to fish trout mimic flies because they are one of trout’s most fed on meals. Trout also love some land animals who make their way into the water. Insects like grasshoppers are a meal trout love; they also eat small animals like mice that fall in. Only very big trout have mouths capable of eating mice. They have their diet of aquatic life like minnows or crawfish. Trout have a diverse diet they follow; they have plenty of different oppositions.", "As a group, trout are somewhat bony, but the flesh is generally considered to be tasty. The flavor of the flesh is heavily influenced by the diet of the fish. For example, trout that have been feeding on crustaceans tend to be more flavorful than those feeding primarily on insect life. Additionally, they provide a good fight when caught with a hook and line, and are sought after recreationally. Because of their popularity, trout are often raised on fish farms and planted into heavily fished waters, in an effort to mask the effects of overfishing. Farmed trout and char are also sold commercially as food fish. Trout is sometimes prepared by smoking. According to the British Nutrition Foundation, trout contain one of the lowest amounts of dioxins (a type of environmental contaminant) of all oily fishes. 1 fillet of trout (79 g) contains:", "While trout can be caught with a normal rod and reel, fly fishing is a distinctive method developed primarily for trout, and now extended to other species. Understanding how moving water shapes the stream channel makes it easier to find trout. In most streams, the current creates a riffle-run-pool pattern that repeats itself over and over. A deep pool may hold a big brown trout, but rainbows and smaller browns are likely found in runs. Riffles are where fishers will find small trout, called troutlet, during the day and larger trout crowding in during morning and evening feeding periods.", "Fishing for trout under the ice generally occurs in depths of 4 to 8 feet. Because trout are cold water fish, during the winter they move from up-deep to the shallows, replacing the small fish that inhabit the area during the summer. Trout in winter constantly cruise in shallow depths looking for food, usually traveling in groups, although bigger fish may travel alone and in water that's somewhat deeper, around 12 feet. Rainbow, Brown, and Brook trout are the most common trout species caught through the ice.", "Salmonid populations in general have been declining due to numerous factors. Non-native, invasive species, hybridization, wildfires, and climate change are just a few examples. Native salmonid fish in the western and southwestern United States are threatened by non-native species that were introduced decades ago. Non-native salmonids were introduced to enrich recreational fishing, however, they quickly started outcompeting and displacing native salmonids upon their arrival. Non-native, invasive species are quick to adapt to their new environment and learn to outcompete any native species, making them a force the native salmon and trout have to reckon with. Not only do the non-native fish drive the native fish to occupy new niches, but they also try to hybridize with them, contaminating the native gene construction. As more hybrids between native and non-native fish are formed, the lineage of the pure fish is continuously being contaminated by other species and soon may no longer represent the sole native species. The Rio Grande Cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarki virginalis) are susceptible to hybridization with other salmonids such as rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) and yield a new “cut-bow” trout, which is a contamination of both lineages’ genes. One solution to this issue is implemented by New Mexico Game and Fish hatcheries: stock only sterile fish in river streams. Hatcheries serve as a reservoir of fish for recreational activities but growing and stocking non-sterile fish would worsen the hybridization issue on a quicker, more magnified time scale. By stocking sterile fish, the native salmonids can’t share genes with the non-native hatchery fish, thus, preventing further gene contamination of the native trout in New Mexico. Fire is also a factor in deteriorating Gila trout (Oncorhynchus gilae) populations because of the ash and soot that can enter streams following fires. The ash lowers water quality, making it more difficult for the Gila trout to survive. In some New Mexico streams, the native Gila trout will be evacuated from streams that are threatened by nearby fires and be reintroduced after the threat is resolved. Again, climate change is also dwindling native salmonid populations. Trout prefer cold water (50-60° F) streams to spawn and live, but warming water temperatures are altering this ecosystem and further deteriorative native populations.", "By information from International Game Fish Association IGFA the most outstanding records:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Fertilization and implantation.", "Development.", "After implantation.", "Placental circulation system.", "Cellular differentiation.", "Gestation periods." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "During copulation, the male inseminates the female. The spermatozoon fertilizes an ovum or various ova in the uterus or fallopian tubes, and this results in one or multiple zygotes. Sometimes, a zygote can be created by humans outside of the animal's body in the artificial process of in-vitro fertilization. After fertilization, the newly formed zygote then begins to divide through mitosis, forming an embryo, which implants in the female's endometrium. At this time, the embryo usually consists of 50 cells.", "", "A blastocoele is a small cavity on the center of the embryo, and the developing embryonary cells will grow around it. Then, a flat layer cell forms on the exterior of this cavity, and the zona pellucida, the blastocyst's barrier, remains the same size as before. Cells grow increasingly smaller to fit in. This new structure with a cavity in the center and the developing cells around it is known as a blastocyst. The presence of the blastocyst means that two types of cells are forming, an inner-cell mass growing on the interior of the blastocele and cells growing on the exterior of it. In 24 to 48 hours, the zona pellucida breaches. The cells on the exterior of the blastocyst begin excreting an enzyme which erodes epithelial uterine lining and creates a site for implantation.", "The cells surrounding the blastocyst now destroy cells in the uterine lining, forming small pools of blood, which in turn stimulate the production of capillaries. This is the first stage in the growth of the placenta. The inner cell mass of the blastocyst divides rapidly, forming two layers. The top layer becomes the embryo, and cells from there occupy the amniotic cavity. At the same time, the bottom layer forms a small sac (if the cells begin developing in an abnormal position, an ectopic gestation may also occur at this point). Several days later, chorionic villi in the forming placenta anchor the implantation site to the uterus. A system of blood and blood vessels now develops at the point of the newly forming placenta, growing near the implantation site. The small sac inside the blastocyst begins producing red blood cells. For the next 24 hours, connective tissue develops between the developing placenta and the growing embryo. This later develops into the umbilical cord.", "Following this, a narrow line of cells appears on the surface on the embryo. Its growth makes the embryo undergo gastrulation, in which the three primary tissue layers of the fetus, the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm, develop. The narrow line of cells begin to form the endoderm and mesoderm. The ectoderm begins to grow rapidly as a result of chemicals being produced by the mesoderm. These three layers give rise to all the various types of tissue in the body. The endoderm later forms the lining of the tongue, digestive tract, lungs, bladder and several glands. The mesoderm forms muscle, bone, and lymph tissue, as well as the interior of the lungs, heart, and reproductive and excretory systems. It also gives rise to the spleen, and produces blood cells. The ectoderm forms the skin, nails, hair, cornea, lining of the internal and external ear, nose, sinuses, mouth, anus, teeth, pituitary gland, mammary glands, eyes, and all parts of the nervous system. Approximately 18 days after fertilization, the embryo has divided to form much of the tissue it will need. It is shaped like a pear, where the head region is larger than the tail. The embryo's nervous system is one of the first organic systems to grow. It begins growing in a concave area known as the neural groove. The blood system continues to grow networks which allow the blood to flow around the embryo. Blood cells are already being produced and are flowing through these developing networks. Secondary blood vessels also begin to develop around the placenta, to supply it with more nutrients. Blood cells begin to form on the sac in the center of the embryo, as well as cells which begin to differentiate into blood vessels. Endocardial cells begin to form the myocardium. At about 24 days past fertilization, there is a primitive S-shaped tubule heart which begins beating. The flow of fluids throughout the embryo begins at this stage.", "For mammals the gestation period is the time in which a fetus develops, beginning with fertilization and ending at birth. The duration of this period varies between species. For most species, the amount a fetus grows before birth determines the length of the gestation period. Smaller species normally have a shorter gestation period than larger animals. For example, a cat's gestation normally takes 58–65 days while an elephant's takes nearly 2 years (21 months). However, growth does not necessarily determine the length of gestation for all species, especially for those with a breeding season. Species that use a breeding season usually give birth during a specific time of year when food is available. Various other factors can come into play in determining the duration of gestation. For humans, male fetuses normally gestate several days longer than females and multiple pregnancies gestate for a shorter period. Ethnicity in humans is also a factor that may lengthen or shorten gestation. In dogs there is a positive correlation between a longer gestation time and fewer members of the litter." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Deployment of Persian troops.", "The battle.", "Revisionist view.", "Result." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "After the death of Phillip of Macedon, many of his newly conquered territories desired to take advantage of the perceived weakness of the new young king. These nations included the Illyrians, Thracians, and some southern Greek city-states. Alexander had to prove the strength of his rule before leaving for his Persian expedition, and crushed several nascent rebellions within Greece and the northern tribes. After extensive planning in Macedonia, Alexander started to prepare for his next major conquest: the invasion of Asia. Before leaving Macedon, Alexander appointed his father’s experienced general Antipater as regent in his absence, leaving him with 9,000 infantry and 1,500 cavalry to maintain control over Macedonia's holdings in Europe. In the spring of 334 BC, Alexander took 2,600 cavalry and went on a 20-day march from Macedon to Hellespont, to join Parmenion in Asia.", "Before Alexander and his army were able to cross at Hellespont, the Persian provincial governors, and others in power at that time in Persia, assembled their forces of 10-20,000 cavalry and 5-20,000 infantry to the town of Zelea. Memnon was a high-ranking Greek mercenary employed by the Persians, and he advised the Persians to lay waste to the land that Alexander would have to pass, depriving his army of food and supplies. This would make it harder for Alexander and his army to survive on their long journey before the battle. The satraps did not trust Memnon because of his nationality, and did not ravage their territories. The Persians had two major objectives; first, they would try to force Alexander toward a position of their choosing before he could continue inland, and second, the Persians hoped to be able to be in a defensive position that would minimize Alexander's advantage in infantry. The Persians advanced from Zelea to the Granicus River, which would be an obstacle for Alexander and his army. The Persians hoped that his army would not be able to hold formation, which would severely cripple its effectiveness, as maintaining the closely packed and mutually supportive formation typically employed by the Greeks was central to their strategy. The Persians awaited the arrival of the Macedonians with all their cavalry in the front line. Alexander, after crossing into Asia at the Hellespont, then marched 100 km back to the north to meet the Persian armies.", "According to Alexander's biographer Arrian, Alexander's army met the Persians on the third day of May from Abydos. Alexander's second-in-command, Parmenion, suggested crossing the river upstream and attacking at dawn the next day, but Alexander attacked immediately. This tactic caught the Persians off guard. The Macedonian line was arrayed with the heavy phalanxes in the middle, and cavalry on either side. Alexander was with the Companions on the right flank. The Persians expected the main assault to come from Alexander's position and moved units from their center to that flank. The battle started with a cavalry and light infantry feint from the Macedonian left, from Parmenion's side of the battle line. The cavalry squadron was led by the officer Ptolemy, son of Philip. The Persians heavily reinforced that side, and the feint was driven back, but at that point, Alexander led the horse companions in their classic wedge-shaped charge, and smashed into the center of the Persian line. The Persians countercharged with a squadron of nobles on horse, and accounts show that in the melee, several high-ranking Persian nobles were killed by Alexander himself or his bodyguards, although Alexander was stunned by an axe-blow from a Persian nobleman named Rhoisakes. A second Persian nobleman named Spithridates attempted to attack Alexander from behind while he was still reeling; however, he was himself killed by Cleitus the Black, who severed his outstretched arm. Alexander quickly recovered. Eventually the Macedonian horse were able to gain the advantage over their Persian counterpart, owing to the superiority of their lance over the Persian javelin for melee fighting, as well as the close support of the light infantry interspersed among their squadrons. The Greek cavalry then turned left and started rolling up the Persian cavalry, which was engaged with the left side of the Macedonian line after a general advance. A hole opened in the recently vacated place in the battle line, and the Macedonian infantry charged through to engage the poor-quality Persian infantry in the rear. The Macedonian phalanx then attacked the Greek mercenaries. With many of their leaders already dead, and their infantry routed, both flanks of the Persian cavalry retreated, seeing the collapse of the center. The infantry routed too, many being cut down as they fled. Total casualties for the Greeks were between 300 and 400. The Persians had roughly 1,000 cavalry and 3,000 infantry killed, mostly in the rout. The Greek mercenaries, under the command of Memnon of Rhodes, who fought for the Persians, were abandoned after the cavalry retreat. They attempted to broker a peace with Alexander but to no avail. As a result, after the battle Alexander ordered the mercenaries to be enslaved. Out of the 18,000 Greek mercenaries, half were killed and 8,000 enslaved and sent back to Macedon. Also, Alexander sent 300 Persian armours to the Parthenon of Athens as an oblation to Athena, with this epigram: \"\"Alexander, son of Philip, and the Greeks, except of Lacedaemonians, from the barbarians who live in Asia\"\". («Ἀλέξανδρος Φιλίππου καὶ οἱ Ἕλληνες, πλὴν Λακεδαιμονίων, ἀπὸ τῶν βαρβάρων τῶν τὴν Ἀσίαν κατοικούντων»-\"Alexandros Philippou kai hoi Hellēnes plēn Lakedaimoniōn apo tōn barbarōn tōn tēn Asian katoikountōn\"). That account of the battle is directly contradicted by Diodorus Siculus who states \"When Alexander learned of the concentration of the Persian forces, he advanced rapidly and encamped opposite the enemy, so that the Granicus flowed between the encampments. The Persians, resting on high ground, made no move, intending to fall upon the foes as he crossed the river, for they supposed they could easily carry the day when the Macedonian phalanx was divided. But Alexander at dawn boldly brought his army across the river and deployed in good order before they could stop him. In return, they posted their mass of horsemen all along the front of the Macedonians since they had decided to press the battle with these. Memnon of Rhodes and satrap Arsamenes held the left wing each with his own cavalry; Arsites was stationed next with the horsemen from Paphlagonia; then came Spithrobates satrap of Ionia at the head of the Hyrcanian cavalry. The right wing was held by a thousand Medes and two thousand horsemen with Rheomithres as well as Bactrians of like number. Other national contingents occupied the centre, numerous and picked for their valour. In all, the cavalry amounted to more than ten thousand. The Persian foot soldiers were not fewer than one hundred thousand, but they were posted behind the line and did not advance since the cavalry was thought to be sufficient to crush the Macedonians.\" The record of Arrian and Diodorus on the battle of Granicus can't be reconciled so historians usually prefer Arrian, although some revisionists try to reconcile the two accounts.", "Historian Peter Green, in his 1974 book \"Alexander of Macedon\", proposed a way to reconcile the accounts of Diodorus and Arrian. According to Green's interpretation, the riverbank was guarded by infantry, not cavalry, and Alexander's forces sustained heavy losses in the initial attempt to cross the river and were forced to retire. Alexander then grudgingly accepted Parmenion's advice and crossed the river during the night in an uncontested location, and fought the battle at dawn the next day. The Persian army hurried to the location of Alexander's crossing, with the cavalry reaching the scene of the battle first before the slower infantry, and then the battle continued largely as described by the Arrian and Plutarch accounts. Green accounts for the differences between his account and the ancient sources by suggesting that Alexander later covered up his initial failed crossing. Green devotes an entire appendix in support of his interpretation, taking the view that for political reasons, Alexander could not admit even a temporary defeat. Thus, the initial defeat was covered up by his propagandists by a very heroic (and Homeric) charge into the now well-deployed enemy. In his preface to the 2012 reprint, Green states: \"on the evidence as it stands that theory remains untenable and the contradiction inexplicable.\"", "Towards the end of this battle, Alexander buried the Persian commanders and the Greek mercenaries who were killed fighting on the side of the enemy. Those he took as prisoners were bound in fetters and sent away to Macedonia to till the soil, because, although they were Greeks, they were fighting against Greece on behalf of the foreigners, in opposition to decrees which the Greeks had made in their federal council. To Athens also he sent 300 suits of Persian armour to be hung up in the Acropolis as a votive offering to Athena and ordered this inscription to be fixed over them so as to mark the absence of the Spartans in his united Greek army: \"Alexander, son of Philip and all the Greeks except the Lacedaemonians, present this offering from the spoils taken from the barbarians inhabiting Asia\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Location.", "Background.", "Motives.", "Combatants.", "Persian army.", "Macedonian army.", "Battle.", "Aftermath." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The battle took place south of the ancient town Issus, which is close to the present-day Turkish town of Iskenderun (the Turkish equivalent of \"Alexandria\", founded by Alexander to commemorate his victory), on either side of a small river called Pinarus. At that location, the distance from the Gulf of Issus to the surrounding mountains is only, a place where Darius could not take advantage of his superiority in numbers. Speculation on the location of the Pinarus has taken place for over 80 years. Older historians believed it to be the Deli Tchai river, but historians N.G.L. Hammond and A. M. Devine claim that the Pinarus is actually the Payas River, the latter using his own examination of the course of the river, which he considered would not have drastically changed since antiquity. Their evidence is based on Callisthenes' accounts of the measurements of the battlefield and distances marched by both sides' armies in the prelude to the battle and distance given by Diodorus after the battle.", "Alexander set out into Asia in 334 BC and defeated the local Persian satraps at the Battle of the Granicus. He then proceeded to occupy all of Asia Minor, with the idea of capturing all coastal settlements so as to negate the power of the vastly superior Persian fleet. He captured several important settlements such as Miletus in 334 BC and Halicarnassus, a siege lasting four months, starting in late December the same year. While Alexander was in Tarsus, he heard of Darius massing a great army in Babylon. If Darius were to reach the Gulf of Issus, he could use the support from the Persian fleet under Pharnabazus still operating in the Mediterranean Sea, thus easing his supply and possibly landing troops behind the enemy. Alexander kept his main army at Tarsus but sent Parmenion ahead to occupy the coast around Issus. In November, Alexander received reports that the great Persian army had advanced into Syria to a town named Sochoi. Alexander decided to mass his scattered army and advance south from Issus through the Pass of Jonah. Darius knew that Parmenion held the Pass of Jonah and thus chose a northern route of advance. The Persians captured Issus without opposition and cut off the hands of all the sick and wounded that Alexander had left behind. Now Darius found out he had placed his army behind the Hellenic League and had cut their supply lines. He then advanced to the south and got no further than the river Pinarus before his scouts spotted Alexander marching north. Darius had to set up camp on this narrow coastal plain.", "There is much debate as to the motives of Alexander and Darius preceding Issus. One modern perspective, based on Curtius, is that Darius was forced to move camp to terrain that favored Alexander because Alexander was fighting defensively due to a recommendation by his war council and Parmenion. Darius' large army could not be supported in the field during winter and his cities in Phoenicia were already in unrest at the arrival of Alexander. Darius was forced to move his large army to a small battlefield, greatly to the advantage of Alexander's smaller force. Alexander was waiting for Darius to come south around the Amanus Mountain range because the pass Darius would have used, the Belen Pass, was much closer to Sochi and offered the quickest access to the area Alexander defended. Alexander was waiting to the west of the Belen Pass at Myriandrus to spring a trap on Darius as he crossed through the Belen Pass or through the Pillar of Jonah if he moved north, where Darius' army would be disorganized and disjointed in the narrow crossing. Darius instead moved north from Sochi and around the mountains, emerging behind Alexander's position and on his supply and communication lines. Thus Alexander was forced to march to Darius, who had caught him off guard in a large flanking maneuver. This gives the illusion that Darius was the one acting defensively, since Alexander was forced to march to him.", "", "Some ancient sources (Arrian and Plutarch), who based their accounts on earlier Greek sources, estimated 600,000 Persian soldiers in total, while Diodorus and Justin estimated 400,000, and Curtius Rufus estimated 250,000. Modern historians find Arrian's count of 600,000 men highly unlikely. They argue that the logistics of fielding more than 100,000 soldiers in battle was extremely difficult at the time. Hans Delbrück gives an estimate as small as 25,000, although most (including Engels and Green) estimate the total size of Darius' army to be no larger than 100,000 at Issus, including 11,000 cavalry, 10,000 Persian Immortals, and 10,000 Greek mercenaries. Warry estimates 108,000 in total.", "The size of the Hellenic army may not have exceeded 40,000 men, including their other allies, led by Alexander. Alexander's army may have consisted of about 22,000 phalangites and hoplites, 13,000 peltasts, and 5,850 cavalry.", "The Greeks advanced through the Pillar of Jonah. Alexander led his Companion cavalry on the right flank and he set his Thessalian allied cavalry on the left of the phalanx with Parmenion in command. Darius formed his line with his heavy cavalry concentrated next to the coast on his right, followed by the Greek mercenary phalanx (historian A. M. Devine places them at a strength of 12,000, comparable to Alexander's Greek phalanx). Next to the Greek phalanx Darius spread his Persian infantry, the Cardaces, along the river and into the foothills, where they wrapped around to the other bank and threatened Alexander's right flank (the formation resembled \"gamma\", Γ). Arrian gives an inflated figure of 20,000 to these troops. Darius positioned himself in the centre with his best infantry, the Greek mercenaries, and his royal cavalry guard. According to some historians, like P. Stratikis, he was trying to replicate the Hellenic battle formation of the Battle of the Granicus. The Persian cavalry first charged Parmenion and the allied cavalry, crossing the river to open battle. Alexander's right wing became the crux of the battle, as at Gaugamela two years later, where Parmenion held the left wing long enough against superior Persian numbers for Alexander to make his calculated cavalry strike against Darius and break the Persian army. The infantry of the Greek left flank was commanded by the general Craterus, in a promotion from his position commanding a single brigade of \"pezhetairoi\" infantry at the Granicus. Things did not go well for the Macedonians in the beginning. Their center phalanx, having to advance across a river and up a fortified bank, suffered severely against the Greek mercenaries waiting for them on the other side. Arrian noted that a hundred and twenty Macedonians “of note” (probably meaning officers) were slain here, and the Macedonians were forced to retreat across the river. In the left flank, the Thessalian struggled against the outnumbering mass of Persian heavy horse that faced them, delivering charges and retreating again to buy time. Then the Hypaspists led by Alexander on foot delivered an assault on the Cardaces, and managed to punch a hole through the Persian line. The Agrianians too drove back a mass of Persian skirmishers menacing Alexander's far right, securing the flank of the Companions. Alexander then mounted a horse at the head of his Companions and led a direct assault against Darius and his bodyguards, causing them to flee from the battlefield. Alexander then saw his left flank and center in trouble, and allowing Darius to flee, he crashed into the rear of the Greek mercenaries. The Greek mercenaries broke up and started retreating from the battlefield as well. The Persians saw that their Great King had gone and that the battle was being lost, and they abandoned their positions and fled in full rout. The Hellenic cavalry pursued the fleeing Persians for as long as there was light. As with most ancient battles, significant carnage occurred after the battle as the pursuing Greeks slaughtered their crowded, disorganized foe. Arrian notes Ptolemy mentioning that while pursuing Darius, Alexander and his bodyguards came upon a ravine which they easily crossed on the piled up bodies of dead Persians. It was a decisive victory for Alexander.", "The Battle of Issus was a decisive Hellenic victory and it marked the beginning of the end of Persian power. It was the first time the Persian army had been defeated with the King (Darius III at the time) present. After the battle, the Hellenes captured Darius' wife, Stateira I, his daughters, Stateira II and Drypetis, and his mother, Sisygambis, all of whom had accompanied Darius on his campaign. Alexander, who later married Stateira II, treated the captured women with great respect. Later, the Spartan king Agis III recruited the Greek mercenary survivors of the Battle of Issus who had served in the Persian army, a force of 8,000 veterans, and used them in his fight against the Macedonians. In the summer of 331 BC, Agis defeated Coragus, the Macedonian general in command of the Peloponnese and the garrison of Corinth, but was finally defeated at the Battle of Megalopolis." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Magnification.", "Alternatives.", "Use as a symbol." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "\"The evidence indicates that the use of lenses was widespread throughout the Middle East and the Mediterranean basin over several millennia\". The earliest explicit written evidence of a magnifying device is a joke in Aristophanes's \"The Clouds\" from 424 BC, where magnifying lenses to ignite tinder were sold in a pharmacy, and Pliny the Elder's \"lens\", a glass globe filled with water, used to cauterize wounds. (Seneca wrote that it could be used to read letters \"no matter how small or dim\"). A convex lens used for forming a magnified image was described in the \"Book of Optics\" by Ibn al-Haytham in 1021. After the book was translated during the Latin translations of the 12th century, Roger Bacon described the properties of a magnifying glass in 13th-century England. This was followed by the development of eyeglasses in 13th-century Italy.", "The magnification of a magnifying glass depends upon where it is placed between the user's eye and the object being viewed, and the total distance between them. The \"magnifying power\" is equivalent to angular magnification (this should not be confused with optical power, which is a different quantity). The magnifying power is the ratio of the sizes of the images formed on the user's retina with and without the lens. For the \"without\" case, it is typically assumed that the user would bring the object as close to one eye as possible without it becoming blurry. This point, known as the \"near point of accommodation\", varies with age. In a young child, it can be as close as 5 cm, while, in an elderly person it may be as far as one or two metres. Magnifiers are typically characterized using a \"standard\" value of 0.25 m. The highest magnifying power is obtained by putting the lens very close to one eye and moving the eye and the lens together to obtain the best focus. The object will then typically also be close to the lens. The magnifying power obtained in this condition is \"MP\" = (0.25 m)Φ + 1, where Φ is the optical power in dioptres, and the factor of 0.25 m represents the assumed near point (1⁄4 m from the eye). This value of the magnifying power is the one normally used to characterize magnifiers. It is typically denoted \"\"m\"×\", where \"m\" = \"MP\". This is sometimes called the \"total power\" of the magnifier (again, not to be confused with optical power). However, magnifiers are not always used as described above because it is more comfortable to put the magnifier close to the object (one focal length away). The eye can then be a larger distance away, and a good image can be obtained very easily; the focus is not very sensitive to the eye's exact position. The magnifying power in this case is roughly \"MP\" = (0.25 m)Φ. A typical magnifying glass might have a focal length of 25 cm, corresponding to an optical power of 4 dioptres. Such a magnifier would be sold as a \"2×\" magnifier. In actual use, an observer with \"typical\" eyes would obtain a magnifying power between 1 and 2, depending on where lens is held.", "Magnifying glasses typically have low magnifying power: 2×–6×, with the lower-power types being much more common. At higher magnifications, the image quality of a simple magnifying glass becomes poor due to optical aberrations, particularly spherical aberration. When more magnification or a better image is required, other types of hand magnifier are typically used. A Coddington magnifier provides higher magnification with improved image quality. Even better images can be obtained with a multiple-lens magnifier, such as a Hastings triplet. High power magnifiers are sometimes mounted in a cylindrical or conical holder with no handle. This is called a loupe. Such magnifiers can reach up to about 30×, and at these magnifications the aperture of the magnifier becomes very small and it must be placed very close to both the object and the eye. For more convenient use or for magnification beyond about 30×, one must instead use a microscope.", "The magnifying glass (i.e., or U+1F50D in Unicode: 🔍) is commonly used as a symbolic representation for the ability to search or zoom, especially in computer software and websites." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Leisure and tourism.", "Nature and conservation.", "Hydro-electricity.", "Historical sites." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Loch Tummel is popular with anglers who fish for brown trout and pike. Fishing is managed by the Loch Rannoch Conservation Association, who issue permits and control catches. Loch Tummel Sailing Club is based at Foss on the south west shore of the loch. The loch is also very popular with campers during the spring and summer. The roads on either side of the loch both offer splendid views of the surrounding countryside, especially from the well-known 'Queen's View' from the north shore, which was made famous by Queen Victoria in 1866. This viewpoint offers a magnificent vista over the loch with Schiehallion in the background. It is also claimed that the view was originally named after Queen Isabel, wife of Robert the Bruce, who is said to have hidden in the nearby woods after the Bruce's defeat at the Battle of Methven in 1306. Areas of forestry around Loch Tummel owned by Forestry and Land Scotland (FLS) form part of the Tay Forest Park, a network of FLS forests spread across the Highland parts of Perthshire that are managed to provide walks and amenities for visitors.", "The River Tummel is tributary of the River Tay, and Loch Tummel is included as part of the River Tay Special Area of Conservation. The designation notes the river system's importance for salmon, otters, brook lampreys, river lampreys and sea lampreys. Brown trout and pike are also present in the loch. The woods to the north of the loch are home to a number of protected species, including capercaillie, black grouse, red squirrel, pearl-bordered fritillary and juniper.", "Loch Tummel became part of the Tummel Hydro-Electric Power Scheme when the Clunie Dam was constructed by Wimpey Construction at its eastern end in 1950, raising the water level by. Prior to this the loch, which is now approximately long and just under wide was much smaller, being long and wide. Water from Loch Tummel is diverted to Loch Faskally, running via Clunie power station, which has a vertical head of and a total generating capacity of 61 MW. There is also a power station at Tummel Bridge at the western end of the loch that takes water from Dunalastair reservoir below Loch Rannoch, and discharges into Loch Tummel: this station has a vertical head of and a total generating capacity of 34 MW.", "The northern side of the loch has many archeological sites, including an Iron Age ring fort, abandoned townships, and the remains of Pictish fortified villages. This area also includes the standing stones of Clachan Aoraidh, located at the head of Glen Fincastle in the Allean Forest. Fincastle House, a 17th-century Category A listed building, sits at the eastern end of the strath. The raising of the loch for hydroelectricity led to the drowning of an artificial island of a type known as a crannog lying off Port an Eilean on the northern side of the loch. The island is now 3 m underwater, and was investigated by the Scottish Trust for Underwater Archaeology and Perth & Kinross Heritage Trust in 2004. A well-made flagstone floor and a flight of steps that led down a distance of 2 m to the loch bed were found. Analysis of one the timbers found on the site revealed that it dated from around 1840. Above the head of the loch, there are two bridges over the River Tummel at Tummel Bridge. The original humpbacked bridge was built by General Wade in about 1734 as part of his construction of some of roads and 30 bridges in Scotland between 1725 and 1737. A modern replacement alongside Wade's bridge carries the traffic from Aberfeldy on the B846 road. The historic drove road of the Road to the Isles leaves Wade's military road at Tummel Bridge, from where it heads west into Lochaber, and Tummel is one of the places mentioned in the Scottish folk song named after the road." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Uses.", "Construction.", "Sound.", "History.", "Animal drumming.", "Talking drums.", "Drums in art.", "Military uses." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Drums are usually played by striking with the hand, or with one or two sticks with or without padding. A wide variety of sticks are used, including wooden sticks and sticks with soft beaters of felt on the end. In jazz, some drummers use brushes for a smoother, quieter sound. In many traditional cultures, drums have a symbolic function and are used in religious ceremonies. Drums are often used in music therapy, especially hand drums, because of their tactile nature and easy use by a wide variety of people. In popular music and jazz, \"drums\" usually refers to a drum kit or a set of drums (with some cymbals, or in the case of harder rock music genres, many cymbals), and \"drummer\" to the person who plays them. Drums acquired even divine status in places such as Burundi, where the \"karyenda\" was a symbol of the power of the king.", "The shell almost always has a circular opening over which the drumhead is stretched, but the shape of the remainder of the shell varies widely. In the Western musical tradition, the most usual shape is a cylinder, although timpani, for example, use bowl-shaped shells. Other shapes include a frame design (tar, Bodhrán), truncated cones (bongo drums, Ashiko), goblet shaped (djembe), and joined truncated cones (talking drum). Drums with cylindrical shells can be open at one end (as is the case with timbales), or can have two drum heads, one head on each end. Single-headed drums typically consist of a skin stretched over an enclosed space, or over one of the ends of a hollow vessel. Drums with two heads covering both ends of a cylindrical shell often have a small hole somewhat halfway between the two heads; the shell forms a resonating chamber for the resulting sound. Exceptions include the African slit drum, also known as a log drum as it is made from a hollowed-out tree trunk, and the Caribbean steel drum, made from a metal barrel. Drums with two heads can also have a set of wires, called snares, held across the bottom head, top head, or both heads, hence the name snare drum. On some drums with two heads, a hole or bass reflex port may be cut or installed onto one head, as with some 2010s era bass drums in rock music. On modern band and orchestral drums, the drumhead is placed over the opening of the drum, which in turn is held onto the shell by a \"counterhoop\" (or \"rim\"), which is then held by means of a number of tuning screws called \"tension rods\" that screw into lugs placed evenly around the circumference. The head's tension can be adjusted by loosening or tightening the rods. Many such drums have six to ten tension rods. The sound of a drum depends on many variables—including shape, shell size and thickness, shell materials, counterhoop material, drumhead material, drumhead tension, drum position, location, and striking velocity and angle. Prior to the invention of tension rods, drum skins were attached and tuned by rope systems—as on the Djembe—or pegs and ropes such as on Ewe drums. These methods are rarely used today, though sometimes appear on regimental marching band snare drums. The head of a talking drum, for example, can be temporarily tightened by squeezing the ropes that connect the top and bottom heads. Similarly, the tabla is tuned by hammering a disc held in place around the drum by ropes stretching from the top to bottom head. Orchestral timpani can be quickly tuned to precise pitches by using a foot pedal.", "Several factors determine the sound a drum produces, including the type, shape and construction of the drum shell, the type of drum heads it has, and the tension of these drumheads. Different drum sounds have different uses in music. For example, the modern Tom-tom drum. A jazz drummer may want drums that are high pitched, resonant and quiet whereas a rock drummer may prefer drums that are loud, dry and low-pitched. The drum head has the most effect on how a drum sounds. Each type of drum head serves its own musical purpose and has its own unique sound. Double-ply drumheads dampen high frequency harmonics because they are heavier and they are suited to heavy playing. Drum heads with a white, textured coating on them muffle the overtones of the drum head slightly, producing a less diverse pitch. Drum heads with central silver or black dots tend to muffle the overtones even more, while drum heads with perimeter sound rings mostly eliminate overtones. Some jazz drummers avoid using thick drum heads, preferring single ply drum heads or drum heads with no muffling. Rock drummers often prefer the thicker or coated drum heads. The second biggest factor that affects drum sound is head tension against the shell. When the hoop is placed around the drum head and shell and tightened down with tension rods, the tension of the head can be adjusted. When the tension is increased, the amplitude of the sound is reduced and the frequency is increased, making the pitch higher and the volume lower. The type of shell also affects the sound of a drum. Because the vibrations resonate in the shell of the drum, the shell can be used to increase the volume and to manipulate the type of sound produced. The larger the diameter of the shell, the lower the pitch. The larger the depth of the drum, the louder the volume. Shell thickness also determines the volume of drums. Thicker shells produce louder drums. Mahogany raises the frequency of low pitches and keeps higher frequencies at about the same speed. When choosing a set of shells, a jazz drummer may want smaller maple shells, while a rock drummer may want larger birch shells.", "Drums made with alligator skins have been found in Neolithic cultures located in China, dating to a period of 5500–2350 BC. In literary records, drums manifested shamanistic characteristics and were often used in ritual ceremonies. The bronze Dong Son drum was fabricated by the Bronze Age Dong Son culture of northern Vietnam. They include the ornate Ngoc Lu drum.", "Macaque monkeys drum objects in a rhythmic way to show social dominance and this has been shown to be processed in a similar way in their brains to vocalizations, suggesting an evolutionary origin to drumming as part of social communication. Other primates make drumming sounds by chest beating or hand clapping, and rodents such as kangaroo rats also make similar sounds using their paws on the ground.", "Drums are used not only for their musical qualities, but also as a means of communication over great distances. The talking drums of Africa are used to imitate the tone patterns of spoken language. Throughout Sri Lankan history drums have been used for communication between the state and the community, and Sri Lankan drums have a history stretching back over 2500 years.", "Drumming may be a purposeful expression of emotion for entertainment, spiritualism and communication. Many cultures practice drumming as a spiritual or religious passage and interpret drummed rhythm similarly to spoken language or prayer. Drumming has developed over millennia to be a powerful art form. Drumming is commonly viewed as the root of music and is sometimes performed as a kinesthetic dance. As a discipline, drumming concentrates on training the body to punctuate, convey and interpret musical rhythmic intention to an audience and to the performer.", "Chinese troops used tàigǔ drums to motivate troops, to help set a marching pace, and to call out orders or announcements. For example, during a war between Qi and Lu in 684 BC, the effect of drum on soldiers' morale is employed to change the result of a major battle. Fife-and-drum corps of Swiss mercenary foot soldiers also used drums. They used an early version of the snare drum carried over the player's right shoulder, suspended by a strap (typically played with one hand using traditional grip). It is to this instrument that the English word \"drum\" was first used. Similarly, during the English Civil War rope-tension drums would be carried by junior officers as a means to relay commands from senior officers over the noise of battle. These were also hung over the shoulder of the drummer and typically played with two drum sticks. Different regiments and companies would have distinctive and unique drum beats only they recognized. In the mid-19th century, the Scottish military started incorporating pipe bands into their Highland regiments. During pre-Columbian warfare, Aztec nations were known to have used drums to send signals to the battling warriors. The Nahuatl word for drum is roughly translated as \"huehuetl\". The Rig Veda, one of the oldest religious scriptures in the world, contains several references to the use of the \"Dundhubi\" (war drum). Arya tribes charged into battle to the beating of the war drum and chanting of a hymn that appears in Book VI of the Rig Veda and also the Atharva Veda where it is referred to as the \"Hymn to the battle drum\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Composition history.", "Relationship with Cammarano.", "Preoccupations and delays in 1851–1852.", "Death of Cammarano and work with Bardare.", "Performance history.", "Synopsis.", "Act 1: The Duel.", "Act 2: The Gypsy Woman.", "Act 3: The Son of the Gypsy Woman.", "Act 4: The Punishment.", "Instrumentation.", "Music.", "Cultural references.", "Historical references.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "How and when Verdi acquired a copy of the Gutiérrez play is uncertain, but Budden notes that it appears that Giuseppina Strepponi, with whom Verdi had been living in Busseto since September 1849, had translated the play, as evidenced in a letter from her two weeks before the premiere urging him to \"hurry up and give OUR \"Trovatore\"\". When considering setting Gutiérrez's play, Verdi turned to work with Cammarano, \"the born operatic poet\" (according to Budden). Their correspondence began as early as January 1850, well before Verdi had done anything to develop a libretto with Piave for what later became \"Rigoletto\" in Venice. At this time, it was also the first since \"Oberto\" that the composer was beginning to prepare an opera with a librettist but without a commission of any kind from an opera house. In his first letter to Cammarano, Verdi proposed \"El Trovador\" as the subject with \"two feminine roles. The first, the gypsy, a woman of unusual character after whom I want to name the opera.\" With regard to the chosen librettist's strength as a poet in preparing verse for opera, Budden also comments that his approach was very traditional, something which began to become clear during the preparation of the libretto and which appears in the correspondence between the two men.", "Verdi's time and energy were spent mostly on finishing \"Rigoletto,\" which premiered at La Fenice in Venice in March 1851. Within a matter of weeks, Verdi was expressing his frustration to a mutual friend, de Sanctis, at having no communication from Cammarano. His letter emphasized that \"the bolder he is, the happier it will make me,\" although it appears that Cammarano's reply contained several objections, which Verdi answered on 4 April and, in his response, he emphasized certain aspects of the plot which were important to him. These included Leonora taking the veil and also the importance of the Azucena/Manrico relationship. He continued by asking whether the librettist liked the drama and emphasized that \"the more unusual and bizarre the better\". Verdi also writes that if there were no standard forms – \"cavatinas, duets, trios, choruses, finales, etc. [...] and if you could avoid beginning with an opening chorus...\" he would be quite happy. Correspondence continued between the two men for the following two months or so, including another letter from the composer of 9 April which included three pages of suggestions. But he also made concessions and expresses his happiness in what he is receiving in the way of verse. During the period to follow, in spite of his preoccupations but especially after he had begun to overcome them, Verdi had kept in touch with the librettist. In a letter around the time of his intended departure for France, he wrote encouragingly to Cammarano: \"I beg you with all my soul to finish this \"Trovatore\" as quickly as you possibly can.\"", "There then arose the question of where the opera would eventually be presented. Verdi had turned down an offer from Naples, but became concerned about the availability of his preferred Azucena, Rita Gabussi-De Bassini. She turned out not to be on the Naples roster, but expressed an interest in the possibility of Rome. Things were put on hold for several months as Verdi became preoccupied with family matters, which included the illnesses of both his mother (who died in July) and father, the estrangement from his parents with communications conducted only between lawyers, and the administration of his newly acquired property at Sant'Agata (now the Villa Verdi near his hometown of Busseto), where he had established his parents. But his relationship with his parents, albeit legally severed, as well as Strepponi's situation living with the composer in an unmarried state, continued to preoccupy him, as did the deterioration of his relationship with his father-in-law, Antonio Barezzi. Finally, in April 1851, agreement was reached with the elder Verdis on the payment of debts mutually owed and the couple were given time to resettle, leaving Sant'Agata for Verdi and Strepponi to occupy for the next fifty years. May 1851 brought an offer for a new opera from the Venice authorities, and it was followed by an agreement with the Rome Opera company to present \"Trovatore\" during the 1852/1853 Carnival season, specifically in January 1853. By November Verdi and Strepponi left Italy to spend the winter of 1851/52 in Paris, where he concluded an agreement with the Paris Opéra to write what became \"Les vêpres siciliennes\", his first grand opera, although he had adapted his earlier \"I Lombardi\" into \"Jerusalem\" for the stage. Including work on \"Trovatore\", other projects consumed him, but a significant event occurred in February, when the couple attended a performance of Alexander Dumas \"fils\"'s \"The Lady of the Camellias\". What followed is reported by Verdi's biographer Mary Jane Phillips-Matz who states that the composer revealed that, after seeing the play, he immediately began to compose music for what would later become \"La traviata\". The couple returned to Sant'Agata by mid-March 1852 and Verdi immediately began work on \"Trovatore\" after a year's delay.", "Then, in July 1852, by way of an announcement in a theatrical journal, Verdi received news of Cammarano's death earlier that month. This was both a professional and a personal blow. The composer learned that Cammarano had completed Manrico's third-act aria, \"Di quella pira\" just eight days before his death, but now he turned to De Sanctis to find him another librettist. Leone Emanuele Bardare was a young poet from Naples who was beginning his career; eventually he wrote more than 15 librettos before 1880. Composer and librettist met in Rome around 20 December 1852 and Verdi began work on both \"Trovatore\" and \"La traviata\". His main aim, having changed his mind about the distribution of characters in the opera, was to enhance the role of Leonora, thus making it \"a two-women opera\" and he communicated many of these ideas ahead of time via letters to De Sanctis over several months. Leonora now was to have a cantabile for the Miserere as well as retaining \"Tacea la Notte\" in act 1 with its cabaletta. Changes were also made to Azucena's \"Stride la vampa\" and to the Count's lines. Taking into account the last-minute requirements of the censor and the consequent changes, overall, the revisions and changes enhanced the opera, and the result was that it was a critical and a popular success.", "In Italian as \"Il trovatore\" The opera's immense popularity – albeit a popular success rather than a critical one – came from some 229 productions worldwide in the three years following its premiere on 19 January 1853, and is illustrated by the fact that \"in Naples, for example, where the opera in its first three years had eleven stagings in six theaters, the performances totalled 190\". First given in Paris in Italian on 23 December 1854 by the Théâtre-Italien at the Salle Ventadour, the cast included Lodovico Graziani as Manrico and Adelaide Borghi-Mamo as Azucena. \"Il trovatore\" was first performed in the US by the Max Maretzek Italian Opera Company on 2 May 1855 at the then-recently opened Academy of Music in New York while its UK premiere took place on 10 May 1855 at Covent Garden in London, with Jenny Bürde-Ney as Leonora, Enrico Tamberlick as Manrico, Pauline Viardot as Azucena and Francesco Graziani as the Conte di Luna. As the 19th century proceeded there was a decline in interest, but \"Il trovatore\" saw a revival of interest after Toscanini's 1902 revivals. From its performance at the Met on 26 October 1883 the opera has been a staple of its repertoire. Today, almost all performances use the Italian version and it is one of the world's most frequently performed operas. In French as \"Le trouvère\" After the successful presentation of the opera in Italian in Paris, François-Louis Crosnier, director of l'Opéra de Paris, proposed that Verdi revise his opera for the Paris audience as a grand opera, which would include a ballet, to be presented on the stage of the major Paris house. While Verdi was in Paris with Giuseppina Strepponi from late July 1855, working on the completion of \"Aroldo\" and beginning to prepare a libretto with Piave for what would become \"Simon Boccanegra\", he encountered some legal difficulties in dealing with Toribio Calzado, the impresario of the Théâtre des Italiens, and, with his contacts with the Opėra, agreed to prepare a French version of \"Trovatore\" on 22 September 1855. A translation of Cammarano's libretto was made by librettist Émilien Pacini under the title of \"Le trouvère\" and it was first performed at La Monnaie in Brussels on 20 May 1856. There followed the production at the Paris Opera's Salle Le Peletier on 12 January 1857 after which Verdi returned to Italy. Emperor Napoleon III and Empress Eugénie attended the latter performance. For the French premiere, Verdi made some changes to the score of \"Le trouvère\" including the addition of music for the ballet in act 3 which followed the soldiers' chorus, where gypsies danced to entertain them. The quality of Verdi's ballet music has been noted by scholar Charles Osborne: \"He could have been the Tchaikovsky of Italian ballet\" he states, continuing to praise it as \"perfect ballet music\". In addition, he describes the unusual practice of Verdi having woven in themes from the gypsy chorus of act 2, ballet music for opera rarely connecting with the themes of the work. Several other revisions focused on Azucena's music, including an extended version of the finale of act 4, to accommodate the role's singer Adelaide Borghi-Mamo. Some of these changes have even been used in modern performances in Italian. Rarely given in French, it was presented as part of the 1998 Festival della Valle d'Itria and in 2002 \"Le trouvère\" appeared as part of the Sarasota Opera's \"Verdi Cycle\" of all the composer's work.", "", "\"Scene 1: The guard room in the castle of Luna (The Palace of Aljafería, Zaragoza, Spain)\" Ferrando, the captain of the guards, orders his men to keep watch while Count di Luna wanders restlessly beneath the windows of Leonora, lady-in-waiting to the Princess. Di Luna loves Leonora and is jealous of his successful rival, a troubadour whose identity he does not know. In order to keep the guards awake, Ferrando narrates the history of the count (Racconto: / \"The good Count di Luna lived happily, the father of two sons\"): many years ago, a gypsy was wrongfully accused of having bewitched the youngest of the di Luna children; the child had fallen sick, and for this the gypsy had been burnt alive as a witch, her protests of innocence ignored. Dying, she had commanded her daughter Azucena to avenge her, which she did by abducting the baby. Although the burnt bones of a child were found in the ashes of the pyre, the father refused to believe his son's death. Dying, the father commanded his firstborn, the new Count di Luna, to seek Azucena. \"Scene 2: Garden in the palace of the princess\" Leonora confesses her love for the Troubadour to her confidante, Ines (Cavatina: \"Tacea la notte placida\" / \"The peaceful night lay silent\"... \"Di tale amor\" / \"A love that words can scarcely describe\"), in which she tells how she fell in love with a mystery knight, victor at a tournament: lost track of him when a civil war broke out: then encountered him again, in disguise as a wandering troubadour who sang beneath her window. When they have gone, Count di Luna enters, intending to pay court to Leonora himself, but hears the voice of his rival, in the distance: (\"Deserto sulla terra\" / \"Alone upon this earth\"). Leonora in the darkness briefly mistakes the count for her lover, until the Troubadour himself enters the garden, and she rushes to his arms. The Count challenges his rival to reveal his true identity, which he does: Manrico, a knight now outlawed and under death sentence for his allegiance to a rival prince. Manrico in turn challenges him to call the guards, but the Count regards this encounter as a personal rather than political matter, and challenges Manrico instead to a duel over their common love. Leonora tries to intervene, but cannot stop them from fighting (Trio: \"Di geloso amor sprezzato\" / \"The fire of jealous love\" ).", "\"Scene 1: The gypsies' camp\" The gypsies sing the \"Anvil Chorus\": \"Vedi le fosche notturne\" / \"See! The endless sky casts off her sombre nightly garb...\". Azucena, the daughter of the Gypsy burnt by the count, is still haunted by her duty to avenge her mother (Canzone: \"Stride la vampa\" / \"The flames are roaring!\"). The Gypsies break camp while Azucena confesses to Manrico that after stealing the di Luna baby she had intended to burn the count's little son along with her mother, but overwhelmed by the screams and the gruesome scene of her mother's execution, she became confused and threw her own child into the flames instead (Racconto: \"Condotta ell'era in ceppi\" / \"They dragged her in bonds\"). Manrico realises that he is not the son of Azucena, but loves her as if she were indeed his mother, as she has always been faithful and loving to him - and, indeed, saved his life only recently, discovering him left for dead on a battlefield after being caught in ambush. Manrico tells Azucena that he defeated di Luna in their earlier duel, but was held back from killing him by a mysterious power (Duet: \"Mal reggendo\" / \"He was helpless under my savage attack\"): and Azucena reproaches him for having stayed his hand then, especially since it was the Count's forces that defeated him in the subsequent battle of Pelilla. A messenger arrives and reports that Manrico's allies have taken Castle Castellor, which Manrico is ordered to hold in the name of his prince: and also that Leonora, who believes Manrico dead, is about to enter a convent and take the veil that night. Although Azucena tries to prevent him from leaving in his weak state (\"Ferma! Son io che parlo a te!\" / \"I must talk to you\"), Manrico rushes away to prevent her from carrying out this intent. \"Scene 2: In front of the convent\" Di Luna and his attendants intend to abduct Leonora and the Count sings of his love for her (Aria: \"Il balen del suo sorriso\" / \"The light of her smile\"... \"Per me ora fatale\" / \"Fatal hour of my life\"). Leonora and the nuns appear in procession, but Manrico prevents di Luna from carrying out his plans and takes Leonora away with him, although once again leaving the Count behind unharmed, as the soldiers on both sides back down from bloodshed, the Count being held back by his own men.", "\"Scene 1: Di Luna's camp\" Di Luna and his army are attacking the fortress Castellor where Manrico has taken refuge with Leonora (Chorus: \"Or co' dadi ma fra poco\" / \"Now we play at dice\"). Ferrando drags in Azucena, who has been captured wandering near the camp. When she hears di Luna’s name, Azucena’s reactions arouse suspicion and Ferrando recognizes her as the supposed murderer of the count’s brother. Azucena cries out to her son Manrico to rescue her and the count realizes that he has the means to flush his enemy out of the fortress. He orders his men to build a pyre and burn Azucena before the walls. \"Scene 2: A chamber in the castle\" Inside the castle, Manrico and Leonora are preparing to be married. She is frightened; the battle with di Luna is imminent and Manrico’s forces are outnumbered. He assures her of his love (Aria: \"Ah sì, ben mio, coll'essere\" / \"Ah, yes, my love, in being yours\"), even in the face of death. When news of Azucena’s capture reaches him, he summons his men and desperately prepares to attack (Cabaletta: \"Di quella pira l'orrendo foco\" / \"The horrid flames of that pyre\"). Leonora faints.", "\"Scene 1: Before the dungeon keep\" Manrico has failed to free Azucena and has been imprisoned himself. Leonora attempts to free him (Aria: \"D'amor sull'ali rosee\" / \"On the rosy wings of love\"; Chorus & Duet: \"Miserere\" / \"Lord, thy mercy on this soul\") by begging di Luna for mercy and offers herself in place of her lover. She promises to give herself to the count, but secretly swallows poison from her ring in order to die before di Luna can possess her (Duet: \"Mira, d'acerbe lagrime\" / \"See the bitter tears I shed\"). \"Scene 2: In the dungeon\" Manrico and Azucena are awaiting their execution. Manrico attempts to soothe Azucena, whose mind wanders to happier days in the mountains (Duet: \"Ai nostri monti ritorneremo\" / \"Again to our mountains we shall return\"). At last the gypsy slumbers. Leonora comes to Manrico and tells him that he is saved, begging him to escape. When he discovers she cannot accompany him, he refuses to leave his prison. He believes Leonora has betrayed him until he realizes that she has taken poison to remain true to him. As she dies in agony in Manrico's arms she confesses that she prefers to die with him than to marry another (Trio: \"Prima che d'altri vivere\" / \"Rather than live as another's\"). The count has heard Leonora's last words and orders Manrico's execution. Azucena awakens and tries to stop di Luna. Once Manrico is dead, she cries: \"Egli era tuo fratello! Sei vendicata, o madre.\" / \"He was your brother... You are avenged, oh mother!\"", "piccolo, flute, 2 oboes, 2 clarinets, 2 bassoons 4 horns, 2 trumpets, 3 trombones, tuba timpani, triangle, tambourine, castanets, cymbals, bass drum, harp, strings", "Today, most opera scholars recognize the expressive musical qualities of Verdi's writing. However, musicologist Roger Parker notes that \"the extreme formalism of the musical language has been seen as serving to concentrate and define the various stages of the drama, above all channeling them into those key confrontations that mark its inexorable progress\". Here he, like many other writers, notes the elements of musical form (then often described as \"closed forms\") which characterize the opera and make it appear to be something of a return to the language of earlier times, \"the veritable apotheosis of \"bel canto\" with its demands for vocal beauty, agility and range,\" notes Charles Osborne. Thus, the cantabile-cabaletta two-part arias, the use of the chorus, etc., which Verdi had originally asked Cammarano to ignore, are evident. But Verdi wanted something else: \"the freer the forms he presents me with, the better I shall do,\" he wrote to the librettist's friend in March 1851. It was not what he received from his librettist, but he certainly demonstrated his total mastery over this style. Osborne's take on \"'Il trovatore\" is that \"it is as though Verdi had decided to do something which he had been perfecting over the years, and to do it so beautifully that he need never to do it again. Formally, it is a step backward after \"Rigoletto\"\". Budden describes one of the musical qualities as the relationship between the \"consistent dramatic impetus\" of the action being caused by the \"propulsive quality\" of the music which produces a \"sense of continuous forward motion\". Parker describes it as \"sheer musical energy apparent in all the numbers\". And Budden gives many examples which show Verdi as \"the equal of Bellini\" as a melodist. Verdi also clearly recognizes the importance of the role of Azucena. Remembering that the composer's initial suggestion to Cammarano was that he wanted to name the opera after her, Budden notes that this character \"is the first of a glorious line\" and he names Ulrica (from \"Ballo\"), Eboli (from \"Don Carlos\"), and Amneris (from \"Aida\") as followers in the same vocal range and with the same expressive and distinct qualities which separate them from the other female role in the opera in which they feature. He quotes from a letter which Verdi wrote to Marianna Barbieri-Nini, the soprano who was due to sing the Leonora in Venice after the premiere, and who expressed reservations about her music. Here, Verdi emphasizes the importance of the role of Azucena: From this position, Budden comments on the distinct differences in an era where vocal registers were less defined and which extend into Leonora's and Azucena's music \"where greater verbal projection of the lower voice [can be] turned to advantage\" and where \"the polarity between the two female roles [extends] into every field of comparison.\" He then sums up the musical relationship which exists between the two female characters, the men having simply been defined as being representative of their own voice types, something evident and very striking in Verdi's significant use of voice types in \"Ernani\" of 1844. Regarding Leonora, Budden describes her music as \"mov[ing] in long phrases most characterized by a soaring 'aspiring' quality\" whereas \"Azucena's melodies evolve in short, often commonplace phrases based on the repetition of short rhythmic patterns\".", "Enrico Caruso once said that all it takes for successful performance of \"Il trovatore\" is the four greatest singers in the world. On many different occasions, this opera and its music have been featured in various forms of popular culture and entertainment. Scenes of comic chaos play out over a performance of \"Il trovatore\" in the Marx Brothers's film, \"A Night at the Opera\" (including a quotation, in the middle of the Act I Overture, of \"Take Me Out to the Ball Game\"). Luchino Visconti used a performance of \"Il trovatore\" at La Fenice opera house for the opening sequence of his 1954 film \"Senso\". As Manrico sings his battle cry in \"Di quella pira\", the performance is interrupted by the answering cries of Italian nationalists in the upper balcony who shower the stalls area below with patriotic leaflets. In \"Italian Film in the Light of Neorealism\", Millicent Marcus proposes that Visconti used this operatic paradigm throughout \"Senso\", with parallels between the opera's protagonists, Manrico and Leonora, and the film's protagonists, Ussoni and Livia. A staging of Act 1, Scene 2 of \"Il trovatore\" is featured in Bernardo Bertolucci's 1979 film \"La Luna\". The Opera Music was Featured on Kijiji in Canada for commercials.", "While the story and most of the characters are fictitious, it is set towards the end of a real civil war in Aragon. Following the death of King Martin of Aragon in 1410, no fewer than six candidates staked a claim for the throne. A political meeting, the Compromise of Caspe, found in favour of Martin's sororal nephew Ferdinand. Count James II of Urgell, King Martin's brother-in-law and the closest relative through purely patrilineal line of descent, refused to accept the decision of the Compromise, believing (with some justification) that Martin had intended to adopt him as the heir by appointing him Governor-General after the death of his own son Martin the Younger, and rebelled. A third candidate was Frederic, Count of Luna, bastard son of Martin the Younger, whose legitimization had been sought from the Pope unsuccessfully. As part of the compromise for withdrawing his own claim in favour of Ferdinand, Frederic was granted the County of Luna, one of the lesser titles that his father had held. While neither of the two princes who actually took part in the war actually appears in the operaneither is even referred to by name, and only Urgell is referred to by his titlethe fortunes of their followers mirror those of their princes. Thus, with his military success, Ferdinand's side has the upper hand in the war and is effectively the Royalist party, with the backing of much of the nobility and the Dowager Queen, and he also has Di Luna as his chief henchman (Luna's own connection to the royal family is not mentioned, being not necessary to the drama): while Urgel, losing the war and on the back foot, is forced to recruit among outlaws and the dispossessed, effectively taking the part of a rebel despite having some legal right to his case. Thus the fact that the forces of Urgel, in the opera as in real life, lose every pitched battle: and on the single occasion that they capture a castle (named in the opera as \"Castellor\", a fairly generic name for a castle, there being many Castellars in the region), it proves a handicap to them because their only hope in battle lies in speed, mobility, surprise and ambush, all of which are lost when defending a fortress. And also, thus it is that the fictitious troubadour Manrico can gain his rags-to-riches background, having risen from the obscurity of a Biscayan gypsy camp to become Urgel's chief general, a knight and a master swordsman in his own right, good enough to defeat Di Luna himself in a personal duel, or win a knightly tournament: only to lose it again on the military battlefield, where the odds are perpetually against him, and he is damned as an outlaw even before the opera begins, for no deed of his own but because his master is the rebel. And yet he gets to be a heroic, popular outlaw, who might just escape with his life in return for a vow of future loyalty, if put on trial in front of the Prince himself: a chance that Luna does not want to risk, given that his rivalry with Manrico is personal as well as political. Hence the challenge to the duel over the personal rivalry, instead of calling the guards and making the arrest political, in Act 1: and hence also the decision to execute without trial in Act 4 even though Luna knows he is abusing his position. Leonora and Azucena are, of course, as fictitious as Manrico, as is the story's conceit that the former Count of Luna had not one but two sons.", "Notes Cited sources Other sources" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "Taxonomy.", "History.", "Pre-Darwinian.", "Post-Darwinian.", "Phylogenetic era.", "Subdivision.", "Angiosperm Phylogeny Group.", "Genera.", "Distribution.", "Cultivation and uses." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The Amaryllidaceae are mainly terrestrial (rarely aquatic) flowering plants that are herbaceous or succulent geophytes (occasionally epiphytes) that are perennial, with the exception of four species. Most genera grow from bulbs, but a few such as \"Agapanthus\", \"Clivia\" and \"Scadoxus\" develop from rhizomes (underground stems). The leaves are simple rather fleshy and two-ranked with parallel veins. Leaf shape may be linear, strap like, oblong, elliptic, lanceolate (lance shaped) or filiform (threadlike). The leaves which are either grouped at the base or arranged alternatively on the stem may be sessile or petiolate and possess a meristem. The flowers, which are hermaphroditic (bisexual), are actinomorphic (radially symmetrical), rarely zygomorphic, pedicellate or sessile, and are typically arranged in umbels at the apex of leafless flowering stems, or scapes and associated with a filiform (thread like) bract. The perianth (perigonium) consists of six undifferentiated tepals arranged in two whorls of three. The tepals are similar in shape and size, and may be free from each other or fused at the base (connate) to form a floral tube (hypanthium). In some genera, such as Narcissus, this may be surmounted by cup or trumpet shaped projection, the corona (paraperigonium or false corolla). This may be reduced to a mere disc in some species. The position of the ovary varies by subfamily, the Agapanthoideae and Allioideae have superior ovaries, while the Amaryllidoideae have inferior ovaries. The six stamens are arranged in two whorls of three, occasionally more as in \"Gethyllis\" (Amaryllidoideae, 9–18). The fruit is dry and capsule-shaped, or fleshy and berry-like. The Allioideae produce allyl sulfide compounds which give them their characteristic smell.", "", "", "Linnaeus described the type genus \"Amaryllis\", from which the family derives its name, in his \"Species Plantarum\" in 1753, with nine species, in the \"Hexandria monogynia\" (i.e. six stamens and one pistil) containing 51 genera in all in his sexual classification scheme. The name \"Amaryllis\" had been applied to a number of plants over the course of history. \"Hexandria monogynia\" has come to be treated as either liliaceous or amaryllidaceaous (see Taxonomy of Liliaceae) over time. From 1763, when Adanson conceived of these genera as 'Liliaceae' it was included in this family, placing \"Amaryllis\" in Section VII, Narcissi. of his scheme, in which the Liliaceae had eight sections. With de Jussieu came the formal establishment of organising genera into families (\"ordo\") in 1789. De Jussieu established the hierarchical system of taxonomy (phylogeny), placing \"Amaryllis\" and 15 related genera within a division of monocotyledons, a class (III) of \"Stamina Perigynia\" and 'order' Narcisse, divided into three subfamilies. This system also formally described the Liliaceae, which were a separate order within the \"Stamina perigynia\" (Lilia). The use of the term \"Ordo\" (order) at that time was closer to what we now understand as family, rather than order. In creating his scheme, De Jussieu used a modified form of Linnaeus' sexual classification, but with the respective topography of stamens to carpels rather than just their numbers. The family Amaryllidaceae was formally named as 'Amaryllidées' (Amaryllideae) in 1805, by Jean Henri Jaume Saint-Hilaire. In 1810 Brown proposed that a subgroup of Liliaceae be distinguished on the basis of the position of their ovaries (inferior) and be referred to as Amaryllideae and in 1813 de Candolle described Liliacées Juss. and Amaryllidées Brown as two quite separate families. The literature on the organisation of genera into families and higher ranks became available in the English language with Samuel Frederick Gray's \"A natural arrangement of British plants\" (1821). Gray used a combination of Linnaeus' sexual classification and Jussieu's natural classification to group together a number of families having in common six equal stamens, a single style and a perianth that was simple and petaloid, but did not use formal names for these higher ranks. Within the grouping, he separated families by the characteristics of their fruit and seed. He treated groups of genera with these characteristics as separate families, such as Amaryllideae, Liliaceae, Asphodeleae, and Asparageae. John Lindley (1830, 1846) was the other important British taxonomist of the early 19th century. In his first taxonomic work, \"An Introduction to the Natural System of Botany\" (1830) he partly followed De Jussieu by describing a subclass he called 'Endogenae, or Monocotyledonous Plants' (preserving de Candolle's \"Endogenæ phanerogamæ\") divided into two tribes, the Petaloidea and Glumaceae. He divided the former, often referred to as petaloid monocots, into 32 orders, including the Amaryllideae. He defined the latter as \"Hexapetaloideous bulbous hexandrous monocotyledons, with an inferior ovarium, a six-parted perianthium with equitant sepals, and flat, spongy seeds\" and included \"Amaryllis\", \"Phycella\", \"Nerine\", \"Vallota\", and \"Calostemma\". By 1846, in his final scheme Lindley had greatly expanded and refined the treatment of the monocots, introducing both an intermediate ranking (Alliances) and tribes within families. Lindley placed the Liliaceae within the Liliales, but saw it as a paraphyletic (\"catch-all\") family, being all Liliales not included in the other orders, but hoped that the future would reveal some characteristic that would group them better. This kept the Liliaceae separate from the Amaryllidaceae (Narcissales Alliance). Of these Liliaceae was divided into eleven tribes (with 133 genera) and Amaryllidaceae into four tribes (with 68 genera), yet both contained many genera that would eventually segregate to each other's contemporary orders (Liliales and Asparagales respectively). The Liliaceae would be reduced to a small 'core' represented by the tribe Tulipeae (18 genera), while large groups such Scilleae and Asparagae would become part of Asparagales either as part of the Amaryllidaceae or as separate families. While of the four tribes of the Amaryllidaceae, the Amaryllideae and Narcissea would remain as core amaryllids while the Agaveae would be part of Asparagaceae, but the Alstroemeriae would become a family within the Liliales. Since then, seven of Linnaeus' \"Hexandria monogynia\" genera have consistently been placed in a common taxonomic unit of amaryllids, based on the inferior position of the ovaries (whether this be as an order, suborder, family, subfamily, tribe or section). Thus, much of what we now consider Amaryllidaceae remained in Liliaceae because the ovary was superior, till 1926 when John Hutchinson transferred them to Amaryllidaceae. This usage of the family entered the English language literature through the work of Samuel Frederick Gray (1821), William Herbert (1837) and John Lindley (1830, 1846). Meanwhile, Lindley had described two Chilean genera which for which he created a new family, Gilliesieae. The number of known genera within these families continued to grow, and by the time of the Bentham and Hooker classification (1883), the Amaryllidaceae (Amaryllideae) were divided into four tribes, of which only one (Amarylleae) is still included. The Liliaceae were becoming one of the largest families, and Bentham and Hooker divided it into 20 tribes, of which one was the Allieae, which as Allioideae would eventually become part of Amaryllidaceae as two of its three subfamilies. The Allieae included both Agapantheae, the third of the current subfamilies, and Lindley's Gilliesieae as two of its four subtribes. Bentham and Hooker's scheme was the last major classification using the natural approach.", "Although Charles Darwin's \"Origin of Species\" (1859) preceded Bentham and Hooker's publication, the latter project was commenced much earlier and Bentham was initially sceptical of Darwinism. The new phyletic approach changed the way that taxonomists considered plant classification, incorporating evolutionary information into their schemata. The major works in the late 19th and early 20th centuries employing this approach were German, those of Eichler (1875–1886), Engler, Prantl (1886–1924), and Wettstein (1901–1935). The Amaryllidaceae were treated similarly in the German-language literature to the manner they had been in English. August Eichler (1886) was the first phyletic taxonomist and positioned the Amaryllidaceae and Liliaceae within the Liliiflorae, one of the seven orders of monocotyledons. Liliaceae included both \"Allium\" and \"Ornithogalum\" (modern Allioideae). Adolf Engler developed Eichler's ideas much further, into much more elaborate schemes that evolved over time, from his 1888 scheme, contributed by Pax to his 1903 version In the latter, the Liliineae were a suborder of Liliiflorae, including both families Liliaceae and Amaryllidaceae. Within the Liliaceae, the core liliids were segregated in subfamily Lilioideae from the alliaceous subfamily, Allioideae. Allieae, Agapantheae, and Gilliesieae were the three tribes within this subfamily. A somewhat similar approach to Liliiflorae was adopted by Wettstein (without suborders or tribes), and with Alliodeae (\"Allium\") and Lilioideae (\"Ornithogalum\") as subfamilies of Liliaceae. Wettstein's Amaryllidaceae contained three subfamilies., including Amaryllidoideae and Agavoideae. The early 20th century was marked by increasing doubts about the placement of the alliaceous genera within Liliaceae. Lotsy was the first taxonomist to propose separating them, and in his system he describes Agapanthaceae, Alliaceae, and Gilliesiaceae as new and separate families from Liliaceae. This approach was adopted by a number of other authorities, such as Dahlgren (1985) and Rahn (1998). Another approach was that of John Hutchinson (1926), who performed the first major recircumscription of the family in over a century. He doubted Brown's dictum that the position of the ovary was the distinguishing feature that separated Amaryllidaceae and Liliaceae. He treated Amaryllidaceae as bulbous plants with umbellate inflorescences, the latter characteristic being the defining feature: \"an umbellate inflorescence subtended by an involucre of one or more spathaceous bracts\". His work on this has been upheld by subsequent research and his definition remains valid today. Using this criterion, he removed a number of taxa (Agavaceae, Hypoxidaceae, Alstroemeriaceae) and transferred the Agapantheae, Allieae, and Gilliesieae from Liliaceae to Amaryllidaceae. Other writers proposed reuniting Amaryllidaceae with Liliaceae. Thorne (1976) and Cronquist (1988) both included Amaryllidaceae within a broad concept of Liliaceae (although Thorne later separated them again, but keep Alliaceae as a third family). Thus 'Alliaceae' were variously included in either Liliaceae, Amaryllidaceae, or as a separate entity. This uncertainty of circumscription reflected a wider problem with the petaloid monocots in general. Over the course of time, widely differing views as to the limits of the family have been expressed, so much of the literature dealing with this family requires careful inspection to determine which sense of the Amaryllidaceae the work treats.", "The current phylogenetic era of understanding the taxonomic relationships of Amaryllidaceae began with the work of Fay and Chase (1996) who used the plastid gene rubisco \"rbcL\" to identify the close relationship between \"Agapanthus\", Alliaceae, and Amaryllidaceae. \"Agapanthus\" had variously been included in Alliaceae or was placed in a separate family, Agapanthaceae. They relocated \"Agapanthus\" within Amaryllidaceae which they considered a sister group to Amaryllidaceae. Nevertheless, the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG) classification (1998) still considered these three separate families within Asparagales. The close relationship was confirmed in a more detailed study by Meerow (1999) who confirmed the monophyly of Amaryllidaceae, with Agapanthaceae as its sister family and Alliaceae in turn as sister to the Amaryllidaceae/Agapanthaceae clade. In its second iteration (2003), the APG proposed simplifying the higher (core) Asparagales by reducing them to two more broadly circumscribed families, and provisionally proposed the name Alliaceae \"sensu lato\" (\"s.l.\") to include the three sister families (Agapanthaceae, Alliaceae \"sensu stricto\", \"s.s.\", and Amaryllidaceae), since together they form a monophyletic group. In this respect, they were following Hutchinson's system (see above). Under this proposal, the three families became reduced to subfamilies (and by extension the subfamilies of Alliaceae \"s.s.\" being reduced to tribes.) At the same time, they appreciated an argument existed for making Amaryllidaceae \"s.l.\" the formal name of the new and larger family, a position subsequently strongly supported by Meerow and colleagues. The 2009 version of the APG formally adopted this broad view and the conserved name Amaryllidaceae. To distinguish this broader family from the older, narrower family, it has become customary to refer to Amaryllidaceae \"sensu\" APG, or as used by APG, Amaryllidaceae \"s.l.\". as opposed to Amaryllidaceae \"s.s.\". This phylogenetic tree (cladogram) shows the placement of Amaryllidaceae \"s.l.\" within the order Asparagales.", "As reconstituted by the APG, Amaryllidaceae \"s.l.\" consists of three subfamilies, Agapanthoideae, Allioideae, and Amaryllidoideae, corresponding to the three families that were subsumed into it: Of these, one (Agapanthoideae) is monogeneric for \"Agapanthus\" (see Cladogram I). Of the other two subfamilies, Allioideae was resolved into three subdivisions by the initial phylogenetic studies of Fay and Chase (1996). Since they treated Allioideae as family Alliaceae, these were subfamilies Allioideae, Tulbaghioideae, and Gilliesioideae. When family Alliaceae was reduced to subfamily Allioideae, they were reduced to tribes, namely Allieae, Tulbaghieae and Gilliesieae (see Cladogram II). Complete resolution of infrafamilial (suprageneric) relationships within subfamily Amaryllidoideae (Amaryllidaceae \"s.s.\") has proven more difficult. Fay and Chase's study lacked sufficient resolution for further elucidation of this group. Historically a wide variety of infrafamilial classification systems have been proposed for the Amaryllidaceae. In the latter twentieth century there were at least six schemes, including Hutchinson (1926), Traub (1963), Dahlgren (1985), Müller-Doblies and Müller-Doblies (1996), Hickey and King (1997) and Meerow and Snijman (1998). Hutchinson was an early proponent of the larger Amaryllidaceae, transferring taxa from Liliaceae and had three tribes, Agapantheae, Allieae and Gilliesieae. Traub (who provides a brief history of the family) largely followed Hutchinson, but with four subfamilies (Allioideae, Hemerocalloideae, Ixiolirioideae and Amaryllidoideae), the Amaryllidoideae he then divided further into two \"infrafamilies\", Amarylloidinae and Pancratioidinae, an arrangement with 23 tribes in total. In Dahlgren's system, a \"splitter\" who favoured larger numbers of smaller families, he adopted a narrower circumscription than Traub, using only the latter's Amaryllidoideae which he treated as eight tribes. Müller-Doblies described ten tribes (and 19 subtribes). Hickey and King described ten tribes by which the family were divided, such as the Zephyrantheae. Meerow and Snijder considered thirteen tribes, one (Amaryllideae) with two subtribes (For a comparison of these schemes see Meerow et al. 1999, Table I). The further application of molecular phylogenetics produced a complex picture that only partially related to the tribal structure considered up to that date, which had been based on morphology alone. RAther Amaryllidaceae resolved along biogeographical lines. A predominantly South African clade identified as Amaryllideae was a sister group to the rest of the family. The two other African tribes were Haemantheae and Cyrtantheae, and an Australasian tribe Calostemmateae was also identified, but a large clade could only be described as Eurasian and American, each of which were monophyletic sister clades to each other. The Eurasian clade was poorly resolved with the exception of Lycorideae (Central and East Asian). The American clade was better resolved identifying both Hippeastreae as a tribe (and Zephyranthinae as a subtribe within it). The American clade also included an Andean clade Further investigation of the American clade suggested the presence of two groups, the Andean clade and a further \"Hippeastroid\" clade, in which Griffineae was sister to the rest of the clade (Hippeastreae). Similarly within the Andean clade Eustephieae appeared as sister to the remaining clade, including Hymenocallideae. A new tribe, Clinantheae was also identified in this group. The Eurasian clade was also further resolved (for historical treatment, see Table I Meerow \"et al.\" 2006) into four tribes, Pancratieae, Narcisseae, Galantheae and Lycorideae. This positioned Lycorideae as sister to the remaining Mediterranean tribes. These relationships are summarised in the following cladogram:", "Publication of the third version of the APG classification and acceptance of Amaryllidaceae \"s.l.\" was accompanied by a listing of accepted subfamily and tribal names, since the change in rank from family to subfamily necessitated a revision of other lower ranks, as follows: Family: Amaryllidaceae, Expos. Fam. Nat. 1: 134. Feb–Apr 1805, \"nom. cons.\" This circumscription differs from the phylogenetic descriptions of Meerow and colleagues in several respects. Griffineae is recognised as a distinct tribe within the Hippeastroid clade, and Stenomesseae is recognised as polyphyletic with two distinct types based on leaf shape (lorate-leafed and petiolate-leafed). The lorate-leafed species of the type genus of Stenomesseae, \"Stemomesson\", were transferred to a new tribe, Clinantheae as sister to Hymenocallideae in the Andean clade. The remnants of \"Stemomesson\" then formed a distinct clade with \"Eucharis\" (Eucharidae) and Eucharidae renamed as Stenomesseae (see Cladogram III).", "The Angiosperm Phylogeny Website lists 73 genera and 1,605 species within Amaryllidaceae \"s.l.\", while The Plant List (2013) gives 80 genera and 2,258 species.", "Amaryllidaceae are a cosmopolitan family, whose distribution is pantropical to subtropical, but infrafamilial relationships are related to geographical considerations. The tribe Amaryllideae is primarily South African, and Haemantheae and Cyrtantheae are also African, while the Calostemmateae are Australasian. Other elements are Eurasian and American, including an Andean subclade without necessarily following strictly tribal delimitations. This leads to discussions of, for instance American Amaryllidaceae. The Eurasian clade includes Lycorideae. The American clade includes the Hippeastreae, Eustephieae and Zephyranthinae.", "The Amaryllidaceae include many ornamental garden plants such as daffodils, snowdrops and snowflake, pot plants such as amaryllis and \"Clivia\", and vegetables, such as onions, chives, leeks and garlic. A number of tropical lily-like plants are also sold, such as the belladonna lily, Amazon lily, blood lily (Cape tulip), Cornish lily (Nerine), and the Eurasian winter daffodil, \"Sternbergia\". Their economic importance lies in floriculture for cut flowers and bulbs, and commercial vegetable production." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Performance history.", "Revisions.", "Recent critical editions.", "Instrumentation.", "Synopsis.", "Overture.", "Act 1.", "Act 2.", "Act 3.", "Act 4.", "Superstition.", "Other media.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "After its premiere in Russia, \"La Forza\" underwent some revisions and made its debut in Europe with performances in Rome in 1863 under the title \"Don Alvaro\". Performances followed in Madrid (with the Duke of Rivas, the play's author, in attendance) and the opera subsequently travelled to New York, Vienna (1865), Buenos Aires (1866), and London (1867). Following these productions, Verdi made further, more extensive revisions to the opera with additions to the libretto by Antonio Ghislanzoni. This version, which premiered at La Scala, Milan, on 27 February 1869, has become the standard performance version. The most important changes were a new overture (replacing a brief prelude); the addition of a final scene to act 3, following the duel between Carlo and Alvaro; and a new ending, in which Alvaro remains alive, instead of throwing himself off a cliff to his death. The opera in this version is frequently performed in the world's opera houses today.", "Critical editions of all versions of the opera (including material from the original 1861 score) have been prepared by musicologist Philip Gossett of the University of Chicago. In November 2005, the critical edition of the 1869 version was first performed by the San Francisco Opera whose program book included an essay by Gossett on the evolution of the various versions: \"\"La forza del destino\": Three States of One Opera\". The Caramoor International Music Festival gave a concert performance of the critical edition of the 1862 version, plus never-performed vocal pieces from the 1861 version, in July 2008.", "2 flutes (2nd doubling piccolo), 2 oboes, 2 clarinets (2nd doubling bass clarinet), 2 bassoons; 4 horns, 2 trumpets, 3 trombones, cimbasso; timpani, percussion (side drum, bass drum); 2 harps; strings. Onstage: organ, 6 trumpets, 4 side drums.", "", "The music begins with the opera's \"Fate\" motif, an ominous three Es unison in the brass.", "\"The mansion of Leonora's family, in Seville\" Don Alvaro, a young nobleman from South America (presumably Peru), has settled in Seville, Spain, where he is looked down on by many because of his Inca background. There, he and Donna Leonora, the daughter of the haughty Marquis of Calatrava, have fallen in love. But her father the Marquis violently opposes a match he feels is dishonorable and beneath her, believing her to have been seduced. Notwithstanding her tender regard for her father, who until now has always been kind to her, Leonora is ready to give up family and country in order to elope with Alvaro. Aided by her confidante, Curra. (\"Me pellegrina ed orfana\" – \"Exiled and orphaned far from my childhood home\"), she prepares to leave. When Alvaro at her arrives to fetch, her, however, Leonora, hesitates, begging for one last day with her father. Alvarro, stunned, releases her from their engagement, saying that she must not love him as much as he loves her. Leonora then relents and they agree to escape as planned. At that moment the Marquis suddenly enters and discovers the couple together. Assuming the worst,he draws his weapons and threatens the young man with death. To remove any suspicion as to Leonora's purity, Alvaro surrenders himself. As he flings down his pistol, it goes off, mortally wounding the Marquis, who dies, uttering a curse on his daughter. The horrified lovers rush out of the room.", "\"Scene 1: An inn in the village of Hornachuelos\" About a year has passed since the death of the Marquis of Calatrava. In their flight, Leonora and Alvaro were separated and have lost track of each other, unable to reunite or learn of each other's whereabouts. The act opens in the crowded dining room an inn, where the guests include the \"alcalde\" (town Mayor) and several muleteers and others gathered in the dining room as dinner is about to be served. Leonora's brother Don Carlo de Vargas then enters, bent on avenging the family honor and the death of his father. Carlo has disguised himself as a student from Salamanca by the name of Pereda. (\"Son Pereda son ricco d'onore\" – \"I am Pereda, of honorable descent\"). During the supper, Preziosilla, a pretty gypsy fortune teller joins them and sings a song urging them to enlist in the army (\"Al suon del tamburo\" – \"When side drums rattle\") for Italy's freedom. Leonora arrives in male attire accompanied by Trabuco, a muleteer, on their way to a to Franciscan monastery where Leonora plans to seek refuge. Recognizing her brother, whom she knows wants to kill her, she hides. Carlo/\"Pereda\" grills Trabuco about the identity of his traveling companion, but the company lets him know they don't like his prying questions. They turn the tables by asking Carlo who he is. He claims to be a University student helping a friend track down the friend's sister and her seducer, who, he claims has returned to his native America. The gipsy girl laughs and says she doesn't believe this story. Overhearing this, Leonora realizes that Alvaro is still alive. She concludes he has betrayed and abandoned her, and she slips away without being discovered. \"Scene 2: A monastery nearby\" Outside the monastery of the Madonna of Angels Leonora, seeking sanctuary and solitary atonement, has come to take refuge in the monastery intending to live the rest of her life as a hermit \"(Son giunta! Grazie, o Dio!\" \"Estremo asil quest'è per me!... Madre, pietosa Vergine\", – \"I've arrived! Thank heaven! My last resort and hope\"... \"Mother, merciful Virgin\".) After a somewhat surly reception by Fra Melitone, she tells the abbot, Padre Guardiano, her true name and her wish to spend the remainder of her life in the monastery's hermitage. The abbot recounts the trials she will have to undergo. Padre Guardiano agrees to direct her to a secret cave in the mountains, where he alone will bring her food and where she will find a bell which she is to ring only in times of great danger of if she is on the point of death. Leonora, Padre Guardiano, Fra Melitone, and the other monks join in prayer as she is formally accepted as tenant of the hermitage.", "\"Scene 1: A forest near Velletri, in Italy\" Meanwhile Alvaro, believing Leonora to be dead, has joined the Spanish army under the name of Don Federico Herreros and has distinguished himself for bravery (\"La vita è inferno all'infelice... O tu che in seno agli angeli\" – \"Life is a hell to an unhappy man.\"... \"Oh, you who dwell with the angels\"), he is interrupted by cries for help and rescues a man from two assassins. It is Don Carlo, who has newly joined the same regiment, also under an assumed name: Don Felix Bornos. The two become friends and march off side by side to fight in the Battle of Velletri, a historical event which occurred in 1744. \"Scene 2: The officers' quarters\" Alvaro is brought into the officers' quarters, gravely wounded in the chest. Thinking he is about to die, he entrusts the key to a casket to his friend \"Don Felix\" (Carlo). The box contains packet of letters, which Alvaro says contain a secret. He makes his friend swear to burn them without reading them: (\"Solenne in quest'ora, giurarmi dovete far pago un mio voto\" – \"You must swear to me in this solemn hour, to carry out my wish.\"). Felix/Carlo assures Alvaro that he won't die and that he will be decorated with the Order of Calatrava for his bravery. At the name Calatrava Alvaro shudders and exclaims, \"No!\". Carlo is taken aback. He is afraid that \"Don Federico\" (Alvaro) may in truth be the mysterious seducer who killed his father. He resolves to look at the letters to settle his doubts. (\"Morir! Tremenda cosa!... Urna fatale del mio destino\" – \"To die! An immense thing... Begone, fatal vessel of my destiny!\"). As his wounded friend is taken away on the surgeon's stretcher, he opens the casket, finds his sister's portrait, and realizes Alvaro's true identity. At that moment a surgeon brings word that Don Alvaro may recover. Don Carlo exults at the prospect of avenging his father's death. \"Scene 3: A camp near the battleground\" Having recovered, Alvaro is confronted by Carlo. They begin to duel, but are pulled away from each other by the soldiers. As they restrain Carlo, the anguished Don Alvaro vows to enter a monastery. The soldiers gather. Trabucco, the peddler, tries to sell them his wares; Fra Melitone chastises them for their godless ways; and Preziosilla leads them in a chorus in praise of the military life (\"Rataplan, rataplan, della gloria\" – \"Rum-tum-tum on the drum is the music that makes a soldier's martial spirit rise\").", "\"Scene 1: The monastery\" Impoverished peasants from the region approach Fra Melitone at the monastery at Hornachuelos for food and Padre Guardiano gently scolds Melitone for his less than charitable behavior towards them. Don Carlo then approaches, having learned of the presence of Don Alvaro there. Under the name of Father Raphael, Alvaro has indeed entered the monastery, near which is Leonora's cave. Alvaro offers peace, but when Carlo taunts him as a half-breed Alvaro takes up the challenge and the two rush from the monastery. (\"Le minacce, i fieri accenti\" – \"May the winds carry off with them\"). \"Scene 2: A desolate spot near Leonora's hermitage\" Leonora, longing for the peaceful release of death, restates her love for Alvaro and begs God for peace. (\"Pace, pace mio Dio!\" – \"Peace, O mighty Father, give me peace!\"). The duel between the two men spills over onto the neighboring crags in the vicinity of Leonora's isolation. Upon hearing the clashing of swords she takes refuge in her cave. Carlos is mortally wounded by Alvaro, who invades the hermit's sanctuary to request the last offices for the dying man. Leonora and Alvaro recognize each other. Alvaro tells her of what has happened, and she rushes to embrace her dying brother, as she bends over him, he stabs her in the heart. The Father Superior, who has come in answer to Leonora's alarm bell, orders Alvaro to stop cursing fate and to humble himself before God. The dying Leonora joins him in this plea, and Alvaro declaims that he is now redeemed.", "Over the years \"La forza\" has acquired a reputation for being cursed, following some unfortunate incidents. In 1960 at the Metropolitan Opera, the noted baritone Leonard Warren collapsed and died during a performance of the opera. The supposed curse reportedly kept Luciano Pavarotti from ever performing the opera, and the tenor Franco Corelli to follow small rituals during performances to avoid bad luck.", "The main theme in the musical scores for the films \"Jean de Florette\" and \"Manon des Sources\" was adapted by Jean-Claude Petit from the aria \"Invano, Alvaro\" in \"La forza del destino\". The Korean film \"The Scarlet Letter\" opens with \"Pace, pace mio Dio\", introducing a film about intensely powerful obsession which brings its lovers to the brink of madness. \"La forza del destino\" also plays a thematic role in the novel series \"A Series of Unfortunate Events\" (1999–2006).", "Notes Cited sources Other sources" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Composition history.", "Performance history.", "19th-century productions.", "20th century and beyond.", "Synopsis.", "Act 1.", "Act 2.", "Act 3.", "Instrumentation.", "Music.", "Critical reception.", "Recordings and adaptations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "La Fenice of Venice commissioned Verdi in 1850 to compose a new opera. He was prominent enough by this time to enjoy some freedom in choosing texts to set to music. He initially asked Francesco Maria Piave (with whom he had already created \"Ernani\", \"I due Foscari\", \"Macbeth\", \"Il Corsaro\" and \"Stiffelio\") to examine the play \"Kean\" by Alexandre Dumas, père, but soon came to believe that they needed to find a more energetic subject. That came in the form of Victor Hugo's controversial five-act play \"Le roi s'amuse\" (\"The king amuses himself\"). Verdi later explained that \"The subject is grand, immense, and there is a character that is one of the greatest creations that the theatre can boast of, in any country and in all history.\" However, Hugo's depiction of a venal, cynical, womanizing king (Francis I of France) was considered unacceptably scandalous. The play had been banned in France following its premiere nearly twenty years earlier (not to be staged again until 1882); now it was to come before the Austrian Board of Censors (as Austria at that time directly controlled much of Northern Italy.) From the beginning, both composer and librettist knew this step would not be easy. As Verdi wrote in a letter to Piave: \"Use four legs, run through the town and find me an influential person who can obtain the permission for making \"Le Roi s'amuse\".\" Guglielmo Brenna, secretary of La Fenice, promised the duo that they would not have problems with the censors. He was wrong, and rumours began to spread in early summer that the production would be forbidden. In August, Verdi and Piave retired to Busseto, Verdi's hometown, to prepare a defensive scheme as they continued work on the opera. Despite their best efforts, including frantic correspondence with La Fenice, the Austrian censor De Gorzkowski emphatically denied consent to the production of \"La Maledizione\" (its working title) in a December 1850 letter, calling the opera \"a repugnant [example of] immorality and obscene triviality.\" Piave set to work revising the libretto, eventually pulling from it another opera, \"Il Duca di Vendome\", in which the sovereign was a duke and both the hunchback and the curse disappeared. Verdi was completely against this proposed solution, preferring to negotiate directly with the censors over each and every point of the work. Brenna, La Fenice's sympathetic secretary, mediated the dispute by showing the Austrians some letters and articles depicting the bad character, but great value, of the artist. By January 1851 the parties had settled on a compromise: the action of the opera would be moved, and some of the characters would be renamed. In the new version, the Duke would preside over Mantua and belong to the Gonzaga family. (The House of Gonzaga had long been extinct by the mid-19th century, and the Dukedom of Mantua no longer existed.) The scene in which he retired to Gilda's bedroom would be deleted, and his visit to the \"Taverna\" (inn) would no longer be intentional, but the result of a trick. The hunchbacked jester (originally called Triboulet) was renamed Rigoletto (from the French word \"rigoler\") from a parody of a comedy by Jules-Édouard Alboize de Pujol: \"Rigoletti, ou Le dernier des fous\" (Rigoletti, or The last of the fools) of 1835. By 14 January, the opera's definitive title had become \"Rigoletto\". Verdi finally completed the composition on 5 February 1851, a little more than a month before the premiere. Piave had already arranged for the sets to be designed while Verdi was still working on the final stages of Act 3. The singers were given some of their music to learn on 7 February. However, Verdi kept at least a third of the score at Busseto. He brought it with him when he arrived in Venice for the rehearsals on 19 February, and would continue refining the orchestration throughout the rehearsal period. For the première, La Fenice had cast Felice Varesi as Rigoletto, the young tenor Raffaele Mirate as the Duke, and Teresa Brambilla as Gilda (although Verdi would have preferred Teresa De Giuli Borsi). Due to a high risk of unauthorised copying, Verdi demanded extreme secrecy from all his singers and musicians, particularly Mirate: the \"Duke\" had the use of his score for only a few evenings before the première, and was made to swear that he would not sing or even whistle the tune of \"La donna è mobile\" except during rehearsal.", "", "\"Rigoletto\" premiered on 11 March 1851 in a sold-out La Fenice as the first part of a double bill with Giacomo Panizza's ballet \"Faust\". Gaetano Mares conducted, and the sets were designed and executed by Giuseppe Bertoja and Francesco Bagnara. The opening night was a complete triumph, especially the \"scena drammatica\" and the Duke's cynical aria, \"La donna è mobile\", which was sung in the streets the next morning (Verdi had maximised the aria's impact by only revealing it to the cast and orchestra a few hours before the premiere, and forbidding them to sing, whistle or even think of the melody outside of the theatre). Many years later, Giulia Cora Varesi, the daughter of Felice Varesi (the original Rigoletto), described her father's performance at the premiere. Varesi was very uncomfortable with the false hump he had to wear; he was so uncertain that, even though he was quite an experienced singer, he had a panic attack when it was his turn to enter the stage. Verdi immediately realised he was paralysed and roughly pushed him on the stage, so he appeared with a clumsy tumble. The audience, thinking it was an intentional gag, was very amused. \"Rigoletto\" was a great box-office success for La Fenice and Verdi's first major Italian triumph since the 1847 premiere of \"Macbeth\" in Florence. It initially had a run of 13 performances and was revived in Venice the following year, and again in 1854. Despite a rather disastrous production in Bergamo shortly after its initial run at La Fenice, the opera soon entered the repertory of Italian theatres. By 1852, it had premiered in all the major cities of Italy, although sometimes under different titles due to the vagaries of censorship (e.g. as \"Viscardello\", \"Lionello\", and \"Clara de Perth\"). From 1852, it also began to be performed in major cities worldwide, reaching as far afield as Alexandria and Constantinople in 1854 and both Montevideo and Havana in 1855. The UK premiere took place on 14 May 1853 at what is now the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden in London with Giovanni Matteo Mario as the Duke of Mantua and Giorgio Ronconi as Rigoletto. In the US, the opera was first seen on 19 February 1855 at New York's Academy of Music in a performance by the Max Maretzek Italian Opera Company.", "Several modern productions have radically changed the original setting. These include Jonathan Miller's 1982 production for the English National Opera, which is set amongst the Mafia in New York City's Little Italy during the 1950s; Doris Dörrie's 2005 production for the Bavarian State Opera, where the Court of Mantua became The Planet of the Apes; director Linda Brovsky's production for Seattle Opera, placing the story in Mussolini's fascist Italy, in 2004 (repeated in 2014); and Michael Mayer's 2013 production for the Metropolitan Opera, which is set in a casino in 1960s Las Vegas. Different characters portray different archetypes from the Rat Pack era, with the Duke becoming a Frank Sinatra-type character and Rigoletto becoming Don Rickles. In March 2014, Lindy Hume, artistic director of Australia's Opera Queensland staged the opera set in the party-going world of disgraced former Italian prime minister Silvio Berlusconi.", "", "\"Scene 1: Mantua. A magnificent hall in the ducal palace. Doors at the back open into other rooms, splendidly lit up. A crowd of lords and ladies in grand costumes are seen walking about in the rear rooms; page boys come and go. The festivities are at their height. Music is heard from offstage. The Duke and Borsa enter from a door in the back.\" At a ball in his palace, the Duke sings of a life of pleasure with as many women as possible, and mentions that he particularly enjoys cuckolding his courtiers: \"\"Questa o quella\"\" (\"This woman or that\"). He mentions to Borsa that he has seen an unknown beauty in church and desires to possess her, but he also wishes to seduce the Countess of Ceprano. Rigoletto, the Duke's hunchbacked court jester, mocks the husbands of the ladies to whom the Duke is paying attention, including the Count Ceprano, and advises the Duke to get rid of him by prison or death. The Duke laughs indulgently, but Ceprano is not amused. Marullo, one of the guests at the ball, informs the courtiers that Rigoletto has a \"lover\", which astonishes them. (Marullo is not aware that the \"lover\" is actually Rigoletto's daughter.) The courtiers, at Ceprano's suggestion, resolve to take vengeance on Rigoletto for making fun of them. The festivities are interrupted by the arrival of the elderly Count Monterone, whose daughter the Duke had seduced. Rigoletto provokes him further by making fun of his helplessness to avenge his daughter's honor. Monterone confronts the Duke, and is immediately arrested by the Duke's guards. Before being led off to prison, Monterone curses both the Duke for the attack on his daughter and Rigoletto for having mocked his righteous anger. The curse terrifies Rigoletto, who believes the popular superstition that an old man's curse has real power. \"Scene 2: The end of a dead-end street. On the left, a house of discreet appearance with one small courtyard surrounded by walls. In the yard there is one tall tree and a marble seat; in the wall, a door that leads to the street; above the wall, a terrace supported by arches. The second floor door opens on to the said terrace, which can also be reached by a staircase in front. To the right of the street is the very high wall of the garden and a side of the Ceprano palace. It is night.\" Preoccupied with the old man's curse, Rigoletto approaches the house where he is concealing his daughter from the world and is accosted by the assassin Sparafucile, who walks up to him and offers his services. Rigoletto declines for the moment, but leaves open the possibility of hiring Sparafucile later, should the need arise. Sparafucile wanders off, after repeating his own name a few times. Rigoletto contemplates the similarities between the two of them: \"Pari siamo!\" (\"We are alike!\"); Sparafucile kills men with his sword, and Rigoletto uses \"a tongue of malice\" to stab his victims. Rigoletto opens a door in the wall and embraces his daughter Gilda. They greet each other warmly: \"Figlia!\" \"Mio padre!\" (\"Daughter!\" \"My father!\"). Rigoletto has been concealing his daughter from the Duke and the rest of the city, and she does not know her father's occupation. Since he has forbidden her to appear in public, she has been nowhere except to church and does not even know her own father's name. When Rigoletto has gone, the Duke appears and overhears Gilda confess to her nurse Giovanna that she feels guilty for not having told her father about a young man she had met at the church. She says that she fell in love with him, but that she would love him even more if he were a student and poor. As she declares her love, the Duke enters, overjoyed. Gilda, alarmed, calls for Giovanna, unaware that the Duke had given her money to go away. Pretending to be a student, the Duke convinces Gilda of his love: \"È il sol dell'anima\" (\"Love is the sunshine of the soul\"). When she asks for his name, he hesitantly calls himself Gualtier Maldè. Hearing sounds and fearing that her father has returned, Gilda sends the Duke away after they quickly trade vows of love: \"Addio, addio\" (\"Farewell, farewell\"). Alone, Gilda meditates on her love for the Duke, whom she believes is a student: \"Gualtier Maldè!... Caro nome che il mio cor\" (\"Dearest name\"). Later, Rigoletto returns: \"Riedo!... perché?\" (\"I've returned!... why?\"), while the hostile courtiers outside the walled garden (believing Gilda to be the jester's mistress, unaware she is his daughter) get ready to abduct the helpless girl. They tell Rigoletto that they are actually abducting the Countess Ceprano. He sees that they are masked and asks for a mask for himself; while they are tying the mask onto his face, they also blindfold him. Blindfolded and deceived, he holds the ladder steady while they climb up to Gilda's room: Chorus: \"Zitti, zitti\" (\"Softly, softly\"). With her father's unknowing assistance Gilda is carried away by the courtiers. Left alone, Rigoletto removes his mask and blindfold, and realizes that it was in fact Gilda who was carried away. He collapses in despair, remembering the old man's curse.", "\"A room in the ducal palace. There are doors on both sides as well as a larger one at the far end by the sides of which hang full length portraits of the Duke and his wife. There is one high-backed chair at a table covered with velvet and other furnishings.\" The Duke is concerned that Gilda has disappeared: \"Ella mi fu rapita!\" (\"She was stolen from me!\") and \"Parmi veder le lagrime\" (\"I seem to see tears\"). The courtiers then enter and inform him that they have captured Rigoletto's mistress: Chorus: \"Scorrendo uniti\" (\"We went together at nightfall\"). By their description, he recognizes it to be Gilda and rushes off to the room where she is held: \"Possente amor mi chiama\" (\"Mighty love beckons me\"). Rigoletto enters singing and feigning nonchalance, but also looking anxiously for any trace of Gilda, whom he fears may have fallen into the hands of the Duke. The courtiers pretend not to notice his anxiety, but quietly laugh at him with each other. A page boy arrives with a message from the Duke's wife - the Duchess wishes to speak to her husband - but the courtiers reply suggestively that the Duke cannot be disturbed at the moment. Rigoletto realizes this must mean that Gilda is with the Duke. To the courtiers' surprise, he reveals that Gilda is his daughter. He first demands, then tearfully pleads with the courtiers to return her to him: \"Cortigiani, vil razza dannata\" (\"Accursed race of courtiers\"). Rigoletto attempts to run into the room in which Gilda is being held, but the courtiers block his way. After a time, Gilda enters, and Rigoletto orders the courtiers to leave him alone with her. The courtiers leave the room, believing Rigoletto has gone mad. Gilda describes to her father what has happened to her in the palace: \"Tutte le feste al tempio\" (\"On all the holy days\") and he attempts to console her. Monterone is led across the room on the way to prison and pauses in front of the portrait of the Duke to regret that his curse on the libertine has had no effect. As the guards lead Monterone away, Rigoletto mutters that the old man is mistaken; he, Rigoletto, the dishonored buffoon, shall make thunder and lightning rain from heaven onto the offender's head. He repeats this vow as Gilda pleads for mercy for her lover the Duke: Duet:\"Sì! Vendetta, tremenda vendetta!\" (\"Yes! Revenge, terrible revenge!\").", "\"The right bank of the river Mincio. On the left is a two-story house, half ruined. Through a large arch on the ground floor a rustic tavern can be seen as well as a rough stone staircase that leads to an attic room with a small bed which is in full view as there are no shutters. In the wall downstairs that faces the street is a door that opens to the inside. The wall is so full of holes and cracks that everything that happens inside is easily seen from the exterior. At the back of the stage are deserted areas by the river which flows behind a parapet that has half collapsed into ruins. Beyond the river is Mantua. It is night. Gilda and Rigoletto, both uneasy, are standing in the road; Sparafucile is seated at a table in the tavern.\" A portion of Sparafucile's house is seen, with two rooms open to the view of the audience. Rigoletto and Gilda arrive outside. The Duke's voice can be heard from inside, singing \"La donna è mobile\" (\"Woman is fickle\"). Sparafucile's sister, Maddalena, has lured him to the house. Rigoletto and Gilda listen from outside as the Duke flirts with Maddalena. Gilda laments that the Duke is unfaithful; Rigoletto assures her that he is arranging revenge: \"Bella figlia dell’amore\" (\"Beautiful daughter of love\"). Rigoletto orders Gilda to put on a man's clothes to prepare to leave for Verona and tells her that he plans to follow later. After she leaves, he completes his bargain with the assassin, who is ready to murder his guest for 20 scudi. Rigoletto then withdraws. With falling darkness, a thunderstorm approaches and the Duke decides to spend the rest of the night in the house. Sparafucile directs him to the upstairs sleeping quarters, resolving to kill him in his sleep. Gilda, who still loves the Duke despite knowing him to be unfaithful, returns dressed as a man and stands outside the house. Maddalena, who is smitten with the Duke, begs Sparafucile to spare his life: \"È amabile invero cotal giovinotto/ Ah, più non ragiono!...\". Sparafucile reluctantly promises her that if by midnight another victim can be found, he will kill the other instead of the Duke. Gilda, overhearing this exchange, resolves to sacrifice herself for the Duke, and enters the house: \"Trio: Se pria ch’abbia il mezzo la notte toccato\". Sparafucile stabs her and she collapses, mortally wounded. At midnight, when Rigoletto arrives with money, he receives a corpse wrapped in a sack, and rejoices in his triumph. Weighting it with stones, he is about to cast the sack into the river when he hears the voice of the Duke, sleepily singing a reprise of his \"La donna è mobile\" aria. Bewildered, Rigoletto opens the sack and, to his despair, discovers his dying daughter. For a moment, she revives and declares she is glad to die for her beloved: \"V'ho ingannato\" (\"Father, I deceived you\"). She dies in his arms. Rigoletto cries out in horror: \"La maledizione!\" (\"The curse!\")", "The orchestra calls for 2 flutes (Flute 2 doubles piccolo), 2 oboes (Oboe 2 doubles English horn), 2 clarinets, 2 bassoons, 4 horns in Eb, D, C, Ab, G, and F, 2 trumpets in C, D, and Eb, 3 trombones, cimbasso, timpani, bass drum and cymbals, strings.", "The short orchestral preludio is based on the theme of the curse, intoned quietly on brass at first and building in intensity until it bursts into a passionate outcry by the full orchestra, subsiding once more and ending with repeated drum rolls alternating with brass, cumulatively increasing in volume to come to a somber conclusion. At curtain rise, great contrast is immediately felt as jolly dance music is played by an offstage band while the Duke and his courtiers have a lighthearted conversation. The Duke sings the cynical \"Questa o quella\" to a flippant tune and then further contrast is again achieved as he attempts to seduce the Countess Ceprano while the strings of a chamber orchestra onstage play an elegant minuet. The off stage dance music resumes as an ensemble builds between Rigoletto, the angry courtiers and the Duke, interrupted by the furious entry of Monterone. Slithery effects in the strings accompany Rigoletto as he brutally mocks the old man, who responds with his curse, leading to a final dramatic ensemble. In its great variety of tone and texture, its use of instrumental resources (the orchestra in the pit, an offstage band, and a chamber ensemble of strings on the stage), its dramatic pacing and the way the music is continuous rather than consisting of one \"number\" after another, this concise opening scene is unprecedented in Italian opera. The duet between Rigoletto and Sparafucile that opens the second scene of the first act is also unprecedented in its structure, being a free-ranging dialogue with melodies not in the voices but in the orchestra, on a solo cello, solo bass, and low woodwinds to create a distinctive sinister atmosphere. The famous quartet in act three is actually a double duet with each of the characters given a musical identity—the ardent wooing of the Duke, with the main melody, as Maddalena laughingly puts him off, while outside Gilda has a sobbing figure in her vocal line and her father implacably urges revenge. Victor Hugo resented his play, which had been banned in France, being transformed into an Italian opera and considered it plagiarism (there were no copyright restrictions against this at the time). When Hugo attended a performance of the opera in Paris, however, he marveled at the way Verdi's music in the quartet allowed the emotions of the four different characters to be heard together and yet distinguished clearly from each other at the same time and wished that he could achieve such an effect in a spoken drama. The section following the quartet, marked \"Scena e Terzetto Tempesta\" (scene and storm trio) is also, as Julian Budden has written,\"without any antecedent\". Very different from the storm music that can be heard in Rossini's \"Il barbiere di Siviglia\" or \"La Cenerentola\", that of the storm in \"Rigoletto\" is not an interlude between acts or scenes, but is totally integrated into the unfolding of the plot, with its strings in the bass register, its interventions of oboe and piccolo,and especially the male chorus behind the scenes humming through closed mouths to create the sound of the wind, a completely original effect. Composer and professor of experimental music Dieter Schnebel (1930–2018) wrote of this scene The central storm scene is, so to speak, a film with sound, whose moving images show an exterior and interior drama. The furtive encounters between people in the darkness, irregularly broken by lightning, are exposed by the empty fifths, the tremolos of strings, the brief breakthroughs of the wind instruments, the thunderclaps and the sinister sighs of the chorus, which express as well an external process that is internal: death arrives with thunderclaps. The music always passes in this scene from jerky recitatives to fluid arias... Musicologist Julian Budden regards the opera as \"revolutionary\", just as Beethoven' \"Eroica\" Symphony was: \"the barriers between formal melody and recitative are down as never before. In the whole opera, there is only one conventional double aria [...and there are...] no concerted act finales.\" Verdi used that same word—\"revolutionary\"—in a letter to Piave, and Budden also refers to a letter which Verdi wrote in 1852 in which the composer states that \"I conceived \"Rigoletto\" almost without arias, without finales but only an unending string of duets.\" Budden's conclusions about this opera and its place in Verdi's output are summed up by noting that: Just after 1850 at the age of 38 Verdi closed the door on a period of Italian opera with \"Rigoletto\". The so-called \"ottocento\" in music is finished. Verdi will continue to draw on certain of its forms for the next few operas, but in a totally new spirit.", "Although immensely successful with audiences from the beginning, many critics in various countries condemned the work for its dark and bitterly tragic plot combined with a succession of mere popular tunes, as they thought of the music. After the first performance in Venice in 1851 the \"Gazzetta ufficiale di Venezia\" deplored the fact that in his opinion the libretto was inspired by \"the Satanic school\" and Verdi and Piave had sought beauty from the \"deformed and repulsive\". Typical of critical reaction in Britain, Austria and Germany was the review in the \"Frankfurter Nachrichten\" of July 24, 1859 - \"It is well known that this shoddy work presents all the vices and virtues of Verdi's music: light music, pleasant dance rhythms for frightful scenes; that death and corruption are represented as in all the works of this composer by galops and party favors.\" In the second half of the twentieth century and into the twenty-first, \"Rigoletto\" has received high praise even from avant-garde and experimental composers such as Luigi Dallapiccola, Luciano Berio and Ernst Krenek. Igor Stravinsky wrote \"I say that in the aria 'La donna è mobile', for example, which the elite thinks only brilliant and superficial, there is more substance and feeling than in the whole of Wagner's Ring cycle.\"", "There have been dozens of commercial recordings of \"Rigoletto\". The earliest ones include the 1912 performance in French with François Ruhlmann conducting the orchestra and chorus of the Opéra Comique (Pathé) and the 1916 performance in Italian with Lorenzo Molajoli conducting the orchestra and chorus of La Scala (Columbia Records). The first LP edition of \"Rigoletto\" (also the very first opera recording on LP) was released by RCA Victor in 1950 conducted by Renato Cellini and featured Leonard Warren in the title role. The opera has also been recorded in German with Wilhelm Schüchter conducting the orchestra and chorus of the Berlin State Opera in a 1953 recording for EMI Records and in English with Mark Elder conducting the orchestra and chorus of the English National Opera in a 1983 recording for EMI. In the 21st century there have been several live performances released on DVD including a 2001 performance from London's Royal Opera House with Paolo Gavanelli as Rigoletto and Marcelo Álvarez as the Duke (BBC/Opus Arte) and a 2006 performance at the Opernhaus Zürich with Leo Nucci as Rigoletto and Piotr Beczala as The Duke (ArtHaus Musik). The Duke of Mantua's arias, particularly \"La donna è mobile\" and \"Questa o quella\", have long been showcases for the tenor voice and appear on numerous recital discs. Amongst Enrico Caruso's earliest recordings are both these arias, recorded with piano accompaniment in 1902 and again in 1908 with orchestra. Luciano Pavarotti, who has recorded the arias for several recital discs, also sings the role of the Duke on three complete studio recordings of the opera: Decca (1972) conducted by Richard Bonynge; Decca (1989) conducted by Riccardo Chailly and Deutsche Grammophon (1993) conducted by James Levine. \"Rigoletto\" has been a popular subject for movies since the silent film era. On 15 April 1923, Lee DeForest presented 18 short films in his sound-on-film process Phonofilm, including an excerpt of Act Two of \"Rigoletto\" with Eva Leoni and Company. One of the most famous films based on the opera is the 1982 film by Jean-Pierre Ponnelle starring Luciano Pavarotti as The Duke and Ingvar Wixell as Rigoletto. Some film versions, such as the 1993 children's film \"Rigoletto\", are based on the opera's plot, but do not use Verdi's music. Curtiss Clayton's 2003 film \"Rick\", set in modern-day New York, has a plot based on \"Rigoletto\", but apart from \"La donna è mobile\" heard in the background during a restaurant scene, does not include any other music from the opera. In the 21st century, the opera was filmed as \"Rigoletto Story\" directed by Vittorio Sgarbi with costumes by Vivienne Westwood. First screened at the Venice Biennale in 2004, it subsequently received two Grammy nominations. In September 2010, RAI Television filmed the opera on location in Mantua with the court scenes taking place in the Palazzo Te. The film faithfully followed Verdi's original specification for the action to take place over two days, and each act was performed at the time of day indicated in the libretto. Broadcast live to 148 countries, the film starred Plácido Domingo in the title role, and Vittorio Grigolo as The Duke. The plot of the film \"Quartet\" revolves around the quartet \"Bella figlia dell’amore\", with which the film concludes. Adaptations of the opera's music include Franz Liszt's \"Rigoletto Paraphrase\", a piano transcription of \"Bella figlia dell’amore\" (the famous quartet from Act 3) and a Fantasia on \"Rigoletto\" (Op.82) by Sigismond Thalberg which was published in Paris in the 1860s." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Culture.", "Twin towns — sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Železný Brod is an old glass-producing town founded in the eleventh century. It was originally known as \"Brod\" (\"ford\") or \"Brodek\" (\"little ford\"). In 1501, the town received its coat of arms, representing the law restoration in the town that was carried out by the King Vladislaus II of Bohemia. Probably at the same time \"Železný\" (\"iron\") was added to its name, alluding to the town's steelworks. In 1880, the town had 2,698 inhabitants and was the seat of the district court. Its cotton spinning mill was using 50,000 spindles. The town's main industry is represented by jewellers, as well as producers of blow-moulded glass, thermometers, and small glass commodities.", "Town Hall The Town Hall of Železný Brod was built in 1890 replacing the earlier wooden hall. The Town Theatre (located in the first floor) and the Town Gallery of Vlastimil Rada (located on the ground floor) are both located within the town hall building. The town’s coat-of-arms is displayed on the ground floor. Běliště Běliště is the location of the ethnographic exposition of the Town Museum, focusing on the history of Železný Brod and its close surroundings. The building is a one-storey partly timbered house that served as a tannery and a dye-house since 1807. The exposition presents archaeological discoveries, photocopy of records, half-precious stones from Kozákov, iron, slate, limestone, fossils and residue of sea, sculpture of sandstone, artwork by Josef Scheybal, old classes and school's aids, gingerbread products and old baker's bread, flax processing tools, weaving room, textiles, printer's forms, some old clothing, wooden Bethlehems, old ski and sleds, models of citizen’s houses. Town museum The museum is located in May 3 Square in the former citizens timber house built in 1792 (since 1936, it served as a part of the savings bank building). It holds the exposition of the Železný Brod glass-making: glass-making room from the last century, personages of the local secondary glass school, businessmen and exporters of the 20th and 40th years of the 20th century, unique glass Bethlehem. Trávníky The old Trávníky district is situated behind the brooks Žernovník and is remarkable for the empire houses Grosovsko and Knopovsko, timbered houses in Zahradnická, Hluboká and Fr. Balatky lanes, and St. James Church with wooden belfry.", "Železný Brod is twinned with:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Negotiations between Darius and Alexander.", "Prelude.", "Alexander's march through Mesopotamia.", "Strategic analysis.", "Location.", "Size of Persian army.", "Modern estimates.", "Ancient sources.", "Size of Macedonian army.", "The battle.", "Initial dispositions.", "Beginning of the battle.", "The cavalry battle in the Hellenic right wing.", "Attack of the Persian scythed chariots.", "Alexander's decisive attack.", "The left flank.", "Aftermath." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "In November 333 BC Darius III had lost the Battle of Issus, resulting in the capture of his wife, his mother and his two daughters, Stateira II and Drypetis. Darius had retreated to Babylon, where he regrouped his remaining army. The victory at Issus had given Alexander control of southern Asia Minor. Following a victory at the Siege of Tyre (332 BC), which lasted from January to July, Alexander controlled the Levant. After his victory at Gaza Persian troop counts were low and the Persian satrap of Egypt, Mazaeus, peacefully surrendered to Alexander.", "Darius tried to dissuade Alexander from further attacks on his empire by diplomacy. Ancient historians provide different accounts of his negotiations with Alexander, which can be separated into three negotiation attempts. Historians Justin, Arrian and Curtius Rufus, writing in the 1st and 2nd centuries, write that Darius sent a letter to Alexander after the Battle of Issus. It demanded that he withdraw from Asia and release his prisoners. According to Curtius and Justin he offered a ransom for his prisoners, but Arrian does not mention a ransom. Curtius describes the tone of the letter as offensive. Alexander refused his demands. A second negotiation attempt took place after the capture of Tyre. Darius offered Alexander a marriage with his daughter Stateira II and all the territory west of the Halys River. Justin is less specific, not mentioning a specific daughter and speaking of a portion of Darius' kingdom. Diodorus Siculus, 1st century, likewise mentions the offer of all territory west of the Halys River, a treaty of friendship and a large ransom for the captives. Diodorus is the only ancient historian who mentions that Alexander concealed this letter and presented his friends with a forged one favorable to his own interests. Again Alexander refused. Darius started to prepare for another battle after the failure of the second negotiation attempt. Even so, he made a third and final effort to negotiate after Alexander's departure from Egypt. Darius' third offer was much more generous. He praised Alexander for the treatment of his mother Sisygambis and offered him all territory west of the Euphrates, co-rulership of the Achaemenid Empire, the hand of one of his daughters and 30,000 talents of silver. In the account of Diodorus, Alexander deliberated this offer with his friends. Parmenion was the only one who spoke up, saying, \"If I were Alexander, I should accept what was offered and make a treaty.\" Alexander reportedly replied, \"So should I, if I were Parmenion.\" Alexander again refused the offer of Darius, insisting that there could be only one king of Asia. He called on Darius to surrender to him or to meet him in battle to decide who was to be the sole king of Asia. The descriptions given by other historians of the third negotiation attempt are similar to the account of Diodorus, but differ in details. Diodorus, Curtius and Arrian write that an embassy was sent instead of a letter, which is claimed by Justin and Plutarch (1st century). Plutarch and Arrian mention the ransom offered for the prisoners was 10,000 talents, but Diodorus, Curtius and Justin give a figure of 30,000. Arrian writes that this third attempt took place during the Siege of Tyre, but the other historians place the second negotiation attempt at that time. With the failure of diplomacy, Darius decided to prepare for another battle with Alexander.", "After settling affairs in Egypt, Alexander returned to Tyre during the spring of 331 BC. He reached Thapsacus in July or August. Arrian relates that Darius had ordered Mazaeus to guard the crossing of the Euphrates near Thapsacus with a force of 3,000 cavalry. He fled when Alexander's army approached to cross the river.", "After crossing the Euphrates, Alexander followed a northern route instead of a direct southeastern route to Babylon. While doing so he had the Euphrates and the mountains of Armenia on his left. The northern route made it easier to forage for supplies and his troops would not suffer the extreme heat of the direct route. Captured Persian scouts reported to the Macedonians that Darius had encamped past the Tigris River and wanted to prevent Alexander from crossing. Alexander found the Tigris undefended and succeeded in crossing it with great difficulty. In contrast, Diodorus mentions that Mazaeus was only supposed to prevent Alexander from crossing the Tigris. He would not have bothered to defend it because he considered it impassable due to the strong current and depth of the river. Furthermore, Diodorus and Curtius Rufus mention that Mazaeus employed scorched-earth tactics in the countryside through which Alexander's army had to pass. After the Macedonian army had crossed the Tigris a lunar eclipse occurred. Following the calculations, the date must have been October 1 in 331 BC. Alexander then marched southward along the eastern bank of the Tigris. On the fourth day after the crossing of the Tigris his scouts reported that Persian cavalry had been spotted, numbering no more than 1000 men. When Alexander attacked them with his cavalry force ahead of the rest of his army, the Persian cavalry fled. Most of them escaped, but some were killed or taken prisoner. The prisoners told the Macedonians that Darius was not far away, with his encampment near Gaugamela.", "Several researchers have criticized the Persians for their failure to harass Alexander's army and disrupt its long supply lines when it advanced through Mesopotamia. Classical scholar Peter Green thinks that Alexander's choice for the northern route caught the Persians off guard. Darius would have expected him to take the faster southern route directly to Babylon, just as Cyrus the Younger had done in 401 BC before his defeat in the Battle of Cunaxa. The use of the scorched-earth tactic and scythed chariots by Darius suggests that he wanted to repeat that battle. Alexander would have been unable to adequately supply his army if he had taken the southern route, even if the scorched-earth tactic had failed. The Macedonian army, underfed and exhausted from the heat, would then be defeated at the plain of Cunaxa by Darius. When Alexander took the northern route, Mazaeus must have returned to Babylon to bring the news. Darius most likely decided to prevent Alexander from crossing the Tigris. This plan failed because Alexander probably took a river crossing that was closer to Thapsacus than Babylon. He would have improvised and chosen Gaugamela as his most favourable site for a battle. Historian Jona Lendering argues the opposite and commends Mazaeus and Darius for their strategy. Darius would have deliberately allowed Alexander to cross the rivers unopposed in order to guide him to the battlefield of his own choice.", "Darius chose a flat, open plain where he could deploy his larger forces, not wanting to be caught in a narrow battlefield as he had been at Issus two years earlier, where he could not deploy his huge army properly. Darius had his soldiers flatten the terrain before the battle, to give his 200 war chariots the best conditions. However, this did not matter. On the ground were a few hills and no bodies of water that Alexander could use for protection, and in the autumn the weather was dry and mild. The most commonly accepted opinion about the location is (), east of Mosul in modern-day northern Iraq – suggested by archeologist Sir Aurel Stein in 1938 (see his \"Limes Report\", pp. 127–1).", "", "It is possible that the Persian army could have numbered over 100,000 men. One estimate is that there were 25,000 peltasts, 10,000 Immortals, 2,000 Greek hoplites, 1,000 Bactrians, and 40,000 cavalry, 200 scythed chariots, and 15 war elephants. Hans Delbrück estimates Persian cavalry at 12,000 because of management issues, Persian infantry less than that of the Greek heavy infantry, and Greek mercenaries at 8,000. Warry estimates a total size of 91,000; Welman 90,000; Engels (1920); Green (1990) no larger than 100,000 and Thomas Harbottle 120,000.", "According to Arrian, Darius' force numbered 40,000 cavalry and 1,000,000 infantry, Diodorus Siculus put it at 200,000 cavalry and 800,000 infantry, Plutarch put it at 1,000,000 troops (without a breakdown in composition), while according to Curtius Rufus it consisted of 45,000 cavalry and 200,000 infantry. Furthermore, according to Arrian, Diodorus and Curtius, Darius had 200 chariots while Arrian mentions 15 war elephants. Included in Darius's infantry were about 2,000 Greek mercenary hoplites. According to Arrian, Indian troops were also deployed. He explains that Darius III \"obtained the help of those Indians who bordered on the Bactrians, together with the Bactrians and Sogdianians themselves, all under the command of Bessus, the Satrap of Bactria\". The Indians in question were probably from the area of Gandāra. Indian \"hill-men\" are also said by Arrian to have joined the Arachotians under Satrap Barsentes, and are thought to have been either the Sattagydians or the Hindush. While Darius had a significant advantage in numbers, most of his troops were of a lower quality than Alexander's. Alexander's pezhetairoi were armed with a six-metre pike, the sarissa. The main Persian infantry was poorly trained and equipped in comparison to Alexander's pezhetairoi and hoplites. The only respectable infantry Darius had were his 2,000 Greek hoplites and his personal bodyguard, the 10,000 Immortals. The Greek mercenaries fought in a phalanx, armed not with a heavy shield but with spears no longer than three metres, while the spears of the Immortals were two metres long. Among the other Persian troops, the most heavily armed were the Armenians, who were armed the Greek way and probably fought as a phalanx.", "Alexander commanded Greek forces from his kingdom of Macedon and the Hellenic League, along with Greek mercenaries and levies from the Paeonian and Thracian tributary peoples. According to Arrian, the most reliable historian of Alexander (who is believed to be relying on the work of the eyewitness Ptolemy), his forces numbered 7,000 cavalry and 40,000 infantry. Most historians agree that the Macedonian army consisted of 31,000 heavy infantry, including mercenaries and hoplites from other allied Greek states in reserve, with an additional 9,000 light infantry consisting mainly of peltasts with some archers. The size of the Greek mounted arm was about 7,000.", "", "The battle began with the Persians already present at the battlefield. Darius had recruited the finest cavalry from his Eastern satrapies and from allied Scythian tribes and deployed scythed chariots, for which he had ordered bushes and vegetation removed from the battlefield to maximise their effectiveness. He also had 15 Indian elephants supported by Indian chariots. However, the absence of any mention of those elephants during the battle and their posterior capture in the Persian camp indicate they were withdrawn. The reason might have been fatigue. Darius placed himself in the center with his best infantry, as was the tradition among Persian kings. He was surrounded by, on his right, the Carian cavalry, Greek mercenaries and Persian horse guards. In the right-center he placed Persian foot guards (Apple Bearers/Immortals to the Greeks), the Indian cavalry and his Mardian archers. On both flanks were the cavalry. Bessus commanded the left flank with the Bactrians, Dahae cavalry, Arachosian cavalry, Persian cavalry, Susian cavalry, Cadusian cavalry and Scythians. Chariots were placed in front with a small group of Bactrians. Mazaeus commanded the right flank with the Syrian, Median, Mesopotamian, Parthian, Sacian, Tapurian, Hyrcanian, Caucasian Albanian, Sacesinian, Cappadocian and Armenian cavalry. The Cappadocians and Armenians were stationed in front of the other cavalry units and led the attack. The Albanian and Palestinian cavalry were sent around to flank the Greek left. Quintus Curtius Rufus said, Immortals Archers they were all Amard people. The Macedonians were divided into two, with the right side under the direct command of Alexander and the left of Parmenion. Alexander fought with his Companion cavalry. With it was the Paionian and Greek light cavalry. The mercenary cavalry was divided into two groups, veterans on the flank of the right and the rest in front of the Agrians and Greek archers, who were stationed next to the phalanx. Parmenion was stationed on the left with the Thessalians, Greek mercenaries and Thracian cavalry. There they were to pull off a holding maneuver while Alexander landed the decisive blow from the right. On the right-center were Cretan mercenaries. Behind them were Thessalian cavalry under Phillip, and Achaean mercenaries. To their right was another part of the allied Greek cavalry. From there came the phalanx, in a double line. Outnumbered over 5:1 in cavalry, with their line surpassed by over a mile, it seemed inevitable that the Greeks would be flanked by the Persians. The second line was given orders to deal with any flanking units should the situation arise. This second line consisted mostly of mercenaries.", "Alexander began by ordering his infantry to march in phalanx formation towards the center of the enemy line. The Macedonians advanced with the wings echeloned back at 45 degrees to lure the Persian cavalry to attack. While the phalanxes battled the Persian infantry, Darius sent a large part of his cavalry and some of his regular infantry to attack Parmenion's forces on the left. During the battle Alexander used an unusual strategy which has been duplicated only a few times. While the infantry battled the Persian troops in the centre, Alexander began to ride all the way to the edge of the right flank, accompanied by his Companion Cavalry. His plan was to draw as much of the Persian cavalry as possible to the flanks, to create a gap within the enemy line where a decisive blow could then be struck at Darius in the centre. This required almost perfect timing and manoeuvring and Alexander himself to act first. He would force Darius to attack (as they would soon move off the prepared ground), though Darius did not want to be the first to attack after seeing what happened at Issus against a similar formation. In the end, Darius' hand was forced, and he attacked.", "The Scythian cavalry from the Persian left wing opened the battle by attempting to flank Alexander's extreme right. What followed was a long and fierce cavalry battle between the Persian left and the Macedonian right, in which the latter, being greatly outnumbered, was often hard-pressed. However, by careful use of reserves and disciplined charges, the Greek troops were able to contain their Persian counterparts, which would be vital for the success of Alexander's decisive attack. As told by Arrian: Then the Scythian cavalry rode along the line, and came into conflict with the front men of Alexander's array, but he nevertheless still continued to march towards the right, and almost entirely got beyond the ground which had been cleared and levelled by the Persians. Then Darius, fearing that his chariots would become useless, if the Macedonians advanced into the uneven ground, ordered the front ranks of his left wing to ride round the right wing of the Macedonians, where Alexander was commanding, to prevent him from marching his wing any further. This being done, Alexander ordered the cavalry of the Grecian mercenaries under the command of Menidas to attack them. But the Scythian cavalry and the Bactrians, who had been drawn up with them, sallied forth against them and being much more numerous they put the small body of Greeks to rout. Alexander then ordered Aristo at the head of the Paeonians and Grecian auxiliaries to attack the Scythians, and the barbarians gave way. But the rest of the Bactrians, drawing near to the Paeonians and Grecian auxiliaries, caused their own comrades who were already in flight to turn and renew the battle; and thus they brought about a general cavalry engagement, in which more of Alexander's men fell, not only being overwhelmed by the multitude of the barbarians, but also because the Scythians themselves and their horses were much more completely protected with armour for guarding their bodies. Notwithstanding this, the Macedonians sustained their assaults, and assailing them violently squadron by squadron, they succeeded in pushing them out of rank. The tide finally turned in the Greek favor after the attack of Aretes' Prodromoi, likely their last reserve in this sector of the battlefield. By then, however, the battle had been decided in the center by Alexander himself. The Persians also who were riding round the wing were seized with alarm when Aretes made a vigorous attack upon them. In this quarter indeed the Persians took to speedy flight; and the Macedonians followed up the fugitives and slaughtered them.", "Darius now launched his chariots at those troops under Alexander's personal command; many of the chariots were intercepted by the Agrianians and other javelin-throwers posted in front of the Companion cavalry. Those chariots who made it through the barrage of javelins charged the Macedonian lines, which responded by opening up their ranks, creating alleys through which the chariots passed harmlessly. The Hypaspists and the armed grooms of the cavalry then attacked and eliminated these survivors.", "As the Persians advanced farther and farther to the Greek flanks in their attack, Alexander slowly filtered in his rear guard. He disengaged his Companions and prepared for the decisive attack. Behind them were the guard's brigade along with any phalanx battalions he could withdraw from the battle. He formed his units into a giant wedge, with him leading the charge. The Persian infantry at the center was still fighting the phalanxes, hindering any attempts to counter Alexander's charge. This large wedge then smashed into the weakened Persian center, taking out Darius' royal guard and the Greek mercenaries. Darius was in danger of being cut off, and the widely held modern view is that he now broke and ran, with the rest of his army following him. This is based on Arrian's account: For a short time there ensued a hand-to-hand fight; but when the Macedonian cavalry, commanded by Alexander himself, pressed on vigorously, thrusting themselves against the Persians and striking their faces with their spears, and when the Macedonian phalanx in dense array and bristling with long pikes had also made an attack upon them, all things together appeared full of terror to Darius, who had already long been in a state of fear, so that he was the first to turn and flee. Jona Lendering's view is that it was Darius' army that abandoned him; this view is based on an astronomical diary from Babylon written within days of the battle: The twenty-fourth [day of the lunar month], in the morning, the king of the world [i.e., Darius] [erected his] standard [lacuna]. Opposite each other, they fought and a heavy defeat of the troops [of the king he inflicted]. The king [i.e., Darius], his troops deserted him and to their cities [they went]. They fled to the land of the Guti.", "Alexander could have pursued Darius at this point. However, he received desperate messages from Parmenion (an event that would later be used by Callisthenes and others to discredit Parmenion) on the left. Parmenion's wing was apparently encircled by the cavalry of the Persian right wing; being attacked from all sides, it was in a state of confusion. Alexander was faced with the choice of pursuing Darius and having the chance of killing him, ending the war in one stroke but at the risk of losing his army, or going back to the left flank to aid Parmenion and preserve his forces, thus letting Darius escape to the surrounding mountains. He decided to help Parmenion, and followed Darius later. While holding on the left, a gap had opened up between the left and center of the Macedonian phalanx, due to Simmias' brigade of pezhetairoi being unable to follow Alexander in his decisive attack, as they were being hard-pressed. The Persian and Indian cavalry in the center with Darius broke through. Instead of taking the phalanx or Parmenion in the rear, however, they continued towards the camp to loot. They also tried to rescue the Queen Mother, Sisygambis, but she refused to go with them. These raiders were in turn attacked and dispersed by the rear reserve phalanx as they were looting. What happened next was described by Arrian as the fiercest engagement of the battle, as Alexander and his companions encountered the cavalry of the Persian right, composed of Indians, Parthians and \"the bravest and most numerous division of the Persians\", desperately trying to get through to escape. Sixty Companions were killed in the engagement, and Hephaestion, Coenus and Menidas were all injured. Alexander prevailed, however, and Mazaeus also began to pull his forces back as Bessus had. However, unlike on the left with Bessus, the Persians soon fell into disorder as the Thessalians and other cavalry units charged forward at their fleeing enemy.", "After the battle, Parmenion rounded up the Persian baggage train while Alexander and his bodyguard pursued Darius. As at Issus, substantial loot was gained, with 4,000 talents captured, the King's personal chariot and bow and the war elephants. It was a disastrous defeat for the Persians and one of Alexander's finest victories. Darius managed to escape with a small corps of his forces remaining intact. The Bactrian cavalry and Bessus caught up with him, as did some of the survivors of the Royal Guard and 2,000 Greek mercenaries. At this point the Persian Empire was divided into two halves—East and West. On his escape, Darius gave a speech to what remained of his army. He planned to head further east and raise another army to face Alexander, assuming that the Greeks would head towards Babylon. At the same time he dispatched letters to his eastern satraps asking them to remain loyal. The satraps, however, had other intentions. Bessus murdered Darius before fleeing eastwards. When Alexander discovered Darius murdered, he was saddened to see an enemy he respected killed in such a fashion, and gave Darius a full burial ceremony at Persepolis, the former ceremonial capital of the Persian Empire, before angrily pursuing Bessus, capturing and executing him the following year. The majority of the remaining satraps gave their loyalty to Alexander and were allowed to keep their positions. The Achaemenid Persian Empire is traditionally considered to have ended with the death of Darius." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Economy.", "Education.", "Culture.", "Places of worship.", "Sports.", "Transport.", "Districts.", "Twin towns and sister cities.", "Climate." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The area that would become Victoria was originally settled in 1778 by French colonists after they claimed the island in 1756. The town was called \"L'Établissement\" until 1841 when it was renamed to Victoria by the British, after Queen Victoria.", "Tourism is an important sector of the economy. The principal exports of Victoria are vanilla, coconuts, coconut oil, fish and guano.", "The Mont Fleuri campus of the University of Seychelles is in Victoria.", "Attractions in the city include a clocktower modelled on Little Ben in London, the courthouse, the Botanical Gardens, the National Museum of History, the Natural History Museum and the Sir Selwyn Selwyn-Clarke Market. Victoria Market and the brightly coloured fish and fruit markets is the local hot spot for the Seychellois people.", "There are two cathedrals in Victoria, Immaculate Conception Cathedral (Roman Catholic) and St Paul's Cathedral (Anglican). There are also Baptist and Pentecostal churches, mosques and Hindu temples.", "Stade Linité, the national stadium, is in Victoria. It is mostly used for football matches.", "Victoria is served by Seychelles International Airport, completed in 1971. The inner harbour lies immediately east of the town, where tuna fishing and canning is a major industry. One of the largest bridges in Victoria was destroyed by tsunami waves from the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake.", "Eight of the districts of Seychelles are in Victoria.", "Victoria is twinned with:", "Victoria features a tropical rainforest climate (Köppen climate classification \"Af\") with high temperatures throughout the course of the year. The capital does have noticeably wetter and drier periods during the year, with June and July being its driest months and December through February being the city's wettest months. However, since in no month does the average monthly precipitation falls below 60 mm in Victoria, the city does not have a true dry season month. This lack of a true dry season month is a primary reason why the climate falls under the tropical rainforest climate category. The capital averages about 2,000 mm of precipitation annually. Although being very rainy, skies are usually clear to partly clear and completely cloudy days remain scarce throughout the year even during the rainiest months." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Early development.", "20th century.", "Playing.", "Grooves.", "Fills.", "Drum solos.", "Grips.", "Components.", "Terminology.", "Breakables, shells, extensions, hardware.", "Drums.", "Bass drum.", "Snare drum.", "Toms.", "Other drums.", "Cymbals.", "Ride cymbal.", "Hi-hats.", "Crashes.", "Other cymbals.", "Other acoustic instruments.", "Electronic drums.", "Hardware.", "Common configurations.", "Three-piece.", "Four-piece.", "Four piece with floor tom.", "Four piece with two hanging toms.", "Five-piece.", "Small kits.", "Extended kits.", "Accessories.", "Sticks.", "Muffles.", "Stick holder.", "Sizzlers.", "Cases.", "Microphones.", "Monitors.", "Bass drum gear.", "Gloves.", "Drum screen.", "Carpets.", "Practice equipment.", "Tuning equipment.", "Notation and improvisation.", "Recording.", "Drum manufacturers." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Before the development of the drum set, drums and cymbals used in military and orchestral music settings were played separately by different percussionists; if the score called for bass drum, triangle and cymbals, three percussionists would be hired to play these three instruments. In the 1840s, percussionists began to experiment with foot pedals as a way to enable them to play more than one instrument, but these devices would not be mass-produced for another 75 years. By the 1860s, percussionists started combining multiple drums into a set. The bass drum, snare drum, cymbals, and other percussion instruments were all struck with hand-held drum sticks. Drummers in musical theater shows and stage shows, where the budget for pit orchestras was often limited, contributed to the creation of the drum set by developing techniques and devices that would enable them to cover the roles of multiple percussionists. Double-drumming was developed to enable one person to play the bass and snare with sticks, while the cymbals could be played by tapping the foot on a \"low-boy\". With this approach, the bass", "By World War I, drum kits were often marching band-style military bass drums with many percussion items suspended on and around them. Drum kits became a central part of jazz, especially Dixieland. The modern drum kit was developed in the vaudeville era during the 1920s in New Orleans. In 1917, a New Orleans band called \"The Original Dixieland Jazz Band \" recorded jazz tunes that became hits all over the country. These were the first official jazz recordings. Drummers such as Baby Dodds, Zutty Singleton and Ray", "", "Kit drumming, whether playing accompaniment of voices and", "A \"fill\" is a departure from the repetitive rhythm pattern in a song. A drum fill is used to \"fill in\" the space between the end of one verse and the beginning of another verse or chorus. Fills vary from a simple few strokes on a tom or snare, to a distinctive", "A drum solo is an instrumental section that highlights the virtuosity, skill, and musical creativity of the drummer. While other instrument solos such as guitar solos are typically accompanied by the other rhythm section instruments (e.g., bass guitar and electric guitar), for most drum solos, all the band members stop playing so that all of the audience's focus will be on", "Most drummers hold the drumsticks in one of two types of grip: Within these two types, there is still considerable variation, and even disagreements as to exactly", "", "", "The drum kit may be loosely divided into four parts: There are several reasons for this division. When more than one band plays in a single performance, the drum kit is often considered part of the backline (the key rhythm section equipment that stays on stage all night, which often also includes bass amps and a stage piano), and is shared between/among the drummers. Oftentimes, the main \"headlining\" act will provide the drums, as they are being paid more, possibly have the better gear, and in any case have the prerogative of using their own. Sticks, snare drum and cymbals, and sometimes other", "", "The bass drum (also known as the \"kick drum\") provides a regular but often-varied foundation to the rhythm. The bass drum is the lowest pitched drum and usually provides the basic beat or timing element with basic pulse patterns. Some drummers may use two", "The snare drum is the heart of the drum kit, particularly in rock, due its utility of providing the backbeat. When applied in this fashion, it supplies strong regular accents, played by the left hand (if right handed), and the backbone", "Tom-tom drums, or \"toms\" for short, are drums without snares and played with sticks (or whatever tools the music style requires), and are the most numerous drums in most kits. They provide the bulk of most drum fills and solos. They include: The", "Octobans are smaller toms designed for use in a drum kit, extending the tom range upwards in pitch, primarily by their depth; as well as diameter (typically 6\"). Pearl brand octobans are called \"rocket toms\"; the instruments are also called tube toms. Timbales are tuned much higher than a tom of the same diameter, and normally played with very light, thin, non-tapered sticks. They have relatively thin heads and a very different tone than a tom, but are used by some drummers/percussionists to extend the tom range upwards. Alternatively, they can be fitted with tom heads and tuned as shallow concert toms. Attack timbales", "In most drum kits and drum/percussion kits cymbals are as important as the drums themselves. The oldest idiophones in music are cymbals, and were used throughout the ancient Near East, very early in the Bronze Age period. Cymbals are most associated with Turkey and Turkish craftsmanship, where Zildjian (the name means cymbal smith) has predominantly made them since 1623. Beginners cymbal packs normally contain four cymbals: one ride, one crash, and a pair of hi-hats. A few contain only three cymbals, using a crash/ride instead of the separate ride and crash. The sizes closely follow those given in Common configurations below. Most drummers extend this by adding another crash, a splash, a china/effects cymbal; or even all of those last mentioned.", "The ride cymbal is most often used for keeping a constant-rhythm pattern, every beat or more often, as the music requires. Development of this ride technique is generally credited to Baby Dodds. Most drummers have a single main ride, located near their right hand—within easy playing reach, as it is", "The hi-hat cymbals (nicknamed \"hats\") consist of two cymbals mounted facing each other on a metal pole with folding support legs that keep a hollow support cylinder standing up. Like the bass drum, the hi-hat has a foot pedal. The bottom cymbal is fixed in place. The top cymbal is mounted on a thin pole, by means of a clutch, which is inserted into the hollow cymbal stand cylinder. The thin pole is connected to a foot pedal. When the foot pedal is pressed down, a mechanism causes the thin pole to move down, causing the upper cymbal to move. When the foot is lifted off the pedal, the upper cymbal rises, due to the pedal's spring-loaded mechanism. The hi-hats can be sounded by striking the cymbals with one or two sticks or just by opening and closing", "The crash cymbals are usually the strongest accent markers within the kit, marking crescendos and climaxes, vocal entries, and major changes of mood/swells and effects. A crash cymbal is often accompanied by a strong kick on the bass drum pedal, both for musical effect and to support the stroke. It provides a fuller sound and is", "", "Other instruments that have regularly been incorporated", "Electronic drums are used for many reasons. Some drummers use electronic drums for playing in small venues such as coffeehouses or church services, where a very low volume for the band is desired. Since fully electronic drums do not create any acoustic sound (apart from the quiet sound of the stick hitting the sensor pads), all of the drum sounds come from a keyboard amplifier or PA system; as such, the volume of electronic drums can be much lower than an acoustic kit. Some drummers use electronic drums as practice instruments, because they can be listened to with headphones, enabling a drummer to practice in an apartment or in the middle of the night without disturbing others. Some drummers use electronic drums to take advantage of the huge range of sounds that modern drum modules can produce, which range from sampled sounds of real drums, cymbals and percussion instruments (including instruments that would be impractical to take to a small gig, such as gongs or tubular bells), to electronic and synthesized sounds, including non-instrument sounds such as ocean waves. A fully electronic kit is also easier to soundcheck than acoustic drums, assuming that the electronic drum module has levels that the drummer has pre-set in her/his practice room; in contrast, when an acoustic kit is sound checked, most drums and cymbals need to be miked and each mic needs to be tested by the drummer so its level and tone equalization can be adjusted by the sound engineer. As well, even after all the individual drum and cymbal mics are soundchecked, the engineer needs to listen to the drummer play a standard groove, to check that the balance between the kit instruments is right. Finally, the engineer needs to set up the monitor mix for the drummer, which the drummer uses to hear her/his instruments and the instruments and vocals of the rest of the band. With a fully electronic kit, many of these steps could be eliminated. Drummers' usage of electronic drum equipment can range from adding a single electronic pad to an acoustic kit (e.g., to have access to an instrument that might otherwise be impractical, such as a large gong), to using a mix of acoustic drums/cymbals and electronic pads, to using an acoustic kit in which the drums and cymbals have triggers, which can be used to sound electronic drums and other sounds, to having an exclusively electronic kit, which is often set up with the rubber or mesh drum pads and rubber \"cymbals\" in the usual drum kit locations. A fully electronic kit weighs much less and takes up less space to transport than an acoustic kit and it can be set up more quickly. One of the disadvantages of a fully electronic kit is that it may not have the same \"feel\" as an acoustic kit,", "\"Hardware\" is the name given to the metal stands that support the drums, cymbals and other percussion instruments. Generally the term also includes the hi-hat pedal and bass drum pedal or pedals, and the drum stool, but not the drum sticks. Hardware is carried along with sticks and", "Drum kits are traditionally categorised by the number of drums, ignoring cymbals and other instruments. Snare, tom-tom and bass drums are always counted; Other drums such as octobans may or may not be counted. Traditionally, in America and the United Kingdom, drum sizes were expressed as \"depth x diameter\", both in inches, but many drum kit manufacturers have since begun to express their sizes in terms of \"diameter x depth\"; still in the measure of inches.For example, a hanging tom 12 inches in diameter and 8 inches deep would be described by Tama as 8 inches × 12 inches, but by Pearl as 12 inches × 8 inches, and a standard diameter Ludwig snare drum 5 inches deep is a 5-inch × 14-inch, while the UK's Premier Manufacturer offers the same dimensions as: a 14-inch × 5-inch snare. The sizes of drums and cymbals given below are typical. Many drummers differ slightly or radically from them. Where no size is given, it is because there is too much variety to determine a typical size.", "A three-piece drum set is the most basic set. A conventional three-piece kit consists of a bass drum, a 14\" diameter snare drum, 12\"–14\" hi-hats, a single 12\" diameter hanging tom, 8\"–9\" in depth, and a suspended", "A four-piece kit extends the three-piece by adding one tom, either a second hanging tom mounted on the bass drum (a notable user is Chris Frantz of Talking Heads) and often displacing the cymbal, or by adding a floor tom. Normally another cymbal is added as well, so there are separate ride and crash cymbals, either on two stands, or the ride cymbal mounted on the bass drum to the player's right and the crash cymbal on a separate stand. The standard cymbal sizes are 16\" crash and 18\"–20\" ride, with the 20\" ride most common.", "When a floor tom is added to make a four-piece kit, the floor tom is usually 14\" for jazz, and 16\" otherwise. This configuration is usually common in jazz and rock. Notable users include Ringo", "If a second hanging tom is used, it is 10\" diameter and 8\" deep for fusion, or 13\" diameter and one inch deeper than the 12\" diameter tom. Otherwise, a 14\" diameter hanging tom is added to the 12\", both being 8\" deep. In any case, both toms are most often mounted on the bass drum with the smaller of the two next to the hi-hats (on the left for a right-handed drummer). These kits are particularly useful for smaller venues where space is limited, such as coffeehouses, cafés, hotel lounges, and small pubs.", "The five-piece kit is the full entry-level kit and the most common configuration across all styles and genres. It adds a third tom to the bass drum/snare drum/two toms set, making three toms in all. A fusion kit will normally add a 14\" tom, either a floor tom or a hanging tom on a stand to the right of the bass drum; in either case, making the tom lineup 10\", 12\" and 14\". Having three toms enables drummers to have a low-pitched, middle-register and higher-pitched tom, which gives them more options for fills and solos. Other kits will normally have 12\" and 13\" hanging toms plus either a 14\" hanging tom on a stand, a 14\" floor tom, or a 16\" floor tom. For depths, see Tom-tom drum#Modern tom-toms. In the 2010s, it is very popular to have 10\" and 12\" hanging toms, with a 16\" floor tom. This configuration is often called a hybrid setup. The bass drum is most commonly 22\" in diameter, but rock kits may", "If the toms are omitted completely, or the bass drum is replaced by a pedal-operated beater on the bottom skin of a floor tom and the hanging toms omitted, the result is a two-piece \"cocktail\" (lounge) kit. Such kits are particularly favoured in musical genres such as trad jazz, bebop, rockabilly and jump blues. Some rockabilly kits and beginners kits for very young players omit the hi-hat stand. In rockabilly, this allows the drummer to play standing rather than", "Common extensions beyond these standard configurations include: See also other acoustic instruments above. Another versatile extension becoming", "", "Sticks were traditionally made from wood (particularly maple, hickory, and oak) but more recently metal, carbon fibre and other exotic materials have been used for high market end sticks. The prototypical wooden drum stick was primarily designed for use with the snare drum, and optimized for playing snare rudiments. Sticks come in a variety of weights and tip designs; 7N is a common jazz stick with a nylon tip, while a 5B is a common wood tipped stick, heavier than a 7N but with a similar profile, and a common standard for beginners. Numbers range from 1 (heaviest) to 10 (lightest). The meanings of both numbers and", "Drum muffles are types of mutes that can reduce the ring, boomy overtone frequencies, or overall volume on a snare, bass, or tom. Controlling the ring is useful in studio or live settings when unwanted frequencies can clash with other instruments in the mix. There are internal and external muffling devices which rest on the inside or outside of the drumhead, respectively. Common types of mufflers include muffling rings, gels and duct tape, and improvised methods, such as placing a wallet near the edge of the head. Some drummers muffle the sound of a drum by putting a cloth over the drumhead. Snare drum and tom-tom Typical ways to muffle a snare or tom include placing an object on the outer edge of the drumhead. A piece of cloth, a wallet, gel, or fitted rings made of mylar are common objects. Also used are external clip-on muffles that work using the same principle. Internal mufflers that lie on the inside of the drumhead are often built into a drum, but are generally considered less effective than external muffles, as they stifle the initial tone, rather than simply reducing the", "There are various types of stick holder accessories, including bags that can", "A sizzler is a metal chain or combination of chains that is hung across a cymbal, creating a distinctive metallic sound when the cymbal is struck similar to that of a sizzle cymbal. Using a sizzler is the non-destructive alternative to drilling holes in a cymbal and putting metal", "Three types of protective covers are common for kit drums: As with all musical instruments,", "Microphones (\"mics\") are used with drums to pick up the sound of the drums and cymbals for a sound recording and/or to pick up the sound of the drum kit so that it can be amplified through a PA system or sound reinforcement system. While most drummers use microphones and amplification in live shows in the 2010s, so that the sound engineer can adjust and balance the levels of the drums and cymbals, some bands that play in quieter genres of music and that play in small venues such as coffeehouses play acoustically, without mics or PA amplification. Small jazz groups such as jazz quartets or organ trios that are playing in a small bar will often just use acoustic drums. Of course if the same small jazz groups play on the mainstage of a big jazz festival, the drums will be mic'ed so that they can be adjusted in the sound system mix. A middle-ground approach is used by some bands that play in small venues; they do not mic every drum and cymbal, but rather mic only the instruments that the sound engineer wants to be able to control in", "Drummers using electronic drums, drum machines, or hybrid acoustic-electric kits (which blend traditional acoustic drums and cymbals with electronic pads) typically use a monitor speaker, keyboard amplifier or even a small PA system to hear the electronic drum sounds. Even a drummer playing entirely acoustic drums may use a monitor speaker to hear her drums, especially if she is playing in a loud rock or metal band, where there is substantial onstage volume from", "A number of accessories are designed for the bass drum (also called \"kick drum\"). Ported tubes for the bass drum are available to take advantage of the bass reflex speaker design, in which a tuned port (a hole and a carefully measured tube) are put in", "Some drummers wear special drummer's gloves to improve their grip on the sticks when they play. Drumming gloves often have", "In some styles or settings, such as country music clubs or churches, small venues, or when a live recording is being made, the drummer may use a transparent perspex or plexiglas \"drum screen\" (also known as a \"drum shield\") to dampen the onstage volume of the drums. A screen that completely surrounds the drum kit is known as a \"drum booth\". In", "Drummers often bring a carpet, mats or rugs to venues to prevent the bass drum and hi-hat stand from \"crawling\" (moving away) on a slippery surface from the drum head striking the bass drum. The carpet also reduces short reverberation (which is generally but not always an advantage), and helps to", "Drummers use a variety of accessories when practicing. Metronomes and beat counters are used to develop a sense of a steady pulse. Drum muffling pads may be used to lessen the volume of drums during practicing. A practice pad, held on", "Drummers use a drum key for tuning their drums and adjusting some drum hardware. Besides the basic type of drum key (a T-handled wrench) there are various tuning wrenches and tools. Basic drum keys are divided in three types which allows tuning of three types of tuning screws on drums: square (most", "Drum kit music is either written down in music notation (called \"drum parts\"), learned and played by ear, improvised, or some combination of some or all three of these methods. Professional session musician drummers and big band drummers are often required to read drum parts. Drum parts are most commonly written on a standard five-line staff. In 2016, a special \"percussion clef\" is used, while previously the bass clef was used. However, even if the bass or no clef is used, each line and", "On early recording media (until 1925) such as wax cylinders and discs carved with an engraving needle, sound balancing", "Manufacturers using the American traditional format in their catalogs include these: Those using the European measures of diameter x depth include these:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Composition history.", "Performance history.", "Premiere.", "Subsequent performances.", "Synopsis.", "Instrumentation.", "Recordings.", "Radio.", "Film." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In July 1888 the Milanese music publisher Edoardo Sonzogno announced a competition open to all young Italian composers who had not yet had an opera performed on stage. They were invited to submit a one-act opera which would be judged by a jury of five prominent Italian critics and composers. The best three would be staged in Rome at Sonzogno's expense. Mascagni heard about the competition only two months before the closing date and asked his friend Giovanni Targioni-Tozzetti, a poet and professor of literature at the Italian Royal Naval Academy in Livorno, to provide a libretto. Targioni-Tozzetti chose \"Cavalleria rusticana\", a popular short story (and play) by Giovanni Verga, as the basis for the opera. He and his colleague Guido Menasci set about composing the libretto, sending it to Mascagni in fragments, sometimes only a few verses at a time on the back of a postcard. The opera was finally submitted on the last day that entries would be accepted. In all, 73 operas were submitted, and on 5 March 1890, the judges selected the final three: Niccola Spinelli's \"Labilia\",'s \"Rudello\", and Mascagni's \"Cavalleria rusticana\". There have been two other operas based on Verga's story. The first, \"Mala Pasqua!\" (Bad Easter!) by Stanislao Gastaldon, was entered in the same competition as Mascagni's. However, Gastaldon withdrew it when he received an opportunity to have it performed at the Teatro Costanzi, where it premiered on 9 April 1890. In the 1907 Sonzogno competition, Domenico Monleone submitted an opera based on the story, and likewise called \"Cavalleria rusticana\". The opera was not successful in the competition, but premiered later that year in Amsterdam and went on to a successful tour throughout Europe, ending in Turin. Sonzogno, wishing to protect the lucrative property which Mascagni's version had become, took legal action and successfully had Monleone's opera banned from performance in Italy. Monleone changed the opera ‘beyond recognition’, setting the music to a new libretto. In this form it was presented as \"La giostra dei falchi\" in 1914.", "", "\"Cavalleria rusticana\" opened on the evening of 17 May 1890 at the Teatro Costanzi in Rome to a half empty house. However, the audience included not only the most authoritative music critics in the country but also Queen Margherita, a great music lover. It was a success from its opening notes. Following Stagno's rendition of the Siciliana behind the curtain the audience leaped to their feet with a thunderous applause not heard for many years. The Siciliana was encored as were several other numbers in the opera. It was a sensation, with Mascagni taking 40 curtain calls and winning the First Prize.", "Although Mascagni had started writing two other operas earlier (\"Pinotta\", premiered in 1932, and \"Guglielmo Ratcliff\", premiered in 1895), \"Cavalleria rusticana\" was his first opera to be completed and performed. It remains the best known of his fifteen operas and one operetta (\"Sì\"). Apart from \"Cavalleria rusticana\", only \"Iris\" and \"L'amico Fritz\" have remained in the standard repertory, with \"Isabeau\" and \"Il piccolo Marat\" on the fringes of the Italian repertoire. Its success has been phenomenal ever since its first performance. At the time of Mascagni's death in 1945, the opera had been performed more than 14,000 times in Italy alone. In 1890, following its run of sold-out performances at the Teatro Costanzi, the opera was produced throughout Italy and in Berlin. It received its London premiere at the Shaftesbury Theatre on 19 October 1891 and its Covent Garden premiere on 16 May 1892. American producers vied with each other (sometimes through the courts) to be the first to present the opera in that country. \"Cavalleria rusticana\" finally had its American premiere in Philadelphia at the Grand Opera House on 9 September 1891, followed by a performance in Chicago on 30 September 1891. The opera premiered in New York on 1 October 1891, with two rival performances on the same day: an afternoon performance at the Casino, directed by Rudolph Aronson, and an evening performance at the Lenox Lyceum, directed by Oscar Hammerstein. The opera received its first performance at the Metropolitan Opera on 30 December 1891 in a double bill with a fragment of Gluck's \"Orfeo ed Euridice\", and has since received over 700 performances there.", "Before the action takes place the young villager Turiddu returned from military service to find out that his fiancée Lola had married the carter Alfio while he was away. In revenge, Turiddu seduced Santuzza, a young woman in the village. As the opera begins, Lola, overcome by her jealousy of Santuzza, has begun an adulterous affair with Turiddu. \"The main square of the village\" Offstage, Turiddu is heard singing a siciliana, \"O Lola c'hai di latti la cammisa\" (\"O Lola! like the snow, pure in thy whiteness!\"). To one side is the church; to the other is Lucia's wine shop and the house where she lives with her son, Turiddu. The villagers move about the square, singing of the beautiful spring day, \"Gli aranci olezzano sui verdi margini\" (\"The air is sweet with orange blossoms\") and a hymn to the Blessed Virgin Mary. Some villagers enter the church, and others wander off still singing. Santuzza, having slept with Turiddu and suspecting that he has betrayed her for Lola, is distraught and approaches Lucia as she comes out of her house. Santuzza asks for Turiddu, but Lucia replies that he has gone to another town to fetch some wine. Santuzza tells her that he was seen during the night in the village. Lucia asks her inside to talk, but just at that moment Alfio arrives on his wagon, accompanied by the villagers. He praises the joys of a teamster's life and the beauty of Lola his bride. Alfio asks Lucia for some of her fine old wine. She tells him it has run out and Turiddu has gone away to buy more. Alfio replies that he had seen Turiddu early that morning near his cottage. Lucia starts to express surprise, but Santuzza stops her. Alfio leaves. The choir inside the church is heard singing the \"Regina Coeli\". Outside, the villagers sing an Easter Hymn, \"Inneggiamo, il Signor non è morto\" (\"We rejoice that our Saviour is living!\") joined by Santuzza. The villagers enter the church, while Santuzza and Lucia remain outside. Lucia asks Santuzza why she signalled her to remain silent when Alfio said that he had seen Turiddu that morning. Santuzza exclaims, \"Voi lo sapete\" (\"You well know\") and tells Lucia the story of her seduction by Turiddu and his affair with Lola. Lucia pities Santuzza, who feels dishonored, having been seduced by Turiddu only to be abandoned by him for his old flame, Lola. Santuzza feels she cannot enter the church, but begs Lucia to go inside herself and pray for Santuzza who stays behind to try to plead with Turiddu to leave Lola and return to her. Turiddu arrives. Santuzza upbraids him for pretending to have gone away, when he was actually seeing Lola. Lola enters the square singing. She mocks Santuzza and goes inside the church. Turiddu turns to follow Lola, but Santuzza begs him to stay. Turiddu pushes her away. She clings to him. He loosens her hands, throws her to the ground, and enters the church. Alfio arrives looking for Lola. Santuzza tells him that his wife has betrayed him with Turiddu. Alfio swears to take \"vendetta\" (revenge) which causes Santuzza to repent for having disclosed the affair and begs Alfio to stop to no avail. The square is empty as the orchestra plays the famous \"Intermezzo\". The villagers come out of the church. Turiddu is in high spirits because he is with Lola and Santuzza appears to have gone. He invites his friends to his mother’s wine shop where he sings a drinking song, \"Viva, il vino spumeggiante\" (\"Hail to the bubbling wine!\"). Alfio joins them. Turiddu offers him wine, but he refuses it. All understand that trouble is in the air. The women leave, taking Lola with them. In a brief exchange of words, Alfio challenges Turiddu to a duel. Following Sicilian custom, the two men embrace, and Turiddu, in a token of acceptance, bites Alfio’s ear, drawing blood which signifies a fight to the death. Alfio leaves and Turiddu calls Lucia back. He tells her that he is going outside to get some air and asks that she be a kindly mother to Santuzza if he should not return: \"Un bacio, mamma! Un altro bacio!—Addio!\" (\"One kiss, mother! One more kiss! – Farewell!\"). Turiddu rushes out. Lucia, weeping, wanders aimlessly around outside her house. Santuzza approaches and throws her arms around her. The villagers start to crowd around. Voices are heard in the distance and a woman cries, \"They have murdered Turiddu!\" Santuzza faints and Lucia collapses in the arms of the women villagers.", "Mascagni calls for a standard-sized orchestra consisting of 2 flutes, 2 piccolos, 2 oboes, 2 clarinets, 2 bassoons, 4 horns, 2 trumpets, 3 trombones, tuba, timpani, percussion (triangle, cymbals, bass drum, side drum, tamtam, tubular bells), harp, organ and strings.", "There have been over 100 full-length recordings of \"Cavalleria rusticana\" published since it was first recorded in Germany in 1909. As in live performances of the opera, recordings of the work have often been paired with Ruggero Leoncavallo's \"Pagliacci\". In addition to the original Italian, recordings of the work in the English, French, German, and Hungarian languages have been released. Mascagni himself conducted the opera in two recordings, the better-known of which is the 1940 EMI recording made to mark the 50th anniversary of the opera's premiere. The performance by the La Scala orchestra and chorus with Lina Bruna Rasa as Santuzza and Beniamino Gigli as Turiddu also has a spoken introduction by Mascagni. Originally released as an LP, it is available on CD under several historical recording labels.", "A double-bill performance of \"Cavalleria\" and \"Pagliacci\" was transmitted as the first broadcast by New York City's Metropolitan Opera on 11 December 1910. Radio pioneer Lee de Forest talked Giulio Gatti-Casazza, the Met manager, into sending the program over the airwaves by using a backstage radio transmitter and a rooftop antenna, \"using a long fishing pole for his mast.\" Enrico Caruso and Emmy Destinn were in the leading roles. Few listened. There were no radios. But public receivers had been set up in several well-advertised locations in New York City, and people could catch at least an inkling of the music on earphones. The next day, \"The New York Times\" reported that static and other interference \"kept the homeless song waves from finding themselves.\" In Los Angeles, an \"Italian Night\" concert was heard live \"in its entirety\" on May 6, 1930, as the third program of the Adohr opera series over radio station KFI, featuring \"A distinguished cast... headed by Lisa Roma, noted lyric soprano... Music lovers should not fail to tune in.\" A notable use of the Intermezzo from \"Cavalleria rusticana\" in the United States was as the theme for a regular radio broadcast, \"Symphony of the Rockies,\" which featured \"a small string group playing light classical music\" in the 1930s and 1940s over Denver radio station KOA, then owned and operated by the NBC network. It \"was a 'feed' to the entire network from the KOA studios.\"", "Apart from video recordings of live performances, there have been several cinematic versions of \"Cavalleria rusticana\", the most notable of which are: The opera's symphonic Intermezzo has figured in the sound track of several films, most notably in the opening of \"Raging Bull\" and in the finale of \"The Godfather Part III\", which also featured a performance of the opera as a key part of the film's climax." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Composition history.", "Performance history.", "Synopsis.", "Act 1.", "Act 2.", "Act 3.", "Act 4.", "Instrumentation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The libretto is in Italian, and was cobbled together by five librettists whom Puccini employed: Ruggero Leoncavallo, Marco Praga, Giuseppe Giacosa, Domenico Oliva and Luigi Illica. The publisher, Giulio Ricordi, and the composer himself also contributed to the libretto. So confused was the authorship of the libretto that no one was credited on the title page of the original score. However, it was Illica and Giacosa who completed the libretto and went on to contribute the libretti to Puccini's next three – and most successful – works, \"La Bohème\", \"Tosca\" and \"Madama Butterfly\". Puccini took some musical elements in \"Manon Lescaut\" from earlier works he had written. For example, the madrigal \"Sulla vetta tu del monte\" from act 2 echoes the \"Agnus Dei\" from his 1880 \"Messa a quattro voci\". Other elements of \"Manon Lescaut\" come from his compositions for strings: the quartet \"Crisantemi\" (January 1890), three \"Menuets\" (probably 1884) and a \"Scherzo\" (1883?). The love theme comes from the aria \"Mentia l'avviso\" (1883).", "Puccini's publisher, Ricordi, had been against any project based on Prévost's story because Jules Massenet had already made it into a successful opera, \"Manon\", in 1884. While Puccini and Ricordi may not have known it, the French composer Daniel Auber had also already written an opera on the same subject with the title \"Manon Lescaut\", in 1856. Despite all the warnings, Puccini proceeded. \"Manon is a heroine I believe in and therefore she cannot fail to win the hearts of the public. Why shouldn't there be two operas about Manon? A woman like Manon can have more than one lover.\" He added, \"Massenet feels it as a Frenchman, with powder and minuets. I shall feel it as an Italian, with a desperate passion.\" The first performance of \"Manon Lescaut\" took place in the Teatro Regio in Turin on 1 February 1893; it was Puccini's third opera and his first great success. The opera was first performed at the Metropolitan Opera in New York on 18 January 1907 in the presence of the composer with Lina Cavalieri in the title role, Enrico Caruso as des Grieux, Antonio Scotti as Lescaut, and Arturo Vigna conducting.", "", "\"Amiens: A large public square near the Paris Gate\" \"Off the square is an Avenue on one side and an Inn on the other, with a balcony. It is evening, townspeople, soldiers and a crowd of male students and girls stroll through the avenue and square while others gather in groups. Some are seated at the tables outside the Inn, drinking and gambling.\" Edmondo sings a song of youthful pleasure (Edmondo, chorus of students, girls and townspeople: \"Ave, sera gentile\" – Hail gentle evening). Des Grieux enters, and they greet him, but he is melancholic and does not join the others, singing cynically of love (des Grieux, Edmondo, chorus: \"L'amor?, L'amor?...io non conosco!\" – Love?, Love?...I know nothing of that). They joke with him and provoke him to feign flirtation with the girls (des Grieux: \"Tra voi, belle, brune e bionde\" – Among you beauties, dark and fair); (Edmondo, chorus: \"Ma, bravo!\"). A postillion horn is heard and the carriage from Arras pulls up at the Inn, as the crowd peers in to see who the passengers are (Chorus: \"Giunge il cocchio d'Arras\"! – Here comes the Arras coach!) Lescaut (Manon's brother), then an elderly treasurer-general, Geronte di Ravoir, descend from the coach, Geronte helping Manon, then the remainder of the passengers. The crowd comments (Chorus, Edmondo, Lescaut, des Grieux, Geronte: \"Discendono, vediam!\" – Look, they are getting down!) Edmondo and the students admire Manon (\"Chi non darebbe a quella donnina bella?\" – Who would not give to that beautiful young woman?). Des Grieux is also smitten (\"Dio, quanto è bella!\" – Dear God, such beauty!). The other passengers enter the Inn, while Lescaut signals Manon to wait for him. She sits, as des Grieux, who has been fixated on her, approaches her and declares his feelings for her (des Grieux, Manon,: \"Cortese damigella\" – Gentle lady), only to learn she is destined for a convent at the will of her father. He offers to help her, and when Lescaut calls her he begs her to meet him later; she reluctantly agrees. After Manon leaves, des Grieux sings of his feelings for her (des Grieux: \"Donna non vidi mai\" – Never before have I beheld a woman such as this). The students and girls, who have been observing the couple, comment mockingly on his good fortune (Edmondo, students: \"La tua ventura ci rassicura\" – Your good fortune encourages us). Lescaut and Geronte descend and converse in the square about Manon's fate, observed by Edmondo. Geronte, who also is captivated by Manon, says she would be wasted in a convent. On hearing his fellow traveller's opinion, Lescaut begins to reconsider his task of escorting his sister to the convent. The students invite Lescaut to join in their card game. Geronte observes that Lescaut is preoccupied with the game and discloses his plan to abduct Manon and take her to Paris to the Innkeeper, offering him money for assistance and his silence. Edmondo overhears the plan and informs des Grieux (Edmondo: \"Cavaliere, te la fanno!\" – Sir, they are outwitting you!). He offers to help des Grieux, arranging for the card players to keep Lescaut occupied. Manon slips out of the inn to meet des Grieux as promised (Manon: \"Vedete? Io son fedele alla parola mia\" – You see? I am faithful to my word). He declares his love for her and advises her of the plot to abduct her, while Edmondo arranges for the carriage Geronte has hired to take the couple to Paris. They leave together just as Geronte arrives, ready to execute his plans (Geronte: \"Di sedur la sorellina e il momento!\" – The moment to seduce the little sister has arrived). Geronte is taunted by Edmondo. Realising he has been tricked, Geronte urges Lescaut to follow the departed pair. The more pragmatic Lescaut advises him that the pair will soon run out of money, and then Manon will be his.", "\"A room in Geronte's house in Paris\" Manon is now Geronte's mistress. Manon and her hairdresser are in the room when Lescaut enters (Manon, Lescaut: \"Dispettosetto questo riccio!\"); (Lescaut: \"Sei splendida e lucente!\"). She tells him that Geronte is too old and wicked; he bores her. Manon is sad, and her thoughts turn to des Grieux (Manon: \"In quelle trine morbide\"); (Lescaut, Manon: \"Poiché tu vuoi saper\"). Musicians hired by Geronte enter to amuse her (Madrigal: \"Sulla vetta tu del monte\"); (Manon, Lescaut: \"Paga costor\"). Geronte brings a dancing master; they dance a minuet, then she sings a gavotte (Dancing master, Geronte, Manon, chorus: \"Vi prego, signorina [minuet]\"); (Manon, Geronte, chorus: \"L'ora, o Tirsi, è vaga e bella\"). After dancing, Geronte and the musicians leave the house. Dismayed that his sister is unhappy living with Geronte, Lescaut goes to find des Grieux. Des Grieux appears in Geronte's house (Manon, des Grieux: \"Oh, sarò la più bella!\" – This love's own magic spell). As des Grieux and Manon renew their vows of love, Geronte returns unexpectedly. He salutes the couple, reminding Manon of his many favors to her, including some precious jewels. She replies that she cannot love him (Geronte, des Grieux, Manon: \"Affè, madamigella\"). Bowing low, he leaves them. Manon rejoices in their freedom (Manon: \"Ah! Ah! Liberi!\"); (des Grieux: \"Ah, manon, mi tradisce il tuo folle pensiero). Lescaut urges them to leave the house at once, but Manon hesitates at the thought of leaving her jewels and pretty frocks. Again, Lescaut enters in breathless haste, making signs that they must depart immediately. Manon snatches up her jewels, and they go to the door. It has been locked by Geronte's order. Soldiers appear to arrest Manon who, in trying to escape, drops the jewels at Geronte's feet. She is dragged away and des Grieux is not permitted to follow her (des Grieux, Manon, Lescaut, sergeant, Geronte: \"Lescaut! – Tu qui?\"). His various efforts to have Manon released and even to free her by force having failed, des Grieux follows her to Le Havre.", "\"A square near the harbor in Le Havre\" At dawn Manon is with the other imprisoned courtesans (des Grieux, Lescaut, Manon: \"Ansia eterna, crudel\"). Lescaut has bribed a guard to let des Grieux speak with Manon. Talking to her through the bars, he learns that she is to be deported to Louisiana. A lamplighter passes, singing a song as he extinguishes the lights (Lamplighter, des Grieux, Manon: \"E Kate ripose al re\"); (des Grieux, Manon: \"Manon, disperato è il mio prego\"). They attempt a rescue, but in vain. The guard appears, escorting a group of women, who are going on the same ship as Manon. She walks among them, pale and sad. The crowd makes brutal comments during the roll call of the courtesans (Chorus, Lescaut, des Grieux, Manon: \"All'armi! All'armi!\"), but Lescaut inspires pity for Manon (Sergeant, chorus, Lescaut, Manon, des Grieux: \"Rosetta! – Eh, che aria!\"). Des Grieux, in despair at the idea of being separated from Manon forever, goes to her side. He tries to seize her but is pushed away by the sergeant. However, the captain of the ship sees his intense grief (des Grieux: \"Pazzo son!\") and allows him to board the ship.", "\"A vast plain near the outskirts of the New Orleans territory\" Having fled the jealous intrigues of New Orleans, the lovers make their way across a desert to seek refuge in a British settlement. Wandering in the desert, the ailing Manon is exhausted. She falls and cannot go any farther (des Grieux, Manon: \"Tutta su me ti posa\"); (des Grieux: \"Vedi, son io che piango\"); (Manon, des Grieux: \"Sei tu che piangi\"). Des Grieux is alarmed by Manon's appearance and goes to look for water. While he is gone, Manon recalls her past and muses about her fatal beauty and her fate (Manon: \"Sola, perduta, abbandonata\"). Des Grieux returns, having been unable to find water. Manon bids him a heart-rending farewell, however not before complaining about how her life has not been fair and that she is no longer beautiful. Before dying in his arms Manon asks des Grieux to tell her how beautiful she used to be, and how he must forgive her wrongdoings and faults before she dies, not listening to him repeat how much he loves her and will miss her. Overcome by grief at the death of his vain and selfish lover, des Grieux collapses across her body (Manon, des Grieux: \"Fra le tue braccia, amore\").", "The opera is scored for piccolo (doubling 3rd flute), two flutes, two oboes, cor anglais, two clarinets, bass clarinet, two bassoons, four horns, three trumpets, three trombones, bass tuba, timpani, triangle, drum, tam-tam, bass drum, cymbals, glockenspiel, celesta, harp, and strings, together with offstage flute, offstage cornet, offstage bell, offstage drum, and offstage sleigh bells." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Composition history.", "Performance history.", "Synopsis.", "Prologue.", "Act 1.", "Act 2.", "Assignment of the final line.", "Orchestration.", "Recordings and other media." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Around 1890, when Pietro Mascagni's \"Cavalleria rusticana\" premiered, Leoncavallo was a little-known composer. After seeing Mascagni's success, he decided to write an opera in response: one act composed in the verismo style. Leoncavallo wrote that he based the story of \"Pagliacci\" on an incident from his childhood: a murder in 1865, the victim of which was a Leoncavallo family servant, Gaetano Scavello. The murderer was Gaetano D'Alessandro, whose brother Luigi was his accomplice. The incident resulted from a series of perceived romantic entanglements involving Scavello, Luigi D'Alessandro, and a village girl with whom both men were infatuated. Leoncavallo's father, a judge, was the presiding magistrate over the criminal investigation. Upon learning of the plot of Leoncavallo's libretto in an 1894 French translation, the French author Catulle Mendès thought it resembled his 1887 play \"La Femme de Tabarin\", with its play-within-the-play and the clown murdering his wife. Mendès sued Leoncavallo for plagiarism. The composer pleaded ignorance of Mendès's play. Later there were counter-accusations that Mendès's play resembled Don Manuel Tamayo y Baus's \"Un Drama Nuevo\" (1867). Mendès dropped his lawsuit. However, the scholar Matteo Sansone has suggested that, as Leoncavallo was a notable student of French culture, and lived in Paris from 1882 to 1888, he had ample opportunity to be exposed to new French art and musical works. These would potentially have included Mendès's play, another version of \"La femme de Tabarin\" by Paul Ferrier, and \"Tabarin\", an opera composed by Émile Pessard that was based on Ferrier's play. Sansone has elaborated on the many parallels among the Mendès, Ferrier, and Pessard versions of the Tabarin story and \"Pagliacci\", noting that Leoncavallo deliberately minimised any sort of connection between his opera and these earlier French works. Leoncavallo originally titled his story \"Il pagliaccio\" (\"The Clown\"). The baritone Victor Maurel, who was cast as the first Tonio, requested that Leoncavallo change the title from the singular \"Il pagliaccio\" to the plural \"Pagliacci\", to broaden dramatic interest from Canio alone to include Tonio (his own role).", "\"Pagliacci\" received mixed critical reviews upon its world premiere, but was instantly successful with the public and has remained so ever since. The UK premiere of \"Pagliacci\" took place at the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden, in London on 19 May 1893. The US premiere followed a month later at the Grand Opera House in New York on 15 June, with American tenor Agostino Montegriffo as Canio. The Metropolitan Opera first staged the work on 11 December as a double-bill with \"Orfeo ed Euridice\", with Nellie Melba in the role of Nedda. The Met again staged \"Pagliacci\" as a double-bill, this time followed by \"Cavalleria rusticana\" on 22 December 1893. The two operas have since been frequently performed as a double-bill, a pairing referred to in the operatic world colloquially as \"Cav and Pag\". \"Pagliacci\" was produced alone in Washington National Opera's November 1997 production by Franco Zeffirelli. The re-organised New York City Opera presented \"Pagliacci\" in 2016 on a double bill with Rachmaninoff's \"Aleko\".", "", "During the overture, the curtain rises. From behind a second curtain, Tonio, dressed as his commedia character Taddeo, addresses the audience (\"Si può?... Si può?... Signore! Signori!... Un nido di memorie\"). He reminds the audience that actors have feelings too, and that the show is about real people.", "At three o'clock in the afternoon, the commedia troupe enters the village to the cheering of the villagers. Canio describes the night's performance: the troubles of Pagliaccio. He says the play will begin at, an agricultural method of time-keeping that means the play will begin an hour before sunset. As Nedda steps down from the cart, Tonio offers his hand, but Canio pushes him aside and helps her down himself. The villagers suggest drinking at the tavern. Canio and Beppe accept, but Tonio stays behind. The villagers tease Canio that Tonio is planning an affair with Nedda. Canio warns everyone that while he may act the foolish husband in the play, in real life he will not tolerate other men making advances to Nedda. Shocked, a villager asks if Canio really suspects her. He says no, and sweetly kisses her on the forehead. As the church bells ring vespers, he and Beppe leave for the tavern, leaving Nedda alone. Nedda is frightened by Canio's vehemence (\"Qual fiamma avea nel guardo\"), but the birdsong comforts her (\"Stridono lassù\"). Tonio returns and confesses his love for her, but she laughs. Enraged, Tonio grabs Nedda, but she takes a whip, strikes him and drives him off. Silvio, who is Nedda's lover, comes from the tavern, where he has left Canio and Beppe drinking. He asks Nedda to elope with him after the performance and, though she is afraid, she agrees. Tonio, who has been eavesdropping, leaves to inform Canio so that he might catch Silvio and Nedda together. Canio and Tonio return and, as Silvio escapes, Nedda calls after him, \"I will always be yours!\" Canio chases Silvio, but does not catch him and does not see his face. He demands that Nedda tell him the name of her lover, but she refuses. He threatens her with a knife, but Beppe disarms him. Beppe insists that they prepare for the performance. Tonio tells Canio that her lover will give himself away at the play. A heartbroken Canio is left alone to put on his costume and prepare to laugh (\"Vesti la giubba\" – \"Put on the costume\").", "As the crowd arrives, Nedda, costumed as Colombina, collects their money. She whispers a warning to Silvio, and the crowd cheers as the play begins. Colombina's husband Pagliaccio has gone away until morning, and Taddeo is at the market. She anxiously awaits her lover Arlecchino, who comes to serenade her (\"\") from beneath her window. Taddeo returns and confesses his love, but she mocks him. She lets Arlecchino in through the window. He boxes Taddeo's ears and kicks him out of the room, and the audience laughs. Arlecchino and Colombina dine, and he gives her a sleeping potion to use later. When Pagliaccio returns, Colombina will drug him and elope with Arlecchino. Taddeo bursts in, warning that Pagliaccio is suspicious of his wife and is about to return. As Arlecchino escapes through the window, Colombina tells him, \"I will always be yours!\" As Canio (as Pagliaccio) enters, he hears Nedda (as Colombina) and exclaims \"Name of God! Those same words!\" He tries to continue the play, but loses control and demands to know her lover's name. Nedda, hoping to keep to the performance, calls Canio by his stage name \"Pagliaccio,\" to remind him of the audience's presence. He answers with his arietta: \"\" He sings that if his face is pale, it is not from the stage makeup but from the shame she has brought him. The crowd is impressed by his emotional performance and cheers him, without realizing that it is real. Nedda, trying to continue the play, admits that she has been visited by the innocent Arlecchino. Canio, furious and forgetting the play, demands the name of her lover. Nedda swears she will never tell him, and it becomes apparent that they are not acting. Beppe asks Tonio to intervene, but Tonio refrains and prevents Beppe from halting the action. Silvio begins to fight his way toward the stage. Canio, grabbing a knife from the table, stabs Nedda. As she dies, she calls: \"Help! Silvio!\" Silvio attacks Canio, but Canio kills him as well. The horrified audience then hears the celebrated final line:", "In the original manuscript, Tonio sang the opera's final line, \"\", paralleling the prologue, also sung by Tonio. The appropriation of this final line by Canio dates back to 1895. John Wright has analysed the dramaturgy of the opera in the context of assignment of the final line, and concluded that the original assignment of the final line to Tonio is the most consistent and appropriate assignment. Wright says that Tonio shows more deliberate control in his manipulation of the other characters in order to obtain his revenge upon Nedda, after she has rejected him, and is more aware of the demarcation between life and art. By contrast, Canio is unaware of the behind-the-scenes manipulations and surrenders control of his perception of the difference between life and art as the opera proceeds. In the present day, the assignment of the final line to Canio has continued to be standard. Several exceptions, where Tonio delivers the final line, include:", "The orchestra consists of 2 flutes, 1 piccolo, 2 oboes, 1 cor anglais, 2 clarinets, 1 bass clarinet, 3 bassoons, 4 horns, 3 trumpets, 3 trombones, 1 tuba, 2 harps, timpani, tubular bells, percussion (triangle, cymbals, bass drum, glockenspiel) and strings. Additionally, there is an onstage violin, oboe, trumpet, and bass drum. Also included in the final pages of the score is a part in the percussion section marked \"T.T.\" (not assigned in the instrumentation page at the beginning.) Performers have taken this to be a tam-tam (partly because Mascagni used one, although to much greater effect, on the final moments of \"Cavalleria rusticana\"). It is given three strokes right after the announcement that \"The comedy is over\".", "In 1907, \"Pagliacci\" became the first opera to be recorded in its entirety, with the Puerto Rican tenor Antonio Paoli as Canio and under Leoncavallo's personal supervision. In 1931, it became the first complete opera to be filmed with sound, in a now-obscure version starring the tenor Fernando Bertini as Canio, in his only film, with the San Carlo Opera Company. Franco Zeffirelli directed his 1981 La Scala production with Plácido Domingo and Teresa Stratas for a 1982 television airing, which has since been released on DVD. The movie's soundtrack received a Grammy nomination for Best Opera Recording. \"Pagliacci\" was also recorded in English in 1997, and released commercially in 1998, for the Chandos \"Opera in English\" label with Dennis O'Neill as Canio, Alan Opie as Tonio, and Rosa Mannion as Nedda." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Launch and success.", "Third party development.", "Decline and redesign.", "Hardware.", "Console.", "Graphics.", "Controllers.", "Console models.", "Minor revisions.", "Sears Video Arcade.", "Atari 2800.", "Atari 2600 Jr..", "Games.", "Legacy.", "Clones and reissues.", "Unreleased prototypes." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Atari was founded by Nolan Bushnell and Ted Dabney in 1972. Their first major product was \"Pong\", one of the first successful arcade games. By 1975, Atari had released a \"Pong\" home console, competing against Magnavox, the only other major producer of home consoles at the time. Bushnell recognized, however, the limitation of custom logic burned onto the circuit board; this allowed only one game (and its variants), meaning that any new game would require a completely different console. Because development of a console cost at least and time to complete, and had only about a three-month shelf life before becoming outdated, it was a risky business model. By 1974, Atari had acquired Cyan Engineering, an electronics company founded by Steve Mayer and Larry Emmons (both former colleagues of Bushnell and Dabney from Ampex), and started Atari's Grass Valley Think Tank, where they developed new ideas for arcade games. Due to Bushnell's concern about single-game consoles, the Grass Valley team started working on a home console with multi-game support. Mayer and Emmons determined that a home console would require newly invented microprocessors to support multiple games, but such microprocessors cost at the time, far outside the range that their market would support. In September 1975, Chuck Peddle of MOS Technology created a low-cost replacement for the Motorola 6800, the MOS Technology 6502, and introduced it at the 1975 Wescon trade show in San Francisco. Mayer and Ron Milner attended the show, met with Peddle, and later invited Peddle to Cyan's headquarters to discuss using MOS's microprocessors for a game console. Mayer and Milner negotiated a deal for the 6502 chips at each, which was sufficient to begin development of a console; however, further discussions determined that the better solution would be the MOS Technology 6507, a more restrictive but lower-cost version of the 6502. Cyan and MOS also enlisted Synertek, a semiconductor manufacturer whose co-founder, Bob Schreiner, was good friends with Peddle, to act as a second source for the 6507. By December 1975, Atari hired Joe Decuir to help design the first prototype, codenamed \"Stella\" (the name of Decuir's bicycle). A second prototype was completed by March 1976 with the help of Jay Miner, who had managed to fit the entire Television Interface Adaptor (TIA), to send graphics and audio to the television display, into a single chip. The second prototype included the 6507, the TIA, and a ROM cartridge slot and adapter, each cartridge holding a ROM game image. Believing that Stella would be a success, Bushnell acquired the entire Grass Valley Think Tank and relocated them to Atari's new headquarters in Sunnyvale, California by mid-1976, putting Steve Mayer in charge of the project. Bushnell feared that once this unit was released, competitors would try to copy it, and preemptively arranged with all integrated chip manufacturers who were interested in the games market to deny sales to his competitors. Fairchild Semiconductor introduced its Fairchild Channel F home console in November 1976, beating Atari to the market with ROM cartridge technology. This pressured Atari to finish Stella more quickly, but the company lacked the funds to do so. Bushnell considered taking Atari public but instead sold the company to Warner Communications for ; subsequently, Warner provided approximately in new funding, allowing Stella to be prioritized and fast-tracked. By 1977, the product had advanced far enough to brand it as the \"Atari Video Computer System\" (VCS) and engage Atari's programmers to develop games for it. The unit was showcased in mid-1977 at the Summer Consumer Electronics Show with plans for retail release in October. However, Atari encountered production problems during its first batch, and its testing was complicated by the use of cartridges. Ultimately, the consoles were shipped to retailers in November 1977.", "At release in September 1977, the unit was originally priced at ($ adjusted for inflation), and shipped with two joysticks and a \"Combat\" cartridge (eight additional games were available at launch and sold separately). Atari sold between 350,000 and 400,000 Atari VCS units during 1977, attributed to the delay in shipping the units and consumers' unfamiliarity with non-dedicated consoles. 1978 was a challenging year. About 800,000 units were manufactured, but only 550,000 were sold by year's end. This required further financial support from Warner to cover losses and caused Bushnell to leave the company. Although Warren Robinett invented in this year the first action-adventure game, \"Adventure\", changing the fundamentals of gaming with the first game featuring a \"virtual space bigger than the screen\", Atari had suffered the loss of programmers David Crane, Bob Whitehead, Larry Kaplan, and Alan Miller, the company's \"Fantastic Four\", who had programmed most of the successful VCS games to that point. The four left Atari, disgruntled over Warner's oversight of the company and treatment of programmers, and formed Activision, which introduced third-party software to the VCS. The VCS was the best-selling console during the 1979 holiday season, with more than 1 million units sold, but Atari saw new competition from the Mattel Intellivision and Magnavox Odyssey2, which also used ROM cartridges. Atari licensed the arcade hit \"Space Invaders\" by Taito. Its release in January 1980 doubled console sales to more than 2 million units. The VCS and its cartridges helped Atari earn more than $2 billion in 1980. Sales then doubled again for the next two years; by 1982, the console had sold 10 million units, while its best-selling game \"Pac-Man\" sold 7 million copies. The console also sold 450,000 units in West Germany by 1984. In 1982, Atari launched its second home console, which it named the Atari 5200; to standardize its naming, the VCS was renamed to the \"Atari 2600 Video Computer System\", or \"Atari 2600\" for short, derived from the manufacture part number CX2600. By 1982 the 2600 console cost Atari about $40 to make and sold for an average of $125. The company spent $4.50 to $6 to manufacture its cartridges, plus $1 to $2 for advertising, and sold them for $18.95 wholesale.", "Activision, formed by four former Atari VCS programmers, started developing third-party games to be used on cartridge systems, including the VCS, in 1979. Atari attempted to block the sale of the Activision cartridges, but lost in court, allowing other third-party VCS game developers to flourish. One such developer was Rob Fulop, who had created the VCS version of \"Missile Command\" while at Atari. More than two million copies of \"Missile Command\" were sold and, for this milestone, Atari rewarded him with a gift certificate for a free turkey. Fulop promptly left Atari. Fulop co-founded Imagic, and his first game for the company, \"Demon Attack\", became a hit in 1982. Other VCS-focused game development companies that sprang up in the early 1980s include US Games, Telesys, Games by Apollo, Data Age, Zimag, Mystique, and CommaVid. Mattel and Coleco, each already producing its own more advanced console, created simplified versions of their existing titles for the 2600. Mattel used the M Network brand name for its cartridges. Third-party titles competed with Atari's share of VCS games, accounting for half of VCS game sales by 1982.", "With third parties competing for market share, Atari worked to maintain dominance in the market by acquiring licenses for popular arcade games and other properties to make games from. \"Pac-Man\", despite having numerous technical flaws, still sold more than 10 million copies. Heading into the 1982 holiday season, Atari had placed high sales expectations on \"E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial\", a game programmed in about six weeks, as to capture the strong interest in the film. Atari produced an estimated four million cartridges, expecting the title to sell well. However, the game was poorly reviewed, leading to only about 1.5 million units sold. Atari, through Warner Communications, reported weaker results than expected in December 1982 to their shareholders, having expected a 50% year-to-year growth but only obtaining 10–15%. Coupled with the oversaturated market due to hardware and software competition, Atari's weakened position led investors to start pulling their funds out of the video game market, beginning a cascade of effects known as the video game crash of 1983 that devastated the North American industry. In September 1983, Atari sent 14 truckloads of unsold Atari 2600 cartridges and other equipment to be buried in a landfill in the New Mexico desert, known as Atari video game burial. While the burial had long been an urban legend, with reportedly millions of cartridges buried there, the site was excavated in 2014, with Atari representatives affirming that only about 700,000 cartridges had been deposited there. The burial remains recognized as a reminder of the end of Atari's dominance of the market. Warner, tired of supporting Atari, started looking for buyers in 1984. By mid-1984, software development for the 2600 had essentially stopped except for that of Atari and Activision. The 2600 was de-prioritized after Warner's 1984 sale of Atari, Inc.'s Consumer Division to Commodore founder Jack Tramiel; Tramiel shifted the business' focus to home computers and ended all development of console games. The North American video game market did not recover until about 1986, after Nintendo had introduced the Nintendo Entertainment System in North America. Atari Corporation released a redesigned model of the 2600 in 1986, supported by an ad campaign touting a price of \"under 50 bucks\". With a large library of games and a low price point, the 2600 continued to sell into the late 1980s. Atari released a final batch of titles in 1989–90 including \"Secret Quest\" and \"Fatal Run\". The final Atari-licensed release is the PAL-only port of the arcade game \"KLAX\" in 1990. After more than 14 years on the market, the 2600 line was formally discontinued on January 1, 1992, along with the Atari 7800 and Atari 8-bit family of home computers.", "", "The Atari 2600's CPU is the MOS Technology 6507, a version of the 6502, running at 1.19 MHz in the 2600. Though their internal silicon was identical, the 6507 was cheaper than the 6502 because its package included fewer memory-address pins—13 instead of 16. The designers of the Atari 2600 selected an inexpensive cartridge interface that has one fewer address than the 13 allowed by the 6507, further reducing the already limited addressable memory to 4 kiB (2 = 4096). This was believed to be sufficient as \"Combat\" is itself only 2 kiB. Later games circumvented this limitation with bank switching. The console has 128 bytes of RAM for scratch space, the call stack, and the state of the game environment. The top bezel of the console originally included six switches: power, TV type selection (color or black-and-white), game selection, player difficulty, and game reset. The difficulty switches were later moved to the back of the top bezel. The back bezel also included the controller ports, television output, and power adapter outlets.", "The 2600 does not have a frame buffer. Instead the video device provides two 8-pixel bitmapped sprites, two 1-pixel \"missile\" sprites, a 1-pixel \"ball\", and a 40-pixel \"playfield\" that is drawn by writing a bit pattern for each line into a register just before the television scans that line. As each line is scanned, a game must identify the non-sprite objects that overlap the next line, assemble the appropriate bit patterns to draw for those objects, and write the pattern into the register. Similar to its predecessor \"Pong\", the right side of the screen is a mirrored duplicate of the left; to control it separately, the software may modify the patterns as the scan line is drawn. After the controller scans the last active line, a slower vertical blanking interval begins, during which the game can process inputs and update the positions and states of objects in the game world. Any mistake in timing produces visual artifacts, a problem that programmers call \"racing the beam\". The 2600's video hardware is therefore highly flexible, but also challenging to program. One advantage the 2600 has over more powerful contemporary competitors such as the ColecoVision is that the 2600 has no protection against altering settings in mid-line. For example, although each sprite nominally has only one color, it is possible to color the rows differently by changing the sprite's color as it is drawn. If the two hardware sprites are not enough for a game, a developer may share one sprite among several objects (as with the ghosts in \"Pac-Man\") or draw software sprites, which is only a little more difficult than drawing a fixed playfield. The \"Pitfall!\" screenshot demonstrates some of these tricks: the player is a multi-color sprite, one sprite is multiplexed for the logs and the scorpion, and the swinging vine is drawn by shifting the position of the \"ball\" on each scan line. Warren Robinett, the programmer for \"Adventure\", described numerous tricks that he had to do to complete \"Adventure\" to both fit it within the memory limitations of the Atari 2600, as well as creatively use the graphics capability to create a multi-screen maze for players to navigate, using the \"missile\" sprite to create the maze's walls. The Atari 2600 was designed to be compatible with the cathode-ray tube television sets produced in the late 1970s and early 1980s, and uses different color palettes depending on the television signal format. With the NTSC format, a 128-color palette was available; while in PAL, only 104 colors; in SECAM, only 8. A side effect of how graphics work on the 2600 is that all games are required to run at either 60 frames per second (NTSC) or 50 frames per second (PAL).", "The VCS originally shipped with two types of controllers: a joystick (part number CX10) and pair of rotary paddle controllers (CX30). Driving controllers, which are similar to paddle controllers but can be continuously rotated, shipped with the \"Indy 500\" launch game. After less than a year, the CX10 joystick was replaced with the CX40 model designed by James C. Asher. Because the Atari joystick port and CX40 joystick became industry standards, 2600 joysticks and some other peripherals work with later systems, including the MSX, Commodore 64, Amiga, Atari 8-bit family, and Atari ST. The CX40 joystick can be used with the Master System and Sega Genesis, but does not provide all the buttons of a native controller. Third-party controllers include Wico's Command Control joystick. Later, the CX42 Remote Control Joysticks, similar in appearance but using wireless technology, were released, together with a receiver whose wires could be inserted in the controller jacks. Atari introduced the CX50 Keyboard Controller in June 1978 along with two games that required it: \"Codebreaker\" and \"Hunt & Score\". The similar, but simpler, CX23 Kid's Controller was released later for a series of games aimed at a younger audience. The CX22 Trak-Ball controller was announced in January 1983 and was compatible with the Atari 8-bit family. There were two attempts to turn the Atari 2600 into a keyboard-equipped home computer: Atari's never-released CX3000 \"Graduate\" keyboard, and the CompuMate keyboard by Spectravideo which was released in 1983.", "", "The initial production of the VCS was made in Sunnyvale, using thick plastic for the casing, and with all six console switches on the front panel. Production of the unit was moved to Hong Kong in 1979, where a thinner plastic was used for the casing, reducing the system's weight. These two versions are commonly referred to as \"Heavy Sixers\" and \"Light Sixers\" respectively, representing the six front switches. In 1980, the difficulty switches were moved to the back of the console, leaving four switches on the front. Other than this, these four-switch consoles looked nearly identical to the earlier six-switch models. In 1982 Atari rebranded the console as the \"Atari 2600\", a name first used on a version of the four-switch model without woodgrain, giving it an all-black appearance.", "Atari continued their OEM relationship with Sears under the latter's Tele-Games brand, which started in 1975 with the original \"Pong\". (The company Telegames, which later produced cartridges for the 2600, is unrelated.) Sears released several models of the VCS as the Sears Video Arcade series starting in 1977. In 1983, the previously Japan-only Atari 2800 was rebranded as the Sears Video Arcade II. Sears released versions of Atari's games with Tele-Games branding, usually with different titles. Three games were produced by Atari for Sears as exclusive releases: \"Steeplechase\", \"Stellar Track\", and \"Submarine Commander\".", "The Atari 2800 is the Japanese version of the 2600 released in October 1983. It was the first release of a 2600 designed specifically for the Japanese market, though companies like Epoch had distributed the 2600 in Japan previously. It was released a short time after Nintendo's Family Computer, which became the dominant console in Japan, and the 2800 did not gain a significant share of the market. Sears released the 2800 in the US in 1983 as the Sears Video Arcade II packaged with two controllers and \"Space Invaders\". Around 30 specially branded games were released for the 2800. Designed by engineer Joe Tilly, the 2800 has four controller ports instead of the two of the 2600. The controllers are an all-in one design using a combination of an 8-direction digital joystick and a 270-degree paddle, designed by John Amber. The 2800's case design departed from the 2600, using a wedge shape with non-protruding switches. The case style was used as the basis for the Atari 7800's case designed by Barney Huang.", "The 1986 model, unofficially referred to as \"the 2600 Jr.\", features a smaller, cost-reduced form factor with a modernized, Atari 7800-like appearance. The redesigned 2600 was advertised as a budget gaming system (under US$49.99) with the ability to run a large collection of classic games. Though released after the video game crash of 1983, and after the North American launch of the Nintendo Entertainment System, the 2600 was supported with new games and television commercials promoting \"The fun is back!\" Later European versions of the 2600 Jr. include a joypad, which is also featured with the European 7800. Atari released several minor stylistic variations of the 2600 Jr. design: the \"large rainbow\" (shown), \"short rainbow\", and an all-black version sold only in Ireland.", "In 1977, nine games were released on cartridge to accompany the launch of the machine, including \"Air-Sea Battle\", \"Star Ship\", and \"Street Racer\". Atari, Inc. was the only developer for the first few years of the VCS, releasing \"Adventure\" (often credited the first action-adventure game), \"Breakout\", and dozens of other games. Rick Maurer's port of Taito's \"Space Invaders\", released in 1980, is the first VCS title to have more than one million copies sold—eventually doubling that. It became the killer app to drive console sales. Versions of Atari's own \"Asteroids\" and \"Missile Command\" arcade games, released the following year, were also major hits. Each early VCS game is in a 2K ROM. Later games like \"Space Invaders\", and even \"River Raid\" from 1982, increased this capacity to 4K. The VCS port of \"Asteroids\" (1981) is the first game for the system to have used 8K via a bank switching technique. Some later releases, including Atari's ports of \"Dig Dug\" and \"Crystal Castles\", are 16K cartridges. Two Atari published games, both from 1982, \"E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial\" and \"Pac-Man\", are frequently blamed for contributing to the video game crash of 1983. To clear inventory and save money in wake of the crash, Atari shipped about 700,000 Atari 2600 games, including unsold lots of \"Pac-Man\" and \"E.T.\", to a landfill in Alamogordo, New Mexico in 1983. Until 2014, there was skepticism of how much Atari had buried there, in some cases estimates of millions of cartridges, creating an urban legend of an Atari video game burial. The legend was verified in 2014 when interested parties were able to dig up a portion of the landfill and confirmed the presence of unsold Atari games. A company named Mystique produced a number of pornographic games for the 2600. The most notorious of these, \"Custer's Revenge\", was protested by women's and Native American groups because it depicted General George Armstrong Custer raping a bound Native American woman. Atari sued Mystique in court over the release of the game.", "The Atari VCS—and later as the 2600—was so successful in the late 1970s and early 1980s that \"Atari\" was a synonym for the system in mainstream media and, by extension, for video games in general. Jay Miner directed the creation of the successors to the 2600's TIA chip—CTIA and ANTIC—which were central to the Atari 8-bit computers released in 1979 and later the Atari 5200 console. The Atari 2600 was inducted into the National Toy Hall of Fame at The Strong in Rochester, New York, in 2007. In 2009, the Atari 2600 was named the number two console of all time by IGN, who cited its remarkable role as the console behind both the first video game boom and the video game crash of 1983, and called it \"the console that our entire industry is built upon\".", "Modern Atari 2600 clones remain on the market. The Atari Classics 10-in-1 TV Game, manufactured by Jakks Pacific, emulates the 2600 console and includes converted versions of 10 games into a single Atari-brand-lookalike joystick with composite-video outputs for connecting directly to modern televisions or VCRs. The TV Boy includes 127 games in an enlarged joypad. The Atari Flashback 2 console, released in 2005, contains 40 games (with four additional programs unlocked by a cheat code). The console implements the original 2600 architecture and can be modified to play original 2600 cartridges by adding a cartridge port, and is also compatible with original 2600 controllers. In 2017, Hyperkin announced the RetroN 77, a clone of the Atari 2600 that plays original cartridges instead of pre-installed games. The Atari VCS microconsole, planned for release from Atari Interactive by 2019, is designed on a miniaturization of the Atari 2600, including the option for its faux wood paneling. This microconsole is designed to play several Atari 2600 games under emulation on a Linux operating system, as well as potentially other games for computers and other gaming systems.", "The Atari 2700 is a version of the 2600 which uses wireless controllers. An Atari 2600 variant, known by its production code \"CX2000\" and nickname \"Val\", was found as two 1982 prototypes at the New York and Sunnyvale Atari facilities, respectively. It was an attempt to make a new version of the aging 2600. Its design, with two integrated joystick controllers, was the result of human factor analysis by Henry Dreyfuss Associates. The project never saw market production. Atari started work on a 2600 successor called the \"Atari 3200\". It was to be compatible with 2600 cartridges, and was rumored to be based on a 10-bit processor, although design documents show it was to be based on the 8-bit 6502. It was unfinished when preliminary game developers discovered that it was difficult to program. Atari cloned the Atari 3200 into the Sears Super Arcade II, but this was never released." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Elements of the opera's genesis and sources.", "Performance history.", "Cairo premiere and initial success in Italy.", "Other 19th-century performances.", "20th century and beyond.", "Instrumentation.", "Setting.", "Synopsis.", "Act 1.", "Act 2.", "Act 3.", "Act 4.", "Adaptations.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Isma'il Pasha, Khedive of Egypt, commissioned Verdi to write an opera for performance to celebrate the opening of the Khedivial Opera House, paying him 150,000 francs, but the premiere was delayed because of the Siege of Paris (1870–71), during the Franco-Prussian War, when the scenery and costumes were stuck in the French capital, and Verdi's \"Rigoletto\" was performed instead. \"Aida\" eventually premiered in Cairo in late 1871. Contrary to popular belief, the opera was not written to celebrate the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, for which Verdi had been invited to write an inaugural hymn, but had declined. The plot bears striking, though unintentional, similarities to Metastasio's libretto \"La Nitteti\" (1756).", "", "Verdi originally chose to write a brief orchestral prelude instead of a full overture for the opera. He then composed an overture of the \"potpourri\" variety to replace the original prelude. However, in the end he decided not to have the overture performed because of its—his own words—\"pretentious insipidity\". This overture, never used today, was given a rare broadcast performance by Arturo Toscanini and the NBC Symphony Orchestra on 30 March 1940, but was never commercially issued. \"Aida\" met with great acclaim when it finally opened in Cairo on 24 December 1871. The costumes and accessories for the premiere were designed by Auguste Mariette, who also oversaw the design and construction of the sets, which were made in Paris by the Opéra's scene painters Auguste-Alfred Rubé and Philippe Chaperon (acts 1 and 4) and Édouard Desplechin and Jean-Baptiste Lavastre (acts 2 and 3), and shipped to Cairo. Although Verdi did not attend the premiere in Cairo, he was most dissatisfied with the fact that the audience consisted of invited dignitaries, politicians and critics, but no members of the general public. He therefore considered the Italian (and European) premiere, held at La Scala, Milan on 8 February 1872, and a performance in which he was heavily involved at every stage, to be its \"real\" premiere. Verdi had also written the role of Aida for the voice of Teresa Stolz, who sang it for the first time at the Milan premiere. Verdi had asked her fiancé, Angelo Mariani, to conduct the Cairo premiere, but he declined, so Giovanni Bottesini filled the gap. The Milan Amneris, Maria Waldmann, was his favourite in the role and she repeated it a number of times at his request. \"Aida\" was received with great enthusiasm at its Milan premiere. The opera was soon mounted at major opera houses throughout Italy, including the Teatro Regio di Parma (20 April 1872), the Teatro di San Carlo (30 March 1873), La Fenice (11 June 1873), the Teatro Regio di Torino (26 December 1874), the Teatro Comunale di Bologna (30 September 1877, with Giuseppina Pasqua as Amneris and Franco Novara as the King), and the Teatro Costanzi (8 October 1881, with Theresia Singer as Aida and Giulia Novelli as Amneris) among others.", "Details of important national and other premieres of \"Aida\" follow:", "A complete concert version of the opera was given in New York City in 1949. Conducted by Toscanini with Herva Nelli as Aida and Richard Tucker as Radamès, it was televised on the NBC television network. Due to the length of the opera, it was divided into two telecasts, preserved on kinescopes, and later released on video by RCA and Testament. The audio portion of the broadcast, including some remakes in June 1954, was released on LP and CD by RCA Victor. Other notable performances from this period include a 1955 performance conducted by Tullio Serafin with Maria Callas as Aida and Richard Tucker as Radamès and a 1959 performance conducted by Herbert von Karajan with Renata Tebaldi as Aida and Carlo Bergonzi as Radamès. La Scala mounted a lavish new production of \"Aida\" designed by Franco Zeffirelli for the opening night of its 2006/2007 season. The production starred Violeta Urmana in the title role and Roberto Alagna as Radamès. Alagna subsequently made the headlines when he was booed for his rendition of \"Celeste Aida\" during the second performance, walked off the stage, and was dismissed from the remainder of the run. The production continued to cause controversy in 2014 when Zeffirelli protested La Scala's rental of the production to the Astana Opera House in Kazakhstan without his permission. According to Zeffirelli, the move had doomed his production to an \"infamous and brutal\" fate. \"Aida\" continues to be a staple of the standard operatic repertoire. It is frequently performed in the Verona Arena, and is a staple of its renowned opera festival.", "3 flutes (3rd also piccolo), 2 oboes, English horn, 2 clarinets, bass clarinet, 2 bassoons, 4 horns, 2 trumpets, 3 trombones, bass trombone, tuba, timpani, triangle, bass drum, cymbals, tam-tam, harp, strings; on-stage banda: 6 Egyptian trumpets (\"Aida trumpets\"), military band, harp", "The libretto does not specify a precise time period, so it is difficult to place the opera more specifically than the Old Kingdom. For the first production, Mariette went to great efforts to make the sets and costumes authentic. Given the consistent artistic styles throughout the 3000-year history of ancient Egypt, a given production does not particularly need to choose a specific time period within the larger frame of ancient Egyptian history.", "Backstory: The Egyptians have captured and enslaved Aida, an Ethiopian princess. An Egyptian military commander, Radamès, struggles to choose between his love for her and his loyalty to the King of Egypt. To complicate the story further, the King's daughter Amneris is in love with Radamès, although he does not return her feelings.", "\"Scene 1: A hall in the King's palace; through the rear gate the pyramids and temples of Memphis are visible\" Ramfis, the high priest of Egypt, tells Radamès, the young warrior, that war with the Ethiopians seems inevitable, and Radamès hopes that he will be chosen as the Egyptian commander (Ramfis, Radamès: \"Sì, corre voce l'Etiope ardisca\" / Yes, it is rumored that Ethiopia dares once again to threaten our power). Radamès dreams both of gaining victory on the battlefield and of Aida, an Ethiopian slave, with whom he is secretly in love (Radamès: \"Se quel guerrier io fossi!... Celeste Aida\" / Heavenly Aida). Aida, who is also secretly in love with Radamès, is the captured daughter of the Ethiopian King Amonasro, but her Egyptian captors are unaware of her true identity. Her father has invaded Egypt to deliver her from servitude. Amneris, the daughter of the Egyptian King, enters the hall. She too loves Radamès, but fears that his heart belongs to someone else (Radamès, Amneris: \"Quale insolita gioia nel tuo sguardo\" / In your looks I trace a joy unwonted). Aida appears and, when Radamès sees her, Amneris notices that he looks disturbed. She suspects that Aida could be her rival, but is able to hide her jealousy and approach Aida (Amneris, Aida, Radamès: \"Vieni, o diletta, appressati\" / Come, O delight, come closer). The King enters, along with the High Priest, Ramfis, and the whole palace court. A messenger announces that the Ethiopians, led by King Amonasro, are marching towards Thebes. The King declares war and proclaims that Radamès is the man chosen by the goddess Isis to be the leader of the army (The King, Messenger, Radamès, Aida, Amneris, Ramfis, chorus: \"Alta cagion v'aduna.. Guerra, guerra, guerra!\" / Oh fate o'er Egypt looming.. War, war, war!). Upon receiving this mandate from the King, Radamès proceeds to the temple of Vulcan to take up the sacred arms (The King, Radamès, Aida, Amneris, chorus: \"Su! del Nilo al sacro lido\".. (reprise) \"Guerra, guerra guerra!\" / On! Of Nilus' sacred river, guard the shores.. (reprise) War, war, war!). Alone in the hall, Aida feels torn between her love for her father, her country, and Radamès (Aida: \"Ritorna vincitor\" / Return a conqueror). \"Scene 2: Inside the Temple of Vulcan\" Solemn ceremonies and dances by the priestesses take place (High Priestess, chorus, Radamès: \"Possente Ftha... Tu che dal nulla\" / O mighty Ptah). This is followed by the installation of Radamès to the office of commander-in-chief (High Priestess, chorus, Ramfis, Radamès: \"Immenso Ftha.. Mortal, diletto ai Numi\" / O mighty one, guard and protect!). All present in the temple pray fervently for the victory of Egypt and protection for their warriors (\"Nume, custode e vindice\"/ Hear us, O guardian deity).", "\"Scene 1: The chamber of Amneris\" Dances and music to celebrate Radamès' victory take place (Chorus, Amneris: \"Chi mai fra gli inni e i plausi\" / Our songs his glory praising). However, Amneris is still in doubt about Radamès' love and wonders whether Aida is in love with him. She tries to forget her doubt, entertaining her worried heart with the dance of Moorish slaves (Chorus, Amneris: \"Vieni: sul crin ti piovano\" / Come bind your flowing tresses). When Aida enters the chamber, Amneris asks everyone to leave. By falsely telling Aida that Radamès has died in the battle, she tricks her into professing her love for him. In grief, and shocked by the news, Aida confesses that her heart belongs to Radamès eternally (Amneris, Aida: \"Fu la sorte dell'armi a' tuoi funesta\" / The battle's outcome was cruel for your people). This confession fires Amneris with rage, and she plans on taking revenge on Aida. Ignoring Aida's pleadings (Amneris, Aida, chorus: \"Su! del Nilo al sacro lido\" / Up! at the sacred shores of the Nile), Amneris leaves her alone in the chamber. \"Scene 2: The grand gate of the city of Thebes\" Radamès returns victorious and the troops march into the city (Chorus, Ramfis: \"Gloria all'Egitto, ad Iside\" / Glory to Egypt, [and] to Isis!). The Egyptian king decrees that on this day the triumphant Radamès may have anything he wishes. The Ethiopian captives are led onstage in chains, Amonasro among them. Aida immediately rushes to her father, who whispers to her to conceal his true identity as King of Ethiopia from the Egyptians. Amonasro deceptively proclaims to the Egyptians that the Ethiopian king (referring to himself) has been slain in battle. Aida, Amonasro, and the captured Ethiopians plead with the Egyptian King for mercy, but Ramfis and the Egyptian priests call for their death (Aida, Amneris, Radamès, The King, Amonasro, chorus: \"Che veggo!.. Egli?.. Mio padre!.. Anch'io pugnai.. Struggi, o Re, queste ciurme feroci\" / What do I see?.. Is it he? My father?.. Destroy, O King, these ferocious creatures). Claiming the reward promised by the King of Egypt, Radamès pleads with him to spare the lives of the prisoners and to set them free. The King grants Radamès' wish, and declares that he (Radamès) will be his (the King's) successor and will marry the King's daughter (Amneris). (Aida, Amneris, Radamès, Ramfis, The King, Amonasro, chorus: \"O Re: pei sacri Numi!.. Gloria all'Egitto\" / O King, by the sacred gods... Glory to Egypt!). At Ramfis' suggestion to the King, Aida and Amonasro remain as hostages to ensure that the Ethiopians do not avenge their defeat.", "\"On the banks of the Nile, near the Temple of Isis\" Prayers are said (Chorus, High Priestess, Ramfis, Amneris: \"O tu che sei d'Osiride\" / O thou who to Osiris art) on the eve of Amneris and Radamès' wedding in the Temple of Isis. Outside, Aida waits to meet with Radamès as they had planned (Aida: \"Qui Radamès verra.. O patria mia\" / Oh, my dear country!). Amonasro appears and orders Aida to find out the location of the Egyptian army from Radamès. Aida, torn between her love for Radamès and her loyalty to her native land and to her father, reluctantly agrees. (Aida, Amonasro: \"Ciel, mio padre!.. Rivedrai le foreste imbalsamate\" / Once again shalt thou gaze). When Radamès arrives, Amonasro hides behind a rock and listens to their conversation. Radamès affirms that he will marry Aida (\"Pur ti riveggo, mia dolce Aida.. Nel fiero anelito\"; \"Fuggiam gli ardori inospiti.. Là, tra foreste vergini\" / I see you again, my sweet Aida!), and Aida convinces him to flee to the desert with her. In order to make their escape easier, Radamès proposes that they use a safe route without any fear of discovery and reveals the location where his army has chosen to attack. Upon hearing this, Amonasro comes out of hiding and reveals his identity. Radamès realizes, to his extreme dismay, that he has unwittingly revealed a crucial military secret to the enemy. At the same time, Amneris and Ramfis leave the temple and, seeing Radamès in conference with the enemy, call for the imperial guards. Amonasro draws a dagger, intending to kill Amneris and Ramfis before the guards can hear them, but Radamès disarms him, quickly orders him to flee with Aida, and surrenders himself to the imperial guards as Aida and Amonasro run off. The guards arrest him as a traitor.", "\"Scene 1: A hall in the Temple of Justice. To one side is the door leading to Radamès' prison cell\" Amneris desires to save Radamès (\"L'aborrita rivale a me sfuggia\" / My hated rival has escaped me). She calls for the guard to bring him to her. She asks Radamès to deny the accusations, but Radamès, who does not wish to live without Aida, refuses. He is relieved to know Aida is still alive and hopes she has reached her own country (Amneris, Radamès: \"Già i Sacerdoti adunansi\" / Already the priests are assembling). Offstage, Ramfis recites the charges against Radamès and calls on him to defend himself, but he stands mute, and is condemned to death as a traitor. Amneris, who remains onstage, protests that Radamès is innocent, and pleads with the priests to show mercy. The priests sentence him to be buried alive; Amneris weeps and curses the priests as he is taken away (Judgment scene, Amneris, Ramfis, and chorus: \"Ahimè!.. morir mi sento.. Radamès, e deciso il tuo fato\" / Alas.. I feel death.. Radamès, your fate is decided). \"Scene 2: The lower portion of the stage shows the vault in the Temple of Vulcan; the upper portion represents the temple itself\" Radamès has been taken into the lower floor of the temple and sealed up in a dark vault, where he thinks that he is alone. As he hopes that Aida is in a safer place, he hears a sigh and then sees Aida. She has hidden herself in the vault in order to die with Radamès (Radamès: \"La fatal pietra sovra me si chiuse\" / The fatal stone now closes over me). They accept their terrible fate (Radamès: \"Morir! Si pura e bella\" / To die! So pure and lovely!) and bid farewell to Earth and its sorrows (duet \"O terra addio\"). Above the vault in the temple of Vulcan, Amneris weeps and prays to the goddess Isis. In the vault below, Aida dies in Radamès' arms as the priests, offstage, pray to the god Ptah. (Chorus, Aida, Radamès, Amneris: \"Immenso Ftha\" / Almighty Ptah).", "The opera has been adapted for motion pictures on several occasions, most notably in a 1953 production which starred Lois Maxwell as Amneris and Sophia Loren as Aida, and a 1987 Swedish production. In both cases, the lead actors lip-synched to recordings by actual opera singers. In the case of the 1953 film, Ebe Stignani sang as Amneris, while Renata Tebaldi sang as Aida. The opera's story, but not its music, was used as the basis for a 1998 musical of the same name written by Elton John and Tim Rice.", "Notes Cited sources Other sources" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Origin of the story.", "Performance history and reception.", "Initial success.", "20th and 21st centuries.", "Critical reception.", "Synopsis.", "Act 1.", "Act 2.", "Act 3.", "Act 4.", "Instrumentation.", "Recording history.", "The missing act.", "Derivative works.", "Modernizations.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "As credited on its title page, the libretto of \"La bohème\" is based on Henri Murger's novel, \"Scènes de la vie de bohème\", a collection of vignettes portraying young bohemians living in the Latin Quarter of Paris in the 1840s. Although often called a novel, the book has no unified plot. Like the 1849 play drawn from the book by Murger and Théodore Barrière, the opera's libretto focuses on the relationship between Rodolfo and Mimì, ending with her death. Also like the play, the libretto combines two characters from the novel, Mimì and Francine, into the single character of Mimì. Early in the composition stage Puccini was in dispute with the composer Leoncavallo, who said that he had offered Puccini a completed libretto and felt that Puccini should defer to him. Puccini responded that he had had no idea of Leoncavallo's interest and that having been working on his own version for some time, he felt that he could not oblige him by discontinuing with the opera. Leoncavallo completed his own version in which Marcello was sung by a tenor and Rodolfo by a baritone. It was unsuccessful and is now rarely performed. Much of the libretto is original. The main actions of acts two and three are the librettists' invention, with only a few passing references to incidents and characters in Murger. Most of acts one and four follow the book, piecing together episodes from various chapters. The final scenes in acts one and four—the scenes with Rodolfo and Mimì—resemble both the play and the book. The story of their meeting closely follows chapter 18 of the book, in which the two lovers living in the garret are not Rodolphe and Mimì at all, but rather Jacques and Francine. The story of Mimì's death in the opera draws from two different chapters in the book, one relating Francine's death and the other relating Mimì's. The published libretto includes a note from the librettists briefly discussing their adaptation. Without mentioning the play directly, they defend their conflation of Francine and Mimì into a single character: \"Chi può non confondere nel delicato profilo di una sola donna quelli di Mimì e di Francine?\" (\"Who cannot confuse in the delicate profile of one woman the personality both of Mimì and of Francine?\"). At the time, the book was in the public domain, Murger having died without heirs, but rights to the play were still controlled by Barrière's heirs.", "", "The world première performance of \"La bohème\" took place in Turin on 1 February 1896 at the Teatro Regio and was conducted by the young Arturo Toscanini. The role of Rodolfo was played by Evan Gorga with Cesira Ferrani as Mimi, but Gorga was unable to accommodate the high tessitura and the music had to be transposed down for him. The initial response of the audience at the first performance was subdued and critical responses were polarized. Despite this varied introductory response, the opera quickly became popular throughout Italy and productions were soon mounted by the following companies: The Teatro di San Carlo (14 March 1896, with Elisa Petri as Musetta and Antonio Magini-Coletti as Marcello); The Teatro Comunale di Bologna (4 November 1896, with Amelia Sedelmayer as Musetta and Umberto Beduschi as Rodolfo); The Teatro Costanzi (17 November 1896, with Maria Stuarda Savelli as Mimì, Enrico Giannini-Grifoni as Rodolfo, and Maurizio Bensaude as Marcello); La Scala (15 March 1897, with Angelica Pandolfini as Mimì, Camilla Pasini as Musetta, Fernando De Lucia as Rodolfo, and Edoardo Camera as Marcello); La Fenice (26 December 1897, with Emilia Merolla as Mimì, Maria Martelli as Musetta, Giovanni Apostolu and Franco Mannucci as Rodolfo, and Ferruccio Corradetti as Marcello); Teatro Regio di Parma (29 January 1898, with Solomiya Krushelnytska as Mimì, Lina Cassandro as Musetta, Pietro Ferrari as Rodolfo, and Pietro Giacomello as Marcello); Paris Opera (13 June 1898); and the Teatro Donizetti di Bergamo (21 August 1898, with Emilia Corsi as Mimì, Annita Barone as Musetta, Giovanni Apostolu as Rodolfo, and Giovanni Roussel as Marcello). The first performance of \"La bohème\" outside Italy was at the Teatro Colón in Buenos Aires, Argentina, on 16 June 1896. The opera was given in Alexandria, Lisbon, and Moscow in early 1897. The United Kingdom premiere took place at the Theatre Royal in Manchester, on 22 April 1897, in a presentation by the Carl Rosa Opera Company supervised by Puccini. This performance was given in English and starred Alice Esty as Mimì, Bessie McDonald as Musetta, Robert Cunningham as Rodolfo, and William Paull as Marcello. On 2 October 1897 the same company gave the opera's first staging at the Royal Opera House in London and on 14 October 1897 in Los Angeles for the opera's United States premiere. The opera reached New York City on 16 May 1898 when it was performed at Wallack's Theatre with Giuseppe Agostini as Rodolfo. The first production of the opera actually produced by the Royal Opera House itself premiered on 1 July 1899 with Nellie Melba as Mimì, Zélie de Lussan as Musetta, Fernando De Lucia as Rodolfo, and Mario Ancona as Marcello. \"La bohème\" premiered in Germany at the Kroll Opera House in Berlin on 22 June 1897. The French premiere of the opera was presented by the Opéra-Comique on 13 June 1898 at the Théâtre des Nations. The production used a French translation by Paul Ferrier and starred Julia Guiraudon as Mimì, Jeanne Tiphaine as Musetta, Adolphe Maréchal as Rodolfo, and Lucien Fugère as Marcello. The Czech premiere of the opera was presented by the National Theatre on 27 February 1898.", "\"La bohème\" continued to gain international popularity throughout the early 20th century and the Opéra-Comique alone had already presented the opera one hundred times by 1903. The Belgian premiere took place at La Monnaie on 25 October 1900 using Ferrier's French translation with Marie Thiérry as Mimì, Léon David as Rodolfo, Eugène-Charles Badiali as Marcello, sets by Pierre Devis, Armand Lynen, and Albert Dubosq, and Philippe Flon conducting. The Metropolitan Opera staged the work for the first time on 26 December 1900 with Nellie Melba as Mimì, Annita Occhiolini-Rizzini as Musetta, Albert Saléza as Rodolfo, Giuseppe Campanari as Marcello, and Luigi Mancinelli conducting. The opera was first performed in Brazil at the Theatro da Paz in Belém on 21 April 1900 with the Brazilian soprano Tilde Maragliano as Mimì, Maria Cavallini as Musetta, Giuseppe Agostini as Rodolfo and Alessandro Modesti as Marcello. The conductor was Giorgio Polacco The following year \"La bohème\" was presented at the Teatro Amazonas in Manaus, Brazil, on 2 July 1901 with Elvira Miotti as Mimì, Mabel Nelma as Musetta, Michele Sigaldi as Rodolfo, and Enrico De Franceschi as Marcello. Other premieres soon followed: Puccini died in Brussels on 29 November 1924, and the news of his death reached Rome during a performance of \"La bohème\". The opera was immediately stopped, and the orchestra played Chopin's \"Funeral March\" for the stunned audience. The first production of \"La bohème\" at the Salzburg Festival did not occur until as late as July 2012. However, that festival has not shown much interest in the operas of Puccini, only ever having one production each of \"Tosca\" and \"Turandot\" in its entire history.", "Despite the opera's popularity with audiences, Puccini has been the target of condescension by some music critics who find his music insufficiently sophisticated or difficult. The composer Benjamin Britten wrote in 1951, \"[A]fter four or five performances I never wanted to hear \"Bohème\" again. In spite of its neatness, I became sickened by the cheapness and emptiness of the music.\"", "", "\"In the four bohemians' garret (Christmas Eve)\" Marcello is painting while Rodolfo gazes out of the window. They complain of the cold. In order to keep warm, they burn the manuscript of Rodolfo's drama. Colline, the philosopher, enters shivering and disgruntled at not having been able to pawn some books. Schaunard, the musician of the group, arrives with food, wine and cigars. He explains the source of his riches: a job with an eccentric English gentleman, who ordered him to play his violin to a parrot until it died. The others hardly listen to his tale as they set up the table to eat and drink. Schaunard interrupts, telling them that they must save the food for the days ahead: tonight they will all celebrate his good fortune by dining at Cafe Momus, and he will pay. The friends are interrupted by Benoît, the landlord, who arrives to collect the rent. They flatter him and ply him with wine. In his drunkenness, he begins to boast of his amorous adventures, but when he also reveals that he is married, they thrust him from the room—without the rent payment—in comic moral indignation. The rent money is divided for their evening out in the \"Quartier Latin\". Marcello, Schaunard and Colline go out, but Rodolfo remains alone for a moment in order to finish an article he is writing, promising to join his friends soon. There is a knock at the door. It is a girl who lives in another room in the building. Her candle has blown out, and she has no matches; she asks Rodolfo to light it. She is briefly overcome with faintness, and Rodolfo helps her to a chair and offers her a glass of wine. She thanks him. After a few minutes, she says that she is better and must go. But as she turns to leave, she realizes that she has lost her key. Her candle goes out in the draught and Rodolfo's candle goes out too; the pair stumble in the dark. Rodolfo, eager to spend time with the girl, to whom he is already attracted, finds the key and pockets it, feigning innocence. He takes her cold hand (\"Che gelida manina\"—\"What a cold little hand\") and tells her of his life as a poet, then asks her to tell him more about her life. The girl says her name is Mimì (\"Sì, mi chiamano Mimì\"—\"Yes, they call me Mimì\"), and describes her simple life as an embroiderer. Impatiently, the waiting friends call Rodolfo. He answers and turns to see Mimì bathed in moonlight (duet, Rodolfo and Mimì: \"O soave fanciulla\"—\"Oh lovely girl\"). They realize that they have fallen in love. Rodolfo suggests remaining at home with Mimì, but she decides to accompany him to the Cafe Momus. As they leave, they sing of their newfound love.", "\"Quartier Latin (same evening)\" A great crowd, including children, has gathered with street sellers announcing their wares (chorus: \"Aranci, datteri! Caldi i marroni!\"—\"Oranges, dates! Hot chestnuts!\"). The friends arrive; Rodolfo buys Mimì a bonnet from a vendor, while Colline buys a coat and Schaunard a horn. Parisians gossip with friends and bargain with the vendors; the children of the streets clamor to see the wares of Parpignol, the toy seller. The friends enter the Cafe Momus. As the men and Mimì dine at the cafe, Musetta, formerly Marcello's sweetheart, arrives with her rich (and elderly) government minister admirer, Alcindoro, whom she is tormenting. It is clear she is tired of him. To the delight of the Parisians and the embarrassment of her patron, she sings a risqué song (Musetta's waltz: \"Quando me'n vo'\"—\"When I go along\"), hoping to reclaim Marcello's attention. The ploy works; at the same time, Mimì recognizes that Musetta truly loves Marcello. To be rid of Alcindoro for a bit, Musetta pretends to be suffering from a tight shoe and sends him to the shoemaker to get her shoe mended. Alcindoro leaves, and Musetta and Marcello fall rapturously into each other's arms. The friends are presented with their bill. However, Schaunard's purse has gone missing and no one else has enough money to pay. The sly Musetta has the entire bill charged to Alcindoro. The sound of a military band is heard, and the friends leave. Alcindoro returns with the repaired shoe seeking Musetta. The waiter hands him the bill and, dumbfounded, Alcindoro sinks into a chair.", "\"At the toll gate at the Barrière d'Enfer (late February)\" Peddlers pass through the barriers and enter the city. Mimì appears, coughing violently. She tries to find Marcello, who is currently living in a little tavern where he paints signs for the innkeeper. She tells him of her hard life with Rodolfo, who abandoned her the night before, and of Rodolfo's terrible jealousy (\"O buon Marcello, aiuto!\"—\"Oh, good Marcello, help me!\"). Marcello tells her that Rodolfo is asleep inside, and expresses concern about Mimì's cough. Rodolfo wakes up and comes out looking for Marcello. Mimì hides and overhears Rodolfo first telling Marcello that he left Mimì because of her coquettishness, but finally confessing that his jealousy is a sham: he fears she is slowly being consumed by a deadly illness (most likely tuberculosis, known by the catchall name \"consumption\" in the nineteenth century). Rodolfo, in his poverty, can do little to help Mimì and hopes that his pretended unkindness will inspire her to seek another, wealthier suitor (\"Marcello, finalmente\"—\"Marcello, finally\"). Out of kindness towards Mimì, Marcello tries to silence him, but she has already heard all. Her weeping and coughing reveal her presence, and Rodolfo hurries to her. Musetta's laughter is heard and Marcello goes to find out what has happened. Mimì tells Rodolfo that she is leaving him, and asks that they separate amicably (Mimì: \"Donde lieta uscì\"—\"From here she happily left\"); but their love for one another is too strong for the pair to part. As a compromise, they agree to remain together until the spring, when the world is coming to life again and no one feels truly alone. Meanwhile, Marcello has found Musetta, and the couple quarrel fiercely about Musetta's flirtatiousness: an antithetical counterpoint to the other pair's reconciliation (quartet: Mimì, Rodolfo, Musetta, Marcello: \"Addio dolce svegliare alla mattina!\"—\"Goodbye, sweet awakening in the morning!\").", "\"Back in the garret (some months later)\" Marcello and Rodolfo are trying to work, though they are primarily talking about their girlfriends, who have left them and found wealthy lovers. Rodolfo has seen Musetta in a fine carriage and Marcello has seen Mimì dressed like a queen. The men both express their nostalgia (duet: \"O Mimì, tu più non torni\"—\"O Mimì, will you not return?\"). Schaunard and Colline arrive with a very frugal dinner and all parody eating a plentiful banquet, dance together and sing, before Schaunard and Colline engage in a mock duel. Musetta suddenly appears; Mimì, who took up with a wealthy viscount after leaving Rodolfo in the spring, has left her patron. Musetta found her that day in the street, severely weakened by her illness, and Mimì begged Musetta to bring her to Rodolfo. Mimì, haggard and pale, is assisted onto a bed. Briefly, she feels as though she is recovering. Musetta and Marcello leave to sell Musetta's earrings in order to buy medicine, and Colline leaves to pawn his overcoat (\"Vecchia zimarra\"—\"Old coat\"). Schaunard leaves with Colline to give Mimì and Rodolfo some time together. Mimì tells Rodolfo that her love for him is her whole life (aria/duet, Mimì and Rodolfo: \"Sono andati?\"—\"Have they gone?\"). To Mimì's delight, Rodolfo presents her with the pink bonnet he bought her, which he has kept as a souvenir of their love. They remember past happiness and their first meeting—the candles, the lost key. Mimì is overwhelmed by a seizure of coughing. The others return, with a gift of a muff to warm Mimì's hands and a cordial to soothe her cough. Mimì gently thanks Rodolfo for the muff, which she believes is a present from him, reassures him that she is better, and falls asleep. Musetta prays. Schaunard discovers that Mimì has died. Rodolfo rushes to the bed, calling Mimì's name in anguish. He sobs helplessly as the curtain falls.", "\"La bohème\" is scored for:", "The discography of \"La bohème\" is a long one with many distinguished recordings, including the 1972 Decca recording conducted by Herbert von Karajan with Luciano Pavarotti as Rodolfo and Mirella Freni as Mimì (made before Pavarotti became an international superstar of opera), and the 1973 RCA Victor recording conducted by Sir Georg Solti with Montserrat Caballé as Mimì and Plácido Domingo as Rodolfo which won the 1974 Grammy Award for Best Opera Recording. The 1959 recording conducted by Tullio Serafin with Renata Tebaldi as Mimì and Carlo Bergonzi was included in the soundtrack of the 1987 movie Moonstruck. The earliest commercially released full-length recording was probably that recorded in February 1917 and released on HMV's Italian label La Voce del Padrone. Carlo Sabajno conducted the La Scala Orchestra and Chorus with Gemma Bosini and Reno Andreini as Mimì and Rodolfo. One of the most recent is the 2008 Deutsche Grammophon release conducted by Bertrand de Billy with Anna Netrebko and Rolando Villazón as Mimì and Rodolfo. There are several recordings with conductors closely associated with Puccini. In the 1946 RCA Victor recording, Arturo Toscanini, who conducted the world premiere of the opera, conducts the NBC Symphony Orchestra with Jan Peerce as Rodolfo and Licia Albanese as Mimì. It is the only recording of a Puccini opera by its original conductor. Thomas Beecham, who worked closely with Puccini when preparing a 1920 production of \"La bohème\" in London, conducted a performance of the opera in English released by Columbia Records in 1936 with Lisa Perli as Mimì and Heddle Nash as Rodolfo. Beecham also conducts on the 1956 RCA Victor recording with Victoria de los Ángeles and Jussi Björling as Mimì and Rodolfo. Although the vast majority of recordings are in the original Italian, the opera has been recorded in several other languages. These include: a recording in French conducted by Erasmo Ghiglia with Renée Doria and Alain Vanzo as Mimì and Rodolfo (1960); a recording in German with Richard Kraus conducting the Deutsche Oper Berlin Orchestra and Chorus with Trude Eipperle and Fritz Wunderlich as Mimì and Rodolfo (1956); and the 1998 release on the Chandos Opera in English label with David Parry conducting the Philharmonia Orchestra and Cynthia Haymon and Dennis O'Neill as Mimì and Rodolfo. Enrico Caruso, who was closely associated with the role of Rodolfo, recorded the famous aria \"Che gelida manina\" in 1906. This aria has been recorded by nearly 500 tenors in at least seven different languages between 1900 and 1980. In 1981 the A.N.N.A. Record Company released a six LP set with 101 different tenors singing the aria.", "In 1957 Illica's widow died and his papers were given to the Parma Museum. Among them was the full libretto to \"La bohème\". It was discovered that the librettists had prepared an act which Puccini decided not to use in his composition. It is noteworthy for explaining Rodolfo's jealous remarks to Marcello in act 3. The \"missing act\" is located in the timeline between the Café Momus scene and act 3 and describes an open-air party at Musetta's dwelling. Her protector has refused to pay further rent out of jealous feelings, and Musetta's furniture is moved into the courtyard to be auctioned off the following morning. The four Bohemians find in this an excuse for a party and arrange for wine and an orchestra. Musetta gives Mimì a beautiful gown to wear and introduces her to a Viscount. The pair dances a quadrille in the courtyard, which moves Rodolfo to jealousy. This explains his act 3 reference to the \"moscardino di Viscontino\" (young fop of a Viscount). As dawn approaches, furniture dealers gradually remove pieces for the morning auction.", "In 1959 \"Musetta's Waltz\" was adapted by songwriter Bobby Worth for the pop song \"Don't You Know?\", a hit for Della Reese. Earlier, it was used for another song, \"One Night of Love\". In 1969 in Paris, American free-jazz pianist Dave Burrell recorded his \"La Vie de Bohème\" with a seven-piece group of European and American musicians. The music on the double-LP is improvised and experimental, but the listener can still discern Puccini's themes, as well as the narrative arc of the complete opera. \"Rent\", a 1996 musical by Jonathan Larson, is based on \"La bohème\". Here the lovers, Roger and Mimi, are faced with AIDS and progress through the action with songs such as \"Light My Candle\", which have direct reference to \"La bohème\". Many of the character names are retained or are similar (e.g. the character Angel is given the surname \"Schunard\"), and at another point in the play, Roger's roommate and best friend Mark makes a wry reference to \"Musetta's Waltz\", which is a recurring theme throughout the first act and is played at the end of the second act. The opera was adapted into a 1983 short story by the novelist V. S. Pritchett for publication by the Metropolitan Opera Association.", "Baz Luhrmann produced the opera for Opera Australia in 1990 with modernized supertitle translations, and a budget of only A$60,000. A DVD was issued of the stage show. According to Luhrmann, this version was set in 1957 (rather than the original period of 1830) because \"...[they] discovered that 1957 was a very, very accurate match for the social and economic realities of Paris in the 1840s.\" In 2002, Luhrmann restaged his version on Broadway, the production won two Tony Awards out of six nominations; for Best Scenic Design and Best Lighting Design as well as a special award, the Tony Honor for Excellence in Theatre. To play the eight performances per week on Broadway, three casts of Mimìs and Rodolfos, and two Musettas and Marcellos, were used in rotation. Robin Norton-Hale directed a new production at the Cock Tavern Theatre, Kilburn, for OperaUpClose in December 2009. For act 2 the entire audience and cast moved downstairs to the pub itself, with the pub's patrons serving as extras in the Cafe Momus scene. In 2010 the production was transferred to the West End's Soho Theatre and won a Laurence Olivier Award.", "Annotations Notes Sources" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Evolution.", "Subspecies.", "Description.", "Behaviour.", "Social and territorial behaviours.", "Reproduction and development.", "Diet.", "Relationships with other predators.", "Range.", "Introduction in North America.", "Relationships with humans.", "Tameability.", "Hunting and fur use.", "Car damage.", "Large Hadron Collider.", "References.", "Notes." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Its most likely ancestor is \"Martes vetus\", which also gave rise to the pine marten. The earliest \"M. vetus\" fossils were found in deposits dated to the Würm glaciation in Lebanon and Israel. The beech marten likely originated in the Near East or southwestern Asia, and may have arrived in Europe by the Late Pleistocene or the early Holocene. Thus, the beech marten differs from most other European mustelids of the Quaternary, as all other species (save for the European mink) appeared during the Middle Pleistocene. Comparisons between fossil animals and their descendants indicate that the beech marten underwent a decrease in size beginning in the Würm period. Beech martens indigenous to the Aegean Islands represent a relic population with primitive Asiatic affinities. The skull of the beech marten suggests a higher adaptation than the pine marten toward hypercarnivory, as indicated by its smaller head, shorter snout and its narrower post-orbital constriction and lesser emphasis on cheek teeth. Selective pressures must have acted to increase the beech marten's bite force at the expense of gape. These traits probably acted on male beech martens as a mechanism to avoid both intraspecific competition with females and interspecific competition with the ecologically overlapping pine marten.", ", eleven subspecies are recognised.", "The beech marten is superficially similar to the pine marten, but has a somewhat longer tail, a more elongated and angular head and has shorter, more rounded and widely spaced ears. Its nose is also of a light peach or grey colour, whereas that of the pine marten is dark black or greyish-black. Its feet are not as densely furred as those of the pine marten, thus making them look less broad, with the paw pads remaining visible even in winter. Because of its shorter limbs, the beech marten's manner of locomotion differs from that of the pine marten; the beech marten moves by creeping in a polecat-like manner, whereas the pine marten and sable move by bounds. The load per 1 cm of the supporting surface of the beech marten's foot (30.9 g) is double that of the pine marten (15.2 g), thus it is obliged to avoid snowy regions. Its skull is similar to that of the pine marten, but differs in its shorter facial region, more convex profile, its larger carnassials and smaller molars. The beech marten's penis is larger than the pine marten's, with the bacula of young beech martens often outsizing those of old pine martens. Males measure 430–590 mm in body length, while females measure 380–470 mm. The tail measures 250–320 mm in males and 230–275 mm in females. Males weigh 1.7–1.8 kg in winter and 2–2.1 kg in summer, while females weigh 1.1–1.3 kg in winter and 1.4–1.5 kg in summer. The beech marten's fur is coarser than the pine marten's, with elastic guard hairs and less dense underfur. Its summer coat is short, sparse and coarse, and the tail is sparsely furred. The colour tone is lighter than the pine marten's. Unlike the pine marten, its underfur is whitish, rather than greyish. The tail is dark-brown, while the back is darker than that of the pine marten. The throat patch of the beech marten is always white. The patch is large and generally has two projections extending backwards to the base of the forelegs and upward on the legs. The dark colour of the belly juts out between the forelegs as a line into the white colour of the chest and sometimes into the neck. In the pine marten, by contrast, the white colour between the forelegs juts backwards as a protrusion into the belly colour.", "The beech marten is mainly a crepuscular and nocturnal animal, though to a much lesser extent than the European polecat. It is especially active during moonlit nights. Being a more terrestrial animal than the pine marten, the beech marten is less arboreal in its habits, though it can be a skilled climber in heavily forested areas. It is a skilled swimmer, and may occasionally be active during daytime hours, particularly in the summer, when nights are short. It typically hunts on the ground. During heavy snowfalls, the beech marten moves through paths made by hares or skis.", "In an area of northeastern Spain, where the beech marten still lives in relatively unmodified habitats, one specimen was recorded to have had a home range of with two centres of activity. Its period of maximum activity occurred between 6 PM and midnight. Between 9 AM and 6 PM, the animal was found to be largely inactive. In urban areas, beech marten's dens are almost entirely in buildings, particularly during winter. The beech marten does not dig burrows, nor does it occupy those of other animals. Instead, it nests in naturally occurring fissures and clefts in rocks, spaces between stones in rock slides and inhabited or uninhabited stone structures. It may live in tree holes at a height of up to 9 metres.", "Estrus and copulation occur at the same time as in the pine marten. Copulation can last longer than 1 hour. Mating occurs in the June–July period, and takes place in the morning or in moonlit nights on the ground or on the roofs of houses. The gestation period lasts as long as the pine marten's, lasting 236–237 days in the wild, and 254–275 days in fur farms. Parturition takes place in late March-early April, with the average litter consisting of 3-7 kits. The kits are born blind, and begin to see at the age of 30–36 days. The lactation period lasts 40–45 days. In early July, the young are indistinguishable from the adults.", "The beech marten's diet includes a much higher quantity of plant food than that of the pine marten and sable. Plant foods eaten by the beech marten include cherries, apples, pears, plums, black nightshade, tomatoes, grapes, raspberries and mountain ash. Plant food typically predominates during the winter months. Rats, mice and chickens are also eaten. Among bird species preyed upon by the beech marten, sparrow-like birds predominate, though snowcocks and partridges may also be taken. The marten likes to plunder nests of birds including passerines, galliformes and owls, preferring to kill the parents in addition to the fledglings. Although it rarely attacks poultry, some specimens may become specialized poultry raiders, even when wild prey is abundant. Males tend to target large, live prey more than females, who feed on small prey and carrion with greater frequency.", "In areas where the beech marten is sympatric with the pine marten, the two species avoid competing with one another by assuming different ecological niches; the pine marten feeds on birds and rodents more frequently, while the beech marten feeds on fruits and insects. There is however one case of a subadult beech marten being killed by a pine marten. The beech marten has been known to kill European polecats on rare occasions. Red foxes, lynxes and mountain lions may prey on adults, whereas juveniles are vulnerable from attack by birds of prey and wildcats. There is, however, one case from Germany of a beech marten killing a domestic cat.", "The beech marten is a widespread species which occurs throughout much of Europe and Central Asia. It occurs from Spain and Portugal in the west, through Central and Southern Europe, the Middle East and Central Asia, extending as far east as the Altai and Tien Shan mountains and northwest China. Within Europe, the species is absent in the British Isles, Scandinavian peninsula, Finland, Denmark, the northern Baltic and northern European Russia. It occurs in Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bhutan and was recently confirmed to inhabit northern Burma.", "The beech marten is present in Wisconsin, particularly near the urban centres surrounding Milwaukee. It is also present in several wooded, upland areas in the Kettle Moraine State Forest, and in nearby woodlands of Walworth, Racine, Waukesha and probably Jefferson Counties. North American beech martens are likely descended from feral animals that escaped a private fur farm in Burlington during the 1940s. They have also been listed as being released or having escaped in 1972.", "", "British zoologist George Rolleston theorised that the \"domestic cat\" of the Ancient Greeks and Romans was in fact the beech marten. Pioneering marine biologist Jeanne Villepreux-Power kept two tame beech martens.", "Although the beech marten is a valuable animal to the fur trade, its pelt is inferior in quality to that of the pine marten and sable. Beech marten skins on the fur markets of the Soviet Union accounted for only 10-12% of the market presence of pine marten skins. Beech martens were caught only in the Caucasus, in the Montane part of Crimea and (in very small numbers) in the rest of Ukraine, and in the republics of Middle Asia. Because animals with more valuable pelts are rare in those areas, the beech marten is of value to hunters on the local market. Beech martens are captured with jaw traps, or, for live capture, with cage traps. The shooting of beech martens is inefficient, and trailing them with dogs is only successful when the animal can be trapped in a tree hollow.", "Since the mid-1970s, the beech marten has been known to occasionally cause damage to cars. Cars attacked by martens typically have cut tubes and cables. A beech marten can slice through the cables of a starter motor with just one bite. The reason for this is not fully known, as the damaged items are not eaten. There is, however, a seasonal peak in marten attacks on cars in spring, when young martens explore their surroundings more often and have yet to learn which items in their habitat are edible or not. The fishoil often contained in the cables of cars from Japan may contribute to this.", "On 29 April and 21 November 2016, two beech martens shut down the Large Hadron Collider, the world's most powerful particle accelerator, by climbing on 18–66 kV electrical transformers located above ground near the LHCb and ALICE experiments, respectively. The second marten was stuffed and put on display in the Rotterdam Natural History Museum.", "", "Frederickson, B. (2007). Stone Marten. http://dnr.wi.gov/topic/invasives/documents/classification/lr_stonemarten.pdf" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Publication history.", "Themes.", "Characters.", "Dilbert.", "Pointy-haired Boss (PHB).", "Wally.", "Alice.", "Dogbert.", "Catbert.", "Asok.", "Ted.", "Elbonia.", "Phil.", "Legacy.", "Criticism and parody.", "Management.", "Webcomics.", "Awards.", "Media.", "Animated series.", "New animation.", "\"Drunken lemurs\" case.", "Guest artists." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "\"Dilbert\" began syndication by United Feature Syndicate (a division of United Media) in April 1989. On June 3, 2010, United Media sold their licensing arm, along with the rights to \"Dilbert\", to Iconix Brand Group. This led to \"Dilbert\" leaving United Media. In late December 2010, it was announced that Dilbert would move to Universal Uclick (a division of Andrews McMeel Universal) beginning in June 2011. \"Dilbert\" has been with Universal Uclick — now known as Andrews McMeel Syndication — ever since.", "The comic strip originally revolved around Dilbert and his \"pet\" dog Dogbert in their home. Many early plots revolved around Dilbert's engineer nature or his bizarre inventions. Also prominent were plots based on Dogbert's megalomaniacal ambitions. Later, the location of most of the action moved to Dilbert's workplace and the strip started to satirize technology, workplace, and company issues. The comic strip's popular success is attributable to its workplace setting and themes, which are familiar to a large and appreciative audience; Adams has said that switching the setting from Dilbert's home to his office was \"when the strip really started to take off\". The workplace location is Silicon Valley. \"Dilbert\" portrays corporate culture as a Kafkaesque world of bureaucracy for its own sake and office politics that stand in the way of productivity, where employees' skills and efforts are not rewarded, and busy work is praised. Much of the humor emerges as the audience sees the characters making obviously ridiculous decisions that are natural reactions to mismanagement.", "", "The main character in the strip, Dilbert is a technically-minded single white male. Until October 2014, he was usually depicted wearing a white dress shirt, black trousers and a red-and-black striped tie that inexplicably curves upward; after October 13, 2014, his standard apparel changed to a red polo shirt with a name badge on a lanyard around his neck. Dilbert is a skilled engineer but has a poor social and romantic life.", "The unnamed, oblivious manager of the engineering division of Dilbert's company. Scott Adams states that he never named him so that people can imagine him to be their boss. In earlier strips he was depicted as a stereotypical late-middle-aged balding middle manager with jowls; it was not until later that he developed his signature \"pointy hair\" and the jowls disappeared. He is hopelessly incompetent at management, and often tries to compensate for his lack of skills with countless group therapy sessions and business strategies that rarely bear fruit. He does not understand technical issues, but always tries to disguise this, usually by using buzzwords he also does not understand. The Boss treats his employees alternately with enthusiasm or neglect; he often uses them to his own ends regardless of the consequences to them. Adams himself wrote that \"He's not sadistic, just uncaring\". His level of intelligence varies from near-vegetative to perceptive and clever, depending on the strip's comic needs. His utter lack of consistent business ethics, however, is perfectly consistent. His brother is a demon named \"Phil, the Prince of Insufficient Light\", and according to Adams, the pointy hair is intended to remind one of devils' horns.", "One of the longest serving engineers, Wally was originally a worker trying to get fired to get a severance package. He hates work and avoids it whenever he can. He often carries a cup of coffee, calmly sipping from it even in the midst of chaos or office-shaking revelations. Wally is extremely cynical. He is even more socially inept than Dilbert (though far less self-aware of the fact), and references to his lack of personal hygiene are not uncommon. Like the Pointy-haired Boss, Wally is utterly lacking in ethics and will take advantage of any situation to maximize his personal gain while doing the least possible amount of honest work. Until the change to \"business dorky\" wear of a polo shirt, Wally was invariably portrayed wearing a short sleeved dress shirt and tie. Adams has stated that Wally was based on a Pacific Bell coworker of his who was interested in a generous employee buy-out program—for the company's worst employees. This had the effect of causing this man—whom Adams describes as \"one of the more brilliant people I've met\"—to work hard at being incompetent, rude, and generally poor at his job to qualify for the buy-out program. Adams has said that this inspired the basic laziness and amorality of Wally's character. Despite these personality traits Wally is accepted as part of Dilbert, Ted, Alice, and Asok's clique. Although his relationship with Alice is often antagonistic and Dilbert occasionally denies being his friend, their actions show at least a certain acceptance of him.", "One of the more competent and highest paid engineers. She is often frustrated at her work, because she does not get proper recognition, which she believes is because she is female, though in reality it is likely because she has a quick, often violent temper, sometimes putting her \"Fist of Death\" to use, even with the Pointy-haired Boss. Alice is based on a woman that Scott Adams worked with named Anita, who is described as sharing Alice's \"pink suit, fluffy hair, technical proficiency, coffee obsession, and take-no-crap attitude.\"", "Dilbert's anthropomorphic pet dog is the smartest dog on Earth. Dogbert is a megalomaniac intellectual dog, planning to one day conquer the world. He once succeeded, but became bored with the ensuing peace, and quit. Often seen in high-ranking consultant or technical support jobs, he constantly abuses his power and fools the management of Dilbert's company, though considering the intelligence of the company's management in general and Dilbert's boss in particular, this is not very hard to do. He also enjoys pulling scams on unsuspecting and usually dull customers to steal their money. However, despite Dogbert's cynical exterior, he has been known to pull his master out of some tight jams. Dogbert's nature as a pet was more emphasized during the earlier years of the strip; as the strip progressed, references to his acting like a dog became less common, although he still wags his tail when he perpetrates his scams. When an older Dilbert arrives while time-traveling from the future, he refers to Dogbert as \"majesty\", indicating that Dogbert will one day indeed rule the world... again, and make worshipping him retroactive so he could boss around time travelers.", "Catbert is the \"evil director of human resources\" in the \"Dilbert\" comic strip. He was supposed to be a one-time character but resonated with readers so well that Adams brought him back as the HR director. Catbert's origins with the company are that he was hired by Dogbert. Dogbert hired him because he wanted an H.R. Director that appeared cute while secretly downsizing employees.", "A young intern, he works very hard but does not always get proper recognition. Asok is intensely intelligent but naive about corporate life; the shattering of his optimistic illusions becomes frequent comic fodder. He is Indian, and has graduated from the Indian Institutes of Technology (IIT). The other workers, especially the boss, often unwittingly trample on his cultural beliefs. On the occasions when Asok mentions this, he is normally ignored. His test scores (a perfect 1600 on the old SAT) and his IQ of 240 show that he is the smartest member of the engineering team. Nonetheless he is often called upon by the Boss to do odd jobs, and in meetings his ideas are usually left hanging. He is also seen regularly at the lunch table with Wally and Dilbert, experiencing jarring realizations of the nature of corporate life. There are a few jokes about his psychic powers, which he learned at the IIT. Yet despite his intelligence, ethics and mystical powers, Asok sometimes takes advice from Wally in the arts of laziness, and from Dilbert in surviving the office. As of February 7, 2014, Asok is officially gay, which never affects any storylines, but merely commemorates a decision by the Indian Supreme Court to uphold an anti-gay law, a decision which was overturned on September 6, 2018.", "An engineer who is often seen hanging out with Wally. He is referenced by name more often in older comics, but he is still seen occasionally. He has been accepted into Dilbert's clique. He has been fired and killed numerous times (for example, being pushed down a flight of stairs and becoming possessed), in which case a new Ted is apparently hired. In addition to this, he is often promoted and given benefits over the other employees. Ted has a wife and children who are referenced multiple times and seen on at least one occasion. Adams refers to him as \"Ted the Generic Guy\", because whenever he needs to fire or kill someone he uses Ted, but slowly over time Ted has become his own character.", "Elbonia is a non-specific under-developed country used when Adams wants \"to involve a foreign country without hurting overseas sales\". He says \"People think I have some specific country in mind when I write about Elbonia, but I don't. It represents the view that Americans have of any country that doesn't have cable television — we think they all wear fur hats and wallow around waist-deep in mud\". The entire country wears the same clothing and hats, and all men have full beards. They are occasionally bitter towards their wealthier western neighbors, but are quite happy to trade with them. The whole country is covered in mud, and has limited technology. Elbonia is located somewhere in the former Soviet bloc: A strip dated April 2, 1990, refers to the \"Tiny East European country of Elbonia.\" It is an extremely poor, fourth-world country that has abandoned Communism. The national bird of Elbonia is the Frisbee. However, in a storyline from November 21–26, 2016, Dilbert visits Elbonia and it seems to be more advanced; no waist deep mud, more advanced technology, and the rental car scene looks almost like it's in America or a more advanced European country.", "The Pointy-Haired Boss's brother Phil. His full title is Phil, the Prince of Insufficient Light & Supreme Ruler of Heck. His job, one step down from Satan, is to punish those who commit minor sins. His 'Pitch-Spoon' is feared by those who do. He is known to 'Darn to Heck' people who do things like using cell phones in the bathroom, steal office supplies, or those who simply do something annoying. In one strip, it was mentioned that being in Heck is not as bad as being in a cubicle.", "The popularity of the comic strip within the corporate sector has led to the Dilbert character being used in many business magazines and publications, including several appearances on the cover of \"Fortune Magazine\". Many newspapers run the comic in their business section rather than in the regular comics section (similar to the way that \"Doonesbury\" is often featured in the editorial section, due to its pointed commentary).", "Media analyst Norman Solomon and cartoonist Tom Tomorrow claim that Adams's caricatures of corporate culture seem to project empathy for white-collar workers, but the satire ultimately plays into the hands of upper corporate management itself. Solomon describes the characters of \"Dilbert\" as dysfunctional time-wasters, none of whom occupies a position higher than middle management, and whose inefficiencies detract from corporate values such as productivity and growth. Dilbert and his coworkers often find themselves baffled or victimized by the whims of managerial behavior, but they never seem to question it openly. Solomon cites the Xerox corporation's use of \"Dilbert\" strips and characters in internally distributed pamphlets: Adams responded in the February 2, 1998 strip and in his book \"The Joy of Work\", by simply restating Solomon's argument, apparently suggesting that it was absurd and required no rebuttal. In 1997, Tom Vanderbilt wrote in a similar vein in \"The Baffler\" magazine: In 1998, Bill Griffith, creator of \"Zippy the Pinhead\", chided Dilbert for crude drawings and simplistic humor. He wrote, Adams responded by creating two comic strips called \"Pippy the Ziphead\", in which Dogbert creates a comic by \"cramming as much artwork in as possible so no one will notice there's only one joke... [and it's] on the reader.\" Dilbert says that the strip is \"nothing but a clown with a small head who says random things\", and Dogbert responds that he is \"maintaining his artistic integrity by creating a comic that no one will enjoy\". In September of the same year, Griffith mocked Adams' \"Pippy the Ziphead\" with a strip of the same name drawn in a simplistic, stiff, \"Dilbert\"-like style set in an office setting and featuring the characters Zippy and Griffy retorting, \"I sense a joke was delivered. [...] Yes. It was. My one joke. Ha.\" In the late 1990s, amateur cartoonist Karl Hörnell began submitting a comic strip to \"Savage Dragon\" creator Erik Larsen that parodied both \"Dilbert\" and the Image Comics series \"The Savage Dragon\". This became a regular feature in the \"Savage Dragon\" comic book, titled \"The Savage Dragonbert and Hitler's Brainbert\" (\"Hitler's Brainbert\" being a loose parody of both Dogbert and the \"Savage Dragon\" villain identified as Adolf Hitler's disembodied, superpowered brain). The strip began as a specific parody of the comic book itself, set loosely within the office structure of \"Dilbert\", with Hörnell doing an emulation of Adams's cartooning style. Adams has invited readers to invent words that have become popular among fans in describing their own office environments, such as \"\"Induhvidual\"\". This term is based on the American English slang expression \"duh!\" The conscious misspelling of \"individual\" as \"induhvidual\" is a pejorative term for people who are not in Dogbert's New Ruling Class (DNRC). Its coining is explained in \"Dilbert Newsletter\" #6. The strip has also popularized the usage of the terms \"cow-orker\" and PHB.", "In 1997, Scott Adams masqueraded as a management consultant to Logitech executives (as Ray Mebert), with the cooperation of the company's vice-chairman. He acted in much the way that he portrays management consultants in the comic strip, with an arrogant manner and bizarre suggestions, such as comparing mission statements to broccoli soup. He convinced the executives to change their existing mission statement for their New Ventures Group from \"provide Logitech with profitable growth and related new business areas\" to \"scout profitable growth opportunities in relationships, both internally and externally, in emerging, mission-inclusive markets, and explore new paradigms and then filter and communicate and evangelize the findings\". To demonstrate what can be achieved with the most mundane objects if planned correctly and imaginatively, Adams has worked with companies to develop \"dream\" products for Dilbert and company. In 2001, he collaborated with design company IDEO to come up with the \"perfect cubicle\", a fitting creation since many of the \"Dilbert\" strips make fun of the standard cubicle desk and the environment that it creates. The result was both whimsical and practical. This project was followed in 2004 with designs for Dilbert's Ultimate House (abbreviated as DUH). An energy-efficient building was the result, designed to prevent many of the little problems that seem to creep into a normal building. For instance, to save time spent buying and decorating a Christmas tree every year, the house has a large (yet unapparent) closet adjacent to the living room where the tree can be stored from year to year.", "In 1995, \"Dilbert\" was the first syndicated comic strip to be published for free on the Internet. Putting his email address in each \"Dilbert\" strip, Adams created a \"direct channel to [his] customers\", allowing him to modify the strip based on their feedback. Joe Zabel stated that \"Dilbert\" had a large influence on many of the webcomics that followed it, establishing the \"nerdcore\" genre as it found its audience. In April 2008, Scott Adams announced that United Media would be instituting an interactive feature on Dilbert.com, allowing fans to write speech bubbles and, in the near future, interact with Adams about the content of the strips. Adams has spoken positively about the change, saying, \"This makes cartooning a competitive sport.\"", "Adams was named best international comic strip artist of 1995 in the Adamson Awards given by the Swedish Academy of Comic Art. \"Dilbert\" won the National Cartoonists Society's Reuben Award in 1997, and was also named the best syndicated strip of 1997 in the Harvey Awards. In 1998, \"Dilbert\" won the Max & Moritz Prize as best international comic strip.", "", "\"Dilbert\" was adapted into a UPN animated television series starring Daniel Stern as Dilbert, Chris Elliott as Dogbert, and Kathy Griffin as Alice. The series ran for two seasons from January 25, 1999 to July 25, 2000. The first season centered around the creation of a new product called the \"Gruntmaster 6000\". It was critically acclaimed and won a Golden Globe award, leading to its renewal for a second season. The second season did away with the serial format and was composed entirely of standalone episodes, many of which shifted focus away from the workplace and involved absurdist plots such as Wally being mistaken for a religious leader (\"The Shroud of Wally\") and Dilbert being accused of mass murder (\"The Trial\"). Critical and fan reception was resoundingly negative to the change in format and storytelling, and the series was not renewed for a third season. The second season two-episode finale included Dilbert getting pregnant with the child of a cow, a hillbilly, robot DNA, \"several dozen engineers\", an elderly billionaire, and an alien, eventually ending up in a custody battle with Stone Cold Steve Austin as the Judge.", "On April 7, 2008, dilbert.com presented its first Dilbert animation. The new Dilbert animations are animated versions of original comic strips produced by RingTales and animated by Powerhouse Animation Studios. The animation videos run for around 30 seconds each and are added every weekday. On December 10, 2009 the RingTales produced animations were made available as a calendar application for mobile devices.", "In October 2007, the Catfish Bend Casino in Burlington, Iowa notified its staff that the casino was closing and they were going to be laid off. David Steward, an employee of seven years, then posted on an office bulletin board the \"Dilbert\" strip of October 26, 2007 that compared management decisions to those of \"drunken lemurs\". The casino called this \"very offensive\"; they identified him from a surveillance tape, fired him, and tried to prevent him from receiving unemployment benefits. However, an administrative law judge ruled in December 2007 that he would receive benefits, as his action was not intentional misbehavior. Scott Adams said that it might be the first confirmed case of an employee being fired for posting a \"Dilbert\" cartoon. On February 20, 2008, the first of a series of \"Dilbert\" strips showed Wally being caught posting a comic strip that \"compares managers to drunken lemurs\". Adams later said that fans should stick to posting \"Garfield\" strips, as no one gets fired for that.", "On February 29, 2016, Adams posted on his blog that he would be taking a six-week vacation. During that time, strips would be written by him but drawn by guest artists who work for Universal Uclick. Jake Tapper drew the strip on the week on May 23. The other guest artists were John Glynn, Eric Scott, Josh Shipley, Joel Friday, Donna Oatney and Brenna Thummler. Jake Tapper also drew the cartoon strip the weeks of May 23, 2016 and September 23–28, 2019." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Overview.", "Synonyms.", "Around the world." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Mountain passes make use of a gap, saddle, or col (also sometimes a notch, the low point in a ridge). A topographic saddle is analogous to the mathematical concept of a saddle surface, with a saddle point marking the highest point between two valleys and the lowest point along a ridge. On a topographic map, passes are characterized by contour lines with an hourglass shape, which indicates a low spot between two higher points. Passes are often found just above the source of a river, constituting a drainage divide. A pass may be very short, consisting of steep slopes to the top of the pass, or may be a valley many kilometres long, whose highest point might only be identifiable by surveying. Roads have long been built through passes, as well as railways more recently. Some high and rugged passes may have tunnels bored underneath a nearby mountainside (like the Eisenhower Tunnel bypassing Loveland Pass in the Rockies) to allow faster traffic flow throughout the year. The top of a pass is frequently the only flat ground in the area, and is a high vantage point. In some cases this makes it a preferred site for buildings. If a national border follows a mountain range, a pass over the mountains is typically on the border, and there may be a border control or customs station, and possibly a military post as well. For instance Argentina and Chile share the world's third-longest international border, long. The border runs north–south along the Andes mountains, with a total of 42 mountain passes. On a road over a pass, it is customary to have a small roadside sign giving the name of the pass and its elevation above mean sea level. As well as offering relatively easy travel between valleys, passes also provide a route between two mountain tops with a minimum of descent. As a result, it is common for tracks to meet at a pass; this often makes them convenient routes even when travelling between a summit and the valley floor. Passes traditionally were places for trade routes, communications, cultural exchange, military expeditions etc. A typical example is the Brenner pass in the Alps. Some mountain passes above the tree line have problems with snow drift in the winter. This might be alleviated by building the road a few meters above the ground, which will make snow blow off the road.", "There are many words for \"pass\" in the English-speaking world. In the United States, \"pass\" is very common in the West, the word \"gap\" is common in the southern Appalachians, \"notch\" in parts of New England, and \"saddle\" in northern Idaho. In the West, the word \"summit\" is also used to describe a pass, but this term is universally used to describe a mountain top, leading to confusion as to whether a labeled \"summit\" is a pass or a peak. Scotland has the Gaelic term \"bealach\" (anglicised \"balloch\"), while Wales has the similar \"bwlch\" (both being British Celtic languages). In the Lake District of north-west England, the term \"hause\" is often used, although the term \"pass\" is also common—one distinction is that a pass can refer to a route, as well as the highest part thereof, while a hause is simply that highest part, often flattened somewhat into a high-level plateau.", "There are thousands of named passes around the world, some of which are well-known, such as the Great St. Bernard Pass at in the Alps, the Chang La at, and the Khardung La at in Jammu and Kashmir, India. The roads at Mana Pass at and Marsimik La at, on and near the China-India border respectively, appear to be world's two highest motorable passes. Khunjerab Pass between Pakistan and China at is also a high-altitude motorable mountain pass. One of the famous but non-motorable mountain pass include Thorong La at in Annapurna Conservation Area, Nepal." ] }