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StivenLancheros

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Works.", "\"On Music\"." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Born in Seleucia on the Tigris in Babylonia, Diogenes was educated at Athens under the auspices of Chrysippus and succeeded Zeno of Tarsus as head (\"scholarch\") of the Stoic school there in the 2nd century BC. Among his pupils were Panaetius and Antipater of Tarsus who succeeded him as scholarch. He seems to have closely followed the views of Chrysippus, especially on dialectic, in which he is said to have instructed Carneades. Together with Carneades and Critolaus, he was sent to Rome to appeal a fine of five hundred talents imposed on Athens in 155 BC for the sack of Oropus. They delivered their epideictic speeches first in numerous private assemblies, then in the Senate. Diogenes pleased his audience chiefly by his sober and temperate mode of speaking. Cicero speaks of him as deceased by 150 BC, and since Lucian claims that he died at the age of 80, he must have been born around 230 BC. There is some evidence, however, that he may have lived to around 140 BC.", "Cicero calls Diogenes \"a great and important Stoic\". In the works of the Epicurean philosopher Philodemus found in carbonized papyrus rolls recovered from the ruins of the Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum, Diogenes is discussed more frequently than any philosopher besides Epicurus himself. He was the author of several works, of which, however, little more than the titles is known: In addition, it appears from Philodemus that he wrote extensive works \"On Music\" and \"On Rhetoric\". Some aspects of his views on these two subjects are recoverable from the critical remarks to be found in Philodemus' works on these two subjects. There are several passages in Cicero from which we may infer that Diogenes wrote on other subjects also, such as duty, the highest good, and the like.", "The opinions of Diogenes on music are known through the fragmentary treatise by Philodemus, \"On Music\", which discusses the views of Diogenes. According to Philodemus, Diogenes held that music not only can calm the emotions, but that listening to music can produce harmony and proportion in the soul. Diogenes believed that just as diet and exercise can produce a healthy body, so that music can bring health to the mind and can treat psychological illnesses. Music naturally pushes one to action. Diogenes uses the example of the trumpet, or similar military instrument, which can stir the soldier to bravery. Music is thus an art which leads to virtue. Attribution:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Medical uses.", "Pharmacology.", "Mechanism of action.", "Pharmacokinetics.", "Physical and chemical properties.", "Discovery and structure identification.", "Solubility.", "Total synthesis.", "Biosynthesis.", "No known lethal dose.", "Detection in body fluids.", "Detection in breath.", "History.", "Society and culture.", "Comparisons with medical cannabis.", "Regulation in Canada.", "Research." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "THC is an active ingredient in Nabiximols, a specific extract of \"Cannabis\" that was approved as a botanical drug in the United Kingdom in 2010 as a mouth spray for people with multiple sclerosis to alleviate neuropathic pain, spasticity, overactive bladder, and other symptoms. Nabiximols (as Sativex) is available as a prescription drug in Canada.", "", "The actions of THC result from its partial agonist activity at the cannabinoid receptor CB (K = 10 nM), located mainly in the central nervous system, and the CB receptor (K = 24 nM), mainly expressed in cells of the immune system. The psychoactive effects of THC are primarily mediated by the activation of cannabinoid receptors, which result in a decrease in the concentration of the second messenger molecule cAMP through inhibition of adenylate cyclase. The presence of these specialized cannabinoid receptors in the brain led researchers to the discovery of endocannabinoids, such as anandamide and 2-arachidonoyl glyceride (2-AG). THC targets receptors in a manner far less selective than endocannabinoid molecules released during retrograde signaling, as the drug has a relatively low cannabinoid receptor efficacy and affinity. In populations of low cannabinoid receptor density, THC may act to antagonize endogenous agonists that possess greater receptor efficacy. THC is a lipophilic molecule and may bind non-specifically to a variety of entities in the brain and body, such as adipose tissue (fat). Due to its partial agonistic activity, THC appears to result in greater downregulation of cannabinoid receptors than endocannabinoids, further limiting its efficacy over other cannabinoids. While tolerance may limit the maximal effects of certain drugs, evidence suggests that tolerance develops irregularly for different effects with greater resistance for primary over side-effects, and may actually serve to enhance the drug's therapeutic window. However, this form of tolerance appears to be irregular throughout mouse brain areas. THC, as well as other cannabinoids that contain a phenol group, possesses mild antioxidant activity sufficient to protect neurons against oxidative stress, such as that produced by glutamate-induced excitotoxicity.", "THC is metabolized mainly to 11-OH-THC by the body. This metabolite is still psychoactive and is further oxidized to 11-nor-9-carboxy-THC (THC-COOH). In humans and animals, more than 100 metabolites could be identified, but 11-OH-THC and THC-COOH are the dominating metabolites. Metabolism occurs mainly in the liver by cytochrome P450 enzymes CYP2C9, CYP2C19, CYP2D6, and CYP3A4. More than 55% of THC is excreted in the feces and ≈20% in the urine. The main metabolite in urine is the ester of glucuronic acid and THC-COOH and free THC-COOH. In the feces, mainly 11-OH-THC was detected.", "", "In 1940, cannabidiol was isolated and identified from \"Cannabis sativa\", and THC was isolated and described for its structure and synthesis in 1964.", "As with many aromatic terpenoids, THC has a very low solubility in water, but good solubility in most organic solvents, specifically lipids and alcohols.", "A total synthesis of the compound was reported in 1965; that procedure called for the intramolecular alkyl lithium attack on a starting carbonyl to form the fused rings, and a tosyl chloride mediated formation of the ether.", "In the \"Cannabis\" plant, THC occurs mainly as tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (THCA, 2-COOH-THC, THC-COOH). Geranyl pyrophosphate and olivetolic acid react, catalysed by an enzyme to produce cannabigerolic acid, which is cyclized by the enzyme THC acid synthase to give THCA. Over time, or when heated, THCA is decarboxylated, producing THC. The pathway for THCA biosynthesis is similar to that which produces the bitter acid humulone in hops.", "The Median lethal dose of THC in humans is not known; no human has ever been known to have died from it. A 1972 study gave up to 9000 mg/kg of THC to dogs and monkeys without any lethal effects. Some rats died within 72 hours after a dose of up to 3600 mg/kg.", "THC and its 11-OH-THC and THC-COOH metabolites can be detected and quantified in blood, urine, hair, oral fluid or sweat using a combination of immunoassay and chromatographic techniques as part of a drug use testing program or in a forensic investigation.", "Recreational use of cannabis is legal in many parts of North America, increasing the demand for THC monitoring methods in both personal and law enforcement uses. Breath sampling as a noninvasive method is in development to detect THC, which is difficult to quantify in breath samples. Scientists and industry are commercializing various types of breath analyzers to monitor THC in breath.", "THC was first isolated in 1969 by Raphael Mechoulam and Yechiel Gaoni at the Weizmann Institute of Science in Israel.<ref name=\"doi10.1021/ja01062a046\"></ref> At its 33rd meeting, in 2003, the World Health Organization Expert Committee on Drug Dependence recommended transferring THC to Schedule IV of the Convention, citing its medical uses and low abuse potential.", "", "Female cannabis plants contain at least 113 cannabinoids, including cannabidiol (CBD), thought to be the major anticonvulsant that helps people with multiple sclerosis; and cannabichromene (CBC), an anti-inflammatory which may contribute to the pain-killing effect of cannabis.", "As of October 2018 when recreational use of cannabis was legalized in Canada, some 220 dietary supplements and 19 veterinary health products containing not more than 10 parts per million of THC extract were approved with general health claims for treating minor conditions.", "The status of THC as an illegal drug in most countries imposes restrictions on research material supply and funding, such as in the United States where the National Institute on Drug Abuse and Drug Enforcement Administration continue to control the sole federally-legal source of cannabis for researchers. Despite an August 2016 announcement that licenses would be provided to growers for supplies of medical marijuana, no such licenses were ever issued, despite dozens of applications. Although cannabis is legalized for medical uses in more than half of the states of the United States, no products have been approved for federal commerce by the Food and Drug Administration, a status that limits cultivation, manufacture, distribution, clinical research, and therapeutic applications. In April 2014, the American Academy of Neurology found evidence supporting the effectiveness of the cannabis extracts in treating certain symptoms of multiple sclerosis and pain, but there was insufficient evidence to determine effectiveness for treating several other neurological diseases. A 2015 review confirmed that medical marijuana was effective for treating spasticity and chronic pain, but caused numerous short-lasting adverse events, such as dizziness." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Taxonomy.", "Evolution.", "Dentition and biteforce.", "Behavior.", "Description and sexual dimorphism.", "Mating behaviour.", "Tooth breakage.", "Coyotes, jackals, and wolves.", "African migration." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The genus \"Canis\" (Carl Linnaeus, 1758) was published in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae and included the dog-like carnivores: the domestic dog, wolves, coyotes and jackals. All species within \"Canis\" are phylogenetically closely related with 78 chromosomes and can potentially interbreed. In 1926, the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) in Opinion 91 included Genus \"Canis\" on its \"Official Lists and Indexes of Names in Zoology\". In 1955, the ICZN's Direction 22 added \"Canis familiaris\" as the type specimen for genus \"Canis\" to the official list. The cladogram below is based on the DNA phylogeny of Lindblad-Toh \"et al\". (2005), modified to incorporate recent findings on \"Canis\" species, In 2019, a workshop hosted by the IUCN/SSC Canid Specialist Group recommends that because DNA evidence shows the side-striped jackal (\"Canis adustus\") and black-backed jackal (\"Canis mesomelas\") to form a monophyletic lineage that sits outside of the Canis/Cuon/Lycaon clade, that they should be placed in a distinct genus, \"Lupulella\" Hilzheimer, 1906 with the names \"Lupulella adusta\" and \"Lupulella mesomelas\".", "The fossil record shows that feliforms and caniforms emerged within the clade Carnivoramorpha 43 million YBP. The caniforms included the fox-like genus \"Leptocyon\" whose various species existed from 24 million YBP before branching 11.9 million YBP into \"Vulpes\" (foxes) and Canini (canines). The jackal-sized \"Eucyon\" existed in North America from 10 million YBP and by the Early Pliocene about 6-5 million YBP the coyote-like \"Eucyon davisi\" invaded Eurasia. In North America it gave rise to early \"Canis\" which first appeared in the Miocene (6 million YBP) in south-western USA and Mexico. By 5 million YBP the larger \"Canis lepophagus\" appeared in the same region. The canids that had emigrated from North America to Eurasia – \"Eucyon\", \"Vulpes\", and \"Nyctereutes\" – were small to medium-sized predators during the Late Miocene and Early Pliocene but they were not the top predators. The position of the canids would change with the arrival of \"Canis\" to become a dominant predator across the Holarctic. The wolf-sized \"C. chihliensis\" appeared in northern China in the Mid-Pliocene around 4-3 million YBP. This was followed by an explosion of \"Canis\" evolution across Eurasia in the Early Pleistocene around 1.8 million YBP in what is commonly referred to as the \"wolf event\". It is associated with the formation of the mammoth steppe and continental glaciation. \"Canis\" spread to Europe in the forms of \"C. arnensis\", \"C. etruscus\", and \"C. falconeri\". \"Xenocyon\" (strange wolf) is an extinct subgenus of \"Canis\". The diversity of the \"Canis\" group decreased by the end of the Early Pleistocene to the Middle Pleistocene and was limited in Eurasia to the small wolves of the \"Canis mosbachensis–Canis variabilis\" group and the large hypercarnivorous \"Canis (Xenocyon) lycaonoides\". The hypercarnivore \"Xenocyon\" gave rise to the modern dhole and the African wild dog.", "Dentition relates to the arrangement of teeth in the mouth, with the dental notation for the upper-jaw teeth using the upper-case letters I to denote incisors, C for canines, P for premolars, and M for molars, and the lower-case letters i, c, p and m to denote the mandible teeth. Teeth are numbered using one side of the mouth and from the front of the mouth to the back. In carnivores, the upper premolar P4 and the lower molar m1 form the carnassials that are used together in a scissor-like action to shear the muscle and tendon of prey. Canids use their premolars for cutting and crushing except for the upper fourth premolar P4 (the upper carnassial) that is only used for cutting. They use their molars for grinding except for the lower first molar m1 (the lower carnassial) that has evolved for both cutting and grinding depending on the candid's dietary adaptation. On the lower carnassial the trigonid is used for slicing and the talonid is used for grinding. The ratio between the trigonid and the talonid indicates a carnivore's dietary habits, with a larger trigonid indicating a hypercarnivore and a larger talonid indicating a more omnivorous diet. Because of its low variability, the length of the lower carnassial is used to provide an estimate of a carnivore's body size. A study of the estimated bite force at the canine teeth of a large sample of living and fossil mammalian predators, when adjusted for their body mass, found that for placental mammals the bite force at the canines (in Newtons/kilogram of body weight) was greatest in the extinct dire wolf (163), followed among the modern canids by the four hypercarnivores that often prey on animals larger than themselves: the African hunting dog (142), the gray wolf (136), the dhole (112), and the dingo (108). The bite force at the carnassials showed a similar trend to the canines. A predator's largest prey size is strongly influenced by its biomechanical limits.", "", "There is little variance among male and female canids. Canids tend to live as monogamous pairs. Wolves, dholes, coyotes, and jackals live in groups that include breeding pairs and their offspring. Wolves may live in extended family groups. To take prey larger than themselves, the African wild dog, the dhole, and the gray wolf depend on their jaws as they cannot use their forelimbs to grapple with prey. They work together as a pack consisting of an alpha pair and their offspring from the current and previous years. Social mammal predators prey on herbivores with a body mass similar to that of the combined mass of the predator pack. The gray wolf specializes in preying on the vulnerable individuals of large prey, and a pack of timber wolves can bring down a moose.", "The genus \"Canis\" contains many different species and has a wide range of different mating systems that varies depending on the type of canine and the species. In a study done in 2017 it was found that in some species of canids females use their sexual status to gain food resources. The study looked at wolves and dogs. Wolves are typically monogamous and form pair-bonds; whereas dogs are promiscuous when free-range and mate with multiple individuals. The study found that in both species females tried to gain access to food more and were more successful in monopolize a food resource when in heat. Outside of the breeding season their efforts were not as persistent or successful. This shows that the food-for-sex hypothesis likely plays a role in the food sharing among canids and acts as a direct benefit for the females. Another study on free-ranging dogs found that social factors played a significant role in the determination of mating pairs. The study, done in 2014, looked at social regulation of reproduction in the dogs. They found that females in heat searched out dominant males and were more likely to mate with a dominant male who appeared to be a quality leader. The females were more likely to reject submissive males. Furthermore, cases of male-male competition were more aggressive in the presence of high ranking females. This suggests that females prefer dominant males and males prefer high ranking females meaning social cues and status play a large role in the determination of mating pairs in dogs. Canids also show a wide range of parental care and in 2018 a study showed that sexual conflict plays a role in the determination of intersexual parental investment. The studied looked at coyote mating pairs and found that paternal investment was increased to match or near match the maternal investment. The amount of parental care provided by the fathers also was shown to fluctuated depending on the level of care provided by the mother. Another study on parental investment showed that in free-ranging dogs, mothers modify their energy and time investment into their pups as they age. Due to the high mortality of free-range dogs at a young age a mother's fitness can be drastically reduced. This study found that as the pups aged the mother shifted from high-energy care to lower-energy care so that they can care for their offspring for a longer duration for a reduced energy requirement. By doing this the mothers increasing the likelihood of their pups surviving infancy and reaching adulthood and thereby increase their own fitness. A study done in 2017 found that aggression between male and female gray wolves varied and changed with age. Males were more likely to chase away rival packs and lone individuals than females and became increasingly aggressive with age. Alternatively, females were found to be less aggressive and constant in their level of aggression throughout their life. This requires further research but suggests that intersexual aggression levels in gray wolves relates to their mating system.", "Tooth breakage is a frequent result of carnivores' feeding behaviour. Carnivores include both pack hunters and solitary hunters. The solitary hunter depends on a powerful bite at the canine teeth to subdue their prey, and thus exhibits a strong mandibular symphysis. In contrast, a pack hunter, which delivers many shallower bites, has a comparably weaker mandibular symphysis. Thus, researchers can use the strength of the mandibular symphysis in fossil carnivore specimens to determine what kind of hunter it wasa pack hunter or a solitary hunterand even how it consumed its prey. The mandibles of canids are buttressed behind the carnassial teeth to crack bones with their post-carnassial teeth (molars M2 and M3). A study found that the modern gray wolf and the red wolf (\"C.rufus\") possess greater buttressing than all other extant canids and the extinct dire wolf. This indicates that these are both better adapted for cracking bone than other canids. A study of nine modern carnivores indicate that one in four adults had suffered tooth breakage and that half of these breakages were of the canine teeth. The highest frequency of breakage occurred in the spotted hyena, which is known to consume all of its prey including the bone. The least breakage occurred in the African wild dog. The gray wolf ranked between these two. The eating of bone increases the risk of accidental fracture due to the relatively high, unpredictable stresses that it creates. The most commonly broken teeth are the canines, followed by the premolars, carnassial molars, and incisors. Canines are the teeth most likely to break because of their shape and function, which subjects them to bending stresses that are unpredictable in direction and magnitude. The risk of tooth fracture is also higher when taking and consuming large prey. In comparison to extant gray wolves, the extinct Beringian wolves included many more individuals with moderately to heavily worn teeth and with a significantly greater number of broken teeth. The frequencies of fracture ranged from a minimum of 2% found in the Northern Rocky Mountain wolf \"(Canis lupus irremotus)\" up to a maximum of 11% found in Beringian wolves. The distribution of fractures across the tooth row also differs, with Beringian wolves having much higher frequencies of fracture for incisors, carnassials, and molars. A similar pattern was observed in spotted hyenas, suggesting that increased incisor and carnassial fracture reflects habitual bone consumption because bones are gnawed with the incisors and then cracked with the carnassials and molars.", "Wolves, dogs, and dingoes are all subspecies of \"Canis lupus\". The gray wolf (\"C. lupus\"), the Ethiopian wolf (\"C. simensis\"), and the African golden wolf (\"C. anthus\") are three of the many \"Canis\" species referred to as \"wolves\"; however, all of the others are now extinct and little is known about them by the general public. One of these, the extinct dire wolf (\"C. dirus\"), has gained fame from the thousands of specimens found and displayed at the Rancho La Brea Tar Pits in Los Angeles, California. \"Canis\" species that are too small to attract the word \"wolf\" are called coyotes in the Americas and jackals elsewhere. Although these may not be more closely related to each other than they are to \"C. lupus\", they are, as fellow \"Canis\" species, all more closely related to wolves and domestic dogs than they are to foxes, maned wolves, or other canids which do not belong to the genus \"Canis\". The word \"jackal\" is applied to three distinct species of this group: the side-striped (\"C. adustus\") and black-backed (\"C. mesomelas\") jackals, found in sub-Saharan Africa, and the Eurasian golden jackal (\"C. aureus\"), found across southwestern and south-central Asia, and the Balkans.", "The first record of genus \"Canis\" on the African continent is \"Canis sp. A\" from South Turkwel, Kenya dated 3.58–3.2 million years ago. In 2015, a study of mitochondrial genome sequences and whole genome nuclear sequences of African and Eurasian canids indicated that extant wolf-like canids have colonised Africa from Eurasia at least 5 times throughout the Pliocene and Pleistocene, which is consistent with fossil evidence suggesting that much of African canid fauna diversity resulted from the immigration of Eurasian ancestors, likely coincident with Plio-Pleistocene climatic oscillations between arid and humid conditions. In 2017, the fossil remains of a new \"Canis\" species named \"Canis othmanii\" was discovered among remains found at Wadi Sarrat, Tunisia from deposits that date 700,000 years ago. This canine shows a morphology more closely associated with canids from Eurasia rather than Africa." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "The inscription." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Nothing is known about the life of Diogenes apart from the limited information he reveals to us. The inscription itself, which had been dated to the late 2nd century, has now been assigned on epigraphic grounds to the Hadrianic period, 117–138AD. Diogenes was wealthy enough to acquire a large tract of land in the city of Oenoanda to construct (or possibly buy) a piazza to display his inscription. As a man who had found peace by practicing the doctrines of Epicurus, he tells us that in his old age he was motivated \"to help also those who come after us\" and \"to place therefore the remedies of salvation by means of this porch.\"", "Diogenes constructed a rectangular piazza surrounded by a portico, and furnished with statues. On one of the smaller sides he placed a portal, with perhaps his mausoleum on the opposite side. On the two larger sides he inscribed a lengthy account of Epicurean doctrines. The inscription was 2.37 meters high, and extended about 80 meters. It was originally about 25 000 words long and filled about 260 square metres of wall space. It was discovered in 1884, and the first 64 fragments were published in 1892. Since then, more fragments have been discovered, notably in a series of excavations led by Martin Ferguson Smith. Perhaps a quarter of the inscription has been recovered. New parts are being discovered in the excavations of the Deutsches Archäologisches Institut; among the parts discovered in 2008 was a statement on Plato's theory of cosmogony. The inscription contains three treatises written by Diogenes as well as various letters and maxims: Jürgen Hammerstaedt, philologist from the University of Cologne, and Epigrapher Martin Ferguson Smith, have translated some of the fragments discovered in Oenoanda. \"He was a remarkable man and a cosmopolitan man,\" says Hammerstaedt, commenting upon a quote from Smith’s translation of a passage in which Diogenes declares that he set up the inscription: \"Not least for those who are called foreigners, for they are not foreigners. For, while the various segments of the Earth give different people a different country, the whole compass of this world gives all people a single country, the entire Earth, and a single home, the world.\" [Archaeology Magazine, August 2015 \"In Search of A Philosophers Stone\"]" ] }

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{ "title": [ "HR responsibilities.", "Activities.", "History.", "Origins of the terminology.", "Concerns about the terminology.", "Development.", "Planning." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Human resource managers are in charge of every aspect of employee life cycle in an organization. The duties include planning, recruitment and selection process, posting job ads, evaluating the performance of employees, organizing resumes and job applications, scheduling interviews and assisting in the process and ensuring background checks. Another job is payroll and benefits administration which deals with ensuring vacation and sick time are accounted for, reviewing payroll, and participating in benefits tasks, like claim resolutions, reconciling benefit statements, and approving invoices for payment. HR also coordinates employee relations activities and programs including but not limited to employee counseling. The last job is regular maintenance, this job makes sure that the current HR files and databases are up to date, maintaining employee benefits and employment status and performing payroll/benefit-related reconciliations. In May 2014, the U.S. Department of Labor stated that human resource assistants earn about $38,040 annually and human resource managers earn about $104,440 annually.", "A human resources manager has various functions in a company Managers need to develop their interpersonal skills to be effective. Organizations behavior focuses on how to improve factors that make organizations more effective.", "Human resource management used to be referred to as \"personnel administration.\" In the 1920s, personnel administration focused mostly on the aspects of hiring, evaluating, and compensating employees. However, they did not focus on any employment relationships in an organizational performance level or on the systematic relationships in any parties. This led to a lacked unifying paradigm in the field during this period. According to an HR Magazine article, the first personnel management department started at the National Cash Register Co. in 1900. The owner, John Henry Patterson, organized a personnel department to deal with grievances, discharges and safety, and information for supervisors on new laws and practices after several strikes and employee lockouts. This action was followed by other companies; for example, Ford had high turnover ratios of 380 percent in 1913, but just one year later, the line workers of the company had doubled their daily salaries from $2.50 to $5, even though $2.50 was a fair wage at that time. This example clearly shows the importance of effective management which leads to a greater outcome of employee satisfaction as well as encouraging employees to work together in order to achieve better business objectives. During the 1970s, American business began experiencing challenges due to the substantial increase in competitive pressures. Companies experienced globalization, deregulation, and rapid technological change which caused the major companies to enhance their strategic planning - a process of predicting future changes in a particular environment and focus on ways to promote organizational effectiveness. This resulted in developing more jobs and opportunities for people to show their skills which were directed to effective applying employees toward the fulfillment of individual, group, and organizational goals. Many years later the major/minor of human resource management was created at universities and colleges also known as business administration. It consists of all the activities that companies used to ensure more effective utilization of employees. Now, human resources focus on the people side of management. There are two real definitions of HRM (Human Resource Management); one is that it is the process of managing people in organizations in a structured and thorough manner. This means that it covers the hiring, firing, pay and perks, and performance management. This first definition is the modern and traditional version more like what a personnel manager would have done back in the 1920s. The second definition is that HRM circles the ideas of management of people in organizations from a macromanagement perspective like customers and competitors in a marketplace. This involves the focus on making the “employment relationship” fulfilling for both management and employees. Some research showed that employees can perform at a much higher rate of productivity when their supervisors and managers paid more attention to them. The Father of Human relations, Elton Mayo, was the first person to reinforce the importance of employee communications, cooperation, and involvement. His studies concluded that sometimes the human factors are more important than physical factors, such as quality of lighting and physical workplace conditions. As a result, individuals often place value more in how they feel. For example, a rewarding system in Human resource management, applied effectively, can further encourage employees to achieve their best performance.", "Pioneering economist John R. Commons used the term \"human resource\" in his 1893 book \"The Distribution of Wealth\" but did not further build upon it. The term \"human resource\" was subsequently in use during the 1910s to 1930s to promote the idea that human beings were an object of worth, that should be promoted to realise human dignity, but this changed in the early 1950s as \"human resource management\" developed viewing people as a means to an end for employers. Among scholars the first use of \"human resources\" in its modern form was in a 1958 report by economist E. Wight Bakke. The term began to become more developed in the 19th century due to misunderstandings between employers and employees. In regard to how individuals respond to the changes in a labor market, the following must be understood:", "One major concern about considering people as assets or resources is that they will be commoditized, objectified and abused. Human beings are not \"commodities\" or \"resources\", but are creative and social beings in a productive enterprise. The 2000 revision of ISO 9001, in contrast, requires identifying the processes, their sequence and interaction, and to define and communicate responsibilities and authorities. In general, heavily unionized nations such as France and Germany have adopted and encouraged such approaches. Also, in 2001, the International Labour Organization decided to revisit and revise its 1975 Recommendation 150 on Human Resources Development, resulting in its \"Labour is not a commodity\" principle. One view of these trends is that a strong social consensus on political economy and a good social welfare system facilitate labor mobility and tend to make the entire economy more productive, as labor can develop skills and experience in various ways, and move from one enterprise to another with little controversy or difficulty in adapting. Another important controversy regards labor mobility and the broader philosophical issue with usage of the phrase \"human resources\". Governments of developing nations often regard developed nations that encourage immigration or \"guest workers\" as appropriating human capital that is more rightfully part of the developing nation and required to further its economic growth. Over time, the United Nations have come to more generally support the developing nations' point of view, and have requested significant offsetting \"foreign aid\" contributions so that a developing nation losing human capital does not lose the capacity to continue to train new people in trades, professions, and the arts.", "Human resources play an important part of developing and making a company or organization at the beginning or making a success at the end, due to the labor provided by employees. Human resources is intended to show how to have better employment relations in the workforce. Also, to bring out the best work ethic of the employees and therefore making a move to a better working environment.", "Administration and operations used to be the two role areas of HR. The strategic planning component came into play as a result of companies recognizing the need to consider HR needs in goals and strategies. HR directors commonly sit on company executive teams because of the HR planning function. Numbers and types of employees and the evolution of compensation systems are among elements in the planning role. Various factors affecting Human Resource planning Organizational Structure, Growth, Business Location, Demographic changes, environmental uncertainties, expansion etc. Additionally, this area encompasses the realm of talent management." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Family background.", "Career.", "Early career.", "Formula One.", "Death.", "Cause of the accident analysed by Stewart.", "Films." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The son of Charles Goldenberg (1901–1985), a Parisian jeweler, and Huguette Cevert. Charles was a Russian Jewish émigré brought to France as a young boy by his parents, to escape the persecution of the Jews under the Tsarist autocracy. During World War II, under the Nazi occupation of France, Goldenberg joined the French Resistance to avoid forced deportation to Poland, as he was a registered Jew. In order not to draw further attention, Charles and Huguette's four children were all registered with her surname rather than his. Some years after the liberation of France, Cevert's father wanted to rename his children Goldenberg, but the family objected as by now they had become known as Cevert. Cevert was the brother-in-law of Grand Prix driver Jean-Pierre Beltoise.", "", "When he was 16, François Cevert began his motorsport career on two wheels, rather than four, initially racing his mother's Vespa scooter against friends, before graduating to his own Norton at the age of 19. After completing his National Service, Cevert switched his attention to cars. In 1966 he completed a training course at the Le Mans school, before enrolling at the Magny-Cours racing school. At the same time he registered for the Volant Shell scholarship competition, which offered the top finisher the prize of an Alpine Formula Three car. Cevert duly qualified for the final race and won. His first season in F3, at the wheel of his prize Alpine, did not go well. He lacked the funds and experience to properly set up and maintain his car. After finding sponsorship for the 1968 season, Cevert traded in his Alpine for a more competitive Tecno car. With his new mount Cevert finally started to win races, and by the end of the season he was French Formula 3 Champion, just ahead of Jean-Pierre Jabouille. After winning the French Formula 3 Championship, Cevert joined the works Tecno Formula Two team in 1969, and finished third overall, as well as driving in the F2 class of the 1969 German Grand Prix. At the time, Formula Two was an ideal training ground for ambitious drivers, as many top Grand Prix drivers also competed in the F2 class, when their Formula One schedules permitted. When Jackie Stewart had a hard time getting around Cevert in an F2 race at Crystal Palace the same year, Stewart told his team manager Ken Tyrrell to keep an eye on the young Frenchman. This personal recommendation was to pay off in 1970, as when Tyrrell needed a new driver at short notice Stewart's recommendation was still in his mind. Tyrrell later commented on the reason for Cevert's appointment to the Formula One team that \"everybody said it was (French oil company and Tyrrell sponsor) Elf, but it was really what Jackie said about him.\"", "When Johnny Servoz-Gavin suddenly retired from the Tyrrell Formula One team three races into the 1970 season, Tyrrell called upon Cevert to be his number two driver, alongside defending World Champion Stewart. Over the next four seasons, Cevert became the veteran Stewart's devoted protégé. After making his debut at the Dutch Grand Prix at Zandvoort in Tyrrell's second customer March-Ford, he increased his pace and closed the gap to Stewart with virtually every race. He earned his first World Championship point by finishing sixth in the Italian Grand Prix at Monza. In 1971, with the Tyrrell team now building their own cars, Cevert finished second in France and Germany, both times behind team leader Stewart. Then, in the season-ending United States Grand Prix at the newly extended Watkins Glen race course, the Frenchman earned his first and only Grand Prix win: \"Having started from fifth spot, Cevert took the lead from Stewart on lap 14 as the Scot's tires began to go off in the 100° heat. At about half-distance, Cevert finally began to struggle with the same understeer that had plagued Stewart much earlier. Jacky Ickx was closing, and his Firestones were getting better as the race went on. On lap 43, Ickx set the fastest lap of the race, and the gap was down to 2.2 seconds. Then, on lap 49, the alternator on Ickx's Ferrari fell off, punching a hole in the gearbox and spilling oil all over the track! Denny Hulme's McLaren hit the oil and spun into the barrier, bending his front suspension. Hulme was standing beside the track when Cevert came by and also slid off and hit the barrier, but he kept going, now 29 seconds in the lead! Cevert coasted home, taking both hands off the wheel to wave as he crossed the line.\" Cevert became only the second Frenchman to win a Formula One World Championship Grand Prix (Maurice Trintignant won at Monaco in 1955 and 1958), and received 50,000 U.S. dollars as award. It was the high point of his career, helping him take third place in the 1971 Drivers' Championship behind Stewart and Ronnie Peterson. Great expectations for Cevert, Stewart and Tyrrell were not fulfilled in 1972, Cevert finished in the points only three times, with second places in Belgium and in the USA, and a fourth at his home race in France at the Clermont-Ferrand circuit. One bright spot in a disappointing year for Cevert was his second-place finish at the 24 hours of Le Mans, driving a Matra-Simca 670 with New Zealand's Howden Ganley.", "In 1973, the Tyrrell team was back on top in Formula One and Cevert showed he was capable of running with Stewart at almost every race. He finished second six times, three times behind Stewart, who acknowledged that at times the Frenchman had been a very \"obedient\" teammate. As Cevert began to draw even with Stewart's driving abilities, the Scot was secretly planning to retire after the last race of the season in the United States. For the 1974 season, Cevert would be Tyrrell's team leader. At Watkins Glen, with Stewart having already clinched his third World Championship, Cevert was killed during Saturday morning qualifying, while battling for pole position with Ronnie Peterson. In the fast right-left uphill combination called \"The Esses\", Cevert's car was a little too far over towards the left side of the track, getting a bump from the kerbs. This made it swerve towards the right-hand side of the track, where it touched the track's signature powder blue safety barriers causing it to spin and crash into the barriers on the other side of the track at a near 90° angle, uprooting and lifting the barrier. Cevert died instantly of massive injuries inflicted by the barrier. \"Cevert had crashed violently in the uphill Esses heading onto the back of the circuit. Fighting the car as he went up the hill, he brushed the curb on the left, whipped across the track and hit the guardrail on the right. The car began to spin, and he swerved back across the track at 150 mph and hit the outside guardrail almost head-on,\" Stewart said. Jackie Stewart was one of the last on the scene of Cevert's accident and said later \"They [the marshals] had left him [in the car], because he was so clearly dead.\" Stewart immediately left the scene of the accident and returned to the pits. Word of the severity of the crash gradually reached the pit area. Footage shows track personnel and members of other teams, including Lotus owner Colin Chapman heading for the Tyrrell pit where Stewart parked his car. Chapman was told by another Lotus team member that Cevert was the driver involved and that it was \"very bad\". Upon seeing Stewart's reaction upon getting out of the car, apparently deducing simply from his expression that it was a fatal accident, Chapman shook his head and stated mournfully, \"Cevert...bloody hell.\" He then sighed and started walking slowly back to the Lotus pits. Emerson Fittipaldi parked his car shortly thereafter and immediately got out without speaking. He would later call Cevert's death, \"One of the saddest [days] of my career.\" Because of Cevert's death, Tyrrell withdrew its entry for this GP, and Stewart did not run his final, and 100th race. Cevert was 29 years and 224 days old. He is buried in the Cimetière de Vaudelnay in the village of Vaudelnay, Maine-et-Loire.", "When practice resumed, Stewart went out on the track in his car on a personal fact-finding mission. His conclusion was that his own preference was to take The Esses complex in fourth gear in the Tyrrell, hence he would be at the low end of the engine's rev range, making the car more tractable and less nervous (in exchange for a bit less throttle response). Cevert, however, preferred to use third gear and be at the top end of his engine's power range: it was always something of a compromise because of the need to accelerate through the combination of corners. Stewart noted that the Tyrrell always felt jumpy through this section of the Watkins Glen track owing to its short wheelbase; he felt that this was somewhat counteracted by driving in the higher gear even though this meant a time penalty if he got his line wrong through the corner. A film documentary of the time, shot minutes before the start of the fatal practice session, captures Stewart and Cevert in a spirited debate on exactly this point. Another accident occurred at the same circuit a year later in the 1974 USA Grand Prix when another young Formula One driver, Helmuth Koinigg, died when his car went straight into the barrier at turn 7. As a response to Cevert's and Koinigg's accidents, a chicane was added in 1975 in order to slow the cars through the \"Esses\". The chicane was removed in 1985 after the track lost its Formula One race in 1981.", "The 2013 film \"Rush\" portrays a composite of Cevert's qualifying fatal accident, combining what appears to be the remains of a blue liveried 1973 Tyrrell 006 with the configuration of Helmuth Koinigg's accident while driving the Surtees TS16 in the 1974 race. The 2013 documentary \"1: Life on the Limit\" documents Cevert's fatal accident in 1973. Cevert was extensively profiled and interviewed in the Formula One documentary, \"The Quick and the Dead\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Premise.", "Synopsis.", "Season 1.", "Season 2.", "Season 3.", "Season 4.", "Season 5.", "Season 6.", "Season 7.", "\"A Year in the Life\".", "Production.", "Background.", "Casting.", "Writing.", "Filming.", "Music.", "Developments.", "Change of showrunner.", "Cancellation.", "Revival.", "Broadcast history.", "Syndication.", "Home media and online.", "Reception.", "Critical response.", "Ratings.", "Awards and nominations.", "Fandom and cultural impact." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The series has two protagonists: witty \"thirty-something\" mother Lorelai Gilmore and her intellectual teenage daughter Rory (short for Lorelai). Their backstory is established early in the show: Lorelai grew up in Hartford with her old money parents, Richard and Emily, but always felt stifled in this environment. After Lorelai and her childhood boyfriend Christopher Hayden became pregnant with Rory at 16, Lorelai's feelings of familial alienation only increased. This eventually motivated her to take one-year-old Rory away to a close-knit town named Stars Hollow. Lorelai found work and shelter at the Independence Inn as a maid, eventually working her way up to executive manager. Over the years, Lorelai and Rory develop a very close relationship, living like best friends rather than as typical mother-daughter. Lorelai is proud of the independent life she has forged away from her parents. In the pilot episode, however, she is forced to go to them for financial aid after Rory is admitted to Chilton Preparatory School because she cannot afford the tuition fees. Emily and Richard agree to provide a loan, so long as the", "", "Rory has a difficult time settling in at Chilton, struggling to match the demands of private school and attracting the fury of classmate Paris Geller, her academic rival. She meets her first boyfriend, Dean, but the pair break up when Rory doesn't reciprocate his, \"I love you\". She is also pursued by arrogant Chilton student Tristan, but she has little interest in his advances. After being romantically pursued by Rory's teacher, Max Medina, Lorelai decides with a conflicted heart to", "Lorelai accepts Max's proposal, but realises shortly before the wedding that it doesn't feel right and they break up. She and Sookie get excited about opening their own business at the dilapidated Dragonfly Inn but the owner refuses to sell. Sookie gets engaged to Jackson Belleville, a local farmer. Luke's teenage nephew, Jess Mariano, comes to live under his care. Jess is sullen and angry with", "Rory's attraction to Jess grows stronger, and she gets jealous when he teases her with a new girlfriend. Dean can't ignore what is going on, and eventually ends their relationship. Rory and Jess immediately become a couple. Meanwhile, she and Paris spend the year as Student Body Presidents at Chilton and both submit applications to Harvard University. Paris is devastated when she doesn't get in. Rory is accepted but decides to attend Yale", "Rory starts her college education at Yale, with Paris – now a friend – as her roommate. Both start working for the Yale Daily News. Rory is surprised when Dean quickly marries his new girlfriend. The pair grow closer again over the season, leading Rory to turn down Jess when he returns and declares his love. Lorelai spends the season renovating the Dragonfly Inn in preparation for its opening, along with Sookie and their colleague Michel. She also begins", "Lorelai and Luke start a relationship. Emily and Richard – who reunite and renew their wedding vows – disapprove and Emily interferes by telling Christopher to try to win her back. Luke feels overwhelmed, resulting in a brief separation between him and Lorelai and a rift between Lorelai and Emily. Rory tries to have another relationship with Dean, now separated from his wife after she found out about the affair, but it soon ends when he realizes", "Lorelai is devastated by Rory's actions but insists that she can't force her back to Yale: it's a decision Rory must make for herself. Mother and daughter don't speak for six months. Rory has to complete community service and Emily gets her a job with the DAR. Richard becomes concerned but eventually, after encouragement from Jess, Rory returns to Yale and reunites with Lorelai. She replaces Paris as editor", "Lorelai and Luke officially split when she tells him she slept with Christopher. Before much time has passed, Christopher convinces Lorelai to try a relationship. The pair spontaneously marry during a trip in Paris, but Lorelai soon accepts that it isn't right and they split amicably. Luke has a custody battle over April, after her mother moves them to New Mexico, and wins the right to see her during holidays. Lane and Zack have twins, and Sookie becomes pregnant", "Nine years after the end of the original series, Netflix produced a \"Gilmore Girls\" revival miniseries. Rory is struggling in her journalism career and having a no-strings-attached, secret affair with Logan in London, while technically having a boyfriend named Paul that she often forgets about. While Logan is engaged to be married the two of them can't seem to stay apart. Lorelai and Luke live together but are still having communication problems. Richard has", "", "Amy Sherman-Palladino, who came from a background of writing for half-hour sitcoms, had \"Gilmore Girls\" approved by The WB after several of her previous pitches were turned down. On a whim, she suggested a show about a mother and daughter but had put little thought into the idea. Having to create a pilot, she drew inspiration for the show's setting of \"Stars Hollow, Connecticut\" after making a trip to Washington Depot, Connecticut, where she stayed at the Mayflower Inn. Stars Hollow was inspired by and is loosely based on the actual villages of Washington Depot, Connecticut, West Hartford, Connecticut, and the town of New MilfordShe explained: \"If I can make people feel this much of what I felt walking around this fairy town, I thought that would be wonderful... At the time I was there, it was beautiful, it was magical, and it was feeling of warmth and small-town camaraderie... There was a longing for that in my own life, and I thought—that's something that", "Alexis Bledel was cast in the key role of Rory despite having no previous acting experience. Sherman-Palladino was drawn to her shyness and innocence, which she said was essential for the character, and felt she photographed well. Lauren Graham was pursued by the casting directors from the start of the process, but she was committed to another show on NBC. A week before shooting, they had still failed to cast Lorelai, so they asked Graham to audition anyway. Sherman-Palladino cast her that day, on the hope that Graham's other show (\"M.Y.O.B.\", which was burned off as a summer replacement series several months before the premiere of \"Gilmore Girls\") would be cancelled, which it soon was. She later explained how Graham met all the criteria she had been looking for: \"Lorelai's a hard fucking part. You've got to be funny, you've got to talk really fucking fast, you've got to be able to act, you've got to be", "Headed by Amy Sherman-Palladino and Daniel Palladino from seasons 1 to 6, \"Gilmore Girls\" had a small writing staff that changed regularly throughout the series. The Palladinos wrote a high percentage of episodes, and would review and rework the dialogue in episodes allocated to others. As such, the show is considered to have a distinctive \"voice\". Sherman-Palladino said \"every draft either I write, or it passes through my hands... so that there is a consistency of tone. It's very important that it feel like the same", "The pilot episode was shot in the Toronto suburb of Unionville. The rest of the series was filmed at the Warner Bros. lot in Burbank, California. Exterior scenes of Stars Hollow, along with those at Luke's Diner and Miss Patty's dance studio, were all filmed on the backlot – with dozens of background actors utilized to make it look like a functioning town. Production designers regularly had to decorate the town square with fake leaves or fake snow to make it look like a New England fall or winter. Interiors of Lorelai's house and inn, and all scenes at Yale and the Gilmore mansion, were filmed on a sound stage. Very occasionally, the show was filmed on location. The exterior shots of Rory's preparatory school, Chilton, were filmed at Greystone Mansion in Beverly Hills, California. Rory's visit to Harvard was filmed at UCLA, and her time at Yale was filmed at Pomona College. The shot of 'Stars Hollow' seen in the very first frame of the show's opening credits is actually a panoramic view of South Royalton, Vermont. \"Gilmore Girls\" relied on a master shot filming style, in which a", "\"Gilmore Girls\" non-diegetic score was composed by singer-songwriter Sam Phillips throughout its entire run. Sherman-Palladino, who served as the music supervisor of the series, was a big fan of the musician and secured her involvement. For the score's instrumental arrangement, Phillips primarily used her voice and an acoustic guitar, and on occasion included piano, violin, and drums. Many of the musical cues are accompanied by melodic \"la-la\"s and \"ahh\"s, which developed because Sherman-Palladino wanted the score to sound connected to the girls themselves, almost like \"an extension of their thoughts... if they had music going in their head during a certain emotional thing in their life.\" Sherman-Palladino felt that the score elevated the series \"because it wasn't a wasted element in the show. Everything was trying to say a little something, add a little", "", "In 2006, the WB merged with UPN to form a new network, The CW. \"Gilmore Girls\" survived the merger, being selected as one of seven WB shows to be transferred for a new season, but it resulted in a significant change. In April that year, it was announced that Amy Sherman-Palladino and her husband Daniel could not come to an agreement with The CW and would be leaving the show when their contracts expired that summer. Journalist Michael Ausiello said of the", "There was speculation during the seventh season that it would be the show's final year, as Graham and Bledel's contracts were both coming to an end. As negotiations continued between the actresses and the network, Rosenthal planned a finale that \"could serve as an ending or a beginning of a new chapter and a new season\". Graham later said that by the end of the filming schedule \"there was a 50/50 chance we'd be returning\", and she requested that", "Because the final season was not written by the series' creator, and the new writers had not known that the finale was definitely the last episode, Lauren Graham noted that a lot of fans \"were disappointed with how it [the series] ended\". In 2009, Amy Sherman-Palladino expressed an interest in pursuing a \"Gilmore Girls\" film, to finish the series as she originally intended. Over the following years, fans and journalists continued to ask regularly if the show would return. Privately, Sherman-Palladino stayed in contact with Graham, Bledel, Patterson and Bishop to discuss the possibility, but nothing came to fruition. In June 2015, for the 15th anniversary of the show, the cast and showrunners reunited for a special panel at the ATX Television Festival. When asked about a possible revival,", "\"Gilmore Girls\" first season commenced on The WB in the Thursday 8pm/7pm Central time slot, as a lead in for \"Charmed\". Renewed for a second season, the show was relocated on Tuesdays 8pm/7pm, the time slot of \"Buffy the Vampire Slayer\", which transferred to UPN, and served as a lead-in for \"Smallville\", which became an instant hit and would always beat Gilmore Girls, its lead-in in the ratings. During seasons 4 and 5, it lead into One Tree Hill, which slowly became a hit. In season 6, it lead into \"Supernatural\", which became another hit for The WB. First-season reruns aired on Monday nights from March 5 until April 9, 2001, during a mid-season hiatus of \"Roswell\" lead out of \"7th Heaven\" to spread audience awareness. An additional run of the first season aired in 2002 on Sunday nights under the title \"Gilmore Girls Beginnings\" (which featured a modified opening sequence voiced with a monologue detailing the premise from Graham), and was one of two shows on The WB to give the \"Beginnings\" in its title for reruns, along with \"7th Heaven\". In the United Kingdom, \"Gilmore Girls\" was initially screened on Nickelodeon from 2003. Only the first three seasons were shown, with episodes edited for content and some, like \"The Big One\", dropped entirely. The series was subsequently picked up by the Hallmark Channel, which gave UK premieres to seasons 4 and 5. In Ireland, the series aired its entire run on RTÉ One on Sundays.", "In the US, the show began its syndicated release on ABC Family in 2004. The network continued to air the show daily under its new name Freeform until the fall of 2018, when those rights moved to Pop. In October 2015, \"Gilmore Girls\" concurrently became available on a second network, UPtv, which continues to air it to this day. Josef Adalian of \"Vulture\" commented on the rarity of Freeform and Up carrying a series of its type in syndication: \"not that many non-procedural, hour-long shows from the early part of the century — particularly those from a small network such as WB — are still even airing regularly on one cable network, let alone", "Warner Home Video released all seven seasons of \"Gilmore Girls\" on DVD, in regions 1, 2 and 4, mainly in full-screen ratio due to Amy Sherman-Palladino's preference at the time of original release. The full series DVD boxset was released in 2007. Special features include deleted scenes, three behind-the-scenes featurettes, cast interviews, montages, and one episode commentary (for \"You Jump,", "", "Upon debut, \"Gilmore Girls\" was lauded for the distinct, dialogue-infused style created by Amy Sherman-Palladino, the strength of the dynamic familial themes, and the performances of its cast, particularly leading star Lauren Graham. On Metacritic, the first season has an average rating of 81 out of 100 from 26 reviews, indicating \"universal praise\". In the \"San Francisco Chronicle\", John Carman wrote \"It's cross-generational, warm-the-cockles viewing, and it's a terrific show. Can this really be the WB, niche broadcaster to horny mall rats?\" Caryn James of \"The New York Times\" called it a \"witty, charming show\" that \"is redefining family in a realistic, entertaining way for today's audience, all the while avoiding the sappiness that makes sophisticated viewers run from anything labeled a 'family show.'\" Ray Richmond of \"The Hollywood Reporter\" declared it \"a genuine gem in the making, a family-friendly hour unburdened by trite cliche or precocious pablum,\" while Jonathan Storm of \"The Philadelphia Inquirer\" dubbed it \"a touching, funny, lively show that really does appeal to all ages\". David Zurawik of \"The Baltimore Sun\" called \"Gilmore Girls\" \"One of the most pleasant surprises of the new season\". For the second-season premiere, Hal Boedeker of the \"Orlando Sentinel\" praised the show as \"one of television's great, unsung pleasures\", and said \"Series creator Amy Sherman-Palladino writes clever dialogue and ingratiating comedy, but she also knows how to do bittersweet drama.\" Emily Yahr of \"The Washington Post\" retrospectively called the second instalment \"Pretty much a perfect season of television\". Viewers were concerned that the show would suffer when Rory left for college after season 3, and Yahr", "Viewer ratings for \"Gilmore Girls\" were not large, but the numbers were a relative success for the small WB network and it became one of their flagship series. For its first season the show aired in the tough Thursday 8pm/7pm Central time slot dominated by \"Friends\" on NBC and \"Survivor\" on CBS. Critical acclaim encouraged the network to move it to Tuesday evenings, as part of a push to promote the series and due to the move of Tuesday stalwart \"Buffy the Vampire Slayer\" to UPN in", "\"Gilmore Girls\" earned several accolades, but did not receive much attention from the major awarding bodies. Its only Emmy nomination was for Outstanding Makeup for a Series, for the episode \"The Festival of Living Art\", which it won in 2004. Michael Ausiello has attributed this to \"a notorious bias against the WB\". Recognition did come from the American Film Institute, who named \"Gilmore Girls\" one of the ten best shows of 2002, and the Television Critics Association (TCA) who named it Outstanding New Program of the Year in 2001. The TCA Awards also nominated the show for Outstanding Drama in 2001 and 2002, and Outstanding Comedy in 2005. The Satellite Awards nominated it for Best Series", "\"Gilmore Girls\" is considered a cult classic, with an \"avid following\". During the run of the show this was mostly a small but dedicated group, predominantly of females, but its audience has grown steadily since it came off the air. The series experienced a resurgence when it became available on Netflix in October 2014, introducing it to a new generation of viewers. When the revival was announced in 2015, star Lauren Graham credited it to the campaigning and persistence of the fans. At this point, according to \"The Washington Post\", the show became \"a quirky pop culture obsession.\" The enduring popularity of \"Gilmore Girls\" is considered to come from its comforting quality and cross-generational appeal. It is particularly known as a show that mothers and daughters watch together. The Gilmore Girls Fan Fest has become an annual event since its inauguration in 2016. The unofficial festival takes place in Connecticut over an October weekend, and includes panels with cast and crew, themed activities, and screenings. For the 16th anniversary of the show, 200 coffee houses around the US and Canada were transformed into \"Luke's Diners\". For two weeks in winter 2018–19, Warner Bros. added a special feature to their studio tour that recreated the Stars Hollow set and displayed props and costumes from the" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Taxonomy and relationships.", "Interbreeding with dogs." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The English word \"jackal\" dates back to 1600 and derives from the French \"chacal\", derived from the Persian \"\", which is in turn derived from the Sanskrit शृगाल \"śṛgāla\" meaning \"the howler\".", "Similarities between jackals and coyotes led Lorenz Oken, in the third volume of his \"Lehrbuch der Naturgeschichte\" (1815), to place these species into a new separate genus, \"Thos\", named after the classical Greek word \"jackal\", but his theory had little immediate impact on taxonomy at the time. Angel Cabrera, in his 1932 monograph on the mammals of Morocco, questioned whether or not the presence of a cingulum on the upper molars of the jackals and its corresponding absence in the rest of \"Canis\" could justify a subdivision of that genus. In practice, Cabrera chose the undivided-genus alternative and referred to the jackals as \"Canis\" instead of \"Thos\". Oken's \"Thos\" theory was revived in 1914 by Edmund Heller, who embraced the separate genus theory. Heller's names and the designations he gave to various jackal species and subspecies live on in current taxonomy, although the genus has been changed from \"Thos\" to \"Canis\". The wolf-like canids are a group of large carnivores that are genetically closely related because they all have 78 chromosomes. The group includes genus \"Canis\", \"Cuon\", and \"Lycaon\". The members are the dog \"(C. lupus familiaris)\", gray wolf (\"C. lupus\"), coyote (\"C. latrans\"), golden jackal (\"C. aureus\"), Ethiopian wolf (\"C. simensis\"), black-backed jackal (\"C. mesomelas\"), side-striped jackal (\"C. adustus\"), dhole (\"Cuon alpinus\"), and African wild dog (\"Lycaon pictus\"). The latest recognized member is the African golden wolf (\"C. anthus\"), which was once thought to be an African branch of the golden jackal. As they possess 78 chromosomes, all members of the genus \"Canis\" (coyotes, wolves, jackals) are karyologically indistinguishable from each other, and from the dhole and the African hunting dog. The two African jackals are shown to be the most basal members of this clade, indicating the clade's origin from Africa. \"Canis arnensis\" arrived in Mediterranean Europe 1.9 million years ago and is probably the ancestor of modern jackals. The paraphyletic nature of \"Canis\" with respect to \"Lycaon\" and \"Cuon\" has led to suggestions that the two African jackals should be assigned to different genera, \"Schaeffia\" for the side-striped jackal and \"Lupulella\" for the black-backed jackal or \"Lupulella\" for both. The intermediate size and shape of the Ethiopian wolf has at times led it to be regarded as a jackal, thus it has also been called the \"red jackal\" or the \"Simien jackal\".", "Experiments in Germany with breeding poodles and golden jackals have produced hybrids. The results showed that, unlike wolf–dog hybrids, jackal–dog hybrids show a decrease in fertility, significant communication problems, and an increase of genetic disorders after three generations of interbreeding. In Russia, golden jackals are one of the founder breeds/species of the Sulimov dog, a working dog owned exclusively by Aeroflot and used for bomb detection in airport security." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Gameplay.", "Battles.", "Death.", "Skills.", "Plot.", "Characters.", "Development.", "Reception.", "Sequel.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The first thing which a player has to do when playing Lineage II is to create a character. The player gets to choose their character's race and personalise the character's face and hair. However, the gameplay allows many options for personalisation of the character visuals. For example, the player can choose a hair style, hair colour, facial expression, gender, and more. Every race starts the game in a temple in the faction's zone (for example: Humans start in \"Talking Island\" and the Dark Elves in \"The Shilen Temple\"). Most commonly, the player can choose between a mage and a fighter in each race except Dwarves and Kamael, which can be only fighters.", "Battles are an inevitable part of Lineage II gameplay. How well your character does in battles is the main objective of your in-game progress. In some battles your character fights different monsters. Monsters can be found outside of Towns on the hunting fields or deep inside the underground dungeons. When you move your mouse over a monster, the mouse cursor changes from an Index Finger to a Sword. To attack the monster, you have to choose it with your mouse and press the left mouse button on the monster. That way the monster is now your target and you can attack it. When you choose a monster with your mouse there is a target window opening, which shows the name of the monster in a certain colour depending on the monster's strength and Hit Points. Some of the monsters are not aggressive and they will not attack you unless you attack them, and other monsters are aggressive and will attack you as soon as you approach them. The colour of the monster's name in your target window tells you how strong the monster is and how tough the battle between your character and this monster will be. The colours and their levels of difficulty are: - Blue (Very Weak) - Light Blue - Green - White (-+2 levels between the Monster and Characters) - Yellow - Pink - Red (Very Strong) When your character is attacked, its hit points lower. The Defense (DEF) of your Character influences the way your Character acts when attacked. The more DEF you have the less damage you will receive. To replenish your hit points you can consume health potions and if you play with a wizard you can use a healing spell. HP can also be restored on its own, mostly when you sit your character down. To win in battle you will have to use your Skills. Using skills spends your Mana (MP) so you always have to check if you have enough Mana before attacking. When your character defeats a monster, the character gets XP and SP which help you level up and learn your skills. Along with monster battles you can also fight other players. That's called a PvP (Player Versus Player). Lineage II is strongly oriented towards this kind of battles and is encouraging them in many ways but does not enforce anyone to attend them if they don't want to. The PvP system protects you from ill minded players who kill you continuously without you even hitting them. To attack another player you have to press and hold Left CTRL and your mouse Right Click on them in the game.", "If your Character dies in battle, you will be given the option to resurrect in the nearest town or village. Your other alternative is to wait for another Player to resurrect you with a Resurrection Scroll or a Spell. Resurrecting in the nearest town will cost you a small piece of the XP gained, which grows exponentially to your level. Resurrection spells and elite scrolls generally restore some of the Experience you lost.", "To achieve good results in battles and farm Experience easier you have to use your Character's Skills. In the beginning when you start playing, your character has a very small amount of skills, but the amount and power of the Skills increase exponentially with your Character's level. You can check what skills you have with the Skill Window by pressing ALT+K. Skills can be Active or Passive. The Passive skills affect your Character the whole time while your active Skills can be activated on your command. In the \"Learn Skills\" window you can check the list of all skills which you can learn now and in the future on bigger levels. When you get to a level on which you can use a new Skill a Scroll icon will appear on your screen. Clicking the Icon will take you to the \"Learn Skills\" window from where you can learn new skills. Every new Skill learned or upgraded is paid with SP (Skill Points). Some Skills along with SP require Special books. There are different kinds of skills. The type of your character depends on its class and level. Some skills are: - Toggle skills - Self skills which can be toggled on and off, often consuming MP but sometimes they consume HP as well - Weaken skills - they can be used on your target. The effect of this type of skills can lower the Defense, drain the HP of your target and mushc more. - Item Skills - These are skills received from your equipment. For an instance if you have a hat with a Teleport spell, you will only get the Teleport spell when you equip the Hat. In later stages of the game on higher levels you can enhance your skill with the \"Enchant\" mechanic.", "The game follows a fictional history through sets of plots called \"Sagas\". There are currently two sagas: \"The Chaotic Chronicle\" and \"The Chaotic Throne\". Large-scale updates/expansions known as \"Chronicles\" are done every six months, which introduce new story elements as well as new features and add-ons. Each chronicle also adds a great deal of new content to the game, including new skills, quests, areas and items; some chronicles also increased the level cap.", "Characters act as a player's avatar within the game. Players are afforded up to 7 characters per account. There are currently seven races in the world of \"Lineage II\": the Humans, who are similar to modern-day humans and who have all-around balanced characteristics; the Elves, who have superior dexterity, movement, and casting speed, but weaker offense; Dark Elves, who have higher magic and melee attack capabilities; Orcs, who have higher HP and MP but slower movement; Dwarves, who are powerful melee attackers and master craftsmen; Kamael, who are humanoids with single wings and gender-specific job classes; and Ertheia, female warriors with two completely unique classes, and different quest lines.", "Hyeong-Jin Kim, the Production team head for \"Lineage II\", came up with basic concept for the game in early 2000, and development began in October to November of the same year. Kim and producer James Bae have stated that their reasons for developing a prequel for \"Lineage\" rather than a sequel is that \"\"Lineage\" will continue to be updated as a game\", and that \"by working on its past, we will not be risking conflict with the direction of updates that \"Lineage\" will take in the future.\" According to Kim and Bae, the game's initial subtitle, \"The Chaotic Chronicle\", was developed with the intention to \"express the large-scale war, strategies, conflicts, and collaborations that we hope to encourage among players.\" Lead Game Designer Raoul Kim said that the reason for rendering \"Lineage II\" in 3D was \"simply because most games today are [also] using 3D graphics\", and because they deemed it \"more appropriate than 2D for the things that we were going to create.\" Developers chose to utilize the Unreal Engine 2 game engine because of its capacity to render outdoor scenes and its powerful editing features. According to Game Design team head, Cheol-Woong Hwang, there were different concepts for each of the race's home villages. He described the concept for the human village in Talking Island as \"ordinary\", while the Elven Village was designed \"so as not to lose the natural and royal high-class feeling.\" They designed the Dark Elven village based on a \"grotesque and serious feeling in order to express the rough history of these who had been expelled from the Elves.\"", "The overall reception for \"Lineage II\" is mixed, receiving average review scores from various video game rating websites. Andrew Park of GameSpot said that the game \"offers either a repetitive grind or a stiff challenge\", and is not suitable for casual gamers who can only play an hour or less per day. Allen 'Delsyn' Rausch called the Kamael \"an interesting race in that, unlike other \"Lineage II\" races, they focus specifically on the warrior path with high-level class paths segregated by gender.\" The \"Chronicle 5: Oath of Blood\" expansion won the Expansion of the Year award at Stratics Central Editor's Choice Awards 2006, and \"Lineage II\" earned an Honorable Mention for the Game of the Year award.", "On November 8, 2011, NCsoft officially announced Project TL as the sequel to \"Lineage I\". The first gameplay videos debuted at the G-Star 2011 gaming convention in South Korea on November 10, 2011.", "\"Lineage II\" is one of the MMOs that were subject to ethnographic study in Constance Steinkuehler and Dmitri Williams's article, 'Where Everybody Knows Your (Screen) Name: Online Games as Third Place'." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Finances.", "Products and services.", "Software.", "Databases.", "Middleware.", "Oracle Secure Enterprise Search.", "Oracle Beehive.", "Applications.", "Third-party applications.", "Enterprise management.", "Development software.", "Operating systems.", "Services.", "Oracle Cloud.", "Marketing.", "Sales practices.", "Competition.", "Oracle and SAP.", "Media.", "Controversies.", "Trashgate.", "\"Can't break it, can't break in\".", "Relationship with John Ashcroft.", "Expeditionary Combat Support System.", "Cover Oregon Healthcare Exchange.", "Events.", "Acquisition of Sun Microsystems.", "Justice Department lawsuit.", "Lawsuit against Google.", "Background.", "First trial.", "First appeal.", "Supreme Court petition.", "Second trial.", "Second appeal.", "Discontinuation of OpenSolaris.", "Discontinuation of OpenSSO.", "Mark Hurd as president.", "OpenOffice.org issue.", "HP and Oracle lawsuit.", "Foreign corrupt practices.", "GSA business bidding ban.", "Offices.", "Corporate structures.", "Sponsorships." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "4", "4", "3", "4", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Larry Ellison co-founded Oracle Corporation in 1977 with Bob Miner and Ed Oates under the name Software Development Laboratories (SDL). Ellison took inspiration from the 1970 paper written by Edgar F. Codd on relational database management systems (RDBMS) named \"A Relational Model of Data for Large Shared Data Banks.\" He heard about the IBM System R database from an article in the \"IBM Research Journal\" provided by Oates. Ellison wanted to make Oracle's product compatible with System R, but failed to do so as IBM kept the error codes for their DBMS a secret. SDL changed its name to Relational Software, Inc (RSI) in 1979, then again to Oracle Systems Corporation in 1983, to align itself more closely with its flagship product Oracle Database. At this stage Bob Miner served as the company's senior programmer. On March 12, 1986, the company had its initial public offering. In 1995, Oracle Systems Corporation changed its name to Oracle Corporation, officially named Oracle, but sometimes referred to as Oracle Corporation, the name of the holding company. Part of Oracle Corporation's early success arose from using the C programming language to implement its products. This eased porting to different operating systems most of which support C.", "Oracle ranked No. 82 in the 2018 Fortune 500 list of the largest United States corporations by total revenue. According to Bloomberg, Oracle's CEO-to-employee pay ratio is 1,205:1. The CEO's compensation in 2017 was $108,295,023. Oracle is one of the approved employers of ACCA and the median employee compensation rate was $89,887.", "Oracle designs, manufactures, and sells both software and hardware products, as well as offering services that complement them (such as financing, training, consulting, and hosting services). Many of the products have been added to Oracle's portfolio through acquisitions.", "Oracle's E-delivery service (Oracle Software Delivery Cloud) provides generic downloadable Oracle software and documentation.", "Oracle Corporation has acquired and developed the following additional database technologies:", "Oracle Fusion Middleware is a family of middleware software products, including (for instance) application server, system integration, business process management (BPM), user interaction, content management, identity management and business intelligence (BI) products.", "Oracle Secure Enterprise Search (SES), Oracle's enterprise-search offering, gives users the ability to search for content across multiple locations, including websites, XML files, file servers, content management systems, enterprise resource planning systems, customer relationship management systems, business intelligence systems, and databases.", "Released in 2008, the Oracle Beehive collaboration software provides team workspaces (including wikis, team calendaring and file sharing), email, calendar, instant messaging, and conferencing on a single platform. Customers can use Beehive as licensed software or as software as a service (\"SaaS\").", "Oracle also sells a suite of business applications. The Oracle E-Business Suite includes software to perform various enterprise functions related to (for instance) financials, manufacturing, customer relationship management (CRM), enterprise resource planning (ERP) and human resource management. The Oracle Retail Suite covers the retail-industry vertical, providing merchandise management, price management, invoice matching, allocations, store operations management, warehouse management, demand forecasting, merchandise financial planning, assortment planning, and category management. Users can access these facilities through a browser interface over the Internet or via a corporate intranet. Following a number of acquisitions beginning in 2003, especially in the area of applications, Oracle Corporation maintains a number of product lines: Development of applications commonly takes place in Java (using Oracle JDeveloper) or through PL/SQL (using, for example, Oracle Forms and Oracle Reports/BIPublisher). Oracle Corporation has started a drive toward \"wizard\"-driven environments with a view to enabling non-programmers to produce simple data-driven applications.", "Oracle Corporation works with \"Oracle Certified Partners\" to enhance its overall product marketing. The variety of applications from third-party vendors includes database applications for archiving, splitting and control, ERP and CRM systems, as well as more niche and focused products providing a range of commercial functions in areas like human resources, financial control and governance, risk management, and compliance (GRC). Vendors include Hewlett-Packard, Creoal Consulting, UC4 Software, Motus, and Knoa Software.", "Oracle Enterprise Manager (OEM) provides web-based monitoring and management tools for Oracle products (and for some third-party software), including database management, middleware management, application management, hardware and virtualization management and cloud management. The Primavera products of Oracle's Construction & Engineering Global Business Unit (CEGBU) consist of project-management software.", "Oracle Corporation's tools for developing applications include (among others): Many external and third-party tools make the Oracle database administrator's tasks easier.", "Oracle Corporation develops and supports two operating systems: Oracle Solaris and Oracle Linux.", "", "Oracle Cloud is a cloud computing service offered by Oracle Corporation providing servers, storage, network, applications and services through a global network of Oracle Corporation managed data centers. The company allows these services to be provisioned on demand over the Internet. Oracle Cloud provides Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS), Platform as a Service (PaaS), Software as a Service (SaaS) and Data as a Service (DaaS). These services are used to build, deploy, integrate and extend applications in the cloud. This platform supports open standards (SQL, HTML5, REST, etc.) open-source solutions (Kubernetes, Hadoop, Kafka, etc.) and a variety of programming languages, databases, tools and frameworks including Oracle-specific, Open Source and third-party software and systems. On July 28, 2016 Oracle bought NetSuite, the very first cloud company, for $9.3 billion. On May 16, 2018 Oracle announced that it had acquired DataScience.com, a privately held cloud workspace platform for data science projects and workloads.", "", "In 1990, Oracle laid off 10% (about 400 people) of its work force because of accounting errors. This crisis came about because of Oracle's \"up-front\" marketing strategy, in which sales people urged potential customers to buy the largest possible amount of software all at once. The sales people then booked the value of future license sales in the current quarter, thereby increasing their bonuses. This became a problem when the future sales subsequently failed to materialize. Oracle eventually had to restate its earnings twice, and also settled (out of court) class-action lawsuits arising from its having overstated its earnings. Ellison stated in 1992 that Oracle had made \"an incredible business mistake\".", "In 1994, Informix overtook Sybase and became Oracle's most important rival. The intense war between Informix CEO Phil White and Ellison made front-page news in Silicon Valley for three years. Informix claimed that Oracle had hired away Informix engineers to disclose important trade secrets about an upcoming product. Informix finally dropped its lawsuit against Oracle in 1997. In November 2005, a book detailing the war between Oracle and Informix was published, titled \"The Real Story of Informix Software and Phil White\". It gave a detailed chronology of the battle of Informix against Oracle, and how Informix Software's CEO Phil White landed in jail because of his obsession with overtaking Ellison. Once it had overcome Informix and Sybase, Oracle Corporation enjoyed years of dominance in the database market until use of Microsoft SQL Server became widespread in the late 1990s and IBM acquired Informix Software in 2001 (to complement its DB2 database). Oracle competes for new database licenses on UNIX, Linux, and Windows operating systems primarily against IBM's DB2 and Microsoft SQL Server. IBM's DB2 dominates the mainframe database market. In 2004, Oracle's sales grew at a rate of 14.5% to $6.2 billion, giving it 41.3% and the top share of the relational-database market (\"InformationWeek\" – March 2005), with market share estimated at up to 44.6% in 2005 by some sources. Oracle Corporation's main competitors in the database arena remain IBM DB2 and Microsoft SQL Server, and to a lesser extent Sybase and Teradata, with open source databases such as PostgreSQL and MySQL also having a significant share of the market. EnterpriseDB, based on PostgreSQL, has made inroads by proclaiming that its product delivers Oracle compatibility features at a much lower price-point. In the software-applications market, Oracle Corporation primarily competes against SAP. On March 22, 2007 Oracle sued SAP, accusing them of fraud and unfair competition. In the market for business intelligence software, many other software companies—small and large—have successfully competed in quality with Oracle and SAP products. Business intelligence vendors can be categorized into the \"big four\" consolidated BI firms such as Oracle, who has entered BI market through a recent trend of acquisitions (including Hyperion Solutions), and the independent \"pure play\" vendors such as MicroStrategy, Actuate, and SAS. Oracle Financials was ranked in the Top 20 Most Popular Accounting Software Infographic by Capterra in 2014, beating out SAP and a number of their other competitors.", "From 1988, Oracle Corporation and the German company SAP AG had a decade-long history of cooperation, beginning with the integration of SAP's R/3 enterprise application suite with Oracle's relational database products. Despite the SAP partnership with Microsoft, and the increasing integration of SAP applications with Microsoft products (such as Microsoft SQL Server, a competitor to Oracle Database), Oracle and SAP continue their cooperation. According to Oracle Corporation, the majority of SAP's customers use Oracle databases. In 2004, Oracle began to increase its interest in the enterprise-applications market (in 1989, Oracle had already released Oracle Financials). A series of acquisitions by Oracle Corporation began, most notably with those of PeopleSoft, Siebel Systems and Hyperion. SAP recognized that Oracle had started to become a competitor in a market where SAP had the leadership, and saw an opportunity to lure in customers from those companies that Oracle Corporation had acquired. SAP would offer those customers special discounts on the licenses for its enterprise applications. Oracle Corporation would resort to a similar strategy, by advising SAP customers to get \"OFF SAP\" (a play on the words of the acronym for its middleware platform \"Oracle Fusion for SAP\"), and also by providing special discounts on licenses and services to SAP customers who chose Oracle Corporation products. Some analysts have suggested the suit could form part of a strategy by Oracle Corporation to decrease competition with SAP in the market for third-party enterprise software maintenance and support. On July 3, 2007, SAP admitted that TomorrowNow employees had made \"inappropriate downloads\" from the Oracle support website. However, it claims that SAP personnel and SAP customers had no access to Oracle intellectual property via TomorrowNow. SAP's CEO Henning Kagermann stated that \"Even a single inappropriate download is unacceptable from my perspective. We regret very much that this occurred.\" Additionally, SAP announced that it had \"instituted changes\" in TomorrowNow's operational oversight. On November 23, 2010, a U.S. district court jury in Oakland, California found that SAP AG must pay Oracle Corp $1.3 billion for copyright infringement, awarding damages that could be the largest-ever for copyright infringement. While admitting liability, SAP estimated the damages at no more than $40 million, while Oracle claimed that they are at least $1.65 billion. The awarded amount is one of the 10 or 20 largest jury verdicts in U.S. legal history. SAP said they were disappointed by the verdict and might appeal. On September 1, 2011, a federal judge overturned the judgment and offered a reduced amount or a new trial, calling Oracle's original award \"grossly\" excessive. Oracle chose a new trial. On August 3, 2012, SAP and Oracle agreed on a judgment for $306 million in damages, pending approval from the U.S. district court judge, “to save time and expense of [a] new trial\". After the accord has been approved, Oracle can ask a federal appeals court to reinstate the earlier jury verdict. In addition to the damages payment, SAP has already paid Oracle $120 million for its legal fees.", "Oracle Corporation produces and distributes the \"Oracle ClearView\" series of videos as part of its marketing mix.", "", "In 2000, Oracle attracted attention from the computer industry and the press after hiring private investigators to dig through the trash of organizations involved in an antitrust trial involving Microsoft. The Chairman of Oracle Corporation, Larry Ellison, staunchly defended his company's hiring of an East Coast detective agency to investigate groups that supported rival Microsoft Corporation during its antitrust trial, calling the snooping a \"public service\". The investigation reportedly included a $1,200 offer to janitors at the Association for Competitive Technology to look through Microsoft's trash. When asked how he would feel if others were looking into Oracle's business activities, Ellison said: \"We will ship our garbage to Redmond, and they can go through it. We believe in full disclosure.\"", "In 2002, Oracle Corporation marketed many of its products using the slogan \"Can't break it, can't break in\", or \"Unbreakable\". This signified a demand on information security. Oracle Corporation also stressed the reliability of networked databases and network access to databases as major selling points. However, two weeks after its introduction, David Litchfield, Alexander Kornbrust, Cesar Cerrudo and others demonstrated a whole suite of successful attacks against Oracle products. Oracle Corporation's chief security officer Mary Ann Davidson said that, rather than representing a literal claim of Oracle's products' impregnability, she saw the campaign in the context of fourteen independent security evaluations that Oracle Corporation's database server had passed.", "In 2004, then-United States Attorney General John Ashcroft sued Oracle Corporation to prevent it from acquiring a multibillion-dollar intelligence contract. After Ashcroft's resignation from government, he founded a lobbying firm, The Ashcroft Group, which Oracle hired in 2005. With the group's help, Oracle went on to acquire the contract.", "Computer Sciences Corporation reportedly spent a billion dollars developing the Expeditionary Combat Support System for the United States Air Force. It yielded no significant capability, because, according to an Air Force source, the Oracle software on which the system was based could not be adapted to meet the specialized performance criteria.", "Oracle Corporation was awarded a contract by the State of Oregon's Oregon Health Authority (OHA) to develop Cover Oregon, the state's healthcare exchange website, as part of the U.S. Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act. When the site tried to go live on October 1, 2013, it failed, and registrations had to be taken using paper applications until the site could be fixed. On April 25, 2014, the State of Oregon voted to discontinue Cover Oregon and instead use the federal exchange to enroll Oregon residents. The cost of switching to the federal portal was estimated at $5 million, whereas fixing Cover Oregon would have required another $78 million. Oracle president Safra Catz responded to Cover Oregon and the OHA in a letter claiming that the site's problems were due to OHA mismanagement, specifically that a third-party systems integrator was not hired to manage the complex project. In August 2014, Oracle Corporation sued Cover Oregon for breach of contract, and then later that month the state of Oregon sued Oracle Corporation, in a civil complaint for breach of contract, fraud, filing false claims and \"racketeering\". In September 2016, the two sides reached a settlement valued at over $100 million to the state, and a six-year agreement for Oracle to continue modernizing state software and IT.", "", "On January 27, 2010, Oracle announced it had completed its acquisition of Sun Microsystems—valued at more than $7 billion—a move that transformed Oracle from solely a software company to a manufacturer of both software and hardware. The acquisition was delayed for several months by the European Commission because of concerns about MySQL, but was unconditionally approved in the end. This acquisition was important to some in the open source community and also to some other companies, as they feared Oracle might end Sun's traditional support of open source projects. Since the acquisition, Oracle has discontinued OpenSolaris and StarOffice, and sued Google over their newly acquired Java patents from Sun. In September 2011, U.S. State Department Embassy cables were leaked to WikiLeaks. One cable revealed that the U.S. pressured the E.U. to allow Oracle to acquire Sun.", "On July 29, 2010, the United States Department of Justice filed suit against Oracle Corporation alleging fraud. The lawsuit argues that the government received deals inferior to those Oracle gave to its commercial clients. The DoJ added its heft to an already existing whistleblower lawsuit filed by Paul Frascella, who was once senior director of contract services at Oracle. It was settled in May 2012", "", "Oracle, the plaintiff, bought the Java computer programing language when it acquired Sun Microsystems in January 2010. The Java software includes sets of pre-developed software code in order to accomplish common tasks consistently among programs and apps. The pre-developed code is organized into separate \"packages\" which each contain a set of \"classes\". Each class contains numerous methods, which instruct a program or app to do a certain task. Software developers \"became accustomed to using Java’s designations at the package, class, and method level\". Oracle and Google (the defendant) tried to negotiate an agreement for Oracle to license Java to Google, which would have allowed Google to use Java in developing programs for mobile devices using the Android operating system. However, the two companies never reached an agreement. After negotiations failed, Google created its own programming platform, which was based on Java, and contained a mix of 37 copied Java packages and new packages developed by Google.", "In 2010, Oracle sued Google for copyright infringement for the use of the 37 Java packages. The case was handled in U.S. District Court for the Northern District of California and assigned to Judge William H. Alsup (who taught himself how to code computers). In the lawsuit, Oracle sought between $1.4 billion and $6.1 billion. In June 2011 the judge had to force Google through a judicial order to make public the details about Oracle's claim for damages. By the end of the first jury trial (the legal dispute would eventually go on to another trial) the arguments made by Oracle's attorneys focused on a Java function called \"rangeCheck\".\"The argument centered on a function called rangeCheck. Of all the lines of code that Oracle had tested—15 million in total—these were the only ones that were 'literally' copied. Every keystroke, a perfect duplicate.\" – \"The Verge\", 10/19/17Although Google admitted to copying the packages, Judge Alsup found that none of the Java packages were covered under copyright protection, and therefore Google did not infringe.", "After the case was over, Oracle appealed to the United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit (750 F.3d 1339 (2014)). On May 9, 2014, the appeals court partially reversed Judge Alsup's decision, finding that Java APIs are copyrightable. API stands for \"application programming interface\" and are how different computer programs or apps communicate with each other. However, the appeals court also left open the possibility that Google might have a \"fair use\" defense.", "On October 6, 2014, Google filed a petition to appeal to the U.S. Supreme Court, but the Supreme Court denied the petition.", "The case was then returned to the U.S. District Court for another trial about Google's fair use defense. Oracle sought $9 billion in damages. In May 2016, the trial jury found that Google's use of Java's APIs was considered fair use.", "In February 2017, Oracle filed another appeal to the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit. This time it was asking for a new trial because the District Court \"repeatedly undermined Oracle's case\", which Oracle argued led the jury to make the wrong decision. According to ZDNet, \"For example, it [Oracle] says the court wrongly bought Google's claim that Android was limited to smartphones while Java was for PCs, whereas Oracle contends that Java and Android both compete as platforms for smart TVs, cars, and wearables.\"", "On August 13, 2010, an internal Oracle memo leaked to the Internet cited plans for ending the OpenSolaris operating system project and community. With Oracle planning to develop Solaris only in a closed source fashion, OpenSolaris developers moved to the Illumos and OpenIndiana project, among others.", "As Oracle completed their acquisition of Sun Microsystems in February 2010, they announced that OpenSSO would no longer be their strategic product. Shortly after, OpenSSO was forked to OpenAM. and will continue to be developed and supported by ForgeRock.", "On September 6, 2010, Oracle announced that former Hewlett-Packard CEO Mark Hurd was to replace Charles Phillips, who resigned as Oracle Co-President. In an official statement made by Larry Ellison, Phillips had previously expressed his desire to transition out of the company. Ellison had asked Phillips to stay on through the integration of Sun Microsystems Inc. In a separate statement regarding the transition, Ellison said \"Mark did a brilliant job at HP and I expect he'll do even better at Oracle. There is no executive in the IT world with more relevant experience than Mark.\" On September 7, 2010, HP announced a civil lawsuit against Mark Hurd \"to protect HP's trade secrets\", in response to Oracle hiring Hurd. On September 20, Oracle and HP published a joint press release announcing the resolution of the lawsuit on confidential terms and reaffirming commitment to long-term strategic partnership between the companies.", "A number of OpenOffice.org developers formed The Document Foundation and received backing by Google, Novell, Red Hat, and Canonical, as well as some others, but were unable to get Oracle to donate the brand OpenOffice.org, causing a fork in the development of OpenOffice.org with the foundation now developing and promoting LibreOffice. Oracle expressed no interest in sponsoring the new project and asked the OpenOffice.org developers that started the project to resign from the company due to \"conflicts of interest\". On November 1, 2010, 33 of the OpenOffice.org developers gave their letters of resignation. On June 1, 2011, Oracle donated OpenOffice.org to the Apache Software Foundation.", "On June 15, 2011, HP filed a lawsuit in California Superior Court in Santa Clara, claiming that Oracle had breached an agreement to support the Itanium microprocessor used in HP's high-end enterprise servers. Oracle called the lawsuit \"an abuse of the judicial process\" and said that had it known SAP's Léo Apotheker was about to be hired as HP's new CEO, any support for HP's Itanium servers would not have been implied. On August 1, 2012, a California judge said in a tentative ruling that Oracle must continue porting its software at no cost until HP discontinues its sales of Itanium-based servers. HP was awarded $3 billion in damages against Oracle in 2016. HP argued Oracle's canceling support damaged HP's Itanium server brand. Oracle has announced it will appeal both the decision and damages.", "On August 31, 2011, \"The Wall Street Journal\" reported that Oracle was being investigated by the Federal Bureau of Investigation for paying bribes to government officials in order to win business in Africa, in contravention of the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act (FCPA).", "On April 20, 2012 the US General Services Administration banned Oracle from the most popular portal for bidding on GSA contracts for undisclosed reasons. Oracle has previously used this portal for around four hundred million dollars a year in revenue. Oracle previously settled a lawsuit filed under the False Claims Act, which accused the company of overbilling the US government between 1998 and 2006. The 2011 settlement forced Oracle to pay $199.5 million to the General Services Administration.", "Oracle Corporation has its overall headquarters on the San Francisco Peninsula in the Redwood Shores area of Redwood City, adjacent to Belmont and near San Carlos Airport (IATA airport code: SQL). Oracle HQ stands on the former site of Marine World/Africa USA, which moved from Redwood Shores to Vallejo in 1986. Oracle Corporation originally leased two buildings on the site, moving its finance and administration departments from the corporation's former headquarters on Davis Drive, Belmont, California. Eventually, Oracle purchased the complex and constructed a further four main buildings. The distinctive Oracle Parkway buildings, nicknamed the Emerald City, served as sets for the futuristic headquarters of the fictional company \"NorthAm Robotics\" in the Robin Williams film \"Bicentennial Man\" (1999). The campus represented the headquarters of Cyberdyne Systems in the movie \"Terminator Genisys\" (2015).", "Oracle Corporation operates in multiple markets and has acquired several companies which formerly functioned autonomously. In some cases these provided the starting points for global business units (GBUs) targeting particular vertical markets. Oracle Corporation GBUs include:", "On October 20, 2006, the Golden State Warriors and the Oracle Corporation announced a 10-year agreement in which the Oakland Arena would become known as the Oracle Arena. Larry Ellison's sailing team competes as Oracle Team USA. The team has won the America's Cup twice, in 2010 (as BMW Oracle Racing) and in 2013, despite being penalized for cheating. Sean Tucker's \"Challenger II\" stunt biplane is sponsored by Oracle and performs frequently at air shows around the US. On January 9, 2019, ESPN reported that the San Francisco Giants entered into a 20-year agreement to rename their stadium Oracle Park." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Properties.", "Relationship between gamma function and beta function.", "Derivatives.", "Integrals.", "Approximation.", "Incomplete beta function.", "Multivariate beta function.", "Software implementation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The beta function is symmetric, meaning that A key property of the beta function is its relationship to the gamma function; proof is given below in the section on relationship between gamma function and beta function When and are positive integers, it follows from the definition of the gamma function that: The beta function satisfies several identities, including where is a truncated power function and the star denotes convolution. The lowermost identity above shows in particular. Some of these identities, e.g. the trigonometric formula, can be applied to deriving the volume of an -ball in Cartesian coordinates. Euler's integral for the beta function may be converted into an integral over the Pochhammer contour as This Pochhammer contour integral converges for all values of and and so gives the analytic continuation of the beta function. Just as the gamma function for integers describes factorials, the beta function can define a binomial coefficient after adjusting indices: Moreover, for integer, can be factored to give a closed form interpolation function for continuous values of : The beta function was the first known scattering amplitude in string theory, first conjectured by Gabriele Veneziano. It also occurs in the theory of the preferential attachment process, a type of stochastic urn process.", "A simple derivation of the relation can be found in Emil Artin's book \"The Gamma Function\", page 18–19. To derive the integral representation of the beta function, write the product of two factorials as Changing variables by and shows that this is where is the absolute value of the Jacobian determinant of and. The stated identity may be seen as a particular case of the identity for the integral of a convolution. Taking one has:", "We have where is the digamma function.", "The Nörlund–Rice integral is a contour integral involving the beta function.", "Stirling's approximation gives the asymptotic formula for large and large. If on the other hand is large and is fixed, then", "The incomplete beta function, a generalization of the beta function, is defined as For, the incomplete beta function coincides with the complete beta function. The relationship between the two functions is like that between the gamma function and its generalization the incomplete gamma function. The regularized incomplete beta function (or regularized beta function for short) is defined in terms of the incomplete beta function and the complete beta function: The regularized incomplete beta function is the cumulative distribution function of the beta distribution, and is related to the cumulative distribution function formula_18 of a random variable following a binomial distribution with probability of single success and number of Bernoulli trials :", "The beta function can be extended to a function with more than two arguments: This multivariate beta function is used in the definition of the Dirichlet distribution.", "Even if unavailable directly, the complete and incomplete beta function values can be calculated using functions commonly included in spreadsheet or computer algebra systems. In Excel, for example, the complete beta value can be calculated from the codice_1 function: An incomplete beta value can be calculated as: These result follow from the properties listed above. Similarly, codice_4 (incomplete beta function) in MATLAB and GNU Octave, codice_5 (probability of beta distribution) in R, or codice_6 in Python's SciPy package compute the regularized incomplete beta function—which is, in fact, the cumulative beta distribution—and so, to get the actual incomplete beta function, one must multiply the result of codice_4 by the result returned by the corresponding codice_8 function. In Mathematica, codice_9 and codice_10 give formula_22 and formula_23, respectively." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Contents of the crown group.", "Other groups under the crown group concept.", "Pan-group.", "Stem groups.", "Examples of stem groups (in the wider sense).", "Plesion-group.", "Palaeontological significance of stem and crown groups.", "Stem groups in systematics." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "It is not necessary for a species to have living descendants in order for it to be included in the crown group. Extinct side branches on the family tree that are descended from the most recent common ancestor of living members will still be part of a crown group. For example, if we consider the crown-birds (i.e. all extant birds and the rest of the family tree back to their most recent common ancestor), extinct side branches like the dodo or great auk are still descended from the most recent common ancestor of all living birds, so fall within the bird crown group. One very simplified cladogram for birds is shown below: In this diagram, the clade labelled \"Neornithes\" is the crown group of birds: it includes the most recent common ancestor of all living birds and its descendants, living or not. Although considered to be birds (i.e. members of the clade Aves), \"Archaeopteryx\" and other extinct groups are not included in the crown group, as they fall outside the Neornithes clade, being descended from an earlier ancestor. An alternative definition does not require any members of a crown group to be extant, only to have resulted from a \"major cladogenesis event\". The first definition forms the basis of this article. Often, the crown group is given the designation \"crown-\", to separate it from the group as commonly defined. Both birds and mammals are traditionally defined by their traits, and contain fossil members that lived before the last common ancestors of the living groups or, like the mammal \"Haldanodon\", were not descended from that ancestor although they lived later. Crown-Aves and Crown-Mammalia therefore differ slightly in content from the common definition of Aves and Mammalia. This has caused some confusion in the literature.", "The cladistic idea of strictly using the topology of the phylogenetic tree to define groups, necessitates other definitions than crown groups to adequately define commonly discussed fossil groups like various Burgess Shale fauna. Thus, a host of prefixes have been defined to describe various branches of the phylogenetic tree relative to extant organisms.", "A pan-group or total group is the crown group and all organisms more closely related to it than to any other extant organisms. In a tree analogy, it is the crown group and all branches back to (but not including) the split with the closest branch to have living members. The Pan-Aves thus contain the living birds and all (fossil) organisms more closely related to birds than to crocodilians (their closest living relatives). The phylogenetic lineage leading back from Neornithes to the point where it merges with the crocodilian lineage, along with all side branches, constitutes pan-birds. In addition to non-crown group primitive birds like \"Archaeopteryx\", \"Hesperornis\" and \"Confuciusornis\", therefore, pan-group birds would include all dinosaurs and pterosaurs as well as an assortment of non-crocodilian animals like \"Marasuchus\". Pan-Mammalia consists of all mammals and their fossil ancestors back to the phylogenetic split from the remaining amniotes (the Sauropsida). Pan-Mammalia is thus an alternative name for Synapsida.", "A stem group is a paraphyletic group composed of a pan-group or total group, above, \"minus\" the crown group itself (and therefore minus all living members of the pan-group). This leaves primitive relatives of the crown groups, back along the phylogenetic line to (but not including) the last common ancestor of the crown group and their nearest living relatives. It follows from the definition that all members of a stem group are extinct. The \"stem group\" is the most used and most important of the concepts linked to crown groups, as it offers a purely phylogenetic route to classify fossils that otherwise do not fit into systematics based on living organisms. While often attributed to Jefferies (1979), Willmann (2003) traced the origin of the stem group concept to German systematist Othniel Abel (1914), and it was discussed and diagrammed in English as early as 1933 by A. S. Romer. Alternatively, the term \"stem group\" is sometimes used in a narrower sense to cover just the members of the traditional taxon falling outside the crown group. Permian synapsids like \"Dimetrodon\" and \"Anteosaurus\" are stem mammals in the wider sense but not in the narrower one.", "Stem birds perhaps constitute the most cited example of a stem group, as the phylogeny of this group is fairly well known. The following cladogram, based on Benton (2005), illustrates the concept: The crown group here is Neornithes, all modern bird lineages back to their last common ancestor. The closest living relatives of birds are crocodilians. If we follow the phylogenetic lineage leading to Neornithes to the left, the line itself and all side branches belong to the stem birds until the lineage merges with that of the crocodilians. In addition to non-crown group primitive birds like \"Archaeopteryx\", \"Hesperornis\" and \"Confuciusornis\", stem group birds include the dinosaurs and the pterosaurs. The last common ancestor of birds and crocodilians—the first crown group archosaur—was neither bird nor crocodilian and possessed none of the features unique to either. As the bird stem group evolved, distinctive bird features such as feathers and hollow bones appeared. Finally, at the base of the crown group, all traits common to extant birds were present. Stem mammals are those in the lineage leading to living mammals, together with side branches, from the divergence of the lineage from the Sauropsida to the last common ancestor of the living mammals. This group includes the synapsids as well as mammaliaforms like the morganucodonts and the docodonts; the latter groups are traditionally and anatomically been considered mammals even though they fall outside the crown group mammals. Stem tetrapods are the animals belonging to the lineage leading to tetrapods from their divergence from the lungfish, our nearest relatives among the fishes. In addition to a series of lobe-finned fishes, they also include some of the early labyrinthodonts. Exactly what labyrinthodonts are in the stem group tetrapods rather than the corresponding crown group is uncertain, as the phylogeny of early tetrapods is not well understood. This example shows that crown and stem group definitions are of limited value when there is no consensus phylogeny. Stem arthropods constitute a group that has seen attention in connection with the Burgess Shale fauna. Several of the finds, including the enigmatic \"Opabinia\" and \"Anomalocaris\" have some, though not all, features associated with arthropods, and are thus considered stem arthropods. The sorting of the Burgess Shale fauna into various stem groups finally enabled phylogenetic sorting of this enigmatic assemblage and also allowed for identifying velvet worms as the closest living relatives of arthropods. Stem priapulids are other early Cambrian to middle Cambrian faunas, appearing in Chengjiang to Burgess Shale. The genus \"Ottoia\" has more or less the same build as modern priapulids, but phylogenetic analysis indicates that it falls outside the crown group, making it a stem priapulid.", "The name \"plesion\" has a long history in biological systematics, and plesion group has acquired several meanings over the years. One use is as \"nearby group\" (plesion means \"close to\" in Greek), i.e. sister group to a given taxon, whether that group is a crown group or not. The term may also mean a group, possibly paraphyletic, defined by primitive traits (i.e. symplesiomorphies). It is generally taken to mean a side branch splitting off earlier on the phylogenetic tree than the group in question.", "Placing fossils in their right order in a stem group allows the order of these acquisitions to be established, and thus the ecological and functional setting of the evolution of the major features of the group in question. Stem groups thus offer a route to integrate unique palaeontological data into questions of the evolution of living organisms. Furthermore, they show that fossils that were considered to lie in their own separate group because they did not show all the diagnostic features of a living clade, can nevertheless be related to it by lying in its stem group. Such fossils have been of particular importance in considering the origins of the tetrapods, mammals, and animals. The application of the stem group concept also influenced the interpretation of the organisms of the Burgess shale. Their classification in stem groups to extant phyla, rather than in phyla of their own, is thought by some to make the Cambrian explosion easier to understand without invoking unusual evolutionary mechanisms; however, application of the stem group concept does nothing to ameliorate the difficulties that phylogenetic telescoping poses to evolutionary theorists attempting to understand both macroevolutionary change and the abrupt character of the Cambrian explosion. Overemphasis on the stem group concept threatens to delay or obscure proper recognition of new higher taxa.", "As originally proposed by Karl-Ernst Lauterbach, stem groups should be given the prefix \"stem\" (i.e. Stem-Aves, Stem-Arthropoda), however the crown group should have no prefix. The latter has not been universally accepted for known groups. A number of paleontologists have opted to apply this approach anyway." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Synopsis.", "Act 1.", "Act 2.", "Act 3.", "Act 4.", "Creation.", "Writing history.", "Characterisation.", "Performance history.", "Assembling the cast.", "Premiere and initial run.", "Early revivals.", "Worldwide success.", "Music.", "Musical numbers.", "Recordings.", "Adaptations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In the Paris of the 1860s, despite being a Prix de Rome laureate, Bizet struggled to get his stage works performed. The capital's two main state-funded opera houses—the Opéra and the Opéra-Comique—followed conservative repertoires that restricted opportunities for young native talent. Bizet's professional relationship with Léon Carvalho, manager of the independent Théâtre Lyrique company, enabled him to bring to the stage two full-scale operas, \"Les pêcheurs de perles\" (1863) and \"La jolie fille de Perth\" (1867), but neither enjoyed much public success. When artistic life in Paris resumed after the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71, Bizet found wider opportunities for the performance of his works; his one-act opera \"Djamileh\" opened at the Opéra-Comique in May 1872. Although this failed and was withdrawn after 11 performances, it led to a further commission from the theatre, this time for a full-length opera for which Henri Meilhac and Ludovic Halévy", "", "\"A square, in Seville. On the right, a door to the tobacco factory. At the back, a bridge. On the left, a guardhouse.\" A group of soldiers relax in the square, waiting for the changing of the guard and commenting on the passers-by (\"Sur la place, chacun passe\"). Micaëla appears, seeking José. Moralès tells her that \"José is not yet on duty\" and invites her to wait with them. She declines, saying she will return later. José arrives with the new guard, who is greeted and imitated by a crowd of urchins (\"Avec la garde montante\"). As the factory bell rings, the cigarette girls emerge and exchange banter with young men in the crowd (\"La cloche a sonné\"). Carmen enters and sings her provocative habanera on the untameable nature of love (\"L'amour est un oiseau rebelle\").", "\"Lillas Pastia's Inn\" Two months have passed. Carmen and her friends Frasquita and Mercédès are entertaining Zuniga and other officers (\"Les tringles des sistres tintaient\") in Pastia's inn. Carmen is delighted to learn of José's release from two months' detention. Outside, a chorus and procession announces the arrival of the toreador Escamillo (\"Vivat, vivat le Toréro\"). Invited inside, he introduces himself with the \"Toreador Song\" (\"Votre toast, je peux vous le rendre\") and sets his sights on Carmen, who brushes him aside. Lillas Pastia hustles the crowds and the soldiers away. When only Carmen, Frasquita and Mercédès remain, smugglers Dancaïre and Remendado arrive and reveal their plans", "\"A wild spot in the mountains\" Carmen and José enter with the smugglers and their booty (\"Écoute, écoute, compagnons\"); Carmen has now become bored with José and tells him scornfully that he should go back to his mother. Frasquita and Mercédès amuse themselves by reading their fortunes from the cards; Carmen joins them and finds that the cards are foretelling her death, and José's. The women depart to suborn the customs officers who are watching the locality. José is placed on guard duty. Micaëla enters with", "\"A square in Seville. At the back, the walls of an ancient amphitheatre\" Zuniga, Frasquita and Mercédès are among the crowd awaiting the arrival of the bullfighters (\"Les voici! Voici la quadrille!\"). Escamillo enters with Carmen, and they express their mutual love (\"Si tu m'aimes, Carmen\"). As Escamillo goes into the arena, Frasquita and Mercédès warn Carmen that José is nearby,", "", "Meilhac and Halévy were a long-standing duo with an established division of labour: Meilhac, who was completely unmusical, wrote the dialogue and Halévy the verses. There is no clear indication of when work began on \"Carmen\". Bizet and the two librettists were all in Paris during 1873 and easily able to meet; thus there is little written record or correspondence relating to the beginning of the collaboration. The libretto was prepared in accordance with the conventions of \"opéra comique\", with dialogue separating musical numbers. It deviates from Mérimée's novella in a number of significant respects. In the original, events are spread over a much", "Most of the characters in \"Carmen\"—the soldiers, the smugglers, the Gypsy women and the secondary leads Micaëla and Escamillo—are reasonably familiar types within the \"opéra comique\" tradition, although drawing them from proletarian life was unusual. The two principals, José and Carmen, lie outside the genre. While each is presented quite differently from Mérimée's portrayals of a murderous brigand and a treacherous, amoral schemer, even in their relatively sanitised forms neither corresponds to the norms of \"opéra comique\". They are more akin to the \"verismo\"", "", "The search for a singer-actress to play Carmen began in the summer of 1873. Press speculation favoured Zulma Bouffar, who was perhaps the librettists' preferred choice. She had sung leading roles in many of Offenbach's operas, but she was unacceptable to Bizet and was turned down by du Locle as unsuitable. In September an approach was made to Marie Roze, well known for previous triumphs at the Opéra-Comique, the Opéra and in London. She refused the part when she learned that she would be required to die on stage. The role was then offered to Célestine Galli-Marié, who agreed to terms with du Locle after several months' negotiation. Galli-Marié, a demanding and at times tempestuous performer, would prove a staunch ally of", "Because rehearsals did not start until October 1874 and lasted longer than anticipated, the premiere was delayed. The final rehearsals went well, and in a generally optimistic mood the first night was fixed for 3 March 1875, the day on which, coincidentally, Bizet's appointment as a Chevalier of the Legion of Honour was formally announced. The premiere, which was conducted by Adolphe Deloffre, was attended by many of Paris's leading musical figures, including Massenet, Offenbach, Delibes and Gounod; during the performance the last-named was overheard complaining bitterly that Bizet had stolen the music of Micaëla's act 3 aria from him: \"That melody is", "Shortly before his death Bizet signed a contract for a production of \"Carmen\" by the Vienna Court Opera. For this version, first staged on 23 October 1875, Bizet's friend Ernest Guiraud replaced the original dialogue with recitatives, to create a \"grand opera\" format. Guiraud also reorchestrated music from Bizet's \"L'Arlésienne suite\" to provide a spectacular ballet for \"Carmen\"s second act. Shortly before the initial Vienna performance, the Court Opera's director Franz von Jauner decided to use parts of the original dialogue along with some", "On 9 January 1884, \"Carmen\" was given its first New York Metropolitan Opera performance, to a mixed critical reception. \"The New York Times\" welcomed Bizet's \"pretty and effective work\", but compared Zelia Trebelli's interpretation of the title role unfavourably with that of Minnie Hauk. Thereafter \"Carmen\" was quickly incorporated into the Met's regular repertory. In February 1906 Enrico Caruso sang José at the Met for the first time; he continued to perform in this role until 1919, two years before his death. On 17 April 1906, on tour with the Met, he sang the role at the Grand Opera House in San Francisco. Afterwards he sat up until 3 am reading the reviews in the early editions of the following", "Hervé Lacombe, in his survey of 19th-century French opera, contends that \"Carmen\" is one of the few works from that large repertory to have stood the test of time. While he places the opera firmly within the long \"opéra comique\" tradition, Macdonald considers that it transcends the genre and that its immortality is assured by \"the combination in abundance of striking melody, deft harmony and perfectly judged orchestration\". Dean sees Bizet's principal achievement in the demonstration of the main actions of the opera in the music, rather than in the dialogue, writing that \"Few artists have expressed so vividly the torments inflicted by sexual passions and jealousy\". Dean places Bizet's realism in a different category from the \"verismo\" of Puccini and others; he likens the composer to Mozart and Verdi in his ability to engage his audiences with the emotions and sufferings of his characters. Bizet, who had never visited Spain, sought out appropriate ethnic material to provide an authentic Spanish flavour to his music. Carmen's habanera is based on an idiomatic song, \"El Arreglito\", by the Spanish composer Sebastián Yradier (1809–65). Bizet had taken this to be a genuine folk melody; when he learned its recent origin he added a note to the vocal score, crediting Yradier. He used a genuine folksong as the source of Carmen's defiant \"Coupe-moi, brûle-moi\" while other parts of the score, notably the \"Seguidilla\", utilise the rhythms and instrumentation associated with flamenco music. However, Dean insists that \"[t]his is a French, not a Spanish opera\"; the \"foreign bodies\", while they undoubtedly contribute to the unique atmosphere of the opera, form only a small ingredient of the complete music. The prelude to act 1 combines three recurrent themes: the entry of the bullfighters from act 4, the refrain from the Toreador Song from act 2, and the motif that, in two slightly differing forms, represents both Carmen herself and the fate that she personifies. This motif, played on clarinet, bassoon, cornet and cellos over tremolo strings, concludes the prelude with an abrupt crescendo. When the curtain rises a light and sunny atmosphere is soon established, and pervades the opening scenes. The mock solemnities of the changing of the guard, and the flirtatious exchanges between the townsfolk and the factory girls, precede a mood change when a brief phrase from the fate motif announces Carmen's entrance. After her provocative habanera, with its persistent insidious rhythm and changes of", "Numbers are from the vocal score (English version) printed by G. Schirmer Inc.,", "\"Carmen\" has been the subject of many recordings, beginning with early wax cylinder recordings of excerpts in the 1890s, a nearly complete performance in German from 1908 with Emmy Destinn in the title role, and a complete 1911 Opéra-Comique recording in", "In 1883, the Spanish violinist and composer Pablo de Sarasate (1844–1908) wrote a \"Carmen Fantasy\" for violin, described as \"ingenious and technically difficult\". Ferruccio Busoni's 1920 piece, Piano Sonatina No. 6 (Fantasia da camera super Carmen), is based on themes from \"Carmen\". In 1967, the Russian composer Rodion Shchedrin adapted parts of the \"Carmen\" music into a ballet, the \"Carmen Suite\", written for his wife Maya Plisetskaya, then the Bolshoi Ballet's principal ballerina. In 1983 the stage director Peter Brook produced an adaptation of Bizet's opera known as \"La Tragedie de Carmen\" in collaboration with the writer Jean-Claude Carrière and the composer Marius Constant. This 90-minute version focused on four main characters, eliminating choruses and the major arias were reworked for chamber orchestra. Brook first produced it in Paris, and it has since been performed in many cities. The character \"Carmen\" has been a regular subject of film treatment since the earliest days of cinema. The films were made in various languages and interpreted by several cultures, and have been created by prominent directors including (), Raoul Walsh (1915), Cecil B. DeMille (1915), Otto Preminger (1954), Carlos Saura (1983) (who made a flamenco-based dance film with two levels of story telling), Brook (1983) (filming his compressed \"La Tragédie de Carmen\"), and Jean-Luc Godard (1984). The Preminger film, \"Carmen Jones\", is based on the 1943 Oscar Hammerstein's Broadway musical of the same name, itself an adaptation of the opera. The story is transposed to 1940s Chicago, and features an all-black cast. Francesco Rosi's film of 1984, with Julia Migenes and Plácido Domingo, is generally faithful to the original story and to Bizet's music. \"Carmen on Ice\" (1990), starring Katarina Witt, Brian Boitano and Brian Orser, was inspired by Witt's gold medal-winning performance during the 1988 Winter Olympics. Robert Townsend's 2001 film, \"\", starring Beyoncé Knowles, is a more recent attempt to create an African-American version. \"Carmen\" was interpreted in modern ballet by the South African dancer and choreographer Dada Masilo in 2010." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "History.", "Varieties.", "Cultivation.", "Harvesting.", "Harvest processing.", "Child slavery.", "Attempt at reform.", "Production.", "Cocoa trading.", "Fair trade.", "Consumption.", "Chocolate production.", "Phytochemicals and research.", "Environmental impact.", "Agroforestry." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "The word \"cocoa\" comes from the Spanish word \"cacao\", which is derived from the Nahuatl word \"cacahuatl\". The Nahuatl word, in turn, ultimately derives from the reconstructed Proto Mije-Sokean word \"kakawa\". The term \"cocoa\" also means", "The cacao tree is native to the Amazon Basin. It was domesticated by the Olmecs and Mokaya (Mexico and Central America). More than 4,000 years ago, it was consumed by pre-Columbian cultures along the Yucatán, including the Maya, and as far back as Olmeca civilization in spiritual ceremonies. It also grows in the foothills of the Andes in the Amazon and Orinoco basins of South America, in Colombia and Venezuela. Wild cacao still grows there. Its range may have been larger in the past; evidence of its wild range may be obscured by cultivation of the tree in these areas since long before the Spanish arrived. As of November 2018, evidence suggests that cacao was first domesticated in equatorial South America, before being domesticated in Central America roughly 1,500 years later. Artifacts found at Santa-Ana-La Florida, in Ecuador, indicate that the Mayo-Chinchipe people were cultivating cacao as long as 5,300 years ago. Chemical analysis of residue extracted from pottery excavated at an archaeological site at Puerto Escondido, in Honduras, indicates that cocoa products were first consumed there sometime between 1500 and 1400 BC. Evidence also indicates that, long before the flavor of the cacao seed (or bean) became popular, the sweet pulp of the chocolate fruit, used in making a fermented (5.34% alcohol) beverage, first drew attention to the plant in the Americas. The cocoa bean was a common currency throughout Mesoamerica before the Spanish conquest. Cacao trees grow in a limited geographical zone, of about 20° to the north and south of the Equator. Nearly 70% of the world crop today is grown in West Africa. The cacao plant was first given its botanical name by Swedish natural scientist Carl Linnaeus in his original classification of the plant kingdom, where he called it \"Theobroma\" (\"food of the gods\") \"cacao\". Cocoa was an important commodity in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica. A Spanish soldier who was part of the conquest of Mexico by Hernán Cortés tells that when Moctezuma II, emperor of the Aztecs, dined, he took no other beverage than chocolate, served in a golden goblet. Flavored with vanilla or other spices, his chocolate was whipped into a froth that dissolved in the mouth. No fewer than 60 portions each day reportedly may have been consumed by Moctezuma II, and 2,000 more by the nobles of his court. Chocolate was introduced to Europe by the Spaniards, and became a popular beverage by the mid-17th century. Spaniards also introduced the cacao tree into the West Indies and the Philippines. It was also introduced into the rest of Asia, South Asia and into West Africa by Europeans. In the Gold Coast, modern Ghana, cacao was introduced by a Ghanaian, Tetteh Quarshie.", "The three main varieties of cocoa plant are Forastero, Criollo, and Trinitario. The first is the most widely used, comprising 80–90% of the world production of cocoa. Cocoa beans of the Criollo variety are rarer and considered a delicacy. Criollo plantations have lower yields than those of Forastero, and also tend to be less resistant to several diseases that attack the cocoa plant, hence very few countries still produce it. One of the largest producers of Criollo beans is Venezuela (Chuao and Porcelana). Trinitario (from Trinidad) is a hybrid between Criollo and Forastero varieties. It is considered to be of much higher quality than Forastero, has higher yields, and is more resistant to disease than Criollo.", "A cocoa pod (fruit) has a rough, leathery rind about thick (this varies with the origin and variety of pod) filled with sweet, mucilaginous pulp (called \"baba de cacao\" in South America) with a lemonade-like taste enclosing 30 to 50 large seeds that are fairly soft and a pale lavender to dark brownish purple color. During harvest, the pods are opened, the seeds are kept, and the empty pods are discarded and the pulp made into juice. The seeds are placed where they can ferment. Due to heat buildup in the fermentation process, cacao beans lose most of the purplish hue and become mostly brown in color, with an adhered skin which includes the dried remains of the fruity pulp. This skin is released easily by winnowing after roasting. White seeds are found in some rare varieties, usually mixed with purples, and are considered of higher value.", "Cocoa trees grow in hot, rainy tropical areas within 20° of latitude from the Equator. Cocoa harvest is not restricted to one period per year and a harvest typically occurs over several months. In fact, in many countries, cocoa can be harvested at any time of the year. Pesticides are often applied to the trees to combat capsid bugs, and fungicides to fight black pod disease. Immature cocoa pods have a variety of colours, but most often are green, red, or purple, and as they mature, their colour tends towards yellow or orange, particularly in the creases. Unlike most fruiting trees, the cacao pod grows directly from the trunk or large branch of a tree rather than from the end of a branch, similar to jackfruit. This makes harvesting by hand easier as most of the pods will not be up in the higher branches. The pods on a tree do not ripen together; harvesting needs to be done periodically through the year. Harvesting occurs between three and four times weekly during the harvest season. The ripe and near-ripe pods, as judged by their colour, are harvested from the trunk and branches of the cocoa tree with a curved knife on a long pole. Care must be used when cutting the stem of the pod to avoid damaging the junction of the stem with the tree, as this is where future flowers and pods will emerge. One person can harvest an estimated 650 pods per day.", "The harvested pods are opened, typically with a machete, to expose the beans. The pulp and cocoa seeds are removed and the rind is discarded. The pulp and seeds are then piled in heaps, placed in bins, or laid out on grates for several days. During this time, the seeds and pulp undergo \"sweating\", where the thick pulp liquefies as it ferments. The fermented pulp trickles away, leaving cocoa seeds behind to be collected. Sweating is important for the quality of the beans, which originally have a strong, bitter taste. If sweating is interrupted, the resulting cocoa may be ruined; if underdone, the cocoa seed maintains a flavor similar to raw potatoes and becomes susceptible to mildew. Some cocoa-producing countries distill alcoholic spirits using the liquefied pulp. A typical pod contains 30 to 40 beans and about 400 dried beans are required to make one pound (454 grams) of chocolate. Cocoa pods weigh an average of and each one yields dried beans; this yield is 9–10% of the total weight in the pod. One person can separate the beans from about 2000 pods per day. The wet beans are then transported to a facility so they can be fermented and dried. The farmer removes the beans from the pods, packs them into boxes or heaps them into piles, then covers them with mats or banana leaves for three to seven days. Finally, the beans are trodden and shuffled about (often using bare human feet) and sometimes, during this process, red clay mixed with water is sprinkled over the beans to obtain a finer color, polish, and protection against molds during shipment to factories in other countries. Drying in the sun is preferable to drying by artificial means, as no extraneous flavors such as smoke or oil are introduced which might otherwise taint the flavor. The beans should be dry for shipment (usually by sea). Traditionally exported in jute bags, over the last decade, beans are increasingly shipped in \"mega-bulk\" parcels of several thousand tonnes at a time on ships, or standardized to 62.5kg per bag and 200 (12.5mt) or 240 (15mt) bags per 20-ft container. Shipping in bulk significantly reduces handling costs; shipment in bags, however, either in a ship's hold or in containers, is still common. Throughout Mesoamerica where they are native, cocoa beans are used for a variety of foods. The harvested and fermented beans may be ground to-order at \"tiendas de chocolate\", or chocolate mills. At these mills, the cocoa can be mixed with a variety of ingredients such as cinnamon, chili peppers, almonds, vanilla, and other spices to create drinking chocolate. The ground cocoa is also an important ingredient in \"tejate\".", "The first allegations that child slavery is used in cocoa production appeared in 1998. In late 2000, a BBC documentary reported the use of enslaved children in the production of cocoa in West Africa. Other media followed by reporting widespread child slavery and child trafficking in the production of cocoa. Child labour was growing in some West African countries in 2008-09 when it was estimated that 819,921 children worked on cocoa farms in Ivory Coast alone; by the year 2013-14, the number went up to 1,303,009. During the same period in Ghana, the estimated number of children working on cocoa farms was 957,398 children.", "The cocoa industry was accused of profiting from child slavery and trafficking. The Harkin–Engel Protocol is an effort to end these practices. It was signed and witnessed by the heads of eight major chocolate companies, US Senators Tom Harkin and Herb Kohl, US Representative Eliot Engel, the ambassador of the Ivory Coast, the director of the International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labor, and others. It has, however, been criticized by some groups including the International Labor Rights Forum as an industry initiative which falls short. As of 2017, approximately 2.1 million children in Ghana and Côte d'Ivoire were involved in harvesting cocoa, carrying heavy loads, clearing forests, and being exposed to pesticides. According to Sona Ebai, the former secretary general of the Alliance of Cocoa Producing Countries: \"I think child labor cannot be just the responsibility of industry to solve. I think it's the proverbial all-hands-on-deck: government, civil society, the private sector. And there, you really need leadership.\" Reported in 2018, a 3-year pilot program, conducted by Nestlé with 26,000 farmers mostly located in Côte d'Ivoire, observed a 51% decrease in the number of children doing hazardous jobs in cocoa farming. The US Department of Labor formed the Child Labor Cocoa Coordinating Group as a public-private partnership with the governments of Ghana and Côte d'Ivoire to address child labor practices in the cocoa industry.", "In 2017, world production of cocoa beans was 5.2 million tonnes, led by Ivory Coast with 38% of the total. Other major producers were Ghana (17%) and Indonesia (13%).", "Cocoa beans from Ghana are traditionally shipped and stored in burlap sacks, in which the beans are susceptible to pest attacks. Fumigation with methyl bromide was to be phased out globally by 2015. Additional cocoa protection techniques for shipping and storage include the application of pyrenoids as well as hermetic storage in sealed bags or containers with lowered oxygen concentrations. Safe long-term storage facilitates the trading of cocoa products at commodity exchanges. Cocoa beans, cocoa butter and cocoa powder are traded on two world exchanges: ICE Futures U.S. and NYSE Liffe Futures and Options. The London market is based on West African cocoa and New York on cocoa predominantly from Southeast Asia. Cocoa is the world's smallest soft commodity market. The state of California requires a food label for cocoa powder to carry a warning about potential exposure to cadmium, based upon 1986 California Proposition 65. The future price of cocoa butter and cocoa powder is determined by multiplying the bean price by a ratio. The combined butter and powder ratio has tended to be around 3.5. If the combined ratio falls below 3.2 or so, production ceases to be economically viable and some factories cease extraction of butter and powder and trade exclusively in cocoa liquor.", "Fair trade cocoa producer groups are established in Belize, Bolivia, Cameroon, the Congo, Costa Rica, the Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Ghana, Haiti, India, Ivory Coast, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Sierra Leone, and São Tomé and Príncipe. In 2016 it was reported that the chocolate producer Ferrero would further invest in fair trade in cocoa; the plan was to double the amount of cocoa originating from fair trade in the following three years. Ferrero wanted to invest in 40,000 MT of fair trade cocoa until 2020. , less than 1% of the chocolate market was fair trade. Cadbury, one of the world's largest chocolate companies, has begun certifying its Dairy Milk bars as fair trade; according to Cadbury,, one quarter of global sales of chocolate bars will be fair trade. In 2007, the United States imported approximately 1.95 million pounds of fairly traded cocoa. In order to purpose a sustainable and responsible coffee-production, established 1997 the Dutch coffee roaster Ahold Coffee Company in cooperation with coffeefarmers, the UTZ Certified-programme. To achieve this, they created the utz-certificate, which includes the counteracting against child labor and the exploitation of the workers. To receive this certificate, the included farm/company needs to follow a code of conduct in relation to social and environmental friendly factors. Furthermore, the UTZ-program focuses on an improvement of farming methods to increase the profits and salaries of farmers and distributors on site. UTZ Code of Conduct: In 2012 Mondelez International launched the Cocoa Life program to improve the cocoa supply chain by investing $400 million in the following ten years. Approximately $100 million of the money was to be spent for the cocoa supply chain in Ivory Coast, $100 million would be dedicated to Ghana and the remaining $200 million was to be shared between Brazil, Dominican Republic and India. The company was not only investigating the purchase of certificated cocoa, but looking to focus more on direct investment in the cocoa supply chain. The Cocoa Life program advocates for higher incomes for farmers, authorization, inspiring young people and conserving the environment.", "People around the world enjoy cocoa in many different forms, consuming more than 3 million tons of cocoa beans yearly. Once the cocoa beans have been harvested, fermented, dried and transported they are processed in several components. Processor grindings serve as the main metric for market analysis. Processing is the last phase in which consumption of the cocoa bean can be equitably compared to supply. After this step all the different components are sold across industries to many manufacturers of different types of products. Global market share for processing has remained stable, even as grindings increase to meet demand. One of the largest processing country by volume is the Netherlands, handling around 13% of global grindings. Europe and Russia as a whole handle about 38% of the processing market. Average year after year demand growth has been just over 3% since 2008. While Europe and North America are relatively stable markets, increasing household income in developing countries is the main reason of the stable demand growth. As demand is awaited to keep growing, supply growth may slow down due to changing weather conditions in the largest cocoa production areas.", "To make 1 kg (2.2 lb) of chocolate, about 300 to 600 beans are processed, depending on the desired cocoa content. In a factory, the beans are roasted. Next, they are cracked and then deshelled by a \"winnower\". The resulting pieces of beans are called nibs. They are sometimes sold in small packages at specialty stores and markets to be used in cooking, snacking, and chocolate dishes. Since nibs are directly from the cocoa tree, they contain high amounts of theobromine. Most nibs are ground, using various methods, into a thick, creamy paste, known as chocolate liquor or cocoa paste. This \"liquor\" is then further processed into chocolate by mixing in (more) cocoa butter and sugar (and sometimes vanilla and lecithin as an emulsifier), and then refined, conched and tempered. Alternatively, it can be separated into cocoa powder and cocoa butter using a hydraulic press or the Broma process. This process produces around 50% cocoa butter and 50% cocoa powder. Standard cocoa powder has a fat content around 10–12%. Cocoa butter is used in chocolate bar manufacture, other confectionery, soaps, and cosmetics. Treating with alkali produces Dutch-process cocoa powder, which is less acidic, darker, and more mellow in flavor than what is generally available in most of the world. Regular (nonalkalized) cocoa is acidic, so when cocoa is treated with an alkaline ingredient, generally potassium carbonate, the pH increases. This process can be done at various stages during manufacturing, including during nib treatment, liquor treatment, or press cake treatment. Another process that helps develop the flavor is roasting, which can be done on the whole bean before shelling or on the nib after shelling. The time and temperature of the roast affect the result: A \"low roast\" produces a more acid, aromatic flavor, while a high roast gives a more intense, bitter flavor lacking complex flavor notes.", "Cocoa contains various phytochemicals, such as flavanols (including epicatechin), procyanidins, and other flavanoids, which are under preliminary research for their possible cardiovascular effects. The highest levels of cocoa flavanols are found in raw cocoa and to a lesser extent, dark chocolate, since flavonoids degrade during cooking used to make chocolate. Cocoa also contains the stimulant compounds theobromine and caffeine. The beans contain between 0.1% and 0.7% caffeine, whereas dry coffee beans are about 1.2% caffeine.", "The relative poverty of many cocoa farmers means that environmental consequences such as deforestation are given little significance. For decades, cocoa farmers have encroached on virgin forest, mostly after the felling of trees by logging companies. This trend has decreased as many governments and communities are beginning to protect their remaining forested zones. In general, the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides by cocoa farmers is limited. When cocoa bean prices are high, farmers may invest in their crops, leading to higher yields which, in turn tends to result in lower market prices and a renewed period of lower investment. Cocoa production is likely to be affected in various ways by the expected effects of global warming. Specific concerns have been raised concerning its future as a cash crop in West Africa, the current centre of global cocoa production. If temperatures continue to rise, West Africa could simply become unfit to grow the beans. Cacao beans also have a potential to be used as a bedding material in farms for cows. Using cacao bean husks in bedding material for cows had beneficial effects on udder health (results in less bacterial growth) and ammonia levels (less ammonia levels on bedding).", "Cocoa beans may be cultivated under shaded conditions, e.g. agroforestry. Agroforestry can reduce the pressure on existing protected forests for resources, such as firewood, and conserve biodiversity. Agroforests act as buffers to formally protected forests and biodiversity island refuges in an open, human-dominated landscape. Research of their shade-grown coffee counterparts has shown that greater canopy cover in plots is significantly associated to greater mammal species richness and abundance. The amount of diversity in tree species is fairly comparable between shade-grown cocoa plots and primary forests. Farmers can grow a variety of fruit-bearing shade trees to supplement their income to help cope with the volatile cocoa prices. Although cocoa has been adapted to grow under a dense rainforest canopy, agroforestry does not significantly further enhance cocoa productivity." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Career.", "1989–1994: Early career.", "1994–2004: Breakthrough.", "2004–present: Post-\"Friends\".", "Personal life.", "Awards and nominations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Lisa Kudrow was born in Los Angeles, California, to Nedra S. (\"née\" Stern, born 1934), a travel agent, and Lee N. Kudrow (born 1933), a physician who specialized in the treatment of headaches. She has an older sister, Helene Marla (born 1955), and an older brother, Santa Monica neurologist David B. Kudrow (born 1957). Kudrow was raised in a middle-class Jewish family and had a Bat Mitzvah ceremony. Her ancestors emigrated from Belarus, Germany, Hungary and Poland, and some of them lived in the village of Ilya, in the Minsk area. Kudrow's paternal grandparents were David Kudrow (born in Mogilev, Belarus) and Gertrude Farberman (born in Ilya, Belarus). Her paternal great-grandmother, Mera Mordejovich, was murdered in Ilya during the Holocaust. Her paternal grandmother emigrated to Brooklyn, where her father grew up. Kudrow attended Portola Middle School in Tarzana, California. She graduated from Taft High School in Woodland Hills, Los Angeles where then N.W.A. members Ice Cube and Eazy-E and actress Robin Wright also attended. Kudrow received her Bachelor of Arts degree in Biology from Vassar College, intending to become an expert on headaches like her physician father. Kudrow worked on her father's staff for eight years while breaking into acting, earning a research credit on his study on the comparative likelihood of left-handed individuals developing cluster headaches.", "", "At the urging of her brother's childhood friend, comedian Jon Lovitz, she began her comedic career as a member of The Groundlings, an improv and sketch comedy school in Los Angeles. Kudrow has credited Cynthia Szigeti, her improv teacher at The Groundlings, for changing her perspective on acting, calling her \"the best thing that happened, on so many levels.\" Briefly, Kudrow joined with Conan O'Brien and director Tim Hillman in the short-lived improv troupe Unexpected Company. She was also the only regular female member of the Transformers Comedy Troupe. She played a role in an episode of the NBC sitcom \"Cheers\". She tried out for \"Saturday Night Live\" in 1990, but the show chose Julia Sweeney instead. She had a recurring role as Kathy Fleisher in three episodes of season one of the Bob Newhart sitcom \"Bob\" (CBS, 1992–1993), a role she played after taking part in the series finale of Newhart's previous series \"Newhart\". Prior to \"Friends\", she appeared in at least two produced network pilots: NBC's \"Just Temporary\" (also known as \"Temporarily Yours\") in 1989, playing Nicole; and CBS' \"Close Encounters\" (also known as \"Matchmaker\") in 1990, playing a Valley girl. Kudrow was cast to play the role of Roz Doyle in \"Frasier\", but the role was re-cast with Peri Gilpin during the taping of the pilot episode. Kudrow said in 2000 that when rehearsals started, \"I knew it wasn't working. I could feel it all slipping away, and I was panicking, which only made things worse.\" Her first recurring television role was Ursula Buffay, the eccentric waitress on the NBC sitcom \"Mad About You\". Kudrow would reprise the character on the NBC sitcom \"Friends\", in which Kudrow co-starred as massage therapist Phoebe Buffay, Ursula's twin sister.", "Kudrow was the first Friends cast member to win an Emmy Award with her 1998 honor as Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series for her starring role as Phoebe on \"Friends\" (NBC, 1994–2004). According to the \"Guinness Book of World Records\" (2005), Kudrow and co-stars Jennifer Aniston and Courteney Cox became the highest paid TV actresses of all time, earning $1 million per episode for the ninth and tenth seasons of \"Friends\". During her tenure on \"Friends\" Kudrow appeared in multiple comedic films such as \"Romy and Michele's High School Reunion\", \"Hanging Up\", \"Marci X\", \"Dr. Dolittle 2\", \"Analyze This\" and its sequel \"Analyze That\", and dramatic films, such as \"Wonderland\" and \"The Opposite of Sex\". She also guest starred on numerous television series during \"Friends\", including \"The Simpsons\", \"Hope and Gloria\", \"King of the Hill\", and hosting \"Saturday Night Live\".", "Kudrow starred as protagonist Valerie Cherish on the single-season HBO series \"The Comeback\" (premiered June 5, 2005), about a has-been sitcom star trying for a comeback. She also served as co-creator, writer, and executive producer. Nine years after the original season, HBO revived the series in 2014 for an abbreviated second season. Kudrow received two Emmy nominations for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series for her work on \"The Comeback\". Kudrow serves as the executive producer for the American version of the UK television series \"Who Do You Think You Are?\", in which celebrities trace their family trees. The subjects of the first series included Kudrow herself, in which it was discovered her great-grandmother was murdered in the Holocaust. Kudrow co-created an improvised comedy web series, \"Web Therapy\" on Lstudio.com. The improv series, which launched online in 2008, has earned several Webby nominations and one Outstanding Comedic Performance Webby for Kudrow, who plays therapist Fiona Wallice. She offers her patients three-minute sessions over iChat. In July 2011, a reformatted, half-hour version of the show premiered on Showtime, before being cancelled in 2015 after four seasons. Kudrow has guest starred on multiple television series such as \"Cougar Town\", \"BoJack Horseman\", \"Angie Tribeca\", \"Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt\", and \"Scandal\". Following \"Friends\", Kudrow has also appeared in films such as \"Easy A\", \"Hotel for Dogs (film)\", \"Happy Endings\", and \"Neighbors\". In 2016, she reprised her role as Carol Gladstone in \"\", and co-starred in the thriller film \"The Girl on the Train\". Kudrow played Hypatia of Alexandria in season 4 episode 12 of The Good Place \"Patty\". She is currently, along with Mary McCormack, an executive producer of the syndicated game show, \"25 Words or Less\"; sometimes, Kudrow herself is one of the two celebrity guests playing with a contestant on the show. On April 8, 2020, it was announced that Kudrow was cast as Maggie Naird in the upcoming Netflix comedy series, \"Space Force\".", "On May 27, 1995, Kudrow married French advertising executive Michel Stern. They have a son, Julian Murray Stern, who was born on May 7, 1998. Kudrow's pregnancy was written into the fourth season of \"Friends\" with her character, Phoebe, having triplets as a surrogate mother for her younger half-brother Frank (Giovanni Ribisi) and his wife Alice (Debra Jo Rupp). In 2019, during an interview with Marc Maron, Kudrow revealed that she experienced body dysmorphic disorder while working on the show.", "Kudrow has been honored with numerous accolades over her career. For her role in the sitcom \"Friends\", she received six nominations at the Primetime Emmy Awards, winning in 1998 for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series. Kudrow has also received twelve nominations and two wins at the Screen Actors Guild Awards, as well as one win and eight nominations at the American Comedy Awards." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Trivia.", "Geographical distribution." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The name \"Robert\" was also a royal name in France, Germany and England during medieval period. \"Robert\" was the name of several kings, dukes, and other rulers and noblemen. \"Robert\" was in the top 10 most given boys' names in the US for 47 years, from 1925 to 1972. \"Robert\" was one of the most popular male names in medieval Europe, likely due to its frequent usage amongst royalty and nobility. To this day \"Robert\" remains one of the most frequently given male names in the world. The names second component, \" *berhta-\", is the original root for the modern English word \"bright\". The name \"Robert\" almost exactly shares the same meaning with the name \"Waldemar / Vladimir\". While some names become less frequently used due to negative associations, \"Robert\" is still widely used despite its connection to many negatively evaluated historical figures. In Italy during the Second World War, the form of the name, Roberto, briefly acquired a new meaning derived from, and referring to the Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis.", "As of 2014, 27.0% of all known bearers of the surname \"Robert\" were residents of France (frequency 1:472), 22.8% of Tanzania (1:434), 10.6% of Nigeria (1:3,177), 6.0% of the United States (1:11,438), 3.7% of Canada (1:1,926), 2.9% of Papua New Guinea (1:534), 2.5% of Malawi (1:1,335), 2.2% of Kenya (1:3,929), 2.1% of Rwanda (1:1,018), 1.9% of Togo (1:721), 1.3% Haiti (1:1,631), 1.2% of Belgium (1:1,822), 1.2% of Liberia (1:722), 1.1% of Sudan (1:6,756) and 1.1% of South Africa (1:9,780). In France, the frequency of the surname was higher than national average (1:472) in the following regions:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Meaning.", "Origin.", "History.", "Spreading." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "A common theory is that this is a Bulgar language name. Its etymology is unclear. It may be derived from several Turkic words as \"böri\" – meaning \"wolf\", or from \"bogöri\" – which means \"short\", as well as from the word \"bars\" – i.e. \"snow leopard\". It can be used as a short form of the name Borislav, derived from the Slavic elements borti \"battle\" and slava \"glory\", \"fame\". Through the nickname \"Bob\" the name is often linked together with the name Robert, an ancient Germanic name meaning \"fame-bright\".", "\"Boris\" is first found in written records in the case of the Bulgarian ruler Prince Boris I (852–889), who adopted Christianity in 864 AD and introduced it to his people. His name came to be known in Europe in relation to this particular act. Moreover, after his death in 907 AD he was proclaimed the first Bulgarian saint, and traces of his Orthodox sainthood during this period can be found as far away as Catholic Ireland. The Patriarchate of Constantinople recognized the canonization of St. Boris in 923 AD. However, Prince Boris was purportedly not a Slav. He descended from the Bulgars. Among the Bulgars the name was known in its two forms: \"Boris\" and \"Bogoris\".", "\"Boris\" started its worldwide spread with its adoption by Rus' Slavs from the First Bulgarian Empire. Bulgarian cultural missions intensified in the 10th century, during the reign of Tsar Petar and with them the spread of Bulgarian culture to what would become Ukrainian and Russian lands continued. It is speculated that the name of the Bulgarian saint Tsar Boris I reached the Rus in the late 10th century, likely during the reign of Boris II of Bulgaria (969–977), great-grandson of Boris I. In 967 the Byzantines instigated the Rus to attack the First Bulgarian Empire and it is probably around this campaign that the marriage of Vladimir I of Kiev to a Bulgarian noblewoman, who is assumed to be a daughter of Peter I, i.e., sister of Boris II, was arranged. One of the sons of Vladimir I was given the name \"Boris\". As evidenced by the Rus' Primary Chronicle, Boris and Gleb were sons of Vladimir I, born to him by the Bulgarian princess. During Vladimir's reign in 988 the conversion of the Kievan Rus' to Christianity took place. In this conversion, both ordinary priests and prelates from Bulgaria played a significant part. Also, with the adoption of the Byzantine calendar and the Eastern Orthodox liturgical calendar, the cult of St. Boris entered the Rus' Orthodox Church. In 1015, the princes Boris and Gleb were killed by their stepbrother Sviatopolk I of Kiev, who usurped the throne. Within a short time, Boris and Gleb were canonized and ever since, they have been the native soldier-saints most revered among the Ukrainians, Russians and Belarusians.", "In addition to Kievan Rus the name \"Boris\" went over to other neighbours of Bulgaria as well. An example of this is the case of the Hungarian prince Boris Kalamanos (1112–1155), son of the Magyar king from his marriage with Euphtimia, daughter of the Kievan prince Vladimir II Monomakh. For a fairly long period men named Boris were found predominantly in the courts and among the nobility, but eventually the name became popular among all strata in the Russian Empire, including Siberia and Alaska. Eventually the name spread internationally within the last 50–75 years." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life and career.", "Filmography." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Jean-Pierre Jeunet was born in Roanne, France. He bought his first camera at the age of 17 and made short films while studying animation at Cinémation Studios. He befriended Marc Caro, a designer and comic book artist who became his longtime collaborator and co-director. They met at an animation festival in Annecy in the 1970s. Together, Jeunet and Caro directed award-winning animations. Their first live action film was \"The Bunker of the Last Gunshots\" (1981), a short film about soldiers in a bleak futuristic world. Jeunet also directed numerous advertisements and music videos, such as Jean Michel Jarre's \"Zoolook\" (together with Caro). Jeunet's films often resonate with the late twentieth century French film movement, \"cinéma du look\", and allude to themes and aesthetics involving German expressionism, French poetic realism, and the French New Wave. Jeunet and Caro's first feature film was \"Delicatessen\" (1991), a melancholy comedy set in a famine-plagued post-apocalyptic world, in which an apartment building above a delicatessen is ruled by a butcher who kills people in order to feed his tenants. They next made \"The City of Lost Children\" (1995), a dark, multi-layered fantasy film about a mad scientist who steals children's dreams so that he can live indefinitely. The success of \"The City of Lost Children\" led to an invitation to direct the fourth film in the \"Alien\" series, \"Alien Resurrection\" (1997). This is where Jeunet and Caro ended up going their separate ways as Jeunet believed this to be an amazing opportunity and Caro was not interested in a film that lacked creative control working on a big-budget Hollywood movie. Caro ended up assisting for a few weeks, with costumes and set design but afterwards, decided to work on a solo career in illustration and computer graphics. Jeunet directed \"Amélie\" (2001), the story of a woman who takes pleasure in doing good deeds but has trouble finding love herself, which starred Audrey Tautou. \"Amélie\" was a huge critical and commercial success worldwide and was nominated for several Academy Awards. For his work on the film, Jeunet won a European Film Award for Best Director. In 2004, Jeunet released \"A Very Long Engagement\", an adaptation of the novel by Sébastien Japrisot. The film, starring Audrey Tautou and Jodie Foster, chronicled a woman's search for her missing lover after World War I. In 2009, he released \"Micmacs\" which is about a man and his friends who come up with an intricate and original plan to destroy two big weapons manufacturers. Jeunet has also directed numerous commercials including a 2'25\" film for Chanel N° 5 featuring his frequent collaborator Audrey Tautou. In 2013, Jeunet released \"The Young and Prodigious T.S. Spivet\" an adaptation of Reif Larsen's book \"The Selected Works of T.S. Spivet\" that starred Kyle Catlett. In 2016, Jeunet and Romain Segaud co-directed the 3-minute stop-motion animation film \"Deux escargots s'en vont\", based on a poem by Jacques Prévert. Since his last release, Jeunet has tried to get other projects funded but has found it impossible to find investors willing to take a risk on his quirky films. He stated in 2019 that he may go to Netflix \"as a last resort.\"", "Technical Advisor" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "History.", "Savaria, the Roman city.", "Savaria/Szombathely in the Middle Ages.", "Szombathely in the 16th to 19th century.", "Szombathely in the 20th and 21st centuries.", "History of Szombathely's Jewish communities.", "Politics.", "List of mayors.", "Media.", "Mediumwave broadcasting station.", "International relations.", "Twin towns and sister cities.", "Sports." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The name \"Szombathely\" is from Hungarian \"szombat\", \"Saturday\" and \"hely\", \"place\", referring to its status as a market town, and the medieval markets held on Saturday every week. Once a year during August they hold a carnival to remember the history of \"Savaria\". The Latin name \"Savaria\" or \"Sabaria\" comes from \"Sibaris\", the Latin name of the river \"Gyöngyös\" (German \"Güns\"). The root of the word is the Proto-Indo-European word \"*seu\", meaning \"wet\". The Austrian overflowing of the Gyöngyös/Güns is called \"Zöbern\", most probably a derivation of its Latin name. The city is known in Croatian as \"Sambotel\", in Slovene as \"Sombotel\" and in Yiddish as סאמבאטהעלי (\"Sambathely\"). The German name, \"Steinamanger\", means \"stone on the green\" (Stein am Anger). The name was coined by German settlers who encountered the ruins of the Roman city of Savaria. The Slovak name, Kamenec, also stems from the root'stone' (\"kameň\" = stone), similar to the German variant.", "", "Szombathely is the oldest recorded city in Hungary. It was founded by the Romans in 45 AD under the name of \"Colonia Claudia Savariensum\" (Claudius' Colony of Savarians), and it was the capital of the \"Pannonia Superior\" province of the Roman Empire. It lay close to the important \"Amber Road\" trade route. The city had an imperial residence, a public bath and an amphitheatre. In 2008, remains of a mithraeum were discovered. Emperor Constantine the Great visited Savaria several times. He ended the persecution of Christians, which previously claimed the lives of many people in the area, including Bishop St. Quirinus and St. Rutilus. The emperor reorganised the colonies and made Savaria the capital of the province \"Pannonia Prima\". This era was the height of prosperity for Savaria: its population grew, and new buildings were erected, among them theatres and churches. St. Martin of Tours was born here. After the death of Emperor Valentinian III, the Huns invaded Pannonia. Attila's armies occupied Savaria between 441 and 445. The city was destroyed by an earthquake in 456.", "The city remained inhabited throughout the Middle Ages. Its city walls were restored, and new buildings were constructed using the stones from the remains of Roman buildings. Much of the Latin population moved away, mostly to Italy, while new settlers, mostly Goths and Longobards, arrived. In the 6th–8th centuries, the city was inhabited by Pannonian Avars and Slavic tribes. In 795, the Franks defeated these peoples and occupied the city. Charlemagne visited the city where St. Martin was born. King Arnulf of the Franks gave the city to the archbishop of Salzburg in 875. It is likely that the castle was built around this time, using the stones from the Roman baths. Around 900, they were succeeded by Hungarians, who became the dominant population. In 1009, Stephen I gave the city to the newly founded Diocese of Győr. The city suffered during the war between King Sámuel Aba and Holy Roman Emperor Henry III, between 1042 and 1044. Szombathely was destroyed during the Mongol invasion of Hungary in 1241–1242 but was rebuilt shortly after. It was granted Free royal town status in 1407. In 1578, it became the capital of Vas comitatus. The city prospered. In 1605 it was occupied by the armies of István Bocskai.", "During the Ottoman occupation of Hungary, the Ottomans invaded the area twice, first in 1664, when they were defeated at the nearby town of Szentgotthárd. Nearly twenty years later, they invaded again in 1683, during the Battle of Vienna. The city walls protected Szombathely both times. A peaceful period followed the retreat of the Turks until Prince Rákóczi's rebellion against the Habsburgs in the early 18th century. During the rebellion, the city residents supported the prince. The city was occupied by Habsburg armies in 1704, freed in November 1705, then occupied alternately by the two armies over the next years. In June 1710, more than 2,000 people lost their lives in a plague, and on May 3, 1716, the city was destroyed by a fire. After such losses throughout the region, the Habsburg Crown recruited Germans to resettle the depopulated areas, particularly along the Danube River. They were valued for their farming abilities. The Crown allowed them to keep their language and religion. As a result, the city had a German majority for a long time. With increased population, the city began to prosper again. With the support of Ferenc Zichy, Bishop of Győr, a high school was built in 1772. The Diocese of Szombathely was founded in 1777 by Maria Theresa. The new bishop of Szombathely, János Szily, did much for the city: he had the ruins of the castle demolished and had new buildings constructed, including a cathedral, the episcopal palace complex, and a school (opened in 1793). In 1809, Napoleon's armies occupied the city and held it for 110 days, following a short battle on the main square. In 1817, two-thirds of the city was destroyed by fire. In 1813, a cholera epidemic claimed many lives. During the revolution in 1848-49, Szombathely supported the revolution. There were no battles in the immediate area because the city remained under Habsburg rule. The years after the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 brought prosperity. A railway line reached the city in 1865, and in the 1870s Szombathely became a major railway junction. In 1885 the city annexed the nearby villages \"Ó-Perint\" and \"Szentmárton\" and increased its area. In the 1890s, when Gyula Éhen was the mayor, the city underwent significant infrastructure development: roads were paved, a sewage system built, and the tram line was built to connect the rail station, the downtown, and the Calvary Church. Private and public interests built the City Casino, the Grand Hotel (Kovács Szálló, later Hotel Savaria), and the area's first orphanage. In forty years, the population became four times larger. During the mayoralty of Tóbiás Brenner, this prosperity continued. A museum, public bath, monasteries, and several new downtown mansions were built. A school of music and orchestra were founded.", "After the Treaty of Trianon, Hungary lost many of its western territories to Austria. Only from the new state border, Szombathely ceased to be the centre of Western Hungary. Trying to regain the throne of Hungary, Charles IV visited the city, where he was greeted with enthusiasm, but he failed to regain power. Between the world wars, Szombathely prospered. Many schools were founded, and between 1926 and 1929, the most modern hospital of the Transdanubian region was built. During World War II, as with many other towns in the region, Szombathely was strategic due to the railway, junction, marshalling yards, local aerodrome, and barracks. The town formed part of the logistical military infrastructure supporting Axis forces. In 1944 and 1945, the town and locality were bombed by day on several occasions by aircraft of the US 15th Air Force; at night, bombing runs were made by aircraft from the Royal Air Force 205 Group. These aircraft operated from bases in Italy. On 28 March 1945, the 6th SS Panzer and 6th Armies were pushed back by an assault from the east across the Raba River by the 46th and 26th Armies of the USSR and the 3rd Ukrainian Front. Soviet forces took control of Szombathely on 29 March 1945. After the war the city grew, absorbing many nearby villages (\"Gyöngyöshermán, Gyöngyösszőlős, Herény, Kámon, Olad, Szentkirály, Zanat\" and \"Zarkaháza\"). The government of Hungary was dominated by the Soviet Union. During the revolution in 1956, the city was occupied by the Soviet army. In the 1970s, the city was industrialized, and many factories were built. In the 1980s, the city prospered, and several new public buildings were built. These included the County Library, public indoor swimming pools, and a gallery. In 2006, the refurbishing of the city centre's main square was completed, with financial assistance from European Union funds. 28 June 2014 from the highway is also available in the city, having opened the M86 motorway.", "In 1567, Emperor Maximilian II granted the town the privilege of allowing none but Catholics to dwell within its walls. By the 17th and 18th centuries, although the municipal authorities rented shops to Jews, the latter were permitted to remain in the town only during the day, and then only without their families. They lived outside in their own community, known as a \"shtetl\". By the beginning of the nineteenth century, only three or four Jewish families lived in the city. The residents of the shtetl Stein-am-Anger, dwelt in the outlying districts (now united into one municipality). They separated in 1830 from the community of Rechnitz (Rohonc), of which they had previously formed a part, and were henceforth known as the community of Szombathely. When the Jews of Hungary were emancipated by the law of 1840, the city allowed them to live there. In the unrest of the revolution of 1848, many Jews were attacked and their places looted; they were threatened with expulsion. The authorities intervened and restored peace. The community quickly developed in the city. The first Jewish elementary school was founded in 1846, and was organized as a normal school in 1905, with four grades and about 230 pupils. The first synagogue was built by the former lord of the town, Duke Batthyányi, who sold it to the Jews. In 1880 the community supported building a large temple, one of the most beautiful in Hungary. Designed by Ludwig Schöne, it combined Oriental and Romantic elements. The founder of the community and its first rabbi was Ludwig Königsberger (d. 1861); he was succeeded in turn by Leopold Rockenstein, Joseph Stier(), and Béla Bernstein (called in 1892; ). A small Orthodox, numbering about 60 or 70 members, separated from the main body in 1870. From 1896 to 1898 Pál Jungreis was rabbi of the Orthodox community but his convictions were not tolerated so Márk Benedikt was appointed rabbi. According to the 1910 census, 10.1% of the city's population, or 3125 people, were Jewish by religion. By then they were merchants and professionals, an integral part of the city's culture. In World War II, during the occupation of Hungary by Nazi Germany, 4228 Jews were deported (July 4–6, 1944) from Szombathely to Auschwitz. The community was essentially destroyed. Since 1975, the former Jewish temple has been adapted for use as a concert hall. A memorial outside commemorates the Jews deported in World War II.", "The current mayor of Szombathely is András Nemény (MSZP). The local Municipal Assembly, elected at the 2019 local government elections, is made up of 21 members (1 Mayor, 14 Individual constituencies MEPs and 6 Compensation List MEPs) divided into this political parties and alliances:", "List of City Mayors from 1990:", "", "Near Szombathely, there is since 1955 at a mediumwave broadcasting station operated on 1251 kHz with 25 kW, which uses as antenna two 60 metres tall free-standing radio towers insulated against ground. It is the only mediumwave broadcasting station in Hungary using free-standing self radiating towers.", "", "Szombathely is twinned with:", "Szombathely is home to the basketball team Falco KC, 2019 champion of the Nemzeti Bajnokság I/A, the country's top basketball league. Falco plays its home games at the Arena Savaria." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Geography.", "Climate.", "History.", "Historical population.", "Economy.", "Sports.", "Football teams.", "City parts of Miskolc.", "Avas.", "Belváros (City centre).", "Diósgyőr.", "Egyetemváros (University Town).", "Hejőcsaba and Görömböly.", "Lillafüred.", "Martin-Kertváros.", "Miskolctapolca.", "Alsóhámor, Bükkszentlászló, Felsőhámor, Ómassa, Szirma.", "Public transport.", "Politics.", "List of mayors.", "Notable individuals.", "Twin towns – sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The name derives from \"Miško\", Slavic form of Michael. \"Miškovec\" → \"Miskolc\" with the same development as \"Lipovec\" → \"Lipólc\", \"Lipóc\". The name is associated with the Miskolc clan (also Miskóc or Myscouch, Slovak Miškovec, plural Miškovci) named after the settlement or vice versa. Earliest mentions are \"que nunc vocatur Miscoucy\" (around 1200), \"de Myschouch\" (1225), \"Ponyt de genere Myscouch\" (1230), \"in Miscovcy\" (1245).", "The city lies at the meeting point of different geographical regions – east from the Bükk mountains, in the valley of the river Sajó and the streams Hejő and Szinva. According to the 2001 Census the city has a total area of. The ground level slopes gradually; the difference between the highest and lowest area is about. The lowest areas are the banks of the river Sajó, with an altitude of. The area belongs to the Great Plain region and is made up of sedimentary rocks. Between the Avas hill and Diósgyőr lies the hilly area of the \"Lower Bükk\" () consisting of sandstone, marl, clay, layers of coal, from the tertiary period, and volcanic rocks from the Miocene. The \"Central Bükk\", a gently sloping mountainous area with an altitude between, is situated between Diósgyőr and Lillafüred; the area is made up of limestone, slate, dolomite and other rocks from the Triassic period. The surface was formed mostly by karstic erosions. The highest area, the high \"Higher Bükk\" bore \"Bükk Highlands\" begin at Lillafüred. This mostly consists of sea sediments (limestone, slate, dolomite) from the Paleozoic and Mesozoic, and volcanic rocks like diabase and porphyry. Several caves can be found in the area. The city is also known for lowest measured temperature ever in Hungary with.", "Summers are fresh but sometimes warm and humid in Miskolc. Daytime temperatures of or higher are commonplace. Snow and ice are dominant during the winter season. Miskolc receives about 120 centimetres of snowfall annually. Days below freezing and nights below both occur in the winter.", "The area has been inhabited since ancient times – archaeological findings date back to the Paleolithic, proving human presence for over 70,000 years. Its first known dwellers were the Cotini, one of the Celt tribes. The area has been occupied by Hungarians since the \"Conquest\" in the late 9th century. It was first mentioned by this name around 1210 AD. The Miskóc clan lost their power when King Charles I centralized his power by curbing the power of the oligarchs. Miskolc was elevated to the rank of oppidum (market town) in 1365 by King Louis I. He also had the castle of the nearby town Diósgyőr (now a district of Miskolc) transformed into a Gothic fortress. The city developed in a dynamic way, but during the Ottoman occupation of most of Hungary the development of Miskolc was brought to a standstill. The Turks burnt Miskolc in 1544 and the city had to pay heavy taxes until 1687. It was also ruled by Ottomans after Battle of Mezőkeresztes in 1596 as part of Eyalet of Egir until 1687. It was during these years that Miskolc became an important centre of wine-growing. By the end of the 17th century the population of the city was as large as that of Kassa/Košice, and 13 guilds had been founded. During the war of independence against Habsburg rule in the early 18th century, Prince Francis II Rákóczi, the leader of the Hungarians put his headquarters in Miskolc. The imperial forces sacked and burnt the city in 1707. Four years later half of the population fell victim of a cholera epidemic. Miskolc recovered quickly, and another age of prosperity began again. In 1724, Miskolc was chosen to be the city where the county hall of Borsod county would be built. Many other significant buildings were built in the 18th and 19th centuries, including the city hall, schools such as Lévay József Református Gimnázium és Diákotthon, churches, the synagogue, and the theatre. The theatre is commonly regarded as the first stone-built theatre of Hungary, although the first one was actually built in Kolozsvár (then a part of Hungary, now Cluj-Napoca, Romania). According to the first nationally held census (1786) the city had a population of 14,719, and 2,414 houses. These years brought prosperity, but the cholera epidemic of 1873 and the flood of 1878 took many lives. Several buildings were destroyed by the flood, but bigger and grander buildings were built in their places. World War I did not affect the city directly, but many people died, either from warfare or from the cholera epidemic. It was occupied by Czechoslovak troops between 1918 and 1919 after the First World War. After the Treaty of Trianon, Hungary lost Kassa (today Košice, Slovakia) and Miskolc became the sole regional center of northern Hungary. This was one of the reasons for the enormous growth of the city during the 1930s and 1940s. Early in World War II Hungary became an ally of Nazi Germany. Unhappy with the Hungarian government, the Germans troops occupied Hungary on March 19, 1944 and put the anti-semitic Arrow Cross Party in charge of the government. Jews in Miskolc and elsewhere were ordered to wear yellow stars on their clothing. Under the supervision of Nazi SS-\"Obersturmbannführer\" Adolf Eichmann\",\" \"deportations\" from Miskolc began on June 11 or 12th, 1944. Over 14,000 Jewish adults and children were sent by cattle car to Auschwitz, where most were gassed on arrival. After the war Jews who survived the holocaust returned to Miskolc hoping to reclaim their land and possessions. Over 130 were rounded up by members of the local Arrow Cross Party and summarily murdered. The Jewish cemetery on a hill overlooking Miskolc has a memorial for them. It includes the 10 commandments, carved in stone, all written in Hebrew except \"Thou shall not kill,\" which is written in Hungarian. The preparation for World War II established Miskolc as the national centre of heavy industry, a position the city maintained until the 1990s. Although Miskolc suffered a lot during the last year of the war, it recovered quickly, and by absorbing the surrounding villages, it became the second-largest city of Hungary with more than 200,000 inhabitants. In July 30 and August 1, 1946, the Miskolc pogrom led to death of one accused Jewish black marketeer, the wounding of another, and subsequently the death of a Jewish policeman. Economic hardship and anti-Semitism motivated the riots. In 1949, the University of Miskolc was founded (as a successor of the \"Academy of Mining\", formerly in Selmecbánya, which is now Banská Štiavnica, Slovakia). During its long history Miskolc survived fires, floods, plagues and foreign invasions, but maintained its position as the centre of northeastern Hungary. The 1990s brought a crisis in the iron industry with a decline in the population. Miskolc is now trying to become known as a cultural – instead of merely an industrial – city. Among the various cultural events, one of the most important festivities is the International Opera Festival, held in every summer. Tourist destinations in Miskolc include Tapolca, Lillafüred and Felsőhámor. Tapolca has a park with a boating pond and the unique Cave Bath. Lillafüred and Felsőhámor are pretty villages in a valley surrounded by mountains and forests; their sights include the Hotel Palace on the shore of the Lake Hámori, the Szinva waterfall (the highest waterfall of the country), the Anna Cave and the István Cave.", "The population (around 1910) is multidenominational and multiethnical, and the differences in the level of education mirrors the stratification of society, following these facts. http://mek.oszk.hu/16900/16992", "Miskolc is generally thought of as an industrial city, and the largest boost to its economy was indeed provided by the industrialization during the Socialist era; in fact industry (including metallurgy) has a long history in the city. Miskolc was already an important market town in the Middle Ages, mostly due to its proximity to the main trade routes of the region. In regards of the economy, real development started only after the Ottoman occupation. In the 18th century, the town already had a lumber mill, a paper manufacture, a brewery, a gunpowder factory and fifteen mills on the Szinva stream. The glass works manufactures and iron furnaces appeared in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. The first iron furnace, built by Henrik Fazola around 1770, did not survive, but the second one, built in 1813, can still be visited. Several new settlements were formed in the Bükk mountains to provide dwellings for the workers of glass works manufactures and furnaces. Many of them – including Alsóhámor, Felsőhámor, Ómassa and Bükkszentlászló – are now parts of Miskolc. Development quickened from the second half of the 19th century, partly because of the political situation (after the Ausgleich) and partly because of the newly constructed railway line. A large furnace (second largest in the country) was built in Diósgyőr, and several other factories were built. The mining industry became more and more important, too. Within forty years the population doubled. The industrialization led to the forming of \"Greater Miskolc\" with the unification of Miskolc and Diósgyőr (1945) and several nearby towns and villages (between 1950 and 1981). The unification was only the first step in Miskolc being developed into an industrial centre. Development reached its highest point in the 1980s, when the metal factory had more than 18,000 workers and production was over one million tons per year. The population hit all-time record (over 200,000 inhabitants), 2⁄3 of the working people worked in heavy industry. The economic recession after the end of the Socialist era hit the industrial cities of Northern Hungary the hardest. The unemployment rate rose until it became one of the highest in the country, the population of Miskolc dramatically decreased (not only because of unemployment though, but also due to suburbanization which became prevalent nationwide). The economic situation of the city went through a change, smaller enterprises appeared in place of the large state-owned companies. By the early 2000s the decade of changes was over, and the city went through the recession successfully. International companies and supermarkets appeared in the area. The local government is trying to strengthen the city's role in culture and tourism. By the end of 2004, the highway M3 had reached the city.", "The most popular sport in Miskolc is football. The leading club of the city is Diósgyőri VTK (short name: DVTK). They have won the Hungarian Cup several times and represented Hungary many times in Europe. The capacity of the stadium, DVTK Stadion, is 26,000 (15,000 of which are in use), but it is now in poor condition due to decay, except for the new grandstand. The new board plans to build a new 15,000-seater stadium with under-soil heating and fully covered stands. The other team, Miskolci VSC, plays in the county division. Miskolc has got other former first division representatives, namely Miskolci Attila (seven seasons at the highest level), and Perecesi TK (one).", "Miskolc's most successful women's basketball team, DKSK Miskolc MISI, has won the National Cup twice. The DVTK Jegesmedvék ice hockey team plays in the Slovak-based Tipsport Liga. The team's home rink, Miskolc Ice Hall, is in the People's Garden downtown. It has 1 304 seats, a total capacity of 2 200, and opened in 2006. The women's volleyball team of MVSC also plays at the highest Hungarian level. Speedway Miskolc joined the Polish Second League in 2005 and achieved serious results. They won the 2007 European Speedway Club Champions' Cup with World champion Jason Crump.", "", "The Avas is a hill () in the heart of Miskolc. On the hilltop stands the Avas lookout tower, the symbol of the city. On the northern part of the hill, close to downtown Erzsébet Square, is the Gothic Protestant Church of Avas, one of the two oldest buildings of Miskolc (the other is the Castle of Diósgyőr.) The limestone caves of Avas are used as wine cellars; the narrow, winding streets give a Mediterranean atmosphere to this part of Avas Hill. The southern part of Avas, also called Avas-South, is where the largest housing estate of the city stands, with 10-story Socialist-style concrete buildings providing homes for about one-third of the city's population.", "Miskolc's city centre is not as rich in monuments as that of other cities; only the Main Street (Széchenyi St.), \"Városház tér\" (City Hall Square) and \"Erzsébet tér\" (Elizabeth Square) have preserved the 19th-century style of the town. There are not only historical buildings but also modern shopping malls and offices in the city centre.", "The other town forming today's Greater Miskolc is mostly famous for its medieval castle. Miskolc's football team also got its name from Diósgyőr, since their stadium stands there. Historical Diósgyőr is connected to Historical Miskolc by a district called \"Új(diós)győr\" (Újgyőr); its main square is an important traffic hub. Also in Új(diós)győr \"(Diósgyőr-Vasgyár)\" stands the steel factory that made Miskolc the most important heavy industrial city of Hungary (and earned it the nickname \"Steel City\"). Diósgyőri Gimnázium also stands in this district.", "The University of Miskolc is among the newer ones. It was founded in the 1950s, so its buildings are not old, historical ones. University Town is one of the newer parts of the city and can be found between Miskolc and the holiday resort Miskolctapolca. The university, the campus, and the sport facilities are surrounded by a large park.", "Two former villages that were annexed to the city in 1945 and 1950. Görömböly still looks like a small town of its own.", "Another holiday resort, Miskolc-Lillafüred, is a village surrounded by the Bükk mountains. Its most notable building is the Palace Hotel (Palotaszálló).", "Martin-Kertváros (in Slovak: Martinská osada) is a suburban area.", "One of the most well-known holiday resorts in the country, Tapolca (officially Miskolctapolca or Miskolc-Tapolca to avoid confusion with the Transdanubian town of the same name) is the home of the unique Cave Bath, a natural cave with thermal water. Tapolca is quite far from the city centre and counts as one of the posh areas of Miskolc. It is a popular tourist attraction.", "These former villages were annexed to the city in 1950 (Bükkszentlászló in 1981) and are still separated villages, connected to the city only by its public transport system. There is a narrow-gauge railway that connects Lillafüred to Miskolc known as the Lillafüredi Állami Erdei Vasút (Lillafüred Forest State Railway). It winds through scenic forests, and takes between a half hour and 45 minutes for the train to go between the two major stops. The Miskolc stop is located in Diósgyőr.", "Public transport in Miskolc is provided by the company \"MVK Zrt.\", owned by the local government. There are 36 bus lines and 2 tram lines. The first tram entered service on July 10, 1897 (making Miskolc the third city in Hungary to have a tram line), the first scheduled bus line started on June 8, 1903 (first in the country as well.) Today the public transport of Miskolc is one of the best ones in Hungary. There are several taxi companies too. The Lillafüred Forest Train connects Diósgyőr to Lillafüred. It is mainly a tourist attraction. The city has two railway stations (Tiszai and Gömöri) and a small unpaved airport, which is not open to the public, used mainly as a sports facility and has no role in public transport since 1963.", "The current mayor of Miskolc is Pál Veres (Independent). The local Municipal Assembly, elected at the 2019 local government elections, is made up of 28 members (1 Mayor, 19 Individual constituencies MEPs and 8 Compensation List MEPs) divided into this political parties and alliances:", "List of City Mayors from 1990:", "Including people born in Miskolc as well as in Diósgyőr and other city parts that were independent towns at the time of their birth.", "Miskolc is twinned with:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot.", "Location.", "Reception." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In the 1940s Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia, Eliška is a nurse who works alongside her lover, Richard, a respected surgeon. They are part of an underground resistance network that has formed to help those in danger of persecution from the Nazis. Eliška acts as a messenger. One night, Richard responds to an emergency call to a patient needing a risky operation. Because she has the same blood type, Eliška gives blood for the transfusion. Days later, she arrives at Richard's apartment to find their friend, Slávek, with news that the Gestapo has apprehended two of their members, putting everyone at risk of discovery. Eliška is told that Richard has emigrated, leaving papers for her to assume a new identity. Slávek says that she must leave the city with a man named Joza - the patient who had received the transfusion. Seeing no alternative, Eliška - now Hana - leaves for the countryside. As a mountain-dweller, Joza appears uncouth and disheveled, but he is kind and considerate to her plight. He provides her with temporary refuge in a small village, where she quickly becomes the object of curiosity. Some, such as Teacher Tkáč the schoolmaster, are xenophobic and suspicious. The Nazis have killed anyone harbouring enemies. Eliška tries to leave, but the village doctor reveals that the Nazis have executed Slávek. He tells her that to remain safe, she must marry Joza and live with him in the mountain village of Želary. Initially, Eliška is reluctant. Joza takes her to their new home, a small cottage with no electricity, dirt floor, and a fly-infested outhouse. On the day of their wedding, Eliška rebels, but relents upon Joza's explanation that the villagers will not accept a strange, single woman. So Eliška agrees, and the two are married. At the wedding, she meets most of Želary's inhabitants. Helenka is a young girl who lives near Joza and Eliška with her mother, Žeňa. Her best friend is Lipka, a boy whom the villagers treat as an outcast, but who is actually homeless due to his step-father Michal's dislike of him. He survives through the goodwill of Žeňa, Lucka the village midwife, and Old Goreik, an elderly gentleman who lives with his daughter-in-law, Marie, a victim of spousal abuse. Eliška seems ill-suited to rural life. She finds the villagers' behavior raucous and crude, and is particularly repulsed by Michal, the drunk, who makes unwanted advances. As time passes, Joza's patience and Žeňa's gentle guidance help her to assimilate. Despite this, Eliška remains wary of her husband, until one evening when she breaks their only lamp and fears a beating. On the contrary, Joza is comforting and gives her a gift: a stack of books that she may like. One day, he takes her to his mother's grave and Eliška is moved by the love and kindness he feels. Joza falls in love with Eliška and she with him, leading to the consummation of their marriage. Years pass and Eliška - called Hanula by the villagers and Hanulka by Joza - bears witness to a number of incidents. The Nazis, though scarce in Želary, kill an entire family for harbouring partisans, and then murder an innocent man in front of everyone. Eliška fears that the Gestapo will find her. Michal attempts to rape her at the saw mill. Helenka witnesses the attack and alerts Joza, who beats Michal and breaks his arm. His parents, the Kutinas, then force Michal's pregnant wife and Lipka's mother, Aninka, to do all the farm work, which leads to her miscarrying. Lipka alerts Eliška, Lucka, and Žeňa, but it is too late. Aninka's death destroys Michal's reputation and redeems Lipka in the eyes of the villagers. By the spring of 1945, Eliška is a nurse again, and learns the art of herbal healing from Lucka. The old woman divulges that Marie and her father-in-law, Old Goreik, are expecting a child. Following the birth, soldiers from the Red Army arrive with news that the war is over. After a night of celebration, Joza reminds Eliška that she is free to leave (their marriage being technically invalid). Eliška replies that she wants to stay with him always, and falls asleep on the mountain in Joza's arms. Young Goreik, furious over his father's relationship with his wife, arrives at Old Goreik's home with a drunken soldier who he persuades to rape Marie. Old Goreik arrives and shoots his son, as well as the would-be rapist, but the latter's brother arrives and shoots him. Intoxicated, the soldiers interpret the killing as the act of fascists and shoot at the villagers. With help from Lipka, many escape by crossing a swamp towards an old saw mill, where Lucka and Eliška tend to the wounded. Joza races back and forth between the haven and the village, and rescues several people - including Michal. Meanwhile, the soldiers kill the village priest and rape Žeňa. Vojta, a farmhand, comes to her aid and Joza goes back to rescue him. The next morning, they arrive at the saw mill and find soldiers heading in the same direction. The villagers are relieved, but Joza collapses (Vojta having shot him earlier after mistaking him for the enemy). Devastated, Eliška kneels beside Joza's lifeless body and weeps. Years later, Želary is virtually abandoned due to modernisation of the town below. Eliška, now with Richard, returns to visit the mountains and the cottage that she had shared with Joza. Lucka emerges from the ruins and is shocked to see Hanula, but remembers that \"nothing disappears off the mountain, there’s always tracks\". Astounded, Eliška asks if it is possible that Lucka is still alive, to which Lucka responds, \"I'm none too sure. I'm none too sure at all.\" On the top of the mountain, the women laugh.", "The film was mostly shot on location in the Malá Fatra mountains in the Northwest region of the Slovak Republic.", "On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes the film has a score of 73% based on 51 reviews, with an average rating of 6.7 out of 10. Metacritic.com gave the film 66 out of 100 based on reviews from 20 critics, indicating \"generally favorable reviews\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Pre-Christian Wick.", "Conversion to Christianity.", "12th and 13th centuries.", "14th and 15th centuries.", "16th century.", "17th century.", "18th century.", "19th century.", "20th century.", "Historic descriptions of Wick.", "Geography.", "Wick River.", "Pulteneytown.", "Wick Bay.", "Map references.", "Climate.", "Governance.", "Parliamentary representation.", "Economy.", "Caithness Glass.", "Old Pulteney Distillery.", "Ignis Wick Ltd.", "Landmarks.", "Castle of Old Wick.", "Heritage Museum.", "Carnegie Library.", "Tourist Information Centre.", "World's shortest street.", "Education.", "On Film.", "Twin towns." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Iron Age activity in the parish of Wick is evident in the hill fort at Garrywhin. Evidence of activity around Wick from the Norse pagan period was discovered in 1837 when brooches and bracelets from the Norse were uncovered by archaeologists. The name \"Wick\" appears to be from a Norse word, \"vík\", meaning \"bay\", cf. also the word \"viking\".", "In the eighth century, Saint Fergus, an Irish missionary, lived in Wick or its immediate vicinity during his mission to the people in the area. He is the patron saint of Wick. One of the fairs in Wick, the Fergusmas, is named for this saint. It is believed that the Chapel of St. Tear in Wick Parish near Ackergill was founded in the eighth century by St Drostan, whose ministry was in Aberdeenshire.", "Wick belonged to Norway, as did all of Caithness, until the reign of William the Lion (1165–1214), at which time the Norwegian earls held of the king of Scotland. The Castle of Old Wick, commonly known as \"The Old Man of Wick\" (or \"Aul man o' Wick\") is thought to have been built in about 1160 by Harald Maddadson, Earl of Caithness and Orkney. Earl Harald, who was half Norse, is thought to have resided there. It was long used by fishermen as an aid to navigation in the North Sea. The \"Origines Parochiales Scotiae\" records these events for twelfth-century Wick:", "In about 1330, the parish of Wick was included among the Caithness lands owned by the family of Cheyne. The last male heir, Sir Reginald de Cheyne, died c. 1345 and was succeeded by his two daughters, who, by marriage, carried the lands into the clans Sinclair, Sutherland, and Keith. Between 1390 and 1406, King Robert III granted the town of Wick in heritage to Neill Sutherland with a burgh of barony. In 1438, the clans Gunn and Keith joined battle near Wick on the moor of Tannach with both sides suffering heavy losses. However, hostilities between the two clans were not ended at that time.", "In 1503, the Parliament of Scotland established a sheriff for Caithness, who \"should sit and have a place for administration of his office within the town of Wick\". In 1538, Ackergill Tower, three miles north of Wick, was granted to William Keith, 4th Earl Marischal and Lady Margaret Keith, his wife. Nine years later, George, Earl of Caithness, and others seized the tower house, taking hostage Alexander Keith, captain of the castle, and John Scarlet, his servitor, who were imprisoned in Girnigoe, Braal Castle, and other places. They were charged with treason but were granted remission by Queen Mary. In 1583, when George Sinclair, 4th Earl of Caithness, died at Edinburgh, his heart was brought to Wick where it was encased in lead and placed in Sinclair's aisle at the church of Wick. However, it entered the story of Wick once again in 1588 when Wick suffered at the hands of Alexander Gordon, 12th Earl of Sutherland, in his campaign against the 5th Sinclair Earl of Caithness, who had killed his kinsman. While Sinclair and his men concealed themselves in Girnigoe Castle nearby, Sutherland proceeded to burn the town of Wick, \"an achievement of no great difficulty, as the place at that time merely consisted of a few mean straggling houses thatched with straw\". All structures in the town except the church were burned. During the chaos of the fire, a Highlander intent on plundering the church broke open the lead case which contained the heart of the late Earl of Caithness, and, disappointed that no treasure was in the casque, flung the heart into the wind. In 1589, James VI made the town into a royal burgh in favour of the fifth Earl of Caithness.", "Wick did not escape the turbulence of the Reformation period when, in 1613, the Anglican archdeacon Richard Merchiston of Bower, a graduate of the University of Edinburgh, was brought into Caithness by Bishop Patrick Forbes. Merchiston, a zealous iconoclast, angered the Catholic townspeople when he broke up the stone sculpture of St. Fergus, the town's patron saint. At first yielding to the city authorities who tried to prevent violence, a band of men nevertheless followed the parson as he returned home in the evening, took him by force, and drowned him in the Wick River. When questioned about the murder, they alleged that it had been the work of the saint himself, whom they claimed they had seen astride Merchiston, holding his head below the water. In 1680, the last clan battle in Scotland took place two miles west of Wick at Altimarlach, involving a dispute between Campbell of Glenorcy and the Sinclairs over the earldom of Caithness. The Sinclairs headquartered in Wick, where they became the victims of a cunning stratagem by an agent of Glenorchy, who ordered that a ship loaded with whisky, \"the nectar of Caithness\", come to ground nearby, presuming the Sinclairs would imbibe the drink in quantity. He was not wrong. The next morning, weakened by their revels of the night before, the Sinclairs marched out to meet the Campbells and were ambushed at Altimarlach. Nearly all the Sinclairs were driven into the river and drowned.", "In the eighteenth century, the people of Wick were Gaelic-speakers, but according to a presbytery report of 1707, they could understand English. When Robert Forbes, appointed episcopal Bishop of Caithness in 1762, arrived in the county, he discovered there was no minister at Wick, but he is known to have held services and performed confirmations at the \"house of Mr. Campbell\" there. In the year of his arrival, Bishop Forbes reported that every year on the morning of the Feast of Innocents Day (28 December), the people of Wick and its environs would gather for prayer at the ruins of the Chapel of St. Tear near Noss Head. In ruins at the time, the chapel had originally been made of stone and mortar without any lime, leaving little gaps in the wall into which people would press offerings of bread, cheese, and money. He left this description of the event: The Rev. Charles Thomson, a nineteenth-century minister of the Free Church of Wick, stated in the \"New Statistical Account of Scotland\" that, though the bread and cheese were intended for the souls of the slain children, a dog-keeper in the neighbourhood would take the food out and feed it to the hounds.", "In the late eighteenth century, the British Fishery Society had established fishing ports at Tobermory (1787) and Ullapool (1788), but when shoals of herring normally plentiful in the area moved away from the west coast, authorities turned toward Wick as a good prospect for the herring industry. Construction of Wick Harbour began in 1803 and was completed by 1811. It soon became a bustling harbour with ships from the Isles, the coast of Scotland, Wales, Shetland, and the Isle of Man. With the rise in fisheries, the size of the town increased, and Wick replaced Thurso as the centre of both shipping and trade in Caithness. In 1800 a bridge was built at Wick, before which travellers from the south could only cross over into Wick via a footbridge of eleven pillars connected by planks. (Calder 32) In 1803 the Highland Roads Act allowed that the \"Parliamentary\" road which ran from Inverness to Thurso be extended from the Ord to Wick and then to Thurso, construction of which was completed in 1811. (C&S 67) In 1818, the mail coach, which was already running between Inverness and Tain, extended its reach by passing Bonar Bridge and the Ord to Wick and Thurso, which offered better communication between Wick and the south of Scotland. In 1806, Wick Baptist Church was founded, first meeting in a small loft in Kirk Lane, and later moving into a newly built Church in Union Street in 1865. Pulteneytown was founded in 1808 to provide space for the many Scots displaced by the Highland Clearances, who poured to the coast in search of work in the fishing industry. Two newspapers were established in Wick in the nineteenth century: the \"John o' Groat Journal\" in 1836 and the \"Northern Ensign\" in 1850, both of which are said to have espoused Liberal views in politics. The population in 1841 was 1,333. In 1868, Robert Louis Stevenson stayed in Wick while his uncle, Alan Stevenson, a lighthouse engineer, was overseeing the construction of Noss Head Lighthouse, which opened in 1869.", "Captain Ernest Edmund \"Ted\" Fresson, OBE, the founder of Highland Airways Limited, established the first air service at Wick, using a grass field one nautical mile north of town. On 8 May 1933 Fresson's company began its first scheduled service between Inverness, Wick, and Kirkwall. In 1939, the field was put under the authority of the Air Ministry and turned into an RAF base. The field was improved with hard runways, hangars, and other buildings, and became one of fourteen airfields ranging from Iceland to North Yorkshire administered by No. 18 Group, RAF Coastal Command, whose headquarters was at Pitreavie, Fife. Pilots flying from Wick engaged in reconnaissance, anti-submarine patrols, convoy escort, defence of Scapa Flow, and strikes against the Germans in Norway and Norwegian waters. The plane most frequently used was the Lockheed Hudson. In May 1940, Wick came under frequent air attack after the defeat of the Netherlands and Denmark and the occupation of Norway left Wick more vulnerable, and their defence of Scapa Flow and the harbour area made them a target. It is stated that 222 high explosives were dropped on Caithness, and that Wick proper was attacked six times. The first and most serious bombing was on 1 July 1940, when a bomb fell on Bank Row during daytime hours when children were playing outside, the first daytime bombing in the UK. Fifteen people were killed, eight of them children.", "In 1726, a writer described the town of Wick this way: The burgh of Wick, a small toun of little trade, lyes on the east end of the church and north side of the water, where it runs into the sea, and before it, is a bay formed more than a mile in breadth between the Head of Wick on the north and the Head of Old Wick on the south with a harbour at the end of the toun to which ships of between 20 and 30 last burden can come in safely. There is a bridge at the toun of Wick for the convenience of the parish of eleven pillars built with loose stones and only timber laid over them. They are maintained by the south side of the parish for carrying them to the church, the water being broad there by the swelling of the tide. In 1868, Scottish author Robert Louis Stevenson stayed in Wick while his uncle, Alan Stevenson, a lighthouse engineer, was overseeing the construction of Noss Head Lighthouse, which opened in 1869. He wrote a letter to his mother describing the town: Certainly Wick in itself possesses no beauty: bare, grey shores, grim grey houses, grim grey sea; not even the gleam of red tiles; not even the greenness of a tree. The southerly heights, when I came here, were black with people, fishers waiting on wind and night. Now all the S.Y.S. (Stornoway boats) have beaten out of the bay, and the Wick men stay indoors or wrangle on the quays with dissatisfied fish-curers, knee-high in brine, mud, and herring refuse. The day when the boats put out to go home to the Hebrides, the girl here told me there was 'a black wind'; and on going out, I found the epithet as justifiable as it was picturesque. A cold, BLACK southerly wind, with occasional rising showers of rain; it was a fine sight to see the boats beat out a-teeth of it. In Wick I have never heard any one greet his neighbour with the usual 'Fine day' or 'Good morning.' Both come shaking their heads, and both say, 'Breezy, breezy!’ And such is the atrocious quality of the climate, that the remark is almost invariably justified by the fact. The streets are full of the Highland fishers, lubberly, stupid, inconceivably lazy and heavy to move. You bruise against them, tumble over them, elbow them against the wall – all to no purpose; they will not budge; and you are forced to leave the pavement every step. To the south, however, is as fine a piece of coast scenery as I ever saw. Great black chasms, huge black cliffs, rugged and over- hung gullies, natural arches, and deep green pools below them, almost too deep to let you see the gleam of sand among the darker weed: there are deep caves too. In one of these lives a tribe of gipsies. The men are ALWAYS drunk, simply and truthfully always. From morning to evening the great villainous-looking fellows are either sleeping off the last debauch, or hulking about the cove 'in the horrors.' The cave is deep, high, and airy, and might be made comfortable enough. But they just live among heaped boulders, damp with continual droppings from above, with no more furniture than two or three tin pans, a truss of rotten straw, and a few ragged cloaks. In winter the surf bursts into the mouth and often forces them to abandon it.", "", "The town lies on the estuary of the Wick River, spanned by two road bridges. The Harbour Bridge spans the river at its mouth, to link Wick town centre with Wick Harbour and Pulteneytown. It stands instead of the earlier Service Bridge. Further upstream the Bridge of Wick carries the main road linking John o' Groats with Latheron and Inverness (the A99-A9).", "Pulteney town is now an area of Wick on the south side of the River Wick. Until 1902 Pulteney town was administered separately from the Royal Burgh of Wick. Pulteney town takes its name from Sir William Pulteney, a governor of the British Fisheries Society, who also commissioned Robert Adam to build the Pulteney Bridge in Bath. In the early years of the 19th century Sir William commissioned Britain's leading civil engineer, Thomas Telford, to design and supervise the creation of a major new herring fishing town and harbour at the estuary of the River Wick. Pulteneytown was so named after the death of Sir William in 1805 and became a major player in the 19th century herring boom. It was built in order to supply work to the Gaels evicted during the Highland Clearances. During this boom period the harbour was expanded still further by local shipbuilder James Bremner. History of this era is preserved in the collections of Wick Heritage Museum. As created by the British Fisheries Society, Pulteneytown consisted of Lower Pulteney and Upper Pulteney. Lower Pulteney was primarily a working area, built on a sandbank behind the harbour. Upper Pulteney was primarily a residential area, on higher ground. Pulteneytown Parish Church (of the Church of Scotland) is located in Argyle Square and was opened in 1842. Additional hall accommodation has been added and the main church completely renovated to a very high standard for the needs of a twenty-first century congregation. Services are held twice every Sunday. The Old Pulteney whisky distillery is in the Pulteneytown area. The first Caithness Glass factory was also in this area, but Caithness Glass has now left both the town and Caithness.", "Wick Bay is an isosceles triangle with the river mouth as its apex, and the points of South Head and North Head, separated by about one kilometre, as the base of the triangle. Beyond the heads lies the North Sea. Pentland Firth line about 11 kilometres north of North Head. There are three harbours in Wick, the Outer Harbour, the Inner Harbour, and the River Harbour, all of which are formed and protected by breakwaters. The Outer and Inner Harbours are on the south side of the estuary, divided from the River Harbour by a breakwater. The River Harbour straddles the river, with breakwaters on either side of an entrance about wide. Wick Inner Harbour now has an extensive marina complex, and is fast becoming a base for leisure boating. It is also now a well known stopping point for visiting pleasure craft. In 2012 a storm battered the harbor, causing extensive damage. In June 2016, another storm smashed a hole in the seawall.", "Historical and current maps of Wick are available online.", "Wick has an oceanic climate (Köppen \"Cfb\"), encompassing a narrow temperature range, low sunshine levels and high winds. Despite its far north location, close to the path of Atlantic depressions, rainfall averages below due to a rain shadow caused by mountains to the west.", "Wick has history as a royal burgh dating from 1589. In 1975, under the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1973, the local government burgh was merged into the Caithness district of the two-tier Highland region. In 1996, under the Local Government etc (Scotland) Act 1994, the district was abolished and the region became a unitary council area. From 1996 until 2007, the town of Wick was covered by two or three wards, each electing one councillor by the first past the post system of election. This year, a single Wick ward was created to elect three councillors by the single transferable vote system. The new ward is one of three within the Highland Council's Caithness ward management area and one of seven within the council's Caithness, Sutherland and Easter Ross corporate management area. There is also the Royal Burgh of Wick Community Council, which was created in 1977, after the local government burgh had been abolished in 1975. The community council is not a tier of local government but it is recognised as a level of statutory representation. The community council represents an area which is much smaller than that represented by ward councillors, and the ward area also includes parts of other community council areas. Wick is within the former civil parish of Wick. The parish has that of Latheron to the south, those of Watten and Bower to the west, and that of Canisbay to the north. The eastern boundary of the parish is Moray Firth coastline.", "Wick was a parliamentary burgh, combined with Dingwall, Dornoch, Kirkwall and Tain in the Northern Burghs constituency of the House of Commons of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1708 to 1801 and of the Parliament of the United Kingdom from 1801 to 1918. Cromarty was added to the list in 1832. The constituency was a district of burghs known also as Tain Burghs until 1832, and then as Wick Burghs. It was represented by one Member of Parliament. In 1918 the constituency was abolished and the Wick component was merged into the then new county constituency of Caithness and Sutherland.", "", "A specialist glass manufacturer was established in Wick in 1961. Production was progressively moved to Perth between 1979 and 2004. Manufacturing in Wick thus ceased and the physical connection with Caithness was severed. Caithness Glass manufactured the trophy for the BBC \"Mastermind\" television quiz programme.", "The Old Pulteney Distillery is an aging malt whisky production facility in Pulteneytown. The distillery has a visitor centre in Huddart Street, and produces the Old Pulteney Single Malt whisky at a number of ages. Its 21-year-old single malt was named World Whisky of the Year by leading expert Jim Murray in his 2012 Whisky Bible. Like Pulteneytown the distillery is named for Sir William Pulteney, 5th Baronet. The distillery was established in 1826 when Pulteneytown was quite newly established as a herring fishing port. The distillery is the most northerly on the Scottish mainland and was quite inaccessible, when established, except by sea. Barley was brought in by sea, and the whisky was shipped out the same way. At that time many of the distillery workers were also fishermen. \"Old Pulteney\" is promoted as a \"Highland single malt Scotch\". The distillery is now owned by Inver House Distillers Limited, a subsidiary of Thai Beverages. Other Inver House distilleries include the Speyburn-Glenlivet Distillery, Knockdhu Distillery, Balblair Distillery and Balmenach Distillery.", "Ignis Wick Ltd operates the district heating scheme in Wick, and provides heat and hot water via underground insulated pipes to nearly 200 homes from a central boiler house. Formerly known as Caithness Heat and Power Limited (CHaP) it was owned by the Highland Council. Operations are based at the Old Pulteney distillery in Wick. The council initiated the scheme, with origins evident in minutes of 16 December 2002 meeting of the council's Caithness committee. It was planned, originally, as a biomass-fuelled combined heat and power scheme, producing mains grid electricity as well as heat. The CHaP company was formed on 7 July 2005, as a non-profit company with three directors, representing the council, the Pulteneytown People's Project charity, and the distillery owners. The biomass gasification plant failed to work as intended, however, and what had been planned as temporary use of fossil-oil plant became a longer term arrangement. CHaP incurred significant financial losses of more than £13 million. Therefore, in 2008, the council had no real option except to take full, direct control of the company and, by February 2009, the council had to accept that the original biomass plant did not work economically. Ignis Biomass Ltd took over the district heating scheme in 2012, and has installed a renewable energy biomass plant to replace the fossil-oil plant. As of 2013, the scheme supplies heat to the distillery and to nearly 200 homes, and Ignis plans to extend the heat supply to more homes.", "", "The Castle of Old Wick () was built in the 12th century when the Norwegian earldom of Orkney included Caithness, and was united under Harald Maddadsson. The castle is thought to have been his stronghold on the mainland of Britain. There is evidence that the site was occupied before the present castle was built. All that remains today is a tall tower sitting on the very edge of the cliffs, about half a mile south of Wick Bay and of the modern town of Wick, but originally the castle had at least 4 stories as well as extra buildings containing workshops and other quarters. During the 14th century it was owned by Sir Reginald de Cheyne who was a supporter of Edward I during his attempt to establish John Balliol as King of Scotland, although there is no evidence of a battle having taken place there. It was abandoned in the 18th century. The castle was built to the same plan as Brough Castle, which is about 29 kilometres to the north/northwest, on the Pentland Firth coast of Caithness.", "Wick Heritage Museum is in Bank Row, Pulteneytown. The museum is run by the Wick Society, with a strong focus on the herring-boom era of Wick's history. The herring trade relied on the export of cured herring to the Continent (in particular, Stettin and St Petersburg) and languished after the First World War. The Johnston Collection, which was gathered by the local photographer's business between 1863 and 1975 provides a fascinating insight into the history of the town and the industry. The surviving collection contains around 50,000 images.", "The Wick Carnegie Library is now run by the Highland Council. As well as providing a general library service the library preserves valuable books and other documents about Wick and Caithness and their histories. Also it preserves a crocodile (\"Gavialis gangeticus\") presented by Sir Arthur Bignold in 1909. The library building also houses the North Highland Archive and the St. Fergus Gallery exhibitions. The North Highland Archive is part of the Highland Council Archive Service, and holds collections of official and private papers, the earliest dating from 1589, relating to Wick and the county of Caithness. Construction of the library building, 1897, was part funded by Andrew Carnegie. It is at the junction of Sinclair Terrace and Cliff Road. The Caithness county archives were transferred from Wick library to Nucleus, the Nuclear and Caithness Archives near Wick Airport in February 2017.", "The Tourist Information Centre is now located upstairs in the Mcallan's store on High Street.", "In 2006 the BBC reported that the Guinness Book of Records had confirmed the world's shortest street, Ebenezer Place measuring 2.06 metres, and containing just one door, was located in Wick (). It had not previously qualified for the record because it did not have a full postal address.", "There are two primary schools in Wick, both run by the Highland Council. They are Noss Primary School and Newton Park Primary School. There is one secondary school in Wick, Wick High School. There were previously four primary schools in Wick, these being North Primary, Hillhead Primary (both merged to make Noss Primary), South Primary and Pultneytown Academy (both merged to make Newton Park Primary). Hillhead's head teacher is Ally Budge. As of January 2008, it had an enrolment of 205 pupils. Hillhead has been awarded an Eco-Schools First Green Flag award for Environmental friendliness. In April 2008, Hillhead Primary was praised in a report from Her Majesty's Inspectorate of Education. In September 2008, Wick High School underwent a successful inspection by Her Majesty's Inspectorate of Education. At the time of the report, there was an enrolment of 838, and the rector was Alistair Traill. In December 2012 Highland Council announced it had signed a contract for the construction of a £48.5m campus that will replace a number of facilities: the high school, swimming pool, library, and two primary schools, South and Pulteneytown (merging into Newton Park Primary). In April 2016 a new primary school, Noss Primary, opened. It merged the two primary schools – Hillhead and North School together.", "There is surviving black and white, and colour, film footage of Wick and the Highlands in the National Library of Scotland. The 1967 children's film \"The Hunch\", set in Wick, can be watched online for free.", "For twenty years the town was twinned with Klaksvík, Faroe Islands. In August 2015, Wick councillors threatened to break these ties on account of a Faroese long standing practice which involves hunting and eating migrating pilot whales. As of January 2016 the decision has been deferred." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography.", "History.", "Politics.", "Demographics.", "Religion.", "Government.", "Economy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Volgograd Oblast borders with Saratov, Rostov, Astrakhan, and Voronezh Oblasts, as well as with Kalmykia of Russia and with Kazakhstan (West Kazakhstan Region). Volgograd has more than 200 rivers and streams. The major ones include:", "Stalingrad Oblast () was established on December 5, 1936 on the territory of former Stalingrad Krai. The oblast was given its present name on November 10, 1961.", "During the Soviet period, three people exercised oblast-level authority: In 1991 the CPSU lost \"de facto\" power, and the head of the Oblast administration, and eventually the governor was appointed/elected alongside elected regional parliament. The Charter of Volgograd Oblast provides the fundamental law of the region. The Legislative Assembly of Volgograd Oblast is the province's standing legislative (representative) body. The Legislative Assembly exercises its authority by passing laws, resolutions, and other legal acts and by supervising the implementation and observance of the laws and other legal acts passed by it. The highest executive body, the Oblast Government, includes territorial executive bodies such as district administrations, committees, and commissions that facilitate development and run the day-to-day matters of the province. The Oblast administration supports the activities of the Governor, who is the highest official and acts as guarantor of the observance of the oblast Charter in accordance with the Constitution of Russia.", "The population of the oblast was 2,610,161 according to the 2010 Russian census, 2,699,223 in the 2002 Russian census, and 2,593,944 in the 1989 Soviet census.. In 2012, there were 30,252 births (11.7 per 1000) and 35,021 deaths (13.5 per 1000). The total fertility rate was 1.46 in 2009, rising to 1.57 by 2016.", "According to a 2012 survey 54.5% of the population of Volgograd Oblast adheres to the Russian Orthodox Church, 4% are unaffiliated generic Christians, 2% are Orthodox Christian believers who don't belong to any church or are members of non-Russian Orthodox churches, 3% are Muslims. In addition, 18% of the population declares to be \"spiritual but not religious\", 12% is atheist, and 6.5% follows other religions or did not give an answer to the question.", "Governor of Volgograd Oblast is Anatoliy Brovko (since 2010) Both the flag and the coat of arms of Volgograd Oblast include an image of \"The Motherland Calls\", an 85 meter tall statue located in Volgograd.", "Primary branches of economics are agriculture, food production, heavy industry, gas and petroleum refining. The Volga Hydroelectric Station operates on the Volga River. The largest companies in the region include Volzhsky Pipe Plant, Volgogradenergosbyt (a local electric power distribution company), OJSC Kaustik (caustic soda manufacturer), Volzhsky Orgsintez (a chemical plant)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Proving uniqueness.", "Reduction to ordinary existential and universal quantification.", "Generalizations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The most common technique to prove the unique existence of a certain object is to first prove the existence of the entity with the desired condition, and then to prove that any two such entities (say, \"formula_4\" and \"formula_5\") must be equal to each other (i.e. formula_6). For example, to show that the equation formula_7 has exactly one solution, one would first start by establishing that at least one solution exists, namely 3; the proof of this part is simply the verification that the equation below holds: To establish the uniqueness of the solution, one would then proceed by assuming that there are two solutions, namely \"formula_4\" and \"formula_5\", satisfying formula_7. That is, By transitivity of equality, Subtracting 2 from both sides then yields which completes the proof that 3 is the unique solution of formula_7. In general, both existence (there exists \"at least\" one object) and uniqueness (there exists \"at most\" one object) must be proven, in order to conclude that there exists exactly one object satisfying a said condition. An alternative way to prove uniqueness is to prove that there exists an object formula_4 satisfying the condition, and then to prove that every object satisfying the condition must be equal to formula_4.", "Uniqueness quantification can be expressed in terms of the existential and universal quantifiers of predicate logic, by defining the formula formula_18 to mean which is logically equivalent to An equivalent definition that separates the notions of existence and uniqueness into two clauses, at the expense of brevity, is Another equivalent definition, which has the advantage of brevity, is", "The uniqueness quantification can be generalized into counting quantification (or numerical quantification). This includes both quantification of the form \"exactly \"k\" objects exist such that...\" as well as \"infinitely many objects exist such that...\" and \"only finitely many objects exist such that...\". The first of these forms is expressible using ordinary quantifiers, but the latter two cannot be expressed in ordinary first-order logic. Uniqueness depends on a notion of equality. Loosening this to some coarser equivalence relation yields quantification of uniqueness up to that equivalence (under this framework, regular uniqueness is \"uniqueness up to equality\"). For example, many concepts in category theory are defined to be unique up to isomorphism." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Career.", "1987–1994: Early career.", "1994–2004: \"Friends\".", "2006–2011: Hiatus.", "2011–present: Career revival.", "Personal life." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "LeBlanc was born in Newton, Massachusetts. His mother, Patricia (née Di Cillo), was an office manager; his father, Paul LeBlanc, was a mechanic. His father is of French-Canadian descent and his mother is of Italian ancestry. He attended Newton North High School. He moved to New York at the age of 17 to pursue a career in modelling. He was told he was too short to be in the industry and after a while he got into acting.", "", "LeBlanc first appeared in a 1987 Heinz Tomato Ketchup commercial. In 1988, he starred in the television drama \"TV 101\" for one season. In 1991, he had a recurring role on the hit Fox sitcom \"Married... with Children\". He played Vinnie Verducci, a family friend of protagonist Al Bundy (Ed O'Neill) who briefly dates his daughter, Kelly (Christina Applegate). LeBlanc went on to star in two short-lived spin-offs: \"Top of the Heap\" (1991) and \"Vinnie and Bobby\" (1992). He appeared in two Bon Jovi music videos: \"Miracle\", from the \"Young Guns II\" soundtrack in 1990, and \"Say It Isn't So\" in 2000. He also appeared in videos for Alanis Morissette's single \"Walk Away\", Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers' \"Into the Great Wide Open\", and Bob Seger's \"Night Moves\".", "LeBlanc found success in the role of the dimwitted but lovable Joey Tribbiani on \"Friends\", and went on to play this character for 12 years — 10 seasons of \"Friends\" and two seasons of \"Joey\". \"Friends\" was wildly successful, and LeBlanc, along with his co-stars, gained wide recognition among viewers. This ensemble situation comedy became a major hit for NBC, airing on Thursday nights for ten years. For his performance, LeBlanc received three Primetime Emmy Award nominations, three Golden Globe award nominations, and one Screen Actors Guild Award nomination. During this time he also appeared in the films \"Lookin' Italian\" (1994), \"Ed\" (1996), \"Lost in Space\" (1998), \"Charlie's Angels\" (2000), and its sequel, \"\" (2003).", "Following the cancellation of \"Joey\", LeBlanc announced that he would be taking a one-year hiatus from acting on TV, which eventually turned into five years. His next role was a fictionalized version of himself on \"Episodes\".", "From 2011, LeBlanc began appearing as a fictional version of himself in \"Episodes\", a television series about a fictional American remake of an equally fictional British television series. The series is written by \"Friends\" co-creator David Crane and his partner Jeffrey Klarik. At the 69th Golden Globe Awards in 2012, LeBlanc won the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor in a television series, musical, or comedy, and was nominated for an additional four Primetime Emmy Awards. In February 2012, LeBlanc appeared in the second episode of the eighteenth series of \"Top Gear\", where he set the fastest lap time in the \"Star in a Reasonably Priced Car\" segment in a Kia Cee'd. Lapping at 1:42.1, he beat the show's previous recordholder Rowan Atkinson by 0.1 seconds. He also appeared in the fourth episode of the nineteenth season to race the New Kia Cee'd, and beat his previous time. In February 2016, the BBC announced LeBlanc had signed on to become one of the new \"Top Gear\" hosts, signing a new two-year deal later that year. He announced his decision to retire from the series in May 2018, having co-hosted it for three years. Despite the show being \"great fun\", he stated the \"time commitment and extensive travel takes me away from my family and friends more than I'm comfortable with.\" LeBlanc played the lead role in the CBS sitcom \"Man with a Plan\", which began airing in 2016 until it was cancelled in 2020.", "LeBlanc married Melissa McKnight, a British-born American model, in May 2003. They had been introduced in 1997 by McKnight's friend, wife of actor Lou Diamond Phillips. LeBlanc proposed to her a year later. Their daughter, born in 2004, began suffering seizures at eight months old. By the time she was two years old, the condition, thought to be a form of dysplasia, had mostly subsided. LeBlanc and McKnight divorced in October 2006, citing irreconcilable differences." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "Specification.", "RIFF.", "RIFF WAVE.", "Metadata.", "Popularity.", "Use by broadcasters.", "Limitations.", "Non-audio data.", "Audio CDs.", "Comparison of coding schemes." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The WAV file is an instance of a Resource Interchange File Format (RIFF) defined by IBM and Microsoft. The RIFF format acts as a \"wrapper\" for various audio coding formats. Though a WAV file can contain compressed audio, the most common WAV audio format is uncompressed audio in the linear pulse code modulation (LPCM) format. LPCM is also the standard audio coding format for audio CDs, which store two-channel LPCM audio sampled at 44,100 Hz with 16 bits per sample. Since LPCM is uncompressed and retains all of the samples of an audio track, professional users or audio experts may use the WAV format with LPCM audio for maximum audio quality. WAV files can also be edited and manipulated with relative ease using software. The WAV format supports compressed audio using, on Microsoft Windows, the Audio Compression Manager. Any ACM codec can be used to compress a WAV file. The user interface (UI) for Audio Compression Manager may be accessed through various programs that use it, including Sound Recorder in some versions of Windows. Beginning with Windows 2000, a codice_1 header was defined which specifies multiple audio channel data along with speaker positions, eliminates ambiguity regarding sample types and container sizes in the standard WAV format and supports defining custom extensions to the format chunk. There are some inconsistencies in the WAV format: for example, 8-bit data is unsigned while 16-bit data is signed, and many chunks duplicate information found in other chunks.", "", "A RIFF file is a tagged file format. It has a specific container format (a \"chunk\") that includes a four character tag (FourCC) and the size (number of bytes) of the chunk. The tag specifies how the data within the chunk should be interpreted, and there are several standard FourCC tags. Tags consisting of all capital letters are reserved tags. The outermost chunk of a RIFF file has a codice_2 form tag; the first four bytes of chunk data are a FourCC that specify the form type and are followed by a sequence of subchunks. In the case of a WAV file, those four bytes are the FourCC codice_3. The remainder of the RIFF data is a sequence of chunks describing the audio information. The advantage of a tagged file format is that the format can be extended later without confusing existing file readers. The rule for a RIFF (or WAV) reader is that it should ignore any tagged chunk that it does not recognize. The reader won't be able to use the new information, but the reader should not be confused. The specification for RIFF files includes the definition of an codice_4 chunk. The chunk may include information such as the title of the work, the author, the creation date, and copyright information. Although the codice_4 chunk was defined in version 1.0, the chunk was not referenced in the formal specification of a WAV file. If the chunk were present in the file, then a reader should know how to interpret it, but many readers had trouble. Some readers would abort when they encountered the chunk, some readers would process the chunk if it were the first chunk in the RIFF form, and other readers would process it if it followed all of the expected waveform data. Consequently, the safest thing to do from an interchange standpoint was to omit the codice_4 chunk and other extensions and send a lowest-common-denominator file. There are other INFO chunk placement problems. RIFF files were expected to be used in international environments, so there is codice_7 chunk to specify the country code, language, dialect, and code page for the strings in a RIFF file. For example, specifying an appropriate codice_7 chunk should allow the strings in an codice_4 chunk (and other chunks throughout the RIFF file) to be interpreted as Cyrillic or Japanese characters. RIFF also defines a codice_10 chunk whose contents are uninteresting. The chunk allows a chunk to be deleted by just changing its FourCC. The chunk could also be used to reserve some space for future edits so the file could be modified without being rewritten. A later definition of RIFF introduced a similar codice_11 chunk.", "The toplevel definition of a WAV file is: The definition shows a toplevel RIFF form with the codice_3 tag. It is followed by a mandatory codice_13 format chunk that describes the format of the sample data that follows. The format chunk includes information such as the sample encoding, number of bits per channel, the number of channels, the sample rate. The WAV specification includes some optional features. The optional fact chunk reports the number of samples for some compressed coding schemes. The cue point (codice_14) chunk identifies some significant sample numbers in the wave file. The playlist chunk allows the samples to be played out of order or repeated rather than just from beginning to end. The associated data list allows labels and notes (codice_15 and codice_16) to be attached to cue points; text annotation (codice_17) may be given for a group of samples (e.g., caption information). Finally, the mandatory wave data chunk contains the actual samples (in the specified format). Note that the WAV file definition does not show where an codice_4 chunk should be placed. It is also silent about the placement of a codice_7 chunk (which specifies the character set used). The RIFF specification attempts to be a formal specification, but its formalism lacks the precision seen in other tagged formats. For example, the RIFF specification does not clearly distinguish between a set of subchunks and an ordered sequence of subchunks. The RIFF form chunk suggests it should be a sequence container. The specification suggests a LIST chunk is also a sequence: \"A LIST chunk contains a list, or ordered sequence, of subchunks.\" However, the specification does not give a formal specification of the codice_4 chunk; an example codice_4 LIST chunk ignores the chunk sequence implied in the codice_4 description. The LIST chunk definition for codice_23 does use the LIST chunk as a sequence container with good formal semantics. The WAV specification allows for not only a single, contiguous, array of audio samples, but also discrete blocks of samples and silence that are played in order. Most WAV files use a single array of data. The specification for the sample data is confused: These productions are confused. Apparently codice_24 (undefined) and codice_25 (defined but not referenced) should be identical. Even if that problem is fixed, the productions then allow a codice_26 to contain a recursive codice_23 (which implies data interpretation problems). The specification should have been something like: to avoid the recursion. WAV files can contain embedded IFF \"lists\", which can contain several \"sub-chunks\".", "As a derivative of RIFF, WAV files can be tagged with metadata in the INFO chunk. In addition, WAV files can embed any kind of metadata, including but not limited to Extensible Metadata Platform (XMP) data or ID3 tags in extra chunks. Applications may not handle this extra information or may expect to see it in a particular place. Although the RIFF specification requires that applications ignore chunks they do not recognize, some applications are confused by additional chunks.", "Uncompressed WAV files are large, so file sharing of WAV files over the Internet is uncommon. However, it is a commonly used file type, suitable for retaining first generation archived files of high quality, for use on a system where disk space is not a constraint, or in applications such as audio editing, where the time involved in compressing and uncompressing data is a concern. The usage of the WAV format has more to do with its familiarity and simple structure. Because of this, it continues to enjoy widespread use with a variety of software applications, often functioning as a \"lowest common denominator\" when it comes to exchanging sound files among different programs.", "In spite of their large size, uncompressed WAV files are sometimes used by some radio broadcasters, especially those that have adopted a tapeless system.", "The WAV format is limited to files that are less than 4 GiB, because of its use of a 32-bit unsigned integer to record the file size header. Although this is equivalent to about 6.8 hours of CD-quality audio (44.1 kHz, 16-bit stereo), it is sometimes necessary to exceed this limit, especially when greater sampling rates, bit resolutions or channel count are required. The W64 format was therefore created for use in Sound Forge. Its 64-bit header allows for much longer recording times. The RF64 format specified by the European Broadcasting Union has also been created to solve this problem.", "Since the sampling rate of a WAV file can vary from 1 Hz to 4.3 GHz, and the number of channels can be as high as 65535,.wav files have also been used for non-audio data. LTspice, for instance, can store multiple circuit trace waveforms in separate channels, at any appropriate sampling rate, with the full-scale range representing ±1 V or A rather than a sound pressure.", "Audio CDs do not use the WAV file format, using instead Red Book audio. The commonality is that audio CDs are encoded as uncompressed PCM, which is one of the formats supported by WAV. WAV is a file format for a computer to use that cannot be understood by most CD players directly. To record WAV files to an Audio CD the file headers must be stripped, the contents must be transcoded if not already stored as PCM, and the PCM data written directly to the disc as individual tracks with zero-padding added to match the CD's sector size. In order for PCM audio to be able to be burned to a CD, it should be in the 44100 Hz, 16-bit stereo format.", "Audio in WAV files can be encoded in a variety of audio coding formats, such as GSM or MP3, to reduce the file size. This is a reference to compare the monophonic (not stereophonic) audio quality and compression bitrates of audio coding formats available for WAV files including PCM, ADPCM, Microsoft GSM 06.10, CELP, SBC, Truespeech and MPEG Layer-3. These are the default ACM codecs that come with Windows. The above are WAV files; even those that use MP3 compression have the codice_28 extension." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Use in aircraft.", "Variants.", "Foreign service.", "Service after World War II.", "Colt–Vickers M1915.", "Specifications.", "Use." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The Vickers machine gun was based on the successful Maxim gun of the late 19th century. After purchasing the Maxim company outright in 1896, Vickers took the design of the Maxim gun and improved it, inverting the mechanism as well as reducing its weight by lightening and simplifying the action and using high strength alloys for certain components. A muzzle booster was also added. The British Army formally adopted the Vickers gun as its standard machine gun under the name \"Gun, Machine, Mark I, Vickers,.303-inch\" on 26 November 1912. There were still great shortages when the First World War began, and the British Expeditionary Force was still equipped with Maxims when sent to France in 1914. Vickers was, in fact, threatened with prosecution for war profiteering, due to the exorbitant price it was demanding for each gun. As a result, the price was slashed. As the war progressed, and numbers increased, it became the British Army's primary machine gun, and served on all fronts during the conflict. When the Lewis Gun was adopted as a light machine gun and issued to infantry units, the Vickers guns were redefined as heavy machine guns, withdrawn from infantry units, and grouped in the hands of the new Machine Gun Corps (when heavier 0.5 in/12.7 mm calibre machine guns appeared, the tripod-mounted, rifle-calibre machine guns like the Vickers became medium machine guns). After the First World War, the Machine Gun Corps (MGC) was disbanded and the Vickers returned to infantry units. Before the Second World War, there were plans to replace the Vickers gun; one of the contenders was the 7.92×57mm Mauser Besa machine gun (a Czech design), which eventually became the British Army's standard tank-mounted machine gun. However, the Vickers remained in service with the British Army until 30 March 1968. Its last operational use was in the Radfan during the Aden Emergency. Its successor in UK service is the L7 GPMG.", "In 1913, a Vickers machine gun was mounted on the experimental Vickers E.F.B.1 biplane, which was probably the world's first purpose-built combat aeroplane. However, by the time the production version, the Vickers F.B.5, had entered service the following year, the armament had been changed to a Lewis gun. During World War I, the Vickers gun became a standard weapon on British and French military aircraft, especially after 1916. Although heavier than the Lewis, its closed bolt firing cycle made it much easier to synchronize to allow it to fire through aircraft propellers. The belt feed was enclosed right up to the gun's feed-way to inhibit effects from wind. Steel disintegrating-link ammunition belts were perfected in the UK by William de Courcy Prideaux in mid-war and became standard for aircraft guns thereafter. By 1917 it had been determined that standard rifle calibre cartridges were less satisfactory for shooting down observation balloons than larger calibres carrying incendiary or tracer bullets; the Vickers machine gun was chambered in the 11mm Vickers round, known as the \"Vickers aircraft machine gun\" and sometimes the \"Balloon Buster\", and was adopted by the Allies as a standard anti-balloon armament, used by both the British and French in this role until the end of the war. The famous Sopwith Camel and the SPAD XIII types used twin synchronized Vickers, as did most British and French fighters between 1918 and the mid-1930s. In the air, the weighty water cooling system was rendered redundant by the chilly temperatures at high altitude and the constant stream of air passing over the gun as the plane flew; but because the weapon relied on barrel recoil, the (empty) water-holding barrel jacket or casing needed to be retained. Several sets of louvred slots were cut into the barrel jacket to aid air cooling, a better solution than what had initially been attempted with the 1915-vintage lMG 08 German aircraft ordnance. As the machine gun armament of fighter aircraft moved from the fuselage to the wings in the years before the Second World War, the Vickers was generally replaced by the faster-firing and more reliable Browning Model 1919 using metal-linked cartridges. The Gloster Gladiator was the last RAF fighter to be armed with the Vickers, although they were later replaced by Brownings. The Fairey Swordfish continued to be fitted with the weapon until production ended in August 1944. Several British bombers and attack aircraft of the Second World War mounted the Vickers K machine gun or VGO, a completely different design, resembling the Lewis gun in external appearance. Vickers machine guns, designated as models E (pilot's) and F (observer's) were also used among others in Poland, where 777 of them were converted to 7.92×57mm Mauser cartridge in 1933-1937.", "The larger calibre (half-inch) version of the Vickers was used on armoured fighting vehicles and naval vessels. The Gun, Machine, Vickers,.5-inch, Mk. II was used in tanks, the earlier Mark I having been the development model. This entered service in 1933 and was obsolete in 1944. Firing either single shot or automatic it had a pistol type trigger grip rather than the spades of the 0.303 in (7.7 mm) weapon. The Gun, Machine, Vickers,.5-inch, Mk. III was used as an anti-aircraft gun on British ships. This variation was typically four guns mounted on a 360° rotating and (+80° to −10°) elevating housing. The belts were rolled into a spiral and placed in hoppers beside each gun. The heavy plain bullet weighed and was good for range. Maximum rate of fire for the Mark III was about 700 rpm from a 200-round belt carried in a drum. They were fitted from the 1920s onwards, but in practical terms, proved of little use. During the Second World War, the naval 0.5 in (12.7 mm) version was also mounted on power-operated turrets in smaller watercraft, such as Motor Gun Boats and Motor Torpedo Boats. The Mark IV and V guns were improvements on the Mark II. Intended for British light tanks, some were used during the war on mounts on trucks by the Long Range Desert Group in the North Africa Campaign. The Vickers machine gun was produced, between the wars, as the vz.09 machine gun.", "The Vickers was widely sold commercially and saw service with many nations and their own particular ammunition. It was also modified for each country and served as a base for many other weapons. For example:", "The Union of South Africa retained a large inventory of surplus Vickers machine guns after World War II. Many of these were donated to the National Liberation Front of Angola (FNLA) and National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) during the Angolan Civil War. Angolan militants were usually trained in their use by South African advisers. Small quantities re-chambered for 7.62mm NATO ammunition remained in active service with the South African Defence Force until the mid 1980s, when they were all relegated to reserve storage. Six were withdrawn from storage and reused by a South African liaison team operating with UNITA during the Battle of Cuito Cuanavale, after which the weapons were finally retired. In the mid-1960s, the Vickers machine gun remained in service in countries such as India, Israel, or Egypt.", "By the early 1900s, the U.S. military had a mixed collection of automatic machine guns in use that included M1895 \"potato diggers\", 287 M1904 Maxims, 670 M1909 Benét–Mercié guns, and 353 Lewis machine guns. In 1913, the U.S. began to search for a superior automatic weapon. One of the weapons considered was the British Vickers machine gun. Field tests were conducted of the Vickers in 1914, and the gun was unanimously approved by the board for the army under the designation \"Vickers Machine Gun Model of 1915, Caliber.30, Water-Cooled\". One hundred twenty-five guns were ordered from Colt's Manufacturing Company in 1915, with an additional 4,000 ordered the next year, all chambered for.30-06. Design complexities, design modifications, and focus on producing previously ordered weapons meant that when the U.S. entered World War I in April 1917, Colt had not manufactured a single M1915. Production began in late 1917 with shipments to the Western Front in mid-1918. The first twelve divisions to reach France were given French Hotchkiss M1914 machine guns, and the next ten had M1915s. The next twelve divisions were to have Browning M1917 machine guns, but there was a shortage of parts. By August 1918, thirteen U.S. divisions were armed with the Colt–Vickers machine gun. 7,653 guns were issued during the war out of 12,125 produced in total. War damage losses reduced the number of M1915s in the U.S. inventory to about 8,000 total. After World War I, the Colt–Vickers machine guns were kept in reserve until World War II. Several hundred were sent to the Dutch East Indies and the Philippines, and were all eventually lost to enemy action. Seven thousand guns were sent to Britain under Lend-Lease to re-equip their forces after the Dunkirk evacuation, which depleted the weapon from the U.S. inventory before their entry into the war. Because the M1915 Colt–Vickers was not chambered for the standard British.303, it was painted to differentiate it and relegated to Home Guard use. After the end of the war, the British had enough domestic Vickers guns to retire the M1915 from the Home Guard, after which they were disposed of.", "The weight of the gun itself varied based on the gear attached, but was generally with a tripod. The ammunition boxes for the 250-round ammunition belts weighed each. In addition, it required about of water in its evaporative cooling system to prevent overheating. The heat of the barrel boiled the water in the jacket surrounding it. The resulting steam was taken off by a flexible tube to a condenser container—this had the dual benefits of avoiding giving away the gun's location, and also enabling re-use of the water, which was very important in arid environments. In British service, the Vickers gun fired the standard.303 inch cartridges used in the Lee–Enfield rifle, which generally had to be hand-loaded into the cloth ammunition belts. There was also a 0.5 in calibre version used as an anti-aircraft weapon and various other calibres produced for foreign buyers. The gun was long and its cyclic rate of fire was between 450 and 600 rounds per minute. In practice, it was expected that 10,000 rounds would be fired per hour, and that the barrel would be changed every hour—a two-minute job for a trained team. The Vickers gun could sustain fire for long durations of time exceeding the recommended 10,000 rounds an hour due to the water-cooled barrel and hourly barrel swaps. One account states a Vickers fired just under 5 million rounds in a week as a test in 1963 at Strensall Barracks and was still operable. The muzzle velocity was ± with Mark VII(z) ammunition and with Mark VIIIz ammunition. The Mark VIIIz cartridge, which had a boat-tailed spitzer'streamlined' bullet, could be used against targets at a range of approximately. The bullet jackets were generally made of an alloy of cupro-nickel, and gilding metal. Ammunition for the Vickers used colour-coded annuli. Tracer ammunition was marked with a red annulus; armouring-piercing ammunition a green annulus, and incendiary ammunition was marked with a blue annulus. Lastly, explosive ammunition was marked with an orange annulus before the Second World War and was changed to black.", "The gun and its tripod were carried separately and both were heavy. The Vickers Mk I was 30 lb (13.6 kg) without the water and tripod, and weighed 40 lb (18.1 kg) with the water. The original design did not anticipate it being carried up jungle-covered mountains on men's backs, but such was the weapon's popularity that men were generally content to pack it to all manner of difficult locations. The tripod would be set up to make a firm base, often dug into the ground a little and perhaps with the feet weighted down with sandbags. The water jacket would be filled with about of water from a small hole at the rear end, sealed by a cap. The evaporative cooling system, though heavy, was very effective and enabled the gun to keep firing far longer than its air-cooled rival weapons. If water was unavailable, soldiers were known to resort to using their urine. It was sometimes claimed that crews would fire off a few rounds simply to heat their gun's cooling water to make tea, despite the resulting brew tasting of machine-oil. In extremely cold weather, the cooling water could freeze and damage the gun. This problem was addressed using an insulating water jacket cover, introduced in 1918 but still in use during the Korean War. Some crews added vehicle antifreeze, others drained the water jacket, or simply fired a few rounds periodically to keep the water from freezing. The loader sat to the gunner's right, and fed in belts of cloth, into which the rounds had been placed. The weapon would draw in the belt from right to left, pull the next round out of the belt and into the chamber, fire it, then send the fired brass cartridge down and out of the receiver while the cloth belt would continue out the left side. During sustained fire, the barrel would heat up which heated the water in the jacket until hot enough for the water to evaporate or boil thereby cooling the barrel releasing the heat through steam. It took the Mk I 600 rounds of continuous fire to boil the water in the jacket, evaporating at a rate of 1.5 pints (0.852 L) per 1,000 rounds. The steam would reach the top of the jacket and enter a steam tube which led to a port that was situated under the jacket near the muzzle. A hose was connected to this, which released the steam into a metal water can allowing it to be vented away from the rest of the gun hiding the steam cloud and the gun's position. This also allowed any condensate to be reclaimed from the steam. Before the can got too full, it would be emptied back into the jacket to replenish the water level which would have fallen as the water evaporated and boiled away. If the water jacket needed to be emptied, a plug under the jacket could be unscrewed to drain the entire jacket. The Vickers was used for indirect fire against enemy positions at ranges up to with Mark VIIIz ammunition. This plunging fire was used to great effect against road junctions, trench systems, forming up points, and other locations that might be observed by a forward observer, or zeroed in at one time for future attacks, or guessed at by men using maps and experience. Sometimes a location might be zeroed in during the day, and then attacked at night, much to the surprise and confusion of the enemy. New Zealand units were especially fond of this use. A white disc would be set up on a pole near the MMG, and the gunner would aim at a mark on it, knowing that this corresponded to aiming at the distant target. There was a special back-sight with a tall extension on it for this purpose. The only similar weapon of the time to use indirect fire was the German MG 08, which had a separate attachment sight with range calculator. A British, World War 2, Vickers medium machine gun platoon typically had one officer in command of four guns, in two sections of two, each with a crew and a small team of riflemen whose job was to protect the gun and keep it supplied with ammunition." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Composition.", "Asymmetry.", "Lipids.", "Proteins.", "Oligosaccharides.", "Formation.", "Function.", "Selective permeability.", "Fluidity." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The lipid bilayer consists of two layers- an outer leaflet and an inner leaflet. The components of bilayers are distributed unequally between the two surfaces to create asymmetry between the outer and inner surfaces. This asymmetric organization is important for cell functions such as cell signaling. The asymmetry of the biological membrane reflects the different functions of the two leaflets of the membrane. As seen in the fluid membrane model of the phospholipid bilayer, the outer leaflet and inner leaflet of the membrane are asymmetrical in their composition. Certain proteins and lipids rest only on one surface of the membrane and not the other. • Both the plasma membrane and internal membranes have cytosolic and exoplasmic faces • This orientation is maintained during membrane trafficking – proteins, lipids, glycoconjugates facing the lumen of the ER and Golgi get expressed on the extracellular side of the plasma membrane. In eucaryotic cells, new phospholipids are manufactured by enzymes bound to the part of the endoplasmic reticulum membrane that faces the cytosol. These enzymes, which use free fatty acids as substrates, deposit all newly made phospholipids into the cytosolic half of the bilayer. To enable the membrane as a whole to grow evenly, half of the new phospholipid molecules then have to be transferred to the opposite monolayer. This transfer is catalyzed by enzymes called flippases. In the plasma membrane, flippases transfer specific phospholipids selectively, so that different types become concentrated in each monolayer. Using selective flippases is not the only way to produce asymmetry in lipid bilayers, however. In particular, a different mechanism operates for glycolipids—the lipids that show the most striking and consistent asymmetric distribution in animal cells.", "The biological membrane is made up of lipids with hydrophobic tails and hydrophilic heads. The hydrophobic tails are hydrocarbon tails whose length and saturation is important in characterizing the cell. Lipid rafts occur when lipid species and proteins aggregate in domains in the membrane. These help organize membrane components into localized areas that are involved in specific processes, such as signal transduction. Red blood cells, or erythrocytes, have a unique lipid composition. The bilayer of red blood cells is composed of cholesterol and phospholipids in equal proportions by weight. Erythrocyte membrane plays a crucial role in blood clotting. In the bilayer of red blood cells is phosphatidylserine. This is usually in the cytoplasmic side of the membrane. However, it is flipped to the outer membrane to be used during blood clotting.", "Phospholipid bilayers contain different proteins. These membrane proteins have various functions and characteristics and catalyze different chemical reactions. Integral proteins span the membranes with different domains on either side. Integral proteins hold strong association with the lipid bilayer and cannot easily become detached. They will dissociate only with chemical treatment that breaks the membrane. Peripheral proteins are unlike integral proteins in that they hold weak interactions with the surface of the bilayer and can easily become dissociated from the membrane. Peripheral proteins are located on only one face of a membrane and create membrane asymmetry.", "Oligosaccharides are sugar containing polymers. In the membrane, they can be covalently bound to lipids to form glycolipids or covalently bound to proteins to form glycoproteins. Membranes contain sugar-containing lipid molecules known as glycolipids. In the bilayer, the sugar groups of glycolipids are exposed at the cell surface, where they can form hydrogen bonds. Glycolipids provide the most extreme example of asymmetry in the lipid bilayer. Glycolipids perform a vast number of functions in the biological membrane that are mainly communicative, including cell recognition and cell-cell adhesion. Glycoproteins are integral proteins. They play an important role in the immune response and protection.", "The phospholipid bilayer is formed due to the aggregation of membrane lipids in aqueous solutions. Aggregation is caused by the hydrophobic effect, where hydrophobic ends come into contact with each other and are sequestered away from water. This arrangement maximises hydrogen bonding between hydrophilic heads and water while minimising unfavorable contact between hydrophobic tails and water. The increase in available hydrogen bonding increases the entropy of the system, creating a spontaneous process.", "Biological molecules are amphiphilic or amphipathic, i.e. are simultaneously hydrophobic and hydrophilic. The phospholipid bilayer contains charged hydrophilic headgroups, which interact with polar water. The layers also contain hydrophobic tails, which meet with the hydrophobic tails of the complementary layer. The hydrophobic tails are usually fatty acids that differ in lengths. The interactions of lipids, especially the hydrophobic tails, determine the lipid bilayer physical properties such as fluidity. Membranes in cells typically define enclosed spaces or compartments in which cells may maintain a chemical or biochemical environment that differs from the outside. For example, the membrane around peroxisomes shields the rest of the cell from peroxides, chemicals that can be toxic to the cell, and the cell membrane separates a cell from its surrounding medium. Peroxisomes are one form of vacuole found in the cell that contain by-products of chemical reactions within the cell. Most organelles are defined by such membranes, and are called \"membrane-bound\" organelles.", "Probably the most important feature of a biomembrane is that it is a selectively permeable structure. This means that the size, charge, and other chemical properties of the atoms and molecules attempting to cross it will determine whether they succeed in doing so. Selective permeability is essential for effective separation of a cell or organelle from its surroundings. Biological membranes also have certain mechanical or elastic properties that allow them to change shape and move as required. Generally, small hydrophobic molecules can readily cross phospholipid bilayers by simple diffusion. Particles that are required for cellular function but are unable to diffuse freely across a membrane enter through a membrane transport protein or are taken in by means of endocytosis, where the membrane allows for a vacuole to join onto it and push its contents into the cell. Many types of specialized plasma membranes can separate cell from external environment: apical, basolateral, presynaptic and postsynaptic ones, membranes of flagella, cilia, microvillus, filopodia and lamellipodia, the sarcolemma of muscle cells, as well as specialized myelin and dendritic spine membranes of neurons. Plasma membranes can also form different types of \"supramembrane\" structures such as caveolae, postsynaptic density, podosome, invadopodium, desmosome, hemidesmosome, focal adhesion, and cell junctions. These types of membranes differ in lipid and protein composition. Distinct types of membranes also create intracellular organelles: endosome; smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum; sarcoplasmic reticulum; Golgi apparatus; lysosome; mitochondrion (inner and outer membranes); nucleus (inner and outer membranes); peroxisome; vacuole; cytoplasmic granules; cell vesicles (phagosome, autophagosome, clathrin-coated vesicles, COPI-coated and COPII-coated vesicles) and secretory vesicles (including synaptosome, acrosomes, melanosomes, and chromaffin granules). Different types of biological membranes have diverse lipid and protein compositions. The content of membranes defines their physical and biological properties. Some components of membranes play a key role in medicine, such as the efflux pumps that pump drugs out of a cell.", "The hydrophobic core of the phospholipid bilayer is constantly in motion because of rotations around the bonds of lipid tails. Hydrophobic tails of a bilayer bend and lock together. However, because of hydrogen bonding with water, the hydrophilic head groups exhibit less movement as their rotation and mobility are constrained. This results in increasing viscosity of the lipid bilayer closer to the hydrophilic heads. Below a transition temperature, a lipid bilayer loses fluidity when the highly mobile lipids exhibits less movement becoming a gel-like solid. The transition temperature depends on such components of the lipid bilayer as the hydrocarbon chain length and the saturation of its fatty acids. Temperature-dependence fluidity constitutes an important physiological attribute for bacteria and cold-blooded organisms. These organisms maintain a constant fluidity by modifying membrane lipid fatty acid composition in accordance with differing temperatures. In animal cells, membrane fluidity is modulated by the inclusion of the sterol cholesterol. This molecule is present in especially large amounts in the plasma membrane, where it constitutes approximately 20% of the lipids in the membrane by weight. Because cholesterol molecules are short and rigid, they fill the spaces between neighboring phospholipid molecules left by the kinks in their unsaturated hydrocarbon tails. In this way, cholesterol tends to stiffen the bilayer, making it more rigid and less permeable. For all cells, membrane fluidity is important for many reasons. It enables membrane proteins to diffuse rapidly in the plane of the bilayer and to interact with one another, as is crucial, for example, in cell signaling. It permits membrane lipids and proteins to diffuse from sites where they are inserted into the bilayer after their synthesis to other regions of the cell. It allows membranes to fuse with one another and mix their molecules, and it ensures that membrane molecules are distributed evenly between daughter cells when a cell divides. If biological membranes were not fluid, it is hard to imagine how cells could live, grow, and reproduce." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Career.", "Personal life." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Perry was born in Williamstown, Massachusetts, on August 19, 1969. His mother, Suzanne Marie Morrison (\"née\" Langford), is a Canadian journalist and former press secretary to Canadian Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau. His father, John Bennett Perry (born 1941), is an American actor and former model. His parents divorced before his first birthday and his mother subsequently married broadcast journalist Keith Morrison. He was raised by his mother in Ottawa, Ontario, and was enrolled at Ashbury College. While growing up, he took a keen interest in lawn tennis and became a top-ranked junior player.", "When he was 15, Perry moved from Ottawa to Los Angeles to pursue acting and attended The Buckley School in Sherman Oaks, graduating in 1987. He pursued improv comedy at the LA Connection in Sherman Oaks while still in high school. He went on to play Chazz Russell in the TV series \"Second Chance\". After 13 episodes, \"Second Chance\" became \"Boys Will Be Boys\", with the plots refocused on the adventures of Chazz and his teenage friends. After the show's single season, Perry stayed in Los Angeles and made his screen debut in the 1988 film \"A Night in the Life of Jimmy Reardon\". In 1989 Perry had a three episode arch on the series \"Growing Pains\", in which he portrayed Carol Seaver's boyfriend, who dies from injuries sustained in a drunk-driving accident. In the midst of his many continuing guest roles on TV, Perry was cast as a regular on the 1990 CBS sitcom \"Sydney\", playing the younger brother of Valerie Bertinelli's title character. In 1991, he made a guest appearance on \"Beverly Hills, 90210\" as Roger Azarian. Perry landed his next TV starring role on the ABC sitcom \"Home Free\", which aired only 11 episodes in the spring of 1993, followed by a sitcom pilot titled \"LAX 2194\". He attempted to secure an audition for the pilot \"Six of One\", later to be known as \"Friends\", by Marta Kauffman and David Crane, both of whom he had worked with on \"Dream On\". However, due to previous commitments to the pilot \"LAX 2194\", he was not initially considered for an audition. When he did eventually get a reading, he landed the part of Chandler Bing. \"Friends\" was hugely successful, and Perry, along with his co-stars, gained wide recognition among television viewers. The program earned him an Emmy nomination in 2002 for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series, along with Matt LeBlanc, but the two lost to Ray Romano. Perry appeared in films such as \"Fools Rush In\" (alongside father John Bennett Perry and Salma Hayek), \"Almost Heroes\", \"Three to Tango\", \"The Whole Nine Yards\" (alongside Bruce Willis) and its sequel \"The Whole Ten Yards\", and \"Serving Sara\". While known primarily for his comic roles, Perry has carved out a career in drama as well, particularly in his portrayal of Associate White House Counsel Joe Quincy in Aaron Sorkin's \"The West Wing\". His three appearances in that series (twice in the fourth season and once in the fifth) earned him two Emmy nominations for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series in 2003 and 2004. Perry is referred to in the show prior to his guest appearance - Donna Moss seeks him out (off screen) in the episode \"20 Hours in LA.\" He also appeared as attorney Todd Merrick in two episodes near the end of \"Ally McBeal\"'s five-season run, including a 2-hour special intended to revive the legal comedy-drama. After \"Friends\" wrapped up, Perry made his directorial debut in an episode of the 4th season of the American comedy-drama \"Scrubs\", in which he also guest starred as \"Murray Marks\", an operator of a small airport's traffic control team. Murray is asked to donate a kidney to his father Gregory (played by Perry's real father). He starred in the TNT movie, \"The Ron Clark Story\" also known as \"The Triumph\" which premiered August 13, 2006. Perry played small-town teacher Ron Clark who relocates to the toughest class in the country. Perry received a Golden Globe nomination as well as an Emmy nomination for his performance. In 2006-2007, Perry appeared in Aaron Sorkin's drama \"Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip\". Perry played Matt Albie alongside Bradley Whitford's Danny Tripp, a writer-director duo brought in to help save a failing sketch show. Perry's character was considered to be substantially based on Sorkin's own personal experiences, particularly in television. In 2006, he began filming \"Numb\", a film based on a man suffering from depersonalization disorder. The film's tentative release date was pushed back several times, but was finally released to DVD on May 13, 2008. He also appeared in David Mamet's \"Sexual Perversity in Chicago\" in London. In 2009, he starred in the film \"17 Again\" playing the older Mike O'Donnell. In 2008, Perry starred in the offbeat film \"Birds of America\" as Morrie Tanager, an uptight man who has to deal with his siblings. Showtime passed on a pilot called \"The End of Steve\", a dark comedy starring, written and produced by Perry and Peter Tolan. Perry's new comedy pilot, \"Mr. Sunshine\", based on Perry's original idea for the show, was bought by ABC. Perry was set to portray a middle-aged man with an identity crisis. ABC canceled the series after nine episodes. On March 1, 2012, it was reported that Perry had signed on to star on the NBC comedy pilot \"Go On\", written and produced by former \"Friends\" writer/producer Scott Silveri. The project was picked up to series in May 2012. Perry portrayed Ryan King, a sportscaster who tries to move on after the death of his wife through the help of mandatory therapy sessions. The pilot aired on August 8, 2012 as a \"sneak preview\" after the 2012 Summer Olympics. The series premiered on September 11, 2012. On October 2, 2012, NBC ordered a full season of 22 episodes. NBC canceled \"Go On\" in May 2013, shortly after the conclusion of its first season. In 2012, Perry guest-starred on the CBS drama \"The Good Wife\", as attorney Mike Kresteva. In 2013, he reprised his role in the fourth season. In 2014, Perry made his British TV debut in the one-off comedy program \"The Dog Thrower\", which aired on May 1 as part of Sky Arts' \"Playhouse Presents\". Perry portrayed \"a charismatic man\" who enchanted onlookers by throwing his dog in the air. From 2015 to 2017, Perry starred in, co-wrote, and served as executive producer of a revival of the sitcom \"The Odd Couple\" on CBS. Perry played Oscar Madison opposite Thomas Lennon as Felix Unger. Perry played the lead role in a new production of his play \"The End of Longing\", which premiered on February 11, 2016, at the Playhouse Theatre in London. The play transferred Off-Broadway to MCC Theater, which opened on June 5, 2017, with Jennifer Morrison. In March 2017 Perry again reprised his role as attorney Mike Kresteva, in \"The Good Fight\", a sequel show to the CBS drama \"The Good Wife\". Later in 2017, he starred as Ted Kennedy in the mini-series \"\". In 2018, \"Business Insider\" reported Perry's net worth to be around $80 million.", "Perry holds both Canadian and American citizenships. Perry dated Yasmine Bleeth in 1995, Julia Roberts from 1995 to 1996 and Lizzy Caplan from 2006 to 2012. Perry completed a 28-day program in 1997 for a Vicodin addiction. His weight fluctuated drastically over the next few years and once dropped down to. He lost in 2000 due to pancreatitis. He again entered rehab in February 2001 for addiction to Vicodin, methadone, amphetamines, and alcohol. He was filming \"Serving Sara\" in Texas when he suffered severe stomach pains, and flew to Los Angeles to check into Marina del Rey's Daniel Freeman Hospital. Perry's publicist, Lisa Kasteler, confirmed his rehab stay. Perry later revealed that due to his addiction issues he doesn't remember three years of his time on \"Friends\", \"somewhere between seasons three and six\". Perry is a fan of the \"Fallout\" video game series. On a 2009 episode of \"The Ellen DeGeneres Show\", he gave DeGeneres a copy of \"Fallout 3\". This prompted game studio Bethesda to cast him in the next installment of the series, \"\". In 2011, as a celebrity spokesperson for the National Association of Drug Court Professionals, Perry went to Capitol Hill to lobby members of Congress in support of funding for drug courts. Perry received a Champion of Recovery award in May 2013 from the White House Office of National Drug Control Policy for opening Perry House, a sober living home situated in his former mansion in Malibu, California. In August 2018, it was reported that Perry had abdominal surgery to repair a gastrointestinal perforation. On September 15, 2018, he revealed in a tweet that he had spent 3 months recovering in the hospital, suggesting the surgery took place in June 2018." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Background.", "Founding.", "Subsequent history.", "2016 candidates.", "Membership.", "Ideology.", "Political positions.", "International affairs.", "Government.", "State and local parties.", "Presidential tickets." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "In 1958, the Independent Socialist League led by Max Shachtman dissolved to join the Socialist Party of America. Shachtman had written that Soviet communism was a new form of class society, bureaucratic collectivism, in which the ruling class exploited and oppressed the population and therefore he opposed the spread of communism. Shachtman also argued that democratic socialists should work with activists from labor unions and civil rights organizations to help build a social democratic \"realignment\" of the Democratic Party. Though he died on November 4, 1972 and had little involvement with the Socialist Party in the year proceeding his death, his followers, identitified as \"Shachmanites\", exercised a tremendous amount of influence on the party. In its 1972 convention, the Socialist Party changed its name to Social Democrats, USA by a vote of 73 to 34. The change of name was supported by the two Co-Chairmen, Bayard Rustin and Charles S. Zimmerman of the International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union (ILGWU); and by the First National Vice Chairman James S. Glaser—these three were re-elected by acclamation. Renaming the party as SDUSA was meant to be \"realistic\". \"The New York Times\" observed that the Socialist Party had last sponsored Darlington Hoopes as its candidate for President in the 1956 election, who received only 2,121 votes, which were cast in only six states. Because the party no longer sponsored candidates in presidential elections, the name \"party\" had been \"misleading\"—\"party\" had hindered the recruiting of activists who participated in the Democratic Party, according to the majority report. The name \"Socialist\" was replaced by \"Social Democrats\" because many American associated the word \"socialism\" with Soviet communism. The party also wished to distinguish itself from two small Marxist parties. The convention elected a national committee of 33 members, with 22 seats for the majority caucus, 8 seats for Harrington's coalition caucus, 2 for the Debs caucus and one for the \"independent\" Samuel H. Friedman, who also had opposed the name change. The convention voted on and adopted proposals for its program by a two-one vote, with the majority caucus winning every vote. On foreign policy, the program called for \"firmness toward Communist aggression\". However, on the Vietnam War the program opposed \"any efforts to bomb Hanoi into submission\" and to work for a peace agreement that would protect Communist political cadres in South Vietnam from further military or police reprisals. Harrington's proposal for an immediate cease fire and an immediate withdrawal of U.S. forces was defeated. Harrington complained that after its previous convention, the Socialist Party had endorsed George McGovern with a statement of \"constructive criticism\" and had not mobilized enough support for McGovern. After their defeat at the convention, members of two minority caucuses helped to found new socialist organizations. At most 200 members of the Coalition Caucus joined Michael Harrington in forming the Democratic Socialist Organizing Committee (DSOC), which later became the Democratic Socialists of America (DSA). At its start, DSOC had 840 members, of which 2 percent served on its national board in 1973 when SDUSA stated its membership at 1,800, according to a 1973 profile of Harrington. Second, many members of the Debs Caucus joined David McReynolds in reconstituting the Socialist Party USA also in 1973.", "The Debs Caucus formed the Union for Democratic Socialism and on May 30, 1973 incorporated the Socialist Party of the United States of America, usually simplified as the Socialist Party USA. Many activists from the local and state branches of the old Socialist Party, including the party's Wisconsin, California, Illinois, New York City, Philadelphia and Washington, D.C. organizations, participated in the reconstitution of the Socialist Party USA. After its founding, the party promoted itself as the legitimate heir of the Socialist Party of America. Former Mayor of Milwaukee, Frank Zeidler, was elected the first national chairperson of the party. Zeidler also helped re-organizing the party structure during its early years. He was later nominated as the party's candidacy for the presidential office, with Zeidler believing the party would be able to collaborate with other socialist parties nationwide to spread the message of socialism.", "Since 1976, a member of the party was elected to the city council of Iowa City and several members have won tens of thousands of votes in elections for statewide offices. In 1992, Socialist Iowa City Councilwoman Karen Kubby won her re-election with the highest vote in a contested election in the history of the Iowa City Council and was re-elected until retiring from the Council in 2000. In 2000, Socialist Wendell Harris received 19% of the vote for Mayor of Milwaukee, Wisconsin in the primary. In 2008, Socialist Jon Osborne pulled in 22% of the vote for Rhode Island's 34th District State Senate seat while listed on the ballot under the Socialist Party USA label. During the 2010 United States Senate elections, Dan La Botz of the Socialist Party of Ohio received 25,368 (0.68%) votes in Ohio. In 2011, Socialist Matt Erard was elected to a three-year term on the city of Detroit's Downtown District Citizens' District Council. In 2012, Socialist Pat Noble unseated his incumbent opponent in winning election to the Red Bank Regional High School Board of Education, Socialist John Strinka received 10% of the vote while running with the party's ballot label for Indiana's 39th district State House seat and Socialist Troy Thompson received 27% of the vote for Mayor of Floodwood, Minnesota. Also in 2012, candidate Mary Alice Herbert received 13.1% of the vote for Vermont Secretary of State while running with the dual nomination of both the Socialist and Vermont Liberty Union parties.", "For the 2016 general election, the Socialist Party nominated Mimi Soltysik and Angela Nicole Walker to be its presidential ticket. Other party members ran for office as well, including Jarrod Williams for United States Senate in Nevada, Seth Baker for Maine Senate and Michael Anderson for the Michigan House of Representatives.", "According to the party's first chairman, Frank Zeidler, the party had around 500 members nationwide in 1975. The Socialist Party experienced substantial growth during the late 1970s and early to mid-1980s, expanding from only around 600 dues-paying members to around 1,700. In 2008, WMNF claimed that the party had around 3,000 paying members. However, a \"CommonDreams\" article suggested that the organization had only 1,000 members in 2010, with party members claiming it to be an increase in the number of members. In May 2011, an article from \"The New York Times\" stated that the party has \"about 1,000 members nationally\". In February 2012, an article from \"The Root\" stated that the party had a \"membership around 1,500\".", "", "While some party members favor a more gradual approach to socialism, most others envision a more sweeping or revolutionary transformation of society from capitalist to socialist through the decisive victory of the working class in the class struggle. Some party members also advocate revolutionary nonviolence or pacifism while some consider armed struggle a possible necessity. The party's Statement of Principles rejects equating socialism with a \"welfare state\" and calls for democratic social revolution from below. The party is strongly committed to principles of socialist feminism and strives to further embody such commitment in its organizational structure. Its national constitution requires gender parity among its national Co-Chairs and Co-Vice Chairs, its National Committee members and alternates and seated members of its branch- and region-elected delegations to the party's biennial National Conventions. The Socialist Party also rejected the new healthcare reform law of 2010 approved by the Obama administration, with Socialist Party National Co-Chair Billy Wharton claiming it to be \"a corporate restructuring of the health insurance industry created to protect the profit margins of private insurance companies\". During his campaign, 2008 Socialist Party candidate for President Brian Moore was very vocal against the idea that Barack Obama was a socialist of any kind. He further commented on the issue, saying it was \"misleading of the Republicans\" to spread that message. In a later statement about Obama's policies, Wharton called Obama's 2010 State of the Union Address a \"public relations ploy\" and concluded saying: \"The time for slick public relations campaigns has ended—the time for building our grassroots movements is more urgent than ever. The Socialist Party USA stands ready to join in such a political revitalization\".", "The Party's National Action Committee condemned the Israeli actions during the Gaza War. The party demands that the Federal government of the United States cease providing military aid to Israel as a precondition for peace. The party also seeks to begin an immediate withdrawal of American troops from Afghanistan. During the 2008 presidential election, the Socialist Party continued to place a strong emphasis on its full-scale opposition to American wars abroad, with Brian Moore, the presidential candidate, claiming the war was destroying small communities throughout the country. He also criticized what he called \"pressure on the local governments\" by the Bush administration. The Socialist Party of Connecticut denounced Obama's troop surge in Afghanistan, claiming that the President wasted needed resources the country needed to get pulled out of the financial crisis. After denouncing him, the state affiliate organized a protest in front of the federal building in Hartford. In April 2017, the party issued a statement opposing further United States intervention into the Syrian Civil War. Ten days later, the party issued a follow-up statement opposing both the Khan Shaykhun chemical attack and United States' subsequent missile strike. In May 2017, the party condemned the Manchester Arena bombing and stood \"against any attempt to turn this tragedy into political capital to further right-wing agendas and target oppressed communities\".", "Socialist Party candidates, such as New Jersey gubernatorial and senate candidate Greg Pason, have also emphasized immediate public service demands—these reforms include socializing the United States health care system, a steeply graduated income tax, universal rent control and the elimination of all educational debts and tuition fees. In 1997, Pason called auto insurance \"a regressive tax against working people\". Moore was also vocal of his support for public healthcare and socialized medicine. Moore believes that capitalism is a system based on both exploitation and selfishness, which operates to serve the interests of corporations and the ruling class at the expense of workers and the poor. During his presidential campaign, he claimed that the lack of available remedy to collapsing economic conditions stems from the capitalist system's foundation upon \"greed\" and advocated its replacement with a new system founded upon economic democracy through social ownership and workers' control of our reigning industrial and financial institutions.", ", the Socialist Party had twenty four chartered locals and five chartered state parties.", "† In each line the first note refers to candidates and results, the second (if any) to ballot access<br>(the number of state + D.C. ballots, out of 51, on which the Socialist Party candidates appeared)<br> ‡ Endorsed the Citizens Party's candidates in 1984." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Principles of operation of torque power (absorbing) dynamometers.", "Constant force.", "Constant speed.", "Detailed dynamometer description.", "Types of dynamometers.", "Eddy current type absorber.", "Powder dynamometer.", "Hysteresis dynamometers.", "Electric motor/generator dynamometer.", "Fan brake.", "Force lubricated oil shear brake.", "Hydraulic brake.", "Water brake-type absorber.", "Compound dynamometers.", "How dynamometers are used for engine testing.", "Types of dynamometer systems.", "Types of dynamometer test procedures.", "Types of sweep tests.", "Transient test characteristics.", "Engine dynamometer.", "Chassis dynamometer (rolling road).", "History." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "An absorbing dynamometer acts as a load that is driven by the prime mover that is under test (e.g. Pelton wheel). The dynamometer must be able to operate at any speed and load to any level of torque that the test requires. Absorbing dynamometers are not to be confused with \"inertia\" dynamometers, which calculate power solely by measuring power required to accelerate a known mass drive roller and provide no variable load to the prime mover. An absorption dynamometer is usually equipped with some means of measuring the operating torque and speed. The power absorption unit (PAU) of a dynamometer absorbs the power developed by the prime mover. This power absorbed by the dynamometer is then converted into heat, which generally dissipates into the ambient air or transfers to cooling water that dissipates into the air. Regenerative dynamometers, in which the prime mover drives a DC motor as a generator to create load, make excess DC power and potentially - using a DC/AC inverter - can feed AC power back into the commercial electrical power grid. Absorption dynamometers can be equipped with two types of control systems to provide different main test types.", "The dynamometer has a \"braking\" torque regulator - the power absorption unit is configured to provide a set braking force torque load, while the prime mover is configured to operate at whatever throttle opening, fuel delivery rate, or any other variable it is desired to test. The prime mover is then allowed to accelerate the engine through the desired speed or RPM range. Constant force test routines require the PAU to be set slightly torque deficient as referenced to prime mover output to allow some rate of acceleration. Power is calculated based on rotational speed x torque x constant. The constant varies depending on the units used.", "If the dynamometer has a speed regulator (human or computer), the PAU provides a variable amount of braking force (torque) that is necessary to cause the prime mover to operate at the desired single test speed or RPM. The PAU braking load applied to the prime mover can be manually controlled or determined by a computer. Most systems employ eddy current, oil hydraulic, or DC motor produced loads because of their linear and quick load change abilities. Power is calculated based on rotational speed x torque x constant, with the constant varying with the output unit desired and the input units used. A \"motoring dynamometer\" acts as a motor that drives the equipment under test. It must be able to drive the equipment at any speed and develop any level of torque that the test requires. In common usage, AC or DC motors are used to drive the equipment or \"load\" device. In most dynamometers power (\"P\") is not measured directly, but must be calculated from torque (\"τ\") and angular velocity (\"ω\") values or force (\"F\") and linear velocity (\"v\"): Division by a conversion constant may be required, depending on the units of measure used. For imperial units, For metric units,", "A dynamometer consists of an absorption (or absorber/driver) unit, and usually includes a means for measuring torque and rotational speed. An absorption unit consists of some type of rotor in a housing. The rotor is coupled to the engine or other equipment under test and is free to rotate at whatever speed is required for the test. Some means is provided to develop a braking torque between the rotor and housing of the dynamometer. The means for developing torque can be frictional, hydraulic, electromagnetic, or otherwise, according to the type of absorption/driver unit. One means for measuring torque is to mount the dynamometer housing so that it is free to turn except as restrained by a torque arm. The housing can be made free to rotate by using trunnions connected to each end of the housing to support it in pedestal-mounted trunnion bearings. The torque arm is connected to the dyno housing and a weighing scale is positioned so that it measures the force exerted by the dyno housing in attempting to rotate. The torque is the force indicated by the scales multiplied by the length of the torque arm measured from the center of the dynamometer. A load cell transducer can be substituted for the scales in order to provide an electrical signal that is proportional to torque. Another means to measure torque is to connect the engine to the dynamo through a torque sensing coupling or torque transducer. A torque transducer provides an electrical signal that is proportional to the torque. With electrical absorption units, it is possible to determine torque by measuring the current drawn (or generated) by the absorber/driver. This is generally a less accurate method and not much practiced in modern times, but it may be adequate for some purposes. When torque and speed signals are available, test data can be transmitted to a data acquisition system rather than being recorded manually. Speed and torque signals can also be recorded by a chart recorder or plotter.", "In addition to classification as absorption, motoring, or universal, as described above, dynamometers can also be classified in other ways. A dyno that is coupled directly to an engine is known as an \"engine dyno\". A dyno that can measure torque and power delivered by the power train of a vehicle directly from the drive wheel or wheels without removing the engine from the frame of the vehicle), is known as a \"chassis dyno\". Dynamometers can also be classified by the type of absorption unit or absorber/driver that they use. Some units that are capable of absorption only can be combined with a motor to construct an absorber/driver or \"universal\" dynamometer.", "Eddy current (EC) dynamometers are currently the most common absorbers used in modern chassis dynos. The EC absorbers provide a quick load change rate for rapid load settling. Most are air cooled, but some are designed to require external water cooling systems. Eddy current dynamometers require an electrically conductive core, shaft, or disc moving across a magnetic field to produce resistance to movement. Iron is a common material, but copper, aluminum, and other conductive materials are also usable. In current (2009) applications, most EC brakes use cast iron discs similar to vehicle disc brake rotors, and use variable electromagnets to change the magnetic field strength to control the amount of braking. The electromagnet voltage is usually controlled by a computer, using changes in the magnetic field to match the power output being applied. Sophisticated EC systems allow steady state and controlled acceleration rate operation.", "A powder dynamometer is similar to an eddy current dynamometer, but a fine magnetic powder is placed in the air gap between the rotor and the coil. The resulting flux lines create \"chains\" of metal particulate that are constantly built and broken apart during rotation, creating great torque. Powder dynamometers are typically limited to lower RPM due to heat dissipation problems.", "Hysteresis dynamometers use a magnetic rotor, sometimes of AlNiCo alloy, that is moved through flux lines generated between magnetic pole pieces. The magnetisation of the rotor is thus cycled around its B-H characteristic, dissipating energy proportional to the area between the lines of that graph as it does so. Unlike eddy current brakes, which develop no torque at standstill, the hysteresis brake develops largely constant torque, proportional to its magnetising current (or magnet strength in the case of permanent magnet units) over its entire speed range. Units often incorporate ventilation slots, though some have provision for forced air cooling from an external supply. Hysteresis and Eddy Current dynamometers are two of the most useful technologies in small ( and less) dynamometers.", "Electric motor/generator dynamometers are a specialized type of adjustable-speed drive. The absorption/driver unit can be either an alternating current (AC) motor or a direct current (DC) motor. Either an AC motor or a DC motor can operate as a generator that is driven by the unit under test or a motor that drives the unit under test. When equipped with appropriate control units, electric motor/generator dynamometers can be configured as universal dynamometers. The control unit for an AC motor is a variable-frequency drive, while the control unit for a DC motor is a DC drive. In both cases, regenerative control units can transfer power from the unit under test to the electric utility. Where permitted, the operator of the dynamometer can receive payment (or credit) from the utility for the returned power via net metering. In engine testing, universal dynamometers can not only absorb the power of the engine, but can also drive the engine for measuring friction, pumping losses, and other factors. Electric motor/generator dynamometers are generally more costly and complex than other types of dynamometers.", "A fan is used to blow air to provide engine load. The torque absorbed by a fan brake may be adjusted by changing the gearing or the fan itself, or by restricting the airflow through the fan. Due to the low viscosity of air, this variety of dynamometer is inherently limited in the amount of torque that it can absorb.", "An oil shear brake has a series of friction discs and steel plates similar to the clutches in an automobile automatic transmission. The shaft carrying the friction discs is attached to the load through a coupling. A piston pushes the stack of friction discs and steel plates together creating shear in the oil between the discs and plates applying a torque. Torque control can be pneumatic or hydraulic. Force lubrication maintains a film of oil between the surfaces to eliminate wear. Reaction is smooth to zero RPM without stick-slip. Loads up to hundreds of thermal horsepower can be absorbed through the required force lubrication and cooling unit. Most often, the brake is kinetically grounded through a torque arm anchored by a strain gauge which produces a current under load fed to the dynamometer control. Proportional or servo control valves are generally used to allow the dynamometer control to apply pressure to provide the program torque load with feedback from the strain gauge closing the loop. As torque requirements go up there are speed limitations.", "The hydraulic brake system consists of a hydraulic pump (usually a gear-type pump), a fluid reservoir, and piping between the two parts. Inserted in the piping is an adjustable valve, and between the pump and the valve is a gauge or other means of measuring hydraulic pressure. In simplest terms, the engine is brought up to the desired RPM and the valve is incrementally closed. As the pumps outlet is restricted, the load increases and the throttle is simply opened until at the desired throttle opening. Unlike most other systems, power is calculated by factoring flow volume (calculated from pump design specifications), hydraulic pressure, and RPM. Brake HP, whether figured with pressure, volume, and RPM, or with a different load cell-type brake dyno, should produce essentially identical power figures. Hydraulic dynos are renowned for having the quickest load change ability, just slightly surpassing eddy current absorbers. The downside is that they require large quantities of hot oil under high pressure and an oil reservoir.", "The water brake absorber is sometimes mistakenly called a \"hydraulic dynamometer\". Invented by British engineer William Froude in 1877 in response to a request by the Admiralty to produce a machine capable of absorbing and measuring the power of large naval engines, water brake absorbers are relatively common today. They are noted for their high power capability, small size, light weight, and relatively low manufacturing costs as compared to other, quicker reacting, \"power absorber\" types. Their drawbacks are that they can take a relatively long period of time to \"stabilize\" their load amount, and that they require a constant supply of water to the \"water brake housing\" for cooling. In many parts of the country, environmental regulations now prohibit \"flow through\" water, and so large water tanks must be installed to prevent contaminated water from entering the environment. The schematic shows the most common type of water brake, known as the \"variable level\" type. Water is added until the engine is held at a steady RPM against the load, with the water then kept at that level and replaced by constant draining and refilling (which is needed to carry away the heat created by absorbing the horsepower). The housing attempts to rotate in response to the torque produced, but is restrained by the scale or torque metering cell that measures the torque.", "In most cases, motoring dynamometers are symmetrical; a 300 kW AC dynamometer can absorb 300 kW as well as motor at 300 kW. This is an uncommon requirement in engine testing and development. Sometimes, a more cost-effective solution is to attach a larger absorption dynamometer with a smaller motoring dynamometer. Alternatively, a larger absorption dynamometer and a simple AC or DC motor may be used in a similar manner, with the electric motor only providing motoring power when required (and no absorption). The (cheaper) absorption dynamometer is sized for the maximum required absorption, whereas the motoring dynamometer is sized for motoring. A typical size ratio for common emission test cycles and most engine development is approximately 3:1. Torque measurement is somewhat complicated since there are two machines in tandem - an inline torque transducer is the preferred method of torque measurement in this case. An eddy-current or waterbrake dynamometer, with electronic control combined with a variable frequency drive and AC induction motor, is a commonly used configuration of this type. Disadvantages include requiring a second set of test cell services (electrical power and cooling), and a slightly more complicated control system. Attention must be paid to the transition between motoring and braking in terms of control stability.", "Dynamometers are useful in the development and refinement of modern engine technology. The concept is to use a dyno to measure and compare power transfer at different points on a vehicle, thus allowing the engine or drivetrain to be modified to get more efficient power transfer. For example, if an engine dyno shows that a particular engine achieves of torque, and a chassis dynamo shows only, one would know that the drivetrain losses are nominal. Dynamometers are typically very expensive pieces of equipment, and so are normally used only in certain fields that rely on them for a particular purpose.", "A 'brake' dynamometer applies variable load on the prime mover (PM) and measures the PM's ability to move or hold the RPM as related to the \"braking force\" applied. It is usually connected to a computer that records applied braking torque and calculates engine power output based on information from a \"load cell\" or \"strain gauge\" and a speed sensor. An 'inertia' dynamometer provides a fixed inertial mass load, calculates the power required to accelerate that fixed and known mass, and uses a computer to record RPM and acceleration rate to calculate torque. The engine is generally tested from somewhat above idle to its maximum RPM and the output is measured and plotted on a graph. A'motoring' dynamometer provides the features of a brake dyno system, but in addition, can \"power\" (usually with an AC or DC motor) the PM and allow testing of very small power outputs (for example, duplicating speeds and loads that are experienced when operating a vehicle traveling downhill or during on/off throttle operations).", "There are essentially 3 types of dynamometer test procedures:", "In every type of sweep test, there remains the issue of potential power reading error due to the variable engine/dyno/vehicle total rotating mass. Many modern computer-controlled brake dyno systems are capable of deriving that \"inertial mass\" value, so as to eliminate this error. A \"sweep test\" will almost always be suspect, as many \"sweep\" users ignore the rotating mass factor, preferring to use a blanket \"factor\" on every test on every engine or vehicle. Simple inertia dyno systems aren't capable of deriving \"inertial mass\", and thus are forced to use the same (assumed) inertial mass on every vehicle tested. Using steady state testing eliminates the rotating inertial mass error of a sweep test, as there is no acceleration during this type of test.", "Aggressive throttle movements, engine speed changes, and engine motoring are characteristics of most transient engine tests. The usual purpose of these tests are vehicle emissions development and homologation. In some cases, the lower-cost eddy-current dynamometer is used to test one of the transient test cycles for early development and calibration. An eddy current dyno system offers fast load response, which allows rapid tracking of speed and load, but does not allow motoring. Since most required transient tests contain a significant amount of motoring operation, a transient test cycle with an eddy-current dyno will generate different emissions test results. Final adjustments are required to be done on a motoring-capable dyno.", "An engine dynamometer measures power and torque directly from the engine's crankshaft (or flywheel), when the engine is removed from the vehicle. These dynos do not account for power losses in the drivetrain, such as the gearbox, transmission, and differential.", "A chassis dynamometer, sometimes referred to as a rolling road, measures power delivered to the surface of the \"drive roller\" by the drive wheels. The vehicle is often strapped down on the roller or rollers, which the car then turns, and the output measured thereby. Modern roller-type chassis dyno systems use the \"Salvisberg roller\", which improves traction and repeatability, as compared to the use of smooth or knurled drive rollers. Chassis dynamometers can be fixed or portable, and can do much more than display RPM, power, and torque. With modern electronics and quick reacting, low inertia dyno systems, it is now possible to tune to best power and the smoothest runs in real time. Other types of chassis dynamometers are available that eliminate the potential for wheel slippage on old style drive rollers, attaching directly to the vehicle's hubs for direct torque measurement from the axle. Motor vehicle emissions development and homologation dynamometer test systems often integrate emissions sampling, measurement, engine speed and load control, data acquisition, and safety monitoring into a complete test cell system. These test systems usually include complex emissions sampling equipment (such as constant volume samplers and raw exhaust gas sample preparation systems) and analyzers. These analyzers are much more sensitive and much faster than a typical portable exhaust gas analyzer. Response times of well under one second are common, and are required by many transient test cycles. In retail settings it is also common to tune the air-fuel ratio using a wideband oxygen sensor that is graphed along with the RPM. Integration of the dynamometer control system with automatic calibration tools for engine system calibration is often found in development test cell systems. In these systems, the dynamometer load and engine speed are varied to many engine operating points, while selected engine management parameters are varied and the results recorded automatically. Later analysis of this data may then be used to generate engine calibration data used by the engine management software. Because of frictional and mechanical losses in the various drivetrain components, the measured wheel brake horsepower is generally 15-20 percent less than the brake horsepower measured at the crankshaft or flywheel on an engine dynamometer.", "The Graham-Desaguliers Dynamometer was invented by George Graham and mentioned in the writings of John Desagulier in 1719. Desaguliers modified the first dynamometers, and so the instrument became known as the Graham-Desaguliers dynamometer. The Regnier dynamometer was invented and made public in 1798 by Edmé Régnier, a French rifle maker and engineer. A patent was issued (dated June 1817) to Siebe and Marriot of Fleet Street, London for an improved weighing machine. Gaspard de Prony invented the de Prony brake in 1821. Macneill's road indicator was invented by John Macneill in the late 1820s, further developing Marriot's patented weighing machine. Froude Ltd, of Worcester, UK, manufactures engine and vehicle dynamometers. They credit William Froude with the invention of the hydraulic dynamometer in 1877, and say that the first commercial dynamometers were produced in 1881 by their predecessor company, Heenan & Froude. In 1928, the German company \"\"Carl Schenck Eisengießerei & Waagenfabrik\"\" built the first vehicle dynamometers for brake tests that have the basic design of modern vehicle test stands. The eddy current dynamometer was invented by Martin and Anthony Winther around 1931, but at that time, DC Motor/generator dynamometers had been in use for many years. A company founded by the Winthers brothers, Dynamatic Corporation, manufactured dynamometers in Kenosha, Wisconsin until 2002. Dynamatic was part of Eaton Corporation from 1946 to 1995. In 2002, Dyne Systems of Jackson, Wisconsin acquired the Dynamatic dynamometer product line. Starting in 1938, Heenan & Froude manufactured eddy current dynamometers for many years under license from Dynamatic and Eaton." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Story.", "Synopsis (original 1996 version).", "Act 1.", "Performances.", "\"Feet of Flames\".", "2010 Return of Michael Flatley Reunion tour.", "Lead dancers.", "2010 Return of Michael Flatley tour.", "Musical numbers.", "Tour dates." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Michael Flatley found his first fame starring in \"Riverdance\", but he left the show in late 1995 due to conflicts over creative control. He dreamed of, and put into action, a plan of putting together a dance show capable of playing in arenas and stadiums instead of traditional theatres. Later on, Flatley soon began thinking of rhythm patterns and steps for an \"a cappella\" number. This number would later become \"Planet Ireland\", the show's finale. The show took six months to bring it from conception to the stage. Auditions were held in the SFX City Theatre in Dublin.", "The story follows the character \"Lord of the Dance\" and his fight against the evil dark lord \"Don Dorcha\" from taking over Planet Ireland. The \"Lord of the Dance\" defeats the dark lord's invasion with help from a little spirit. There is also a story with a \"love vs lust\" theme expressed through dance throughout the show. \"Saoirse, the Irish Cailín\" fights for the love of the \"Lord of the Dance\" against the wicked \"Morrighan, the Temptress\". The stories are based on ancient Irish folklore and some Biblical references; the title itself, along with the central musical theme, is taken from a contemporary hymn.", "", "The first act begins with the number \"Cry of the Celts\". A female troupe sleeps in a semicircle with a girl dressed in gold, known as \"Little Spirit\" while winds accompany the scene. Seconds later, masked figures cloaked in black and bearing torches arrive and stand as statues while ambient new age music plays. Later, the Little Spirit rises from her sleep and plays the show's theme song on a tin whistle in a somber but delightful rendition. She then awakens the troupe with magical dust. The Little Spirit leaves with the cloaked figures as the female troupe makes their first dance. Drum beats fill in and the show's main eponymous character, known as \"Lord of the Dance\" appears and dances before an elated crowd before being accompanied by the entire dance troupe. After a song by \"Erin the Goddess\" (\"Suil A Ruin\"), the Little Spirit activates a mechanical musical doll which then dances with the female troupe led by the lead female protagonist Saoirse (\"Celtic Dream\"). A terrifying performance of \"Warriors\" with suspenseful music follows, with dark lord Don Dorcha doing an introductory dance before being followed by his troupe. At the end of Warriors, the Little Spirit plays a trick on one of them. Morrighan the Temptress makes her introduction soon after (\"Gypsy\"). \"Strings of Fire\" kicks in with two female fiddlers. Later Saoirse leads the female troupe in fighting Morrighan and later changes to black inner clothing after a fight with the temptress (\"Breakout\"). They are then greeted by the Lord of the Dance himself and his troupe, who then dances into an a'capella number (\"Warlords\"). Another song by Erin the Goddess follows (\"Gaelic Song\") The eponymous number of the show (\"Lord of the Dance\") begins with a two pairs of males accompanying a pair of females in an introductory dance before the eponymous character dances to the shows' upbeat theme. The number ends with the title character being joined by his troupe.", "\"Lord of the Dance\" had preview shows at the Point Theatre in Dublin from 28 June to 1 July 1996. The show staged a premiere performance on 27 June 1996 – the video was filmed on 2 July 1996. In March 1997, \"Lord of the Dance\" was performed at the Oscars. That November, \"Lord of the Dance\" expanded operations by forming several troupes of dancers which would tour North America and Europe. Flatley signed a contract with Disney for \"Lord of the Dance\" to perform at Epcot in Walt Disney World in the summer of 1999 and \"Lord of the Dance\" was asked back the following summer in 2000. Troupe 4 performed at the Disneyland Paris Resort in 2002 and 2003. There are currently two troupes of \"Lord of the Dance\" productions touring the world: Troupe 1, currently touring throughout Europe and Asia and Troupe 2, touring US and Canada including Europe too.", "After two years of touring, Flatley created \"Feet of Flames\", an expanded version of the show. The first Feet of Flames concert which premiered on July 25 that year, was made as a one-off performance of \"Lord of the Dance\". While closely resembling the original show, \"Feet of Flames\" merged two troupes of the original show, totaling almost 100, and also adds an all-male choir and a live band. The show's stage, measuring wide, borrowed set designs from the original \"Lord of the Dance\" but adds multiple levels for the finale. The show was held before 25,000 people in London's Hyde Park. The special feature was a dance solo by Flatley without music. It was supposed to be the last time Flatley danced live on stage, but a different version of the show would later go on tour in 2000–01 (only one troupe appeared on this tour). The Hyde Park show marked the last time Michael Flatley danced in \"Lord of the Dance\", he would go on to do the \"Feet of Flames\" World Tour, and after that, \"Celtic Tiger\". The Lord of the Dance 10th Anniversary Party was held in June 2006.", "Flatley's return to performance in Feet of Flames Taipei in 2009 marked the first step to his return in the show. In April 2010, he announced that he would be returning to headline the Lord of the Dance show, with performances in Dublin's The O, Belfast's Odyssey Arena, London's O arena, Sheffield's Sheffield Arena, Manchester's MEN Arena, Birmingham's LG Arena, Nottingham's Trent FM Arena, Liverpool's Echo Arena, London's Wembley Arena, Newcastle's Metro Radio Arena in November 2010, with dates also announced in Germany, Switzerland & Austria, the first time he will have done so since 1998. A DVD and Blu-ray disc of the film was released entitled \"Michael Flatley Returns as Lord of the Dance\" on 28 June 2011 in US and Canada, and 4 August in Australia, 12 September 2011 in the UK and October in Germany, France, Benelux and Scandinavia. The 3D version of the film was released only in Blu-ray in late 2011. The film shows the performances from the O2 Arenas of London, Dublin, and Berlin.", "Over the years, along with several troupes, the lead dancers have changed.", "These cast members were on Flatley's return tour throughout Europe and are on the 3D film which was later released on DVD and Blu-ray. Bernadette Flynn toured with the show until 2011. Gillian Norris left the show in early 2008. Daire Nolan left the show shortly after its first run in Epcot in 1999. Mairead Nesbitt moved to Celtic band Celtic Woman. Cora Smyth toured with Flatley in \"Celtic Tiger\" until he cancelled the concert due to a viral infection. Anne Buckley left the show in 2001 and has made her own solo album.", "Act 1: Act 2", "Michael Flatley starred in the show from 1996 to early 1998 before going on to \"Feet of Flames\". This incomplete list includes Troupes 1, 2, 3, and 4. 1996 – with Michael Flatley 28 June to 30 December: Ireland premiere, United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand 1997 – with Michael Flatley 3 January to 27 November: United Kingdom, United States, Canada, Australia 1998 11 January to 10 December: England, Germany, Sweden, Finland, Denmark, Belgium, the Netherlands, South Africa, Ireland, Wales, Scotland, Austria, France, Norway. 1999 9 January to 19 December: Israel, Germany, England, Italy, Switzerland, Spain, the Netherlands, Austria, France, Portugal. 2000 26 January to 16 December: Japan, South Africa, France, United States, Germany, Argentina. 2001 21 January to 22 December: Germany, France, Austria, Croatia, Slovenia, Switzerland, Hungary, Bulgaria, Romania, Slovakia, England, the Netherlands, Japan, Russia, Estonia, Belgium. 2002 16 February to 31 December: France, Switzerland, Austria, Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium, Lebanon, England, Finland, Russia, Ukraine, 2003 1 January to 16 December: France, Portugal, Switzerland, Germany, Czech Republic, Hungary, the Netherlands, Belgium, England, Russia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia, Austria, Italy, Slovenia, Spain, 2004 13 January to 19 December: Taiwan, United Arab Emirates, Germany, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Ukraine, Serbia and Montenegro, Croatia, Switzerland, France, Greece, Czech Republic, South Africa, Israel, China. 2005 12 January to 31 December: Denmark, Sweden, Germany, Luxembourg, Portugal, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Austria, Switzerland, Macedonia, England, 2006 1 January to 26 June: England, Chile 2007 Troupe One – 1 March to 22 December: Poland, United Kingdom, Austria, Switzerland, Luxembourg, Belgium, France, Norway, Finland, Sweden, Denmark, Germany, Greece 2010 – Tour with Michael Flatley – UK, Ireland, Germany, Switzerland, and Austria 2015 – \"Lord of the Dance: Dangerous Games\" had temporary shows at the Playhouse Theatre, London and at the Lyric Theatre, Broadway and two touring casts elsewhere at the same time – one was in Sydney, Australia and also in Auckland, New Zealand, the others were spread across Europe. The European tour included countries such as Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary, Slovakia, Czech Republic, Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Luxembourg, Belgium, and Poland." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name.", "Buildings around the square.", "Grassalkovich Palace.", "Astoria Palace.", "Tatracentrum.", "Former hotel forum.", "Future construction.", "Access." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The square is currently named after a Slovak priest and politician Michal Miloslav Hodža. During communist era the square was called \"Mierové námestie\".", "", "The building is a Rococo/late Baroque summer palace with a French garden. It was built in 1760 for Count Antal Grassalkovich, a Hungarian noble serving as the head of the Hungarian Chamber (a sort of ministry of economy and finance for the Kingdom of Hungary), by architect Anton Mayerhofer. It features many beautiful rooms and an impressive staircase. The building became a center of Baroque musical life in Pozsony (Pressburg) and an important part of social life in the city as well. During the 1939–1945 period, the palace was the seat of the clero-fascist president of the First Slovak Republic Jozef Tiso. During the Communist era, it was first (after 1945) the seat of the Council of Commissioners, then in 1950, the building was turned into the \"Klement Gottwald House of Pioneers and Youth\" (Dom pionierov a mládeže Klementa Gottwalda), which was an activity center for Bratislava's schoolchildren called pioneers at that time. After its reconstruction in the early 1990s, on 30 September 1996 the palace became the residence of Slovakia's president. Its once-large gardens are now a public park.", "Astoria Palace has 7 floors above ground and it includes mostly administrative (office) space, its main tenant being Ernst & Young. It includes a public pedestrian path on the ground floor connecting Palisády Street with Panenská Street with Staromestská Street and it also contains a heavily used public transport bus stop and entrance into the pedestrian underpass below Hodžovo Square. The structure was planned since 1993 and its construction was delayed several times. The building had to include the entrance to the underpass under the square and coincide with its renovation. The building's investor was \"I.P.R. Slovakia\", a Slovak-Cypriot company. Construction started in October 2004, when traffic restrictions took place in the form of blocking the rightmost driving lane at the square (coming from Štefánikova Street), blocking the major busy street for an astonishing 3 years, until August 2007. The building was completed in 2008, but without finishing the pedestrian underpass. Reconstruction of the underpass was carried out by the \"Astoria Passage\" company, a sister company of the Astoria Palace building investor, to which the underpass was rented out for 10 years. After the long delayed opening of the underpass, it was found out that the escalator was making loud noises. Moreover, the underpass remained much the same as when built under socialist realism, with one exception being a significant reduction of space to make more room for small shops. This also meant that there was still no escalator leading to the Presidential Palace and the whole underpass remained off limits to the handicapped, although special platform elevators for the handicapped have later been installed in November 2009. In place of the building, there was formerly the square itself, meaning mostly empty space consisting of a busy bus stop. In the upper part of the space, there was the entrance to the pedestrian underpass and air conditioning vents blowing hot air in the winter, allowing for people to get some warmth when waiting for their evening or night buses. The area also contained benches to sit while waiting for the bus and constituted a logical ending of the square from its side. Because of this structure, the bus stop shrunk several times and it is now prone to draft, as cold wind sometimes blows through the narrow passages of the Astoria Palace ground floor.", "Project by Ľubomír Závodný, Matej Siebert, Radomil Kachlík, Peter Vavrica in 1999–2001 Construction started in November 1999 and finished in December 2001. Total occupied space is 3647 meters squared. The building has 8 floors above ground and it includes 343 parking spaces (127 restricted and 216 accessible to the public). The building serves as the headquarters of Slovak bank Tatra banka. The ground floor includes a small shopping gallery and a supermarket, the first underground floor features cafes and restaurants. After its construction, the building is considered to have changed the square drastically. Even years after its construction, when all of the space around the square has been used, the Tatracentrum building dominates the Hodžovo Square. The structure's aesthetics is also considered unpleasant and unsuited for its location in the historical center of Bratislava. Consequently, the building is hated by many inhabitants of the Slovak capital. Upper floors of the building offer unique views of the square, but except for the ground floor and underground floors, the building is inaccessible to the public.", "This post-modern hotel building was finished in 1989. The project is by Julián Hauskrecht and others (Boris Džadoň, Štefan Ďurkovič, Juraj Herman, Dušan Krepop, Ján Poláček, Pavol Suchánek) with additional input into the interior design by Alain Marcot and Slobodanka Dragovičová. The building is U shaped, its main entrance is situated towards the square, the hotel parter is facing Poštová Street and a small square (forum) is facing Obchodná Street. In 2004, the building was sold by the Slovak republic to the Dutch company \"Myria Assets\" for 425 million Slovak crowns. Today, the hotel is called \"Crowne Plaza\".", "After the building of Astoria Palace, the last place on the square where a structure can be placed is the trolleybus stop next to Tatracentrum, more specifically its extension over the pedestrian underpass mouth towards Poštová Street. Since its construction, the space contained benches to sit while waiting for a trolleybus and some greenery. Except for additional sitting space, it was used by citizens of Bratislava to disperse a little bit at an often crowded public transport stop and it allowed for pleasant views over the busy Poštová Street. In 2006 a company named Alto Invest was supposed to start construction here. The Old Town construction office postponed the construction permission until December 31, 2011. Plans were changed several times. Currently, the building should have 3 floors. The whole area was fenced and access was prohibited to the public since mid-2010. However, the construction has not started yet. Despite running out of space around the square, head architect of Bratislava Štefan Šlachta is the proponent of another building placed directly inside the small square at the place of trolleybus stop opposite Tatracentrum. The building should be a little smaller than Grassalkovich Palace. There are no current plans to construct this building.", "The square serves as an important public transport hub in Bratislava. Both buses, night buses and trolleybuses stop here." ] }

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{ "title": [ "The Ross Perot movement.", "Ross Perot's 1992 presidential election campaign.", "Foundation and rise of the party.", "Apex: 1996 presidential election.", "Nomination campaign.", "Exclusion from the debates.", "Plateau and decline.", "1997.", "American Reform Party.", "Mid-term elections of 1998.", "2000 presidential election.", "2004 presidential election.", "Collapse.", "Activities of the party in 2005.", "2006 candidates.", "2008 National Convention.", "2009 legal action.", "2010.", "2012 presidential election.", "2016 presidential election.", "2020 presidential election.", "Platform.", "Active state affiliates." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The party grew out of Ross Perot's efforts in the 1992 presidential election, where—running as an independent—he became the first non-major party candidate since 1912 to have been considered viable enough to win the presidency. Perot received attention for focusing on fiscal issues such as the federal deficit and national debt; government reform issues such as term limits, campaign finance reform, and lobbying reform; and issues on trade. A large part of his following was grounded in the belief he was addressing vital problems largely ignored by the two major parties. A Gallup poll showed Perot with a slim lead, but on July 19 he suspended his campaign, accusing Republican operatives of threatening to sabotage his daughter's wedding. He was accused by \"Newsweek\" of being a \"quitter\" in a well-publicized cover-page article. After resuming his campaign on October 1, Perot was dogged by the \"quitter\" moniker and other allegations concerning his character. On Election Day many voters were confused as to whether Perot was actually still a candidate. He ended up receiving about 18.9 percent of the popular vote, a record level of popularity not seen in an independent candidacy since former President Theodore Roosevelt ran on the \"Bull Moose\" Progressive Party ticket in 1912. He continued being politically involved after the election, turning his campaign organization (United We Stand America) into a lobbying group. One of his primary goals was the defeat of the North American Free Trade Agreement during this period.", "In 1995, Republicans took control of the House of Representatives, largely on the strength of the \"Contract with America\", which recognized and promised to deal with many of the issues Perot's voters had mobilized to support in 1992. However, two of the major provisions (Constitutional amendments for term limits and the balanced budgets) failed to secure the two-thirds congressional majorities required to be submitted to the states. Dissatisfied, the grassroots organizations that had made Perot's 1992 candidacy possible began to band together to found a third party intended to rival the Republicans and Democrats. For legal reasons, the party ended up being called the \"Reform Party\" (\"Independent Party\" was preferred, but already taken, as were several variants on the name). A drive to get the party on the ballot in all fifty states succeeded, although it ended with lawsuits in some regions overstate ballot access requirements. In a few areas, minor parties became incorporated as state party organizations.", "", "At first, when the 1996 election season arrived, Perot held off from entering the contest for the Reform Party's presidential nomination, calling for others to try for the ticket. The only person who announced such an intention was Dick Lamm, former Governor of Colorado. After the Federal Election Commission indicated only Perot and not Lamm would be able to secure federal matching funds—because his 1992 campaign was as an independent—Perot entered the race. Some were upset that Perot changed his mind because, in their view, Perot overshadowed Lamm's run for the party nomination. This built up to the beginning of a splinter within the movement, when it was alleged certain problems in the primary process—such as many Lamm supporters not receiving ballots, and some primary voters receiving multiple ballots—were Perot's doing. The Reform Party claimed these problems stemmed from the petition process for getting the Reform Party on the ballot in all of the states since the party claimed they used the names and addresses of petition signers as the basis of who received ballots. Primary ballots were sent by mail to designated voters. Eventually, Perot was nominated and he chose economist Pat Choate as his vice-presidential candidate.", "Between 1992 and 1996, the Commission on Presidential Debates changed its rules regarding how candidates could qualify to participate in the presidential debates. As Perot had previously done very well in debates, it was a decisive blow to the campaign when the Commission ruled that he could not participate on the basis of somewhat vague criteria — such as that a candidate was required to have already been endorsed by \"a substantial number of major news organizations,\" with \"substantial\" being a number to be decided by the Commission on a case-by-case basis. Perot could not have qualified for the debates in 1992 under these rules, and was able to show that various famous U.S. presidents would likewise have been excluded from the modern debate by the Commission on Presidential Debates. Despite legal action by the Perot team, and an 80 percent majority of Americans supporting his participation in the debates, the Commission refused to budge and Perot was reduced to making his points heard via a series of half-hour \"commercials\". In the end, Perot and Choate won 8 percent of the vote.", "", "By October 1997, factional disputes began to emerge with the departure of a group that believed Perot had rigged the 1996 party primary to defeat Lamm. These individuals eventually established the \"American Reform Party\" (ARP). The ARP is actually a minor political action committee. Then chairman, Roy Downing, said the split came about when it was \"...discovered [that the Reform Party] was a top-down party instead of a bottom-up organization.\" Although members of the group attempted to persuade former Colorado Governor Dick Lamm – Perot's chief rival for the nomination – to run for president as an Independent, he declined, pointing out that he had promised before running that he would not challenge the party's decision. During this time, Perot himself chose to concentrate on lobbying efforts through United We Stand America.", "When the ARP was founded, Jackie Salit noted in the \"Christian Science Monitor\": \"At its founding meeting in Kansas City in 1997, the 40 black delegates in the room, led by the country’s foremost African-American independent – Lenora Fulani – represented the first time in US history that African-Americans were present at the founding of a major national political party.\" The ARP has yet to organize in more than a few states. In the 2000, 2004, and 2008 elections, the American Reform Party supported Ralph Nader for president. The ARP is not a political party in the conventional sense. It does not have ballot access in any state, and it does not run candidates. It supports third-party candidates and independents who support the primary principals of the Party's platform. About 2010–2011, the party shifted from a relatively centrist platform to a Tea Party-style fiscal conservative one. In the 2012 presidential election, the ARP endorsed Republican Party nominee Mitt Romney against incumbent president Barack Obama. In the 2016 presidential election, the Party endorsed the Republican candidate Donald Trump.", "In 1998, the Reform Party received a boost when Jesse Ventura was elected Governor of Minnesota. According to the League of Women Voters, the Reform Party USA obtained more votes nationwide in 1998 than did any other third party in America (without those garnered by Ventura). Counting Ventura's performance, Reformers took in more votes than all other third parties in the United States combined, establishing the Reform Party as America's third-largest party.", "The Reform Party's presidential candidate for the 2000 election was due federal matching funds of $12.5 million, based on Perot's 8 percent showing in 1996. Early on, there was a failed effort to draft Ron Paul. Donald Trump entered the race briefly, giving television interviews outlining his platform. Trump was progressive on social issues, and supported allowing openly gay soldiers in the military, saying: \"it would not disturb me\". Trump considered himself a conservative, but criticized Pat Buchanan, saying: \"I'm on the conservative side, but Buchanan is Attila the Hun.\" He withdrew from the race citing the party's infighting, as did Jesse Ventura and the Minnesota Reform Party. Donald Trump stated: \"So the Reform Party now includes a Klansman, Mr. Duke, a neo-Nazi, Mr. Buchanan, and a communist, Ms. Fulani. This is not company I wish to keep.\" \"Mr. Duke\" was a reference to David Duke, a former leader of the Ku Klux Klan. Pat Buchanan decided to leave the Republican Party because: \"The Republican Party at the national level has ceased to be my party. This divorce began around the end of the Cold War when President (George) Bush declared it to be a New World-order party and began intervening all over the world. While he and I were allies and friends during the Cold War, I just felt that once the Cold War was over the United States should return to a more traditional non-intervention foreign policy.\" After a bitter fight, Pat Buchanan secured the Reform Party nomination over John Hagelin of the Natural Law Party. Hagelin and an anti-Buchanan faction walked out and held a separate convention across the street, where they nominated Hagelin as the party's candidate. The dispute went to the courts and the FEC decided that Buchanan was the legitimate nominee and awarded him $12.6 million in campaign funds. Buchanan's running mate was Ezola B. Foster. Buchanan got 449,225 votes, 0.4 percent of those voting, and the party lost its matching funds for 2004. In 2002, Buchanan returned to the Republican Party. Many of his campaign supporters also left the Reform Party to form the America First Party.", "By the October 2003 National Convention, the Reform Party had only begun rebuilding, but several former state organizations had elected to rejoin now that the interference from the Freedom Parties was gone. They increased their ranks from 24 to 30 states and managed to retrieve ballot access for seven of them. (Buchanan's poor showing in 2000 had lost ballot access for almost the entire party.) Because of organizational and financial problems in the party, it opted to support the independent campaign of Ralph Nader as the best option for an independent of any stripe that year. While the endorsement generated publicity for Nader and the Reform Party, the party was only able to provide Nader with seven ballot lines down from the 49 of 51 guaranteed ballot lines the party had going into the 2000 election.", "", "In 2005, a dispute arose: the number of National Committee members required under the party's by-laws to call meetings of the National Committee, and the Executive Committee did so. These members came from several states including Texas, Michigan, and Florida. At both meetings, it was determined that a national convention would be called and held in Tampa, Florida. The Chairman at the time and National Committee members from Arizona, California, and Oklahoma boycotted the National and Executive Committee meetings, claiming the meetings were illegitimate. As a result, those states held a second convention in Yuma, Arizona. In response to a suit filed by the group that met in Tampa, leaders of the Reform Party filed a Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act (RICO) complaint claiming the Tampa group were extremists and guilty of conspiracy.", "In 2006, the Reform Party nominated candidates in Arizona, and petitioned to regain ballot access in several other states where state Reform Party organizations were active. The Reform Party of Kansas nominated a slate of candidates, led by Iraq War veteran Richard Ranzau. In Colorado's 4th congressional district, \"fiscal conservative\" Eric Eidsness (a former assistant U.S. Environmental Protection Agency administrator and Navy veteran) ran on the Reform Party ticket. He received 11.28 percent of the vote, five times the winning candidate's margin of victory; he later switched his affiliation to the Democratic Party. The Florida Reform Party granted use of its ballot line for governor to Max Linn of Florida Citizens for Term Limits (a Republican-leaning organization) in the 2006 gubernatorial election. Linn retained professional campaign staff with connections to the Perot and Ventura campaigns, but received only 1.9 percent of the vote. As of March 2007, the Reform Party had ballot access for the 2008 presidential election in four states (Florida, Kansas, Louisiana, Mississippi) and had already started petitioning in an additional four.", "The Reform Party held its 2008 National Convention in Dallas, July 18–20. At the national convention, Ted Weill of Mississippi was nominated to be the party's 2008 presidential candidate. Frank McEnulty of California, the 2008 presidential candidate of the New American Independent Party, was nominated to be the party's 2008 vice-presidential candidate. David Collison of Texas was elected national chairman of the party. However, the party could not announce the results of the national convention on its web site until October because of a court order obtained by a dissident faction associated with the Independence Party of New York. Therefore, the Weill/McEnulty ticket appeared on the ballot only in Mississippi, in which it received 481 votes. An erroneous news report was broadcast by ABC News that stated the party had endorsed John McCain. Frank MacKay of the dissident Independence Party of New York faction had made the endorsement, not the Reform Party USA. Reform Party USA Reference David Collison, the Reform Party's chairman, said during a 2009 interview, \"Do you believe that any legitimate national party would endorse the Republican candidate for President rather than have a candidate of their own?\" The candidates for the nomination included:", "A long-standing feud in the party involved John Blare, of the Reform Party of California, and the Reform Party officers. On December 4, 2009, a New York Federal judge heard \"MacKay v Crews\" on the question of who are the legal Reform Party officers. On December 16, 2009 the judge ruled in favor of David Collison's faction. Collison said: \"After over two years of litigation in Texas and New York, it is my profound pleasure to announce that US District Court Judge Joseph Bianco of the Eastern District of New York has ruled in our favor, and has further reinforced the 2008 ruling of Judge Carl Ginsberg of the 193rd District Court in Texas.\"", "In January 2010, Central Intelligence Agency operations officer Charles S. Faddis announced his support of the party in \"The Baltimore Sun\": \"I have decided to throw in my lot with the Reform Party of the United States.\" Faddis later left the party, and ran in 2016 for Maryland's 5th congressional district as a Republican. In February 2010, former Reform Party Chairman Pat Choate emerged to discuss the appeal of the Tea Party movement, contrasting it with Ross Perot's party, saying: \"The difference with the Tea Party is it's been heavily pushed by a bunch of talk-show conservatives. You have the Republican Party attempting to use this as a means to pull independents or conservative independents to their policies, to their agenda.\" In February, Congressional candidates filed to run as Reform Party candidates in all four of Mississippi's congressional districts, but none for any statewide offices. Among these were Barbara Dale Washer, Tracella Lou O'Hara Hill, and Anna Jewel Revies. In April 2010, former U.S. Vice President Dan Quayle condemned the Reform Party on CBS, saying: \"Many remember the Reform Party of the 1990s, which formed around the candidacy of Ross Perot. I sure do, because it eliminated any chance that President George H.W. Bush and I would prevail over Bill Clinton and Al Gore in 1992. Speaking on behalf of the Bush-Quayle campaign, to this day we firmly believe that Perot cost the Republican Party the White House.\" Pat Choate in an April 28, 2010 interview with Monmouth University's student newspaper remained suspicious of the Tea Party movement, saying: \"At these [Tea Party] events, a professional Republican always speaks. What to me is questionable is that the Tea Parties endorse candidates, but never endorse Democrats—they seem to be a front for the Republican Party. We were seen as very serious. Perot gave millions, we fielded candidates, and we were a real threat to the status quo. The media treats the Tea Parties as a sign of dissatisfaction, and views them skeptically.\" Kristin M. Davis, the Manhattan madam involved in the Eliot Spitzer scandal, announced on June 27, 2010, that she was running for governor on an independent line in New York State using the name, Reform Party without Reform Party authorization after failing to secure the Libertarian Party nomination. Davis condemned the Democrats and Republicans for catering to wealthy white males, saying: \"Where are the women, the Hispanics, the African-Americans, and the gay people? We must reject their tired old thinking...\" On June 29, 2010, Reform Party National Committee chairman David Collison sent Davis a cease-and-desist notice demanding that she immediately change the name under which she was seeking to run for governor. Davis made no attempt to obtain permission to run as an official Reform Party candidate, and therefore withdrew her use of the Reform Party name. Davis was not a member of the Reform Party. Davis changed her Independent Ballot Line name and filed as an independent candidate by obtaining the required signatures needed in New York State to run for governor on the \"Anti-Prohibition\" line.", "The Reform Party held its 2012 National Convention in Philadelphia, August 11–12, 2012. At the national convention, the Reform Party nominated Andre Barnett from New York for president and Ken Cross from Arkansas for vice president. Among those who sought the nomination before dropping out several months prior to the convention were former Savannah State University football coach Robby Wells, economist Laurence Kotlikoff, historian Darcy Richardson, and former Louisiana Governor Buddy Roemer.", "The Reform Party co-nominated the American Delta Party's presidential and vice-presidential candidates Rocky de la Fuente and Michael Steinberg as their 2016 presidential ticket.", "On June 20, 2020 during a virtual convention, the Reform Party again nominated Rocky de la Fuente for President. De la Fuente defeated three other recognized candidates, Max Abramson, Souraya Faas, and Ben Zion (formerly the nominee for the Transhumanist Party).", "The Reform Party platform includes the following: A noticeable absence from the Reform Party platform has been social issues, including abortion and gay rights. Reform Party representatives had long stated beliefs that their party could bring together people from both sides of these issues, which they consider divisive, to address what they considered to be more vital concerns as expressed in their platform. The idea was to form a large coalition of moderates; that intention was overridden in 2001 by the Buchanan takeover which rewrote the RPUSA Constitution to include platform planks opposed to any form of abortion. The Buchananists, in turn, were overridden by the 2002 Convention which reverted the Constitution to its 1996 version and the party's original stated goals.", "The party's active state affiliates are:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Firsts.", "Execution." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The axel jump, also called the Axel Paulsen jump for its creator, Norwegian figure skater Axel Paulsen, is an edge jump in the sport of figure skating. Figure skating historian James Hines calls the axel \"figure skating's most difficult jump\". It is the only competition jump that begins with a forward takeoff, which makes it the easiest jump to identify. Skaters will often perform a double or triple axel, followed by a simpler jump, during combination jumps. In competitions, the base value of a single axel is 1.10; the base value of a double axel is 3.30; the base value of a triple axel is 8.00; and the base value of a quadruple axel is 12.50. A double or triple axel is required in both the short programs and free skating programs for junior and senior single skaters in all International Skating Union (ISU) competitions. The axel jump is the most studied jump in figure skating.", "The first skater to accomplish an axel was its creator, Axel Paulsen, in 1882 at the first international figure skating competition, which was held in Vienna. Hines, who called Paulsen \"progressive\" for inventing it, stated that he \"did as a special figure\". By the mid-1920s, the axel was the only jump that was not being doubled. Professional German skater Charlotte Oelschlägel, during the early 1900s, was the first woman to include an axel in her programs; Hines reported that she would terminate the axel with her \"famous fade-away ending\", the Charlotte spiral, a move she invented. In the early 1920s, Sonja Henie from Norway was the first female skater to perform an axel in competition. Hines also reports that in the 1930s, Austrian skater Felix Kaspar, who was known for his athleticism, performed axels that were four feet high and 20 feet from takeoff to landing; Hines stated that \"there is little doubt in the minds of those who saw him that had the technique then been known, he probably could have easily performed triple or even quadruple jumps\". American Dick Button was the first skater to complete a double axel in competition, at the 1948 Winter Olympic Games. American Carol Heiss was the first woman to perform a double axel, in 1953. The first triple axel in competition was performed by Canadian Vern Taylor at the 1978 World Championships. The first male skater to complete a triple axel during the Olympics was Canadian skater Brian Orser in 1984. The first throw triple axel was performed by American pair skaters Rena Inoue and John Baldwin, at the 2006 U.S. National Championships. As of 2020, the quadruple axel has not been successfully completed in competition. According to \"The New York Times\", the triple axel \"has become more common for male skaters\" to perform. The first female skater to complete a triple axel was Japanese skater Midori Ito, at the 1989 World Championships. Only three women have completed the triple axel during the Olympics: Ito in 1992, Japanese skater Mao Asada in 2010 and 2014, and American skater Mirai Nagasu in 2018. Tonya Harding was the first American female skater to complete the triple axel in competition, at the 1991 U.S. Championships; it was another 10 years before another female skater attempted it. As of 2019, 11 women have successfully completed the triple axel in competition.", "The axel is an edge jump, which means that the skater must spring into the air from bent knees. It is the oldest but most difficult figure skating jump. A \"lead-up\" to the axel is the waltz jump, a half-revolution jump and the first jump that skaters learn. The axel has three phases: the entrance phase (which ends with the takeoff), the flight phase, when the skater rotates into the air, and the landing phase, which begins when the skater's blade hits the ice and ends when they are \"safely skating backwards on the full outside edge with one leg behind in the air\". According to researcher Anna Mazurkiewicz and her colleagues, the most important parts of the entrance phase is the transition phase (also called the pre-takeoff phase) and the takeoff itself. The jump has a forward takeoff, approached with a series of backward crossovers in either the opposite or the same direction to the jump's rotation, followed by a step forward onto the forward outside takeoff edge. The skater must also approach the jump typically from the left forward outside edge of the skate, enabling them to step forward. The skater then kicks through with their free leg, helping them to jump into the air. The skater must land on the right back outside edge of the skate. The change in foot required to complete the axel means that the skater's centre of gravity must be transferred from the left side to the right, while rotating in the air, to reach the correct position to land. As a result, the axel has an extra half-rotation, which, as figure skating expert Hannah Robbins states, \"makes a triple axel more a quadruple jump than a triple\": the single axel consists of one-and-a-half revolutions, the double axel consists of two-and-half revolutions, and the triple axel consists of three-and-a-half revolutions. Sports reporter Nora Princiotti states, about the triple axel, \"It takes incredible strength and body control for a skater to get enough height and to get into the jump fast enough to complete all the rotations before landing with a strong enough base to absorb the force generated\". According to American skater Mirai Nagusu, \"falling on the triple axel is really brutal\". It has been shown that the more skilled skaters have greater takeoff velocities and jump lengths. When skaters perform double axels, they exhibit greater rotations during the flight phase, take off in more closed positions, and attain greater rotational velocities than when performing single axels. They also increase their turns not by increasing the time in the air, but by increasing their rotational velocity when performing single, double, and triple axels. According to researcher D.L. King, the key to executing a successful triple axel is \"achieving a high rotational velocity by generating angular momentum at take-off and minimising the moment of inertia about the spin axis\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and education.", "Literary work.", "\"The Two Cultures\"." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Born in Leicester to William Snow, a church organist and choirmaster, and his wife Ada, Charles Snow was the second of four boys, his brothers being Harold, Eric and Philip Snow, and was educated at Alderman Newton's School. In 1923, he passed the intermediate British School Certificate, and in 1925 went on to take a University of London external degree in Physics at the University College, Leicester (now the University of Leicester). Snow later gained a scholarship to Christ's College, Cambridge, and gained his PhD in physics (spectroscopy). In 1930 he became a Fellow of Christ's College. Snow served in several senior civil service positions: as technical director of the Ministry of Labour from 1940 to 1944, and as a civil service commissioner from 1945 to 1960. He was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 1943 New Year Honours. Snow's was among the 2,300 names of prominent persons listed on the Nazis' Special Search List, of those who were to be arrested on the invasion of Great Britain and turned over to the Gestapo. In 1944, he was appointed director of scientific personnel for the English Electric Company. Later he became physicist-director. In this capacity he was to employ his former student Eric Eastwood. In the 1957 New Year Honours he was knighted, having the honour conferred by Queen Elizabeth II on 12 February, and was created a life peer, as Baron Snow, of the City of Leicester, on 29 October 1964. As a politician, Snow was parliamentary secretary in the House of Lords to the Minister of Technology from 1964 to 1966 in the Labour government of Harold Wilson. Snow married the novelist Pamela Hansford Johnson in 1950; they had one son. Friends included the mathematician G. H. Hardy, for whom he would write a biographical foreword in \"A Mathematician's Apology\", the physicist P. M. S. Blackett, the X-ray crystallographer J. D. Bernal, the cultural historian Jacques Barzun and the polymath George Steiner. At Christ's College he tutored H. S. Hoff – later better known as the novelist William Cooper. The two became friends, worked together in the civil service and wrote versions of each other into their novels: Snow was the model for the college dean, Robert, in Cooper's \"Scenes from Provincial Life\" sequence. In 1960, Snow gave the Godkin Lectures at Harvard University, about the clashes between Henry Tizard and F. Lindemann (later Lord Cherwell), both scientific advisors to British governments around the time of the Second World War. The lectures were subsequently published as \"Science and Government.\" For the academic year 1961 to 1962, Snow and his wife both served as Fellows on the faculty in the Center for Advanced Studies at Wesleyan University.", "Snow's first novel was a whodunit, \"Death under Sail\" (1932). In 1975 he wrote a biography of Anthony Trollope. But he is better known as the author of a sequence of novels entitled \"Strangers and Brothers\" in which he depicts intellectuals in academic and government settings in the modern era. The best-known of the sequence is \"The Masters\". It deals with the internal politics of a Cambridge college as it prepares to elect a new master. Having all the appeal of an insider's view, the novel depicts concerns other than the strictly academic that influence the decisions of supposedly objective scholars. \"The Masters\" and \"The New Men\" were jointly awarded the James Tait Black Memorial Prize in 1954. \"Corridors of Power\" added a phrase to the language of the day. In 1974, Snow's novel \"In Their Wisdom\" was shortlisted for the Booker Prize. In \"The Realists\", an examination of the work of eight novelists – Stendhal, Honoré de Balzac, Charles Dickens, Fyodor Dostoevsky, Leo Tolstoy, Benito Pérez Galdós, Henry James and Marcel Proust – Snow makes a robust defence of the realistic novel. The storyline of his novel \"The Search\" is referenced in Dorothy L. Sayers's \"Gaudy Night\" and is used to help elicit the criminal's motive.", "On 7 May 1959, Snow delivered a Rede Lecture called \"The Two Cultures\", which provoked \"widespread and heated debate\". Subsequently, published as \"The Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution\", the lecture argued that the breakdown of communication between the \"two cultures\" of modern society – the sciences and the humanities – was a major hindrance to solving the world's problems. In particular, Snow argues that the quality of education in the world is on the decline. He wrote: The satirists Flanders and Swann used the first part of this quotation as the basis for their short monologue and song, \"First and Second Law\". As delivered in 1959, Snow's Rede Lectures specifically condemned the British educational system, as having since the Victorian period over-rewarded the humanities (especially Latin and Greek) at the expense of scientific education. He believed that in practice this deprived British elites (in politics, administration, and industry) of adequate preparation for managing the modern scientific world. By contrast, Snow said, German and American schools sought to prepare their citizens equally in the sciences and humanities, and better scientific teaching enabled those countries' rulers to compete more effectively in a scientific age. Later discussion of \"The Two Cultures\" tended to obscure Snow's initial focus on differences between British systems (of both schooling and social class) and those of competing countries." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Location.", "Playing surface.", "History.", "Background and early years.", "1980 Summer Olympics.", "1982 Luzhniki disaster.", "1990s and 2000s.", "Renovation for FIFA World Cup.", "Notable events.", "2018 FIFA World Cup.", "Security measures.", "Services for fans." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The stadium is located in Khamovniki District of the Central Administrative Okrug of Moscow city, south-west of the city center. The name \"Luzhniki\" derives from the flood meadows in the bend of Moskva River where the stadium was built, translating roughly as \"The Meadows\". It was necessary to find a very large plot of land, preferably in a green area close to the city center that could fit into the transport map of the capital without too much difficulty. According to one of the architects: \"On a sunny spring day of 1954, we, a group of architects and engineers who were tasked with designing the Central stadium, climbed onto a large paved area on the Lenin Hills... the proximity of the river, green mass of clean, fresh air - this circumstance alone mattered to select the area of the future city of sports... In addition, Luzhniki is located relatively close to the city center and convenient access to major transport systems with all parts of the capital\".", "It was one of the few major European football stadia to use an artificial pitch, having installed a FIFA-approved FieldTurf pitch in 2002. However, a temporary natural grass pitch was installed for the 2008 UEFA Champions League Final. In August 2016 a permanent hybrid turf was installed, consisting of 95 percent natural grass reinforced with plastic.", "", "On 23 December 1954, the Government of the USSR adopted a resolution on the construction of a stadium in the Luzhniki area in Moscow. The decision of the Soviet Government was a response to a specific current international situation: By the early 1950s, Soviet athletes took to the world stage for the first time after the Great Patriotic War, participating in the Olympic Games. The 1952 Summer Olympics in Helsinki brought the Soviet team 71 medals (of which 22 gold) and second place in the unofficial team standings. It was a major success, but the increased athletic development of the Soviet Union, which was a matter of state policy, required the construction of a new sports complex. The proposed complex was to meet all modern international standards and at the same time serve as a training base for the Olympic team and arena for large domestic and international competitions. The stadium was built in 1955–56 as the Grand Arena of the Central Lenin Stadium. Building materials came from Leningrad and the Armenian SSR, electrical and oak beams for the spectator benches from the Ukrainian SSR, furniture from Riga and Kaunas, glass was brought from Minsk, electrical equipment from Podolsk in Moscow Oblast, and larch lumber from Irkutsk in Siberia. It was necessary to demolish a whole area of dilapidated buildings (including the Trinity Church, which is supposed to be restored). Because the soil was heavily waterlogged, almost the entire area of the foundations of the complex had to be raised half a meter. 10,000 piles were hammered into the ground and dredgers reclaimed about 3 million cubic meters of soil. The stadium was officially opened on 31 July 1956, having been built in just 450 days. It was the national stadium of the Soviet Union, and is now the national stadium of Russia.", "The stadium was the chief venue for the 1980 Summer Olympics, the spectator capacity being 103,000 at that time. The events hosted in this stadium were the opening and closing ceremonies, athletics, football finals, and the individual jumping grand prix.", "On 20 October 1982, disaster struck during a UEFA Cup match between FC Spartak Moscow and HFC Haarlem. 66 people died in the stampede, which made it Russia's worst sporting disaster at the time.", "In 1992, the stadium was renamed Luzhniki Stadium. An extensive renovation in 1996 saw the construction of a roof over the stands, and the refurbishment of the seating areas, resulting in a decrease in capacity. The stadium hosted the 1999 UEFA Cup Final in which Parma defeated Marseille in the second UEFA Cup final to be played as a single fixture. The Luzhniki Stadium was chosen by the UEFA to host the 2008 UEFA Champions League Final won by Manchester United who beat Chelsea in the first all-English Champions League final on 21 May. The match passed incident-free and a spokesman for the British Embassy in Moscow said, \"The security and logistical arrangements put in place by the Russian authorities have been first-rate, as has been their cooperation with their visiting counterparts from the UK.\" In August 2013, the stadium hosted the World Athletics Championships.", "The original stadium was demolished in 2013 to give a way for the construction of a new stadium. However, the self-supported cover was retained. The facade wall was retained as well, due to its architectural value, and was later reconnected to the new building. Construction of the new stadium was completed in 2017. The 2018 FIFA World Cup was held in Russia with the Luzhniki Stadium selected as the venue for the opening match and also the final, which was held on 15 July 2018. The stadium joins Rome's Stadio Olimpico, London's old Wembley Stadium, Berlin's Olympiastadion and Munich's Olympiastadion as the only stadiums to have hosted the finals of the FIFA World Cup and UEFA's European Cup/Champions League and featured as a main stadium of the Summer Olympic Games. Saint Denis' Stade de France is scheduled to become another in 2024. The stadium's capacity was increased from 78,000 to 81,000 seats, partly caused by the removal of the athletics track around the pitch.", "When the Luzhniki Stadium hosted the final game of the 1957 Ice Hockey World Championship between Sweden and the Soviet Union, it was attended by a crowd of 55,000 and set a new world record at the time. On 23 May 1963, Fidel Castro made a historic speech in Luzhniki Stadium during his record 38-day visit to the Soviet Union. New Japan Pro Wrestling, the Japanese professional wrestling promotion, ran a show in 1989. Luzhniki Stadium also makes an appearance in the Russian supernatural thriller film \"Night Watch\" (), during the power shut-down scene when the power station goes into overload. The stadium is seen with a match taking place, and then the lights go out. In 2008, Manchester United beat Chelsea on penalties after a 1–1 draw to win their third European Cup. This was United's third appearance in the final, and Chelsea's first.", "Luzhniki Stadium hosted seven games of the 2018 FIFA World Cup, including the opening and the final matches.", "During the World Cup, Luzhniki had six access control stations with 39 inspection lines, and seven access control points with 427 entrances for fans arriving on foot. The grounds were serviced by 3,000 surveillance cameras and about 900 scanners, monitors, and detectors.", "The stadium stands included special observation areas for people with disabilities, which offered space for wheelchairs and accompanying persons. In addition, after the reconstruction, the stadium was equipped with special extra-wide seats for plus-size spectators. Additional services for spectators available at the stadium: navigation assistance from volunteers, storage rooms, registration of children, lost and found office, and audio descriptive commentary for blind or visually impaired fans." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "History.", "Gaelic and other Celtic influence.", "Christian influence.", "Spread to North America.", "Symbols.", "Trick-or-treating and guising.", "Costumes.", "Pet costumes.", "Games and other activities.", "Haunted attractions.", "Food.", "Christian religious observances.", "Analogous celebrations and perspectives.", "Judaism.", "Islam.", "Hinduism.", "Neopaganism.", "Around the world." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The word \"Halloween\" or \"Hallowe'en\" dates to about 1745 and is of Christian origin. The word \"Hallowe'en\" means \"Saints' evening\". It comes from a Scottish term for \"All Hallows' Eve\" (the", "", "Today's Halloween customs are thought to have been influenced by folk customs and beliefs from the Celtic-speaking countries, some of which are believed to have pagan roots. Jack Santino, a folklorist, writes that \"there was throughout Ireland an uneasy truce existing between customs and beliefs associated with Christianity and those associated with religions that were Irish before Christianity arrived\". Historian Nicholas Rogers, exploring the origins of Halloween, notes that while \"some folklorists have detected its origins in the Roman feast of Pomona, the goddess of fruits and seeds, or in the festival of the dead called Parentalia, it is more typically linked to the Celtic festival of Samhain, which comes from the Old Irish for'summer's end'.\" Samhain () was the first and most important of the four quarter days in the medieval Gaelic calendar and was celebrated on 31 October – 1 November in Ireland, Scotland and the Isle of Man. A kindred festival was held at the same time of year by the Brittonic Celts, called Calan Gaeaf in Wales,", "Today's Halloween customs are thought to have been influenced by Christian dogma and practices derived from it. Halloween is the evening before the Christian holy days of All Hallows' Day (also known as \"All Saints' or Hallowmas\") on 1 November and All Souls' Day on 2 November, thus giving the holiday on 31 October the full name of \"All Hallows' Eve\" (meaning the evening before All Hallows' Day). Since the time of the early Church, major feasts in Christianity (such as Christmas, Easter and Pentecost) had vigils that began the night before, as did the feast of All Hallows'. These three days are collectively called Allhallowtide and are a time for honoring the saints and praying for the recently departed souls who have yet to reach Heaven. Commemorations of all saints and martyrs were held by several churches on various dates, mostly in springtime. In 609, Pope Boniface IV re-dedicated the Pantheon in Rome to \"St Mary and all martyrs\" on 13 May. This was the same date as Lemuria, an ancient Roman festival of the dead, and the same date as the commemoration of all saints in Edessa in the time of Ephrem. The feast of All Hallows', on its current date in the Western Church, may be traced to Pope", "Lesley Bannatyne and Cindy Ott both wrote that Anglican colonists in the southern United States and Catholic colonists in Maryland \"recognized All Hallow's Eve in their church calendars\", although the Puritans of New England maintained strong opposition to the holiday, along with other traditional celebrations of the established Church, including Christmas. Almanacs of the late 18th and early 19th century give no indication that Halloween was widely celebrated in North America. It was not until mass Irish and Scottish immigration in the 19th century that Halloween", "Development of artifacts and symbols associated with Halloween formed over time. Jack-o'-lanterns are traditionally carried by guisers on All Hallows' Eve in order to frighten evil spirits. There is a popular Irish Christian folktale associated with the jack-o'-lantern, which in folklore is said to represent a \"soul who has been denied entry into both heaven and hell\": The modern imagery of Halloween comes from many sources, including Christian eschatology, national customs, works of Gothic and horror literature (such as the novels \"Frankenstein\" and \"Dracula\") and classic horror films (such as \"Frankenstein\" and \"The Mummy\"). Imagery of the skull, a reference to Golgotha in the Christian tradition, serves as \"a reminder", "Trick-or-treating is a customary celebration for children on Halloween. Children go in costume from house to house, asking for treats such as candy or sometimes money, with the question, \"Trick or treat?\" The word \"trick\" implies a \"threat\" to perform mischief on the homeowners or their property if no treat is given. The practice is said to have roots in the medieval practice of mumming, which is closely related to souling. John Pymm wrote that \"many of the feast days associated with the presentation of mumming plays were celebrated by the Christian Church.\" These feast days included All Hallows' Eve, Christmas, Twelfth Night and Shrove Tuesday. Mumming practiced in Germany, Scandinavia and other parts of Europe, involved masked persons in fancy dress who \"paraded the streets and entered houses to dance or play dice in silence\". In England, from the medieval period, up until the 1930s, people practiced the Christian custom of souling on Halloween, which involved groups of soulers, both Protestant and Catholic, going from parish to parish, begging the rich for soul cakes, in exchange for praying for the souls of the givers and their friends. In the Philippines, the practice of souling is called Pangangaluwa and is practiced on All Hallow's Eve among children in rural areas. People drape themselves in white cloths to represent souls and then visit houses, where they sing in return for prayers and sweets. In Scotland and Ireland, guising – children disguised in costume going from door", "Halloween costumes are traditionally modeled after supernatural figures such as vampires, monsters, ghosts, skeletons, witches, and devils. Over time, the costume selection extended to include popular characters from fiction, celebrities, and generic archetypes such as ninjas and princesses. Dressing up in costumes and going \"guising\" was prevalent in Scotland and Ireland at Halloween by the late 19th century. A Scottish term, the tradition is called \"guising\" because of the disguises or costumes worn by the children. In Ireland the masks are known as 'false faces'. Costuming became popular for Halloween parties in the US in the early 20th century, as often for adults as for children, and when trick-or-treating was becoming popular in Canada and the US in the 1920s and 1930s. Eddie J. Smith, in his book \"Halloween, Hallowed is Thy Name\", offers a religious perspective to the wearing of costumes on All Hallows' Eve, suggesting that by dressing up as creatures \"who at one time caused us to fear and tremble\", people are able to poke fun at Satan \"whose kingdom has been plundered by our Saviour\". Images of skeletons and the dead are traditional decorations used as \"memento mori\". \"Trick-or-Treat for UNICEF\" is a fundraising program to support UNICEF, a United Nations Programme that provides humanitarian aid to children in developing countries. Started as a local event in a Northeast Philadelphia neighborhood in 1950 and expanded nationally in 1952, the program involves the distribution of small boxes by schools (or in modern times, corporate sponsors like Hallmark, at their licensed stores) to trick-or-treaters, in which they can solicit small-change donations from the houses they visit. It is estimated that children have collected more than $118 million for UNICEF since its inception. In Canada, in 2006, UNICEF decided to discontinue their Halloween collection boxes, citing safety and administrative concerns; after consultation with schools, they instead redesigned the program.", "According to a 2018 report from the National Retail Federation, 30 million Americans will spend an estimated $480 million on Halloween costumes for", "There are several games traditionally associated with Halloween. Some of these games originated as divination rituals or ways of foretelling one's future, especially regarding death, marriage and children. During the Middle Ages, these rituals were done by a \"rare few\" in rural communities as they were considered to be \"deadly serious\" practices. In recent centuries, these divination games have been \"a common feature of the household festivities\" in Ireland and Britain. They often involve apples and hazelnuts. In Celtic mythology, apples were strongly associated with the Otherworld and immortality, while hazelnuts were associated with divine wisdom. Some also suggest that they derive from Roman practices in celebration of Pomona. The following activities were a common feature of Halloween in Ireland and Britain during the 17th–20th centuries. Some have become more widespread and continue to be popular today. One common game is apple bobbing or dunking (which may be called \"dooking\" in Scotland) in which apples float in a tub or a large basin of water and the participants must use only their teeth to remove an apple from the basin. A variant of dunking involves kneeling on a chair, holding a fork between the teeth and trying to drive the fork into an apple. Another common game involves hanging up treacle or syrup-coated scones by strings; these must be eaten without using hands while they remain attached to the string, an activity that inevitably leads to a sticky face. Another once-popular game involves hanging a small wooden rod from the ceiling at head height, with a lit candle on one end and an apple", "Haunted attractions are entertainment venues designed to thrill and scare patrons. Most attractions are seasonal Halloween businesses that may include haunted houses, corn mazes, and hayrides, and the level of sophistication of the effects has risen as the industry has grown. The first recorded purpose-built haunted attraction was the Orton and Spooner Ghost House, which opened in 1915 in Liphook, England. This attraction actually most closely resembles a carnival fun house, powered by steam. The House still exists, in the Hollycombe Steam Collection. It was during the 1930s, about the same time as trick-or-treating, that Halloween-themed haunted houses first began to appear in America. It was in the late 1950s that haunted houses as a major attraction began to appear, focusing first on California. Sponsored by the Children's Health Home Junior Auxiliary, the San Mateo Haunted House opened in 1957. The San Bernardino Assistance League Haunted House opened in 1958. Home haunts began appearing across the country during 1962 and 1963. In 1964, the San Manteo Haunted House opened, as well as the Children's Museum Haunted House in Indianapolis. The haunted house as an American cultural icon can be attributed to the opening of the Haunted Mansion in Disneyland on 12 August 1969. Knott's Berry Farm began hosting its own Halloween night attraction, Knott's Scary Farm, which opened in 1973. Evangelical Christians adopted a", "On All Hallows' Eve, many Western Christian denominations encourage abstinence from meat, giving rise to a variety of vegetarian foods associated with this day. Because in the Northern Hemisphere Halloween comes in the wake of the yearly apple harvest, candy apples (known as toffee apples outside North America), caramel apples or taffy apples are common Halloween treats made by rolling whole apples in a sticky sugar syrup, sometimes followed by rolling them in nuts. At one time, candy apples were commonly given to trick-or-treating children, but the practice rapidly waned in the wake of widespread rumors that some individuals were embedding items like pins and razor blades in the apples in the United States. While there", "On Hallowe'en (All Hallows' Eve), in Poland, believers were once taught to pray out loud as they walk through the forests in order that the souls of the dead might find comfort; in Spain, Christian priests in tiny villages toll their church bells in order to remind their congregants to remember the dead on All Hallows' Eve. In Ireland, and among immigrants in Canada, a custom includes the Christian practice of abstinence, keeping All Hallows' Eve as a meat-free day, and serving pancakes or colcannon instead. In Mexico children make an altar to invite the return of the spirits of dead children (\"angelitos\"). The Christian Church traditionally observed Hallowe'en through a vigil. Worshippers prepared themselves for feasting on the following All Saints' Day with prayers and fasting. This church service is known as the \"Vigil of All Hallows\" or the \"Vigil of All Saints\"; an initiative known as \"Night of Light\" seeks to further spread the \"Vigil of All Hallows\" throughout Christendom. After the service, \"suitable festivities and entertainments\" often follow, as well as a visit to the graveyard or cemetery, where flowers and candles are often placed in preparation for All Hallows' Day. In Finland, because so many people visit the cemeteries on All Hallows' Eve to light votive candles there, they \"are known as \"valomeri\", or seas of light\". Today, Christian attitudes towards Halloween are diverse. In the Anglican Church, some dioceses have chosen to emphasize the Christian traditions associated with All Hallow's Eve. Some of these practices include praying, fasting and attending worship services. Other Protestant Christians also celebrate All Hallows' Eve as Reformation Day, a day to remember the", "", "According to Alfred J. Kolatch in the \"Second Jewish Book of Why\", in Judaism, Halloween is not permitted by Jewish Halakha because it violates Leviticus 18:3, which forbids Jews from partaking in gentile customs. Many Jews observe Yizkor communally four times a year, which is vaguely similar to the observance of", "Sheikh Idris Palmer, author of \"A Brief Illustrated Guide to Understanding Islam\", has argued that Muslims should not participate in Halloween, stating that \"participation in Halloween is worse than participation", "Hindus remember the dead during the festival of Pitru Paksha, during which Hindus pay homage to and perform a ceremony \"to keep the souls of their ancestors at rest\". It is celebrated in the Hindu month of", "There is no consistent rule or view on Halloween amongst those who describe themselves as Neopagans or Wiccans. Some Neopagans do not observe Halloween, but instead observe Samhain on 1 November, some neopagans do enjoy Halloween festivities, stating that one can observe both \"the solemnity of Samhain in addition to the fun of Halloween\". Some neopagans are opposed to the celebration of Hallowe'en, stating that it \"trivializes Samhain\", and \"avoid Halloween, because of the interruptions from", "The traditions and importance of Halloween vary greatly among countries that observe it. In Scotland and Ireland, traditional Halloween customs include children dressing up in costume going \"guising\", holding parties, while other practices in Ireland include lighting bonfires, and having firework displays. In Brittany children would play practical jokes by setting candles inside skulls in graveyards to frighten visitors. Mass transatlantic immigration in the 19th century popularized Halloween in North America, and celebration in the United States and Canada has had a significant impact on how the event is observed in other nations. This larger North American influence, particularly in iconic and commercial elements, has extended to places such as Ecuador, Chile, Australia, New Zealand, (most) continental Europe, Japan, and other parts of East Asia. In the Philippines, during Halloween, Filipinos return to their hometowns and purchase candles and flowers, in preparation for the following All Saints Day (\"Araw ng mga Patay\") on 1 November and All Souls Day – though it falls on 2 November, most of them observe it on the day before. In Mexico and Latin America in general, it is referred to as \" Día de Muertos \" which translates in English to \"Day of the dead\". Most of the people from Latin America construct altars in their homes to honor their deceased relatives and they decorate them with flowers and candies and other offerings." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "1937, the Stadio dei Cipressi.", "1953, the Stadio dei Centomila.", "1960, the Stadio Olimpico.", "1990 restructuring and roofing of the stadium.", "2008 restyling of the stadium.", "Areas and capacity.", "Average attendances.", "1990 FIFA World Cup." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Throughout its history, the Stadio Olimpico has undergone several renovations.", "In its first stages, the Stadio Olimpico was called the Stadio dei Cipressi. It was designed and constructed within the larger project of the \"Foro Mussolini\" (Mussolini Forum) which was renamed \"Foro Italico\" after the war. Construction work began in 1927 directed by the Turinese engineer Angelo Frisa and architect Enrico Del Debbio. The construction was completed in 1932, after a few variations to the original plan. For instance, the construction of masonry stands was not part of the initial plan as, originally, stands consisted of grassed terraces. In 1937, the construction of a second tier of stairs was started but was interrupted in 1940 due to the outbreak of World War II.", "In December 1950, the working site was reopened for the completion of the stadium. The project was entrusted to the engineer Carlo Roccatelli, a member of the Superior Council of Public Works. At first, the plan was for a stadium with a more complex structure than that actually realised. However, the scarcity of funds and the environmental characteristics of the area led to a less ambitious building. On the death of Roccatelli in 1951, the direction of the work was entrusted to architect Annibale Vitellozzi. The stadium now reached a capacity of about 100,000 people, hence the stadium was known as Stadio dei Centomila, until renamed for the 1960 Olympics. The building was inaugurated on 17 May 1953 with a football game between Italy and Hungary.", "During the 1960 Summer Olympics, the stadium hosted the opening and closing ceremonies and the athletics competitions. Seating at ground level was eliminated with the result of an actual capacity of 65,000 spectators. Subsequently, the stadium hosted several editions of the Italian Championships of Athletics, the 1975 Summer Universiade (the stadium was the only venue for the Universiade) and the 1987 World Athletics Championships. It still hosts the annual meeting of the Golden Gala.", "For the 1990 FIFA World Cup, for which it was the main stadium, the facility underwent an extensive renovation. While that work was underway in 1989 the Capitoline teams Lazio and Roma had to play their Serie A games at Stadio Flaminio. The work was entrusted to a team of designers including the original architect Annibale Vitellozzi. From 1987 to 1990, the construction plan was amended several times, with a consequent rise in costs. Ultimately, the Olimpico was entirely demolished and rebuilt in reinforced concrete, with the exception of the \"Tribuna Tevere\" which was expanded with the addition of further steps and of the curves which were closer to the field by nine metres. All sectors of the stadium were provided with full coverage in tensostructure white. Backless seats in blue plastic were installed and two giant screens built in 1987 for the World Athletics Championships were also mounted inside the curve. In the end the new version of the Olimpico had 82,911 seats. It was the 14th stadium in the world for number of seats among the football stadiums, the 29th among all stadiums and the second in Italy, just behind the San Siro Stadium of Milan. The Stadio Olimpico was host to five matches in which the Italian national team took part and the final between West Germany and Argentina. West Germany won the final match 1–0. With the same layout from 1990, the Stadio Olimpico hosted on 22 May 1996 the UEFA Champions League Final between Juventus and Ajax which saw the \"Bianconeri\" prevail in a penalty shoot-out.", "In 2007, a vast plan of restyling the internal design of the stadium was laid out, to conform to UEFA standards for the 2009 UEFA Champions League Final which was held in Rome. The work was performed and completed in 2008. It included the establishment of standard structures with improvements in security, the fixing of dressing rooms and of the press room. It also included the replacement of all seats, the installation of high definition LED screens, the partial removal of plexiglas fences between spectators and the field and a reduction of seating to the current capacity of 70,634. In order to enhance the comfort of the audience, part of the modernisation of the stadium involved increasing the number of restrooms and fixing the toilets. As a result of these improvements, the \"Stadio Olimpico was\" classified a UEFA Elite stadium.", "The stadium has a current capacity of 72,698, distributed as follows:", "The average season attendance at league matches held at the Stadio Olimpico for Lazio and Roma. \"# In 1989–90 season both teams played at Stadio Flaminio during the renovations of Stadio Olimpico.\"<br> \"* Club was in Serie B\" <br>", "The stadium was one of the venues of the 1990 FIFA World Cup, and held six matches. The first five involved host nations Italy. All their Group A matches (1–0 wins over Austria 9 June and United States on 14 June respectively and a 2–0 win over Czechoslovakia on 19 June), their Round of 16 match against Uruguay on 26 June winning 2–0 and their Quarter-finals against Republic of Ireland on 30 June winning 1–0. The sixth was the Final where West Germany and Argentina on 8 July with West Germany winning 1–0." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Description.", "Legends.", "Present." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In 1355, a town was built by members of the Rožemberk family to defend the nearby town of Bavorov. There were four brothers – Peter, Jošt, Oldřich and Jan of Rožemberk. Building permission was given by King Charles IV. It was a reward for their services, due to them having accompanied the King on his journey to the coronation in Rome. In the year 1381, Bavorov was given the rights of a free town. After the death of Jan in 1389 and his brother Oldřich, Jan's son Jindřich III of Rožemberk became the owner of the castle. He was one of the opponents of King Václav IV. The King was trying to harm him as much as he could, allegedly even with help of Jan Žižka. After Jindřich III's death, Oldřich II of Rožemberk, son of Oldřich, became the owner of the castle. He was very young and was tutored by Čeněk from Vartemberk. He later converted to Catholicism and was raised in this religion. After the defeat of the Hussites in Tábor, he ordered the arrest of Hussite priests in all of his lands, and imprisoned them in his castles. It is proved that at Helfenburk two Hussite priests died. After the death of Oldřich II, the ruler of the castle was his son Jindřich IV of Rožemberk, and after him Jan II. Both constantly had problems with money and debts, which had been incurred by their father's war costs. The castle was given as a guarantee to Přeškov from Čestice. The contract allowed free access to the castles by former owners. After his death the castle was bought out and returned to the Rožemberk family. The period from 1468 to 1472 was troublesome around the castle. There were neighbourly disputes between Rožemberk and the towns of Písek, Sušice and Vodňany. The castle did not face such big losses, but these disputes also affected neighbouring villages. After the death Jan of Rožemberk and subsequent death of his son Jindrich V, ownership of the castle went to Vok II of Rožemberk. Because of dues he sold the castle to the brothers Václav and Zikmund Vlček of Čenov. Václav Vlček was originally just a regular captain, he had fought in Hungary and Poland, and in service of the King gained many military skills and became a field captain. He was known as an exceptional leader and specialist in defence. He strengthened the defence of the castle, and built three circular walls with placers for shooters between 1473 and 1483. He was very strong and unpopular with Rožemberk's neighbours, so he lent money to Count Jindřich Preuschenek of Hardegg to buy the castle, which he did in 1489. After his death, the castle returned to the hands of the Rožemberks. In 1499 his son sold them the castle back. In 1523 there was a dispute over succession, because Petar IV. of Rožemberk, as well as his brothers, had no children. Between 1515 and 1518 the castle was in the hands of Želízko of Tourov, who fired all the staff and was all alone in the castle. In 1551 Vilém of Rožemberk annexed to the castle part of the surrounding properties and developed the castle itself. Helfenburk was one of the poorest castles, at least compared to the rest of the Rožemberk inventory. There was not much furniture and crockery, but that was compensated by equipment of the castle, such as tools and weapons. There were also not enough servants. After moving to Kratochvíle, Vilém left the castle completely abandoned. In 1592 after the death of Vilém of Rožemberk his younger brother and successor, Petr Vok, sold the entire castle to the town of Bavorov. After the Battle of White Mountain the castle was confiscated, although the city tried and failed to get it back. The castle had already been recorded as abandoned, having been used for more than 200 years. Later it was owned by other families, such as Eggenberg, and later Schwarzenberg until the year 1922, when it became property of the state.", "The castle is situated on top of a rock, which today is partially hidden by forests. In front of the castle there used to be a fortressed village. The castle has a circular floor plan. The entrance to the castle led through a bridge over a deep ditch and intermittent rocks, and is surrounded by walls. The entrance through the first door once led over the floating bridge. Helfenburk has three gates, arranged one behind the other. To the left on the rock is a huge tower. It is 18m high, round and has a diameter of about. From it, it is possible to defend not only the main entrance, but also to see a large part of the castle and all three doors. The apartment of the tower guardian was also here. The tower can be entered through a wooden bridge from the building or by the stairs. At present it serves as a lookout tower following a reconstruction. From the tower the circular walls, which were built by Vlček of Čenov, can be seen. Another door closes with a wedge. The whole bottom part of the second courtyard is enclosed by buildings and has an irregular shape. The third door leads to the inner palace. The front yard of the castle was full of commercial wooden structures. The structures made from bricks are the youngest in the castle and were made in the 15th century. The reservoir on the left side was used for rainwater or water that was brought from below the castle. The depth was around, but it was gradually buried. The inside palace of the castle had ramparts, which are now the ruins in front of the castle, on which people walk. The palace had two basement floors; some theories suggest there was also a third. The palace consisted of two cores, essentially because there were two palaces that were gradually merged. In the corners of the palace there is some stonework, but the rest of the stone decoration was demolished in the 16th century for building materials. The north side of the castle, which cannot be seen from the large tower, was strengthened by the building of a smaller round tower. It is located where the three buildings connect, and is high and now serves as a tourist attraction.", "In the 17th century, Helfenburk become a home for many lost and homeless people. A boy who looked like a monkey and survived by collecting fruits and roots was found there. After a long time he was successfully civilized. According to some stories, hermits lived in Helfenburk. According to another legend, treasure is hidden under the great tower, which can be found only on Good Friday. A farmer who lived near Koječin tried to find it. When he began to dig he saw a devil with a moustache, and he was frightened and ran, losing the treasure. Another legend is about a piper who found a small black kitten. When he was home, the kitten was also at home. But immediately when he went to work, the kitten disappeared in an unknown direction. Once, in a bad mood, he was on his way back home. Close to Helfenburk stood a man dressed in black and asked him whether he wanted to make some money and play to his friends. The piper then follow him to the castle and played. But he was afraid to look at the people to whom he was playing, and who was actually paying. After a while he was encouraged and then he saw that he was playing to the cats. And the man who brought him to the castle was the black kitten. The piper was convinced that he had seen the devil himself.", "The castle was abandoned until the 1930s, when the association of tourists started to take care of, repair and reopen the castle. Now the castle is owned by the town of Bavorov. In the 20th century the buildings were partially repaired. In 1977 the south defensive tower was remodelled to the lookout tower it is today, offering views of the surrounding area (the Písek hills with Velký Mehelník, Temelín, Vodňany, Novohrad hills, Blansko forest with the top Kleť, and hills of Šumava, Chlum, Libin, Bobik, Boubín Plechý in the background, and Brdy 50km to the north). In spring and summer, the facility is used for various cultural programs." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Distinguishing features.", "Authority.", "Precedent.", "Vocabulary.", "Formality.", "Categories.", "Predictive legal analysis.", "Persuasive legal analysis.", "Legal drafting.", "Plagiarism.", "Plain language movement.", "Legalese." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Legal writing places heavy reliance on authority. In most legal writing, the writer must back up assertions and statements with citations of authority. This is accomplished by a unique and complicated citation system, unlike that used in any other genre of writing. The standard methods for American legal citation are defined by two competing rule books: the \"ALWD Citation Manual: A Professional System of Citation\" and \"The Bluebook: A Uniform System of Citation\". Different methods may be used within the United States and in other nations.", "Legal writing values precedent, as distinct from authority. Precedent means the way things have been done before. For example, a lawyer who must prepare a contract and who has prepared a similar contract before will often re-use, with limited changes, the old contract for the new occasion. Or a lawyer who has filed a successful motion to dismiss a lawsuit may use the same or a very similar form of motion again in another case, and so on. Many lawyers use and re-use written documents in this way and call these re-usable documents \"templates\" or, less commonly, \"forms.\"", "Legal writing extensively uses technical terminology that can be categorised in four ways:", "These features tend to make legal writing formal. This formality can take the form of long sentences, complex constructions, archaic and hyper-formal vocabulary, and a focus on content to the exclusion of reader needs. Some of this formality in legal writing is necessary and desirable, given the importance of some legal documents and the seriousness of the circumstances in which some legal documents are used. Yet not all formality in legal writing is justified. To the extent that formality produces opacity and imprecision, it is undesirable. To the extent that formality hinders reader comprehension, it is less desirable. In particular, when legal content must be conveyed to nonlawyers, formality should give way to clear communication. What is crucial in setting the level of formality in any legal document is assessing the needs and expectations of the audience. For example, an appellate brief to the highest court in a jurisdiction calls for a formal style—this shows proper respect for the court and for the legal matter at issue. An interoffice legal memorandum to a supervisor can probably be less formal—though not colloquial—because it is an in-house decision-making tool, not a court document. And an email message to a friend and client, updating the status of a legal matter, is appropriately informal. Transaction documents—legal drafting—fall on a similar continuum. A 150-page merger agreement between two large corporations, in which both sides are represented by counsel, will be highly formal—and should also be accurate, precise, and airtight (features not always compatible with high formality). A commercial lease for a small company using a small office space will likely be much shorter and will require less complexity, but may still be somewhat formal. But a proxy statement allowing the members of a neighborhood association to designate their voting preferences for the next board meeting ought to be as plain as can be. If informality aids that goal, it is justified. Many U.S. law schools teach legal writing in a way that acknowledges the technical complexity inherent in law and the justified formality that complexity often requires, but with an emphasis on clarity, simplicity, and directness. Yet many practicing lawyers, busy as they are with deadlines and heavy workloads, often resort to a template-based, outdated, hyperformal writing style in both analytical and transactional documents. This is understandable, but it sometimes unfortunately perpetuates an unnecessarily formal legal writing style. Recently a variety of tools have been produced to allow writers to automate core parts of legal writing. For example, automated tools may be used by transactional lawyers to check certain formalities while writing, and tools exist to help litigators verify citations and quotations to legal authority for motions and briefs.", "Legal writing is of two, broad categories: (i) legal analysis and (ii) legal drafting. Legal analysis is two-fold: (1) predictive analysis, and (2) persuasive analysis. In the United States, in most law schools students must learn legal writing; the courses focus on: (1) predictive analysis, i.e., an outcome-predicting memorandum (positive or negative) of a given action for the attorney's client; and (2) persuasive analysis, e.g., motions and briefs. Although not as widely taught in law schools, legal drafting courses exist; other types of legal writing concentrate upon writing appeals or on interdisciplinary aspects of persuasion.", "The legal memorandum is the most common type of predictive legal analysis; it may include the client letter or legal opinion. The legal memorandum predicts the outcome of a legal question by analyzing the authorities governing the question and the relevant facts that gave rise to the legal question. It explains and applies the authorities in predicting an outcome, and ends with advice and recommendations. The legal memorandum also serves as record of the research done for a given legal question. Traditionally, and to meet the legal reader's expectations, it is formally organized and written.", "The persuasive document, a motion or a brief, attempts to persuade a deciding authority to favorably decide the dispute for the author's client. Motions and briefs are usually submitted to judges, but also to mediators, arbitrators, and others. In addition a persuasive letter may attempt to persuade the dispute's opposing party. Persuasive writing is the most rhetorically stylized. So although a brief states the legal issues, describes authorities, and applies authorities to the question—as does a memorandum—the brief's application portion is framed as an argument. The author argues for one approach to resolving the legal matter and does not present a neutral analysis.", "Legal drafting creates binding legal text. It includes enacted law like statutes, rule and regulations; contracts (private and public); personal legal documents like wills and trusts; and public legal documents like notices and instructions. Legal drafting requires no legal authority citation and generally is written without a stylised voice.", "In writing an objective analysis or a persuasive document, including a memorandum or brief, lawyers write under the same plagiarism rules applicable to most other writers, with additional ethical implications for presenting copied materials as original. Legal memoranda and briefs must properly attribute quotations and source authorities; yet, within a law office, a lawyer might borrow from other lawyers' texts without attribution, in using a well-phrased, successful argument made in a previous brief. Plagiarism is strictly prohibited in academic work, especially in law review articles, seminar papers, and similar writings intended to reflect the author's original thoughts. The drafting of legal documents such as contracts is different as, unlike in most other legal writing categories, it is common to use language and clauses that are derived from form books, legal opinions and other documents without attribution. Lawyers use forms documents when drafting documents such as contracts, wills, and judgments. The key difference between using phrases or paragraphs from other legal documents, and copying in other contexts or copying the entire document, arises from the fact that lawyers are effectively drawing upon a common pool of clauses that they adjust and modify for their own purposes.", "The Plain Language Movement in legal writing involves an effort to avoid complex language and terminology in legal documents, to make legal writing more understandable and accessible. One of the goals of the movement is to reduce reliance on terms of art, words that have a specific meaning within the context of the law, but that may carry a different meaning in other contexts.", "\"Legalese\" is an English term first used in 1914 for legal writing that is very difficult for laymen to read and understand, the implication being that this abstruseness is deliberate for excluding the legally untrained and to justify high fees. \"Legalese\", as a term, has been adopted in other languages. Legalese is characterized by long sentences, many modifying clauses, complex vocabulary, high abstraction, and insensitivity to the layman's need to understand the document's gist. Legalese arises most commonly in legal drafting, yet appears in both types of legal analysis. Some important points in the debate of \"legalese\" v. \"plain language\" as the continued standard for legal writing include: Joseph Kimble, a modern plain-English expert and advocate, rejects the claim that legalese is less ambiguous in \"The Great Myth that Plain Language is not Precise\". Kimble says legalese often contains so many convoluted constructions and circumlocutions that it is more ambiguous than plain English. Plain-English advocates suggest that no document can possibly cover every contingency, and that lawyers should not attempt to encompass every contingency they can foresee. Rather, lawyers should only draft for the known, possible, reasonably expected contingencies." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Career.", "1989–1994: Early work.", "1994–2004: Breakthrough.", "2004–2010: Directing.", "2010–present: Return to television.", "Personal life.", "Filmography.", "Other." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Schwimmer was born in Flushing, Queens, New York City, to attorneys Arthur (born 1941) and Arlene Coleman-Schwimmer (born 1940). His family is Jewish. He has an older sister named Ellie (born 1965). His family subsequently moved to Los Angeles, where Schwimmer had his first experiences of acting, at the age of 10, when he was cast as the fairy godmother in a Jewish version of \"Cinderella\". In 1979, Schwimmer went to a Shakespeare workshop given by English actor Ian McKellen in Los Angeles. He recalls being riveted by the experience. Schwimmer then entered a contest in the Southern California Shakespeare Festival three years in a row, winning two first prizes. Following his mother's successful career as a divorce lawyer, the family moved to Beverly Hills, where Schwimmer attended Beverly Hills High School. His classmates included actor Jonathan Silverman. Schwimmer admitted to being an outsider during his time at the school, recalling, \"When I was there I always felt: 'This is not me, I'm surrounded by people with a different value system. And I just wanted to get out of California.'\" His best subjects were science and math and thought he would become a doctor. Schwimmer enrolled in a drama class, where he appeared in stage productions. Encouraged by his school drama teacher to further his acting, he flew to Chicago for a summer acting program at Northwestern University. He noted that the experience was both \"enlightening and exhilarating\". In 1984, Schwimmer graduated from Beverly Hills High and wanted to go straight into acting, but his parents insisted he go to college first so he would have something to fall back on. Schwimmer moved to Chicago to attend Northwestern University, where he had attended a summer drama course when he was 16 years old. At the university, he studied theater and was in an improv group with Stephen Colbert, the No-Fun Mud Piranhas. After graduating in 1988, with a Bachelor of Arts degree in theater and speech, Schwimmer co-founded the Lookingglass Theatre Company. Subsequently, he returned to Los Angeles to pursue an acting career.", "", "After his supporting role debut in the ABC television movie \"A Deadly Silence\" (1989), Schwimmer followed this with roles on the legal drama \"L.A. Law\" in 1992, and the comedy-drama series \"The Wonder Years\". He made his feature film debut in \"Flight of the Intruder\" (1991), had a recurring role as a lawyer-turned-vigilante in \"NYPD Blue\" before auditioning, unsuccessfully, for a series pilot called \"Couples\". He landed his first regular series role as the liberal son of a conservative talk show host (Henry Winkler) in the sitcom \"Monty\".", "In 1994, Schwimmer was cast as Dr. Ross Geller in NBC's situation comedy \"Friends\", a series that revolved around a group of friends who live near each other in Manhattan. He played a hopeless-romantic paleontologist who works at a museum and later becomes a professor at a university. Schwimmer initially turned down the role as Ross, but accepted later. Executive producer Kevin S. Bright said that he had previously worked with Schwimmer, the character of Ross was written with him in mind, and he was the first actor cast. The show debuted on September 22, 1994, and was watched by almost 22 million American viewers. \"Friends\" quickly developed a loyal audience, with the show and Schwimmer receiving strong reviews. The \"Pittsburgh Post-Gazette\" was complimentary of Schwimmer, calling him \"terrific\". \"Variety\"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s television reviewer, said: \"All six of the principals, especially (Courteney) Cox and Schwimmer, appear resourceful and display sharp sitcom skills\". For this performance, he earned a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series in 1995. Schwimmer starred in his first leading film role in the 1996 romantic comedy film, \"The Pallbearer\" with Gwyneth Paltrow. In the film, Schwimmer plays a man asked to deliver the eulogy for a high school friend he cannot remember, and begins an affair with the friend's mother. Critics dismissed \"The Pallbearer\" as a poor imitation of the 1967 film \"The Graduate\". \"Variety\"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s film reviewer complimented the actor, writing that he had enjoyed his performance, stating that he displayed \"a winning, if rather deadpan, personality along with good comic timing\". It also concluded that Schwimmer had a \"promising bigscreen future\". Janet Maslin of \"The New York Times\" cited that his first film \"relegates him to a drab role\". When asked why he decided to accept the role, Schwimmer admitted the decision was to \"make an effort to find roles that are as far away from the character of Ross as possible\". He was offered a role to star alongside Tommy Lee Jones in the 1997 science-fiction comedy \"Men in Black\" after Chris O'Donnell turned down the role, but turned it down because of a prior commitment to direct his first film with his theatre company friends starring before the role was given to Will Smith. His next film roles, in 1998, were \"Kissing a Fool\", \"Six Days, Seven Nights\", and \"Apt Pupil\". In \"Kissing a Fool\", a romantic comedy, Schwimmer played Max, a dapper, smart-mouthed ladies' man. Mick LaSalle of the \"San Francisco Chronicle\" wrote, \"Fans of the sitcom \"Friends\" may be surprised by David Schwimmer in \"Kissing a Fool\". [...] Take it from someone who has never seen \"Friends\" and comes at Schwimmer with no preconceptions: He does just fine. As a TV sports reporter in \"Kissing a Fool\", he oozes the command and self-satisfaction of a young, successful man\". The film was critically and financially unsuccessful. In \"Six Days, Seven Nights\", he played the boyfriend of Anne Heche's character. In \"Apt Pupil\", adapted from a novella of the same name by Stephen King, he had a supporting role as a school guidance counselor. \"I was scared of the part\", Schwimmer said, \"but I wanted to be part of the movie\". At the time, he noted it was a \"little frustrating\" that people would typecast him due to his role on \"Friends\". He subsequently appeared opposite Woody Allen and Sharon Stone in Alfonso Arau's straight-to-cable comedy \"Picking Up the Pieces\" (2000). In 2001, Schwimmer played Captain Herbert M. Sobel in Steven Spielberg and Tom Hanks' HBO World War II miniseries \"Band of Brothers\". The television miniseries is based on the book of the same title written by historian and biographer Stephen Ambrose. Although \"Band of Brothers\" was met with largely positive reception, Schwimmer's performance was criticized; the BBC News concluded, \"Part of the problem... may have been the ridiculous fact that \"Friends\" favourite David Schwimmer plays the hard and cruel Captain Herbert Sobel. The only thing believable about Schwimmer's acting is when he cowers in the face of true battle. His puppy dog eyes make him appear even more pitiful\". Later that year he portrayed Yitzhak Zuckerman in the war drama \"Uprising\", based on the true events of the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising in 1943. In March 2004, Schwimmer appeared as himself on HBO's comedy series \"Curb Your Enthusiasm\". During the lengthy run of \"Friends\", Schwimmer directed ten of the show's episodes. The show's tenth and final season ended on May 6, 2004.", "After \"Friends\", Schwimmer starred in the 2005 independent drama \"Duane Hopwood\", as the title character, who is an alcoholic whose life is spiraling downward rapidly after a divorce and is looking to turn his life around. The film received ambivalent reviews. Despite the reception, Schwimmer's performance was favored by critics; Roger Ebert of the \"Chicago Sun-Times\" reported that the role was Schwimmer's \"career-transforming performance\". \"Duane Hopwood\" was screened at a special presentation at the 2005 Sundance Film Festival. Furthermore, in the same year he voiced Melman, a hypochondriac giraffe, in the computer animated film \"Madagascar\" (2005). \"The Washington Post\" noted that Schwimmer is particularly appealing as Melman. Despite the mixed response from critics, the film was a commercial success, earning US$532 million worldwide, making it one of the biggest hits of 2005. Schwimmer starred on the London stage in May 2005, with Catherine Tate, Lesley Manville, Sara Powell, and Saffron Burrows, in Neil LaBute's \"Some Girl(s)\" at the Gielgud Theatre. In the production, he plays a teacher who is ready to settle down and marry, but decides to visit four ex-girlfriends first. For his performance, Schwimmer received critical reviews. \"The Independent\" wrote that Schwimmer \"is not called upon to extend his range nearly as far as one might have expected in \"Some Girl(s)\". [...] Schwimmer remains bland, competent, and boyish—though not fatally boyish in the manner that appears to have turned these women on\". However, Charles Spencer of \"The Daily Telegraph\" praised Schwimmer, reporting he \"proves inspired casting. He takes to the stage with... his endearing gaucheness seems designed to ensure our continued sympathy. Schwimmer mercilessly lays bare his character's opportunism, casual cruelties, and chronic self-deception\". In 2006, he made his Broadway debut in Herman Wouk's two-act play \"The Caine Mutiny Court-Martial\". Schwimmer played the role of Lieutenant Barney Greenwald in the production, which was directed by Jerry Zaks. In an interview with \"New York\" magazine, he revealed that he had wanted to try Broadway, however said \"a couple of things came up that just never quite felt right. Either because I liked the play but wasn’t hot on the director, or there was another star attached that I wasn't jazzed about working with\". He further added that when showed a copy of Wouk's novel \"...I was shocked at how good the writing was\". His next film role was in the 2006 black comedy \"Big Nothing\", in which he played a bitter, unemployed scientist. Schwimmer made his directorial feature debut in the 2007 British comedy film \"Run Fatboy Run\". The film stars Simon Pegg as an out of shape man who signs up for a marathon to convince his former fiancée and five-year-old son that he has turned his life around. When asked why he decided to direct the film, Schwimmer said: \"As a director, I was struck by the challenge that I thought the script presented, which was that it was kind of three films in one. You had some great, big physical comedy, and I thought funny dialogue and characters. And then there was some real emotion to it with the relationship between the father and the son and the romance aspect\". \"Run Fatboy Run\" garnered mixed reception, with the \"New York Daily News\" rating it one-and-a-half out of five stars and writing, \"Most disappointing is how Schwimmer—who spent 10 seasons on a sitcom filled with hyperverbal characters—manages to bumble 'Fatboy's' tender moments\". \"USA Today\", however, was favorable towards Schwimmer, reporting he possesses filmmaking finesse \"having wisely chosen strong comic material for his debut behind the camera\". For his directorial work, he was nominated for a British Independent Film Award in the category of Best Debut Director. On November 8, 2007, Schwimmer made a guest appearance in the second season of the television series \"30 Rock\", where he played Greenzo, an NBC environmental mascot. The following year, he was part of an ensemble cast that included Kate Beckinsale, Matt Dillon, Alan Alda, Angela Bassett, and Noah Wyle in the thriller \"Nothing But the Truth\" (2008). The movie received generally favorable reviews. The success of \"Madagascar\" led Schwimmer to return to the role of Melman in the 2008 sequel, \"\". The film earned US$603 million at the international box office. Schwimmer took part in directing in-studio segments for \"Little Britain USA\", an American spin-off of the British BBC television series \"Little Britain\". In regard to this, he commented that he had \"a good time directing episodes\" for the show. In October 2008, Schwimmer made his Off-Broadway directorial debut in \"Fault Lines\" at the Cherry Lane Theatre in New York. The production won a mixed review from the \"Los Angeles Times\", which wrote: \"Based on \"Fault Lines\"... we can't really tell whether Schwimmer has much talent as a director. We're surprised he didn't try something more challenging for his debut. If not much else, Schwimmer has encouraged his actors to intense their energy levels and comic timing at all costs\". The \"New York Post\", however, noted that Schwimmer \"knows a thing or two about freewheeling banter... and for a good while the play crackles with terrific dialogue, expertly delivered\". In February 2009, he returned to theater in a Chicago production of Thornton Wilder's three-act play \"Our Town\" as George Gibbs at the Lookingglass Theatre. \"Schwimmer... turns in a poignant, richly textured and demonstrably heartfelt performance as George Gibbs. I've seen a fair bit of Schwimmer's post-\"Friends\" stage work in London and New York, and I've never seen him better\", commented the \"Chicago Tribune\". On August 2, 2009, Schwimmer played himself in the sixth season of the HBO television series, \"Entourage\". In the episode, Ari Gold's (Jeremy Piven) agency tries to steer his career back to television. Schwimmer directed his second feature, \"Trust\", starring Clive Owen and Catherine Keener. The film, a drama, is about a family whose teenage daughter becomes victim of an online sexual predator. \"Trust\" premiered at the 2010 Toronto International Film Festival.", "On January 1, 2011, Schwimmer guest-starred on the British comedy series \"Come Fly With Me\" starring Matt Lucas and David Walliams, whom he directed in \"Little Britain USA\". The following year, he returned to voice Melman the Giraffe in \"\". Schwimmer appeared in the cast of \"The Iceman\" in 2013 as Josh Rosenthal, a mobster who was brought up by the notorious Roy Demeo and part of the Gambino Family. The movie starred Michael Shannon as Richard Kuklinski. In 2014, it was announced that Schwimmer had been cast as the lead in the ABC comedy pilot \"Irreversible\". He would play \"one half of a somewhat eccentric, self-absorbed couple\" in his first comedic television role since \"Friends\" finished in 2004. In 2016, Schwimmer played Robert Kardashian in the first season of the FX anthology series \"American Crime Story\". The series was developed by Scott Alexander and Larry Karaszewski and was based on the book \"The Run of His Life: The People v. O. J. Simpson\", by Jeffrey Toobin. He received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for the performance. In January 2016, it was announced that Schwimmer and Jim Sturgess would be starring in the new AMC crime drama, \"Feed the Beast\". The series premiered on June 5, 2016, and aired ten episodes until August. The series was canceled because of poor reviews and low ratings. In November 2016, it was announced that Schwimmer would star in his first audio series. Gimlet Media's podcast \"Homecoming\" began airing on November 16, 2016. In April 2017, Schwimmer helped adapt the films of Sigal Avin for a US audience. The six short features depict sexual harassment at work by men on women. In 2020, Schwimmer was cast as a main character in a new British comedy sitcom called \"Intelligence\" broadcast on Sky One.", "Schwimmer began a relationship with British artist Zoë Buckman in 2007 and they married in June 2010. Their daughter Cleo was born in 2011. The couple announced in April 2017 that they were \"taking some time apart\". They divorced later that year. In June 2006, Schwimmer won a US$400,000 defamation lawsuit against Aaron Tonken, a former charity fundraiser. Tonken claimed Schwimmer had demanded Rolex watches in order to appear at his own charity event, a claim that Schwimmer had denied. Schwimmer is an active director of the Rape Treatment Center in Santa Monica, which specializes in helping victims of date rape and child rape. He has also campaigned for legislation to ban drugs such as Rohypnol and GHB. In November 2011, he gave the Scottish charity Children 1st permission to screen his film \"Trust\" to commemorate World Day for Prevention of Child Abuse and Violence against Children. In 2012, he rebutted two longstanding rumors: one that he appeared as a soldier on a train in \"Biloxi Blues\" (1988), saying, \"No. I don't know why that's on IMDb, but I never was in that\", and the other that he is related to dancer Lacey Schwimmer, saying, \"No, not at all. Please set the record straight. I guess it's a natural assumption because we have the same last name, but no. I've never even met her\".", "", "Yoop (Plory and Yoop, i-Ready Lesson Series, middle 2010s-present)" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Royal history.", "Towards exile.", "Education and business career.", "Monarch in exile.", "Marriage and issue.", "Political return.", "Prime Minister.", "Views on restoration of the Bulgarian monarchy.", "Autobiography.", "Heir to the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha-Koháry.", "Longevity.", "Titles, styles, honours and awards.", "Titles and styles.", "Bibliography.", "Books." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Simeon was born to Boris III and Giovanna of Italy. Following his birth, Boris III sent an air force officer to the Jordan River to obtain water for Simeon's baptism in the Orthodox faith. He acceded to the throne on 28 August 1943 upon the death of his father, who had just returned to Bulgaria from a meeting with Adolf Hitler. Since Tsar Simeon was only six years old when he ascended the throne, his uncle Prince Kyril, Prime Minister Bogdan Filov, and Lt. General Nikola Mikhov of the Bulgarian Army were appointed regents. Under his father, Bulgaria had reluctantly joined the Axis powers in World War II but had managed to preserve diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union. Still, on 5 September 1944 Stalin declared war on Bulgaria and three days later, the Red Army entered the country without encountering resistance. On the next day, 9 September 1944, Prince Kyril and the other regents were deposed by a Soviet-backed coup and arrested. The three regents, all members of the last three governments, Parliament deputies, heads of the army and eminent journalists were executed by the Communists in February 1945.", "The royal family—Queen Giovanna, Simeon II, and his sister Maria-Louisa—remained at Vrana Palace near Sofia, while three new regents were appointed (Todor Pavlov, Venelin Ganev and Tsvetko Boboshevski). On 15 September 1946, a referendum was held in the presence of the Soviet army. It resulted in a 97% approval for republic and abolition of the monarchy, and the boy-king Simeon was deposed. On 16 September 1946, the royal family was exiled from Bulgaria. The royal family first went to Alexandria, Egypt, where Queen Giovanna's father Vittorio Emanuele III, the former king of Italy, lived in exile. There, Simeon II finished Victoria College (along with Crown Prince Leka of Albania). In July 1951, General Franco's dictatorship in Spain granted asylum to the family.", "In Madrid, Simeon studied at the Lycée Français, but did not graduate. On 16 June 1955, upon turning 18, in accordance with the Tarnovo Constitution Simeon II read his proclamation to the Bulgarian people as the Tsar of Bulgaria, confirming his will to be king of all Bulgarians and follow the principles of the Tarnovo Constitution and free Bulgaria. In 1958, he enrolled at Valley Forge Military Academy and College in the United States, where he was known as \"Cadet Rylski No. 6883\", and graduated as a second lieutenant. Once again in Spain (between 1959 and 1962), Simeon studied law and business administration. He became a businessman. For thirteen years, he was chairman of the Spanish subsidiary of Thomson, a French defence and electronics group. He was also an adviser in the banking, hotel, electronics, and catering sectors.", "Simeon issued several political declarations during his exile through his \"chancellery\" in Madrid directed at the Communist regime in Bulgaria and his exiled compatriots. His early attempts at forming an official government in exile did not come to fruition, however.", "On 21 January 1962, Simeon married a Spanish aristocrat, \"Doña\" Margarita Gómez-Acebo y Cejuela. The couple have had five children – four sons (Kardam, Kiril, Kubrat and Konstantin) and a daughter, Kalina, all of whom subsequently married Spaniards. All of his sons received names of Bulgarian kings, his daughter has a Bulgarian name, although only three of his eleven grandchildren have Bulgarian names (Boris, Sofia and Simeon).", "In 1990, just months after the fall of communism, Simeon was issued a new Bulgarian passport. In 1996, fifty years after the abolition of the monarchy, Simeon returned to Bulgaria and was met in many places by crowds cheering: \"We want our King!\" He did not, at that point, make any political announcements or moves. However, these monarchist sentiments gradually disappeared after his premiership and specifically during his coalition as a leader of NMSP with the ex-Communist Party, together with changing of generations; since by that time the majority of voters were born after the fall of the monarchy. Various estates in Bulgaria that had been nationalised during the Communist era were returned to Simeon and his family. In 2001, Simeon, who had by this time taken the name \"Simeon Borisov Saxe-Coburg-Gotha\", announced he would return to Bulgaria to form a new political party, the National Movement Simeon II (NMSII) (later renamed to NMSP), dedicated to \"reforms and political integrity.\" Simeon promised that in 800 days the Bulgarian people would feel tangible positive effects of his government and would enjoy significantly higher standards of living.", "NMSP won a large victory in the parliamentary elections held on 17 June 2001, capturing 120 of the 240 seats in Parliament and defeating the two main pre-existing political parties. Simeon gave an oath as Prime Minister of Bulgaria on 24 July, forming a coalition with the ethnic Turkish party, Movement for Rights and Freedoms (MRF). He gave ministerial positions in his government mainly to technocrats and Western-educated economic specialists. During his time in power, Bulgaria joined NATO. In 2002, he received the Path to Peace Award from the Path to Peace Foundation. In the 2005 elections, Simeon's party ranked second and participated in the grand coalition government led by the Bulgarian Socialist Party and including the Movement for Rights and Freedoms. Simeon II was given the unofficial ceremonial post of Chairman of the Coalition Council. The party got just 3.01% of votes and no seats at the parliamentary elections of 2009. Shortly after, on 6 July, Simeon also resigned as NMSP leader.", "Simeon II has never formally renounced his claim to the Bulgarian throne. He left Bulgaria without signing a formal instrument of abdication. However, since he was a minor at the time, his legal capacity to sign such a document would have been questionable at best. He used the title \"Tsar of the Bulgarians\" in his political statements during his exile. Since his return to Bulgaria, however, Simeon has consistently declined to reveal his views on the restoration of the Bulgarian monarchy, notwithstanding the original name of his party. His triumph in the 2001 elections raised the question of a possible restoration, especially with the economic crisis, poverty, and law and order issues the country faced after the fall of communism. Upon taking office as prime minister, he took an oath to protect the country's republican constitution. Simeon II criticised the Bulgarian government in 2018 after he was told to return his palace taken in 1946. The decision came at a time with rising support of a restoration of the monarchy.", "Simeon II wrote an autobiography in French under the title \"Simeon II de Bulgarie, un destin singulier\" that was released in Bulgaria on 28 October 2014. It was first presented at the headquarters of the UNESCO in Paris on 22 October 2014.", "After the death of his distant cousin Prince Johannes Heinrich of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha in April 2010 and due to the exclusion of the late prince's uncle Philipp and his descendants from his morganatic marriage with Sarah Aurelia Halasz, Simeon became the Head of the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha-Koháry, former magnates of Hungary and heir to the castles of Čabraď and Sv. Anton, both in modern-day Slovakia. In early 2012, he nominally ceded his rights (and those of his children) to the headship of the House and the title \"Princess of Koháry\" to his sister Marie Louise.", "Simeon turned 80 years old on 16 June 2017, at which time Ferdinand I held the record for the longest-lived head of state in Bulgarian history, having been 87 years, and 197 days old when he died, on 10 September 1948.", "", "In a statement published on its website on 1 May 2015, the Bulgarian Patriarchy announced that Simeon Saxe-Coburg-Gotha will be referred to as king of Bulgaria in all public and private services held in the dioceses of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church.", "", "In addition to the books listed in the References, the following may be mentioned:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot.", "Production.", "Reception.", "Impact." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Roy (James Hall) and Monte Rutledge (Ben Lyon) are very different British brothers. Strait-laced Roy loves and idealizes the apparently demure Helen (Jean Harlow). Monte, on the other hand, is a womanizer. Their German friend and fellow Oxford student Karl (John Darrow) is against the idea of having to fight England when World War I breaks out. Meanwhile, the oblivious Monte is caught in the arms of a woman by her German officer husband (Lucien Prival), who insists upon a duel the next day. Monte flees that night. When Roy is mistaken for his brother, he goes ahead with the duel and is shot in the arm. Karl is conscripted into the German Air Force, and the two British brothers enlist in the Royal Flying Corps (RFC), Monte only to get a kiss from a girl at the recruiting station. When Roy finally introduces Monte to Helen, she invites Monte to her flat. Monte tries to rebuff her advances for his brother's sake, but gives in. The next morning, however, he is for once ashamed of himself. Meanwhile, Karl is an officer aboard a Zeppelin airship sent to bomb Trafalgar Square, London. As the bombardier-observer, he is lowered below the clouds in a spy basket. He deliberately guides the Zeppelin over water, where the bombs have no effect. Four RFC fighters are sent to intercept the Zeppelin. Roy pilots one, with Monte as his gunner. To gain altitude and speed more quickly, the airship commander (Carl von Haartman) decides to sacrifice Karl by cutting the cable that secures his pod. When that is not enough, he orders everything possible be jettisoned. He then accepts the advice of another officer; the officer and other crewmen obediently leap to their deaths \"for Kaiser and fatherland\". German machine gunners shoot down three aircraft; Roy and Monte survive a crash landing. After his machine guns jam or run out of ammunition, the last British pilot aloft dives his fighter into the dirigible, sending it crashing in a blazing fireball. The brothers narrowly avoid the debris. Later, in France, Monte is branded a coward for shirking his duty when his replacement is shot down in his place. When a Staff Colonel asks for two volunteers for a suicide mission, Roy and Monte step up. They are to destroy a vital enemy munitions depot their squadron had tried to blow up for days. They will sneak in using a captured German bomber the next morning so that a British brigade will have a chance in their otherwise hopeless afternoon attack. That night, Roy discovers a drunk Helen in a nightclub with Captain Redfield. When he tries to take her home, she turns on him, revealing that she never loved him, that she was, in fact, not the young innocent he believed her to be. Devastated, Roy joins Monte for some carousing. Monte decides not to go on the mission and nearly persuades Roy to do the same, but in the end, Roy drags Monte back to the airfield. The raid on the German munitions dump is successful. However, they are spotted in the act by a flight of German fighters from the Flying Circus, led by the “Red Baron”, Manfred von Richthofen. Monte defends the bomber with a machine gun until their squadron arrives, and a dogfight breaks out. Their buddy \"Baldy\" shoots down the one German who is still targeting the bomber, but then von Richthofen swoops in and shoots the brothers down. They are captured. They are given the option of talking or facing a firing squad by none other than Roy's old dueling opponent. Monte decides to save his life. Unable to change his brother's mind, Roy convinces Monte that he should speak with the German general alone. He offers to tell what he knows on condition that there is no witness to his treason. The general is persuaded to give him a pistol (with one bullet) to kill Monte. Roy fails to get Monte to do the right thing, and has no choice but to shoot his brother in the back. Afterward, Roy is executed. The British attack gets off to a successful start.", "\"Hell's Angels\" had been originally conceived as a silent, with James Hall and Ben Lyon as Roy and Monte Rutledge, and Norwegian silent film star Greta Nissen cast as Helen, the female lead, and was to be directed by Marshall Neilan. Principal photography began on October 31, 1927 with interiors shot at the Metropolitan Studio in Hollywood. A few weeks into production, however, Hughes' overbearing production techniques forced Neilan to quit. Hughes first hired Luther Reed, on loan from Paramount but still was in conflict over directing roles before hiring a more pliable director, Edmund Goulding, but took over the directing reins when it came to the frenetic aerial battle scenes. A year and a half into production, the advent of the sound motion picture came with the arrival of \"The Jazz Singer\". Hughes incorporated the new technology into the half-finished film, but Greta Nissen became the first casualty of the sound age, due to her pronounced Norwegian accent. He paid her for her work and cooperation, and replaced her, because her accent would make her role as a British aristocrat ludicrous. The role was soon filled with a teenage up-and-coming star found by Hall in a revue, and hired by Hughes himself, Jean Harlow. When Hughes made the decision to turn \"Hell's Angels\" into a talkie, he hired a then-unknown James Whale, who had just arrived in Hollywood following a successful turn directing the play \"Journey's End\" in London and on Broadway, to direct the talking sequences; it was Whale's film debut, and arguably prepared him for the later success he would have with the feature version of \"Journey's End\", \"Waterloo Bridge\", and, most famously, the 1931 version of \"Frankenstein\". Unhappy with the script, Whale brought in Joseph Moncure March to re-write it. Hughes later gave March the Luger pistol used in the famous execution scene near the film's ending. One talking scene, filmed in Multicolor but printed by Technicolor, provides the only color film footage of Jean Harlow. (Multicolor was not prepared to print the number of inserts needed for the wide release Hughes wanted.) The inexperienced actress, just 18 years old at the time she was cast, required a great deal of attention from Whale, who shut down production for three days while he worked Harlow through her scenes. During principal photography, Hughes, along with pilot Harry Parry, designed many of the aerial stunts for the dogfighting scenes. Pioneering aerial cinematographer Elmer Dyer captured many of the aerial scenes with Paul Mantz flying as the principal stunt pilot, leading the team of actual World War I pilots hired by Hughes. Hughes, himself an accomplished aviator, personally directed the aerial scenes from overhead, using radio control to coordinate the flying maneuvers. Mantz considered the final scene, in which an aircraft had to make a steep pullout after a strafing mission, too dangerous, and reported that his pilots would not be able to do the maneuver safely. Hughes piloted the aircraft himself, but as Mantz had predicted, he failed to pull out, crashed and was seriously injured with a skull fracture. He spent the next few days recuperating in the hospital, where he underwent facial surgery. Three other aviators and a mechanic were not as fortunate, having been killed during the film's production. Pilot Al Johnson crashed after hitting wires while landing at Caddo Field, near Van Nuys, California, where most of the location filming took place. Pilot C. K. Phillips crashed while delivering an S.E.5 fighter to the Oakland shooting location. Rupert Syme Macalister, an Australian pilot, was also killed, and mechanic Phil Jones died during production after he failed to bail out before the crash of a German Gotha bomber, piloted by Al Wilson, which had been doubled by Igor Sikorsky's Sikorsky S-29-A, his first biplane built after his arrival in the United States. In total, 137 pilots were used in filming the last major flying scene. Due to the delay while Hughes tinkered with the flying scenes, Whale managed to entirely shoot his film adaptation of \"Journey's End\" and release it a month before \"Hell's Angels\" was released; the gap between completion of the dialogue scenes and completion of the aerial combat stunts allowed Whale to be paid, sail back to England, and begin work on the subsequent project, making \"Hell's Angels\" Whale's actual (albeit uncredited) cinema debut, but his \"second\" film to be released. With the majority of the film shot and in editing, Hughes realized a similar film, Darryl F. Zanuck's \"The Dawn Patrol\", would become a competitor at the box office. After attempting to lease all available period aircraft to stall his competitor, Hughes brought a lawsuit through the Caddo Company and the Gainsborough Corporation, that alleged that the screenplay of \"Hell's Angels\" was plagiarized. The lawsuit resulted in \"The Dawn Patrol\" being rushed through post-production in order to be in theaters before \"Hell's Angels\". In late 1930, Warner Bros. and Zanuck won the suit. The film was widely reported as being one of the most expensive films ever made, by contemporary sources, with a reputed budget of $4 million. However, this is a myth created by Hughes to publicise the film, and the accounts for \"Hell's Angels\" reveal that it in fact cost only $2.8 million, considerably less than the $4 million cost of \"\", released three years earlier.", "\"Hell's Angels\" received its premiere at Grauman's Chinese Theatre in Hollywood on May 27, 1930. All the stars and makers of the film attended, as well as Cecil B. DeMille, Buster Keaton, Gloria Swanson, Dolores del Río, Loretta Young and Grant Withers, Norma Talmadge, Mary Pickford and Douglas Fairbanks, Billie Dove, Joe E. Brown, Joel McCrea, Bebe Daniels, Charles Farrell, Ruth Roland and Ben Bard, Mary Brian, Jackie Coogan, Sally Eilers and Hoot Gibson, Lawrence Tibbett, Sally Blane, Wheeler and Woolsey, Joseph Schildkraut, and Charlie Chaplin with his girlfriend Georgia Hale. A program with leather cover was designed for the premiere by famed aviation illustrator Clayton Knight. Reviews were universal in acclaim for the flying scenes but the mundane plot and maudlin characterizations were also noted. The \"Hell's Angels\" screening revealed many traits of pre-code Hollywood. In addition to some fairly frank sexuality, there was a surprising amount of adult language (for the time) during the final dogfight sequence, e.g. \"son of a bitch\", \"goddamn it\", and \"for Christ's sake\", along with the words \"ass\", \"hell\", and a few uses of \"God\" in other scenes. While Harlow, Lyon and Hall received mixed reviews for their acting, Hughes was praised for his hard work on the filming and aircraft sequences. Mourdant Hall, reviewer for \"The New York Times\", was especially critical about Harlow's performance, saying, \"his film is absorbing and exciting. But while she is the center of attraction, the picture is a most mediocre piece of work.\" Harlow had top billing on the posters but in the film itself, she was billed third under Lyon and Hall. It earned $2.5 million for its backers at the box office, which made it one of the highest grossing sound films of its era, but still slightly less than its $2.8 million production costs. \"Hell's Angels\" received one Academy Award nomination, Best Cinematography (Tony Gaudio and Harry Perry). \"Hell's Angels\" is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:", "\"Hell's Angels\" has been re-released on VHS and DVD formats by Universal Studios, which in later years acquired the rights to the film. In its original British release, the censor cut more than 30 minutes from the film. In 1962, film director Stanley Kubrick cited \"Hell's Angels\" as one of his 10 favorite films that influenced his later career. The 1977 TV film \"The Amazing Howard Hughes\" has one passage where Hughes (Tommy Lee Jones) directs the Zeppelin segment over and over in non-stop takes: although he did repeated takes, Hughes, in reality, shot the Zeppelin scenes and left the partially shot footage untouched except for adding sound. According to film experts, he did not do any retakes of the Zeppelin sequence. Martin Scorsese's \"The Aviator\", a 2004 biopic of Hughes, during the opening act portrays the making of \"Hell's Angels\" and later its premiere at Grauman's Chinese Theatre. The involvement of Howard Hughes in \"Hell's Angels\" spawned a niche within enthusiasts in entertainment, aviation and militaria collectibles groups. Aviation enthusiasts have referenced the quality and authenticity of World War I aviation in the film." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "World War II.", "Early post-war years.", "Political life 1945–1961.", "Lockheed bribery scandals." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Born in Munich on 6 September 1915, as the second child of a butcher, Strauss studied German letters, history and economics at the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich from 1935 to 1939.", "In World War II, he served in the Wehrmacht on the Western and Eastern Fronts. While on furlough, he passed the German state exams to become a teacher. After suffering from severe frostbite on the Eastern Front in early 1943, he served as an \"Offizier für wehrgeistige Führung\", responsible for the education of the troops, at the antiaircraft artillery school in Altenstadt Air Base, near Schongau. During the Jassy–Kishinev Offensive, he served with the Panzer Regiment of the 13th Panzer Division. He held the rank of \"Oberleutnant\" at the end of the war.", "In 1945 he served as translator for the US army. He called himself \"Franz Strauß\" until soon after the war when he started using his middle name \"Josef\" as well.", "After the war, in 1945, he was appointed deputy \"Landrat\" (chief executive and representative of the district) of Schongau by the American military government and was involved in founding the local party organization of the Christian Social Union in Bavaria (CSU). Strauss became a member of the first \"Bundestag\" (Federal Parliament) in 1949. In 1953 Strauss became Federal Minister for Special Affairs in the second cabinet of Chancellor Konrad Adenauer, in 1955 Federal Minister of Nuclear Energy, and in 1956 Defence Minister, charged with the build-up of the new West German defence forces, the \"Bundeswehr\"the youngest man to hold this office at the time. He became chairman of the CSU in 1961. Strauss stated in a letter to HIAG in March 1957: \"I think you know how I personally think about the front line units of the \"Waffen-SS\". They are included in my admiration for the German soldiers of the last world war.\"", "Former Lockheed lobbyist admitted to investigators during a U.S. Senate hearing that Minister of Defence Strauss and his party had received at least $10 million in remuneration for arranging West Germany's purchase of 900 F-104G Starfighters in 1961, which later became part of the Lockheed bribery scandals. The party, its leaders, and Strauss all denied the allegations; and Strauss filed a slander suit against Hauser. Strauss and Hauser had met after World War II in Schongau, Bavaria, where Hauser was stationed. Hauser worked for U.S. Intelligence and Strauss was Hauser's translator. They were good friends, which Strauss later denied, in a denial belied by the fact that Strauss had attended Hauser's wedding. As the allegations were not corroborated, the issue was dropped.<ref" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Personal life and education.", "Bosnian war.", "Early political career.", "Presidency.", "First term (2006–2010).", "Second term (2010–2014).", "Return to Presidency; Third term (2018–present)." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Komšić was born in Sarajevo to a Bosnian Croat father, Marko, and Bosnian Serb mother Danica. (\"née\" Stanić; 1941 – 1 August 1992). His mother, Danica, was killed by a sniper of the Armed forces of the Republika Srpska as she sipped coffee in her apartment during the Siege of Sarajevo. According to many, this event was his breaking point, as at the time, he was enlisted in the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Komšić would go on to earn the Order of the Golden Lily, which was at the time the highest state order awarded for military merits. His maternal grandfather Marijan Stanić, who was a Chetnik during World War II, died two years before Komšić was born. The Stanić family hailed from the village of Kostajnica, near Doboj. Komšić was baptised a Catholic, like his father. However, being a religious-skeptic, he left the Catholic church. He is a self-described agnostic. Komšić has a Bachelor of Laws' degree from the Faculty of Law of University of Sarajevo. He was chosen to represent Bosnia and Herzegovina in selective anual Georgetown Leadership Seminar in 2003. His wife Sabina, is an ethnic Bosniak. The couple has a daughter named Lana. Komšić was one of the signatories of the Declaration on the Common Language for Croats, Serbs, Bosniaks and Montenegrins.", "During the Bosnian war, Komšić served in the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina and received the Golden Lily — the highest military decoration awarded by the Bosnian-Herzegovinian government.", "After the war, Komšić embarked on a political career as a member of the Social Democratic Party of Bosnia and Herzegovina (SDP-BiH). He was a councilman of the municipality of Novo Sarajevo and in the city council of Sarajevo, before being elected the head of the municipal government of Novo Sarajevo in 2000. He then also served as the deputy mayor of Sarajevo for two years. When the \"Alliance for Democratic Change\" coalition came to power in 1998, Komšić was named the ambassador to the now defunct FR Yugoslavia in Belgrade. He resigned this commission after the election in 2002 when SDP went back into opposition.", "", "Komšić was SDP's candidate for the Croat seat in the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina in the 2006 Bosnian general election. He received 116,062 votes, or 39.6% ahead of Ivo Miro Jović (HDZ; 26.1%), Božo Ljubić (HDZ 1990; 18.2%), Mladen Ivanković-Lijanović (NSRB; 8.5%), Zvonko Jurišić (HSP; 6.9%) and Irena Javor-Korjenić (0.7%). He was sworn into office on 1 October 2006. His victory was widely attributed to a split in the HDZ-BiH party, enabling the SDP to win a majority of the Bosniaks votes. Croats see him as an illegitimate representative of the Bosnian Croats because he was elected mostly by Bosniak voters. In May 2008, the Bosniak Member of the Presidency at the time, Haris Silajdžić, stated during his visit to Washington, D. C. that there is only one language in Bosnia and Herzegovina and that it goes by three names. His statement created negative reactions from Croat political parties and, at the time, Prime Minister of Republika Srpska, Milorad Dodik. Komšić replied to Silajdžić that he is not the one who will decide how many languages are being spoken in Bosnia and Herzegovina. According to a study conducted by the National Democratic Institute in 2010, Komšić was the most popular politician among the Bosniaks.", "At the 2010 general election, Komšić won 337,065 votes, 60.6% of total. He was followed by Borjana Krišto (HDZ; 19.7%), Martin Raguž (HK; 10.8%), Jerko Ivanković-Lijanović (NSRB; 8.1%), Pero Galić (0.3%), Mile Kutle (0.2%) and Ferdo Galić (0.2%). Komšić's electoral win in 2010 is highly contested by Croat political representatives and generally seen as electoral fraud. Namely, every citizen in the Federation can decide whether to vote for a Bosniak or a Croat representative. However, since Bosniaks make up 70% of Federation's population and Croats only 22%, a candidate running to represent Croats in the Presidency can be effectively elected even without a majority among the Croat community - if enough Bosniak voters decide to vote on a Croat ballot. This happened in 2006 and in 2010, when Komšić, an ethnic Croat, backed by multiethnic Social-Democrat Party, won the elections with very few Croat votes. In 2010, he didn't win in a single municipality that had Croat-majority or plurality; nearly all of these went to Borjana Krišto. Bulk of the votes Komšić received came from predominantly Bosniak areas and he fared quite poorly in Croat municipalities, supported by less than 2,5% of the electorate in a number of municipalities in Western Herzegovina, such as Široki Brijeg, Ljubuški (0,8%), Čitluk, Posušje and Tomislavgrad, while not being able to gain not even 10% in a number of others. Komšić received over seven thousand votes from the Bosniak-majority municipality Kalesija, where a total of 20 Croats live. Furthermore, total Croat population in whole of Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina was then estimated around 495,000; Komšić received 336,961 votes alone, while all other Croat candidates won 230,000 votes altogether. Croats consider him to be an illegitimate representative and generally treat him as a second Bosniak member of the presidency. This raised frustration among Croats, undermined their trust in federal institutions and empowered claims for their own entity or a federal unit.", "In the 2018 general election, Komšić was once again elected to the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina as the Croat member with 52.64% of the votes, 16.5% more than his successor, presidency member Dragan Čović. On 20 July 2019, he, for a record fifth time, became the new Presidency Chairman for the following eight months, succeeding Serb member Milorad Dodik. After eight months, on 20 March 2020, Bosniak member Šefik Džaferović succeeded Komšić as Chairman for, as well, the next eight months." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name.", "Chronological position and reign length.", "Pyramid." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The name Khendjer is poorly attested in Egyptian. Khendjer \"has been interpreted as a foreign name \"hnzr\" and equated with the Semitic personal name \"h(n)zr\", [for] \"boar\" according to the Danish Egyptologist Kim Ryholt. He notes that this identification is confirmed by the fact that the name \"h(n)zr\" is written as \"hzr\" in a variant spelling of this king's name on a seal from this king's reign. Ryholt states that the word 'boar' is: Khendjer was, therefore, the earliest known Semitic king of a native Egyptian dynasty. Khendjer's prenomen or throne name, \"Userkare\", translates as \"The Soul of Re is Powerful.\" Khendjer, however, may have had a second prenomen at his coronation: 'Nimaatre' which translates as 'The one who belongs to Maat is Re.' This name appears together with the name Khendjer at the top of the stela of Amenyseneb (Louvre C11).", "The exact chronological position of Khendjer in the Thirteenth Dynasty is not known for certain owing to uncertainties affecting earlier kings of the dynasty. Egyptologist Darrell Baker makes him the twenty-first king of the dynasty, Ryholt sees him as the twenty-second king and Jürgen von Beckerath places him as the seventeenth pharaoh of the dynasty. Furthermore, the identity of his predecessor is still debated: Baker and Ryholt believe it was Wegaf, but that pharaoh is confused with Khaankhre Sobekhotep, so that it is not known which one of the two founded the Thirteenth Dynasty and which one was Khendjer's predecessor. The highest attested date for Khendjer's reign is the fourth month of the season of the Inundation), day 15 in his fifth regnal year. Kim Ryholt notes that two dated control notes on stone blocks from his unfinished pyramid complex give him a minimum reign of 3 or 4 years 3 months and 5 days. The aforementioned control notes are dated to \"Year 1 I Akhet day 10\" and \"Year 5 IV Akhet day 15\" of his reign. In these control notes, the names of three officials involved in building the pyramid are also identified. They are the \"chamberlain of the palace\", Senebtyfy, the \"chamberlain\" Ameny and the chamberlain, Shebenu. The latter is also attested by other sources.", "Khendjer is known primarily from his pyramid complex excavated by G. Jequier at Saqqara which was perhaps completed as a pyramidion was found. There was found a fragment of a canopic jar, which offers a partial name for his queen, \"Seneb...\" \"which may be restored as Sonb[henas].\" Other objects with the name of the king are a stela from Abydos recording building projects by the king at the Osiris temple at Abydos, and naming the vizier Ankhu. Another stela once in Liverpool (destroyed in World War II), provides the name of the king's son \"\"Khedjer\"\". He might be a son of the king. Other objects with his name, according to the list provided by Ryholt, include three cylinder-seals from Athribis, a tile found near el-Lisht, scarab seals and an axe blade." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Purchase.", "Refurbishment.", "Design.", "Structural modifications.", "Combat systems.", "Air Group.", "Sea trials and commissioning.", "First sea trials.", "Second sea trials.", "Surveillance by NATO.", "Commissioning.", "Service history.", "Affiliations.", "Accidents and incidents." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "\"Baku\" entered service in 1987, and was renamed \"Admiral Gorshkov\" in 1991, but was deactivated in 1996 because she was too expensive to operate on a post-Cold War budget. This attracted the attention of India, which was looking for a way to expand its carrier aviation capabilities. On 20 January 2004, after years of negotiations, Russia and India signed a deal for the sale of the ship. The ship would be free, while India would pay US$800 million for the upgrade and refit of the ship, as well as an additional US$1 billion for the aircraft and weapons systems. The navy looked at equipping the carrier with the E-2C Hawkeye, but decided not to. In 2009, Northrop Grumman offered the advanced E-2D Hawkeye to the Indian Navy. The deal also included the purchase of 12 single-seat Mikoyan MiG-29K 'Fulcrum-D' (Product 9.41) and four dual-seat MiG-29KUB aircraft (with an option for 14 more aircraft) at US$1 billion, six Kamov Ka-31 \"Helix\" reconnaissance and anti-submarine helicopters, torpedo tubes, missile systems and artillery units. Facilities and procedures for training pilots and technical staff, delivery of simulators, spare parts, and establishment maintenance on Indian Navy facilities were also part of the contract. The upgrade involved stripping all the weaponry and missile launcher tubes from the ship's foredeck to make way for a \"short take-off barrier-arrested recovery\" (STOBAR) configuration, converting the \"Gorshkov\" from a hybrid carrier/cruiser to a pure carrier. The announced delivery date for INS \"Vikramaditya\" was August 2008, which would allow the carrier to enter service just as the Indian Navy's only light carrier INS Viraat retired. While \"Viraat\"'s retirement had been pushed out to 2010–2012, it underwent a final refit which enabled her to serve through 2016. The issue with the delays was compounded by ongoing cost overruns, leading to high-level diplomatic exchanges. India finally agreed to pay an additional US$1.2 billion for the project, more than doubling the original cost. However, ongoing delays with the \"Vikramaditya's\" delivery schedule, pushed the delivery to 2013. The indigenous \"Vikrant\"-class aircraft carrier was delayed by at least a year and was expected to be commissioned at the earliest in 2013 from the proposed 2012. In July 2008, it was reported that Russia wanted to increase the price by US$2 billion, blaming unexpected cost overruns on the deteriorated condition of the ship and citing a \"market price\" for a new carrier of US$3–4 bn. India had paid US$400 million as of November 2008. However, Russia even threatened to scrap the deal altogether if India did not pay the increased amount. In December 2008, government sources in India stated that the Cabinet Committee on Security (CCS) had finally decided in favour of purchasing \"Admiral Gorshkov\" as the best option available. The Comptroller and Auditor General of India (CAG) criticised the fact that \"Vikramaditya\" would be a second-hand warship with a limited life-span, which would be 60% costlier than a new one, and there was a risk of further delay in its delivery. The Indian Navy Chief of Naval Staff Admiral Sureesh Mehta defended the price for the warship saying, \"I can't comment on the CAG. But you all are defence analysts, can you get me an aircraft carrier for less than USD 2 billion? If you can, I am going to sign a cheque right now\". The statement from the Chief of Naval Staff at that time indicated that the final deal could be in excess of US$2 billion. When asked about CAG's finding that the navy had not done its risk analysis before going in for the ship, he was quoted as saying, \"I can ensure you that there is no such thing. There is no question, we have been looking at the ship since the late 90s.\" On 2 July 2009, Russian President Dmitry Medvedev said that the refit of the carrier should be completed as soon as possible so she could be delivered to India in 2012. On 7 December 2009, Russian sources indicated that final terms had been agreed on, but no delivery date was set. On 8 December 2009, it was reported that India and Russia ended the stalemate over \"Admiral Gorshkov\" price deal by agreeing on a price of US$2.2 billion. Moscow was asking for US$2.9 billion for the aircraft carrier, nearly three times the price that was originally agreed between the two sides in 2004. On the other hand, New Delhi wanted the price to be scaled back to US$2.1 billion. Both governments finalised the price of \"Admiral Gorshkov\" at US$2.35 billion on 10 March, a day ahead of Russian Prime Minister Vladimir Putin's two-day visit to India. In April 2010, a scandal over the project emerged when it was announced that a senior Indian Navy officer had probably been blackmailed in order to influence the negotiations over the cost of \"Admiral Gorshkov\" to India. Commodore Sukhjinder Singh had been a senior figure supervising the refit of the carrier, working as the principal director for the project. He was discharged from service due to this incident.", "The hull work was completed by 2008 and \"Vikramaditya\" was launched on 4 December 2008. Around 99% of the structural work and almost 50% of the cabling work had been completed by June 2010. Almost all of the large equipment, including engines and diesel generators, was installed. A naval MiG-29K prototype aircraft was used to test the deck systems of \"Vikramaditya\" in 2010. All reconfiguration work was completed at Severodvinsk, Russia; however it was delayed by three years due to underestimation of the amount of cabling needed. An expert level discussion on technical and financial matters was held between India and Russia to sort out the issues. The MiG-29K entered operational service with India in February 2010. A compromise was finalised and India was to pay an extra undisclosed amount. Russia was to install new systems instead of repairing the old ones. On 1 June 2010, \"The Times of India\" reported a naval officer saying: \"With India earlier this year agreeing to the revised refit cost of $2.33 billion for \"Gorshkov\" after three years of bitter wrangling since the earlier agreement inked in January 2004 had earmarked only $974 million for it, Russia has appointed a high-level apex committee to oversee the work on the carrier\". The ship was to go for harbour trials by early 2011 to ensure it could be handed over to India by December 2012 or so. Dock trials began on 1 March 2011. The focus of these trials was on the main power generation units and the radio-electronic armament systems, manufactured in India. Indian Navy personnel began training on \"Vikramaditya\" in April 2011. On 19 April 2012, it was announced that all internal systems were functioning, and the ship was entirely self-contained. Measurement of the ship's magnetic field and centre of gravity were performed before sea trials began.", "As completed, \"Vikramaditya\" has a larger full load displacement than when the ship was originally launched in 1982 as \"Baku\". 1,750 out of 2,500 compartments of the ship were re-fabricated, and extensive re-cabling was done to support new radars and sensors. The elevators were upgraded, and two restraining stands were fitted, allowing combat aircraft to reach full power before making a ski jump-assisted short take-off. Three arresting gears were fitted on the aft part of the angled deck, and navigation and carrier-landing aids were added to support fixed-wing \"short take-off but arrested recovery\" (STOBAR) operations.", "The major modifications were to allow \"Admiral Gorshkov\" to operate as a STOBAR aircraft carrier in Indian service, as opposed to the STOVL configuration the ship was built as. This involved removal of all the armament, including the P-500 \"Bazalt\" cruise missile launchers and the four Antey Kinzhal surface-to-air missile bins fitted on ship's bow, to make way for a 14.3°, full-width ski-jump. The 20-ton capacity aircraft lift beside the ship's island superstructure was unchanged, but the aft lift was enlarged and its lift capacity increased to 30 tons. For STOBAR operations, three 30 m arrestor wires and three restraining gears on the stern of the angled deck were fitted. Sponsons were installed to increase the area of the flight deck, to allow the ski-jump to be fitted, for strengthening of arresting gear and runway area, and to lengthen the after end, which allowed an increase to the length of the landing strip aft of the arresting gear. 234 new hull sections were installed to achieve the desired shape, and the total steel added to carry out these modifications amounted to 2500 tons. The superstructure profile was designed to accommodate the fixed phased array scanners of the Soviet Navy's Mars-Passat 3D air search radar system, along with extensive command and control facilities to conduct an aerial campaign. Extensive revamp of sensors was carried out, with long range air-surveillance radars and advanced electronic warfare suites fitted, which enable the maintenance of a surveillance bubble of over 500 km around the ship. An aft mast was installed to accommodate various communication antennae. These changes needed 2,300 km of new cables, and 3,000 km of new pipes. The eight original boilers were replaced by new generation, high-pressure boilers, converted to take diesel fuel utilising LSHSD instead of furnace fuel oil, each providing a steam capacity of 100 tonnes per hour. The new boilers are highly efficient and have high levels of automation. They power four propellers in four shaft configuration, producing a total thrust of at the shaft, providing a top speed of over 30 knots. Six turbo alternators and six diesel alternators generate 18 MW of electricity to power various equipment. Modern oil-water separators as well as a sewage treatment plant were incorporated to meet international standards. Six new Finnish Wärtsilä 1.5 MW diesel generators, a Global Marine communications system, Sperry Bridgemaster navigation radar, a new telephone exchange, new data link and an IFF Mk XI system were added. Hotel services were improved with the addition of two reverse osmosis plants producing 400 tons of fresh water per day, as well as updated refrigeration and air conditioning. A new galley was installed together with improved domestic services and accommodation for 10 female officers.", "The combat systems on board the carrier are controlled by LESORUB-E, the computer-aided action information system. It gathers data from the ship's sensors and data links and creates comprehensive situation awareness. The CCS Mk II communication complex is installed for external communications and the Link II tactical data system enables integration into the Indian Navy's network-centric operations. Modern launch and recovery systems are installed for handling different aircraft – the LUNA landing system for MiG-29Ks and the DAPS Landing system for Sea Harriers. The Resistor-E automated air-traffic control system has been installed, which provides assistance during approach, landing and short range navigation down to a distance of 30 metres short of flight deck to the pilots. Along with various other sub-systems, it provides navigation and flight data to ship-borne aircraft operating at long distances from the carrier. When delivered, \"Vikramaditya\" had yet to be fitted with any on-board armament, leaving her dependent on her battle group for self-defence. This was rectified during the ship's short refit of April–June 2015, when she was fitted with four license-built AK-630 CIWS, and a Barak 1 SAM system stripped from the decommissioned. During the ship's first scheduled major refit in 2017, the Barak 1 system will be replaced with the newly developed Barak 8 long-range air-defence system (LR-SAM), which is currently being tested. It is launched from vertical launch cells, and has an operational range of 0.5–100 km The carrier will carry up to 48 missiles. The official expected life span of the ship is 40 years, and is unlikely to require any major repair work for at least a decade. Over 70% of the ship and her equipment is new and the remainder has been refurbished. Sevmash Shipyard, which upgraded the carrier, will provide warranty servicing including maintenance for the next 20 years.", "\"Vikramaditya\" has been designed as a STOBAR carrier capable of operating both conventional fixed-wing aircraft and helicopters, with up to 34 aircraft capable of being accommodated. Its primary embarked aircraft type is the Mikoyan MiG-29K, a navalised version of the Mikoyan MiG-29M. The MiG-29K is an advanced, all weather multi-role fighter capable of undertaking both the fleet air defence, low level strike and anti-shipping roles. The primary ASW platform is the venerable Westland Sea King, while AEW is undertaken by the Kamov Ka-31. Carriage ranges given for the ship seem to converge around 16–24 MiG-29K and 10 Kamov Ka-31 or Dhruv helicopters; however \"Vikramaditya\" is not capable of operating fixed-wing AEW aircraft owing to her configuration as a STOBAR carrier. Utility and plane guard duties are undertaken by the HAL Chetak (or HAL Dhruv).", "", "Russia was scheduled to hand over \"Vikramaditya\" to India on 4 December 2012, with sea trials scheduled to begin on 29 May 2012. The sea trials in fact began on 8 June. The ship sailed out for pre-delivery trials from the berth of the Sevmash shipyard in Russia's northern city of Severodvinsk. These trials were to include landing and take-off of fighter jets from the deck of the carrier. On 17 September 2012, malfunctions were detected during trials. According to an official report, seven out of eight steam boilers of the propulsion machinery were out of order. Due to this, the deadline of the hand over this ship to the Indian Navy was postponed again until October 2013. Later investigation has determined that the cause for the engine failure was due to poor workmanship and supervision. The \"Gorshkov\" and other ships of the 1143.4 class had a history of multiple boiler failures, however Russian shipbuilders claimed that the source of the problem was the low-grade Chinese-made fire-bricks that were used in the boiler insulation instead of asbestos.", "On 3 July 2013, Igor Sevastyanov, deputy head of Russia's state arms exporter Rosoboronexport, announced that the warship had departed for sea trials with a mix of Russian and Indian crew. On 28 July 2013, it was reported that \"Vikramaditya\" had successfully completed her sea trials and was able to reach her maximum speed of 32 knots. She then proceeded to the White Sea for aviation trials, which were carried out by Russia's Northern Fleet aviation and completed in September 2013. Aircraft and helicopters flew around and over the ship to check the performance of its radar, air defence, communication and control systems, and MiG specialists praised the ski-jump ramp. The sea trials lasted three months. The carrier's electronic warfare and jamming capability was demonstrated when Sukhoi-33s, Kamovs, MiG-29s and A-50 early warning aircraft failed to \"paint\" the carrier using their radars, whereas the incoming aircraft were detected by the ship at a distance of 350–400 km. In total, the ship sailed for 19,500 miles during both the trials, controlled 778 aircraft and helicopter flights, and conducted 88 landings by Russian pilots. During the second sea trial, it sailed for 8,600 miles, of which 1,700 miles were under the command of the ship's Indian captain Commodore Suraj Berry.", "During sea trials, a P-3 Orion aircraft observed \"Vikramaditya\". While in international waters, it flew close to the ship to take photographs, and also dropped sonobuoys to record the ship's acoustic signature. The aircraft left the area when a Russian MiG-29 arrived. A Norwegian ship was also seen to observe \"Vikramaditya\".", "She was formally commissioned on 16 November 2013 at a ceremony held at Severodvinsk, Russia. The ceremony was attended by the then Indian defence minister A. K. Antony and the Russian deputy prime minister Dmitry Rogozin. The ship is now patrolling the Indian Ocean.", "After commissioning, the carrier began a continuous 26-day journey of 10,212 nautical miles to its home-port at, Karwar, from Severodvinsk on 27 November 2013, with a short stopover in Lisbon. It was under the command of Commodore Suraj Berry, her first Indian captain. Apart from her Indian crew, she also carried 177 Russian specialists from Sevmash, who would remain on board for one year, as part of the 20-year post-warranty services contract with the shipyard. During the journey, it encountered a storm in the Barents Sea where she linked up with her escorts frigate and fleet tanker. The group was escorted by the Royal Navy frigate while passing through the English Channel, and was joined by destroyer near Gibraltar. The flotilla sailed in the Mediterranean Sea, crossed the Suez Canal and entered the Arabian Sea near the Gulf of Aden on 1 January 2014. It was received nearly away from Indian shores by a large flotilla of the Western fleet, which was composed of the aircraft carrier, two s, three s, the frigate, and a couple of offshore patrol vessels including. The event was significant as the Indian Navy was operating two aircraft carriers simultaneously for the first time in 20 years. After conducting basic sea exercises with the fleet, \"Vikramaditya\" reached Karwar on 7 January 2014. Navy pilots of INAS 303 \"Black Panthers\" operating the MiG-29K practised carrier operations at the Shore Based Test Facility (SBTF) in INS Hansa, Dabolim, Vasco-da-Gama. The first aircraft piloted by an Indian Navy pilot landed on the carrier on 8 February 2014. Since then, the pilots and air controllers have been certified for operating the MiG-29K fighters from the carrier deck, including night landings. The carrier's air wing will consist of 16 MiG-29Ks including four KUB trainers, six airborne early warning and control (AEW&C) Kamov Ka-31 and Kamov Ka-28 anti-submarine warfare (ASW) helicopters. In May 2014, the carrier was declared operationally deployed along with its embarked air group comprising MiG-29Ks and had taken part in a war game conducted by the Western Naval Command. On 14 June 2014, Prime Minister of India dedicated the carrier to the country. On 8 December 2015, Indian Defence-Ministry sources stated that the INS \"Vikramaditya\" would receive its first major overhaul in September 2016 as part of the \"Make in India\" initiative. The state-owned Cochin Shipyards and the Pipavav shipyards will overhaul the carrier once it is in dry dock. On 21–22 January 2016, \"Vikramaditya\" accompanied by made her first overseas port visit when the ship visited Colombo in Sri Lanka, making the first visit of an Indian warship to the city in 30 years, and the first by an aircraft carrier in more than 40 years. On 15–18 February 2016, \"Vikramaditya\" accompanied by two ships, INS \"Mysore\" and, made a goodwill visit to Male, Maldives. In September 2016, \"Vikramaditya\" was dry-docked in Kochi for a month-long refit by Cochin Shipyards; the refit was completed in November, a month ahead of schedule. A State Bank of India ATM was opened onboard \"Vikramaditya\" on 21 January 2017, making it the first Indian Navy ship to have an ATM. In January 2020, \"Vikramaditya\" was used to undertake the first carrier trials of the naval version of the HAL Tejas Light Combat Aircraft. Over the course of eight to ten days, the Tejas was launched and recovered a number of times as part of the aircraft's initial test phase. The Tejas was the first indigenous Indian aircraft to both land on and take-off from an Indian aircraft carrier.", "On 17 January 2018, \"Vikramaditya\" was ceremonially affiliated to the following formations:", "On 10 June 2016, while undergoing a scheduled major refit of INS \"Vikramaditya\", two people were killed by a toxic gas leak that occurred during maintenance work in the Sewage Treatment Plant compartment of INS \"Vikramaditya\" at Karwar. Two other people were injured and taken to the naval hospital. On 28 February 2017, a MiG-29K aircraft that took off from \"Vikramaditya\" had to make an emergency landing at Mangalore International Airport due to hydraulic failure. On 26 April 2019, one naval officer died of smoke inhalation at Karwar's naval hospital INHS Patanjali and seven others were injured after fighting a fire that erupted in the boiler room of \"Vikramaditya\" on her course to INS Kadamba." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Overview.", "Compressed format overview.", "Decompression algorithm details.", "Range coding of bits.", "Range coding of integers.", "LZMA configuration.", "LZMA coding contexts.", "LZMA2 format.", "xz and 7z formats.", "Compression algorithm details.", "Range encoder.", "Dictionary search data structures.", "Hash chains.", "Binary trees.", "Patricia tries.", "LZMA encoder.", "Fast encoder.", "Normal encoder.", "LZMA2 encoder.", "Upper encoding layers.", "7-Zip reference implementation.", "Other implementations.", "LZHAM." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "LZMA uses a dictionary compression algorithm (a variant of LZ77 with huge dictionary sizes and special support for repeatedly used match distances), whose output is then encoded with a range encoder, using a complex model to make a probability prediction of each bit. The dictionary compressor finds matches using sophisticated dictionary data structures, and produces a stream of literal symbols and phrase references, which is encoded one bit at a time by the range encoder: many encodings are possible, and a dynamic programming algorithm is used to select an optimal one under certain approximations. Prior to LZMA, most encoder models were purely byte-based (i.e. they coded each bit using only a cascade of contexts to represent the dependencies on previous bits from the same byte). The main innovation of LZMA is that instead of a generic byte-based model, LZMA's model uses contexts specific to the bitfields in each representation of a literal or phrase: this is nearly as simple as a generic byte-based model, but gives much better compression because it avoids mixing unrelated bits together in the same context. Furthermore, compared to classic dictionary compression (such as the one used in zip and gzip formats), the dictionary sizes can be and usually are much larger, taking advantage of the large amount of memory available on modern systems.", "In LZMA compression, the compressed stream is a stream of bits, encoded using an adaptive binary range coder. The stream is divided into packets, each packet describing either a single byte, or an LZ77 sequence with its length and distance implicitly or explicitly encoded. Each part of each packet is modeled with independent contexts, so the probability predictions for each bit are correlated with the values of that bit (and related bits from the same field) in previous packets of the same type. Both the lzip and the LZMA SDK documentation describes this stream format. There are 7 types of packets: LONGREP[*] refers to LONGREP[0-3] packets, *REP refers to both LONGREP and SHORTREP, and *MATCH refers to both MATCH and *REP. LONGREP[n] packets remove the distance used from the list of the most recent distances and reinsert it at the front, to avoid useless repeated entry, while MATCH just adds the distance to the front even if already present in the list and SHORTREP and LONGREP[0] don't alter the list. The length is encoded as follows: As in LZ77, the length is not limited by the distance, because copying from the dictionary is defined as if the copy was performed byte by byte, keeping the distance constant. Distances are logically 32-bit and distance 0 points to the most recently added byte in the dictionary. The distance encoding starts with a 6-bit \"distance slot\", which determines how many further bits are needed. Distances are decoded as a binary concatenation of, from most to least significant, two bits depending on the distance slot, some bits encoded with fixed 0.5 probability, and some context encoded bits, according to the following table (distance slots 0−3 directly encode distances 0−3).", "No complete natural language specification of the compressed format seems to exist, other than the one attempted in the following text. The description below is based on the compact XZ Embedded decoder by Lasse Collin included in the Linux kernel source from which the LZMA and LZMA2 algorithm details can be relatively easily deduced: thus, while citing source code as reference isn't ideal, any programmer should be able to check the claims below with a few hours of work.", "LZMA data is at the lowest level decoded one bit at a time by the range decoder, at the direction of the LZMA decoder. Context-based range decoding is invoked by the LZMA algorithm passing it a reference to the \"context\", which consists of the unsigned 11-bit variable \"prob\" (typically implemented using a 16-bit data type) representing the predicted probability of the bit being 0, which is read and updated by the range decoder (and should be initialized to 2^10, representing 0.5 probability). Fixed probability range decoding instead assumes a 0.5 probability, but operates slightly differently from context-based range decoding. The range decoder state consists of two unsigned 32-bit variables, \"range\" (representing the range size), and \"code\" (representing the encoded point within the range). Initialization of the range decoder consists of setting \"range\" to 2 − 1, and \"code\" to the 32-bit value starting at the second byte in the stream interpreted as big-endian; the first byte in the stream is completely ignored. Normalization proceeds in this way: Context-based range decoding of a bit using the \"prob\" probability variable proceeds in this way: Fixed-probability range decoding of a bit proceeds in this way: The Linux kernel implementation of fixed-probability decoding in rc_direct, for performance reasons, doesn't include a conditional branch, but instead subtracts \"range\" from \"code\" unconditionally, and uses the resulting sign bit to both decide the bit to return, and to generate a mask that is combined with \"code\" and added to \"range\". Note that:", "The range decoder also provides the bit-tree, reverse bit-tree and fixed probability integer decoding facilities, which are used to decode integers, and generalize the single-bit decoding described above. To decode unsigned integers less than \"limit\", an array of (\"limit\" − 1) 11-bit probability variables is provided, which are conceptually arranged as the internal nodes of a complete binary tree with \"limit\" leaves. Non-reverse bit-tree decoding works by keeping a pointer to the tree of variables, which starts at the root. As long as the pointer doesn't point to a leaf, a bit is decoded using the variable indicated by the pointer, and the pointer is moved to either the left or right children depending on whether the bit is 0 or 1; when the pointer points to a leaf, the number associated with the leaf is returned. Non-reverse bit-tree decoding thus happens from most significant to least significant bit, stopping when only one value in the valid range is possible (this conceptually allows to have range sizes that are not powers of two, even though LZMA doesn't make use of this). Reverse bit-tree decoding instead decodes from least significant bit to most significant bits, and thus only supports ranges that are powers of two, and always decodes the same number of bits. It is equivalent to performing non-reverse bittree decoding with a power of two \"limit\", and reversing the last log2(\"limit\") bits of the result. In the rc_bittree function in the Linux kernel, integers are actually returned in the [\"limit\", 2 * \"limit\") range (with \"limit\" added to the conceptual value), and the variable at index 0 in the array is unused, while the one at index 1 is the root, and the left and right children indices are computed as 2\"i\" and 2\"i\" + 1. The rc_bittree_reverse function instead adds integers in the [0, \"limit\") range to a caller-provided variable, where \"limit\" is implicitly represented by its logarithm, and has its own independent implementation for efficiency reasons. Fixed probability integer decoding simply performs fixed probability bit decoding repeatedly, reading bits from the most to the least significant.", "The LZMA decoder is configured by an \"lclppb\" \"properties\" byte and a dictionary size. The value of the \"lclppb\" byte is \"lc\" + \"lp\" * 9 + \"pb\" * 9 * 5, where: In non-LZMA2 streams, \"lc\" must not be greater than 8, and \"lp\" and \"pb\" must not be greater than 4. In LZMA2 streams, (\"lc\" + \"lp\") and \"pb\" must not be greater than 4. In the 7-zip LZMA file format, configuration is performed by a header containing the \"properties\" byte followed by the 32-bit little-endian dictionary size in bytes. In LZMA2, the properties byte can optionally be changed at the start of LZMA2 LZMA packets, while the dictionary size is specified in the LZMA2 header as later described.", "The LZMA packet format has already been described, and this section specifies how LZMA statistically models the LZ-encoded streams, or in other words which probability variables are passed to the range decoder to decode each bit. Those probability variables are implemented as multi-dimensional arrays; before introducing them, a few values that are used as indices in these multidimensional arrays are defined. The \"state\" value is conceptually based on which of the patterns in the following table match the latest 2-4 packet types seen, and is implemented as a state machine state updated according to the transition table listed in the table every time a packet is output. The initial state is 0, and thus packets before the beginning are assumed to be LIT packets. The \"pos_state\" and \"literal_pos_state\" values consist of respectively the \"pb\" and \"lp\" (up to 4, from the LZMA header or LZMA2 properties packet) least significant bits of the dictionary position (the number of bytes coded since the last dictionary reset modulo the dictionary size). Note that the dictionary size is normally the multiple of a large power of 2, so these values are equivalently described as the least significant bits of the number of uncompressed bytes seen since the last dictionary reset. The \"prev_byte_lc_msbs\" value is set to the \"lc\" (up to 4, from the LZMA header or LZMA2 properties packet) most significant bits of the previous uncompressed byte. The \"is_REP\" value denotes whether a packet that includes a length is a LONGREP rather than a MATCH. The \"match_byte\" value is the byte that would have been decoded if a SHORTREP packet had been used (in other words, the byte found at the dictionary at the last used distance); it is only used just after a *MATCH packet. \"literal_bit_mode\" is an array of 8 values in the 0-2 range, one for each bit position in a byte, which are 1 or 2 if the previous packet was a *MATCH and it is either the most significant bit position or all the more significant bits in the literal to encode/decode are equal to the bits in the corresponding positions in \"match_byte\", while otherwise it is 0; the choice between the 1 or 2 values depends on the value of the bit at the same position in \"match_byte\". The literal/Literal set of variables can be seen as a \"pseudo-bit-tree\" similar to a bit-tree but with 3 variables instead of 1 in every node, chosen depending on the \"literal_bit_mode\" value at the bit position of the next bit to decode after the bit-tree context denoted by the node. The claim, found in some sources, that literals after a *MATCH are coded as the XOR of the byte value with \"match_byte\" is incorrect; they are instead coded simply as their byte value, but using the pseudo-bit-tree just described and the additional context listed in the table below. The probability variable groups used in LZMA are those:", "The LZMA2 container supports multiple runs of compressed LZMA data and uncompressed data. Each LZMA compressed run can have a different LZMA configuration and dictionary. This improves the compression of partially or completely incompressible files and allows multithreaded compression and multithreaded decompression by breaking the file into runs that can be compressed or decompressed independently in parallel. Criticism of LZMA2's changes over LZMA include header fields not being covered by CRCs, and parallel decompression not being possible in practice. The LZMA2 header consists of a byte indicating the dictionary size: LZMA2 data consists of packets starting with a control byte, with the following values: Bits 5-6 for LZMA chunks can be: LZMA state resets cause a reset of all LZMA state except the dictionary, and specifically: Uncompressed chunks consist of: LZMA chunks consist of:", "The.xz format, which can contain LZMA2 data, is documented at \"tukaani.org\", while the.7z file format, which can contain either LZMA or LZMA2 data, is documented in the 7zformat.txt file contained in the LZMA SDK.", "Similar to the decompression format situation, no complete natural language specification of the encoding techniques in 7-zip or xz seems to exist, other than the one attempted in the following text. The description below is based on the XZ for Java encoder by Lasse Collin, which appears to be the most readable among several rewrites of the original 7-zip using the same algorithms: again, while citing source code as reference isn't ideal, any programmer should be able to check the claims below with a few hours of work.", "The range encoder cannot make any interesting choices, and can be readily constructed based on the decoder description. Initialization and termination are not fully determined; the xz encoder outputs 0 as the first byte which is ignored by the decompressor, and encodes the lower bound of the range (which matters for the final bytes). The xz encoder uses an unsigned 33-bit variable called \"low\" (typically implemented as a 64-bit integer, initialized to 0), an unsigned 32-bit variable called \"range\" (initialized to 2 − 1), an unsigned 8-bit variable called \"cache\" (initialized to 0), and an unsigned variable called \"cache_size\" which needs to be large enough to store the uncompressed size (initialized to 1, typically implemented as a 64-bit integer). The \"cache\"/\"cache_size\" variables are used to properly handle carries, and represent a number defined by a big-endian sequence starting with the \"cache\" value, and followed by \"cache_size\" 0xff bytes, which has been shifted out of the \"low\" register, but hasn't been written yet, because it could be incremented by one due to a carry. Note that the first byte output will always be 0 due to the fact that \"cache\" and \"low\" are initialized to 0, and the encoder implementation; the xz decoder ignores this byte. Normalization proceeds in this way: Context-based range encoding of a bit using the \"prob\" probability variable proceeds in this way: Fixed-probability range encoding of a bit proceeds in this way: Termination proceeds this way: Bit-tree encoding is performed like decoding, except that bit values are taken from the input integer to be encoded rather than from the result of the bit decoding functions. For algorithms that try to compute the encoding with the shortest post-range-encoding size, the encoder also needs to provide an estimate of that.", "The encoder needs to be able to quickly locate matches in the dictionary. Since LZMA uses very large dictionaries (potentially on the order of gigabytes) to improve compression, simply scanning the whole dictionary would result in an encoder too slow to be practically usable, so sophisticated data structures are needed to support fast match searches.", "The simplest approach, called \"hash chains\", is parameterized by a constant N which can be either 2, 3 or 4, which is typically chosen so that 2^(8×) is greater than or equal to the dictionary size. It consists of creating, for each \"k\" less than or equal to \"N\", a hash table indexed by tuples of \"k\" bytes, where each of the buckets contains the last position where the first \"k\" bytes hashed to the hash value associated with that hash table bucket. Chaining is achieved by an additional array which stores, for every dictionary position, the last seen previous position whose first \"N\" bytes hash to the same value of the first \"N\" bytes of the position in question. To find matches of length \"N\" or higher, a search is started using the \"N\"-sized hash table, and continued using the hash chain array; the search stop after a pre-defined number of hash chain nodes has been traversed, or when the hash chains \"wraps around\", indicating that the portion of the input that has been overwritten in the dictionary has been reached. Matches of size less than \"N\" are instead found by simply looking at the corresponding hash table, which either contains the latest such match, if any, or a string that hashes to the same value; in the latter case, the encoder won't be able to find the match. This issue is mitigated by the fact that for distant short matches using multiple literals might require less bits, and having hash conflicts in nearby strings is relatively unlikely; using larger hash tables or even direct lookup tables can reduce the problem at the cost of higher cache miss rate and thus lower performance. Note that all matches need to be validated to check that the actual bytes match currently at that specific dictionary position match, since the hashing mechanism only guarantees that at some past time there were characters hashing to the hash table bucket index (some implementations may not even guarantee that, because they don't initialize the data structures). LZMA uses Markov chains, as implied by \"M\" in its name.", "The binary tree approach follows the hash chain approach, except that it logically uses a binary tree instead of a linked list for chaining. The binary tree is maintained so that it is always both a search tree relative to the suffix lexicographic ordering, and a max-heap for the dictionary position (in other words, the root is always the most recent string, and a child cannot have been added more recently than its parent): assuming all strings are lexicographically ordered, these conditions clearly uniquely determine the binary tree (this is trivially provable by induction on the size of the tree). Since the string to search for and the string to insert are the same, it is possible to perform both dictionary search and insertion (which requires to rotate the tree) in a single tree traversal.", "Some old LZMA encoders also supported a data structure based on Patricia tries, but such support has since been dropped since it was deemed inferior to the other options.", "LZMA encoders can freely decide which match to output, or whether to ignore the presence of matches and output literals anyway. The ability to recall the 4 most recently used distances means that, in principle, using a match with a distance that will be needed again later may be globally optimal even if it is not locally optimal, and as a result of this, optimal LZMA compression probably requires knowledge of the whole input and might require algorithms too slow to be usable in practice. Due to this, practical implementations tend to employ non-global heuristics. The xz encoders use a value called \"nice_len\" (the default is 64): when any match of length at least \"nice_len\" is found, the encoder stops the search and outputs it, with the maximum matching length.", "The XZ fast encoder (derived from the 7-zip fast encoder) is the shortest LZMA encoder in the xz source tree. It works like this:", "The XZ normal encoder (derived from the 7-zip normal encoder) is the other LZMA encoder in the xz source tree, which adopts a more sophisticated approach that tries to minimize the post-range-encoding size of the generated packets. Specifically, it encodes portions of the input using the result of a dynamic programming algorithm, where the subproblems are finding the approximately optimal encoding (the one with minimal post-range-encoding size) of the substring of length L starting at the byte being compressed. The size of the portion of the input processed in the dynamic programming algorithm is determined to be the maximum between the longest dictionary match and the longest repeated match found at the start position (which is capped by the maximum LZMA match length, 273); furthermore, if a match longer than \"nice_len\" is found at any point in the range just defined, the dynamic programming algorithm stops, the solution for the subproblem up to that point is output, the \"nice_len\"-sized match is output, and a new dynamic programming problem instance is started at the byte after the match is output. Subproblem candidate solutions are incrementally updated with candidate encodings, constructed taking the solution for a shorter substring of length L', extended with all possible \"tails\", or sets of 1-3 packets with certain constraints that encode the input at the L' position. Once the final solution of a subproblem is found, the LZMA state and least used distances for it are computed, and are then used to appropriately compute post-range-encoding sizes of its extensions. At the end of the dynamic programming optimization, the whole optimal encoding of the longest substring considered is output, and encoding continues at the first uncompressed byte not already encoded, after updating the LZMA state and least used distances. Each subproblem is extended by a packet sequence which we call \"tail\", which must match one of the following patterns: The reason for not only extending with single packets is that subproblems only have the substring length as the parameter for performance and algorithmic complexity reasons, while an optimal dynamic programming approach would also require to have the last used distances and LZMA \"state\" as parameter; thus, extending with multiple packets allows to better approximate the optimal solution, and specifically to make better use of LONGREP[0] packets. The following data is stored for each subproblem (of course, the values stored are for the candidate solution with minimum \"price\"), where by \"tail\" we refer to the packets extending the solution of the smaller subproblem, which are described directly in the following structure: Note that in the XZ for Java implementation, the \"optPrev\" and \"backPrev\" members are reused to store a forward single-linked list of packets as part of outputting the final solution.", "The XZ LZMA2 encoder processes the input in chunks (of up to 2 MB uncompressed size or 64 KB compressed size, whichever is lower), handing each chunk to the LZMA encoder, and then deciding whether to output an LZMA2 LZMA chunk including the encoded data, or to output an LZMA2 uncompressed chunk, depending on which is shorter (LZMA, like any other compressor, will necessarily expand rather than compress some kinds of data). The LZMA state is reset only in the first block, if the caller requests a change of properties and every time a compressed chunk is output. The LZMA properties are changed only in the first block, or if the caller requests a change of properties. The dictionary is only reset in the first block.", "Before LZMA2 encoding, depending on the options provided, xz can apply the BCJ filter, which filters executable code to replace relative offsets with absolute ones that are more repetitive, or the delta filter, which replaces each byte with the difference between it and the byte bytes before it. Parallel encoding is performed by dividing the file in chunks which are distributed to threads, and ultimately each encoded (using, for instance, xz block encoding) separately, resulting in a dictionary reset between chunks in the output file.", "The LZMA implementation extracted from 7-Zip is available as LZMA SDK. It was originally dual-licensed under both the GNU LGPL and Common Public License, with an additional special exception for linked binaries, but was placed by Igor Pavlov in the public domain on December 2, 2008, with the release of version 4.62. LZMA2 compression, which is an improved version of LZMA, is now the default compression method for the.7z format, starting with version 9.30 on October 26, 2012. The reference open source LZMA compression library was originally written in C++ but has been ported to ANSI C, C#, and Java. There are also third-party Python bindings for the C++ library, as well as ports of LZMA to Pascal, Go and Ada. The 7-Zip implementation uses several variants of hash chains, binary trees and Patricia tries as the basis for its dictionary search algorithm. Decompression-only code for LZMA generally compiles to around 5 KB, and the amount of RAM required during decompression is principally determined by the size of the sliding window used during compression. Small code size and relatively low memory overhead, particularly with smaller dictionary lengths, and free source code make the LZMA decompression algorithm well-suited to embedded applications.", "In addition to the 7-Zip reference implementation, the following support the LZMA format.", "LZHAM (LZ, Huffman, Arithmetic, Markov), is an LZMA-like implementation that trades compression throughput for very high ratios and higher decompression throughput." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Cypriot euro design.", "Circulating Mintage quantities.", "Mints.", "Design selection process.", "Euro adoption.", "Other commemorative coins (Collectors' coins)." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "For images of the common side and a detailed description of the coins, see euro coins.", "The following table shows the mintage quantity for all Cypriot euro coins, per denomination, per year.", "2008-2009: Finland 2010-2018: Greece", "The official public contest for the design of the Cypriot euro coins, which ended on 14 October 2005, defined what the required motifs of the respective coins should encompass: American artist Erik Maell and Greek artist Tatiana Soteropoulos were chosen by the Central Bank of Cyprus to create and illustrate the designs to be used for the final coins. The artists were instructed to include the name of Cyprus in Greek and Turkish, that is, \"ΚΥΠΡΟΣ\" (Kypros) and \"KIBRIS\" in the design for the coins.", "On 11 October 2006 the final designs of the Cypriot euro coins were presented at the exhibition \"Από τη Λίρα στο Ευρώ\" (\"From the Pound to the Euro\") of the Central Bank of Cyprus about the history of currency in Cyprus. They do not appear to include \"Cyprus\" in English, as demanded by the revised competition rules, but instead only in the state's two official languages, Greek and Turkish. On 13 February 2007, the Republic of Cyprus formally applied to join the eurozone on 1 January 2008. The final decision was expected to be taken in Brussels on 21–22 June at an EU Summit to be ratified by all EU heads of state. On 9 March 2007, the campaign to inform the citizens of Cyprus about the euro officially began in Cypriot media. On 15 March 2007, the House of Representatives passed the necessary laws for the introduction of the euro on 1 January 2008. On 16 May 2007, the Commissioner for Economic & Financial Affairs of the EU, Joaquín Almunia, recommended that Cyprus adopt the euro as scheduled. On 20 June 2007, the European Parliament voted affirmatively on this issue and on 21 June 2007, the date was confirmed by the EU leaders. On 10 July 2007, the EU Finance Ministers set the permanent exchange rate to CYP 0.585274 to 1 euro. On 23 October 2007, the designs were officially published in the Official Journal of the European Union. On 1 January 2008, the euro replaced the Cypriot pound as the official currency.", "Although Cyprus joined the Eurozone in 2008, they already had one high value commemorative coin, minted in silver. This coin was minted as a legacy of an old national practice of minting gold and silver coins. This coin is not really intended to be used as means of payment, so generally they do not circulate." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Wired.", "Wireless.", "Bluetooth.", "IrDA." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Wired personal area networks provide short connections between peripherals. Example technologies include:", "A wireless personal area network (WPAN) is a personal area network in which the connections are wireless. IEEE 802.15 has produced standards for several types of PANs operating in the ISM band including Bluetooth. The Infrared Data Association (IrDA) has produced standards for WPANs that operate using infrared communications.", "Bluetooth uses short-range radio waves. Uses in a WPAN include, for example, Bluetooth devices such as keyboards, pointing devices, audio headsets, printers may connect to smartwatches, cell phones, or computers. A Bluetooth WPAN is also called a \"piconet\", and is composed of up to 8 active devices in a master-slave relationship (a very large number of additional devices can be connected in \"parked\" mode). The first Bluetooth device in the piconet is the master, and all other devices are slaves that communicate with the master. A piconet typically has a range of, although ranges of up to can be reached under ideal circumstances. Long-range Bluetooth routers with augmented antenna arrays connect Bluetooth devices up to 1,000 feet. With Bluetooth mesh networking the range and number of devices is extended by using mesh networking techniques to relay information from one to another. Such a network doesn't have a master device and may or may not be treated as a WPAN.", "IrDA uses infrared light, which has a frequency below the human eye's sensitivity. Infrared is used in other wireless communications applications, for instance, in remote controls. Typical WPAN devices that use IrDA include printers, keyboards, and other serial communication interfaces." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Release and reception.", "Bonus track recording dates." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Rolling Stones 1969 American Tour's trek during November into December, with Terry Reid, B.B. King (replaced on some dates by Chuck Berry) and Ike and Tina Turner as supporting acts, played to packed houses. The tour was the first for Mick Taylor with the Stones, having replaced Brian Jones shortly before Jones's death in July; this was also the first album where he appeared fully and prominently, having only featured on two songs on \"Let It Bleed\". It was also the last tour to feature just the Stones – the band proper, along with co-founder and pianist Ian Stewart – without additional backing musicians. The performances captured for this release were recorded on 27 November 1969 (one show) and 28 November 1969 (two shows) at New York City's Madison Square Garden, except for \"Love in Vain\", recorded in Baltimore, Maryland on 26 November 1969. Overdubbing sessions were undertaken during January 1970 in London's Olympic Studios. The finished product featured an overdubbed lead vocal on six tracks, added back-up vocals on three tracks, and overdubbed guitar on two songs (\"Little Queenie\" and \"Stray Cat Blues\"). However, this album is widely recognized as one of few actual 'live' albums during this era. The title \"Get Yer Ya-Ya's Out!\" is taken from a Blind Boy Fuller song, \"Get Your Yas Yas Out\". The lyric in Fuller's song was \"Now you got to leave my house this morning, don't I'll throw your yas yas out o' door\". In the context of Fuller's original song and its use in other blues music, \"yas yas\" appears as a folksy euphemism for \"ass.\" However, Charlie Watts' t-shirt worn on the album's front cover shows a picture of a woman's breasts, suggesting an alternate explanation. Watts said that his wardrobe on the album cover was his usual stage clothing, along with Jagger's striped hat. Some of the performances, as well as one of the two photography sessions for the album cover featuring Charlie Watts and a donkey, are depicted in the documentary film \"Gimme Shelter\", and shows Watts and Mick Jagger on a section of the M6 motorway adjacent to Bescot Rail Depot in Birmingham, England, posing with a donkey. This is adjacent to where the RAC building now stands. The cover photo, however, was taken in early February 1970 in London, and does not originate from the 1969 session. The photo by David Bailey, featuring Watts with guitars and bass drums hanging from the neck of a donkey, was inspired by a line in Bob Dylan's song \"Visions of Johanna\": \"Jewels and binoculars hang from the head of the mule\" (though, as mentioned, the animal in the photo is a donkey, not a mule). The band would later say \"we originally wanted an elephant but settled for a donkey\". Jagger commissioned the back cover, featuring song titles and credits with photographs of the group in performance, from British artist Steve Thomas, who has said he produced the design in 48 hours and that Jagger's response was \"I really dig your artwork, man\".", "In the \"Rolling Stone\" review of the album, critic Lester Bangs said, \"I have no doubt that it's the best rock concert ever put on record.\" \"Get Yer Ya-Ya's Out!': The Rolling Stones in Concert\" was released in September 1970, well into the sessions for their next studio album, \"Sticky Fingers\", and was well-received critically and commercially, reaching number 1 in the UK and number 6 in the US, where it went platinum. Except for compilations, it was the last Rolling Stones album released through Decca Records in the UK and London Records in the US before launching their own Rolling Stones Records label. In August 2002, \"Get Yer Ya-Ya's Out!' The Rolling Stones in Concert\" was reissued in a new remastered album and SACD digipak by ABKCO Records. In November 2009, the album was reissued with unreleased songs by the Rolling Stones but also by opening acts B.B King and Ike & Tina Turner. It includes a DVD and a 56-page booklet. The songs on the second disc of this edition [\"Prodigal Son\", \"You Gotta Move\", \"Under My Thumb\", \"I'm Free\", and \"(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction\"] are downloadable tracks for the video games \"Guitar Hero 5\" and \"Band Hero\". Additionally, \"Under My Thumb\" is included on the Nintendo DS version of the game \"Band Hero\". The album has received consistent praise from critics as one of the greatest live albums ever made. In 2000 it was voted number 816 in Colin Larkin's \"All Time Top 1000 Albums\". In 2007, \"NME\" ranked the album as the 7th greatest live album of all time. \"Q\" ranked the album as the 14th greatest live album of all time.", "Audio Video" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Industrial Revolution.", "Assembly line.", "Siting the factory.", "Governing the factory.", "Shadow factories.", "British shadow factories." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Max Weber considered production during ancient times as never warranting classification as factories, with methods of production and the contemporary economic situation incomparable to modern or even pre-modern developments of industry. In ancient times, the earliest production limited to the household, developed into a separate endeavour independent to the place of inhabitation with production at that time only beginning to be characteristic of industry, termed as \"unfree shop industry\", a situation caused especially under the reign of the Egyptian pharaoh, with slave employment and no differentiation of skills within the slave group comparable to modern definitions as division of labour. According to translations of Demosthenes and Herodotus, Naucratis was a, or the only, factory in the entirety of ancient Egypt. A source of 1983 (Hopkins), states the largest factory production in ancient times was of 120 slaves within 4th century BC Athens. An article within the New York Times article dated 13 October 2011 states: ... discovered at Blombos Cave, a cave on the south coast of South Africa where 100,000-year-old tools and ingredients were found with which early modern humans mixed an ochre-based paint. Although The \"Cambridge Online Dictionary\" definition of factory states: elsewhere: The first machine is stated by one source to have been traps used to assist with the capturing of animals, corresponding to the machine as a mechanism operating independently or with very little force by interaction from a human, with a capacity for use repeatedly with operation exactly the same on every occasion of functioning. The wheel was invented c. 3000 BC, the spoked wheel c. 2000 BC. The Iron Age began approximately 1200–1000 BC. However, other sources define machinery as a means of production. Archaeology provides a date for the earliest city as 5000 BC as Tell Brak (Ur \"et al.\" 2006), therefore a date for cooperation and factors of demand, by an increased community size and population to make something like factory level production a conceivable necessity. The watermill was first made in the Persian Empire some time before 350 BC. By the time of the 4th century AD, there was a water-milling installation with a capacity to grind 28 tons of grain per day, a rate sufficient to meet the needs of 80,000 persons, in the Roman Empire. The earliest proper factory milling installations appeared in the Islamic world from the 8th century onwards.The large population increase in medieval Islamic cities, such as Baghdad's 1.5 million population, led to the development of large-scale factory milling installations with higher productivity to feed and support the large growing population. A 10th-century grain-processing factory in the Egyptian town of Bilbays, for example, produced an estimated 300 tons of grain and flour per day. Both watermills and windmills were widely used in the Islamic world at the time. The Venice Arsenal also provides one of the first examples of a factory in the modern sense of the word. Founded in 1104 in Venice, Republic of Venice, several hundred years before the Industrial Revolution, it mass-produced ships on assembly lines using manufactured parts. The Venice Arsenal apparently produced nearly one ship every day and, at its height, employed 16,000 people.", "One of the earliest factories was John Lombe's water-powered silk mill at Derby, operational by 1721. By 1746, an integrated brass mill was working at Warmley near Bristol. Raw material went in at one end, was smelted into brass and was turned into pans, pins, wire, and other goods. Housing was provided for workers on site. Josiah Wedgwood in Staffordshire and Matthew Boulton at his Soho Manufactory were other prominent early industrialists, who employed the factory system. The factory system began widespread use somewhat later when cotton spinning was mechanized. Richard Arkwright is the person credited with inventing the prototype of the modern factory. After he patented his water frame in 1769, he established Cromford Mill, in Derbyshire, England, significantly expanding the village of Cromford to accommodate the migrant workers new to the area. The factory system was a new way of organizing workforce made necessary by the development of machines which were too large to house in a worker's cottage. Working hours were as long as they had been for the farmer, that is, from dawn to dusk, six days per week. Overall, this practice essentially reduced skilled and unskilled workers to replaceable commodities. Arkwright's factory was the first successful cotton spinning factory in the world; it showed unequivocally the way ahead for industry and was widely copied. Between 1770 and 1850 mechanized factories supplanted traditional artisan shops as the predominant form of manufacturing institution, because the larger-scale factories enjoyed a significant technological and supervision advantage over the small artisan shops. The earliest factories (using the factory system) developed in the cotton and wool textiles industry. Later generations of factories included mechanized shoe production and manufacturing of machinery, including machine tools. Factories that supplied the railroad industry included rolling mills, foundries and locomotive works. Agricultural-equipment factories produced cast-steel plows and reapers. Bicycles were mass-produced beginning in the 1880s. The Nasmyth, Gaskell and Company's Bridgewater Foundry, which began operation in 1836, was one of the earliest factories to use modern materials handling such as cranes and rail tracks through the buildings for handling heavy items. Large scale electrification of factories began around 1900 after the development of the AC motor which was able to run at constant speed depending on the number of poles and the current electrical frequency. At first larger motors were added to line shafts, but as soon as small horsepower motors became widely available, factories switched to unit drive. Eliminating line shafts freed factories of layout constraints and allowed factory layout to be more efficient. Electrification enabled sequential automation using relay logic.", "Henry Ford further revolutionized the factory concept in the early 20th century, with the innovation of the mass production. Highly specialized laborers situated alongside a series of rolling ramps would build up a product such as (in Ford's case) an automobile. This concept dramatically decreased production costs for virtually all manufactured goods and brought about the age of consumerism. In the mid - to late 20th century, industrialized countries introduced next-generation factories with two improvements: Some speculation as to the future of the factory includes scenarios with rapid prototyping, nanotechnology, and orbital zero-gravity facilities.", "Before the advent of mass transportation, factories' needs for ever-greater concentrations of laborers meant that they typically grew up in an urban setting or fostered their own urbanization. Industrial slums developed, and reinforced their own development through the interactions between factories, as when one factory's output or waste-product became the raw materials of another factory (preferably nearby). Canals and railways grew as factories spread, each clustering around sources of cheap energy, available materials and/or mass markets. The exception proved the rule: even greenfield factory sites such as Bournville, founded in a rural setting, developed its own housing and profited from convenient communications systems. Regulation curbed some of the worst excesses of industrialization's factory-based society, a series of Factory Acts leading the way in Britain. Trams, automobiles and town planning encouraged the separate development of industrial suburbs and residential suburbs, with laborers commuting between them. Though factories dominated the Industrial Era, the growth in the service sector eventually began to dethrone them: the focus of labor in general shifted to central-city office towers or to semi-rural campus-style establishments, and many factories stood deserted in local rust belts. The next blow to the traditional factories came from globalization. Manufacturing processes (or their logical successors, assembly plants) in the late 20th century re-focussed in many instances on Special Economic Zones in developing countries or on maquiladoras just across the national boundaries of industrialized states. Further re-location to the least industrialized nations appears possible as the benefits of out-sourcing and the lessons of flexible location apply in the future.", "Much of management theory developed in response to the need to control factory processes. Assumptions on the hierarchies of unskilled, semi-skilled and skilled laborers and their supervisors and managers still linger on; however an example of a more contemporary approach to handle design applicable to manufacturing facilities can be found in Socio-Technical Systems (STS).", "A shadow factory is a term given to dispersed manufacturing sites in times of war to reduce the risk of disruption due to enemy air-raids and often with the dual purpose of increasing manufacturing capacity. Before World War II Britain had built many shadow factories.", "Production of the Supermarine Spitfire at its parent company's base at Woolston, Southampton was vulnerable to enemy attack as a high-profile target and was well within range of \"Luftwaffe\" bombers. Indeed, on 26 September 1940 this facility was completely destroyed by an enemy bombing raid. Supermarine had already established a plant at Castle Bromwich; this action prompted them to further disperse Spitfire production around the country with many premises being requisitioned by the British Government. Connected to the Spitfire was production of its equally important Rolls-Royce Merlin engine, Rolls-Royce's main aero engine facility was located at Derby, the need for increased output was met by building new factories in Crewe and Glasgow and using a purpose-built factory of Ford of Britain in Trafford Park Manchester." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Career.", "Kid Wikkid (1983–1985).", "Skid Row (1987–1996).", "Broadway and other projects (1996–2006).", "SuperGroup and \"Angel Down\" (2006–2010).", "\"Kicking & Screaming\" and Sterling's departure (2010–2012).", "\"Big Noize\" (2012-2013).", "\"Give 'Em Hell\" (2013–present).", "Personal life." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The members of Kid Wikkid were based in Peterborough, Ontario. Upon hearing of the band and unaware of their ages, 14-year-old Bach auditioned for the group, and was hired by guitar player and band leader Jason Delorme. Kid Wikkid moved back to Toronto, and Bach's dad eventually allowed Bach to move in with an aunt.", "Skid Row initially formed in the mid 1980s with lead singer Matt Fallon. They began playing at various New Jersey clubs. Fallon left the band in 1987, leaving Skid Row without a singer. Bach was spotted singing at rock photographer Mark Weiss's wedding by Jon Bon Jovi's parents who suggested that he try out for their son's friend's (Dave Sabo) band. At the time Bach was wary of joining another USA-based band after his negative experience in his previous band Madam X, but upon hearing Skid Row's demo tapes, Bach flew to New Jersey to audition and the members asked him to join in early 1987. In 1991, Bach was criticized for performing wearing a T-shirt reading \"AIDS Kills Fags Dead\". Later he claimed he wore it without reading it first; it had been thrown to him by a fan. Although he made light of the incident in his original apology (stating that he also would've been offended by someone mocking his grandmother's then-recent death with a \"Cancer Kills Grandmas Dead\" shirt), Bach has since apologized for and disavowed the statement, \"That was really stupid and wrong for me to wear that for one half-hour in my life. What nobody brings up is in 2000, when I was in \"Jekyll & Hyde\", and at an auction for Broadway Cares, I donated $12,000 of my own money to fight AIDS.\" Following disagreements over musical material, Bach was fired from the band in 1996. However, rumors circulated that he had left the band due to his other band-mates believing they should not play as an opening act for KISS. Band-mate Rachel Bolan also had a side project, a punk band Prunella Scales who were playing at the same time as the planned KISS show. The rift between Bach and the other band members subsequently led to his leaving Skid Row. Four years later, Skid Row was one of the opening acts for the 2000 Kiss Farewell Tour, without Bach.", "In 1996, Bach formed The Last Hard Men, with Frogs guitarist Jimmy Flemion, Breeders lead guitarist brought in to play bass Kelley Deal, and Smashing Pumpkins drummer Jimmy Chamberlin. The group recorded a full-length eponymous album for Atlantic Records, who then opted not to release it. In 1998 it was released on Kelley Deal's label, Nice Records, with no fanfare and a very limited pressing of 1,000 CDs. This run may have been sold via mail order only. In 1999, Bach released his debut solo album \"Bring 'Em Bach Alive!\", his first release after his departure from Skid Row. Mainly a live album of Bach's Skid Row songs, it also presented five new studio recordings, including the single \"Superjerk, Superstar, Supertears\". In 2000, Bach began performing in Broadway productions. He made his Broadway debut with the title role(s) in \"Jekyll & Hyde\" in April 2000. He also appeared as Riff Raff in \"The Rocky Horror Show\" in 2001. On November 28, 2001 Bach appeared at New York Steel, a benefit concert held in response to 9/11. In early 2002, he became the host of \"VH1's Forever Wild\". That October that same year, Bach was signed to perform in the national touring production of \"Jesus Christ Superstar\", playing the title role alongside \"JCS\" veteran Carl Anderson. A DVD video of live performances called \"Forever Wild\" was released in June 2004. That same year, he reprised the title role(s) in another showing of \"Jekyll and Hyde\". Sometime in 2003, Bach tried out for Velvet Revolver before the band found Scott Weiland, but was turned down because, according to Slash, \"We sounded like Skid Roses!\" From 2003 to 2007, Bach had a recurring role on the WB television show \"Gilmore Girls\" as \"Gil\", the lead guitarist in Lane Kim's band, \"Hep Alien\". Members of Bach Tight Five (a project initiated by Bach in 2004, but dissolved shortly thereafter) lived with Bach and his family as documented on VH1's \"I Married...Sebastian Bach\", one of the \"I Married...\" series. In 2005, Bach cooperated with Henning Pauly to be the singer on the Frameshift album called \"An Absence of Empathy\", released in April 2005. He was recommended to Henning by Dream Theater's James LaBrie. On May 12 and May 14, 2006, at the Guns N' Roses' warmup show at the Hammerstein Ballroom in New York City, Bach joined Axl Rose on stage for the song \"My Michelle\"... He joined Rose and the rest for a third time the following night (May 15) to sing \"My Michelle\" once again. He also joined them for their Pre-Download Festival show in the Apollo Hammersmith, London, singing My Michelle. Rose introduced Bach by saying that the two had rekindled their friendship in the previous week after 13 years of not speaking. On June 4, 9 & 11 he again joined Rose on stage at the 2006 Gods of Metal Festival (Milan), Download Festival in RDS Dublin and in Donington, respectively. On September 23, 2006, he joined Axl on stage once again at KROQ-FM's Inland Invasion festival in California for a rendition of \"My Michelle\".", "Bach starred with Ted Nugent, Evan Seinfeld, Jason Bonham and Scott Ian on the VH1 show \"Supergroup\" in May 2006. The musicians formed a band called Damnocracy for the reality show, during which they lived in a mansion in Las Vegas for twelve days and created music. He announced a partnership record label with EMI to jointly create a label owned by Bach, including his album \"Angel Down\", which was released on November 20, 2007. Bach also recorded backing vocals for the track \"Sorry\" on Guns N' Roses' long-delayed \"Chinese Democracy\", which was released in November 2008. He spent the summer of 2008 playing with Poison and Dokken. Bach was the winner of the second season of the CMT reality show, \"Gone Country\".", "Bach toured as an opening act for GNR's \"Chinese Democracy Tour\" 2009–2010, and performed \"My Michelle\" with Axl Rose in Quebec City on February 1, 2010. On January 5, 2011, he was featured on NBC's Jimmy Fallon Show in a live performance and a subsequent video of \"We Are The Ducks\", a power ballad written for University of Oregon Ducks, set to play in the BCS national championship game Monday, January 10, 2011. In 2011, Bach was interviewed by British metalcore band Asking Alexandria in the March/April issue of \"Revolver\". The band are fans of Skid Row and covered two of their songs the preceding year of the interview. The same year, Bach performed \"Youth Gone Wild\" with the band live at the Revolver Golden Gods Awards and Rock on the Range. Bach was also filmed in their music video \"Closure\". Bach provided the voice of Prince Triton, King Neptune's rebellious son, in the \"SpongeBob SquarePants\" episode, \"SpongeBob and the Clash of Triton\" in 2010. On June 15, 2011, Bach revealed the title of his upcoming solo album would be \"Kicking & Screaming\". In July 8, 2011 track list, cover art and title of the first single were revealed. It was released September 27, 2011 for North America and worldwide and September 23, 2011 for Europe on Frontiers Records. On August 13, 2012, Nick Sterling was fired by Bach after refusing to sign an agreement to appear on an undisclosed TV show.", "Formed in 2007, Big Noize was an All-Star band consisting in founder member and drummer Vinny Appice (Black Sabbath, Dio, Heaven & Hell) plus other \"monsters\" such as guitarist Carlos Cavazo (Quiet Riot), later replaced by George Lynch (Dokken, Lynch Mob), bassist Phil Soussan (Ozzy Osbourne) and vocalist Joe Lynn Turner (Rainbow). Turner was replaced by Bach for the Kavarna Rock festival on July 14, 2012 and for a tour to South America, starting in Chile on July 9, 2013.", "On April 30, 2013, Bach confirmed via Twitter that a new studio album was in the works. He went on to say that Bob Marlette would be returning as producer. Bach had collaboration work for the upcoming album with John 5, Duff McKagan, and Steve Stevens. On January 13, 2014, \"Give 'Em Hell\" was announced with a prospective release date of April 22, 2014. He also appeared in two \"Trailer Park Boys\" episodes from their 2014 season. In 2014, Bach completed his Give 'Em Hell tour and in 2015, Bach went on another tour titled the \"18 and LIVE\" tour. In 2019, Bach toured behind the 30th anniversary of Skid Row's self-titled debut album, playing it live in its entirety.", "Bach was born in The Bahamas and was raised in Peterborough, Ontario. At one time, he lived in Red Bank, New Jersey. In August 2011, his New Jersey home was damaged by Hurricane Irene and declared uninhabitable. Several KISS and Skid Row artifacts (including Skid Row master tapes) were in the house, but none were damaged. His father's art, comic books, and the KISS gargoyles from their 1979 tour were also salvaged. In the mid-1980s, Bach began dating Maria Aquinar. The couple had a son, Paris, in 1988. Bach and Aquinar married in July 1992 and had another son, London, in 1994 and a daughter, Sebastiana, born in 2007. Bach and Aquinar divorced in September 2010. In December 2010, Bach began dating model Minnie Gupta. They were engaged in April 2012, but ended their engagement in late 2014. On December 28, 2014, Bach became engaged to Suzanne Le after two months of dating. They married in August 2015 and currently live in Los Angeles, California. On July 13, 2017, Bach underwent \"singing-related\" hernia surgery. He started to recover a month later and then explained that the operation was needed, \"because [he] literally screamed [his] guts out.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Branding.", "Company name.", "Logo.", "Slogan.", "Finances.", "Motorcycles.", "Automobiles.", "Current models.", "i models.", "M models.", "Motorsport.", "Involvement in the arts.", "Art Cars.", "Architecture.", "Film.", "Visual arts.", "Production and sales.", "Recalls.", "Industry collaboration.", "Sponsorships.", "Environmental record.", "Car-sharing services.", "Overseas subsidiaries.", "Production facilities.", "China.", "Hungary.", "Mexico.", "South Africa.", "United States.", "Complete knock-down assembly facilities.", "Brazil.", "Egypt.", "India.", "Russia.", "Malaysia.", "Vehicle importers.", "Canada.", "Japan.", "Philippines.", "South Korea." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3" ], "content": [ "\"Bayerische Flugzeugwerke AG\" was formed in 1916. This company was renamed to \"Bayerische Motoren Werke\" (BMW) in 1922. However the name BMW dates back to 1913, when the original company to use the name BMW was born (initially as \"Rapp Motorenwerke\"). BMW's first product was a straight-six aircraft engine called the BMW IIIa. Following the end of World War I, BMW remained in business by producing motorcycle engines, farm equipment, household items and railway brakes. The company produced its first motorcycle, the \"BMW R 32\" in 1923. BMW became an automobile manufacturer in 1928 when it purchased \"Fahrzeugfabrik Eisenach\", which, at the time, built Austin Sevens under licence under the Dixi marque. The first car sold as a BMW was a rebadged Dixi called the \"BMW 3/15\", following BMW's acquisition of the car manufacturer Automobilwerk Eisenach. Throughout the 1930s, BMW expanded its range into sports cars and larger luxury cars. Aircraft engines, motorcycles, and automobiles would be BMW's main products until World War II. During the war, against the wishes of its director Franz Josef Popp, BMW concentrated on aircraft engine production using forced labor consisting primarily of prisoners from concentration camps, with motorcycles as a side line and automobile manufacture ceased altogether. BMW's factories were heavily bombed during the war and its remaining West German facilities were banned from producing motor vehicles or aircraft after the war. Again, the company survived by making pots, pans, and bicycles. In 1948, BMW restarted motorcycle production. BMW resumed car production in Bavaria in 1952 with the \"BMW 501\" luxury saloon. The range of cars was expanded in 1955, through the production of the cheaper Isetta microcar under licence. Slow sales of luxury cars and small profit margins from microcars meant BMW was in serious financial trouble and in 1959 the company was nearly taken over by rival Daimler-Benz. A large investment in BMW by Herbert Quandt and Harald Quandt resulted in the company surviving as a separate entity. The \"BMW 700\" was successful and assisted in the company's recovery. The 1962 introduction of the \"BMW New Class\" compact sedans was the beginning of BMW's reputation as a leading manufacturer of sport-oriented cars. Throughout the 1960s, BMW expanded its range by adding coupe and luxury sedan models. The \"BMW 5 Series\" mid-size sedan range was introduced in 1972, followed by the \"BMW 3 Series\" compact sedans in 1975, the \"BMW 6 Series\" luxury coupes in 1976 and the \"BMW 7 Series\" large luxury sedans in 1978. The \"BMW M\" division released its first road car, a mid-engine supercar, in 1978. This was followed by the \"BMW M5\" in 1984 and the \"BMW M3\" in 1986. Also in 1986, BMW introduced its first V12 engine in the 750i luxury sedan. The company purchased the Rover Group in 1994, however the takeover was not successful and was causing BMW large financial losses. In 2000, BMW sold off most of the Rover brands, retaining only the Mini brand. In 1998, BMW also acquired the rights to the Rolls Royce brand from Vickers Plc. The 1995 \"BMW Z3\" expanded the line-up to include a mass-production two-seat roadster and the 1999 \"BMW X5\" was the company's entry into the SUV market. The first mass-produced turbocharged petrol engine was introduced in 2006, with most engines switching over to turbocharging over the following decade. The first hybrid BMW was the 2010 \"BMW ActiveHybrid 7\", and BMW's first electric car was the \"BMW i3\" city car, which was released in 2013. After many years of establishing a reputation for sporting rear-wheel drive cars, BMW's first front-wheel drive car was the 2014 \"BMW 2 Series Active Tourer\" multi-purpose vehicle (MPV).", "", "The name BMW is an abbreviation for \"Bayerische Motoren Werke\" (). This name is grammatically incorrect (in German, compound words must not contain spaces), which is why the name's grammatically correct form \"Bayerische Motorenwerke\" () has been used in several publications and advertisements in the past. \"Bayerische Motorenwerke\" translates into English as \"Bavarian Motor Works\". The suffix AG, short for \"Aktiengesellschaft\", signifies an incorporated entity which is owned by shareholders, thus akin to \"Inc.\" (US) or PLC, \"Public Limited Company\" (UK). The terms Beemer, Bimmer and Bee-em are sometimes used as slang for BMW in the English language and are sometimes used interchangeably for cars and motorcycles.", "The circular blue and white BMW logo or roundel evolved from the circular Rapp Motorenwerke company logo, which featured a black ring bearing the company name surrounding the company logo, \"on a plinth a horse's head couped\". BMW retained Rapp's black ring inscribed with the company name, but adopted as the central element a circular escutcheon bearing a quasi-heraldic reference to the coat of arms (and flag) of the Free State of Bavaria (as the state of their origin was named after 1918), being the arms of the House of Wittelsbach, Dukes and Kings of Bavaria. However as the local law regarding trademarks forbade the use of state coats of arms or other symbols of sovereignty on commercial logos, the design was sufficiently differentiated to comply, but retained the tinctures azure (blue) and argent (white). The current iteration of the logo was introduced in 2020, removing 3D effects that had been used in renderings of the logo, and also removing the black outline encircling the rondel. The logo will be used on BMW's branding but will not be used on vehicles. The origin of the logo as a portrayal of the movement of an aircraft propeller, the BMW logo with the white blades seeming to cut through a blue sky, is a myth which sprang from a 1929 BMW advertisement depicting the BMW emblem overlaid on a rotating propeller, with the quarters defined by strobe-light effect, a promotion of an aircraft engine then being built by BMW under license from Pratt & Whitney. \"\"For a long time, BMW made little effort to correct the myth that the BMW badge is a propeller\"\" (quote by Fred Jakobs, Archive Director, BMW Group Classic). It is well established that this propellor portrayal was first used in a BMW advertisement in 1929 – twelve years after the logo was created – so this is not the true origin of the logo.", "The slogan 'The Ultimate Driving Machine' was first used in North America in 1974. In 2010, this long-lived campaign was mostly supplanted by a campaign intended to make the brand more approachable and to better appeal to women, 'Joy'. By 2012 BMW had returned to 'The Ultimate Driving Machine'.", "For the fiscal year 2017, BMW reported earnings of EUR 8.620 billion, with an annual revenue of EUR 98.678 billion, an increase of 4.8% over the previous fiscal cycle. BMW's shares traded at over €77 per share, and its market capitalization was valued at US 55.3 billion in November 2018.", "BMW began production of motorcycle engines and then motorcycles after World War I. Its motorcycle brand is now known as BMW Motorrad. Their first successful motorcycle after the failed Helios and Flink, was the \"R32\" in 1923, though production originally began in 1921. This had a \"boxer\" twin engine, in which a cylinder projects into the air-flow from each side of the machine. Apart from their single-cylinder models (basically to the same pattern), all their motorcycles used this distinctive layout until the early 1980s. Many BMW's are still produced in this layout, which is designated the R Series. The entire BMW Motorcycle production has, since 1969, been located at the company's Berlin-Spandau factory. During the Second World War, BMW produced the BMW R75 motorcycle with a motor-driven sidecar attached, combined with a lockable differential, this made the vehicle very capable off-road. In 1982, came the K Series, shaft drive but water-cooled and with either three or four cylinders mounted in a straight line from front to back. Shortly after, BMW also started making the chain-driven F and G series with single and parallel twin Rotax engines. In the early 1990s, BMW updated the airhead Boxer engine which became known as the oilhead. In 2002, the oilhead engine had two spark plugs per cylinder. In 2004 it added a built-in balance shaft, an increased capacity to 1,170 cc and enhanced performance to for the R1200GS, compared to of the previous R1150GS. More powerful variants of the oilhead engines are available in the R1100S and R1200S, producing, respectively. In 2004, BMW introduced the new K1200S Sports Bike which marked a departure for BMW. It had an engine producing, derived from the company's work with the Williams F1 team, and is lighter than previous K models. Innovations include electronically adjustable front and rear suspension, and a Hossack-type front fork that BMW calls Duolever. BMW introduced anti-lock brakes on production motorcycles starting in the late 1980s. The generation of anti-lock brakes available on the 2006 and later BMW motorcycles paved the way for the introduction of electronic stability control, or anti-skid technology later in the 2007 model year. BMW has been an innovator in motorcycle suspension design, taking up telescopic front suspension long before most other manufacturers. Then they switched to an Earles fork, front suspension by swinging fork (1955 to 1969). Most modern BMWs are truly rear swingarm, single sided at the back (compare with the regular swinging fork usually, and wrongly, called swinging arm). Some BMWs started using yet another trademark front suspension design, the Telelever, in the early 1990s. Like the Earles fork, the Telelever significantly reduces dive under braking. BMW Group, on 31 January 2013, announced that Pierer Industrie AG has bought Husqvarna Motorcycles for an undisclosed amount, which will not be revealed by either party in the future. The company is headed by Stephan Pierer (CEO of KTM). Pierer Industrie AG is 51% owner of KTM and 100% owner of Husqvarna. In September 2018, BMW unveiled a new self-driving motorcycle with BMW Motorrad with a goal of using the technology to help improve road safety. The design of the bike was inspired by the company's BMW R1200 GS model.", "", "The current model lines of BMW cars are: The current model lines of the X Series SUVs and crossovers are: The current model line of the Z Series two-door roadsters is the Z4 (model code G29).", "All-electric vehicles and plug-in hybrid vehicles are sold under the \"BMW i\" sub-brand. The current model range consists of: In addition, several plug-in hybrid models built on existing platforms have been marketed as \"iPerformance\" models. Examples include the 225xe using a 1.5 L three-cylinder turbocharged petrol engine with an electric motor, the 330e/530e using a 2.0 L four-cylinder engine with an electric motor, and the 740e using a 2.0 litre turbocharged petrol engine with an electric motor.", "The \"BMW M GmbH\" subsidiary (called BMW Motorsport GmbH until 1993) has high-performance versions of various BMW models since 1978. The recent model range consists of: The letter \"M\" is also often used in the marketing of BMW's regular models, for example the F20 M140i model, the G11 M760Li model and various optional extras called \"M Sport\", \"M Performance\" or similar.", "BMW has a long history of motorsport activities, including:", "", "In 1975, sculptor Alexander Calder was commissioned to paint the BMW 3.0 CSL racing car driven by Hervé Poulain at the 24 Hours of Le Mans, which became the first in the series of BMW Art Cars. Since Calder's work of art, many other renowned artists throughout the world have created BMW Art Cars, including David Hockney, Jenny Holzer, Roy Lichtenstein, Robert Rauschenberg, Frank Stella, and Andy Warhol. To date, a total of 19 BMW Art Cars, based on both racing and regular production vehicles, have been created.", "The global BMW Headquarters in Munich represents the cylinder head of a 4-cylinder engine. It was designed by Karl Schwanzer and was completed in 1972. The building has become a European icon and was declared a protected historic building in 1999. The main tower consists of four vertical cylinders standing next to and across from each other. Each cylinder is divided horizontally in its center by a mold in the facade. Notably, these cylinders do not stand on the ground; they are suspended on a central support tower. BMW Museum is a futuristic cauldron-shaped building, which was also designed by Karl Schwanzer and opened in 1972. The interior has a spiral theme and the roof is a 40-metre diameter BMW logo. BMW Welt, the company's exhibition space in Munich, was designed by Coop Himmelb(l)au and opened in 2007. It includes a showroom and lifting platforms where a customer's new car is theatrically unveiled to the customer.", "In 2001 and 2002, BMW produced a series of 8 short films called The Hire, which had plots based around BMW models being driven to extremes by Clive Owen. The directors for The Hire included Guy Ritchie, John Woo, John Frankenheimer and Ang Lee. In 2016, a ninth film in the series was released. The 2006 \"BMW Performance Series\" was a marketing event geared to attract black car buyers. It consisted of seven concerts by jazz musician Mike Phillips, and screenings of films by black filmmakers.", "BMW was the principal sponsor of the 1998 \"The Art of the Motorcycle\" exhibition at various Guggenheim museums, though the financial relationship between BMW and the Guggenheim Foundation was criticised in many quarters. In 2012, BMW began sponsoring Independent Collectors production of the \"BMW Art Guide\", which is the first global guide to private and publicly accessible collections of contemporary art worldwide. The fourth edition, released in 2016, features 256 collections from 43 countries.", "BMW produces complete automobiles in the following countries: BMW also has local assembly operation using complete knock-down (CKD) components in Thailand, Russia, Egypt, Indonesia, Malaysia and India. In the UK, BMW has a Mini factory near Oxford, plants in Swindon and Hams Hall, and Rolls Royce vehicle assembly at Goodwood. In 2020, these facilities were shut down for the period from March 23 to April 17 due to the coronavirus outbreak. The BMW group (including Mini and Rolls-Royce) produced 1,366,838 automobiles in 2006 and then 1,481,253 automobiles in 2010. BMW Motorcycles are being produced at the company's Berlin factory, which earlier had produced aircraft engines for Siemens. By 2011, about 56% of BMW-brand vehicles produced are powered by petrol engines and the remaining 44% are powered by diesel engines. Of those petrol vehicles, about 27% are four-cylinder models and about nine percent are eight-cylinder models. On average, 9,000 vehicles per day exit BMW plants, and 63% are transported by rail. Annual production since 2005, according to BMW's annual reports: Annual sales since 2005, according to BMW's annual reports: <nowiki>*</nowiki> In 2008–2012, motorcycle productions figures include Husqvarna models. <nowiki>**</nowiki> Excluding Husqvarna, sales volume up to 2013: 59,776 units.", "In November 2016, BMW recalled 136,000 2007–2012 model year U.S. cars for fuel pump wiring problems possibly resulting in fuel leak and engine stalling or restarting issues. In 2018, BMW recalled 106,000 diesel vehicles in South Korea with a defective exhaust gas recirculation module, which caused 39 engine fires. The recall was then expanded to 324,000 more cars in Europe. Following the recall in South Korea, the government banned cars which had not yet been inspected from driving on public roads. This affected up to 25% of the recalled cars, where the owners had been notified but the cars had not yet been inspected. BMW is reported to have been aware since 2016 that more than 4% of the affected cars in South Korea had experienced failures in the EGR coolers, leading to approximately 20 owners suing the company.", "BMW has collaborated with other car manufacturers on the following occasions:", "BMW made a six-year sponsorship deal with the United States Olympic Committee in July 2010. In golf, BMW has sponsored various events, including the PGA Championship since 2007, the Italian Open form 2009–2012, the BMW Masters in China from 2012-2015 and the BMW International Open in Munich since 1989. In rugby, BMW sponsored the South Africa national rugby union team from 2011 to 2015.", "BMW is a charter member of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) National Environmental Achievement Track, which recognizes companies for their environmental stewardship and performance. It is also a member of the South Carolina Environmental Excellence Program. Since 1999, BMW has been named the world's most sustainable automotive company every year by the Dow Jones Sustainability Index. The BMW Group is one of three automotive companies to be featured every year in the index. In 2001, the BMW Group committed itself to the United Nations Environment Programme, the UN Global Compact and the Cleaner Production Declaration. It was also the first company in the automotive industry to appoint an environmental officer, in 1973. BMW is a member of the World Business Council for Sustainable Development. In 2012, BMW was the highest automotive company in the Carbon Disclosure Project's Global 500 list, with a score of 99 out of 100. The BMW Group was rated the most sustainable DAX 30 company by Sustainalytics in 2012. To reduce vehicle emissions, BMW is improving the efficiency of existing fossil-fuel powered models, while researching electric power, hybrid power and hydrogen for future models. During the first quarter of 2018, BMW sold 26,858 Electrified Vehicles (EVs, PHEVs, & Hybrids).", "DriveNow was a joint-venture between BMW and Sixt that operated from in Europe from 2011 until 2019. By December 2012, DriveNow operated over 1,000 vehicles, in five cities and with approximately 60,000 customers. In 2012, the BMW-owned subsidiary Alphabet began a corporate car-sharing service in Europe called AlphaCity. The ReachNow car-sharing service was launched in Seattle in April 2016. ReachNow currently operates in Seattle, Portland and Brooklyn.", "", "", "The first BMW production facility in China was opened in 2004, as a result of a joint venture between BMW and Brilliance Auto. The plant was opened in the Shenyang industrial area and produces 3 Series and 5 Series models for the Chinese market. In 2012, a second factory was opened in Shenyang. Between January and November 2014, BMW sold 415,200 vehicles in China, through a network of over 440 BMW stores and 100 Mini stores.", "On 31 July 2018, BMW announced to build 1 billion euro car factory in Hungary. The plant, to be built near Debrecen, will have a production capacity of 150,000 cars a year.", "In July 2014, BMW announced it was establishing a plant in Mexico, in the city and state of San Luis Potosi involving an investment of $1 billion. The plant will employ 1,500 people, and produce 150,000 cars annually.", "BMWs have been assembled in South Africa since 1968, when Praetor Monteerders' plant was opened in Rosslyn, near Pretoria. BMW initially bought shares in the company, before fully acquiring it in 1975; in so doing, the company became \"BMW South Africa\", the first wholly owned subsidiary of BMW to be established outside Germany. Unlike United States manufacturers, such as Ford and GM, which divested from the country in the 1980s, BMW retained full ownership of its operations in South Africa. Following the end of apartheid in 1994, and the lowering of import tariffs, BMW South Africa ended local production of the 5 Series and 7 Series, in order to concentrate on production of the 3 Series for the export market. South African–built BMWs are now exported to right hand drive markets including Japan, Australia, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, and Hong Kong, as well as Sub-Saharan Africa. Since 1997, BMW South Africa has produced vehicles in left-hand drive for export to Taiwan, the United States and Iran, as well as South America. Three unique models that BMW Motorsport created for the South African market were the E23 M745i (1983), which used the M88 engine from the BMW M1, the BMW 333i (1986), which added a six-cylinder 3.2-litre M30 engine to the E30, and the E30 BMW 325is (1989) which was powered by an Alpina-derived 2.7-litre engine. BMWs with a VIN starting with \"NC0\" are manufactured in South Africa.", "BMW cars have been officially sold in the United States since 1956 and manufactured in the United States since 1994. The first BMW dealership in the United States opened in 1975. In 2016, BMW was the twelfth highest selling brand in the United States. The manufacturing plant in Greer, South Carolina has the highest production of the BMW plants worldwide, currently producing approximately 1,500 vehicles per day. The models produced at the Spartanburg plant are the X3, X4, X5, X6 and X7 SUV models. In addition to the South Carolina manufacturing facility, BMW's North American companies include sales, marketing, design, and financial services operations in the United States, Mexico, Canada and Latin America.", "", "On 9 October 2014, BMW's new complete knock-down (CKD) assembly plant in Araquari, assembled its first car— an F30 3 Series. The cars assembled at Araquari are the F20 1 Series, F30 3 Series, F48 X1, F25 X3 and Mini Countryman.", "Bavarian Auto Group became the importer of the BMW and Mini brands in 2003. Since 2005, the 3 Series, 5 Series, 7 Series, X1 and X3 models sold in Egypt are assembled from complete knock-down components at the BMW plant in 6th of October City.", "BMW India was established in 2006 as a sales subsidiary with a head office located in Gurugram. A BMW complete knock-down assembly plant was opened in Chennai in 2007, assembling Indian-market 3 Series, 5 Series, 7 Series, X1, X3, X5, Mini Countryman and motorcycle models. The 20 Million Euro plant aims to produce 1,700 cars per year.", "Russian-market 3 Series and 5 Series cars are assembled from complete knock-down components in Kaliningrad beginning in 1999.", "BMW's complete knock-down (CKD) assembly plant in Kedah. Assembled Malaysia-market 1 Series, 3 Series, 5 Series, 7 Series, X1, X3, X4, X5, X6 and Mini Countryman since 2008.", "", "BMW's first dealership in Canada, located in Ottawa, was opened in 1969. In 1986, BMW established a head office in Canada. BMW sold 28,149 vehicles in Canada in 2008.", "BMW Japan Corp, a wholly owned subsidiary, imports and distributes BMW vehicles in Japan.", "BMW Philippines, an owned subsidiary of San Miguel Corporation, The Official Importer and Distributor of BMW in the Philippines. BMW sold 920 vehicles in the Philippines in 2019.", "BMW Korea imports BMW vehicles in South Korea with more than fifty service centers to fully accomplish to Korean customers. Also, BMW Korea has its own driving center in Incheon." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot.", "Gameplay.", "Characters.", "World.", "Cash Shop.", "History.", "Notable updates.", "Financial reception.", "Related games.", "Mapletory DS.", "MapleStory M.", "Sequel.", "Media adaptations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Players assume the roles of citizens in the Maple World with no specific objective to win the game, but to work on improving their characters' skill and status over time. The antagonist of the game, the Black Mage, was sealed away years ago by six heroes. Fearing his resurrection, Empress Cygnus enlisted the Maple World to join her Cygnus Knights in preventing his return. However, the Black Wings were able to return the Black Mage to reality for a moment, causing a cataclysm known as the Big Bang. With the seal on the Black Mage weakening, the five heroes return to the world in a weakened state. The player's character begins a quest to restore the Black Mage's seal but instead, witnesses his revival. The Black Mage then begins assimilating Grandis with the Maple World in order to rule both worlds.", "\"MapleStory\" is a 2D scrolling platform game. The controls for the game are executed using the keyboard and mouse. The keyboard is used for many game functions, and much of it can be rearranged to suit users' needs. The mouse is mainly used to trigger NPCs and manipulate items. Like most MMORPGs, gameplay centers on venturing into dungeons and combating monsters in real-time. The players combat monsters and complete quests, in the process acquiring in-game currency called \"Mesos\", experience points and various items. Players are able to acquire in-game professions, allowing them to craft equipment, accessories or potions. Players have a variety of options when interacting with others online: They can form parties where loot and experience are distributed from a monster; in-game marriages where the game will recognize the two players as a heterosexual couple; guilds which is indicated with a guild's name listed under their character name; or families, an architecture gathering of juniors and seniors. Players are also able to raise or lower the in-game popularity stat entitled Fame of other players and compete with other players in minigames, such as Gomoku or Concentration. They may also engage in trading activities for \"Mesos\" or other in-game items (though subject to virtual tax).", "\"MapleStory\" characters exist in worlds or servers. Players are able to create multiple characters in each world, though the characters in different worlds can not interact with each other. Each world is similar in content with each other. The worlds are divided into channels, among which characters are allowed to freely switch. The ability to transfer entire characters between worlds was added in December 2007 to Global \"MapleStory\", with restrictions placed on items. In May 2012, this option was removed as it caused a negative impact on character gameplay. When creating a new character, there are six branches of classes currently available, with two other branches with one class each: Explorers, Cygnus Knights, Heroes, Resistance, Nova and Sengoku. Beast Tamer and Child of God have one class in both branches. Some classes are currently not available in other regions. Explorer characters start on Maple Island and begin as a Beginner class. The Beginner is able to advance into one of the five classes: Warrior, Bowmen, Magician, Thief and Pirate. After choosing their class, further class progression is only allowed within the scope of the first class advancement with advancements at level 30, 60, 100, and 200. Three separate classes, under the adventurer branch, are created differently from normal Adventurers: Dual Blade (Thief), Kinesis (Magician) and Cannoneers (Pirate). Cygnus Knight characters begin as Noblesse class and begin their journey on Ereve. At level 10, they are allowed to class advance into five Cygnus Knight classes, each one parallels to the Explorer class. Upon reaching the level limit of 120, Cygnus Knights are able to change into a level 50 explorer with benefits. Six Hero classes are currently available: Aran, Evan, Mercedes, Phantom, Luminous and Shade. The Hero classes are characters with background stories related to the antagonist of the game, the Black Mage. Aran has the Combo System, a unique feature to the class, allowing them to generate combo counts by hitting monsters, giving them buffs and allowing them to cast combo-consuming skills. Evan is similar to Magicians, but uses a dragon, which fights alongside them. Mercedes is an elven archer who uses Dual Bowguns. Phantom is a Thief character with the ability to mimic skills from Adventurer characters. Luminous is a magician of light who can also use dark magic which they absorbed from the Black Mage. Shade is the sixth and forgotten hero, whose existence was erased during the sealing of the Black Mage. They use spirits to aid them in battle. Resistance characters begin in Edelstein, a town taken over by the Black Mage's followers; the Black Wings. The characters created under the Resistance branch begin as Citizens and have four available job advancements: Battle Mage, Wild Hunter, Blaster and Mechanic. A Battle Mage uses a staff for physical attacks, a Wild Hunter rides a jaguar while wielding a crossbow, a Blaster uses an arm cannon and a Mechanic uses a robotic suit to fight. Demon, a separate class, under the resistance branch, is created differently from the normal Resistance. A Demon character can become a Demon Slayer, who uses one-handed blunt weapons and axes, or the Demon Avenger, who uses a specialised weapon called the Desperado. Xenon, another separate resistance character, is a human-turned-cyborg who escaped from the Black Wings' laboratories who uses Whip Blades in combat.", "There are three main continents common to all versions in the \"MapleStory\" world: Maple Island, Victoria Island and Ossyria. Maple Island is where adventurers start off their characters. Victoria Island contains eight cities, and is where most classes begin. Ossyria features seven distinct regions with varying environments: El Nath Mountains, Ludus Lake, Aqua Road, Minar Forest, Mu Lung Garden, Nihal Desert and Temple of Time. Ereve and Rien are separated from another land which is the beginning of another job of the game.", "The Cash Shop is an in-game shop where players use real-life currency to purchase unique virtual goods such as avatars, digital pets and other in-game items. Most Cash Shop items expire after a period of time. The Cash Shop also offers a shop permit, allowing players to set up a store in the in-game market location called the Free Market.", "\"MapleStory\" was developed and released in South Korea and was localized to ten different regions as of 2010. As other publishers license the game for their region, proxy blocks are put in place (excluding the Korean version, it requires a KSSN), forcing players to play their localized version. On July 7, 2011, LevelUp! Games announced that they will not be renewing the contract for localization in Brazil.", "An update entitled \"Big Bang\" was released in Korean \"MapleStory\" in July 2010 with other versions following suit. Big Bang changed the game's core coding, and changed many aspects of the game. An update entitled \"Chaos\" features the introduction of professions, and PvP. On March 4, 2015, Nexon announced a new update for MapleStory's North American server, entitled Black Heaven. Players that registered prior to the update and before March 9 received a free Ignition Pack if they logged in before March 14 and after the update went live. Black Heaven was released on March 11, 2015. On December 1, 2015, Nexon released the MapleStory Reboot update for its North American server, which allows access to the Reboot world. This world has disabled trading, increased Meso drop rates and weapon/equipment drops that are specific to the player's class. Reboot has the same monsters as other worlds, but with increased stats and experience points awarded.", "In Global \"MapleStory\" (GMS), more than a million players have bought items in the Cash Shop. In 2006, Nexon announced \"MapleStory\" had a combined total of 39 million user accounts worldwide. \"MapleStory\" Global has over 8 million users as of 2011. As of 2014, it was among the top ten MMOs by worldwide revenue. Up until 2011, the game grossed $1.8billion. Between 2013 and 2017, the game grossed $billion, including $326million in 2013, $240million in 2014, $253million in 2015, $83million in 2016, and $279million in 2017. This adds up to a revenue of at least $ billion as of 2017.", "", "\"MapleStory DS\" is a game based on \"MapleStory\" and features a single-player experience. The game was released for the Nintendo DS on April 15, 2010 in Korea.", "\"MapleStory M\" is a mobile game released for iOS and Android, in South Korea during October 2016 and then overseas on May 28, 2018.", "The sequel, \"MapleStory 2\", was released in Korea on July 7, 2015. Unlike its predecessor, \"MapleStory 2\" takes place on a 3D voxel-based plane at an often isometric angle.", "The Japanese anime entitled, was adapted of the game and produced by Madhouse. It was aired on TV Tokyo between October 7, 2007 and March 30, 2008, spanning 25 episodes. The plot revolves around a warrior as he journeys to revive the world tree. The North American publisher of Nexon, released a \"MapleStory\" trading card game on November 6, 2007. Nexon Korea and Japan have since released similar trading card games, while Nexon North America has discontinued this service. Two adaptations of \"MapleStory\" have been released for iOS by Nexon Mobile: \"MapleStory: Thief Edition\" and \"MapleStory: Cygnus Knights Edition\". The \"Thief Edition\" has only one job, Thief, while the other edition features two jobs: a Soul Master and a Fire Wizard. The games do not have multiplayer. On July 27, 2011, Nexon released a public beta of a \"MapleStory Adventures\" as an adaptation for Facebook gaming format. The game consist of mainly single-player, but incorporates the main goals and themes of the full \"MapleStory\" game, which includes creating an avatar, fighting monsters and completing quests. This version has been discontinued as of July 31, 2013." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Recording.", "Musical style.", "Lyrics.", "Packaging.", "Release and reception.", "Track listing.", "Personnel." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Although the Rolling Stones had begun the recording of \"You Can't Always Get What You Want\" in November 1968, before \"Beggars Banquet\" had been released, recording for \"Let It Bleed\" began in earnest in February 1969 and continued sporadically until early November. Brian Jones, the band’s original leader and founder, had, over the course of the recording of the previous two albums, become increasingly unreliable. Though present in the studio, he was frequently too intoxicated to contribute meaningfully, and after a motorcycle accident in May 1969, missed several recording sessions whilst recovering. Always a talented multi-instrumentalist, Jones had previously contributed extensively on guitar, forming an integral part of the dual-guitar sound that was central to the band's groove. He was fired from the band during the recording of \"Let It Bleed\", having performed on only two tracks: playing autoharp on \"You Got the Silver\", and percussion on \"Midnight Rambler\". A month later after being fired, he died after accidentally drowning in his swimming pool at his home. As with the previous album, most of the guitar parts were recorded instead by the band's other guitarist, Keith Richards, during the period of principal recording. Jones's replacement, Mick Taylor, appears on just two tracks, \"Country Honk\" and \"Live with Me\", having contributed some overdubs during the May 1969 London Olympic Studios recording sessions. He also appears on \"Honky Tonk Women\", a stand-alone single recorded during the \"Let It Bleed\" sessions. Richards sang his first solo lead vocal on a Rolling Stones recording with \"You Got the Silver\", having previously sung harmony and background vocals with primary vocalist Mick Jagger on \"Connection\" and shared alternating lead vocals with Jagger on parts of \"Something Happened to Me Yesterday\" and \"Salt of the Earth\". Additional vocals were provided by The London Bach Choir, who sang on \"You Can't Always Get What You Want\". The choir distanced themselves from their contribution, however, citing what author Stephen Davis terms its \"relentless drug ambience\". Bassist Bill Wyman appears on every track except for two, on which Richards played bass. Drummer Charlie Watts performed on all of the tracks except for \"You Can't Always Get What You Want\"; he struggled to attain the sought-after rhythm, so producer Jimmy Miller filled in for him instead. \"Let It Bleed\" was originally scheduled for release in July 1969. Although \"Honky Tonk Women\" was released as a single that month, the album itself was delayed and eventually released in December 1969, after the band's US tour had completed. The majority of the album was recorded at Olympic Studios in London, with further work taking place at Elektra Sound Recorders Studios in Los Angeles, California, while the Stones prepared for the tour. The Los Angeles-recorded portions included overdubs by guest musicians Merry Clayton (on \"Gimme Shelter\"), Byron Berline (on \"Country Honk\"), and Bobby Keys and Leon Russell (on \"Live with Me\").", "As with \"Beggars Banquet\" the previous year, the album marks a return to the group's more blues-based approach that was prominent in the pre-\"Aftermath\" period of their career. The main inspiration during this string of albums was American roots music and \"Let It Bleed\" is no exception, drawing heavily from gospel (evident in \"Gimme Shelter\" and \"You Can't Always Get What You Want\"), Hank Williams and Jimmie Rodgers (\"Country Honk\"), Chicago blues (\"Midnight Rambler\"), as well as country blues (\"You Got the Silver\", \"Love in Vain\") and country rock (\"Let It Bleed\"). Don Heckman, writing in \"The New York Times\", felt that \"Let It Bleed\" was a \"heavy\" and \"passionately erotic\" album of hard rock and blues, influenced by African-American music. Richie Unterberger, writing for AllMusic, said it \"extends the rock and blues feel of \"Beggars Banquet\" into slightly harder-rocking, more demonically sexual territory\". \"Mojo\" magazine's James McNair felt the record had an emphasis on \"earthy\" country blues. Through their experimentation during the mid-1960s, the band had developed an eclectic approach to arrangements. Slide guitar playing is prominent (played entirely by Richards, except \"Country Honk\", which was performed by Taylor), and is featured on all songs except \"Gimme Shelter\", \"Live with Me\" and \"You Can't Always Get What You Want\", giving the album an authentic blues feel throughout. In addition, an array of session musicians embellish the songs with various instruments. Alongside the piano performances (Ian Stewart, Nicky Hopkins), the record included fiddle (Byron Berline), mandolin (Ry Cooder), organ and French horn (Al Kooper), as well as vibes (Wyman) and autoharp (Wyman and Jones). Of more importance, however, was the debut of both renowned saxophonist Bobby Keys on \"Live with Me\", a musician who was integral at giving the group's arrangements a soul/jazz background, and Taylor, who took on lead guitar duties with technically proficient playing, giving the band a harder rock sound during the late 1960s and early 1970s.", "Jann Wenner, in a 1995 \"Rolling Stone\" interview with Jagger, describes the album's songs as \"disturbing\" and the scenery as \"ugly\". When asked if the Vietnam War played a role in the album's worldview. Jagger said: \"I think so. Even though I was living in America only part time, I was influenced. All those images were on television. Plus, the spill out onto campuses\".", "The album cover displays a surreal sculpture designed by Robert Brownjohn. The image consists of the \"Let It Bleed\" record being played by the tone-arm of an antique phonograph, and a record-changer spindle supporting several items stacked on a plate in place of a stack of records: a film canister labelled \"Stones – Let It Bleed\", a clock dial, a pizza, a motorcycle tyre and a cake with elaborate icing topped by figurines representing the band. The cake parts of the construction were prepared by then-unknown cookery writer Delia Smith. The reverse of the LP sleeve shows the same \"record-stack\" melange in a state of disarray. The artwork was inspired by the working title of the album, which was \"Automatic Changer\". Jagger originally asked artist M. C. Escher to design a cover for the album; Escher declined. The album cover was among the ten chosen by the Royal Mail for a set of \"Classic Album Cover\" postage stamps issued in January 2010.", "Released in December, \"Let It Bleed\" reached number 1 in the UK (temporarily demoting the Beatles' \"Abbey Road\") and number 3 on the \"Billboard\" Top LPs chart in the US, where it eventually went 2× platinum. In a contemporary review for \"Rolling Stone\" magazine, music critic Greil Marcus said that the middle of the album has \"great\" songs, but \"Gimme Shelter\" and \"You Can't Always Get What You Want\" \"seem to matter most\" because they \"both reach for reality and end up confronting it, almost mastering what's real, or what reality will feel like as the years fade in.\" Robert Christgau named it the fourth best album of 1969 in his ballot for \"Jazz & Pop\" magazine's annual critics poll. In later commentaries, he has said the album \"still speak[s] to me with startling fullness and authority\", and despite some \"duff moments\" on side two, every song \"stands up\". \"Let It Bleed\" was the Stones' last album to be released in an official mono version, which is rare and highly sought-after today. This mono version is merely a 'fold-down' of the stereo version. Nevertheless, it was included in the box-set \"The Rolling Stones in Mono\" (2016). The album was released in US as an LP record, reel to reel tape, audio cassette and 8-track cartridge in 1969, and as a remastered CD in 1986. In August 2002, it was reissued in a remastered CD and SACD digipak by ABKCO Records, and once more in 2010 by Universal Music Enterprises in a Japanese only SHM-SACD version. In a retrospective review, \"NME\" magazine said that the album \"tugs and teases\" in various musical directions and called it \"a classic\". In his 2001 Stones biography, Stephen Davis said of the album \"No rock record, before or since, has ever so completely captured the sense of palpable dread that hung over its era.\" In a five-star review for \"Rolling Stone\" in 2004, Gavin Edwards praised Richards' guitar playing throughout the album, and stated: \"Whether it was spiritual, menstrual or visceral, the Stones made sure you went home covered in blood.\" Jason McNeil of PopMatters wrote that \"Beggars Banquet\" and \"Let It Bleed\" are \"the two greatest albums the band’s (or anyone’s) ever made\". In Steven Van Zandt's opinion, \"Let It Bleed\" was one in the Stones' series of four studio LPs – including \"Beggars Banquet\" (1968), \"Sticky Fingers\" (1971) and \"Exile on Main St.\" (1972) – that was \"the greatest run of albums in history\". According to Acclaimed Music, it is the 41st most celebrated album in popular music history. The album was included in a \"Basic Record Library\" of 1950s and 1960s recordings, published in \"\" (1981). In 2000, \"Q\" magazine ranked it at number 28 in its list of \"The 100 Greatest British Albums Ever\". In 2001, the TV network VH1 placed \"Let It Bleed\" at 24th on their \"100 Greatest Albums of R 'n' R\" survey. In 1997, it was voted the 27th-\"Best Album Ever\" by \"The Guardian\". In 2003, \"Rolling Stone\" ranked it at number 32 on the magazine's list of the \"500 Greatest Albums of All Time\". maintaining the rating in a 2012 revised list. It was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame in 2005.", "The track listing on the back of the album jacket did not follow the one on the album itself. According to Brownjohn, he altered it purely for visual reasons; the correct order was shown on the record's label. Additionally, \"Gimme Shelter\" is rendered as \"Gimmie Shelter\" on the jacket. Some releases have \"Gimmie Shelter\" on the cover, the inner sleeve and the LP label.", "The Rolling Stones Additional personnel" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Recording.", "Artwork.", "Standard version.", "Alternative version and covers.", "Release and reception.", "Personnel." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "With the end of their Decca/London association at hand, The Rolling Stones were finally free to release their albums (cover art and all) as they pleased. However, their departing manager Allen Klein dealt the group a major blow when they discovered that they had inadvertently signed over their entire 1960s American copyrights to Klein and his company ABKCO, which is how all of their material from 1963's \"Come On\" to \"Get Yer Ya-Ya's Out! The Rolling Stones in Concert\" has since been released solely in America by ABKCO Records. The band would remain incensed with Klein for decades for that act. Klein died in 2009. When Decca informed The Rolling Stones that they were owed one more single, they cheekily submitted a track called \"Cocksucker Blues\", which was guaranteed to be refused. Instead, Decca released the two-year-old \"Beggars Banquet\" track \"Street Fighting Man\" while Klein retained dual copyright ownership in conjunction with The Rolling Stones of \"Brown Sugar\" and \"Wild Horses.\"", "Although sessions for \"Sticky Fingers\" began in earnest in March 1970, The Rolling Stones had been recording at Muscle Shoals Sound Studio in Alabama in December 1969. \"Sister Morphine,\" cut during \"Let It Bleed\"'s sessions earlier in March of that year, had been held over from this release. Much of the recording for \"Sticky Fingers\" was made with The Rolling Stones' mobile studio unit in Stargroves during the summer and autumn of 1970. Early versions of songs that would eventually appear on \"Exile on Main St.\" were also rehearsed during these sessions.", "", "The album's artwork emphasises the suggestive innuendo of the \"Sticky Fingers\" title, showing a close-up of a jeans-clad male crotch with the visible outline of a penis; the cover of the original (vinyl LP) release featured a working zipper and perforations around the belt buckle that opened to reveal a sub-cover image of cotton briefs. The vinyl release displayed the band's name and album title along the image of the belt; behind the zipper the white briefs were seemingly rubber stamped in gold with the stylized name of American pop artist Andy Warhol, below which read \"THIS PHOTOGRAPH MAY NOT BE—ETC.\" While the artwork was conceived by Warhol, photography was by Billy Name and design was by Craig Braun. Braun and his team had other ideas, such as wrapping the album in rolling paper – a concept later used by Cheech & Chong in \"Big Bambu\" – but Jagger was enthused by Warhol's cover with a zipper. Execution was then handled as Warhol sent Braun Polaroid pictures of a model in tight jeans. The cover photo of a male model's crotch clad in tight blue jeans was assumed by many fans to be an image of Mick Jagger, but the people actually involved at the time of the photo shoot claim that Warhol had several different men photographed (Jagger was not among them) and never revealed which shots he used. Among the candidates, Jed Johnson, Warhol's lover at the time, denied it was his likeness, although his twin brother Jay is a possibility. Those closest to the shoot, and subsequent design, name Factory artist and designer Corey Tippin as the likeliest candidate. Warhol \"superstar\" Joe Dallesandro claims to have been the model. After retailers complained that the zipper was causing damage to the vinyl (from stacked shipments of the record), the zipper was \"unzipped\" slightly to the middle of the record, where damage would be minimised. For the initial vinyl release the album title and band name is smaller and at the top on the American release. The UK release the title and band name are in bigger letters and on the left. The album features the first usage of the \"tongue & lips\" logo of Rolling Stones Records, originally designed by John Pasche in 1970. Jagger suggested to Pasche that he copy the outstuck tongue of the Hindu goddess Kali, and while Pasche first felt it would date the image back to the Indian culture craze of the 1960s, seeing Kali made him change his mind. Before the end of that year his basic version was faxed to Craig Braun by Marshall Chess. The black & white copy was then modified by Braun and his team, resulting in today's most popular red version, the slim one with the two white stripes on the tongue. Critic Sean Egan has said of the logo, \"Without using the Stones' name, it instantly conjures them, or at least Jagger, as well as a certain lasciviousness that is the Stones' own... It quickly and deservedly became the most famous logo in the history of popular music.\" The tongue and lips design was part of a package that, in 2003, VH1 named the \"No. 1 Greatest Album Cover\" of all time.", "In Spain, the original cover was censored by the Franco regime and replaced with a \"Can of fingers\" cover, designed by John Pasche and Phil Jude, and \"Sister Morphine\" was replaced by a live version of Chuck Berry's \"Let It Rock.\" This track was later included on the cd compilation \"Rarities 1971–2003\" in 2005. In 1992, the LP release of the album in Russia featured a similar treatment as the original cover; but with Cyrillic lettering for the band name and album name, a colourised photograph of blue jeans with a zipper, and a Soviet Army uniform belt buckle that shows a hammer and sickle inscribed in a star. The model appears to be female.", "\"Sticky Fingers\" hit the number one spot on the British charts in May 1971, remaining there for four weeks before returning at number one for a further week in mid June. In the US, the album hit number one within days of release, and stayed there for four weeks. According to Billboard's Top 200 list, it was one of many American albums that topped the German chart that year. In a contemporary review for the \"Los Angeles Times\", music critic Robert Hilburn said that although \"Sticky Fingers\" is one of the best rock albums of the year, it is only \"modest\" by the Rolling Stones' standards and succeeds on the strength of songs such as \"Bitch\" and \"Dead Flowers,\" which recall the band's previously uninhibited, furious style. Jon Landau, writing in \"Rolling Stone\", felt that it lacks the spirit and spontaneity of the Rolling Stones' previous two albums and, apart from \"Moonlight Mile\", is full of \"forced attempts at style and control\" in which the band sounds disinterested, particularly on formally correct songs such as \"Brown Sugar.\" In a positive review, Lynn Van Matre of the \"Chicago Tribune\" viewed the album as the band \"at their raunchy best\" and wrote that, although it is \"hardly innovative,\" it is consistent enough to be one of the year's best albums. \"Sticky Fingers\" was voted the second best album of the year in \"The Village Voice\"s annual Pazz & Jop critics poll for 1971. Lester Bangs voted it number one in the poll and said that it was his most played album of the year. Robert Christgau, the poll's creator, ranked the album 17th on his own year-end list. In a 1975 article for \"The Village Voice\", Christgau suggested that the release was \"triffling with decadence\", but might be the Rolling Stones' best album, approached only by \"Exile on Main St.\" (1972). In \"\" (1981), he wrote that it reflected how unapologetic the band was after the Altamont Free Concert and that, despite the concession to sincerity with \"Wild Horses\", songs such as \"Can't You Hear Me Knocking\" and \"I Got the Blues\" are as \"soulful\" as \"Good Times,\" and their cover of \"You Gotta Move\" is on-par with their previous covers of \"Prodigal Son\" and \"Love in Vain.\" David Hepworth wrote in his 2016 book \"Never a Dull Moment\" that the contributions of guest performers like Keys, Jim Dickinson, and Preston made the album contain \"more musical range than any other Rolling Stones album,\" such as \"Dickinson's honky-tonk piano on 'Wild Horses'\" and \"Preston's churchy organ solo on 'I Got the Blues'.\" Hepworth also suggested that Taylor's \"Latin-flavored guitar solo\" on \"Can't You Hear Me Knocking\" was influenced by Santana's 1970 album \"Abraxas\". According to Acclaimed Music, it is the 48th most celebrated album in popular music history. In 1994, \"Sticky Fingers\" was ranked number ten in Colin Larkin's \"All Time Top 1000 Albums\". He stated, \"Dirty rock like this has still to be bettered, and there is still no rival in sight.\" In a retrospective review, \"Q\" magazine said that the album was \"the Stones at their assured, showboating peak... A magic formula of heavy soul, junkie blues and macho rock.\" \"NME\" wrote that it \"captures the Stones bluesy swagger\" in a \"dark-land where few dare to tread.\" \"Record Collector\" magazine said that it showcases Jagger and Richards as they \"delve even further back to the primitive blues that first inspired them and step up their investigations into another great American form, country.\" In his review for \"Goldmine\" magazine, Dave Thompson wrote that the album still is superior to \"most of The Rolling Stones’ catalog.\" In 2003, \"Sticky Fingers\" was listed as No. 63 on \"Rolling Stone\" magazine's list of The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time, and 64 in a 2012 revised list. In 1994, \"Sticky Fingers\" was remastered and reissued by Virgin Records. This remaster was initially released in a Collector's Edition CD, which replicated in miniature many elements of the original vinyl album packaging, including the zipper. \"Sticky Fingers\" was remastered again in 2009 by Universal Music Enterprises and in 2011 by Universal Music Enterprises in a Japanese-only SHM-SACD version. In 1999, it was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame. In June 2015, the Rolling Stones reissued \"Sticky Fingers\" (in its 2009 remastering) in a variety of formats to coincide with a new concert tour, the Zip Code Tour. The Deluxe and Super Deluxe versions of the reissue featured previously unreleased bonus material (depending on the format): alternative takes of some songs, live tracks recorded on 14 March 1971 at the Roundhouse, London, and the complete 13 March 1971 show at Leeds University. It re-entered the UK Albums chart at number 7, extending their UK Top 10 album chart span beyond 51 years and 2 months since their self-titled debuted at number 7 on 23 April 1964. It also re-entered the US Albums chart at number 5, extending their US Top 10 album chart span beyond 50 years and 6 months since \"12 x 5\" on 14 December 1964. The Rolling Stones", "Additional personnel Technical" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Appearances.", "Background.", "\"The Cage\" and the first season.", "Season two and three.", "\"The Motion Picture\" and the film series.", "\"Star Trek: The Next Generation\".", "Reboot films.", "\"Star Trek\" (2009).", "\"Star Trek Into Darkness\" (2013).", "\"Star Trek Beyond\" (2016).", "\"Star Trek: Discovery\".", "\"Star Trek: Short Treks\".", "Development.", "\"The Original Series\".", "\"Revival attempts\" and the film franchise.", "Mind melds.", "Reception.", "Cultural impact.", "Fan productions.", "\"Spocking\" Canadian $5 notes." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Spock's backstory has been explained during the course of several episodes of \"\", the 2009 film \"Star Trek\" and the episode \"\" of \"\". Spock was born to the Vulcan Sarek and the human Amanda Grayson. Due to this mixed species heritage Spock had to be removed from Amanda's body and raised in a test tube for two months, during which time Vulcan scientists made subtle chemical adjustments to the fetus to ensure its survival. The fetus was returned to Amanda's body to complete the human gestation period, then put in an incubator for four months to complete the Vulcan gestation period. He is the first such mixed race child to survive. Spock has a troubled childhood due to his mixed heritage. On", "Spock appeared as the science officer on the USS \"Enterprise\" in the first pilot for the series, \"\". This was not shown on television at the time, but the events of the episode were shown in the two-part episode \"\" of the, and Spock's previous 11 years of service on the \"Enterprise\" were described. Spock was one of the members of the away team who joined Captain Christopher Pike (Jeffrey Hunter) on a mission to Talos IV in order to investigate a distress call. Spock did appear in the second pilot, \"Where No Man Has Gone Before\", but this was broadcast initially as the third episode. During the events of that pilot, Spock became concerned at the risk to the ship posed by Lieutenant Commander Gary Mitchell (Gary Lockwood) and suggested possible", "In the premiere episode of the second season, \"Amok Time\", Spock begins to undergo pon farr, the Vulcan blood fever, and must undergo a ritual mating in the next eight days or die. Kirk disobeys Starfleet orders and takes the \"Enterprise\" to the planet Vulcan so that Spock can undergo the mating ritual. When they arrive, he is reunited with T'Pring (Arlene Martel). She rather wishes to be with Stonn (Lawrence Montaigne), a full-blooded Vulcan. She demands the ritual kal-if-fee fight instead, and selects Kirk as her champion, who unknowingly agrees to a fight to the death with Spock. McCoy persuades T'Pau (Celia Lovsky) to let him inject Kirk with something to alleviate the issues with Vulcan's thinner atmosphere and make the fight fair. The fight begins, and Spock gains the upper hand, garroting Kirk and killing him. McCoy orders an emergency transport directly to sickbay, while Spock is told by T'Pring that it was all a game", "At the beginning of \"\" (1979), Spock is no longer in Starfleet, having resigned and returned home to pursue the Vulcan discipline of Kolinahr. Spock is unable to complete the Kolinahr ritual after he senses the coming of V'ger, and rejoins Starfleet to aid the \"Enterprise\" crew in their mission. Spock, promoted to captain, is commanding officer of the \"Enterprise\" at the beginning of \"\" (1982). At the film's end, he transfers his \"katra\" – the sum of his memories and experience – to McCoy, and then sacrifices himself to save the ship and its crew", "After a period in which the production team avoided mentioning some aspects of The Original Series, Spock was mentioned by name in \"\" in the episode \"\" (1990). Executive producer Michael Piller later described this one act as \"the breakthrough which allowed us to open the doors,", "", "Spock's next appearance in the live action \"Star Trek\" franchise is the 2009 \"Star Trek\" film. Nimoy was given approval rights over Spock's casting and supported Quinto's casting. In the film's flashback (set 19 years after the events of \"\", and as depicted in the comic miniseries \"Star Trek: Countdown\"), Ambassador Spock (Nimoy) promises the Romulans he will use Vulcan technology to save them from a rogue supernova that threatens to destroy their Empire. He pilots an advanced starship equipped with red matter, a powerful substance able to create artificial black holes. The mission is only partially successful, and in the aftermath Spock is pursued into the past by Nero (Eric Bana), a Romulan driven mad by the loss of his homeworld and family, setting into motion the events of the film. In the film's opening act, Nero's ship", "In \"Star Trek Into Darkness\", Spock Prime is described as living on 'New Vulcan' while the younger Spock remains aboard the \"Enterprise\" struggling with the loss of his homeworld, as well as his relationships with Uhura and James T. Kirk. Spock nearly dies protecting a planet from an active volcano, but Kirk breaks the Prime Directive and saves him. Spock Prime is contacted by Spock on the \"Enterprise\", to find out details on Khan. Spock Prime initially reminds his alternate self that he will not interfere with the events in the alternate timeline. That being said, he then informs Spock that Khan was a dangerous", "In \"Star Trek Beyond\", Spock receives word that Ambassador Spock (Spock Prime) has died. Impacted by this, Spock later tells McCoy that he intends to leave Starfleet to continue the ambassador's work on New Vulcan. At the end of the film, Spock receives a box containing some of Ambassador Spock's personal effects, and reflecting on a photograph of the older crew of the \"Enterprise\" from the series' original timeline, he chooses to remain in Starfleet.", "In August 2018 it was announced that Ethan Peck would join the cast of \"\" as Spock in the show's upcoming second season, portraying a Spock younger than both Nimoy's and Quinto's renditions of the character, as \"Discovery\" is set several years", "In 2019, it was announced that the", "", "The earliest known mention of Spock was in a conversation between \"Star Trek\"s creator Gene Roddenberry and actor Gary Lockwood, in which Lockwood suggested Leonard Nimoy for the role. The trio had previously worked together on Roddenberry's \"The Lieutenant\" in the episode \"In the Highest Tradition\". Roddenberry agreed to the idea, but was required to audition other actors for the part. At the time, Roddenberry sought DeForest Kelley to play the doctor character in the pilot, \"The Cage\", but both NBC executives and director Robert Butler wanted him to play Spock. Roddenberry offered the part to both Kelley and Martin Landau, but they both turned him down. When offered, Nimoy", "Nimoy agreed to return to Spock during one of the early 1970s attempts to create a \"Star Trek\" film, entitled \"\", but dropped out after his likeness as Spock was used without permission to advertise Heineken beer. He was persuaded to return to the role of Spock as the lead for the planned \"Trek\" film titled \"\" to be directed by Philip Kaufman. When this project was killed in favor of a new television series, \"\", Nimoy was reportedly only offered", "Spock is one of the characters of \"Star", "\"Given the choice\", Nimoy said years after the show ended, \"If I had to be someone else, I would be Spock.\" He recalled, more than a decade after the show's cancellation: From early on, the public reacted very positively—even fanatically—to his character, in what \"The Boston Globe\" in 1967 described as \"Spockmania\". Headshots of Spock became popular souvenirs, with the rare ones of the actor laughing the most valuable. Nimoy reported that \"within two weeks after [\"Amok Time\"], my mail jumped from a few hundred letters to 10,000 a week\". When he appeared as Spock as grand marshal of a Medford, Oregon parade in April 1967, thousands gathered to receive autographs: \"They surged forward so quickly that I was terrified someone would be crushed to death; and then they started pressing against the bandstand so hard it began to sway beneath my feet!\" After being rescued by police, \"I made sure never to appear publicly again in Vulcan guise\", Nimoy stated. Fans asked Nimoy questions about current events such as the Vietnam War and LSD as if he were the Vulcan scientist; one even asked the actor to lay his hands on a friend's eyes to heal them. When a biracial girl wrote asking for advice on how to deal with persecution as \"a half-breed\", Nimoy responded that young Vulcans had treated Spock similarly and that she should, as he did, \"realize the difference between popularity and true greatness\". The actor believed that the character appealed to viewers, especially teenagers, because To Nimoy's surprise, Spock became a sex symbol; Isaac Asimov described the character as \"a security blanket with sexual overtones\", and Nimoy reported that \"I've never had more female attention on a set before. And get this: they all want to \"touch the ears!\"\" (When a young woman asked \"Are you aware that you are the source of erotic dream material for thousands and thousands of ladies around the world?\", he replied \"May all your dreams come true\".) Nimoy speculated that Spock appealed to women because NASA made Spock an informal mascot. Nimoy was invited to be guest of honor at the March 1967 National Space Club dinner and to take an extensive tour of the Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, MD. The actor concluded from the warm and intense reception he received that astronauts like John Glenn and aerospace industry engineers, secretaries, and shareholders alike all regarded \"Star Trek\", and especially the character of Spock, as a \"dramatization of the future of their space program\". An asteroid in the Eos family discovered on August 16, 1971 was named after the discoverer James B. Gibson's cat (which had been named Mr. Spock, who was likewise \"imperturbable, logical, intelligent, and had pointed ears\"). The character proved inspirational to many budding scientists and engineers. Nimoy has said that many of them, on meeting him, were eager to show him their work and discuss it with him as if he were a scientific peer, as opposed to an actor, photographer, and poet. His stock response in these situations was \"it certainly looks like you're headed in the right direction\". In 2004, Spock was ranked number 21 in Bravo's list of The 100 Greatest TV Characters. In 2008, UGO named Spock one of the 50 greatest TV characters. According to Shatner, much of \"Star Trek\"s acting praise and media interest went to Nimoy. In 2012, IGN ranked the character Spock, as depicted in the original series and the 2009 film \"Star Trek\", as the second top character of the \"Star Trek\" universe, with Kirk in the top spot. In 2016, Adam Nimoy released his documentary film \"For the Love of Spock\", about his father and his iconic character. In 2017, Screen Rant ranked Spock the 5th most attractive person in the \"Star Trek\" universe, in between Michael Burnham and Seven of Nine. In 2018, they ranked Spock as one of the top 8 most powerful character's of \"Star Trek\" (including later series). In 2018, CBR ranked Spock the 6th best Starfleet character of the \"Star Trek\" franchise.", "Spock has been parodied by, and has also been the inspiration for, pop culture works in various media. Composer/keyboardist George Duke's \"1976 Solo Keyboard Album\" features two tracks which pay homage to Spock: \"Spock Gets Funky\" and \"Vulcan Mind Probe\". Rock guitarist Paul Gilbert wrote the song \"Mr. Spock\" on his \"Space Ship One\" album. Swedish synthpop band S.P.O.C.K makes music heavily influenced by the \"Star Trek\" universe. Even Nimoy got in on the act; assuming the Spock character, Nimoy recorded a number of novelty songs, the first being \"Highly Illogical\", in which Spock pointed out the foibles of human thought, such as relationships, automobiles, and greed. The second song, \"A Visit to a Sad Planet\", was darker in tone and told the story of Spock visiting Earth in the future and discovering it had been ruined by war, violence, and environmental irresponsibility. According to comic book writer and editor Bob Budiansky, \"The Transformers\" character Shockwave was inspired by Spock. Spock's utilitarian perspective that \"the needs of the many outweigh the needs of the few\" is cited in a legal decision rendered by the Texas Supreme Court. Leonard Nimoy's second-season Spock costume shirt was expected to sell at auction for over $75,000. Spock's physical appearance in the \"Original Series\" episode \"\" (1967) has itself spawned a trope of the \"evil twin\" archetype found in various fictional genres. In that episode, several members of the \"Enterprise\" travel to a parallel universe inhabited by evil versions of themselves. The parallel universe version of Spock is distinguished physically by his goatee. Science fiction blog io9 said that Spock's beard in the episode introduced \"the best shorthand ever for evil parallel universe duplicates\". Examples of the evil goatee's appearances in other media include Bender's \"evil twin\" Flexo in \"Futurama\" and a 2009 episode of \"The Colbert Report\" featuring Stephen Colbert and Dan Maffei wearing fake goatees while pretending to be evil versions of themselves. The name of progressive rock band Spock's Beard is a direct reference to Spock's goatee in this episode.", "In addition to television, feature films, books, and parodies, Spock has also been portrayed in non-canon fan fiction. Since 2004, the online fan production \"\" has continued the further voyages of the cancelled initial series. The fan-series' creators feel \"Kirk, Spock, McCoy, and the rest should be treated as 'classic' characters like Willy Loman from \"Death of a Salesman\", Gandalf from \"Lord of the Rings\", or even Hamlet, Othello, or Romeo. Many actors have and can", "There has been a practice of altering the portrait of Wilfrid Laurier, Canada's prime minister from" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Overview.", "Themes.", "Plugins.", "Mobile applications.", "Accessibility.", "Other features.", "Multi-user and multi-blogging.", "History.", "Release history.", "WordPress 5.0 \"Bebo\".", "Classic Editor plugin.", "Future.", "Vulnerabilities.", "Development and support.", "Key developers.", "WordCamp developer and user conferences.", "Support." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "\"WordPress is a factory that makes webpages\" is a core analogy designed to clarify the functions of WordPress: it stores content and enables a user to create and publish webpages, requiring nothing beyond a domain and a hosting service. WordPress has a web template system using a template processor. Its architecture is a front controller, routing all requests for non-static URIs to a single PHP file which parses the URI and identifies the target page. This allows support for more human-readable permalinks.", "WordPress users may install and switch among different themes. Themes allow users to change the look and functionality of a WordPress website without altering the core code or site content. Every WordPress website requires at least one theme to be present and every theme should be designed using WordPress standards with structured PHP, valid HTML (HyperText Markup Language), and Cascading Style Sheets (CSS). Themes may be directly installed using the WordPress \"Appearance\" administration tool in the dashboard, or theme folders may be copied directly into the themes directory, for example via FTP. The PHP, HTML and CSS found in themes can be directly modified to alter theme behavior, or a theme can be a \"child\" theme that inherits settings from another theme and selectively overrides features. WordPress themes are generally classified into two categories: free and premium. Many free themes are listed in the WordPress theme directory (also known as the repository), and premium themes are available for purchase from marketplaces and individual WordPress developers. WordPress users may also create and develop their own custom themes. The free theme Underscores created by the WordPress developers has become a popular basis for new themes.", "WordPress' plugin architecture allows users to extend the features and functionality of a website or blog. As of January 2020, WordPress.org has 55,487 plugins available, each of which offers custom functions and features enabling users to tailor their sites to their specific needs. However, this does not include the premium plugins that are available (approximately 1,500+), which may not be listed in the WordPress.org repository. These customizations range from search engine optimization (SEO), to client portals used to display private information to logged in users, to content management systems, to content displaying features, such as the addition of widgets and navigation bars. Not all available plugins are always abreast with the upgrades and as a result they may not function properly or may not function at all. Most plugins are available through WordPress themselves, either via downloading them and installing the files manually via FTP or through the WordPress dashboard. However, many third parties offer plugins through their own websites, many of which are paid packages. Web developers who wish to develop plugins need to learn WordPress' hook system which consists of over 300 hooks divided into two categories: action hooks and filter hooks.", "Phone apps for WordPress exist for WebOS, Android, iOS (iPhone, iPod Touch, iPad), Windows Phone, and BlackBerry. These applications, designed by Automattic, have options such as adding new blog posts and pages, commenting, moderating comments, replying to comments in addition to the ability to view the stats.", "The WordPress Accessibility Team has worked to improve the accessibility for core WordPress as well as support a clear identification of accessible themes. The WordPress Accessibility Team provides continuing educational support about web accessibility and inclusive design. The WordPress Accessibility Coding Standards state that \"All new or updated code released in WordPress must conform with the Web Content Accessibility Guidelines 2.0 at level AA.\"", "WordPress also features integrated link management; a search engine–friendly, clean permalink structure; the ability to assign multiple categories to posts; and support for tagging of posts. Automatic filters are also included, providing standardized formatting and styling of text in posts (for example, converting regular quotes to smart quotes). WordPress also supports the Trackback and Pingback standards for displaying links to other sites that have themselves linked to a post or an article. WordPress posts can be edited in HTML, using the visual editor, or using one of a number of plugins that allow for a variety of customized editing features.", "Prior to version 3, WordPress supported one blog per installation, although multiple concurrent copies may be run from different directories if configured to use separate database tables. WordPress Multisites (previously referred to as WordPress Multi-User, WordPress MU, or WPMU) was a fork of WordPress created to allow multiple blogs to exist within one installation but is able to be administered by a centralized maintainer. WordPress MU makes it possible for those with websites to host their own blogging communities, as well as control and moderate all the blogs from a single dashboard. WordPress MS adds eight new data tables for each blog. As of the release of WordPress 3, WordPress MU has merged with WordPress.", "\"b2/cafelog\", more commonly known as \"b2\" or \"cafelog\", was the precursor to WordPress. b2/cafelog was estimated to have been installed on approximately 2,000 blogs as of May 2003. It was written in PHP for use with MySQL by Michel Valdrighi, who is now a contributing developer to WordPress. Although WordPress is the official successor, another project, b2evolution, is also in active development. WordPress first appeared in 2003 as a joint effort between Matt Mullenweg and Mike Little to create a fork of b2. Christine Selleck Tremoulet, a friend of Mullenweg, suggested the name \"WordPress\". In 2004 the licensing terms for the competing Movable Type package were changed by Six Apart, resulting in many of its most influential users migrating to WordPress. By October 2009 the Open Source CMS MarketShare Report concluded that WordPress enjoyed the greatest brand strength of any open-source content management system. As of June 2019, WordPress is used by 60.8% of all the websites whose content management system is known. This is 27.5% of the top 10 million websites.", "Main releases of WordPress are codenamed after well-known jazz musicians, starting from version 1.0.", "The December 2018 release of WordPress 5.0, \"Bebo\", is named in homage to the pioneering Cuban jazz musician Bebo Valdés. It included a new default editor \"Gutenberg\" – a block-based editor; it allows users to modify their displayed content in a much more user friendly way than prior iterations. Blocks are abstract units of markup that, composed together, form the content or layout of a web page. Past content that was created on WordPress pages is listed under what is referred to as a Classic Block. Prior to Gutenberg, there were several block-based editors available as WordPress plugins, e.g. Elementor, and following the release of Gutenberg it was compared to existing plugins.", "The Classic Editor Plugin was created as result of User preferences and as a way to help website developers to maintain past plugins only compatible with WordPress 4.9.8 giving plugin developers time to get their plugins updated & compatible with the 5.0 release. Having the Classic Editor plugin installed restores the \"classic\" editing experience that WordPress has had up until the WordPress 5.0 release. The Classic Editor Plugin will be supported at least until 2022. The Classic Editor plugin is active on over 5,000,000 installations of WordPress.", "Matt Mullenweg has stated that the future of WordPress is in social, mobile, and as an application platform.", "Many security issues have been uncovered in the software, particularly in 2007, 2008, and 2015. According to Secunia, WordPress in April 2009 had seven unpatched security advisories (out of 32 total), with a maximum rating of \"Less Critical\". Secunia maintains an up-to-date list of WordPress vulnerabilities. In January 2007, many high-profile search engine optimization (SEO) blogs, as well as many low-profile commercial blogs featuring AdSense, were targeted and attacked with a WordPress exploit. A separate vulnerability on one of the project site's web servers allowed an attacker to introduce exploitable code in the form of a back door to some downloads of WordPress 2.1.1. The 2.1.2 release addressed this issue; an advisory released at the time advised all users to upgrade immediately. In May 2007, a study revealed that 98% of WordPress blogs being run were exploitable because they were running outdated and unsupported versions of the software. In part to mitigate this problem, WordPress made updating the software a much easier, \"one click\" automated process in version 2.7 (released in December 2008). However, the filesystem security settings required to enable the update process can be an additional risk. In a June 2007 interview, Stefan Esser, the founder of the PHP Security Response Team, spoke critically of WordPress' security track record, citing problems with the application's architecture that made it unnecessarily difficult to write code that is secure from SQL injection vulnerabilities, as well as some other problems. In June 2013, it was found that some of the 50 most downloaded WordPress plugins were vulnerable to common Web attacks such as SQL injection and XSS. A separate inspection of the top-10 e-commerce plugins showed that seven of them were vulnerable. In an effort to promote better security, and to streamline the update experience overall, automatic background updates were introduced in WordPress 3.7. Individual installations of WordPress can be protected with security plugins that prevent user enumeration, hide resources and thwart probes. Users can also protect their WordPress installations by taking steps such as keeping all WordPress installation, themes, and plugins updated, using only trusted themes and plugins, editing the site's.htaccess configuration file if supported by the web server to prevent many types of SQL injection attacks and block unauthorized access to sensitive files. It is especially important to keep WordPress plugins updated because would-be hackers can easily list all the plugins a site uses, and then run scans searching for any vulnerabilities against those plugins. If vulnerabilities are found, they may be exploited to allow hackers to, for example, upload their own files (such as a web shell) that collect sensitive information. Developers can also use tools to analyze potential vulnerabilities, including WPScan, WordPress Auditor and WordPress Sploit Framework developed by 0pc0deFR. These types of tools research known vulnerabilities, such as a CSRF, LFI, RFI, XSS, SQL injection and user enumeration. However, not all vulnerabilities can be detected by tools, so it is advisable to check the code of plugins, themes and other add-ins from other developers. In March 2015, it was reported by many security experts and SEOs, including Search Engine Land, that a SEO plugin for WordPress called Yoast which is used by more than 14 million users worldwide has a vulnerability which can lead to an exploit where hackers can do a Blind SQL injection. To fix that issue they immediately introduced a newer version 1.7.4 of the same plugin to avoid any disturbance on web because of the security lapse that the plugin had. In January 2017, security auditors at Sucuri identified a vulnerability in the WordPress REST API that would allow any unauthenticated user to modify any post or page within a site running WordPress 4.7 or greater. The auditors quietly notified WordPress developers, and within six days WordPress released a high priority patch to version 4.7.2 which addressed the problem. As of WordPress 5.2, the minimum PHP version requirement is PHP 5.6, which was released on August 28, 2014, and which has been unsupported by the PHP Group and not received any security patches since December 31, 2018. Thus, WordPress recommends using PHP version 7.3 or greater. In the absence of specific alterations to their default formatting code, WordPress-based websites use the canvas element to detect whether the browser is able to correctly render emoji. Because Tor Browser does not currently discriminate between this legitimate use of the Canvas API and an effort to perform canvas fingerprinting, it warns that the website is attempting to 'extract HTML5 canvas image data'. Ongoing efforts seek workarounds to reassure privacy advocates while retaining the ability to check for proper emoji rendering capability.", "", "Matt Mullenweg and Mike Little were co-founders of the project. The core lead developers include Helen Hou-Sandí, Dion Hulse, Mark Jaquith, Matt Mullenweg, Andrew Ozz, and Andrew Nacin. WordPress is also developed by its community, including \"WP testers\", a group of volunteers who test each release. They have early access to nightly builds, beta versions and release candidates. Errors are documented in a special mailing list or the project's Trac tool. Though largely developed by the community surrounding it, WordPress is closely associated with Automattic, the company founded by Matt Mullenweg. On September 9, 2010, Automattic handed the WordPress trademark to the newly created WordPress Foundation, which is an umbrella organization supporting WordPress.org (including the software and archives for plugins and themes), bbPress and BuddyPress.", "WordCamps are casual, locally organized conferences covering everything related to WordPress. The first such event was WordCamp 2006 in August 2006 in San Francisco, which lasted one day and had over 500 attendees. The first WordCamp outside San Francisco was held in Beijing in September 2007. Since then, there have been over 1,022 WordCamps in over 75 cities in 65 different countries around the world. WordCamp San Francisco 2014 was the last official annual conference of WordPress developers and users taking place in San Francisco, having now been replaced with WordCamp US. First ran in 2013 as WordCamp Europe, regional WordCamps in other geographical regions are held with the aim of connecting people who aren't already active in their local communities and inspire attendees to start user communities in their hometowns. In 2019, the Nordic region had its own WordCamp Nordic. The first WordCamp Asia was to be held in 2020, but cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic.", "WordPress' primary support website is WordPress.org. This support website hosts both WordPress Codex, the online manual for WordPress and a living repository for WordPress information and documentation, and WordPress Forums, an active online community of WordPress users." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Early years.", "Reformation.", "19th century.", "20th century.", "Since German reunification.", "Geography.", "Climate.", "Demographics.", "Population change.", "Education.", "Culture and architecture.", "Entertainment.", "Architecture.", "Cathedral.", "Sports.", "Twin towns – sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Founded by Charlemagne in 805 as Magadoburg (probably from Old High German \"magado\" for \"big\", \"mighty\" and \"burga\" for \"fortress\"), the town was fortified in 919 by King Henry the Fowler against the Magyars and Slavs. In 929 King Otto I granted the city to his English-born wife Edith as dower. Queen Edith loved the town and often resided there; at her death she was buried in the crypt of the Benedictine abbey of Saint Maurice, later rebuilt as the cathedral. In 937, Magdeburg was the seat of a royal assembly. Otto I repeatedly visited Magdeburg and was also buried in the cathedral. He granted the abbey the right to income from various tithes and to corvée labour from the surrounding countryside. The Archbishopric of Magdeburg was founded in 968 at the synod of Ravenna; Adalbert of Magdeburg was consecrated as its first archbishop. The archbishopric under Adalbert included the bishoprics of Havelberg, Brandenburg, Merseburg, Meissen and Naumburg-Zeitz. The archbishops played a prominent role in the German colonisation of the Slavic lands east of the Elbe river. In 1035 Magdeburg received a patent giving the city the right to hold trade exhibitions and conventions, which form the basis of the later family of city laws known as the Magdeburg rights. These laws were adopted and modified throughout Central and Eastern Europe. Visitors from many countries began to trade with Magdeburg. In the 13th century, Magdeburg became a member of the Hanseatic League. With more than 20,000 inhabitants Magdeburg was one of the largest cities in the Holy Roman Empire. The town had active maritime commerce on the west (towards Flanders), with the countries of the North Sea, and maintained traffic and communication with the interior (for example Brunswick).", "The citizens constantly struggled against the archbishop, becoming nearly independent from him by the end of the 15th century. Around Easter 1497, the then twelve-year-old Martin Luther attended school in Magdeburg, where he was exposed to the teachings of the Brethren of the Common Life. In 1524, he was called to Magdeburg, where he preached and caused the city's defection from Roman Catholicism. The Protestant Reformation had quickly found adherents in the city, where Luther had been a schoolboy. Emperor Charles V repeatedly outlawed the unruly town, which had joined the League of Torgau and the Schmalkaldic League. As it had not accepted the Augsburg Interim decree (1548), the city, by the emperor's commands, was besieged (1550–1551) by Maurice, Elector of Saxony, but it retained its independence. The rule of the archbishop was replaced by that of various administrators belonging to Protestant dynasties. In the following years, Magdeburg gained a reputation as a stronghold of Protestantism and became the first major city to publish the writings of Martin Luther. In Magdeburg, Matthias Flacius and his companions wrote their anti-Catholic pamphlets and the \"Magdeburg Centuries\", in which they argued that the Roman Catholic Church had become the kingdom of the Antichrist. In 1631, during the Thirty Years' War, imperial troops under Johann Tserclaes, Count of Tilly, stormed the city and massacred the inhabitants, killing about 20,000 and burning the town. The city had withstood the first siege in 1629 by Albrecht von Wallenstein, a Protestant convert to Catholicism. After the war, a population of only 4,000 remained. Under the Peace of Westphalia (1648), Magdeburg was to be assigned to Brandenburg-Prussia after the death of the administrator August of Saxe-Weissenfels, as the semi-autonomous Duchy of Magdeburg. This occurred in 1680.", "In the course of the Napoleonic Wars, the fortress surrendered to French troops in 1806. The city was annexed to the French-controlled Kingdom of Westphalia in the 1807 Treaty of Tilsit. King Jérôme appointed Count Heinrich von Blumenthal as mayor. In 1815, after the Napoleonic Wars, Magdeburg was made the capital of the new Prussian Province of Saxony. In 1912, the old fortress was dismantled, and in 1908, the municipality Rothensee became part of Magdeburg.", "Magdeburg was heavily bombed by British and American air forces during the Second World War. The RAF bombing raid on the night of 16 January 1945, destroyed much of the city. The death toll is estimated at 2,000–2,500. Near the end of World War II, the city of about 340,000 became capital of the Province of Magdeburg. Brabag's Magdeburg/Rothensee plant that produced synthetic oil from lignite coal was a target of the Oil Campaign of World War II. The impressive \"Gründerzeit\" suburbs north of the city, called the Nordfront, were destroyed as well as the city's main street with its Baroque buildings. It was occupied by 9th US Army troops on 18 April 1945 and was left to the Red Army on 1 July 1945. Post-war the area was part of the Soviet Zone of Occupation and many of the remaining pre-World War II city buildings were destroyed, with only a few buildings near the cathedral and in the southern part of the old city being restored to their pre-war state. Before the reunification of Germany, many surviving \"Gründerzeit\" buildings were left uninhabited and, after years of degradation, waiting for demolition. From 1949 until German reunification on 3 October 1990, Magdeburg belonged to the German Democratic Republic.", "In 1990 Magdeburg became the capital of the new state of Saxony-Anhalt within reunified Germany. Huge parts of the city and its centre were also rebuilt in a modern style. Its economy is one of the fastest-growing in the former East German states. In 2005 Magdeburg celebrated its 1200th anniversary. The city was hit by 2013 European floods. Authorities declared a state of emergency and said they expected the Elbe river to rise higher than in 2002. In Magdeburg, with water levels of above normal, about 23,000 residents had to leave their homes on 9 June.", "Magdeburg is one of the major towns along the Elbe Cycle Route (Elberadweg).", "Magdeburg has a Humid continental climate (Dfb) bordering on an oceanic climate (Cfb) according to Köppen climate classification.", "", "Population change since 1400:", "The Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg (German: Otto-von-Guericke-Universität Magdeburg) was founded in 1993 and is one of the youngest universities in Germany. The university in Magdeburg has about 13,000 students in nine faculties. There are 11,700 papers published in international journals from this institute. The Magdeburg-Stendal University of Applied Sciences was founded in 1991. There are 30 direct study programs in five departments in Magdeburg and two departments in Stendal. The university has more than 130 professors and approximately 4,500 students at Magdeburg and 1,900 at Stendal.", "", "Magdeburg has a municipal theatre, Theater Magdeburg. Magdeburg is well known for its Christmas market, which is an attraction for 1.5 million visitors every year. Other events are the \"Stadtfest\", \"Christopher Street Day\", \"Elbe in Flames\", and the \"Europafest Magdeburg\". The autumn fair (formerly men's fair) of Magdeburg goes back to Germany's oldest folk festival. The tradition dates back to September 1010, when the holy feast of the Theban Legion was celebrated in Magdeburg (then called Magathaburg).", "", "One of Magdeburg's most impressive buildings is the Lutheran Cathedral of Saints Catherine and Maurice with a height of, making it the tallest church building of eastern Germany. It is notable for its beautiful and unique sculptures, especially the \"Twelve Virgins\" at the Northern Gate, the depictions of Otto I the Great and his wife Editha as well as the statues of St Maurice and St Catherine. The predecessor of the cathedral was a church built in 937 within an abbey, called St. Maurice. Emperor Otto I the Great was buried here beside his wife in 973. St. Maurice burnt to ashes in 1207. The exact location of that church remained unknown for a long time. The foundations were rediscovered in May 2003, revealing a building long and wide. The construction of the new church lasted 300 years. The cathedral of Saints Catherine and Maurice was the first Gothic church building in Germany. The building of the steeples was completed as late as 1520. While the cathedral was virtually the only building to survive the massacres of the Thirty Years' War, it suffered damage in World War II. It was soon rebuilt and completed in 1955. The square in front of the cathedral (also called the \"Neuer Markt\", or \"new marketplace\") was occupied by an imperial palace (\"Kaiserpfalz\"), which was destroyed in the fire of 1207. The stones from the ruin were used for the building of the cathedral. The presumed remains of the palace were excavated in the 1960s.", "Magdeburg has a proud history of sports teams, with football proving the most popular. 1. FC Magdeburg currently play in the 3. Liga, the third division of German football. They are the only East German football club to have won a European club football competition. The now defunct clubs SV Victoria 96 Magdeburg and Cricket Viktoria Magdeburg were among the first football clubs in Germany. There is also the very successful handball team, SC Magdeburg who are the first German team to win the EHF Champions League. The discus was re-discovered in Magdeburg in the 1870s by Christian Georg Kohlrausch, a gymnastics teacher.", "Magdeburg is twinned with:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Management.", "Policy.", "Second-level domains." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The domain name registry responsibility for was in 1983 awarded to Pål Spilling at the Norwegian Telecommunications Administration's Research Institute. The actual registration work was carried out by Jens Thomassen. The first registered domains were (the Norwegian Telecommunications Administration) and (the Department of Informatics at the University of Oslo). Initially the workload of domain registration was light, but after a few years the workload had become unmanageable as a side project for an individual. Policy-makers also indicated a need for the domain registration to be managed by a non-commercial organization. The responsibility was therefore transferred to the publicly owned Uninett, a supplier of information and communications technology to Norwegian public universities, colleges and research institutions on 17 March 1987. The oldest archived zone file dates from 1989 and includes 19 domains. In 1991 and 1992, all state university colleges were connected to the Internet and issued domain names, causing a boom of registrations. The 1000th domain was registered in 1995. Uninett was at first administrated as a division of SINTEF, but was in 1993 transformed to a limited company owned by the Ministry of Education and Research. Norid was established as a division within Uninett in 1996, and issued the responsibility of managing the domain. On 21 August 1997, Norid was given the responsibility for the newly created and domains. Uninett FAS was established the following year as a subsidiary of Uninett to manage the technical network and service infrastructure, including operation of the network systems for the universities and colleges. Thus Norid also became part of the Uninett FAS portfolio. Two organizations were established in 1998: the Domain Resolution Body, to resolve domain disputes, and Norpol, a political advisory board. Domain name registrars were introduced in 1999 to handle aspects that could be provided by a third party. Uninett Norid was in 2003 registered as a limited company owned by Uninett, to secure the management of the domains within an independent organization. Until 2001, each organization could only register a single domain and had to document its right to the name, either directly connected to the company's name or a trademark; this information was verified by Norid. The rules were liberalized on 19 February 2001. A new cap was set at fifteen domains per organization and Norid no longer made an evaluation of the right to the name; if the domain was not registered it would be awarded. This resulted in a large increase in the number of domains, and the 100,000th domain was registered that same year. Originally only the basic Latin letters were permitted, but from 9 February 2004 an additional twenty-three characters from the Norwegian and Sami languages were permitted, along with the number of permitted domains per organization increasing to twenty. From 13 June 2007, all-numerical domains names were allowed. The 500,000th domain was registered in January 2011. The second-level domain was permitted from June 2011, which gave individuals the possibility to register. On 30 November 2011, organizations were permitted to register 100 domains. On 17 June 2014 Norid opened up for private citizen registrations of.no domains. On 9 December 2014 Norid enabled support for DNSSEC.", "Management of lies with the Trondheim-based Norid, which is also the domain name registry for the unused and. Norid is a limited company owned by Uninett, which is again owned by the Ministry of Education and Research. The legal right to manage the domains is two-fold, based both on an agreement with the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) and regulations under the \"Electronic Communications Act\" which is supervised by the Norwegian Post and Telecommunications Authority. The policy for use of is regulated by the \"Regulation Concerning Domain Names Under Norwegian Country Code Top-level Domains\", also known as the \"Domain Regulation\". This regulation also regulates Norway's other two ccTLDs, and, for Bouvetøya and Svalbard and Jan Mayen, respectively; neither are open to registration. Registration takes place through a third party, a domain name registrar. The relationship between Norid, the registrar and the holder is regulated through civil legal agreements. The registrar registers the domain on behalf of the holder, and the holder then holds the right to the domain name until it is terminated, unless a dispute resolution dictates otherwise. Norid charges registrars 60 Norwegian krone (NOK) per registration and change of holder, as well as NOK 60 in an annual fee per domain. Registrars must meet criteria regarding technical and administrative resources, must pay an annual fee of NOK 5,000 and a deposit of minimum NOK 10,000, depending on activity level. Registrars must also undertake a minimum activity of either administrating or registering forty domains per year. Upon registering a domain, the user signs a declaration that they are not infringing on the rights of other parties and that the user will assume full responsibility for any consequences of use of the domain name. The registration process at Norid is fully automated and does not include any steps to ensure that the user has the rights to the name. Disputes regarding the right to a domain name are handled retrospectively, either through the Alternative Dispute Resolution Committee or court proceedings. Issues which could give the right to take over a domain name include infringements of the \"Trademarks Act\" and the \"Marketing Control Act\". Trademark holders will also be awarded the domain if the registration was solely made to sell the domain to the trademark owner. The dispute bodies will also consider the risk of confusion, based on the domain name itself rather than the content of the site. For one domain,, the issue of ownership was subject to a Supreme Court case. The Supreme Court has ruled that the Norwegian Prosecuting Authority may seize domain registrations under specifications of the General Civil Penal Code, as domains are legally regarded as assets with financial value. As of 27 September 2012 there were 552,255 registered domains. -domains had a 90.6-percent renewal rate in 2009, which is significantly higher than more liberal domains, such as 71 percent of domains. Cybersquatting and warehousing has not been a problem with -domains because of the strict registration requirements. Norpol is an advisory body with thirteen members appointed to discuss and comment on the domain policy. It consists of members from several government authorities, the Internet industry and other stakeholders.", "Only organizations with a local presence in Norway and with registration in the Brønnøysund Register Centre are allowed to register domains under. Specifically, they must be registered in the Central Coordinating Register for Legal Entities—and thus have an organization number, have a postal address in Norway and must be able to actually document activity in Norway upon request from Norid. All qualified users may register up to 100 domains directly under and five additional domains under each second-level domain. The domain is available for registration by individuals. To register, an individual must be registered in the National Registry and have been issued a national identity number, must be resident in Norway and be at least 18 years old. Moving abroad will not result in the domain being deleted, but the person cannot register any more domains while living abroad. There is a limit of five registered domains per person. Domain names must consist of 2 to 63 characters. Permitted characters are the ISO basic Latin alphabet (a through z), digits (0 through 9), the hyphen (-), the three Norwegian language letters æ, ø and å, and twenty special Sami languages letters (á·à·ä·č·ç·đ·é·è·ê·ŋ·ń·ñ·ó·ò·ô·ö·š·ŧ·ü·ž). The domain name must start and end in a digit or a letter. A large number of domains cannot be registered, including all that are the basis for second-level domains, and a specified series of geographical names, including names of settlements and islands, which may become second-level domains in the future. Eight specific Internet terms may not be registered (,,,,,, and ). Additional general-category potential future second-level domains have also been blocked, such as and.", "There are three types of second-level domains: geographaphy-oriented, category-oriented and those managed by other agencies than Norid. There are reserved geographic second-level domains for all counties (such as for Oslo and for Nord-Trøndelag), all urban areas with at least 5,000 inhabitants (such as for Orkanger) and all municipalities (such as for Bergen and both and for Inderøy). In addition, has been reserved for Svalbard and for Jan Mayen. Users are asked to not register with a geographic second-level domain unless they have a local presence in the area. The name under a geographic second-level domain (such as ) may only be carried out by the local government of the area, such as the municipality, the county municipality and the Governor of Svalbard. 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{ "title": [ "Manuscripts and dating.", "AOI.", "Critical opinions.", "Oral performance compared to manuscript versions.", "Plot.", "Form.", "Durandal.", "Historical adaptations.", "Modern adaptations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Although set in the Carolingian era, \"The Song of Roland\" was written much later. There is a single extant manuscript of the \"Song of Roland\" in Old French, held at the Bodleian Library at Oxford. This copy dates between 1129 and 1165 and was written in Anglo-Norman. There are also eight further manuscripts, and three fragments, of other poems on the subject of Roland. Some scholars estimate that the poem was written, possibly by a poet named \"Turold\" (\"Turoldus\" in the manuscript itself), between approximately 1040 and 1115, and most of the alterations were performed by about 1098. Some favor an earlier dating, because it allows one to say that the narrative was inspired by the Castilian campaigns of the 1030s, and that the poem went on to be a major influence in the First Crusade. Those who prefer a later dating do so based upon what they interpret as brief references made to events of the First Crusade. In the text, the term \"d'oltre mer\" or \"l'oltremarin\" comes up three times in reference to named Muslims who came from \"oltre mer\" to fight in Spain and France. \"Oltre mer\", modern French Outremer, literally \"oversea, beyond sea, other side of the sea\", is a native French term from the classical Latin roots \"ultra\" = \"beyond\" and \"mare\" = \"sea\". The name was commonly used by contemporary chroniclers to refer to the Latin Levant. The occurrence of this term cannot be interpreted as showing influence from the Crusades; on the contrary, the way it is used, refer simply to \"a Muslim land,\" indicates that the author was unacquainted with the Crusades, and that the term was in French before \"the Crusades\" was held to refer to the far side of the Mediterranean. The bulk of the poem is adjudged to date from before the Crusades (which started in 1098), but there are a few items where questions remain about these items being late additions shortly after the Crusades started. After two manuscripts were found in 1832 and 1835, the Song of Roland became recognized as France's national epic when an edition was published in 1837.", "Certain lines of the Oxford manuscript end with the letters \"AOI\". The meaning of this word or annotation is unclear. Many scholars have hypothesized that the marking may have played a role in public performances of the text, such as indicating a place where a \"jongleur\" would change the tempo. An alternate hypothesis by Nathan Love is that AOI indicates locations where the scribe or copyist deviated from the primary manuscript.", "", "Scholarly consensus has long accepted that \"The Song of Roland\" differed in its presentation depending on oral or textual transmission; namely, although a number of different versions of the song containing varying material and episodes would have been performed orally, the transmission to manuscript resulted in greater cohesiveness across versions. Early editors of \"The Song of Roland\", informed in part by patriotic desires to produce a distinctly French epic, could thus overstate the textual cohesiveness of the Roland tradition. This point is expressed by Andrew Taylor, who notes, \"[T]he Roland song was, if not invented, at the very least constructed. By supplying it with an appropriate epic title, isolating it from its original codicological context, and providing a general history of minstrel performance in which its pure origin could be located, the early editors presented a 4,002 line poem as sung French epic\".", "Charlemagne's army is fighting the Muslims in Spain. They have been there for seven years, and the last city standing is Saragossa, held by the Muslim King Marsile. Threatened by the might of Charlemagne's army of Franks, Marsile seeks advice from his wise man, Blancandrin, who counsels him to conciliate the Emperor, offering to surrender and giving hostages. Accordingly, Marsile sends out messengers to Charlemagne, promising treasure and Marsile's conversion to Christianity if the Franks will go back to France. Charlemagne and his men, tired of fighting, accept his peace offer and select a messenger to Marsile's court. The protagonist Roland, Charlemagne's nephew, nominates his stepfather Ganelon as messenger. Ganelon, who fears being murdered by the enemy and accuses Roland of intending this, takes revenge by informing the Saracens of a way to ambush the rear guard of Charlemagne's army, led by Roland, as the Franks re-enter France through the mountain passes. As Ganelon predicted, Roland leads the rear guard, with the wise and moderate Oliver and the fierce Archbishop Turpin. The Muslims ambush them at Roncesvalles and the Christians are overwhelmed. Oliver pleads with Roland to blow his horn to call for help, but Roland tells him that blowing his horn in the middle of the battle would be an act of cowardice. If Roland continues to refuse, Oliver will not let Roland see his sister again whom Roland loves the most. However, Archbishop Turpin intervenes and tells them that the battle will be fatal for all of them and so instructs Roland to blow his horn oliphant (the word is an old alternative to \"elephant\", and was used to refer to a hunting horn made from an elephant tusk) to call for help from the Frankish army. The emperor hears the call on their way to France. Charlemagne and his noblemen gallop back even though Count Ganelon tries to trick them. The Franks fight well, but are outnumbered, until almost all Roland's men are dead and he knows that Charlemagne's army can no longer save them. Despite this, he blows his olifant to summon revenge, until his temples burst and he dies a martyr's death. Angels take his soul to Paradise. When Charlemagne and his men reach the battlefield, they find the dead bodies of Roland's men, who have been utterly annihilated. They pursue the Muslims into the river Ebro, where the Muslims drown. Meanwhile, Baligant, the powerful emir of Babylon, has arrived in Spain to help Marsile. His army encounters that of Charlemagne at Roncesvalles, where the Christians are burying and mourning their dead. The Franks fight valiantly. When Charlemagne kills Baligant, the Muslim army scatters and flees, leaving the Franks to conquer Saragossa. With Marsile's wife Bramimonde, Queen of Saragossa, Charlemagne and his men ride back to Aix, their capital in France. The Franks discover Ganelon's betrayal and keep him in chains until his trial, where Ganelon argues that his action was legitimate revenge, not treason. While the council of barons assembled to decide the traitor's fate is initially swayed by this claim, partially out of fear of Ganelon's friend Pinabel who threatens to fight anyone who judges Ganelon guilty, one man, Thierry, argues that because Roland was serving Charlemagne when Ganelon delivered his revenge on him, Ganelon's action constitutes a betrayal. Pinabel challenges Thierry to trial by combat. By divine intervention, Thierry kills Pinabel. By this the Franks are convinced of Ganelon's treason. Thus, he is torn apart by having four galloping horses tied one to each arm and leg and thirty of his relatives are hanged. Bramimonde converts to Christianity, her name changing to Juliana. While sleeping, Charlemagne is told by Gabriel to ride to help King Vivien and bemoans his life.", "The poem is written in stanzas of irregular length known as laisses. The lines are decasyllabic (containing ten syllables), and each is divided by a strong caesura which generally falls after the fourth syllable. The last stressed syllable of each line in a laisse has the same vowel sound as every other end-syllable in that laisse. The laisse is therefore an assonal, not a rhyming stanza. On a narrative level, the \"Song of Roland\" features extensive use of repetition, parallelism, and thesis-antithesis pairs. Roland proposes Ganelon for the dangerous mission to Sarrogossa; Ganelon designates Roland to man the rearguard. Charlemagne is contrasted with Baligant. Unlike later Renaissance and Romantic literature, the poem focuses on action rather than introspection. The characters are presented through what they do, not through what they think or feel. The narrator gives few explanations for characters' behavior. The warriors are stereotypes defined by a few salient traits; for example, Roland is loyal and trusting while Ganelon, though brave, is traitorous and vindictive. The narrator is openly biased towards the Franks. His moral view is very black-and-white: the Franks are good, and the pagans are bad. The story moves at a fast pace, occasionally slowing down and recounting the same scene up to three times but focusing on different details or taking a different perspective each time. The effect is similar to a film sequence shot at different angles so that new and more important details come to light with each shot.", "According to the Song of Roland, the legendary sword called Durandal was first given to Charlemagne by an angel. It contained one tooth of Saint Peter, blood of Saint Basil, hair of Saint Denis, and a piece of the raiment of the Blessed Virgin Mary, and was supposedly the sharpest sword in all existence. In the story of the Song of Roland, the weapon is given to Roland, and he uses it to defend himself single-handedly against thousands of Muslim attackers. According to one 12th-century legend from the French town of Rocamadour, Roland threw the sword into a cliffside. A replication of the legendary sword can be found there, embedded into the cliff-face next to the town's sanctuary.", "A Latin poem, \"Carmen de Prodicione Guenonis\", was composed around 1120, and a Latin prose version, \"Historia Caroli Magni\" (often known as \"The Pseudo-Turpin\") even earlier. Around 1170, a version of the French poem was translated into the Middle High German \"Rolandslied\" by Konrad der Pfaffe (formerly thought to have been the author of the Kaiserchronik). In his translation Konrad replaces French topics with generically Christian ones. The work was translated into Middle Dutch in the 13th century. It was also rendered into Occitan verse in the 14th- or 15th-century poem of \"Ronsasvals\", which incorporates the later, southern aesthetic into the story. An Old Norse version of the \"Song of Roland\" exists as \"Karlamagnús saga\", and a translation into the artificial literary language of Franco-Venetian is also known; such translations contributed to the awareness of the story in Italy. In 1516 Ludovico Ariosto published his epic \"Orlando Furioso\", which deals largely with characters first described in the \"Song of Roland\". There is also Faroese adoption of this ballad named \"Runtsivalstríðið\" (Battle of Roncevaux). The ballad is one of many sung during the Faroese folkdance tradition of chain dancing.", "The \"Chanson de Roland\" has an important place in the background of Graham Greene's \"The Confidential Agent\", published in 1939. The book's protagonist had been a Medieval scholar specialising in this work, until the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War forced him to become a soldier and secret agent. Throughout the book, he repeatedly compares himself and other characters with the characters of \"Roland\". Particularly, the book includes a full two pages of specific commentary, which is relevant to its 20th-century plot line: \"Oliver, when he saw the Saracens coming, urged Roland to blow his horn and fetch back Charlemagne – but Roland wouldn't blow. A big brave fool. In war one always chooses the wrong hero. Oliver should have been the hero of that song, instead of being given second place with the blood-thirsty Bishop Turpin.(...) In the Oxford version Oliver is reconciled in the end, he gives Roland his death-blow by accident, his eyes blinded by wounds. [But] the story had been tidied up. In truth, Oliver strikes his friend down in full knowledge – because of what he has done to his men, all the wasted lives. Oliver dies hating the man he loves – the big boasting courageous fool who was more concerned with his own glory than with the victory of his faith. This makes the story tragedy, not just heroics\". It is also adapted by Stephen King, in the \"Dark Tower\" series in which Roland Deschain wishes to save the Dark Tower from the Crimson King. \"The Song of Roland\" is part of the Matter of France (the Continental counterpart to the Arthurian legendarium known as the Matter of Britain), and related to \"Orlando Furioso\". The names Roland and Orlando are cognates. Emanuele Luzzati's animated short film, \"I paladini di Francia\", together with \"Giulio Gianini\", in 1960, was turned into the children's picture-story book, with verse narrative, \"I Paladini de Francia ovvero il tradimento di Gano di Maganz\", which translates literally as “The Paladins of France or the treachery of Ganelon of Mainz” (Ugo Mursia Editore, 1962). This was then republished, in English, as \"Ronald and the Wizard Calico\" (1969). The Picture Lion paperback edition (William Collins, London, 1973) is a paperback imprint of the Hutchinson Junior Books edition (1969), which credits the English translation to Hutchinson Junior Books. Luzzati's original verse story in Italian is about the plight of a beautiful maiden called Biancofiore – White Flower, or Blanchefleur – and her brave hero, Captain Rinaldo, and Ricardo and his paladins – the term used for Christian knights engaged in Crusades against the Saracens and Moors. Battling with these good people are the wicked Moors – North African Muslims and Arabs – and their Sultan, in Jerusalem. With the assistance of the wicked and treacherous magician, Gano of Maganz, Biancofiore is stolen from her fortress castle, and taken to become the reluctant wife of the Sultan. The catalyst for victory is the good magician, Urlubulu, who lives in a lake, and flies through the air on the back of his magic blue bird. The English translators, using the original illustrations, and the basic rhyme patterns, slightly simplify the plot, changing the Christians-versus-Muslim-Moors conflict into a battle between good and bad magicians and between golden knights and green knights. The French traitor in The Song of Roland, who is actually Roland's cowardly step-father, is Ganelon – very likely the inspiration for Luzzati's traitor and wicked magician, Gano. Orlando Furioso (literally, Furious or Enraged Orlando, or Roland), includes Orlando's cousin, the paladin Rinaldo, who, like Orlando, is also in love with Angelica, a pagan princess. Rinaldo is, of course, the Italian equivalent of Ronald. Flying through the air on the back of a magic bird is equivalent to flying on a magic hippogriff. On July 22, 2017, Michael Eging and Steve Arnold released a novel ′′The Silver Horn Echoes: A Song of Roland,\" inspired by the La Chanson de Roland. This work is more closely based on a screenplay written by Michael Eging in 2008, simply known as \"Song of Roland\" and first optioned to Alan Kaplan at Cine LA that same year. The book explores the untold story of how Roland finds himself at Ronceveaux, betrayed by Ganelon and facing the expansive Saragossan host. Primary characters in the novel include Charles (Charlemagne), Ganelon, Bishop Turpin, Oliver, Aude, Marsilion, Blancandarin and others recognizable from the poem. Introduced in this tale are additional characters that inject intrigue and danger to the story, including Charles oldest son, Pepin, Marsilion's treacherous son, Saleem, and the scheming Byzantine emissary, Honorius. The cover artwork was hand painted by Jordan Raskin. The authors determined when writing both the screenplay and the novel to remain in the world created by the poem; thus Charles remains an older man near the end of his long reign rather than in 778 when the attack on the rearguard actually occurred. Further, this novel bookends the story with William the Conqueror's use of the poem as a motivator for Norman forces prior to the Battle of Hastings in 1066." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Recording.", "Nellcôte.", "Los Angeles.", "Music and lyrics.", "Packaging.", "Release and reception.", "Legacy and reappraisal.", "Accolades.", "In popular culture.", "Reissues.", "Personnel.", "Additional personnel.", "Charts.", "Weekly charts.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "\"Exile on Main St.\" was written and recorded between 1969 and 1972. Mick Jagger said \"After we got out of our contract with Allen Klein, we didn't want to give him [those earlier tracks],\" as they were forced to do with \"Brown Sugar\" and \"Wild Horses\" from \"Sticky Fingers\" (1971). Many tracks were recorded between 1969 and 1971 at Olympic Studios and Jagger's Stargroves country house in England during sessions for \"Sticky Fingers\". By the spring of 1971 the Rolling Stones had spent the money they owed in taxes and left Britain before the government could seize their assets. Jagger settled in Paris with his new bride Bianca, and guitarist Keith Richards rented a villa, Nellcôte, in Villefranche-sur-Mer, near Nice. The other members settled in the south of France. As a suitable recording studio could not be found where they could continue work on the album, Richards' basement at Nellcôte became a makeshift studio using the band's mobile recording truck.", "Recording began in earnest sometime near the middle of June. Bassist Bill Wyman recalls the band working all night, every night, from eight in the evening until three the following morning for the rest of the month. Wyman said of that period, \"Not everyone turned up every night. This was, for me, one of the major frustrations of this whole period. For our previous two albums we had worked well and listened to producer Jimmy Miller. At Nellcôte things were very different and it took me a while to understand why.\" By this time Richards had begun a daily habit of using heroin. Thousands of pounds' worth of heroin flowed through the mansion each week, along with visitors such as William S. Burroughs, Terry Southern, Gram Parsons, John Lennon, and Marshall Chess, the son of famous blues impresario Leonard Chess, who had been recently recruited to serve as president of the Rolling Stones' new eponymous record label. Parsons was asked to leave Nellcôte in early July 1971, the result of his obnoxious behavior and an attempt by Richards to clean the house of drug users as the result of pressure from the French police. Richards' substance abuse frequently prevented him from attending the sessions that continued in his basement, while Jagger and Wyman were often unable to attend sessions for other reasons. This often left the band in the position of having to record in altered forms. A notable instance was the recording of one of Richards' most famous songs, \"Happy\". Recorded in the basement, Richards said in 1982, \"'Happy' was something I did because I was for one time early for a session. There was Bobby Keys and Jimmy Miller. We had nothing to do and had suddenly picked up the guitar and played this riff. So we cut it and it's the record, it's the same. We cut the original track with a baritone sax, a guitar and Jimmy Miller on drums. And the rest of it is built up over that track. It was just an afternoon jam that everybody said, 'Wow, yeah, work on it'\". The basic band for the Nellcôte sessions consisted of Richards, Keys, Mick Taylor, Charlie Watts, Nicky Hopkins, Miller (a skilled drummer in his own right who covered for the absent Watts on the aforementioned \"Happy\" and \"Shine a Light\"), and Jagger when he was available. Wyman did not like the ambiance of Richards' villa and sat out many of the French sessions. Although Wyman is credited on only eight songs of the released album, he told \"Bass Player\" magazine that the credits are incorrect and that he actually played on more tracks than that. The other bass parts were credited to Taylor, Richards and session bassist Bill Plummer. Wyman noted in his memoir \"Stone Alone\" that there was a division between the band members and associates who freely indulged in drugs (Richards, Miller, Keys, Taylor and engineer Andy Johns) and those who abstained to varying degrees (Wyman, Watts and Jagger).", "Work on basic tracks (probably only \"Rocks Off\", \"Rip This Joint\", \"Casino Boogie\", \"Tumbling Dice\", \"Happy\", \"Turd on the Run\", \"Ventilator Blues\" and \"Soul Survivor\") began in the basement of Nellcôte and was taken to Sunset Sound Recorders in Los Angeles, where overdubs (all lead and backing vocals, all guitar and bass overdubs) were added during sessions that meandered from December 1971 until March 1972. Although Jagger was frequently missing from Nellcôte, he took charge during the second stage of recording in Los Angeles, arranging for the keyboardists Billy Preston and Dr. John and the cream of the city's session backup vocalists to record layers of overdubs. The final gospel-inflected arrangements of \"Tumbling Dice\", \"Loving Cup\", \"Let It Loose\" and \"Shine a Light\" were inspired by Jagger, Preston, and Watts' visit to a local evangelical church where Aretha Franklin was recording what would become the live album/movie \"Amazing Grace\". The extended recording sessions and differing methods on the part of Jagger and Richards reflected the growing disparity in their personal lives. During the making of the album, Jagger had married Bianca, followed closely by the birth of their only child, Jade, in October 1971. Richards was firmly attached to his girlfriend Anita Pallenberg, yet both were in the throes of heroin addiction, which Richards would not overcome until the turn of the decade.", "According to Bill Janovitz, in his account of the album for the 331⁄3 book series, \"Exile on Main St.\" features \"a seemingly infinite amount of subtle (and not so subtle) variations on rock & roll – a form that had seemed to be severely limited to basic, guitar-driven music.\" Music biographer John Perry writes that the Rolling Stones had developed a style of hard rock for the album that is \"entirely modern yet rooted in 1950s rock & roll and 1930s-1940s swing\". AllMusic calls \"Exile on Main St.\" \"a sprawling, weary double album\", featuring \"a series of dark, dense jams\" that encompass rock and roll, blues, country, and gospel styles. \"Rolling Stone\" writer Richard Gehr compares the album to outlaw music and observes a strong influence of music from the American South in its \"loose-limbed\" explorations of 1950s rock, African-American soul, and gospel country. Although \"Exile\" is often thought to reflect Richards' vision for a raw, rootsy rock sound, Jagger was already expressing his boredom with rock and roll in several interviews at the time of the album's release. Jagger's stance on \"Exile\"s rock and roll sound at the time is interpreted by the music academic Barry J. Faulk to seemingly \"signal the end of the Stones' conscious attempt to revive American-style roots rock\". With Richards' effectiveness seriously undermined by his dependence on heroin, the group's subsequent 1970s releases – directed largely by Jagger – would experiment to varying degrees with other musical genres, moving away from the rootsy influences of \"Exile on Main St.\" According to Robert Christgau, \"Exile on Main St.\" expands on the hedonistic themes the band had explored on previous albums such as \"Sticky Fingers\". As he writes, \"It pile[s] all the old themes – sex as power, sex as love, sex as pleasure, distance, craziness, release – on top of an obsession with time that was more than appropriate in men pushing 30 who were still committed to what was once considered youth music.\"", "For \"Exile on Main St.\", Mick Jagger wanted an album cover that reflected the band as \"runaway outlaws using the blues as its weapon against the world\", showcasing \"feeling of joyful isolation, grinning in the face of a scary and unknown future\". As the band finished the album in Los Angeles, they approached designer John Van Hamersveld and his photographer partner Norman Seeff, and also invited documentary photographer Robert Frank. The same day Seeff photographed the Stones at their Bel Air mansion, Frank took Jagger for photographs at Los Angeles' Main Street. The location was the 500 block near the Leonide Hotel. At the time there was a pawnshop, a shoeshine business and a pornographic theatre (The Galway Theatre) at the location. Still, Van Hamersveld and Jagger chose the cover image from an already existing Frank photograph, an outtake from his seminal 1958 book \"The Americans\". Named \"Tattoo Parlor\" but possibly taken from Hubert's Dime museum in New York City, the image is a collage of circus performers and freaks, such as \"Three Ball Charlie\", a 1930s sideshow performer from Humboldt, Nebraska who holds three balls (a tennis ball, a golf ball, and a \"5\" billiard ball) in his mouth; Joe \"The Human Corkscrew\" Allen, pictured in a postcard-style advertisement, a contortionist with the ability to wiggle and twist through a hoop; and Hezekiah Trambles, \"The Congo Jungle Freak\", a man who dressed as an African savage, in a picture taken by the recently deceased Diane Arbus. The Seeff pictures were repurposed as 12 perforated postcards inside the sleeve, while Frank's Main Street photographs were used in the gatefold and back cover collage made by Van Hamersveld, which features other pictures Frank took of the band and their crew—including their assistant Chris O'Dell, a former acquaintance of Van Hamersveld who brought him to the Stones—and other \"The Americans\" outtakes.", "\"Exile in Main St.\" was first released on 12 May 1972 as a double album by Rolling Stones Records. It was the band's tenth studio album released in the United Kingdom. Preceded by the UK (No. 5) and US (No. 7) Top 10 hit \"Tumbling Dice\", \"Exile on Main St\" was an immediate commercial success, reaching No. 1 worldwide just as the band embarked on their celebrated 1972 American Tour. Their first American tour in three years, it featured many songs from the new album. The Richards-sung \"Happy\" was released as a second single to capitalize on the tour; it would peak at No. 22 in the United States in August. \"Exile on Main St\" was not well received by most contemporary critics, who found the quality of the songs inconsistent. Reviewing in July 1972 for \"Rolling Stone\", Lenny Kaye said the record has \"a tight focus on basic components of the Stones' sound as we've always known it,\" including blues-based rock music with a \"pervading feeling of blackness\". However, he added that the uneven quality of songs means \"the great Stones album of their mature period is yet to come\". Richard Williams from \"Melody Maker\" was more enthusiastic and deemed it the band's best album, writing that it will \"take its place in history\" as the music \"utterly repulses the sneers and arrows of outraged put down artists. Once and for all, it answers any questions about their ability as rock 'n' rollers.\" In a year-end list for \"Newsday\", Christgau named it the best album of 1972 and said, \"this fagged-out masterpiece\" marks the peak of rock music for the year as it \"explored new depths of record-studio murk, burying Mick's voice under layers of cynicism, angst and ennui\". At the time of \"Exile\"s release, Jagger said, \"This new album is fucking mad. There's so many different tracks. It's very rock & roll, you know. I didn't want it to be like that. I'm the more experimental person in the group, you see I like to experiment. Not go over the same thing over and over. Since I've left England, I've had this thing I've wanted to do. I'm not against rock & roll, but I really want to experiment. The new album's very rock & roll and it's good. I mean, I'm very bored with rock & roll. The revival. Everyone knows what their roots are, but you've got to explore everywhere. You've got to explore the sky too.\" After the release of \"Exile on Main St\", Allen Klein sued the Rolling Stones for breach of settlement because five songs on the album were composed while Jagger and Richards were under contract with his company, ABKCO: \"Sweet Virginia\", \"Loving Cup\", \"All Down the Line\", \"Shine a Light\" and \"Stop Breaking Down\" (written by Robert Johnson but re-interpreted by Jagger and Richards). ABKCO acquired publishing rights to the songs, giving it a share of the royalties from \"Exile on Main St\", and was able to release another album of Rolling Stones songs, \"More Hot Rocks (Big Hits & Fazed Cookies)\".", "Critics later reassessed \"Exile on Main St\" favourably, and by the late 1970s it had become viewed as the Rolling Stones' greatest album. In retrospect, Janovitz called it \"the greatest, most soulful, \"rock & roll\" record ever made\" because it seamlessly distills \"perhaps all the essential elements of rock & roll up to 1971, if not beyond\". He added that it is \"the single greatest rock & roll record of all time\", distinguished from other contending albums by the Beatles or \"Pet Sounds\", which are more so \"brilliant pop records\". On the response to the album, Richards said, \"When [\"Exile\"] came out it didn't sell particularly well at the beginning, and it was also pretty much universally panned. But within a few years the people who had written the reviews saying it was a piece of crap were extolling it as the best frigging album in the world.\" In 2003, Jagger said, \"\"Exile\" is not one of my favourite albums, although I think the record does have a particular feeling. I'm not too sure how great the songs are, but put together it's a nice piece. However, when I listen to \"Exile\" it has some of the worst mixes I've ever heard. I'd love to remix the record, not just because of the vocals, but because generally I think it sounds lousy. At the time Jimmy Miller was not functioning properly. I had to finish the whole record myself, because otherwise there were just these drunks and junkies. Of course I'm ultimately responsible for it, but it's really not good and there's no concerted effort or intention.\" Jagger also stated he did not understand the praise among Rolling Stones fans because the album did not yield many hits. Of the 18 tracks on the album, only \"Tumbling Dice\", \"Happy\" and \"All Down the Line\" got heavy rotation at concerts. \"Sweet Black Angel\", \"Ventilator Blues\" and \"Stop Breaking Down\" were each performed live only once, while \"Shake Your Hips\", \"Casino Boogie\", \"Turd on the Run\", \"I Just Wanna See His Face\", \"Let It Loose\" and \"Soul Survivor\" have never been played live. Richards also said, \"\"Exile\" was a double album. And because it's a double album you're going to be hitting different areas, including 'D for Down', and the Stones really felt like exiles. We didn't start off intending to make a double album; we just went down to the south of France to make an album and by the time we'd finished we said, 'We want to put it all out.' The point is that the Stones had reached a point where we no longer had to do what we were told to do. Around the time Andrew Oldham left us, we'd done our time, things were changing and I was no longer interested in hitting Number One in the charts every time. What I want to do is good shit—if it's good they'll get it some time down the road.\"", "\"Exile on Main St\" has been ranked on various lists as one of the greatest albums of all time. According to Acclaimed Music, it is the ninth-best-ranked record on critics' all-time lists. In 1998, \"Q\" magazine readers voted \"Exile on Main St\" the 42nd-greatest album of all time, while in 2000 the same magazine placed it at number 3 in its list of the 100 Greatest British Albums Ever. In 1987 it was ranked third on \"Rolling Stone\" magazine's list of the best 100 albums of the period 1967–1987. In 1993, \"Entertainment Weekly\" named it No. 1 on their list of \"100 Greatest CDs\". In 2003, Pitchfork Media ranked it number 11 on their Top 100 Albums of the 1970s. In 2001, the TV network VH1 placed it at number 22 on their best albums survey. In 2003, the album was ranked 7th on \"Rolling Stone\" magazine's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time, maintaining the rating in a 2012 revised list, the highest Rolling Stones album ranked on the list. In 2005, \"Exile on Main St\" was ranked number 286 in \"Rock Hard\" magazine's book of \"The 500 Greatest Rock & Metal Albums of All Time\". The album was ranked number 19 on the October 2006 issue of \"Guitar World\" magazine's list of the greatest 100 guitar albums of all time. In 2007, the National Association of Recording Merchandisers (NARM) and the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame placed the album No. 6 on the \"Definitive 200\" list of albums that \"every music lover should own.\" Its re-release has a highest normalised rating of 100 on Metacritic based on seven professional reviews, a distinction it shares with other re-releases such as \"London Calling\" by The Clash. The album was also included in the book \"1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die\". In 2012, the album was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame. It was voted number 35 in Colin Larkin's All Time Top 1000 Albums 3rd Edition (2000).", "The album and its title have been referenced several times in popular culture. The garage-trash noise-rock band Pussy Galore released a complete cover of the album, titled \"Exile on Main St.\", that reflected their own personal and musical interpretations of the songs, as opposed to paying tribute to the original sound. John Duffy of Allmusic rated the album three and a half out of five stars, and \"NME\" ranked it number 253 in \"The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time\". The British acid house group Alabama 3 titled its debut album \"Exile on Coldharbour Lane\". Perhaps the most notable reference comes from indie singer/songwriter Liz Phair's debut album \"Exile in Guyville\". Phair herself claimed the album to be a direct song-by-song \"response\" of sorts to \"Exile on Main St\". Post-grunge band Matchbox Twenty paid homage to this album by titling their 2007 retrospective \"Exile on Mainstream\". Industrial rock band Chemlab named the leading track from their album \"East Side Militia\", \"Exile on Mainline\", in reference to the Rolling Stones album. \"The Departed\", a 2006 film by Martin Scorsese, features a scene in which Bill Costigan mails Madolyn Madden an \"Exile on Main St\" jewel case containing an incriminating recording of Colin Sullivan conspiring with crime boss Frank Costello. The same film also uses the song \"Let It Loose\" from the album. On 31 October 2009, American rock band Phish covered \"Exile on Main St\" in its entirety as the \"musical costume\" for their Halloween show in Indio, California. The first episode of the fourth season of the Showtime program \"Californication\" is called \"Exile on Main St\". A later episode in the sixth season featured a guest character waking up next to her musician boyfriend who had died from an overdose in the night in room \"1009,\" a reference to the lyrics of \"Shine a Light\". The same song was also played by Tim Minchin's character in the following episode. The first episode of the sixth season of the hit CW show \"Supernatural\" is titled \"Exile on Main Street\". \"Knives Out\", a 2019 feature film by Rian Johnson, plays the song \"Sweet Virginia\" at the conclusion of the film and during the running of the end credits.", "In 1994, \"Exile on Main St\" was remastered and reissued by Virgin Records, along with the rest of the post-\"Get Yer Ya-Ya's Out\" catalogue, after the company acquired the masters to the band's output on its own label. This remaster was initially released in a Collector's Edition CD, which replicated in miniature many elements of the original vinyl album packaging, including the postcards insert. Universal Music, which remastered and re-released the rest of the post-1970 Rolling Stones catalogue in 2009, issued a new remastering of \"Exile on Main St\" in a deluxe package in May 2010. Of the ten bonus tracks, only two are undoctored outtakes from the original sessions: an early version of \"Tumbling Dice\" entitled \"Good Time Women\", and \"Soul Survivor\", the latter featuring a Richards lead vocal (with dummy/placeholder lyrics). The other tracks received overdubs just prior to release on this package, with new lead vocals by Jagger on all except \"I'm Not Signifying\", backing vocals in places by past and current Stones tour singers Cindy Mizelle and Lisa Fischer, and several new guitar parts by Keith Richards, and Mick Taylor on \"Plundered My Soul.\" On the selection of tracks, Richards said, \"Well, basically it's the record and a few tracks we found when we were plundering the vaults. Listening back to everything we said, 'Well, this would be an interesting addition.'\". All harmonica heard was added during 2010 sessions by Jagger, and Richards added a new guitar lead on 'So Divine'. \"Title 5\" is not an actual outtake from the sessions for \"Exile\", it is an outtake from early 1967 sessions. It features the MRB effect (mid-range boost) from a Vox Conqueror or Supreme amp, as used by Richards in 1967 and 1968. \"Loving Cup\" is an outtake from early June 1969, but is actually an edit from two outtakes. The first 2 minutes and 12 seconds is the well-known 'drunk' version, as has been available on bootlegs since the early 1990s, but the second part is spliced from a second, previously unknown take. \"Following the River\" features Jagger overdubs on a previously uncirculated track featuring Nicky Hopkins on piano. Jimmy Fallon announced on his show, \"Late Night with Jimmy Fallon\", that he would mark the re-release of the album with a week's worth of musicians performing songs from the album. Phish, who had played the album in its entirety live in concert before, were the first confirmed act to join the salute. The re-released album entered at number one in the UK charts, almost 38 years to the week after it first occupied that position. The album also re-entered at number two in the US charts selling 76,000 during the first week. The bonus disc, available separately as \"Exile on Main St Rarities Edition\" exclusively in the US at Target also charted, debuting at number 27 with 15,000 copies sold. It was released once again in 2011 by Universal Music Enterprises in a Japanese-only SHM-SACD version.", "", "2010 bonus disc", "", "Original edition 2010 reissue", "Bibliography" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Features.", "Variants." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The device features Bluetooth, a 1.3-megapixel fixed-focus camera, front VGA (0.3-megapixel) video call camera, hot swappable Dual Voltage Reduced Size MMC (DV-RS-MMC) memory expansion card support, stereo audio playback and a 2.1\", 176x208, 18-bit (262,144) color display with automatic brightness control based on the environment. The 6680 remains a high-end 3G device. It is a smartphone offering office and personal management facilities, including Microsoft Office compatible software. The phone initially offered an innovative active standby mode, but this was removed by some network operators (for example, Orange) under their own adapted firmware. The phone, however, has been marred by a more-than-normal number of bugs, which have included crashes and security issues. The phone was also criticised in some reviews for the relatively limited memory available. In addition to the standard RS-MMC card, the 6680 can also use Dual Voltage Reduced Size MMC (DV-RS-MMC) cards which are also marketed as MMCmobile. While these cards have the same form factor as RS-MMC, the DV-RS-MMC have a 2nd row of connectors on the bottom. Make sure any upgraded card supports or claims to support 1.8V in addition to 3.0V. The phone operates on GSM 900/1800/1900, and UMTS 2100 on 3G networks. During its development, the 6680 was codenamed Milla. This handset was similar to its predecessor, the Nokia 6630. Key changes were the new \"active standby\" feature, the facility for face-to-face video calls, a camera flash, better screen and improved styling. The hardware application platform of this device is OMAP 1710.", "The Nokia 6681 and Nokia 6682 are GSM handsets by Nokia, running the Series 60 user interface on the Symbian operating system. The phones are GSM-only versions of the Nokia 6680. The only difference between the 6681 and the 6682 is the fact that the 6681 is targeted at the European market, being a GSM 900/1800/1900 tri-band handset, while the 6682 is targeted at the American one, supporting 850/1800/1900 frequencies. In turn, both handset's specs are almost identical to those of the 6680, except for the lack of support for 3G networks, which means no UMTS support, or video call, thus the absence of the front video call camera. The hardware application platform of the device is OMAP 1710. The resolution of the display is 176x208." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Development.", "Production." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "After a relatively successful effort to unify bus and trolleybus (Karosa ŠM 11/Škoda T-11, Karosa B 831/Škoda 17Tr and Skoda 21ab/Škoda 21Tr) Czechs took fourth attempt, and created a trolleybus Škoda 24Tr. Trolleybus Skoda 24Tr is based on the Irisbus Agora bus and upgraded version Irisbus Citelis. The Škoda 24Tr trolleybus is a two-axle trolleybus with self-supporting body. Trolleybus is a low floor, only the back of the seats on the stand. Thanks to air cushion properties (the ability to lower the air pressure trolley on the right) moves to the trolley stop is able to fall to the pavement level. Trolley on the right side there are three double doors with a \"stop\" button, which opens at the passenger's request. Electrical equipment, based on IGBT transistor base, are placed in special containers on the roof. In parallel to the ordinary trolley model is produced, the trolleys, which are equipped with a diesel generator. This allows the trolley to ride without contact poles, it is sometimes used when the trolleybus is diverge from its route, but often also used in the same way when running on regular routes, such as Riga 9. and 27. trolley route. The first trolleybus was built on the Citybus bus-based (based on the roof of CNG-based). Due to this type of bus abandonment and replacement by more modern buses Citelis, the trolley body was based on Citelis base (such trolleybuses began producing 2005), but the name remained unchanged at Citelis.", "Trolleybuses produced between 2003 and 2014." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Duchess of Bohemia.", "Margravine of Lusatia.", "Death and aftermath." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Around 1173 Elisabeth was married to Soběslav II, Duke of Bohemia. This union was a part of the multiple dynastic arrangements made by Duke Mieszko III. As a result of this agreement, in 1176 Polish troops helped Duke Soběslav II in his fight against the House of Babenberg, rulers of Austria. In 1178 Prince Frederick (Soběslav II's cousin) besieged Prague; Elisabeth, who at that time was there, was then captured by Frederick, but soon was set free. On 27 January 1179 Soběslav II was completely defeated in battle on the outskirts of Prague. He took refuge in Skála castle, and after a long siege, Frederick won at the end of 1179 and became in the new ruler of Bohemia. Elisabeth and her husband then went into exile in Hungary, where Soběslav II died on 29 January 1180. They had no children.", "Elisabeth never returned to Poland. Soon after her husband died (end January or early February 1180), she married with Conrad, fifth son of Dedi V, Margrave of Lusatia. They had three children: one son, Conrad, and two daughters, Matilda and Agnes. On 16 August 1190, Margrave Dedi V died, and his domains were divided between his two surviving sons: the eldest, Dietrich, inherited the counties of Sommerschenburg and Groitzsch (as eldest heir of his mother) and the second, Conrad, received the Margraviate of Lusatia (the main paternal domain) and the county of Eilenburg. In consequence, Elisabeth became in Margravine consort of Lusatia and Countess consort of Eilenburg. About her role in the Lusatian court there are no messages.", "At the beginning of 1209, Conrad II defeated the army of Elisabeth's half-brother, Władysław III Spindleshanks, in the Battle of Lubusz. It is assumed that this experience may have contributed to the death of Elisabeth in April 1209. A year later, on 6 May 1210, Conrad II died. Elisabeth is buried at Dobrilugk Abbey. Her only son, Conrad, died in boyhood; Agnes, the youngest daughter, married Henry V, Count Palatine of the Rhine, but they had no children. Elisabeth's many descendants issued from her eldest daughter Matilda and her husband Albert II, Margrave of Brandenburg." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Recreation.", "Rock climbing.", "Camping, hiking, boating and swimming.", "Natural history." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The Bon Echo regionafter enterprising lumbering companies came and went, along with the farming communities that accompanied themwas purchased in 1889 by Weston A. Price and his wife, who were inspired by Mazinaw Rock and the surrounding area. They named the area \"Bon Echo\" because of the acoustical properties of the Rock, which bounced sound across Mazinaw Lake. The Prices built a large hotel at the narrows, the Bon Echo Inn, which catered to the wealthy who were looking for a healthful retreat. Price banned alcohol on the premises due to strong religious beliefs and the Inn attracted primarily people who shared the Prices' beliefs. The hotel was also populated by a contingent of Methodist pastors, and attendance at Sunday church was required of those who stayed there. After several successful years at the Inn, a personal tragedy compelled Dr. Price to sell his holdings at Bon Echo. He found buyers in Howard and Flora MacDonald Denison. Flora was both a successful business operator in Toronto and a vocal proponent of women's rights who founded, along with other feminists, the Canadian Suffrage Association. Years earlier the Denisons had attempted to purchase a cottage from Price, but instead had settled for a lot south of the Inn when Price was reluctant to sell to them. After obtaining the property for $15,000, they sent away the pastors and turned Bon Echo Inn into a haven for artists, poets, and writers, most notably James Thurber and members of the Group of Seven. Although Walt Whitman had never visited Bon Echo, Flora admired Whitman's work so much that she commissioned a piece of his poetry to be chiseled into the face of the rock in foot-tall lettering, where it can still be seen. The work was performed by two Aberdeen, Scotland stonemasons and took all of the summer of 1919 to complete. After her death in 1921, the land and inn was inherited by Merrill Denison, her son and a very successful entrepreneur. He continued to operate the inn until the beginning of the Great Depression in 1929 along with his first wife, Muriel Denison, an author whose works include the \"Susannah\" series (\"Susannah of the Mounties\", et al.), made famous by the Shirley Temple film adaptions. After that, the inn was leased to the Leavens Brothers who operated it as a summer hotel, and other portions of the property were rented out for use as a boys' camp and other recreational purposes. In 1936, the inn and many outbuildings were destroyed in a fire started by lightning striking the bakehouse. The loss was not fully covered by insurance, and the inn was never rebuilt. Merrill Denison continued to spend summers at Bon Echo, using it as a quiet location to write. Some of the cottages, including Dollywood and Greystones, remained in use as summer getaways for years, but financially the property was often a burden on the Denisons. In 1955, the Province of Ontario passed legislation allowing them to accept donations of land to form provincial parks. Although he could have made a substantial profit dividing and selling sections of the property as building lots, Denison's interests in conservation led him to donate the land to the province for the purpose of forming a park in 1959. In 1965, Bon Echo Provincial Park officially opened. A plaque was placed at the narrows dedicating the park to Flora MacDonald Denison and Muriel Denison, who was Merrill Denison's first wife and an author whose works include the \"Susannah\" series (\"Susannah of the Mounties\", et al.), made famous by the Shirley Temple film adaptions.", "", "In 1956, Kay McCormick, Marnie Gilmour, David Fisher and Alan Bruce-Robertson paddled across Mazinaw Lake in a canoe on the Saturday of the Labour Day weekend, and climbed a rock outcropping subsequently named \"Birthday Ridge\". On Sunday (Marnie's birthday), they climbed \"Front of the Pinnacle\". This marked the first rock climbing on Mazinaw Rock. The Alpine Club of Canada maintains a hut on the lake, and Bon Echo rock climbing remains core to the ACC's Toronto Section to this day.", "Bon Echo's 500+ campsites in the Mazinaw and Hardwood Hills campgrounds are typical of those in the Ontario Parks system. Grassy or lightly wooded lots are set back from unpaved access roads and are backed by natural, untended land, which is generally conifer-deciduous forest. Both campgrounds host a number of RV-accessible lots. Electricity is also available to 130 campsites. All sites are located close to a source of running water, as well as a latrine or flush toilet. Comfort stations with washrooms, showers, and laundry facilities are available at major campgrounds. There are also radio-free areas, a visitor centre, gift shop, and the Mugwump ferry, which brings visitors to the Clifftop Trail located across Mazinaw Lake. In addition, accommodation in heated yurts is available in the Sawmill Bay camping area, as well as a number of cabins, most of which are located on Bon Echo Lake, west of Highway 41. The yurts and cabins are an alternative to tenting or RVs, accommodating up to 5 or 6 and providing a more protected environment for less hardy visitors. Cutting and collecting firewood is prohibited on these sites to prevent environmental disturbances or damage. Firewood must be purchased at camp offices. Due to the emerald ash borer, firewood may not be brought to the park. Bon Echo is also known for its backcountry camping along the Abes and Essens Trail. This trail in the northern reaches of the park hosts several campsites, each equipped with nothing more than a picnic table, and a roughly delineated campfire area. Unlike other areas of the park, none of these sites have access to running water, electricity, or any other park service. Disturbing these sites is also discouraged, although the collecting of deadwood and digging of pits to properly dispose of waste is recognized as essential in these isolated areas, and is tolerated if done carefully. Augmenting the ruggedness of the experience, Abes and Essens is regarded as a strenuous trail. The terrain is, in places, very rough and uneven, often with shield rock jutting up as on the Bruce Trail. Depending on the loops and paths one takes, the hike will take between 2 and 7 hours. The trail features three loops of, and, which intersect at various points, allowing navigation of the trail in many ways. The paths are not bold, preserving the ecology of the trail, and can be confusing at times, although the way is marked by flags on particularly difficult sections. Due to the length and difficulty of the trail, it is not recommended for the ill-prepared (or overpacked) camper, nor the unfit or inexperienced day-hiker. Other, less strenuous hiking trails include the Shield Trail and the High Pines Trail, as well as the Clifftop Trail that leads up along the top of the Mazinaw Rock, providing a stunning view from its designated viewing areas above the narrows of Mazinaw Lake. It is also possible to rent boats and boating paraphernalia to explore the lakes and waterways of the park. Bon Echo Provincial Park has beaches along Mazinaw Lake, including North Beach (at the southern end of North Mazinaw Lake), Main Beach and South Beach (both at the northern end of South Mazinaw Lake). The beach waters are generally at their warmest in August, and swimmer's itch is not uncommon.", "Several of the lakes on the Abes and Essens trail are stone-bottomed, hewn by glacial procession. They are relatively free of detritus and sand, and as such, the water is clear and cold. Consequently, these lakes are relatively devoid of fish and plant species found elsewhere throughout the park. Small fish can be observed, but generally only closer to the shores of these lakes, or clustered around the islands found therein. In most lakes, lake trout, yellow pickerel, smallmouth and largemouth bass, lake whitefish, and northern pike can all be found. Additionally, in the more secluded areas one may see white-tailed deer, moose, black bear, red fox, beaver, and raccoons. Commonly seen mammals include eastern cottontail rabbits, eastern chipmunks, red squirrels, gray squirrels, and voles. It also hosts Ontario's only lizard, the five-lined skink." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Ancient Greek.", "Ancient Roman.", "English." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Greek tradition of epigrams began as poems inscribed on votive offerings at sanctuariesincluding statues of athletesand on funerary monuments, for example \"Go tell it to the Spartans, passersby...\". These original epigrams did the same job as a short prose text might have done, but in verse. Epigram became a literary genre in the Hellenistic period, probably developing out of scholarly collections of inscriptional epigrams. Though modern epigrams are usually thought of as very short, Greek literary epigram was not always as short as later examples, and the divide between \"epigram\" and \"elegy\" is sometimes indistinct (they share a characteristic metre, elegiac couplets). In the classical period, the clear distinction between them was that epigrams were inscribed and meant to be read, while elegies were recited and meant to be heard. Some elegies could be quite short, but only public epigrams were longer than ten lines. All the same, the origin of epigram in inscription exerted a residual pressure to keep things concise, even when they were recited in Hellenistic times. Many of the characteristic types of literary epigram look back to inscriptional contexts, particularly funerary epigram, which in the Hellenistic era becomes a literary exercise. Many \"sympotic\" epigrams combine sympotic and funerary elementsthey tell their readers (or listeners) to drink and live for today because life is short. Generally, any theme found in classical elegies could be and were adapted for later literary epigrams. Hellenistic epigrams are also thought of as having a \"point\"that is, the poem ends in a punchline or satirical twist. By no means do all Greek epigrams behave this way; many are simply descriptive, but Meleager of Gadara and Philippus of Thessalonica, the first comprehensive anthologists, preferred the short and witty epigram. Since their collections helped form knowledge of the genre in Rome and then later throughout Europe, Epigram came to be associated with 'point,' especially because the European epigram tradition takes the Latin poet Martial as its principal model; he copied and adapted Greek models (particularly the contemporary poets Lucillius and Nicarchus) selectively and in the process redefined the genre, aligning it with the indigenous Roman tradition of'satura', hexameter satire, as practised by (among others) his contemporary Juvenal. Greek epigram was actually much more diverse, as the Milan Papyrus now indicates. A major source for Greek literary epigram is the \"Greek Anthology\", a compilation from the 10th century AD based on older collections, including those of Meleager and Philippus. It contains epigrams ranging from the Hellenistic period through the Imperial period and Late Antiquity into the compiler's own Byzantine eraa thousand years of short elegiac texts on every topic under the sun. The \"Anthology\" includes one book of Christian epigrams as well as one book of erotic and amorous homosexual epigrams called the Μοῦσα Παιδικἠ (Mousa Paidike, \"The Boyish Muse\").", "Roman epigrams owe much to their Greek predecessors and contemporaries. Roman epigrams, however, were often more satirical than Greek ones, and at times used obscene language for effect. Latin epigrams could be composed as inscriptions or graffiti, such as this one from Pompeii, which exists in several versions and seems from its inexact meter to have been composed by a less educated person. Its content makes it clear how popular such poems were: However, in the literary world, epigrams were most often gifts to patrons or entertaining verse to be published, not inscriptions. Many Roman writers seem to have composed epigrams, including Domitius Marsus, whose collection \"Cicuta\" (now lost) was named after the poisonous plant \"Cicuta\" for its biting wit, and Lucan, more famous for his epic \"Pharsalia\". Authors whose epigrams survive include Catullus, who wrote both invectives and love epigrams – his poem 85 is one of the latter. Martial, however, is considered to be the master of the Latin epigram. His technique relies heavily on the satirical poem with a joke in the last line, thus drawing him closer to the modern idea of epigram as a genre. Here he defines his genre against a (probably fictional) critic (in the latter half of 2.77): Poets known for their epigrams whose work has been lost include Cornificia.", "In early English literature the short couplet poem was dominated by the poetic epigram and proverb, especially in the translations of the Bible and the Greek and Roman poets. Since 1600, two successive lines of verse that rhyme with each other, known as a couplet featured as a part of the longer sonnet form, most notably in William Shakespeare's sonnets. Sonnet 76 is an excellent example. The two line poetic form as a closed couplet was also used by William Blake in his poem Auguries of Innocence, and also by Byron in his poem Don Juan, by John Gay in his fables and by Alexander Pope in his An Essay on Man. The first work of English literature penned in North America was Robert Hayman's \"Quodlibets, Lately Come Over from New Britaniola, Old Newfoundland,\" which is a collection of over 300 epigrams, many of which do not conform to the two-line rule or trend. While the collection was written between 1618 and 1628 in what is now Harbour Grace, Newfoundland, it was published shortly after his return to Britain. In Victorian times the epigram couplet was often used by the prolific American poet Emily Dickinson. Her poem No. 1534 is a typical example of her eleven poetic epigrams. The novelist George Eliot also included couplets throughout her writings. Her best example is in her sequenced sonnet poem entitled \"Brother and Sister\" in which each of the eleven sequenced sonnet ends with a couplet. In her sonnets, the preceding lead-in-line, to the couplet ending of each, could be thought of as a title for the couplet, as is shown in Sonnet VIII of the sequence. During the early 20th century, the rhymed epigram couplet form developed into a fixed verse image form, with an integral title as the third line. Adelaide Crapsey codified the couplet form into a two line rhymed verse of ten syllables per line with her image couplet poem \"On Seeing Weather-Beaten Trees\" first published in 1915. By the 1930s, the five-line cinquain verse form became widely known in the poetry of the Scottish poet William Soutar. These were originally labelled epigrams but later identified as image cinquains in the style of Adelaide Crapsey. J. V. Cunningham was also a noted writer of epigrams, (a medium suited to a'short-breathed' person)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Domain registry.", "Usage statistics.", "Second-level domains." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Created and delegated to Brazil in 1989 by Jon Postel, initially the domain was operated manually by Registro.br and administered by the Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP). Originally, only researchers and institutions to which they belonged had the interest and ability to adopt the new system and register domains under.br. At the time, networks prevalent in the Brazilian academic setting were the BITNET (\"Because It's Time NETwork\"), the HEPnet (\"High Energy Physics Network\") and the UUCP (\"Unix-to-Unix Copy Program\"). As such, even before Brazil officially connected to the Internet in 1991, the.br domain was used to identify the machines participating in networks already in use by academics. In 1995 the Comitê Gestor da Internet no Brasil \"Internet Management Committee of Brazil\" (CGI.br) was created with an objective to coordinate the allocation of Internet addresses (IPs) and the registration of.br domain names. There were 851 domains registered with the Brazilian DNS (\"Domain Name System\") by the beginning of 1996, thereafter experiencing rapid growth with the mass arrival of companies, Internet providers and media onto the Internet. The registration system was automated in 1997 and was developed using open source software. In 2005, CGI.br created his own executive arm, the \"Núcleo de Informação e Coordenação do Ponto BR\"' \"The Center for Information and Coordination of Dot BR\" (NIC.br), which currently serves in both administrative and operational capacity for the registry. In 2017, accounts associated with DNS records of Brazilian banks were hacked. Kaspersky's researchers pointed out to a vulnerability in NIC.br's website and suggested its infrastructure had been compromised. NIC's director at the time, Frederico Neves, denied that NIC.br was \"hacked\", although NIC admitted the vulnerability.", "To register any domains under.br, it is necessary to enter into contact with Registro.br. Entities legally established in Brazil as a company (\"pessoa jurídica\") or a physical person (\"profissional liberal\" and \"pessoas físicas\") that has a contact within Brazil can register domains. Foreign companies that have a power-of-attorney legally established in Brazil can also do it by following specific rules. The registration of domains with special Portuguese characters (à, á, â, ã, é, ê, í, ó, ô, õ, ú, ü and ç) is accepted since 2005.", ".br is the most common Portuguese language Web site suffix, surpassing all other Portuguese-speaking countries' TLDs as well as in popularity.", "There were initially 66 second-level domains: However the restriction were dropped in 2013 and there are a significant number of second level domain names currently registered." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Career.", "Influences.", "Reception." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Paolini was born in Los Angeles, California, and raised in the area of Paradise Valley, Montana. His family members include his parents, Kenneth Paolini and Talita Paolini, and his younger sister, Angela Paolini. Homeschooled for the duration of his education, Paolini graduated from high school at the age of 15 through a set of accredited correspondence courses from the American School of Correspondence in Lansing, Illinois.", "Following his high school graduation, he started his work on what would become the novel \"Eragon\", the first of a four-book series set in the mythical land of Alagaësia. In 2002, \"Eragon\" was published for the first time by Paolini International LLC, Paolini's parents' publishing company. To promote the book, Paolini toured over 135 schools and libraries, discussing reading and writing, all the while dressed in \"a medieval costume of red shirt, billowy black pants, lace-up boots, and a jaunty black cap.\" He drew the cover art for the first edition of \"Eragon\", which featured Saphira's eye, along with the maps on the inside covers of his books. In mid-2002, the stepson of author Carl Hiaasen found \"Eragon\" in a bookstore and loved it; this led to Hiaasen bringing it to the attention of his publisher, Alfred A. Knopf. Knopf subsequently made an offer to publish \"Eragon\" and the rest of \"The Inheritance Cycle\". The second edition of \"Eragon\" was published by Knopf in August 2003. At the age of nineteen, Paolini became a \"New York Times\" bestselling author. In December 2006, Fox 2000 released the film adaptation of \"Eragon\" in theaters around the world. It received mostly negative reviews from critics, and made a combined domestic and international gross of $249,488,115 USD against a production budget of $100,000,000. Paolini's essay \"It All Began with Books\" was included in the April 2005 anthology \"Guys Write for Guys Read\". \"Eldest\", the sequel to \"Eragon\", was released August 23, 2005. The third book in the cycle, \"Brisingr\", was released on September 20, 2008. Although \"The Inheritance Cycle\" was originally planned as a trilogy, a fourth book, \"Inheritance\", was released on November 8, 2011 in the US, Australia, New Zealand, the EU, and India, and was subsequently translated and published in fifty-three countries. \"The Inheritance Cycle\" has sold more than 35 million copies. On December 31, 2018, \"The Fork, the Witch, and the Worm\", the first book in a series called \"Tales of Alagaësia\", was published and released to the public. Paolini's new science fiction novel, \"To Sleep in a Sea of Stars\", is releasing on September 15, 2020. He also plans to return to the world of Alagaësia with a fifth book when he finishes his science-fiction book.", "Paolini's literary inspirations include the works of J. R. R. Tolkien and E.R. Eddison, as well as the epic poem \"Beowulf\". Paolini said that \"Eragon\" was \"specifically inspired\" by \"Jeremy Thatcher, Dragon Hatcher\", by Bruce Coville. Other literary influences include David Eddings, Andre Norton, Brian Jacques, Anne McCaffrey, Raymond E. Feist, Mervyn Peake, Ursula K. Le Guin and Frank Herbert. Other favorite books include works by Jane Yolen, Philip Pullman, Terry Brooks, and Garth Nix. Nature influences much of Paolini's writing. In an interview with Philip Pullman and Tamora Pierce, Paolini said that Paradise Valley, Montana is \"one of the main sources\" of his inspiration. In the acknowledgments of \"Brisingr,\" Paolini acknowledged the influence of Leon and Hiroko Kapp's \"The Craft of the Japanese Sword\" for his description of the forging of Eragon's sword. Additionally, Paolini admitted he is a \"Doctor Who\" fan, which inspired his reference to the \"lonely god\" (the epithet given to the Doctor by the Face of Boe in the episode \"New Earth\"), to \"rooms that are bigger on the inside than the outside\" (from \"Questions Unanswered\" in \"Inheritance\"), as well as to Raxacoricofallapatorius, the home of the Slitheen (\"Blood Price\" in \"Inheritance\").", "Paolini's books have sold very well and have topped the charts of \"The New York Times\", \"USA Today\", and \"Publishers Weekly\" bestsellers lists. The Guinness World Records recognized Christopher Paolini as the \"youngest author of a bestselling book series\" on January 5, 2011." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Function.", "Structure.", "Reading Test.", "Writing and Language Test.", "Mathematics.", "Calculator use.", "Style of questions.", "Logistics.", "Frequency.", "Fees.", "Accommodation for candidates with disabilities.", "Scaled scores and percentiles.", "SAT–ACT score comparisons.", "History.", "Name changes.", "Math–verbal achievement gap.", "Reuse of old SAT exams.", "Elucidation.", "Association with culture.", "Association with family income.", "Association with gender.", "Association with race and ethnicity.", "Perception.", "Optional SAT.", "IQ studies.", "Preparation.", "Use by high-IQ societies.", "Writing section." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The SAT is typically taken by high school juniors and seniors. The College Board states that the SAT is intended to measure literacy, numeracy and writing skills that are needed for academic success in college. They state that the SAT assesses how well the test-takers analyze and solve problems—skills they learned in school that they will need in college. However, the test is administered under a tight time limit (speeded) to help produce a range of scores. The College Board also states that use of the SAT in combination with high school grade point average (GPA) provides a better indicator of success in college than high school grades alone, as measured by college freshman GPA. Various studies conducted over the lifetime of the SAT show a statistically significant increase in correlation of high school grades and college freshman grades when the SAT is factored in. A large independent validity study on the SAT's ability to predict college freshman GPA was performed by the University of California. The results of this study found how well various predictor variables could explain the variance in college freshman GPA. It found that independently high school GPA could explain 15.4% of the variance in college freshman GPA, SAT I", "The SAT has four sections: Reading, Writing and Language, Math (no calculator), and Math (calculator allowed). The test taker may optionally write an essay which, in that case, is the fifth test section. The total time for the scored portion of the SAT is three hours (or three hours and fifty minutes if the optional essay section is taken). Some test takers who are not taking the essay may also have a fifth section, which is used, at least in part, for the pretesting of questions that may appear on future administrations of the SAT. (These questions are not included in the computation of the SAT score.) Two section scores result from taking the SAT: Evidence-Based Reading and Writing, and Math. Section scores are reported on a scale of 200 to 800, and each section score is a multiple of ten. A total score for the SAT is calculated by adding the two section scores, resulting in total scores that range from 400 to 1600. There is no penalty for guessing on the SAT: scores are based on the number of questions answered correctly. In addition to the two section scores, three \"test\" scores on a scale of 10 to 40 are reported, one for each of Reading, Writing and Language, and Math, with increment of 1 for Reading / Writing and Language, and 0.5 for Math. The essay, if taken, is scored separately from the two section scores.", "The Reading Test of the SAT is made up of one section with 52 questions and a time limit of 65 minutes. All questions are multiple-choice and based on reading passages. Tables, graphs, and charts may accompany some passages, but no math is required to correctly answer the corresponding questions. There are five passages (up to two of which may be", "The Writing and Language Test of the SAT is made up of one section with 44 multiple-choice questions and a time limit of 35 minutes. As with the Reading Test, all questions are based on reading passages which may be accompanied by tables, graphs, and charts. The test taker will be", "The mathematics portion of the SAT is divided into two sections: Math Test – Calculator and Math Test – No Calculator. In total, the SAT math test is 80 minutes long and includes 58 questions: 45 multiple choice questions and 13 grid-in questions. The multiple choice questions have four possible answers; the grid-in questions are free response and require the test taker to provide an answer. Several scores are provided to the test taker for the math test. A subscore (on a scale of 1 to 15) is reported for each of three categories of math content: \"Heart of Algebra\" (linear equations, systems of linear equations, and linear functions), \"Problem Solving and Data Analysis\" (statistics, modeling, and problem-solving skills), and \"Passport to Advanced Math\" (non-linear expressions, radicals, exponentials and other topics that form the basis of more advanced math). A test score for the math test is reported on a scale of 10 to 40, with an increment of 0.5, and a section score (equal to the test score multiplied by 20) is reported on a scale of 200 to 800.", "All scientific and most graphing calculators, including Computer Algebra System (CAS) calculators, are permitted on the SAT Math – Calculator section only. All four-function calculators are allowed as well; however, these devices are not recommended. All mobile phone and smartphone calculators, calculators with typewriter-like (QWERTY) keyboards, laptops and other portable computers, and calculators capable of accessing the Internet are not permitted. Research was conducted by the College Board to study the effect of calculator use on SAT I: Reasoning Test math scores. The study found that performance on the math section was associated with the extent of calculator use: those using calculators on about one third to one half of the items averaged higher scores than those using calculators more or less frequently. However, the effect was \"more likely to have been the result of able students using calculators differently than less able students rather than calculator use per se.\" There is some evidence that the frequent use of a calculator in school outside of the testing situation has a positive effect on test performance compared to those who do not use calculators in school.", "Most of the questions on the SAT, except for the optional essay and the grid-in math responses, are multiple choice; all multiple-choice questions have four answer choices, one of which is correct. Thirteen of the questions on the math portion of the SAT (about 22% of", "", "The SAT is offered seven times a year in the United States: in August, October, November, December, March, May, and June. For international students SAT is offered four times a year out of USA: in October, December, March and May.", "The SAT costs $49.50 ($64.50 with the optional essay), plus additional fees of over $45 if testing outside the United States).", "Students with verifiable disabilities, including physical and learning disabilities, are eligible to take the SAT with accommodations.", "Students receive their online score reports approximately two to three weeks after test administration (longer for mailed, paper scores). Included in the report is the total score (the sum of the two section scores, with each section graded on a scale of 200–800) and three subscores (in reading, writing, and analysis, each on a scale of 2–8) for the optional essay. Students may also receive, for an additional fee, various score verification services, including (for select test administrations) the Question and Answer Service, which provides the test questions, the student's answers, the correct answers, and the type and difficulty of each question. In addition, students receive two percentile scores, each of which is defined by the College Board as the percentage of students in a comparison group with equal or lower test scores. One of the percentiles, called the \"Nationally Representative Sample Percentile\", uses as a comparison group all 11th and 12th graders", "The College Board and ACT, Inc., conducted a joint study of students who took both the SAT and the ACT between September 2004 (for the ACT) or March 2005 (for the SAT) and June 2006. Tables were provided to concord scores for students taking the SAT after January 2005 and before March 2016. In May 2016, the College Board released concordance tables to concord scores on the SAT used", "Many college entrance exams in the early 20th century were specific to each school and required candidates to travel to the school to take the tests. The College Board, a consortium of colleges in the northeastern United States, was formed in 1900 to establish a nationally administered, uniform set of essay tests based on the curricula of the boarding schools that typically provided graduates to the colleges of the Ivy League and Seven Sisters, among others. In the same time period, Lewis Terman and others began to promote the use of tests such as Alfred Binet's in American schools. Terman in particular thought that such tests could identify an innate \"intelligence quotient\" (IQ) in a person. The results of an IQ test could then be used to find an elite group of students who would be given the chance to finish high school and go on to college. By the mid-1920s, the increasing use of IQ tests, such as the Army Alpha test administered to recruits in World War I, led the College Board to commission the development of the SAT. The commission, headed by eugenicist Carl Brigham, argued that the test predicted success in higher education by identifying candidates primarily on the basis of intellectual promise rather than on specific accomplishment in high school subjects. Brigham \"created the test to uphold a racial caste system. He advanced this theory of standardized testing as a means of upholding racial purity in his book A Study of American Intelligence. The tests, he wrote, would prove the racial superiority of white Americans and prevent 'the continued propagation of defective strains in the present population'—chiefly, the 'infiltration of white blood into the Negro.'\" In 1934, James Conant and Henry Chauncey used the SAT as a means to identify recipients for scholarships to Harvard University. Specifically, Conant wanted to find students, other than those from the traditional northeastern private schools, that could do well at Harvard. The success of the scholarship program and the advent of World War II led to the end of the College Board essay exams and to the SAT being used as the only admissions test for College Board member colleges. The SAT rose in prominence after World War II due to several factors. Machine-based scoring of multiple-choice tests taken by pencil had made it possible to rapidly process the exams. The G.I. Bill produced an influx of millions of veterans into higher education. The formation of the Educational Testing Service (ETS) also played a significant role in the expansion of the SAT beyond the roughly fifty colleges that made up the College Board at the time. The ETS was formed in 1947 by the College Board, Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, and the American Council on Education, to consolidate respectively the operations of the SAT, the GRE, and the achievement tests developed by Ben Wood for use with Conant's scholarship exams. The new organization was to be philosophically grounded in the concepts of open-minded, scientific research in testing with no doctrine to sell and with an eye toward public service. The ETS was chartered after the death of Brigham, who had opposed the creation of such an entity. Brigham felt that the interests of a consolidated testing agency would be more aligned with sales or marketing than with research into the science of testing. It has been argued that the interest of the ETS in expanding the SAT in order to support its operations aligned with the desire of public college and university faculties to have smaller, diversified, and more academic student bodies as a means to increase research activities. In 1951, about 80,000 SATs were taken; in 1961, about 800,000; and by 1971, about 1.5 million SATs were being taken each year. A timeline of notable events in the history of the SAT follows.", "The SAT has been renamed several times since its introduction in 1926. It was originally known as the Scholastic Aptitude Test. In 1990, a commission set up by the College Board to review the proposed changes to the SAT program recommended that the meaning of the initialism SAT be changed to \"Scholastic Assessment Test\" because a \"test that integrates measures of achievement as well as developed ability can no longer be accurately described as a test of aptitude\". In 1993, the College Board changed the name of the test to SAT I: Reasoning Test; at", "In 2002, Richard Rothstein (education scholar and columnist) wrote in \"The New York Times\"", "The College Board has been accused of completely reusing old SAT papers previously given in the United States. The recycling of questions from previous exams has been exploited to allow for cheating on exams and impugned the validity of some students' test scores,", "", "For decades many critics have accused designers of the verbal SAT of cultural bias as an explanation for the disparity in scores between poorer and wealthier test-takers. A famous example of this bias in the SAT I was the oarsman–regatta analogy question, which is", "A report from \"The New York Times\" stated that family income can explain much of the variance in SAT scores. In response, Lisa Wade, contributor at the website \"The Society Pages\", commented that those with higher family income, “tend to have better teachers, more resource-rich educational environments, more educated parents who can help them with school and, sometimes, expensive SAT tutoring.” However, University of California system research found that after controlling for family income and parental education, the", "The largest association with gender on the SAT is found in the math section, where male students, on average, score higher than female students by approximately 30 points. In 2013, the American College Testing Board released a report stating that boys outperformed girls on the mathematics section of the test. Some researchers believe that the difference in scores for both race and gender is closely related to the psychological phenomenon known as stereotype threat. Stereotype threat is thought to occur when an individual who identifies themselves within", "African American, Hispanic, and Native American students, on average, perform an order of one standard deviation lower on the SAT than white and Asian students. Researchers believe that the difference in scores is closely related to the overall achievement gap in American society between students of different racial groups. This gap may be explainable in part by the fact that students of disadvantaged racial groups tend to go to schools that provide lower educational quality. This view is supported by evidence that the black-white gap is higher in cities and neighborhoods that are more", "", "In the 1960s and 1970s there was a movement to drop achievement scores. After a period of time, the countries, states and provinces that reintroduced them agreed that academic standards had dropped, students had studied less, and had taken their studying less seriously. They reintroduced the tests after studies and research concluded that the high-stakes tests produced benefits that outweighed the costs. In a 2001 speech to the American Council on Education, Richard C. Atkinson,", "Frey and Detterman (2004) investigated associations of SAT scores with intelligence test scores. Using an estimate of general mental ability, or \"g\", based on the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery, which can be best thought of as representing crystallized intelligence (learned abilities), they found SAT scores to be highly correlated with \"g\" (r=.82 in their sample,.857 when adjusted for non-linearity) in their sample taken from a 1979 national probability survey. Additionally, they investigated", "SAT preparation is a highly lucrative field. The field was pioneered by Stanley Kaplan, whose SAT preparation course began in 1946 as a 64-hour course. Many companies and organizations offer test preparation in the form of books, classes, online courses, and tutoring. The test preparation industry began almost simultaneously with the introduction of university entrance exams in the U.S. and flourished from the start. The College Board maintains that the SAT is essentially uncoachable and research by the College Board and the National Association of College Admission Counseling suggests that tutoring courses result in an average increase of about 20 points on", "Certain high IQ societies, like Mensa, the Prometheus Society and the Triple Nine Society, use scores from certain years as one of their admission tests. For instance, the Triple Nine Society accepts scores (verbal and math combined) of 1450 or greater on SAT", "In 2005, MIT Writing Director Pavan Sreekireddy plotted essay length versus essay score on the new SAT from released essays and found a high correlation between them. After studying over 50 graded essays, he found that longer essays consistently produced higher scores. In fact, he argues that by simply gauging the length of an essay without reading it, the given score of an essay could likely" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "MSN Messenger 1.0–7.5 (1999–2005).", "Windows Live Messenger 8.0–8.5 (2005–2009).", "Windows Live Messenger 14.0–16.4 (2009–2012).", "Discontinuation.", "Revival attempts.", "Features.", "Album Viewer.", "Appear offline to individuals or categories.", "Social networks integration.", "Offline messaging.", "Games and applications.", "Messenger Companion.", "Protocol.", "Content filtering.", "\"i’m\" initiative.", "Platforms.", "Windows Mobile.", "Xbox.", "Mac.", "iOS.", "Java ME.", "Nokia Series 40.", "Sony Ericsson.", "Symbian.", "Interoperability." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Before the product was renamed Windows Live Messenger, it was named \"MSN Messenger\" from 1999 to 2006. During that time, Microsoft released seven major versions as follows. The first version of MSN Messenger Service, version 1.0 (1.0.0863), was released July 22, 1999. It included only basic features, such as plain text messaging and a simplistic contact list. When it was first released, it featured support for access to America Online's AIM network. America Online continually tried to block Microsoft from having access to their service until eventually the feature was removed, and it has not re-surfaced in any later versions of the software. AOL did this by exploiting a buffer overflow bug", "As part of Microsoft's Windows Live effort, which rebranded many existing MSN services and programs, MSN Messenger was renamed \"Windows Live Messenger\" beginning with version 8.0. The first beta of the newly renamed Windows Live Messenger, Beta 1, was released on December 13, 2005. Major changes and additions included offline messaging, an option to change the color theme of the windows, separated send and search boxes, a word wheel search box in the main window, and additional details for contacts when hovering over their names in the contact list window. The second beta of version 8.0, Beta 2, was released on February 26, 2006. The overall theme of this version was improved, fixing and improving several smaller places in the program. Major changes and additions included the introduction of Windows Live Contacts, the reintroduction of single file transfer, improvements to the \"Add a Contact\" dialog box, improved color themes, minor", "Windows Live Messenger 2009 was originally designated version 9.0, it was later assigned the technical version number 14.0, in order to be unified with the other Windows Live programs and Microsoft Office programs. In a presentation to the Georgia Institute of Technology's IEEE Student Branch, Microsoft employee Andrew Jenks reported that the Messenger team had been working on multi-person audio/video chat, and they are also attempting to create interoperability with AIM/XMPP/ICQ. There is a basic internal version that works with XMPP already. However, these features were not seen in any versions of Windows Live Messenger 2009. Microsoft sent an invitation to participate in the Windows Live Messenger \"9\" beta program to Microsoft Connect members on November 20, 2007; a week later, Microsoft began sending out emails welcoming them to the Windows Live Messenger \"9\" beta program for the first release, known as Beta 0. A fan site for Windows Live Messenger, Mess.be, claimed to have a new build of Windows Live Messenger \"9\" on August 11, 2008, and published screenshots along with a brief summary of new features. The screenshots featured a new user interface design matching the \"Wave 3\" design in development by Microsoft. The images were later removed by the", "On November 6, 2012, Microsoft announced that Messenger and Skype services would merge in the first quarter of 2013. According to Tony Bates (president of Skype Division at the time), Messenger users could sign into Skype using their Microsoft accounts, access their Messenger contacts and communicate as usual. On January 8, 2013, Microsoft emailed Messenger users and informed them that with the exception of mainland China, the Messenger service would stop working on March 15, 2013, and users would not be able to sign in. On February 15, 2013, \"ZDNet\" wrote the discontinuation email was only", "The first attempt to revive Windows Live Messenger was in 2013, by Jonathan Kay (a past Microsoft MVP). Kay's program would install or modify an already installed version of the product to remove the nag forcing users to update to Skype, and redirecting servers when necessary. This method worked as long as Microsoft kept operating", "In addition to its basic functionality and general capability as an instant messaging client, the latest version of Windows Live Messenger offered the following features:", "Windows Live Messenger's album viewer is based on Windows Photo Gallery and provides users a photo viewing experience for photo albums shared via SkyDrive and Facebook. The album viewer", "Windows Live Messenger allow users to appear offline to particular individual contacts, as well as to an entire category within Windows Live Messenger, while appearing online to other contacts. This is a recent feature", "Users can connect services such as Facebook, MySpace and LinkedIn using Windows Live Profile, and display their contact's Messenger social updates within the \"Full view\" of Windows Live Messenger.", "One can send messages to contacts who are offline; they will receive the messages once they come", "There are various games and applications available in Windows Live Messenger that can be accessed via the conversation", "Windows Live Messenger Companion was an add-in for Windows Internet Explorer that detects when a user is on a website that one of their friends has shared content from and surfaces that update so that the user can instantly view what their friends have shared", "Windows Live Messenger used the Microsoft Notification Protocol (MSNP) over TCP (and optionally over HTTP to deal with proxies) to connect to Microsoft Messenger service—a service offered on port 1863 of \"messenger.hotmail.com.\" The protocol is not completely secret; Microsoft disclosed version 2 (MSNP2) to developers in 1999 in an Internet Draft, but never released versions 8 or higher to the public. The", "The content of users' messages is filtered on server side of the client. For example, the user can't send", "The i'm initiative was a program Microsoft launched in March 2007, that connects the user with ten organizations dedicated to social causes through Windows Live Messenger, only for conversations sent or received in the USA. Every time someone had a conversation using i'm, Microsoft Corp. shared a portion of the program's", "Messenger Mobile (formerly named Windows Live Messenger Mobile) was the version of Messenger that was aimed to be used on mobile devices over a cellular data plan or Wi-Fi (if supported by the phone). There was also a WAP-compatible version that may be used on any mobile device, and also specific client versions designed for Windows Mobile, iOS, BlackBerry and Nokia Series 60 devices.", "A client version of Windows Live Messenger Mobile was a part of client application named \"Windows Live for Windows Mobile\" included with the Windows", "Windows Live Messenger support was included in the Xbox 360 spring 2007 dashboard update released on May 9, 2007. It was known as Xbox Live Messenger. Those using Windows Live Messenger were able to see the Gamertags of friends logged into Xbox Live, including the games that they were playing. Xbox 360 users could chat in-game or while watching a movie. Although only text chat was supported, Microsoft suggested that voice and video chatting may come", "Microsoft Messenger for Mac (previously MSN Messenger for Mac) was the official Mac OS X instant messaging client for use with Microsoft Messenger service, developed by the Macintosh Business Unit, a division of Microsoft. Its feature list was limited in comparison to that of its counterpart Windows Live Messenger; the client lacked a number of features that its Windows counterpart contained. The versions 3.x and later of Microsoft Messenger for Mac featured new", "The Windows Live Messenger for iOS client supported receiving of instant messaging notifications even when the application closed, and allowed Multiple Points of Presence (MPOP) such that a user can be signed into multiple locations at the same time. Photos and albums could also be uploaded from the mobile", "", "The Windows Live Messenger Mobile client came as a Java ME mobile application pre-loaded on devices such as Nokia 7610, Nokia", "A version of the Windows Live Messenger Mobile client was also pre-loaded on most Sony Ericsson mobile devices as a Java ME application.", "A client for Windows Live Messenger was developed by Microsoft for the Symbian S60 Platform commonly used on mobile phones such as Nokia smartphones and released on August 23, 2007, to selected markets. In May 2009, the client was made available on the Ovi Store. This version of Windows Live Messenger included many of the", "On October 13, 2005, Yahoo! and Microsoft announced plans to add interoperability between their messenger services. The announcement came after years of third-party interoperability success (most notably, PowWow by Tribal Voice, Trillian, Pidgin) and criticisms from Tribal Voice and iCast that the major real time communications services were locking their networks. Yahoo! and Windows Live Messenger became interoperable on July 12, 2006. For six years, Yahoo! Messenger and Windows Live Messenger users in possession of up-to-date software could communicate across the two networks. Instant messaging as well as transmission of emoticons, nudges, offline messages, presence information and personal status messages were supported. On December 14, 2012, the interoperability ended. Interoperability with Facebook Chat was added on September 30, 2010 with the launch of Windows Live Messenger 2011." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Recording.", "Release and aftermath.", "Album art.", "Critical reaction.", "Personnel." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "In November 1972 the band relocated to Kingston, Jamaica's Dynamic Sound Studios. Keith Richards said in year 2002: \"Jamaica was one of the few places that would let us all in! By that time about the only country that I was allowed to exist in was Switzerland, which was damn boring for me, at least for the first year, because I didn't like to ski... Nine countries kicked me out, thank you very much, so it was a matter of how to keep this thing together...\" Of the recording process, Marshall Chess, the president of Rolling Stones Records at the time, said in 2002, \"We used to book studios for a month, 24 hours a day, so that the band could keep the same set-up and develop their songs in their free-form way, starting with a few lyrics and rhythms, jamming and rehearsing while we fixed the sound. It amazed me, as an old-time record guy, that the Stones might not have played together for six or eight months, but within an hour of jamming, the synergy that is their strength would come into play and they would lock it together as one...\" Jagger said of their approach to recording at the time, \"Songwriting and playing is a mood. Like the last album we did (\"Exile on Main St.\") was basically recorded in short concentrated periods. Two weeks here, two weeks there – then another two weeks. And, similarly, all the writing was concentrated so that you get the feel of one particular period of time. Three months later it's all very different and we won't be writing the same kind of material as \"Goats Head Soup\".\" On the sessions and influence of the island, Richards said, \"The album itself didn't take that long, but we recorded an awful lot of tracks. There were not only Jamaicans involved, but also percussion players who came from places like Guyana, a travelling pool of guys who worked in the studios. It was interesting to be playing in this totally different atmosphere. Mikey Chung, the engineer at Dynamic, for example, was a Chinese man — you realise how much Jamaica is a multi-ethnic environment.\" The first track recorded at Dynamic was \"Winter\", which Mick Taylor said started with \"just Mick (Jagger) strumming on a guitar in the studio, and everything falling together from there.\" Although credited to Jagger/Richards, the song was actually written by Jagger and an uncredited Mick Taylor. The song is also the only song on the album that does not feature Richards as a performer. The album's lead single, called \"Angie\", was an unpopular choice as lead single with Atlantic Records which, according to Chess, \"wanted another 'Brown Sugar' rather than a ballad.\" Although the song was rumoured to be about David Bowie's first wife Angela, both Jagger and Richards have consistently denied this. In 1993, Richards, in the liner notes to the compilation album \"\", said that the title was inspired by his baby daughter, Dandelion Angela. However, in his 2010 memoir \"Life\", Richards denied this, saying that he had chosen the name for the song before he knew the sex of his expected baby: \"I just went, 'Angie, Angie.' It was not about any particular person; it was a name, like 'ohhh, Diana.' I didn't know Angela was going to be called Angela when I wrote 'Angie'. In those days you didn't know what sex the thing was going to be until it popped out. In fact, Anita named her Dandelion. She was only given the added name Angela because she was born in a Catholic hospital where they insisted that a 'proper' name be added.\" According to \"NME\", the lyrics written by Jagger were inspired by Jagger's breakup with Marianne Faithfull. This was the last Rolling Stones album produced by Jimmy Miller, who'd worked with the band since 1968's \"Beggars Banquet\" sessions. Unfortunately, Miller had developed a debilitating drug habit during the course of his years spent with the Stones. Aside from the official band members, other musicians appearing on \"Goats Head Soup\" include keyboard players Billy Preston, Nicky Hopkins, and Ian Stewart. Recording was completed in January 1973 in Los Angeles and May 1973 at London's Island Recording Studios. The song \"Silver Train\" was a leftover from 1970s recordings at Olympic Sound. \"Goats Head Soup\" was also the band's first album without any cover songs since \"Their Satanic Majesties Request\" in 1967.", "At the time of release, Jagger said, “I really feel close to this album, and I really put all I had into it... I guess it comes across that I’m more into songs. It wasn’t as vague as the last album which kind of went on so long that I didn’t like some of the things. There’s more thought to this one. It was recorded all over the place over about two or three months. The tracks are much more varied than the last one. I didn’t want it to be just a bunch of rock songs.” Preceded by “Angie” as the lead single, which sailed to number one in the United States and became a worldwide hit, \"Goats Head Soup\" was released in late August 1973 and also shot to the top of charts worldwide. The Rolling Stones' autumn 1973 European Tour followed soon after, in which four slots in the set list were given to the new material: “Doo Doo Doo Doo Doo (Heartbreaker)”, “Star Star”, “Dancing with Mr D”, and “Angie” – although apart from a few earlier performances of “Silver Train” and “100 Years Ago”, nothing else from \"Goats Head Soup\" has ever been played live by the Stones until the 2002-2003 \"Live Licks tour, when the band dusted off \"Star Star\". \"Silver Train\" and \"Dancing with Mr D\" were dusted off for the 2014 and 2017 tours. (The popular bootleg recording \"Brussels Affair\" would result from this tour.)", "The album cover was designed by Ray Lawrence and photographed by David Bailey, a friend of Jagger's who had worked with The Rolling Stones since 1964. The portrait of Jagger on the front cover was approximately life size in the original 12-inch LP format. Jagger was reluctant to be shot enveloped by a pink chiffon veil, which Bailey said was meant to look like \"Katharine Hepburn in \"The African Queen\"\". The album's gatefold has all the band members wrapped around a similar fabric.", "Critical reaction to the album was varied at the time. Bud Scoppa called the album \"one of the year's richest musical experiences\" in \"Rolling Stone\", while Lester Bangs derided the effort in \"Creem\", saying, \"There is a sadness about the Stones now, because they amount to such an enormous 'So what?' The sadness comes when you measure not just one album, but the whole sense they're putting across now against what they once meant...\". \"Goats Head Soup\" is now generally considered to be the Stones' first step away from their \"golden age\" of 1968–1972 with Stephen Thomas Erlewine saying, \"Sliding out of perhaps the greatest winning streak in rock history, the Stones slipped into decadence and rock star excess with \"Goats Head Soup\"... This is where the Stones' image began to eclipse their accomplishments, as Mick ascended to jet-setting celebrity and Keith slowly sunk deeper into addiction, and it's possible hearing them moving in both directions on \"Goats Head Soup\", at times in the same song\". The sessions for \"Goats Head Soup\" were abundant with outtakes. Two of these — \"Tops\" and \"Waiting on a Friend\" — would surface on \"Tattoo You\" in 1981, and feature Mick Taylor on guitar; \"Through the Lonely Nights\" became the B-side to the \"It's Only Rock 'n Roll (But I Like It)\" single and was released on CD for the first time on the 2005 compilation \"Rarities 1971–2003\". It is a soft rock ballad that features Richards on wah wah/leslie speaker filtered guitar with Mick Taylor playing a brief solo. In addition, \"Short and Curlies\" was started at the Goats Head Soup sessions and ended up appearing on the It's Only Rock 'n' Roll LP. In 1994 \"Goats Head Soup\" was remastered and reissued by Virgin Records, and again in 2009 by Universal Music. The 1994 remaster was initially released in a Collector's Edition CD, which replicated in miniature many elements of the original gatefold album packaging. The first pressing of the 2009 remaster contains a censored version of \"Star Star\" that was on the original US vinyl release, but not on the 1994 Virgin CD; later pressings contain the uncensored version. The album was reissued once more in 2011 by Universal Music Enterprises in a Japanese-only SHM-SACD version, which includes the uncensored version of \"Star Star\" with a previously unreleased fadeout. Autumn of 2020 will see the release of an expanded edition of GHS.", "The Rolling Stones Additional personnel Technical" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Properties on the number line.", "Converse.", "Transitivity.", "Addition and subtraction.", "Multiplication and division.", "Additive inverse.", "Multiplicative inverse.", "Applying a function to both sides.", "Formal definitions and generalizations.", "Ordered fields.", "Chained notation.", "Sharp inequalities.", "Inequalities between means.", "Cauchy–Schwarz inequality.", "Power inequalities.", "Well-known inequalities.", "Complex numbers and inequalities.", "Vector inequalities.", "Systems of inequalities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Inequalities are governed by the following properties. All of these properties also hold if all of the non-strict inequalities (≤ and ≥) are replaced by their corresponding strict inequalities (< and >) and — in the case of applying a function — monotonic functions are limited to \"strictly\" monotonic functions.", "The relations ≤ and ≥ are each other's converse, meaning that for any real numbers \"a\" and \"b\":", "The transitive property of inequality states that for any real numbers \"a\", \"b\", \"c\": If \"either\" of the premises is a strict inequality, then the conclusion is a strict inequality:", "A common constant \"c\" may be added to or subtracted from both sides of an inequality. So, for any real numbers \"a\", \"b\", \"c\": In other words, the inequality relation is preserved under addition (or subtraction) and the real numbers are an ordered group under addition.", "The properties that deal with multiplication and division state that for any real numbers, \"a\", \"b\" and non-zero \"c\": In other words, the inequality relation is preserved under multiplication and division with positive constant, but is reversed when a negative constant is involved. More generally, this applies for an ordered field. For more information, see \"§ Ordered fields\".", "The property for the additive inverse states that for any real numbers \"a\" and \"b\":", "If both numbers are positive, then the inequality relation between the multiplicative inverses is opposite of that between the original numbers. More specifically, for any non-zero real numbers \"a\" and \"b\" that are both positive (or both negative): All of the cases for the signs of \"a\" and \"b\" can also be written in chained notation, as follows:", "Any monotonically increasing function, by its definition, may be applied to both sides of an inequality without breaking the inequality relation (provided that both expressions are in the domain of that function). However, applying a monotonically decreasing function to both sides of an inequality means the inequality relation would be reversed. The rules for the additive inverse, and the multiplicative inverse for positive numbers, are both examples of applying a monotonically decreasing function. If the inequality is strict (\"a\" < \"b\", \"a\" > \"b\") \"and\" the function is strictly monotonic, then the inequality remains strict. If only one of these conditions is strict, then the resultant inequality is non-strict. In fact, the rules for additive and multiplicative inverses are both examples of applying a \"strictly\" monotonically decreasing function. A few examples of this rule are:", "A (non-strict) partial order is a binary relation ≤ over a set \"P\" which is reflexive, antisymmetric, and transitive. That is, for all \"a\", \"b\", and \"c\" in \"P\", it must satisfy the three following clauses: A set with a partial order is called a partially ordered set. Those are the very basic axioms that every kind of order has to satisfy. Other axioms that exist for other definitions of orders on a set \"P\" include:", "If (\"F\", +, ×) is a field and ≤ is a total order on \"F\", then (\"F\", +, ×, ≤) is called an ordered field if and only if: Both (Q, +, ×, ≤) and (R, +, ×, ≤) are ordered fields, but ≤ cannot be defined in order to make (C, +, ×, ≤) an ordered field, because −1 is the square of \"i\" and would therefore be positive. Besides from being an ordered field, R also has the Least-upper-bound property. In fact, R can be defined as the only ordered field with that quality.", "The notation a\" < \"b\" < \"c stands for \"\"a\" < \"b\" and \"b\" < \"c\"\", from which, by the transitivity property above, it also follows that \"a\" < \"c\". By the above laws, one can add or subtract the same number to all three terms, or multiply or divide all three terms by same nonzero number and reverse all inequalities if that number is negative. Hence, for example, \"a\" < \"b\" + \"e\" < \"c\" is equivalent to \"a\" − \"e\" < \"b\" < \"c\" − \"e\". This notation can be generalized to any number of terms: for instance, \"a\" ≤ \"a\" ≤... ≤ \"a\" means that \"a\" ≤ \"a\" for \"i\" = 1, 2,..., \"n\" − 1. By transitivity, this condition is equivalent to \"a\" ≤ \"a\" for any 1 ≤ \"i\" ≤ \"j\" ≤ \"n\". When solving inequalities using chained notation, it is possible and sometimes necessary to evaluate the terms independently. For instance, to solve the inequality 4\"x\" < 2\"x\" + 1 ≤ 3\"x\" + 2, it is not possible to isolate \"x\" in any one part of the inequality through addition or subtraction. Instead, the inequalities must be solved independently, yielding \"x\" < 1/2 and \"x\" ≥ −1 respectively, which can be combined into the final solution −1 ≤ \"x\" < 1/2. Occasionally, chained notation is used with inequalities in different directions, in which case the meaning is the logical conjunction of the inequalities between adjacent terms. For instance, \"a\" < \"b\" = \"c\" ≤ \"d\" means that \"a\" < \"b\", \"b\" = \"c\", and \"c\" ≤ \"d\". This notation exists in a few programming languages such as Python.", "An inequality is said to be \"sharp\", if it cannot be \"relaxed\" and still be valid in general. Formally, a universally quantified inequality \"φ\" is called sharp if, for every valid universally quantified inequality \"ψ\", if holds, then also holds. For instance, the inequality is sharp, whereas the inequality is not sharp.", "There are many inequalities between means. For example, for any positive numbers \"a\", \"a\",..., \"a\" we have where", "The Cauchy–Schwarz inequality states that for all vectors \"u\" and \"v\" of an inner product space it is true that where formula_2 is the inner product. Examples of inner products include the real and complex dot product; In Euclidean space \"R\" with the standard inner product, the Cauchy–Schwarz inequality is", "A \"power inequality\" is an inequality containing terms of the form \"a\", where \"a\" and \"b\" are real positive numbers or variable expressions. They often appear in mathematical olympiads exercises.", "Mathematicians often use inequalities to bound quantities for which exact formulas cannot be computed easily. Some inequalities are used so often that they have names:", "The set of complex numbers C with its operations of addition and multiplication is a field, but it is impossible to define any relation ≤ so that becomes an ordered field. To make an ordered field, it would have to satisfy the following two properties: Because ≤ is a total order, for any number \"a\", either or (in which case the first property above implies that ). In either case ; this means that and ; so and, which means (−1 + 1) > 0; contradiction. However, an operation ≤ can be defined so as to satisfy only the first property (namely, \"if, then \"). Sometimes the lexicographical order definition is used: It can easily be proven that for this definition implies.", "Inequality relationships similar to those defined above can also be defined for column vectors. If we let the vectors formula_16 (meaning that formula_17 and formula_18, where formula_19 and formula_20 are real numbers for formula_21), we can define the following relationships: Similarly, we can define relationships for formula_35, formula_36, and formula_37. This notation is consistent with that used by Matthias Ehrgott in \"Multicriteria Optimization\" (see References). The trichotomy property (as stated above) is not valid for vector relationships. For example, when formula_38 and formula_39, there exists no valid inequality relationship between these two vectors. Also, a multiplicative inverse would need to be defined on a vector before this property could be considered. However, for the rest of the aforementioned properties, a parallel property for vector inequalities exists.", "Systems of linear inequalities can be simplified by Fourier–Motzkin elimination. The cylindrical algebraic decomposition is an algorithm that allows testing whether a system of polynomial equations and inequalities has solutions, and, if solutions exist, describing them. The complexity of this algorithm is doubly exponential in the number of variables. It is an active research domain to design algorithms that are more efficient in specific cases." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Release and reception.", "Personnel." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Rolling Stones returned to Munich, Germany, in December 1974—where they had recorded their previous album \"It's Only Rock 'n' Roll\"—and began the recording of their new album at Musicland Studios, with Mick Jagger and Keith Richards (as the Glimmer Twins) producing again. With a view to releasing it in time for a summer 1975 Tour of the Americas, the band broke for the holidays and returned in January in Rotterdam, Netherlands, to continue working—all the while auditioning new guitarists as they recorded. Among the hopefuls were Steve Marriott, Harvey Mandel, Wayne Perkins, Peter Frampton, and Ronnie Wood (although only Mandel, Perkins and Wood's guitar work would appear on the finished album). Guitar heroes Rory Gallagher and Jeff Beck both went over for a jam with the band \"just to see what was going on,\" but both declined interest in joining the group, happy with their solo careers. Jeff Beck stated that, \"in two hours I got to play three chords – I need a little more energy than that.\" With much work to follow, it was decided to delay the album for the following year and release the \"Made in the Shade\" compilation instead. \"Cherry Oh Baby\" (which was a cover version of Eric Donaldson's 1971 reggae song) would be the only song from the upcoming album sporadically played on the 1975 \"Tour of the Americas\". Following the conclusion of the tour, the band went to Montreux, Switzerland, in October for some overdub work, returning to Musicland Studios in Munich in December to perform similar work. After some final touch-ups, \"Black and Blue\" was completed in New York City in February 1976. That month the Stones flew to Sanibel Island Beach on Sanibel Island, Florida, to be photographed by fashion photographer Hiro for the album cover art. Stylistically, \"Black and Blue\" embraces hard rock with \"Hand of Fate\" and \"Crazy Mama\"; funk with \"Hot Stuff\"; reggae with their cover of \"Cherry Oh Baby\"; and blues with \"Melody,\" featuring the talents of Billy Preston – a heavy contributor to the album. Musical and thematic styles were merged on the seven-minute \"Memory Motel,\" with both Jagger and Richards contributing lead vocals to a love song embedded within a life-on-the-road tale. While all the album's songs except \"Cherry Oh Baby\" were officially credited to Jagger/Richards as authors, the credit for \"Hey Negrita\" specifies \"Inspiration by Ron Wood\" and \"Melody\" lists \"Inspiration by Billy Preston\". Bill Wyman would later release a version of \"Melody\" with his Rhythm Kings, crediting Preston as author. Two extra tracks recorded in the Rotterdam sessions were later released on 1981's \"Tattoo You\": \"Slave\" and \"Worried About You\".", "Released in April 1976 — with \"Fool to Cry\", a worldwide top 10 hit, as its lead single — \"Black and Blue\" reached No. 2 in the UK and spent an interrupted four-week spell at number 1 in the United States, going platinum there. The album was promoted with a controversial billboard on Sunset Boulevard in Hollywood that depicted the model Anita Russell, bound by Jagger under the phrase \"I'm \"Black and Blue\" from the Rolling Stones – and I love it!\" The billboard was removed after protests by the feminist group Women Against Violence Against Women, although it earned the band widespread press coverage. Critical view was polarised. Lester Bangs wrote in \"Creem\" that \"the heat's off, because it's all over, they really don't matter anymore or stand for anything [...] this is the first meaningless Rolling Stones album, and thank God\". However, Robert Christgau gave the album an A-, commending the band for taking risks. Christgau singled out \"Hot Stuff\" and \"Fool to Cry\" for particular praise before concluding: \"diagnosis: not dead by a long shot\". In 2000 it was voted number 536 in Colin Larkin's \"All Time Top 1000 Albums\". In 1994, \"Black and Blue\" was remastered and reissued by Virgin Records, again in 2009 by Universal Music, and once more in 2011 by Universal Music Enterprises in a Japanese-only SHM-SACD version. The 1994 remaster was initially released in a Collector's Edition CD, which replicated in miniature many elements of the original gatefold album packaging.", "The Rolling Stones Additional personnel Technical" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Recording.", "Release and reception.", "Personnel." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Work began on \"It's Only Rock 'n Roll\" following the Rolling Stones' autumn 1973 European tour. Production began in November at Munich, Germany's Musicland Studios. According to guitarist Keith Richards, \"We were really hot (off the road) and ready just to play some new material.\" The recording sessions were attended by Belgian painter Guy Peellaert, who Mick Jagger invited to do the album cover after seeing his work in the book \"Rock Dreams\", which featured illustrations of various rock musicians such as the Stones. Peellaert eventually painted the band as \"rock deities,\" descending a temple staircase, surrounded by young girls and women worshiping them in Grecian clothing. The artist refused to sign a deal of exclusivity, and in 1974 provided the album art for David Bowie's \"Diamond Dogs\".", "The album was at first developed as a half-live, half-studio production with one side of the album featuring live performances from the Stones' European tour while the other side was to be composed of newly recorded cover versions of the band's favourite R&B songs. Covers recorded included a take of Dobie Gray's \"Drift Away\", Jimmy Reed's \"Shame Shame Shame,” and The Temptations' \"Ain't Too Proud to Beg.\" Soon the band began working off riffs by Richards and new ideas by Mick Jagger and the original concept was scrapped in favour of an album with all-new material. The cover of \"Ain't Too Proud to Beg\" was the only recording to make the cut, while the \"Drift Away\" cover is a popular bootleg. \"It's Only Rock 'n Roll\" marked the Stones' first effort in the producer's chair since \"Their Satanic Majesties Request\", and the first for Jagger and Richards under their pseudonym \"The Glimmer Twins.\" On the choice to produce, Richards said at the time: \"I think we'd come to a point with Jimmy (Miller) where the contribution level had dropped because it'd got to be a habit, a way of life, for Jimmy to do one Stones album a year. He'd got over the initial sort of excitement which you can feel on \"Beggars Banquet\" and \"Let It Bleed\". Also, Mick and I felt that we wanted to try and do it ourselves because we really felt we knew much more about techniques and recording and had our own ideas of how we wanted things to go. \"Goats Head Soup\" hadn't turned out as we wanted to – not blaming Jimmy or anything like that... But it was obvious that it was time for a change in that particular part of the process of making records.\" Starting with this release, all future Rolling Stones albums would either be produced by themselves or in collaboration with an outside producer. Most of the album's backing tracks were recorded first at Musicland; solo vocals were recorded later by Jagger, about whom Richards would say, \"he often comes up with his best stuff alone in the studio with just an engineer.\" The song \"Luxury\" showed the band's growing interest in reggae music, while \"Till the Next Goodbye\" and \"If You Really Want to Be My Friend\" continued their immersion in ballads. Seven of the album's 10 songs crack the four-minute mark, a feature that would come to be disparaged during the rising punk rock scene of the late 1970s. Ronnie Wood, a long-time acquaintance of the band, began to get closer to the Rolling Stones during these sessions after he invited Mick Taylor to play on his debut album, \"I've Got My Own Album to Do\". Taylor spent some time recording and hanging out at Wood's house, The Wick. By chance, Richards was asked one night by Wood's wife at the time, Krissy, to join them at the guitarist's home. While there, Richards recorded some tracks with Wood and quickly developed a close friendship, with Richards going as far as moving into Wood's guest room. Jagger soon entered the mix and it was here that the album's lead single and title track, \"It's Only Rock 'n Roll (But I Like It)\", was first recorded. Wood worked closely on the track with Jagger, who subsequently took the song and title for their album. The released version of this song features Wood on 12-string acoustic guitar. \"It's Only Rock 'n Roll\" was Mick Taylor's last album with the Rolling Stones, and he played on just seven of the 10 tracks (he did not play on tracks 2, 3 or 6). Similar to receiving no writing credits on the Stones' previous album, \"Goats Head Soup\", Taylor reportedly had made songwriting contributions to \"Till the Next Goodbye\" and \"Time Waits for No One,\" but on the album jacket, all original songs were credited to Jagger/Richards. Taylor said in 1997: \"I did have a falling out with Mick Jagger over some songs I felt I should have been credited with co-writing on \"It's Only Rock 'n Roll\". We were quite close friends and co-operated quite closely on getting that album made. By that time Mick and Keith weren't really working together as a team so I'd spend a lot of time in the studio.\" Taylor's statement contradicts Jagger's earlier comment concerning the album. Jagger stated in a 1995 \"Rolling Stone\" interview about \"Time Waits for No One\" that Taylor \"maybe threw in a couple of chords.\" Alongside the usual outside contributors, namely Billy Preston, Nicky Hopkins and unofficial member Ian Stewart, Elton John sideman Ray Cooper acted as percussionist for the album. Several songs were finished songs and overdubs and mixing were performed at Jagger's home, Stargroves, in the early summer of 1974.", "In July 1974, the lead single, \"It's Only Rock ’n Roll (But I Like It),\" was released. Despite the familiar sound, it surprised many by failing to reach the top 10 in the United States (although it did reach the top 10 in the UK). With its sing-along chorus, it has become a staple at Rolling Stones concerts. The B-side \"Through the Lonely Nights\" dates back to the previous year's \"Goats Head Soup\" sessions. A cover of \"Ain’t Too Proud to Beg,\" originally a 1966 hit by The Temptations, was released as the second single in the United States only, where it also became a top 20 hit. Its parent album appeared in October with brisk initial sales, reaching number two in the UK (breaking a string of number-one albums that stretched back to 1969's \"Let It Bleed\") and number one in the United States, where it eventually went platinum. Reviews were largely positive, with Jon Landau calling \"It's Only Rock ’n Roll\" \"one of the most intriguing and mysterious, as well as the darkest, of all Rolling Stones records.\" However rock critic Lester Bangs disparaged the album in \"The Village Voice\", much like \"Goats Head Soup\", saying, \"The Stones have become oblique in their old age, which is just another word for perverse except that perverse is the corniest concept extant as they realized at inception... \"Soup\" was friendly and safe. I want the edge and this album doesn't reassure me that I'll get it, what a curious situation to be stuck in, but maybe that's the beauty of the Stones, hah, hah, kid? This album is false. Numb. But it cuts like a dull blade. Are they doing the cutting, or are we?\" Author James Hector added that \"It's Only Rock ’n Roll\" was a definitive turning point for the band. \"The album marked the band’s decisive entry into a comfortable living as rock's elder statesmen. From this point on, their youth culture importance vanished, and there would be few musical surprises in the future.\" Hector concluded with \"On \"It's Only Rock ’n Roll\", the band had become what they imagined their mass audience desired them to be. They were wrong.\" Instead of immediately touring to promote the album, the band decided to head back into the Munich studios to record the next album, to Mick Taylor's disappointment and subsequent resignation from the band. A tour didn't happen until the following summer in the United States, the ‘Tour of the Americas '75’, with future member Ronnie Wood taking Taylor's place on guitar. The title track became a permanent staple of the band's live setlist, but apart from some performances of \"Ain’t Too Proud to Beg\" and \"If You Can’t Rock Me\" on the Licks Tour, none of the other tracks have been performed since 1977. As of 2006, \"Till The Next Goodbye,\" \"Time Waits For No-One,\" \"If You Really Want To Be My Friend\" and \"Short and Curlies\" had never been played live. In order to promote the album, music videos were filmed for several of the songs. The most commonly seen video from the album was the one for \"It’s Only Rock’n’Roll (But I Like It),\" featuring the band (in sailor suits) playing in a tent, which gradually fills with soap bubbles (Taylor is featured in the video but did not actually play on the recorded cut). Videos were also filmed for \"Ain’t Too Proud to Beg\" and \"Till The Next Goodbye.\" In 1994, \"It's Only Rock ’n Roll\" was remastered and reissued by Virgin Records, in 2009 by Universal Music, and once more in 2011 by Universal Music Enterprises in a Japanese-only SHM-SACD version. The 1994 remaster was initially released in a Collector's Edition CD, which replicated in miniature elements of the original vinyl album packaging. Two different versions of \"Luxury\" exist. A shorter version (4:30) is included on the early CD version from 1986, while the 5:01 version was originally released on vinyl in Europe, and on the 1994 and 2009 CD remasters. The difference is the shorter version starts the fadeout 30 seconds earlier, and thereby missing the short guitar solo at the end.", "The Rolling Stones Additional personnel Basic track on \"It's Only Rock 'n Roll (But I Like It)\" Production" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Career.", "Early work.", "1960s: \"The Graduate\" and \"Midnight Cowboy\".", "1970s: \"All the President's Men\", \"Kramer vs. Kramer\".", "1980s: \"Tootsie\", \"Death of a Salesman\", \"Rain Man\".", "1990s: Continued success.", "2000s: Commercial success, \"Kung Fu Panda\".", "2010s–present: Continued work.", "Filmography.", "Honors and legacy.", "Personal life.", "Marriage and relationships.", "Political activism.", "Cancer treatment.", "Sexual misconduct allegations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Dustin Lee Hoffman was born on August 8, 1937, in Los Angeles, California, the second son of Harry Hoffman (1908–87) and Lillian (née Gold; 1909–82). His father worked as a prop supervisor (set decorator) at Columbia Pictures before becoming a furniture salesman. Hoffman was named after stage and silent screen actor Dustin Farnum. His elder brother, Ronald, is a lawyer and economist. Hoffman is Jewish, from an Ashkenazi Jewish family of immigrants from Kiev, Russian Empire, and", "", "Hoffman initially hoped to become a classical pianist, having studied piano during much of his youth and in college. While at Santa Monica College, he also took an acting class, which he assumed would be easy, and \"caught the acting bug.\" He recalls: \"I just was not gifted in music. I did not have an ear.\" Now an aspiring actor, he spent the next ten years doing odd jobs, being unemployed, and struggling to get any available acting roles, a lifestyle he was later to portray in the film \"Tootsie\". He composed a song called \"Shooting the Breeze\", and Bette Midler wrote the words. His first acting role was at the Pasadena Playhouse, alongside future Academy Award–winner Gene Hackman. After two years there, Hackman headed for New York City, with Hoffman soon following. Hoffman, Hackman, and Robert Duvall lived together in the 1960s, all three of them focused on finding acting jobs. Hackman remembers, \"The idea", "In 1966 director Mike Nichols auditioned Hoffman for a lead role in the Broadway musical \"The Apple Tree\" but rejected him because he could not sing well enough and gave Alan Alda the part. But Nichols was so impressed with Hoffman's overall audition he cast him as the male lead in the movie \"The Graduate\" (1967). Hoffman played the character of Benjamin Braddock, who returns to his wealthy parents' home in California after graduating from college. Confused about what to do with his life, he is seduced into having an affair with Mrs. Robinson, an alcoholic and a neurotic, and the wife of his father's law partner. This was Hoffman's first major role, and he received an Academy Award nomination for it but lost to Rod Steiger \"In the Heat of the Night\". Although \"Life\" magazine joked that \"if Dustin", "This was followed by his role in \"Little Big Man\" (1970), where Jack Crabb, his character, ages from teenager to a 121-year-old man. The film was widely praised by critics, but was overlooked for an award except for a supporting nomination for Chief Dan George. Hoffman continued to appear in major films over the next few years. \"Who Is Harry Kellerman and Why Is He Saying Those Terrible Things About Me?\" (1971), \"Straw Dogs\" (also 1971), and \"Papillon\" (1973). Hoffman next starred in \"Lenny\" (1974), for which he was again nominated for Best Actor. \"Lenny\" was based on the life of stand-up comedian Lenny Bruce, who died at the age of 40, and was known for his open, free-style and critical form of comedy which integrated politics, religion, sex, and vulgarity. Expectations were high that Hoffman would win an Oscar for his portrayal, especially after his similar role in \"Midnight Cowboy.\" Film critic Katharine Lowry speculates that director Bob Fosse \"never gave him a chance\" to go far enough into developing the character. \"We never understand what, besides the drugs he injected, made him tick like a", "In \"Tootsie\" (1982), Hoffman portrays Michael Dorsey, a struggling actor who finds himself dressing up as a woman to land a role on a soap opera. His co-star was Jessica Lange. \"Tootsie\" earned ten Academy Award nominations, including Hoffman's fifth nomination. Under direction by Sydney Pollack, Hoffman's role demanded \"a steady bombardment of opposites—edgy then funny, romantic then realistic, soft then quivering.\" To film critic David Denby, Hoffman's character \"embodies vulnerability and drive in perfect proportion. He has the knack of making everything he does seem perilous, and so audiences feel protective of him and root for him.\" Hoffman's acting was made more difficult than necessary, however, as he was not given the rehearsal time Pollack promised: Fellow actor Gary Oldman reported that, during a telephone conversation with Hoffman, the latter recalled having made comments toward a \"very powerful\" industry figure who ensured that he was unable to find work in Hollywood for some time following \"Tootsie\". In 1983, Hoffman became a Major Donor", "In 1991, Hoffman voiced substitute teacher Mr. Bergstrom in \"The Simpsons\" episode \"Lisa's Substitute\", under the pseudonym Sam Etic. As a reference to this episode, during the the Itchy & Scratchy movie, Lisa claims that Dustin Hoffman had a cameo in that movie but didn't use his real name. Throughout the 1990s, Hoffman appeared in many large, studio films, such as \"Dick Tracy\" (1990) (where his \"Ishtar\" co-star Beatty plays the titular character), \"Hero\" (1992) and \"Billy Bathgate\" (1991) co-starring with Nicole Kidman (who was nominated for", "Hoffman next appeared in \"Moonlight Mile\" (2002), followed by \"Confidence\" (2003) opposite Edward Burns, Andy García and Rachel Weisz. Hoffman finally had a chance to work with Gene Hackman in Gary Fleder's \"Runaway Jury\" (also 2003), an adaptation of John Grisham's bestselling novel. Hoffman played theater owner Charles Frohman in the J. M. Barrie historical fantasia \"Finding Neverland\" (2004), costarring Johnny Depp and Kate Winslet. In director David O. Russell's \"I Heart Huckabees\" (also 2004), Hoffman appeared opposite Lily Tomlin as an existential detective team member. Seven years after his nomination for \"Wag the Dog\", Hoffman got another opportunity to perform again with Robert De Niro, co-starring with Barbra Streisand and Ben Stiller in the 2004 comedy \"Meet the Fockers\", a sequel to \"Meet the Parents\" (2000). Hoffman won the 2005 MTV Movie Award for Best Comedic Performance. In 2005, he voiced a horse in \"Racing Stripes\", and appeared in cameo roles in Andy García's \"The Lost City\" and on the final episode of HBO sitcom \"Curb Your Enthusiasm\"s", "He appears in \"Little Fockers\", the critically panned yet financially successful 2010 sequel to \"Meet the Fockers\". However, his character plays a significantly smaller role than in the previous installment. In 2011, Hoffman reprised his role as Master Shifu in the commercially and critically successful animated film \"Kung Fu Panda 2\". On the review aggregator site Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 81% based on 169 reviews, and an average rating of 6.9/10. The site's critical consensus reads, \"The storyline arc may seem a tad familiar to fans of the original, but Kung Fu Panda 2 offers enough action, comedy, and visual sparkle to compensate.\" On Metacritic the film has a weighted average score of 67 out of 100 based on 31 critics, indicating \"generally favorable reviews\". The film was a financial success making more money than the previous film, \"Kung Fu Panda\". The film made $666 million at the worldwide Box Office. The film was also nominated for the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature. In 2012, Hoffman's audiobook recording", "", "In 1999, Hoffman was honored by the American Film Institute’s who celebrated him with the 27th Life Achievement Award. Those who praised him and celebrated his work included, Edward Norton, Jon Voight, Goldie Hawn, Cuba Gooding Jr., and Kathy Bates. Jack Nicholson presented Hoffman with the award. Upon receiving the award he quoted the poet Emily Dickinson, “Not knowing when the dawn will come, I open the door\". In 2009, Hoffman received an Honorary Cesar Medal at the César Awards. In 2012, Dustin Hoffman received Kennedy Center Honors, with the following commendation: \"Dustin Hoffman's unyielding commitment", "", "Hoffman married Anne Byrne in May 1969. He adopted Karina (b. 1966), Byrne's child from a previous marriage, and with Byrne had daughter Jenna (born October 15, 1970). In 1970 Hoffman and Byrne were living in Greenwich Village in a building next door to a townhouse occupied at the time by members of the Weathermen, when a bomb was accidentally detonated in the townhouse's basement, killing three. In the 2002 documentary \"The", "A liberal, Hoffman has long supported the Democratic Party and Ralph Nader. In 1997 he was one of a number of Hollywood", "Hoffman was successfully", "In 2017, seven women accused Hoffman of sexual misconduct or assault.. A woman who was 17 at the time alleged that, while working as an intern on a TV production of \"Death of a Salesman\", Hoffman made inappropriate jokes and comments around her and asked her to give him foot massages. Hoffman released an apology to the 17 year-old intern who alleged harassment but denied wrongdoing, saying, \"I have the utmost respect for women and feel terrible that anything I might have done could have put her in an uncomfortable situation,\" continuing, \"I am sorry. It is not reflective of who I am.\" In December 2017, comedian John Oliver unexpectedly interrogated Hoffman about the allegations during the 20th anniversary screening of \"Wag the Dog\" at the 92nd Street Y. \"It's 'not reflective of who" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early years.", "Career.", "Personal life.", "Death." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Penn was born to a Russian Jewish family in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, the son of Sonia (Greenberg), a nurse, and Harry Penn, a watchmaker. He was the younger brother of Irving Penn, the successful fashion photographer. During his early years, he moved in with his mother after she divorced his father. Some time after, he came back to his sickly father, leading him to run his father's watch repair shop. At 19, he was drafted into the United States Army for service during World War II (1943-1946). While stationed in Britain, he became interested in theater. He started to direct and take part in shows being put on for the soldiers around England at the time. As Penn grew up, he became increasingly interested in film, especially after seeing the Orson Welles film \"Citizen Kane\". He later attended Black Mountain College in North Carolina, and was a featured commentator in the documentary \"Fully Awake\" about the college.", "After making a name for himself as a director of quality television dramas, Penn made his feature debut with a western, \"The Left Handed Gun\" (1958) for Warner Brothers. A retelling of the Billy the Kid legend, it was distinguished by Paul Newman's sharp portrayal of the outlaw as a psychologically troubled youth (the role was originally intended for the archetypal portrayer of troubled teens, James Dean). The production completed in only 23 days, but Warner Brothers reedited the film against his wishes with a new ending he disapproved of. The film subsequently failed upon release in North America, but was well received in Europe. Penn's second film was \"The Miracle Worker\" (1962), the story of Anne Sullivan's struggle to teach the blind and deaf Helen Keller how to communicate. It garnered two Academy Awards for its leads Anne Bancroft and Patty Duke. Penn had won a Tony Award for directing the stage production, written by William Gibson, also starring Bancroft and Duke, and he had directed Bancroft's Broadway debut in playwright Gibson's first Broadway production, \"Two for the Seesaw\". Penn began working on \"The Train\" in France in June and August 1963 when star Burt Lancaster had Penn fired after three days of Penn's filming and called on John Frankenheimer to take over the film. In 1965 Penn directed \"Mickey One\". Heavily influenced by the French New Wave, it was the dreamlike story of a standup comedian (played by Warren Beatty) on the run from sinister, ambiguous forces. In 2010, Penn commented: \"You know, you could not have gone through the Second World War with all that nonsense with Russia being an ally and then being the big black monster. It was an absurd time. The McCarthy period was ridiculous and humiliating, deeply humiliating. When I finally did 'Mickey One', it was in repudiation of the kind of fear that overtook free people to the point where they were telling on each other and afraid to speak out. It just astonished me, really astonished me. I mean, I was a vet, so it was nothing like what we thought we were fighting for.\" Penn's next film was \"The Chase\" (1966) a thriller following events in a small corrupt Southern town on the day an escaped convict, played by Robert Redford, returns. Although not a major success, \"The Chase\" nonetheless caught the mood of the turbulent times, a'state of the nation' tale of racism, corruption and the violence endemic in American society. Also that year, he directed the stage version of the thriller \"Wait Until Dark\" starring Lee Remick and Robert Duvall. He reunited with Warren Beatty for the gangster film \"Bonnie and Clyde\" (1967). The film went on to become a worldwide phenomenon. It was strongly influenced by the French New Wave and itself went on to make a huge impression on a younger generation of filmmakers. Indeed, there was a strong resurgence in the \"love on the run\" subgenre in the wake of \"Bonnie and Clyde,\" peaking with \"Badlands\" (1973; in which Penn received acknowledgement in the credits). At the time he had completed \"Bonnie and Clyde\", Penn was residing in Stockbridge, Massachusetts, when he heard a story of a large-scale littering incident that had happened in the town two years prior. He contacted Arlo Guthrie and not only received permission to adapt his song \"Alice's Restaurant Massacree\" into a film, but also secured Guthrie's participation as well as several other Stockbridge town residents while also filming in many of the same locations where the events took place. The film \"Alice's Restaurant\" was released in 1969. His next film after this was a return to the western genre, \"Little Big Man\" (1970), a \"shaggy dog\" account of the life of a white man (played by Dustin Hoffman) who gets adopted into the Cheyenne tribe. In 1973 Penn provided a segment for a promotional film for the Olympics, \"Visions of Eight\" along with several other major directors such as John Schlesinger and Miloš Forman. His next film was a paranoid thriller set in Los Angeles, \"Night Moves\" (1975) about a private detective (played by Gene Hackman) on the trail of a runaway. Next came a comic western, \"The Missouri Breaks\" (1976), a ramshackle, eccentric story of a horse thief (Jack Nicholson) facing off with an eccentric bounty hunter (played by Marlon Brando). In the 1980s, Penn's career began to lose its momentum with critics and audiences: \"Four Friends\" (1981) was a traumatic look back at the 1960s, returning to the old themes of Vietnam, civil rights, sexual politics, and drugs. Next came \"Target\" (1985), a mainstream thriller reuniting the director with Gene Hackman, and \"Dead of Winter\" (1987), a horror/thriller in the style of Alfred Hitchcock, which he took over directing during production. Subsequently, Penn returned to work in television, including an executive producer role for the crime series \"Law & Order\". Throughout the years, Penn had maintained an affiliation with Yale University, occasionally teaching classes there.", "In 1955, he married actress Peggy Maurer. They had two children, a son, Matthew Penn and a daughter, Molly Penn. In July 2009, Penn was hospitalized with pneumonia. In July 2010, Penn reflected on his life and career, including his relationship with Alger Hiss:", "Penn died in Manhattan, on September 28, 2010, a day after his 88th birthday from congestive heart failure." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Club career.", "Early career.", "Deportivo La Coruña.", "Bayern Munich.", "Feyenoord.", "International career.", "Coaching career.", "Honours.", "Club." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "", "He was first recognized as a talented striker while playing for Vitesse in the mid-1990s and honed his skills at the Spanish First Division with Tenerife and later with Deportivo La Coruña.", "In July 1999, Makaay was signed by Deportivo La Coruña from Tenerife for a transfer fee of PTAS10 million. He made his league debut on 22 August 1999 in the opening game of the season, where he scored a hat-trick to give Deportivo a 4–1 home victory over Alavés. Makaay scored a total of 22 goals in 36 appearances in the 1999–2000 season, including in their final match against Espanyol to inspire the Galician club to their first La Liga title. Makaay was an unused substitute as Dépor reached the 2002 Copa del Rey Final on 6 March 2002; Deportivo lifted the trophy for the second time in their history with a 2–1 victory over Real Madrid. He was the European Golden Boot winner for the 2002–03 season with his 29 goals making him the top scorer in Europe. His first encounter with Bayern Munich came during the 2002–03 UEFA Champions League season when he scored a hat-trick at the Olympiastadion in Munich, in Deportivo's 3–2 win over the Bavarians on 19 September 2002.", "Bayern Munich kept a close eye on Makaay throughout the whole season and finally beat off stiff challenges from Manchester United and Chelsea to get their man. A then club record fee of €18.75 million was paid to Deportivo in November 2003 to sign him. He scored 78 Bundesliga and 17 UEFA Champions League goals during his four seasons at Bayern. On 29 September 2004, he scored a hat-trick in a 4–0 Champions League group stage win over Ajax, putting him in a select group of players to have scored a Champions League hat-trick at two clubs. On 21 August 2006, Makaay scored Bayern Munich's 3,000th Bundesliga goal. On 31 March 2007, he scored his 100th Bayern Munich goal in the game against FC Schalke 04. It was his 75th Bundesliga goal and 100th competitive goal since joining Bayern Munich in 2003. On 7 March 2007, Makaay scored the quickest goal in Champions League history, finding the net after just 10.12 seconds to help Bayern overturn a first-leg deficit and put Real Madrid out of the competition at the round of sixteen. Madrid kicked off but Roberto Carlos failed to control the backpass, allowing Bayern's Hasan Salihamidžić to steal the ball and feed it to Makaay who tapped it past goalkeeper Iker Casillas.", "Makaay returned to the Netherlands for the 2007–08 season, when Feyenoord signed him to a three-year deal worth €5 million in June 2007. Makaay's decision to leave was influenced by Bayern Munich's decision to sign forwards Luca Toni and Miroslav Klose. In his first season at the Feyenoord, Makaay was instrumental in leading Feyenoord to their eleventh KNVB Cup title, scoring 7 goals in 5 matches. Makaay retired at the end of the 2009–10 season, scoring a hat-trick in his last match against Heerenveen.", "Makaay scored 15 times for the Dutch U-21 national team, which was a record shared with Arnold Bruggink, before Klaas-Jan Huntelaar eclipsed their tally in 2006. His international caps for the Dutch national team were limited due to players such as Patrick Kluivert, Dennis Bergkamp and Ruud van Nistelrooy. Makaay was, however, capped for his country at Euro 2000 and Euro 2004. In the latter tournament, he scored against Latvia in the first round. In 2008, Makaay was chosen as one of three overage players to represent the Netherlands at the Olympics, where he captained the side to a quarter-final defeat to eventual champions Argentina.", "After his retirement he was named as a youth coach for the academy of Feyenoord. Alongside this, he was also working as forward coach for the club, both with the first team and youth teams. In May 2013, the club confirmed that – after as successful year with the C1 team – Makaay would take charge of the U19's for the upcoming season.", "", "Deportivo La Coruña Bayern Munich Feyenoord <br" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "The XSL family.", "XSL Transformations.", "XSL Formatting Objects.", "XPath." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "XSL began as an attempt to bring the functionality of DSSSL, particularly in the area of print and high-end typesetting, to XML. In response to a submission from Arbortext, Inso, and Microsoft, a W3C working group on \"XSL\" started operating in December 1997, with Sharon Adler and Steve Zilles as co-chairs, with James Clark acting as editor (and unofficially as chief designer), and Chris Lilley as the W3C staff contact. The group released a first public Working Draft on 18 August 1998. XSLT and XPath became W3C Recommendations on 16 November 1999 and XSL-FO reached Recommendation status on 15 October 2001.", "", "XSL Transformations (XSLT) has many implementations available. Several web browsers, including Internet Explorer (using the MSXML engine), Opera (native engine) and Safari, all support transformation of XML to HTML (or other languages) through XSLT. Other notable implementations include Saxon and Xalan. Support in Firefox, Mozilla, and Netscape (all using the TransforMiiX engine) is incomplete. Support of disable-output-escaping does not work which is why HTML Fragments are not rendered properly. This bug is known since 2001 https://bugzilla.mozilla.org/show_bug.cgi?id=98168.", "Support for XSL Formatting Objects is available in a number of products: These products support output in a number of file formats, to varying degrees:", "XML Path Language (XPath), itself part of the XSL family, functions within XSLT as a means of navigating an XML document. Another W3C project, XQuery, aims to provide similar capabilities for querying XML documents using XPath." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Duties and functions.", "History.", "Early history.", "Early ambulance services.", "Prehospital emergency medical care.", "Public notability.", "Evolution and growth.", "Canada.", "Israel.", "United Kingdom.", "United States.", "Ukraine.", "Structure of employment.", "Paramedic skills.", "Common skills.", "Emergency Pharmacology.", "Skills by certification level.", "Medicolegal authority." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The paramedic role is closely related to other healthcare positions, especially the emergency medical technician role, with paramedics often being a higher grade role, with more responsibility and autonomy. The role of a paramedic varies widely across the world, as EMS providers operate with many different models of care. In the Anglo-American model, paramedics are autonomous decision-makers. In some countries such as the United Kingdom and South Africa, the paramedic role has developed into an autonomous health profession. In the Franco-German model, ambulance care is led by physicians. In some versions of this model, such as France, there is no direct equivalent to a paramedic. Ambulance staff have either the more advanced qualifications of a physician or less advanced training in first aid. In other versions of the Franco-German model, such as Germany, paramedics do exist. Their role is to support a physician in the field, in a role more akin to a hospital nurse, rather than operating with clinical autonomy. The development of the profession has been a gradual move from simply transporting patients to hospital, to more advanced treatments in the field. In some countries, the paramedic may take on the role as part of a system to prevent hospitalisation entirely and, through practitioners, are able to prescribe certain medications, or undertaking'see and refer' visits, where the paramedic directly refers a patient to specialist services without taking them to hospital.", "", "Throughout the evolution of pre-hospitalisation care, there has been an ongoing association with military conflict. One of the first indications of a formal process for managing injured people dates from the Imperial Legions of Rome, where aging Centurions, no longer able to fight, were given the task of organizing the removal of the wounded from the battlefield and providing some form of care. Such individuals, although not physicians, were probably among the world's earliest surgeons by default, being required to suture wounds and complete amputations. A similar situation existed in the Crusades, with the Knights Hospitaller of the Order of St. John of Jerusalem filling a similar function; this organisation continued, and evolved into what is now known throughout the Commonwealth of Nations as the St. John Ambulance and as the Order of Malta Ambulance Corps in the Republic of Ireland and various countries.", "While civilian communities had organized ways to deal with prehospitalisation care and transportation of the sick and dying as far back as the bubonic plague in London between 1598 and 1665, such arrangements were typically \"ad hoc\" and temporary. In time, however, these arrangements began to formalize and become permanent. During the American Civil War, Jonathan Letterman devised a system of mobile field hospitals employing the first uses of the principles of triage. After returning home, some veterans began to attempt to apply what had they had seen on the battlefield to their own communities, and commenced the creation of volunteer life-saving squads and ambulance corps. These early developments in formalized ambulance services were decided at local levels, and this led to services being provided by diverse operators such as the local hospital, police, fire brigade, or even funeral directors who often possessed the only local transport allowing a passenger to lie down. In most cases these ambulances were operated by drivers and attendants with little or no medical training, and it was some time before formal training began to appear in some units. An early example was the members of the Toronto Police Ambulance Service receiving a mandatory five days of training from St. John as early as 1889. Prior to World War I motorized ambulances started to be developed, but once they proved their effectiveness on the battlefield during the war the concept spread rapidly to civilian systems. In terms of advanced skills, once again the military led the way. During World War II and the Korean War battlefield medics administered painkilling narcotics by injection in emergency situations, and pharmacists' mates on warships were permitted to do even more without the guidance of a physician. The Korean War also marked the first widespread use of helicopters to evacuate the wounded from forward positions to medical units, leading to the rise of the term \"medivac\". These innovations would not find their way into the civilian sphere for nearly twenty more years.", "By the early 1960s experiments in improving medical care had begun in some civilian centres. One early experiment involved the provision of pre-hospital cardiac care by physicians in Belfast, Northern Ireland, in 1966. This was repeated in Toronto, Canada in 1968 using a single ambulance called \"Cardiac One\", which was staffed by a regular ambulance crew, along with a hospital intern to perform the advanced procedures. While both of these experiments had certain levels of success, the technology had not yet reached a sufficiently advanced level to be fully effective; for example, the Toronto portable defibrillator and heart monitor was powered by lead-acid car batteries, and weighed around. In 1966, a report called \"Accidental Death and Disability: The Neglected Disease of Modern Society\"—commonly known as \"The White Paper\"—was published in the United States. This paper presented data showing that soldiers who were seriously wounded on the battlefields during the Vietnam War had a better survival rate than individuals who were seriously injured in motor vehicle accidents on California's freeways. Key factors contributing to victim survival in transport to definitive care such as a hospital were identified as comprehensive trauma care, rapid transport to designated trauma facilities, and the presence of medical corpsmen who were trained to perform certain critical advanced medical procedures such as fluid replacement and airway management. As a result of \"The White Paper\", the US government moved to develop minimum standards for ambulance training, ambulance equipment and vehicle design. These new standards were incorporated into Federal Highway Safety legislation and the states were advised to either adopt these standards into state laws or risk a reduction in Federal highway safety funding. The \"White Paper\" also prompted the inception of a number of emergency medical service (EMS) pilot units across the US including paramedic programs. The success of these units led to a rapid transition to make them fully operational. New York City's Saint Vincent's Hospital developed the United States' first Mobile Coronary Care Unit (MCCU) under the medical direction of William Grace, MD, and based on Frank Pantridge's MCCU project in Belfast, Northern Ireland. In 1967, Eugene Nagle, MD and Jim Hirschmann, MD helped pioneer the United States' first EKG telemetry transmission to a hospital and then in 1968, a functional paramedic program in conjunction with the City of Miami Fire Department. In 1969, the City of Columbus Fire Services joined together with the Ohio State University Medical Center to develop the \"HEARTMOBILE\" paramedic program under the medical direction of James Warren, MD and Richard Lewis, MD. In 1969, the Haywood County (NC) Volunteer Rescue Squad developed a paramedic program (then called Mobile Intensive Care Technicians) under the medical direction of Ralph Feichter, MD. In 1969, the initial Los Angeles paramedic training program was instituted in conjunction with Harbor General Hospital, now Harbor–UCLA Medical Center, under the medical direction of J. Michael Criley, MD and James Lewis, MD. In 1969, the Seattle \"Medic 1\" paramedic program was developed in conjunction with the Harborview Medical Center under the medical direction of Leonard Cobb, MD. The Marietta (GA) initial paramedic project was instituted in the Fall of 1970 in conjunction with Kennestone Hospital and Metro Ambulance Service, Inc. under the medical direction of Luther Fortson, MD. The Los Angeles County and City established paramedic programs following the passage of \"The Wedsworth-Townsend Act\" in 1970. Other cities and states passed their own paramedic bills, leading to the formation of services across the US. Many other countries also followed suit, and paramedic units formed around the world. In the military, however, the required telemetry and miniaturization technologies were more advanced, particularly due to initiatives such as the space program. It would take several more years before these technologies drifted through to civilian applications. In North America, physicians were judged to be too expensive to be used in the pre-hospital setting, although such initiatives were implemented, and sometimes still operate, in European countries and Latin America.", "While doing background research at Los Angeles' UCLA Harbor Medical Center for a proposed new show about doctors, television producer Robert A. Cinader, working for Jack Webb, happened to encounter \"firemen who spoke like doctors and worked with them\". This concept developed into the television series \"Emergency!\", which ran from 1972 to 1977, portraying the exploits of this new profession called paramedics. The show gained popularity with emergency services personnel, the medical community, and the general public. When the show first aired in 1972, there were just six paramedic units operating in three pilot programs in the whole of the US, and the term paramedic was essentially unknown. By the time the program ended in 1977, there were paramedics operating in all fifty states. The show's technical advisor, James O. Page, was a pioneer of paramedicine and responsible for the UCLA paramedic program; he would go on to help establish paramedic programs throughout the US, and was the founding publisher of the \"Journal of Emergency Medical Services\" (\"JEMS\"). The \"JEMS\" magazine creation resulted from Page's previous purchase of the \"PARAMEDICS International\" magazine. Ron Stewart, the show's medical director, was instrumental in organizing emergency health services in southern California earlier in his career during the 1970s, in the paramedic program in Pittsburgh, and had a substantial role in the founding of the paramedic programs in Toronto and Nova Scotia, Canada.", "Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, the paramedic field continued to evolve, with a shift in emphasis from patient transport to treatment both on scene and en route to hospitals. This led to some services changing their descriptions from \"ambulance services\" to \"emergency medical services\". The training, knowledge-base, and skill sets of both paramedics and emergency medical technicians (EMTs) were typically determined by local medical directors based primarily on the perceived needs of the community along with affordability. There were also large differences between localities in the amount and type of training required, and how it would be provided. This ranged from in-service training in local systems, through community colleges, and up to university level education. This emphasis on increasing qualifications has followed the progression of other health professions such as nursing, which also progressed from on the job training to university level qualifications. The variations in educational approaches and standards required for paramedics has led to large differences in the required qualifications between locations—both within individual countries and from country to country. Within the UK training is a three-year course equivalent to a bachelor's degree. Comparisons have been made between Paramedics and nurses; with nurses now requiring degree entry (BSc) the knowledge deficit is large between the two fields. This has led to many countries passing laws to protect the title of \"paramedic\" (or its local equivalent) from use by anyone except those qualified and experienced to a defined standard. This usually means that paramedics must be registered with the appropriate body in their country; for example all paramedics in the United Kingdom must by registered with the Health and Care Professions Council (HCPC) in order to call themselves a paramedic. In the United States, a similar system is operated by the National Registry of Emergency Medical Technicians (NREMT), although this is only accepted by forty of the fifty states. As paramedicine has evolved, a great deal of both the curriculum and skill set has existed in a state of flux. Requirements often originated and evolved at the local level, and were based upon the preferences of physician advisers and medical directors. Recommended treatments would change regularly, often changing more like a fashion than a scientific discipline. Associated technologies also rapidly evolved and changed, with medical equipment manufacturers having to adapt equipment that worked adequately outside of hospitals, to be able to cope with the less controlled pre-hospital environment. Physicians began to take more interest in paramedics from a research perspective as well. By about 1990, the fluctuating trends began to diminish, being replaced by outcomes-based research. This research then drove further evolution of the practice of both paramedics and the emergency physicians who oversaw their work, with changes to procedures and protocols occurring only after significant research demonstrated their need and effectiveness (an example being ALS). Such changes affected everything from simple procedures such as CPR, to changes in drug protocols. As the profession grew, some paramedics went on to become not just research participants, but researchers in their own right, with their own projects and journal publications. In 2010, the American Board of Emergency Medicine created a medical subspecialty for physicians who work in emergency medical services. Changes in procedures also included the manner in which the work of paramedics was overseen and managed. In the early days medical control and oversight was direct and immediate, with paramedics calling into a local hospital and receiving orders for every individual procedure or drug. While this still occurs in some jurisdictions, it has become increasingly rare. Day-to-day operations largely moved from direct and immediate medical control to pre-written protocols or standing orders, with the paramedic typically seeking advice after the options in the standing orders had been exhausted.", "While the evolution of paramedicine described above is focused largely on the US, many other countries followed a similar pattern, although often with significant variations. Canada, for example, attempted a pilot paramedic training program at Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, in 1972. The program, which intended to upgrade the then mandatory 160 hours of training for ambulance attendants, was found to be too costly and premature. The program was abandoned after two years, and it was more than a decade before the legislative authority for its graduates to practice was put into place. An alternative program which provided 1,400 hours of training at the community college level prior to commencing employment was then tried, and made mandatory in 1977, with formal certification examinations being introduced in 1978. Similar programs occurred at roughly the same time in Alberta and British Columbia, with other Canadian provinces gradually following, but with their own education and certification requirements. Advanced Care Paramedics were not introduced until 1984, when Toronto trained its first group internally, before the process spread across the country. By 2010 the Ontario system involved a two-year community college based program, including both hospital and field clinical components, prior to designation as a Primary Care Paramedic, although it is starting to head towards a university degree-based program. The province of Ontario announced that by September 2021, the entry level primary care paramedic post-secondary program would be enhanced from a two year diploma to a three year advanced diploma in primary care paramedicine. Resultantly, advanced care paramedics in Ontario will require a minimum of four years of post-secondary education and critical care paramedics will require five years of post-secondary education.", "In Israel, paramedics are trained in either of the following ways: a three-year degree in Emergency Medicine (B.EMS), a year and three months IDF training, or MADA training. Paramedics manage and provide medical guidelines in mass casualty incidents. They operate in MED evac and ambulances. They are legalized under the 1976 Doctors Ordinance (Decree). In a 2016 study at the Ben Gurion University of the Negev it was found that 73% of trained paramedics stop working within a five-year period, and 93% stop treating within 10 years.", "In the United Kingdom, ambulances were originally municipal services after the end of World War II. Training was frequently conducted internally, although national levels of coordination led to more standardization of staff training. Ambulance services were merged into county-level agencies in 1974, and then into regional agencies in 2006. The regional ambulance services, most often trusts, are under the authority of the National Health Service and there is now a significant standardization of training and skills. The UK model has three levels of ambulance staff. In increasing order of clinical skill these are: emergency care assistants, ambulance technicians and paramedics. The original route to becoming a paramedic was to join an NHS ambulance service and work towards the position from non-emergency patient transport roles through to the emergency division as a Qualified Ambulance Man/Woman and after qualifying those who wanted to increase their knowledge and skills joined the Association of Emergency Medical Technicians. This was an organisation run by members to promote and train Paramedics. The AEMT was supported by BASICS and large numbers of hospital doctors. Training took place at various locations in members off duty time and at their expense. Trainees followed a wide academic curriculum which led to a written exam. If successful they became Associates and entered the clinical phase of training. Attending hospitals they were trained in all the practical skills. The final examination was designed to put as much pressure on the candidate as possible. The hospital consultant would sign to say that he was happy for a passing candidate to treat their family. In the early to mid 1980s some ambulance service training departments started offering advanced skill training. In 1986 the NHSTA introduced the certificate in Extended Ambulance Aid. Existing AEMT Paramedics were forced to sit a conversion examination. The curriculum for the new qualification was substantially smaller cutting out a lot of anatomy and physiology as well as pharmacology and obstetrics. In November 1986 the examinations took place with the first certificates issued alphabetically. The candidate with highest score received certificate 177 and was the only Paramedic at Huntingdon. Training was introduced the following year but due to costs the time was kept to a minimum. The AEMT folded in the 1990s as the training offered was no longer recognised by the ambulance services. Equipment owned by the branches was given to hospitals. The NHS Training Authority, NHSTA, (which became the NHS Training Directorate and then the NHS Training Division, which in turn became the Institute of Health and Care Development. The Institute was acquired by the Edexcel examination board in 1998, and Edexcel was acquired by Pearson in 2004. Pearson continued to operate the IHCD 'brand' until 2016. This 'in-house' paramedic training was a modular programme, usually between 10 and 12 weeks, followed by time spent in a hospital emergency department, coronary care centre and operating theatre, assisting the anaesthetist and performing airway management techniques such as endotracheal intubation. Completion of the course allowed the paramedic to register with the Council for Professions Supplementary to Medicine (CPSM), which was superseded by the Health and Care Professions Council (HCPC), a regulatory body. It is worth noting that this route also took around 3 years if undertaken as quickly as possible. After the non emergency training, initially an 8 week clinical technician course was undertaken, with 750 mentored hours. Staff usually had to be a qualified technician for 2 years before applying for paramedic training noted above, a further 750 hours mentored had to be undertaken to complete the paramedic course to practice and demonstrate the skills learnt during the hospital placements and residential course. Prior to regulation and closure of the title, the term \"paramedic\" was used by a variety of people with varying levels of ability. Paramedics could apply to register via a grandfather scheme which ended in 2002. However, university qualifications are expected for paramedics, with the entry level being an Honours Bachelor of Science degree in Pre-Hospital Care or Paramedic Science. As the title \"Paramedic\" is legally protected, those utilising must be registered with the Health and Care Professions Council (HCPC), and in order to qualify for registration you must meet the standards for registration, which include having a degree obtained through an approved course. It is not uncommon for paramedics to have Master degrees in Advanced practice or Paramedic practice and is indeed a requisite for paramedic prescribing. Paramedics work in various settings including NHS and Independent Ambulance Providers, Air Ambulances, Emergency Departments and other alternative settings. Some paramedics have gone on to become \"Paramedic Practitioners\", a role that practices independently in the pre-hospital environment in a capacity similar to that of a nurse practitioner, but with more of an acute care orientation, and \"Critical Care Paramedics\" who specialise in acute emergency incidents. In 2018, the UK government changed legislation allowing Paramedics to independently prescribe, which will open new pathways to Paramedics to progress into. This came into force on 1 April 2018, but did not immediately affect practice as guidance was still being written.", "In the United States, the minimum standards for paramedic training is considered vocational, but many two-year colleges offer a paramedic associate degree option. Paramedic education programs typically follow the U.S. NHTSA EMS Curriculum, DOT or National Registry of EMTs. While many regionally accredited community colleges offer paramedic programs and two-year associate degrees, a handful of universities also offer a four-year bachelor's degree component. The national standard course minimum requires didactic and clinical hours for a paramedic program of 1,500 or more hours of classroom training and 500+ clinical hours to be accredited and nationally recognized. Calendar length typically varies from 12 months to upwards of two years, excluding degree options, EMT training, work experience, and prerequisites. It is required to be a certified Emergency Medical Technician prior to starting paramedic training. Entry requirements vary, but many paramedic programs also have prerequisites such as one year required work experience on an ambulance, or anatomy and physiology courses from an accredited college or university. Paramedics in some states must attend up to 50+ hours of ongoing education, plus maintain Basic Cardiac Life Support and Advanced Cardiac Life Support. National Registry requires 70 + hours to maintain its certification or one may re-certify through completing the written computer based adaptive testing again (between 90-120 questions) every two years. Paramedicine continues to grow and evolve into a formal profession in its own right, complete with its own standards and body of knowledge, and in many locations paramedics have formed their own professional bodies. The early technicians with limited training, performing a small and specific set of procedures, has become a role beginning to require a foundation degree in countries such as Australia, South Africa, the UK, and increasingly in Canada and parts of the U.S. such as Oregon, where a degree is required for entry level practice.", "As a part of Emergency Medicine Reform in 2017 Ministry of Healthcare introduced two specialties — \"paramedic\" and \"emergency medical technician\". A paramedic is a person with at least junior bachelor degree in \"Healthcare\" field. For a person with basic nine-year school education, the term of training is four years (junior bachelor degree equvivalent); with 11 years of schooling - two years for junior bachelor or 3-4 years for bachelor degrees.", "Paramedics are employed by a variety of different organizations, and the services they provide may occur under differing organizational structures, depending on the part of the world. A new and evolving role for paramedics involves the expansion of their practice into the provision of relatively basic primary health care and assessment services. Some paramedics have begun to specialize their practice, frequently in association with the environment in which they will work. Some early examples of this involved aviation medicine and the use of helicopters, and the transfer of critical care patients between facilities. While some jurisdictions still use physicians, nurses, and technicians for transporting patients, increasingly this role falls to specialized senior and experienced paramedics. Other areas of specialization include such roles as tactical paramedics working in police units, marine paramedics, hazardous materials (Hazmat) teams, Heavy Urban Search and Rescue, and paramedics on offshore oil platforms, oil and mineral exploration teams, and in the military. The majority of paramedics are employed by the emergency medical service for their area, although this employer could itself be working under a number of models, including a specific autonomous public ambulance service, a fire department, a hospital based service, or a private company working under contract. In Washington, firefighters have been offered free paramedic training. There are also many paramedics who volunteer for backcountry or wilderness rescue teams, and small town rescue squads. In the specific case of an ambulance service being maintained by a fire department, paramedics and EMTs may be required to maintain firefighting and rescue skills as well as medical skills, and vice versa. In some instances, such as Los Angeles County, a fire department may provide emergency medical services, but as a rapid response or rescue unit rather than a transport ambulance. The provision of municipal ambulance services and paramedics, can vary by area, even within the same country or state. For instance, in Canada, the province of British Columbia operates a province-wide service (the British Columbia Ambulance Service) whereas in Ontario, the service is provided by each municipality, either as a distinct service, linked to the fire service, or contracted out to a third party.", "", "While there are varying degrees of training and expectations around the world, a set of skills practiced by paramedics in the pre-hospital setting includes:", "Paramedics carry and administer a wide array of emergency medications. The specific medications they are permitted to administer vary widely, based on local standards of care and legal restrictions, and physician or medical director preferences. For an accurate description of permitted drugs or procedures in a given location, it is necessary to contact that jurisdiction directly. A representative list of medications may commonly include: , pethidine, fentanyl, and methoxyflurane, used to treat severe pain, such as with burns and fractures", "As described above, many jurisdictions have different levels of paramedic training, leading to variations in what procedures different paramedics may perform depending upon their qualifications. Three common general divisions of paramedic training are the basic technician, general paramedic or advanced technician, and advanced paramedic. Common skills that these three certification levels may practice are summarized in the table below. The skills for the higher levels automatically also assume those listed for lower levels.", "The medicolegal framework for paramedics is highly dependent on the overall structure of emergency medical services in the territory where they are working. In many localities, paramedics operate as a direct extension of a physician medical director and practice as an extension of the medical director's license. In the United States, a physician delegates authority under an individual state's Medical Practice Act. This gives a paramedic the ability to practice within limited scope of practice in law, along with state DOH guidelines and medical control oversight. The authority to practice in this manner is granted in the form of standing orders (protocols) (off-line medical control) and direct physician consultation via phone or radio (on-line medical control). Under this paradigm, paramedics effectively assume the role of out-of-hospital field agents to regional emergency physicians, with independent clinical decision. In places where paramedics are recognised health care professionals registered with an appropriate body, they can conduct all procedures authorised for their profession, including the administration of prescription medication, and are personally answerable to a regulator. For example, in the United Kingdom, the Health and Care Professions Council regulates paramedics and can censure or strike a paramedic from the register. In some cases paramedics may gain further qualifications to extend their status to that of a paramedic practitioner or advanced paramedic, which may allow them to administer a wider range of drugs and use a wider range of clinical skills. In some areas, paramedics are only permitted to practice many advanced skills while assisting a physician who is physically present, except for immediately life-threatening emergencies." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Naming.", "Ship's seal.", "Description.", "Hull.", "Island.", "Air operations.", "Environmental.", "Electronics and communications.", "History.", "Construction.", "Commissioning.", "Delivery and shakedown.", "Maiden deployment.", "2012.", "2013.", "2014.", "2017.", "2018.", "2019." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "George H. W. Bush became the U.S. Navy's youngest pilot when he received his Naval Aviator wings and naval commission on 9 June 1943, three days before turning 19. He flew torpedo bombers off on active duty from August 1943 to September 1945 during World War II. On 2 September 1944, during a mission over the Pacific, Japanese anti-aircraft fire hit his plane. The Navy submarine rescued him. He was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross and three Air Medals for courageous service in the Pacific Theater. USS \"George H.W. Bush\" is the second United States aircraft carrier to be named after a naval aviator ( was the first) and the second, following, to be named after a then living former president (\"Ronald Reagan\" was christened in 2001 while Reagan was still alive).", "Each element of the seal is significant for its relevance to the ship's namesake, naval aviation, naval service, and the nation. There are six prominent features of the seal, beginning with the 41 white stars, symbolizing the ship's namesake (the 41st president). The rays of light that appear on the seal's horizon represent Bush's concept of a \"thousand points of light\", wherein he urged Americans to find meaning and reward by serving a purpose higher than themselves. The graphic depiction of the aircraft carrier reflects the carrier, as both a symbol and instrument of American strength as a force for freedom. Above the carrier are the overhead profiles of a TBM Avenger torpedo bomber (representing Bush's days as a Navy pilot), an F/A-18 Hornet strike fighter, and an F-35C Lightning II, superimposed one upon the other in reverse chronological order of the individual aircraft's service entry date, and in diminishing scale so each outline is contained within that of the newer aircraft. Fouled anchors and shields, centered on naval aviators wings, honor the ship's namesake's aviation history. Finally, the motto \"Freedom at Work\" is adapted from Bush's inaugural speech, during which he said, \"We know what works: Freedom works. We know what’s right: Freedom is right.\"", "\"George H.W. Bush\" measures and displaces over 100,000 tons, making her one of the world's largest warships (though she is slightly shorter than ). Her top speed exceeds 30 knots; powered with two nuclear reactors, she can operate for more than 20 years without refueling. Several features differentiate CVN-77 from other ships in the \"Nimitz\" class.", "New features include a bulbous bow design that provides more buoyancy to the forward end of the ship and improves hull efficiency, curved flight deck edges to reduce radar signature, a new underwater hull coating system, deck modernized coverings to reduce ship weight by 100 tons, low solar absorptive and anti-stain paint, a less cluttered hangar bay, and a new propeller design.", "\"George H.W. Bush\" is the second carrier to have a modernized island, which includes a new radar tower (enclosed to reduce radar signature), navigation system upgrades, communication systems enhancements, and armored windows. The island is smaller and has been repositioned further aft to improve flight deck access and reduce signature and electronic self-interference.", "New air operations design features include an updated aviation fuel storage and distribution system, semi-automated refueling and servicing with new deck locations to provide faster, more efficient aircraft pit stops, requiring fewer people, modernized aircraft launch, and recovery equipment, and redesigned jet blast deflectors.", "Environmental upgrades have also been designed into the ship, including a vacuum collection/marine sanitation device (VC/MSD), a new marine sewage system that uses sea water in lieu of fresh water for lower maintenance costs. Many older ships in the U.S. Navy utilize a gravity-driven collection holding and transfer (CHT) system to handle sewage waste. Newer U.S. Navy ships, including now CVN-77, collect sewage waste by vacuum, allowing for greater flexibility in piping installation, smaller pipe sizes overall and reducing water consumption. The collection tanks of \"George H.W. Bush\" were modified to accommodate both the VCHT (Vacuum CHT) equipment and the elements of a marine sanitization device to treat the waste prior to discharge. \"George H.W. Bush\" is the only aircraft carrier in the U.S. Navy to combine the two technologies. This new VC/MSD driven waste management system has, however, not been without problems. Reports began surfacing immediately after delivery in May 2009 of issues with the ship's toilet system. As of November 2011, the entire system has gone down at least twice, rendering all 423 commodes in the ship's 130 heads inoperable, with many more incidents that have rendered either half of the ship, or sections of the ship, without operating sanitary facilities. In one ship-wide incident, a repair crew spent 35 non-stop hours attempting to return the system to working order. The system is said to suffer breakdowns when inappropriate materials such as feminine hygiene products are flushed down the toilets. During a four-month maintenance period in the dock in 2012, anti-clog measures were installed in the ship's toilet disposal systems.", "New electronics and communications technology, space rearrangement, operational procedure changes, advanced sensor technologies and maintenance systems have been incorporated to reduce manning costs. A new zonal electrical distribution system will keep problems from affecting other parts of the ship. Automated material movement devices, semi-autonomous, gravity compensated weapons handling devices, damage control automation systems and components have also been installed. Medical and dental equipment have been upgraded, integrated display screens in Damage Control Central have been modernized to improve data integration and display, and equipment in general shops has been modernized to improve productivity.", "The contract to build CVN-77 was awarded to Northrop Grumman Shipbuilding Newport News on 26 January 2001. A naming ceremony was held on 9 December 2002 at Northrop Grumman Newport News, with former president George H.W. Bush attending. Secretary of the Navy Gordon R. England, presided at the ceremony.", "The keel laying ceremony was held on 6 September 2003, with former president George H. W. Bush serving as the keynote speaker. Former First Lady Barbara Bush also attended with their daughter, Dorothy Bush Koch, the ship's sponsor. The former president authenticated the keel by chalking his initials onto a metal plate. His initials were then welded onto the plate, which was permanently affixed to the ship. The ship was modularly constructed, where large sections are assembled and then lifted into place using a large crane. Major milestones in the construction include the bow placement in March 2005, followed by the island placement on 8 July 2006. The was lifted onto the flight deck in a ceremony called \"stepping the mast,\" which dates from antiquity and consists of placing coins or other items of significance under the step or bottom of a ship's mast during construction. Since at least the construction of in the 1790s, this tradition has been passed on as a symbol of good luck for U.S. Navy ships. George H. W. Bush participated in the event, placing his naval aviator wings underneath the island during the ceremony. \"George H.W. Bush\" was christened on 7 October 2006. Former president George H. W. Bush attended the ceremony and became the first president in history to participate in the christening of his namesake ship. President George W. Bush also attended and honored his father during the ceremony as a special guest speaker. Other officials participating in the ceremony included Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld, Secretary of the Navy Donald Winter; Virginia Senators John Warner and George Allen, Virginia Gov. Tim Kaine, and Chief of Naval Operations Admiral Michael Mullen. Other construction milestones included catapult system testing on the ship's flight deck on 25 January 2008. Former president George H. W. Bush signaled the launch of two \"dead loads\" off the deck of the carrier. Dead loads are large, wheeled, steel vessels weighing up to simulating the weight of actual aircraft. On 11 August 2008, the Pre-Commissioning Unit (PCU) crew moved aboard the ship, the first meals were served in the galley, the U.S. flag was raised on the fantail for the first time, and the first watches were set. \"George H.W. Bush\" left Northrop Grumman Ship Building for the first time on 23 December 2008, proceeding a few miles down river to Norfolk Naval Station.", "\"George H.W. Bush\" was commissioned 10 January 2009 at Norfolk Naval Station prior to her official delivery to the Navy, in a ceremony attended by approximately 15,000 people. Veterans of, the ship George H.W. Bush served on during World War II, were also present. President George W. Bush delivered the principal address, George H.W. Bush set the first watch, and ship's sponsor Dorothy \"Doro\" Bush Koch gave the order to \"man our ship and bring her to life!\" A GM-built Grumman TBM Avenger like the one then-Lieutenant junior grade George Bush flew in World War II performed a fly-over. Northrop Grumman Corporation Builder's sea trials were completed on 16 February 2009, providing an opportunity to test systems, components and compartments at sea for the first time. The trials included high-speed runs and a demonstration of the carrier's other capabilities. Following builder's trials, the ship underwent acceptance trials on 10 April 2009, conducted by representatives of the U.S. Navy Board of Inspection and Survey, to test and evaluate the ship's systems and performance.", "\"George H.W. Bush\" was officially delivered to the Navy on 11 May 2009. The first fixed-wing flights were conducted on 19 May 2009 when F/A-18 Super Hornets from Air Test and Evaluation Squadron at Naval Air Station Patuxent River, Maryland began flight deck certification, which tests a carrier's ability to conduct air operations. On 26 May 2009, former president George H.W. Bush and his daughter, Dorothy Bush Koch, flew aboard the carrier to observe flight operations during the ship's underway period in the Atlantic Ocean. USS \"George H.W. Bush\" successfully completed her first flight deck certification on that day. \"George H.W. Bush\" returned to Northrop Grumman Newport News shipyard on 18 June 2009 for post-delivery maintenance work, also known as the ship's post shakedown availability (PSA). A PSA is a typical availability in the early life of a carrier that allows the Navy and builder to resolve any items that came up during trials and delivery and make any last-minute changes and upgrades. Work includes the installation of a Rigid Hull Inflatable Boat (RHIB) handling system and a new fresh water purification system. Other changes include compartment reconfigurations, combat system and radar equipment upgrades, and minor repairs. The work was scheduled to last through early 2010.", "The ship was assigned to Carrier Strike Group Two for her first deployment. Under the command of Rear Admiral Nora Tyson, \"George H.W. Bush\", Carrier Air Wing Eight and the four ships of her group departed on her first deployment on 15 May 2011. They sailed across the Atlantic to Britain to participate in Exercise Saxon Warrior, held in the Western Approaches and culminating in a so-called 'Thursday War'. She then moved towards Portsmouth, U.K on 27 May, anchoring adjacent to Stokes Bay through 31 May, because she was too large to enter the harbor, and the naval base did not have sufficient nuclear berths for the carrier to moor alongside. The carrier arrived at Naples, Italy on 10 June 2011. The carrier returned to Norfolk on 10 December 2011, following a seven-month deployment supporting operations with the U.S. Navy's 5th and 6th fleets.", "On 25 July 2012, \"George H.W. Bush\" began her four-month overhaul at Norfolk Naval Shipyard at Portsmouth, Virginia, included scheduled short-term technical upgrades. On 1 December 2012, \"George H.W. Bush\" completed her PIA maintenance cycle and began sea trials on 3 December 2012. After completing sea trials on 4 December 2012, the carrier started her training and qualification cycle in preparation for the group's 2013 deployment.", "During a two-week underway period beginning 14 January 2013, \"George H.W. Bush\" tested the MV-22 tilt-rotor aircraft from squadron VMX-22 as a potential carrier onboard delivery aircraft as well as operating mine-sweeping MH-53E helicopters from squadron HM-14. During another underway period, \"George H.W. Bush\" conducted at-sea tests for X-47B unmanned drone in the Atlantic Ocean, including the first time that an unmanned drone has been catapulted off an aircraft carrier on the morning of 14 May 2013 (\"pictured\"). On 17 May 2013, another first was achieved when the X-47B performed touch-and-go landings and take-offs on the flight deck of \"Bush\" while underway in the Atlantic Ocean. Also during this two-week underway period, the aircraft carrier tested a new torpedo self-defense system, as well as completed more than 115 launches and landings in assessing a new precision landing system, before returning to Norfolk on 24 May 2013. On 10 July 2013, an unmanned X-47B drone completed an arrested landing on the flight deck of \"George H.W. Bush\". The landing marks the first time any unmanned aircraft had completed an arrested landing on board an aircraft carrier operating at sea. The drone completed a second successful arrested landing on \"George H.W. Bush\", but it was diverted to the Wallops Flight Facility in Virginia after an issue was detected, requiring that a planned third landing to be aborted. One of the drone's three navigational sub-systems failed, which was identified by the other two sub-systems. The anomaly was indicated to the mission operator, who followed test plan procedures to abort the landing. The Navy stated that the aircraft's detection of a problem demonstrated its reliability and ability to operate autonomously. On 15 July 2013, in a fourth attempt, an X-47B drone failed to make a successful flight deck landing on board the vessel due to \"technical issues.\"", "In late February 2014, \"George H.W. Bush\" transited the Strait of Gibraltar on the way to a scheduled port stop in Piraeus, Greece, for a scheduled port visit. On 5 March 2014, \"George H.W. Bush\" arrived off southern Turkey, which is under 500 miles away from Crimea, amid developing tensions over Ukraine with Russia. On 9 March 2014, the carrier entered port in Antalya, in southern Turkey. Some news sources had speculated that the ship's stay in the Mediterranean Sea would be extended as a result of the annexation of Crimea, but this proved to not be the case with Carrier Strike Group 2 proceeding through the Suez Canal. The carrier was transiting the Suez Canal on 18 March 2014. On 23 March 2014, officially turned over the watch to \"George H.W. Bush\" in the U.S. 5th Fleet area of responsibility conducting maritime security operations and supporting theater security cooperation efforts. On 14 June 2014, \"George H.W. Bush\" was ordered to the Persian Gulf to protect US interests in Iraq in light of the militant group Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant's offensive and takeover of several major cities in that country. On 8 August 2014, two F/A-18F Super Hornets launched from the ship and dropped two 500-pound laser-guided bombs on an ISIL mobile artillery cannon shelling Kurdish forces outside their capital city, Erbil. The mission was launched in accordance with President Obama's announcement on the evening of 7 August that the US would begin airstrikes to protect US personnel and the Yazidis in the region from ISIL attacks. On 23 September 2014 F/A-18 Hornets and Super Hornets from Carrier Air Wing Eight launched from \"George H.W. Bush\" in the Persian Gulf to strike at specific targets in Syria such as command-and-control centers, training camps, and weapons depots. On 15 November 2014, \"George H.W. Bush\" returned to her homeport in Norfolk, Virginia after a nine-month deployment.", "Following a 14-month shipyard availability at Norfolk Naval Shipyard and a compressed training cycle, \"George H.W. Bush\" and Carrier Air Wing Eight departed Norfolk on 21 January for her third deployment. She transited the Strait of Gibraltar on 2 February and after a port visit to Souda Bay Crete, she again participated in strikes against ISIL in support of Operation Inherent Resolve. In August 2017, \"George H.W. Bush\" arrived in the UK to take part in Exercise \"Saxon Warrior\", a joint exercise involving Carrier Strike Group 2 plus elements of the Royal Navy, German Navy, Royal Norwegian Navy and Swedish Navy. This included the staff of the Royal Navy's Carrier Strike Group embarking aboard \"Bush\" as part of their preparation for the entry into service of, the first of Britain's new aircraft carriers.", "In May 2018, \"George H.W. Bush\" took part in the Franco-American exercise Chesapeake Mission, with twelve Dassault Aviation Rafale M and a Grumman E-2C Hawkeye from the French Navy embarked on board.", "In February 2019, \"George H.W. Bush\" arrived at Norfolk Naval Shipyard for a planned 28-month docking planned incremental availability (DPIA). This is the ship's first DPIA of its lifecycle. The United States Navy announced on 24 September that there had been three suicides aboard \"George H.W. Bush\" in one week. Two previous ship suicides had taken place in November 2017 and July 2019." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Development.", "Design.", "Operators.", "Civilian.", "Notable accidents." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Development of the L-410 was started in the 1960s by the Czechoslovak aircraft manufacturer Let Kunovice. The Soviet airline Aeroflot was looking for a turboprop-powered replacement for the Antonov An-2 aircraft, initiating the design development by Let. After preliminary studies of an aircraft called the L-400, a new version was introduced called the L-410 Turbolet. The first prototype, designated XL-410, flew on April 16, 1969. Because of delays in the development of a suitable Czech engine (Walter M601), the prototype and first production version were powered by Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6-27 engines. After M601 development was completed, the PT6 engine was replaced by M601 engines coupled with Avia V508 three-blade propellers and the next variant was introduced, the L-410M. A further version for Aeroflot was the L-410 UVP. This has improved performance in take-off and landing due to increased wing and tail area - STOL. However, due to an increased empty weight and a shift in the center of gravity, the aircraft had a decreased seating capacity: 15 passengers. The L-410 UVP-E (the most common variant of the L-410) has increased maximum take-off weight to 6400 kg, M601E engines with increased power, new five-blade propellers designated V 510 and the provision for wing tip tanks to increase fuel quantity. First flight was made in 1984, and production started in 1986. The L-410 UVP-E9 and UVP-E20 are versions which vary from each other only by minor changes arising from various certification regulations. The last L-410 family member is the L-420 which uses the new Walter engine variant, the M601F. Currently produced L-410 UVP-E20s are powered by next derivative of M601 engine designated as GE H80-200 and new Avia Propeller AV-725 five blade propellers. The L-420 was first approved by the US FAA on March 11, 1998, then the L-410 UVP-E20 on June 30, 2015. The L-410 UVP-E20 was EASA certified on 4 February 2005 on the other variants on 28 March 2007. On 3 September 2013 the Russian company UGMK (Iskander Machmudov) became the wholesale owner of LET Kunovice Aircraft Industries. They announced that they would produce the L-410 also in Russia within the year. On 7 July 2015 UGMK represented first L 410 NG aircraft manufactured in Russia.", "The L-410 UVP-E is an unpressurized all-metal high-wing commuter aircraft, with Avia V 510 five-blade propellers. It is equipped with a retractable undercarriage. The aircraft uses two hydraulic circuits: main and emergency. The main electrical system operates with 28V DC. The de-icing system is leading edge pneumatic deicers and electrical heating of propellers, cockpit windshields and pitot-static system heads. Maximum take-off weight of the L-410 UVP-E is 6400 kg with the possibility of an increase to 6600 kg for the E9 and E20 variants, seating capacity 17 to 19. Cruise speed is 170 KIAS, maximum range about. The airplane is certified for IFR operation, CAT I ILS approach, and flights in icing conditions. The L 410 UVP-E20 is certified on the basis of FAR 23 either Amendment 34 or Amendment 41. It is certified by the EU, the Russian Federation, the US, Brazil, Argentina, Chile, Peru, Venezuela, Cuba, India, Nepal, Philippines, Korea, Indonesia, Republic of South Africa, Algeria, Australia, Taiwan, Turkey, and many other countries accepting some of the previous certificates. The aircraft has also been approved for operation in a number of other countries, such as Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Tunisia, Colombia, Venezuela, South Korea and others.", "Many L-410s were delivered to the former Soviet Union and ex-Soviet states and stayed there and in Russia, but some have been also sold to airlines in Asia, Africa, Central America, and South America. Forty aircraft are in use throughout Europe for commercial operation or skydiving.", "In July 2015, 178 Let L-410 were in airline service : 73 in Africa, 58 in Europe, 41 in Americas and 6 in Asia Pacific and the Middle East ; its airline operators with four or more aircraft were:", "The L 410 has experienced 116 accidents with 426 fatalities. With at least 20 fatal crashes from 2003 to 2013, it is one of the most accident-prone aircraft. However, the operator's safety rating and operations procedures are more important than the aircraft design, and the L-410 operate where most aircraft cannot, in rugged mountains and jungles, often onto grass or gravel runways; the latest L-410 UVP-E20 and L-420 produced since 1990 have an excellent safety record." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Career.", "1994–2000.", "2001–07.", "2008–present.", "Public image.", "Personal life.", "Marriage." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Elisha Ann Cuthbert was born November 30, 1982, in Calgary, Alberta, Canada, the daughter of Patricia, a housewife, and Kevin, an automotive design engineer. She grew up in Greenfield Park, Quebec. She also lived in Toronto, Ontario, before moving on to acting. In 2000, she graduated from Centennial Regional High School and moved to Los Angeles at the age of 17. As a child, she participated in Girl Guide programs as a member of Girl Guides of Canada.", "", "When she was nine, Cuthbert started modelling children's clothing and also became a foot model. She made her first televised appearance as an extra in the horror-themed series for children, \"Are You Afraid of the Dark?\"; she later became a regular on the show. Cuthbert co-hosted \"Popular Mechanics for Kids\" with Jay Baruchel, filmed in Montreal. Her reporting captured the attention of Hillary Clinton, who invited her to the White House. Cuthbert landed a role in a feature film in the family drama \"Dancing on the Moon\" (1997). She appeared in other Canadian family films and in an airplane thriller, \"Airspeed\". In 2000, Cuthbert co-starred in \"Believe,\" a Canadian film with Ricky Mabe. The following year, she starred in the Canadian television movie, \"Lucky Girl\", and was awarded a Gemini Award for her performance.", "Soon after her move to Hollywood, she was cast as Kim Bauer, daughter of federal agent Jack Bauer, in the television series \"24\". She appeared in the show's first three seasons, but not in its fourth; she guest-starred in two episodes in the fifth season. She also reprised her role as Kim Bauer in \"\" and again guest-starred in five episodes of the seventh season and in two episodes of the eighth season. She began her Hollywood film career with small roles in \"Old School,\" which grossed $87 million. Her next film, \"Love Actually\", earned $246.4 million worldwide. Her first break in a major film role was in 2004, \"The Girl Next Door\". She played an ex–porn star, Danielle, opposite Emile Hirsch. She had reservations about the part, but was persuaded by director Luke Greenfield. She researched the role, speaking to adult actresses from Wicked Pictures and Vivid Entertainment. The film was compared to \"Risky Business\", although Cuthbert said her character was not directly based on Rebecca De Mornay's. Critics were divided; some praised the film for boldness, others, notably Roger Ebert, called it gimmicky and exploitative. Ebert wrote that he saw Cuthbert's character as \"quite the most unpleasant character I have seen in some time.\" \"The View London\" said: \"Cuthbert is surprisingly good, too – aside from being drop dead gorgeous, she also proves herself a capable comic actress in the Cameron Diaz mould\". Cuthbert won two nominations for the MTV Movie Awards for Best Kiss and Best Breakthrough Performance. In her next film, Cuthbert starred with Paris Hilton and Chad Michael Murray in the 2005 remake of the horror film \"House of Wax\". In one scene, her character attempted to open her mouth while her lips were sealed with glue. For realism, she used Superglue over prosthetics. \"House of Wax\" was largely panned, critics citing a range of flaws. It was called \"notable for having some of the most moronic protagonists ever to populate a horror film,\" though of those characters, critics tended to think Cuthbert \"fares the best.\" Though it received negative reviews the film was a box office success, which grossed $70 million worldwide. The \"Houston Chronicle\" cited Cuthbert as an exception. Mick LaSalle of the \"San Francisco Chronicle\" said of the film, \"Elisha Cuthbert's matter-of-fact, likable quality helps. Seeing her turn into wax would be as bad as seeing that happen to Glenda Farrell (the star of the 1933 version).\" \"The Movie\" said: \"The performances are always professional and understated in their believable cogency, particularly Cuthbert, a talented, beautiful young actress who has proven time and again just what a multilayered and promising future she has ahead of her. Cuthbert digs into the role of Carly with strength, determination, and horrified realism; you believe as you watch her that she is going through these things and forget all about the actor playing the part, which is the biggest compliment of all. Sergio Leone of \"Filmjerk.com\" said: \"[Paris] Hilton... only plays her known personality in the film. She's overshadowed by the strong work from the rest of the cast, notably Chad Michael Murray and especially Elisha Cuthbert, who gives the film a strong dose of enthusiasm with her Jamie Lee Curtis esque performance.\" Cuthbert was nominated at Teen Choice Awards in two categories Choice Movie: Actress – Action / Adventure / \"Thriller\" and. Cuthbert's next film was the indie film \"The Quiet\". She was co-star and co-producer. She played Nina, a temperamental 17-year-old cheerleader who suffers sexual abuse by her father. Cuthbert looked to her younger cousin as inspiration for how to play a teenager. \"The Quiet\", distributed by Sony Pictures Classics, premiered at the 2005 Toronto International Film Festival and received a limited release in Los Angeles and New York City on August 25, 2006, before expanding regionally in the US on September 1. Cuthbert initially wanted to play role of the silent Dot, but director Jamie Babbit instead cast Camilla Belle in that part after Thora Birch pulled out. Babbit reasoned that \"To me, Dot has to be someone you could believe would be invisible in high school. You look at Elisha, this beautiful woman with the most perfect body you've ever seen, and you think, there's no high school in America where this girl could be invisible. No matter how much hair and makeup I do, it's not going to happen.\" \"The Daily Californian\" conceded that \"Despite the plot's failings, Cuthbert does a convincing job in her role, exuding an outer shell so tough that when her inner, softer layers emerge, it's a natural change of character. \"Empire Movies\" agreed, commenting that \"this is Elisha Cuthbert's best film performance to date. Cuthbert's Nina has the majority of the most graphic and disturbing dialogue in the film, especially during one particular lunchroom scene where the camera is close up on Cuthbert and Belle's faces.\" Cuthbert appeared in the music video for Weezer's \"Perfect Situation\" in early 2006, playing the group's fictional original singer who threw a tantrum that led to Rivers Cuomo, the roadie, becoming frontman of the band. She also had a small role in Paris Hilton's music video for the song \"Nothing in This World\". In 2007, Cuthbert appeared in \"Captivity\", a thriller centered on a fashion model taunted by a psychopath who has imprisoned her in a cellar, a role for which she was nominated for a Razzie award as Worst Actress and Teen Choice Awards for Choice Movie Actress: Horror/Thriller. The film grossed $10.9 million at the box office. The critic Stephen Whitty of the \"Newark Star-Ledger\" said, \"When, in the last few minutes, Cuthbert finally slipped her bonds and began looking for her tormentors, I knew exactly how she felt.\" \"The View London\" published: \"The Worst Cuthbert struggles to make her character sympathetic because the script doesn't give her anything to work with, while Daniel Gillies is too creepy-looking to convince as a potential love interest.\"", "In \"He Was a Quiet Man\", Cuthbert played Vanessa, a quadriplegic, starring with Christian Slater. The film was in limited release in 2007, and it was released on DVD in early 2008. In 2008, Cuthbert appeared in \"My Sassy Girl\", a remake of a Korean film, starring with Jesse Bradford. Her next film was the family comedy, \"The Six Wives of Henry Lefay\", with Tim Allen, in which she played his daughter. She starred in the Canadian miniseries \"Guns\". She was a judge in season two, episode two of \"Project Runway Canada\", in which designers were challenged to create a \"party dress\" for her. Cuthbert reprised her character Kim Bauer in the seventh season of \"24\" for five episodes. She was also to star in the CBS drama pilot \"Ny-Lon\", playing a New York literacy teacher/record-store clerk who embarks on a transatlantic romance with a London stockbroker. The project, based on a British series starring Rashida Jones and Stephen Moyer, was canceled. In December 2009, ABC said Cuthbert had joined the cast of \"The Forgotten\" in a recurring role as Maxine Denver, a Chicago professional. It was expected for Cuthbert to play the role of Trixie in sports action- comedy film \"Speed Racer\" (2008), but Christina Ricci was eventually chosen. From April 2011 to May 2013, Cuthbert starred as Alex Kerkovich for three seasons on the ABC ensemble comedy \"Happy Endings\" alongside Eliza Coupe, Zachary Knighton, Adam Pally, Damon Wayans Jr. and Casey Wilson. Despite critical acclaim and having a cult following, the show was cancelled by ABC after the conclusion of its third season on May 3, 2013. Cuthbert was nominated for the Online Film & Television Association Award in 2012 and 2013 in the category of \"Best Cast in a Comedy Series\" and TV Guide Awards for Favorite Cast, the series was also nominated for 28 other awards including the Satellite Awards for Best Series comedy television or music. Cuthbert's performance also received positive reviews from critics. In 2013, she was regarded as a promising contender for an Emmy Award in the Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series category, though she did not receive a nomination. In 2012, Cuthbert was host of the American Music Awards. In October 2012, she appeared in The Gaslight Anthem's music video \"Here Comes My Man\", playing the girlfriend of a man who mistreats her, until she imagines a romantic relationship with a character in a film and chooses to end her real relationship. In 2013, she made the cover of \"Maxim\", who named her TV's Most Beautiful Woman. In February 2014, Cuthbert signed to play the female lead role in Liz Feldman and Ellen DeGeneres' new NBC sitcom pilot \"One Big Happy\". Cuthbert stars as Lizzy, a lesbian who gets pregnant just as her straight male best friend Luke (played by Nick Zano) meets and marries the love of his life, Prudence. Six episodes of the show were ordered on May 9, 2014, and it debuted mid-season in early 2015. The series was canceled after one season. In 2015, Cuthbert joined Seann William Scott in a sequel to the 2011 comedy \"Goon\". The new film, titled \"\", went into production in June in Toronto. Liev Schreiber and Alison Pill will also reprise their roles from the first film. In September 2015, Netflix announced Cuthbert would join the cast of \"The Ranch\", a comedy series.", "Since she began playing Kim Bauer, she has frequently made the magazines \"FHM\" and \"Maxim's\" annual \"hottest women\" lists. Her highest ranking was No. 4 in the 2008 UK Edition of \"FHM's\" 100 Sexiest Women in the World list. She was ranked No. 14 in 2003, No. 10 in 2004, No. 5 in 2005, No. 22 in 2006, No. 10 in 2007 and No. 7 in 2009. The U.S. Edition ranked her No. 53 in 2003, No. 63 in 2004, and No. 54 in 2006. Cuthbert was ranked No. 10 by AskMen.com readers in the list \"Top 99 Women of 2007.\" In \"Maxim\"s Hot 100 list, she was ranked No. 84 in 2002, No. 9 in 2003, No. 21 in 2004, No. 92 in 2006, No. 25 in 2007, No. 6 in 2008, No. 43 in 2009, No. 65 in 2011, No. 34 in 2012, and No. 10 in 2013. The magazine also featured her in its Girls of Maxim Gallery. In 2013, the magazine named her the Most Beautiful Woman in Television. BuddyTV ranked her No. 33 on its TV's 100 Sexiest Women of 2011 list, No. 13 in 2012 and No. 30 in 2015. Also includes she among The 15 Best Comedy Supporting Actresses of the 2011–2012 TV Season and 2012–2013 TV Season. The \"Canadian Business\" named her one of the most powerful Canadians in Hollywood, The \"New York Daily News\" listed her as one of the Sexiest Canadian celebrities of 2016. \"Complex\" has ranked her in The 25 Hottest Canadian Women, The 100 Hottest Women of the 2000s, The 25 Hottest Blonde Bombshell Actresses and The 50 Hottest Celebrity Sports Fans. In 2013, \"GQ\" magazine listed her among The 100 Hottest Women of the 21st Century and The 100 Sexiest Women of Millennium.", "Cuthbert has two younger siblings and enjoys painting, is an ice hockey fan and Los Angeles Kings season-ticket holder. In 2005, she maintained a blog on the NHL website, though she did not post for most of the season.", "Cuthbert and hockey player Dion Phaneuf, then the captain of the Toronto Maple Leafs, announced their engagement in September 2012, and they married on July 6, 2013 at St. James Catholic Church in Summerfield, Prince Edward Island. Living in Ottawa during the hockey season, Cuthbert and Phaneuf spend their summers at Phaneuf's waterfront estate outside New London, Prince Edward Island, in his parents' home province. The couple's first child, a daughter, was born in 2017." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Romanesque Basilica.", "Owners of the church.", "Description.", "Nave.", "Gothic Reconstruction.", "Hussite period.", "Second half of the 15th century.", "Thirty Years' War and other catastrophes.", "The 17th century.", "The 18th century.", "Alters.", "Romanesque and Gothic Revival.", "Exterior.", "Interior.", "The 20th century.", "Architectural description.", "Exterior.", "Interior.", "The clergy house at St. Peter in Prague." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The basilica was built in the second half of the 12th century under the reign of King Vratislaus I.. It was a parish church for the German community of the extinct village Poříčí.", "Around the year 1200, the Margrave of Moravian, Vladislav Henry, gave the church to the Teutonic order, which founded a hospital and also its residency there. After the death of a husband, Ottokar I of Bohemia, Constance of Hungary decided to establish a woman's Cistercian monastery, so she bought the church, hospital and surrounding fields from the Teutonic order that moved to the church of Sts. Benedict nearby. However, the woman's Cistercian Monastery was founded near Tišnov. Constance of Hungary donated the church with properties to the hospital of St. Francis which was founded by her daughter Agnes in the same year. The original brotherhood hospital has gradually become into the new Czech church order Knights of the Cross with the Red Star which has continued to provide worships there to this day.", "The Romanesque basilica had a frontage with two towers (which are preserved to this day) in the west part of the church, there was also a tribune between towers. The original Romanesque portal was already demolished in the 15th century, as well as smaller windows on the 4th and 5th floors of the tower. The window from the tribune has come down to this day. The main nave was not vaulted but was connected to the tribune. The church was ended with an almost squared choir which consisted of a presbytery and a semicircular apse.", "Aisles were opened with three arcades supported by parallelepiped pillars that grew out of the broader plinths with corniced head, culminating with similar cornice capitals. Two of the southern row of pillars have come down to this day. Both aisles were covered with a groin vault and were closed by a straight wall on the western side. The basilica's walls were 1 meter thick and were made from stones, which were put on lime mortar. The walls were decorated with paintings and the remains of them are still visible in the segmental arches of the windows. The construction was completed in the second half of the 12th century. After the floods in 1280, there was built a mass grave near the church, which was later replaced with a regular graveyard. In the beginning of the 14th century there was built a parish school which belonged to the church.", "The Gothic reconstruction and extension began in 1382. The northern Romanesque nave was demolished and it was replaced by a Gothic two-aisles construction whereas the southern nave of the double nave copied the ground plan of the original northern Romanesque one. The construction was completed in 1395. However, the Romanesque presbytery did not fit into the new configuration of the church therefore the preparation for the new one began. It was completed in 1406 - the new presbytery was five-sided and two-times wider than the previous Romanesque presbytery, and it occupied the main Romanesque nave and also the southern Gothic aisle. Regardless, the church looked strange because the new presbytery did not follow the main Romanesque nave and the southern Gothic one. That is probably reason, why another rebuilding began. During the remodeling of the temple was pulled down the main Romanesque nave and southern Gothic nave and instead of them was constructed a new massive Gothic nave. The South Romanesque nave has been kept. The reconstruction finished around 1411.", "In 1414, during the Hussite period, the Knights' pastor Nicholas implemented a unique method of holy communion which was adding to normal Catholic communion at the main altar, this communion contained delivery of the wine and bread (communion under both kinds) to preyers at side altars. In 1419, after the battle, the Hussites evicted the Knights of the church and the pastor Nicholas avoided a lapidation just in time. The church itself was not destroyed, because of its previous communion in the Protestants way. The Knights returned in 1436, and then George of Poděbrady reinstated the hussite priest.", "Another reconstruction was planned. The southern Romanesque nave was dismantled (two columns were preserved to this day) and replaced with a new, two-times wider Gothic nave. The two towers were also rebuilt into Gothic style - the existing Romanesque windows were replaced with new large Gothic ones. The changes also intervened the entrance portals - the western one was rebuilt and a new one was created in the south side. A new chapel arose between the northern Romanesque tower and the northern nave (now used as a confessional). The rooftops were covered with slates. Because of that, the church gained a new look, and the rebuilding was completed around 1500. A tin plate baptismal font with a dated inscription was procured in 1544 and a Gothic bell tower was added to the church in 1598.", "", "After the Battle of White Mountain, the last non Catholic priest, Lutheran Stephan, was exiled from the church and the church was taken care of by the New Town Council. The church was returned to the Knights in 1628. During the Thirty Years' War in 1632, the town was shortly controlled by the Saxons and Lutheran Stephan became temporarily the parish priest again. The church was destroyed during the siege by the Swedish in 1648. For the brave defense of Prague King Ferdinand III. the Habsburg took the church from the Knights and gave it to the New Town Council. The church suffered from an extensive fire and after that it was repaired and newly paved by charges from the New Town Council in 1653. The tower was hit by lightning and afterwards damaged by subsequent fire in 1666 and the church and its surroundings were hit by a great fire in 1680. The roof of the main nave and the turrets burned down and also the chapel in the cemetery, the full ossuary, the clergy house, and the steeple, where all three bells melted. The church was left in a bad condition after the fire because the New Town Council did not have money to repair it. in 1686, the council closed a deal with the Knights to whom they returned the church. A long repair of the church began, which was also financed by the Knights (the Prague Archbishop, the Knight John Frederic of Waldstein, also contributed) and a new roof was built. A smaller conflagration affected the belfry in 1689. During the another repair, the belfry's roof gets its characteristic Baroque rooftop.", "There were installed new benches (which are kept to this day) in 1700. On eighth of February in 1702, Strahov abbot and bishop Vit Seipel consecrated the restored main altar of St. Peter, where a painting by Wenzel Lorenz Reiner was later delivered. One year later, cracked vaults were repaired, threatening to collapse from the fire in 1680. The Prussians damaged the church in 1757. Along with the repair of the damaged parts, the interior was partly change into baroque style - the choir loft was rebuilt, and the entire space in the middle of the towers. The church was paved with marble and the baroque plaster was used for the walls. These adjustments were made during 1760-61.", "At that time, there were already seven altars - the main St. Peter, St. Charles Borromeo, St. John of Nepomuk, St. Anna, St. Barbara, the altar of Christ's wounds, and the Soul's altar. Another altars were added during the first half of the 18th century - the restored St. Mary Magdalene, St. Lazarus, St. Florian with a painting by John Peter Molitor and two other \"private\" altars. The main altar of st. Peter was enhanced with carvings of angels from the workshop of Matthias Bernard Braun in 1725.", "In the years 1874–1879 with expenses from the New Town council, the church was completely rebuilt and repaired by the architect Josef Mocker, who puristically reconstructed it.", "In the beginning, the Baroque plaster was removed and the church showed its stones. After that it was decided to the demolition - the baroque shield of the main nave, including the portal, were demolished and five supporting pillars were met by the same fate. They were rebuilt with a new plinth, as well as new pseudo-Gothic portals on the south, north and west sides. The new main portal was decorated with the Gothic Revial tympanum of Christ and St. Peter by Lewis Šimek, and also with a Czech and Prague emblem next to it. The crown of the southern and northern nave was raised, as well as the sacristy and the northwestern chapel. The church also received new roofs and on the north side was added a chimney with a modern sculpture. The windows were also touched with big changes, some were walled up, others were taken down and others (especially Baroque ones) rebuilt.", "The Baroque and Renaissance plastering disappeared in the interior, the windows were replaced with new ones from Neuhauser company. There were also placed new benches (not all) and a confessional. The change influenced even the altars, leaving only six out of the original twelve altars. The Baroque balustrade of the choir loft remained preserved and the emblem of the New Town of Prague was inserted to its center. The whole expensive constructions and reconstructions were completed in 1885.", "During the reconstruction of the church in 1913 –1914, a thorough archaeological and building historical research began. The rudiments of the Romanesque basilica were mainly discovered, and also other Romanesque and Gothic elements. After the research a new interior repair started with restoration of altar paintings during 1929 -1936. That brought other new Gothic Revival and Romanesque Revival elements to the church. However, this time they were placed only to places where they have been proven in the past. The church was confiscated from the Knights again after 1948 and was returned after 1989. Another major revision was in 1989–1991. A paving in a part of the church collapsed after the floods in 2002.", "The original building was a Romanesque basilica which was reconstructed many times and today's church is mainly in Gothic style with Romanesque elements.", "The church is composed of three-aisles with two towers. The walls are thick up to one meter and the masonry is made out of marble. Almost every side of the church (not the west side) has supporting pillars, which end at the same level as a cornice above windows. The church has three entrances, on the west, north and south sides. The western frontage is mainly Romanesque. The main portal is decorated with a tympanum with Jesus with St. Peter. On the sides of the portal is a Czech and Prague's emblem.", "The church galleries are separated by arcades. A strip of smaller windows is situated above the arcades. The ceiling of the church consists of a Gothic groin vault, which goes into corbels. The floor is lined with marble. The presbytery has seven gothic windows, but one which faces to the main altar, is walled up. On the north side of the church there are windows with stained glass. Stained glass windows from the rest of the sides were replaced with pseudo-gothic monochrome glass. The presbytery ends with a semicircular apse with a sacristy. A pulpit is on the left side of the presbytery. The benches are situated in the main nave and the pipe organ stands in a choir loft in the western part of the church.", "The Renaissance Revial building of the clergy house No. 1137 in New Town, Prague 1, Biskupská Street 13 is a part of the church. The clergy house was built in 1893 according to the project of the structural bureau, which was prepared by the constructor Constantine Mráček. The facade was designed by a significant Czech architect of the 19th century, Antonin Wiehl. The author of the sgraffito designs on the facade is Celda Klouček, and according to his design it was made by Ladislav Novák. The house is listed in the Central List of Cultural Monuments. The facade of the clergy house is ended with a lunette cornice, and lunettes are decorated with sgraffito which they are derived from the Schwarzenberg Palace. In the brickwork of the facade is sgraffito plaster, architectural elements out of sandstone and on the first floor there is a medallion with the year 1894. On the ground floor there are shields with the signs of the New Town and the Knights of the Cross with the Red Star that are used as a decorative element. The emblem of the Crusaders reminds us that \"Now the parish priest of the parish priest after Fr. Štolský is Josef Christ, a priest of the Order of the Cross with the Red Star. The new glergy house in the street Biskupksá No. 13 was built by the architect Ant. Wiehl; the facade is decorated by C. Klouček.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Details.", "Out of scale.", "Criticism.", "Nuclear Accident Magnitude Scale.", "Definition." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "2", "3" ], "content": [ "A number of criteria and indicators are defined to assure coherent reporting of nuclear events by different official authorities. There are seven nonzero levels on the INES scale: three \"incident\"-levels and four \"accident\"-levels. There is also a level 0. The level on the scale is determined by the highest of three scores: off-site effects, on-site effects, and defense in depth degradation.", "There are also events of no safety relevance, characterized as \"out of scale\".", "Deficiencies in the existing INES have emerged through comparisons between the 1986 Chernobyl disaster, which had severe and widespread consequences to humans and the environment, and the 2011 Fukushima Daiichi nuclear accident, which caused no fatalities and comparatively small (10%) release of radiological material into the environment. The Fukushima Daiichi nuclear accident was originally rated as INES 5, but then upgraded to INES 7 (the highest level) when the events of units 1, 2 and 3 were combined into a single event and the combined release of radiological material was the determining factor for the INES rating. One study found that the INES scale of the IAEA is highly inconsistent, and the scores provided by the IAEA incomplete, with many events not having an INES rating. Further, the actual accident damage values do not reflect the INES scores. A quantifiable, continuous scale might be preferable to the INES, in the same way that the antiquated Mercalli scale for earthquake magnitudes was superseded by the continuous physically-based Richter scale. The following arguments have been proposed: firstly, the scale is essentially a discrete qualitative ranking, not defined beyond event level 7. Secondly, it was designed as a public relations tool, not an objective scientific scale. Thirdly, its most serious shortcoming is that it conflates magnitude and intensity. An alternative nuclear accident magnitude scale (NAMS) was proposed by British nuclear safety expert David Smythe to address these issues.", "The Nuclear Accident Magnitude Scale (NAMS) is an alternative to INES, proposed by David Smythe in 2011 as a response to the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster. There were some concerns that INES was used in a confusing manner, and NAMS was intended to address the perceived INES shortcomings. As Smythe pointed out, the INES scale ends at 7; a more severe accident than Fukushima in 2011 or Chernobyl in 1986 cannot be measured by that scale. In addition, it is not continuous, not allowing a fine-grained comparison of nuclear incidents and accidents. But then, the most pressing item identified by Smythe is that INES conflates magnitude with intensity; a distinction long made by seismologists to describe earthquakes. In that area, magnitude describes the physical energy released by an earthquake, while the intensity focuses on the effects of the earthquake. In analogy, a nuclear incident with a high magnitude (e.g. a core meltdown) may not result in an intense radioactive contamination, as the incident at the Swiss research reactor in Lucens shows – but yet it resides in INES category 5, together with the Windscale fire of 1957, which has caused significant contamination outside of the facility.", "The definition of the NAMS scale is: with R being the radioactivity being released in terabecquerels, calculated as the equivalent dose of iodine-131. Furthermore, only the atmospheric release affecting the area \"outside\" the nuclear facility is considered for calculating the NAMS, giving a NAMS score of 0 to all incidents which do not affect the outside. The factor of 20 assures that both the INES and the NAMS scales reside in a similar range, aiding a comparison between accidents. An atmospheric release of any radioactivity will only occur in the INES categories 4 to 7, while NAMS does not have such a limitation. The NAMS scale does still not take into account the radioactive contamination of liquids such as an ocean, sea, river or groundwater pollution in proximity to any nuclear power plant. An estimation of its magnitude seems to be related to the problematic definition of a radiological equivalence between different type of involved isotopes and the variety of paths by which activity might eventually be ingested, e.g. eating fish or through the food chain." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Early years.", "Professional career.", "Political career.", "Early political career.", "Leader of the Bulgarian Socialist Party.", "2001 presidential election.", "2006 presidential election.", "Second mandate.", "ABV (АБВ).", "Political stances.", "Criticisms.", "Collaboration with Committee for State Security.", "Iraq Oil for Food program (1998).", "Other.", "Bulgarian Christmas Charity Campaign (2003-present).", "Family.", "Publications." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Georgi Parvanov was born in Sirishtnik, Pernik Province on 28 June 1957 and he grew up in nearby Kosacha. In 1975 Parvanov graduated from secondary school in Pernik and in 1981 finished his undergraduate education at Sofia University, gaining a major in History, specializing in the history of the Bulgarian Communist Party. In 1988 Parvanov defended his doctoral thesis in history, which is titled \"Dimitar Blagoev and the Bulgarian national question 1879-1917\".", "Parvanov joined the Institute for History of the Bulgarian Communist Party as a researcher in 1981. His main interest was the Bulgarian national issue and the early history of social democracy in Bulgaria. In 1989 he was promoted to a senior research associate. In May 2001 he became a member of the Internet Society of Bulgaria.", "", "In 1981 Parvanov joined the Bulgarian Communist Party. In April 1990 the party was transformed into the Bulgarian Socialist Party. In 1989 Parvanov formed the nationalist organization \"Nationwide Committee for the Defense of National Interests\" (Bulgarian: Общонароден комитет за защита на националните интереси). In 1994 he became Deputy Chairman of the BSP national Council. It was also in that year that he was elected to the National Assembly; he was reelected in 1997 and 2001. Parvanov was chairman of the Parliamentary Group for Friendship with Greece and member of the Parliamentary Committee on Radio and Television from 1994 to 1997.", "Because of a severe financial crisis, the Prime Minister and leader of the BSP, Zhan Videnov, resigned in December 1996. Georgi Parvanov was elected as his successor that month. However, after large protests against the socialist government in January 1997, Parvanov and Nikolay Dobrev (the nominated Prime Minister) returned the mandate to form a government. In the early parliamentary elections that ensued, the Socialist Party went into opposition, swept away by the Union of Democratic Forces (SDS). In 2000 Parvanov was reelected as Chairman of the National Council of the BSP. He has been credited with altering the geopolitical orientation of the party, paving the way for Bulgaria's joining of NATO in 2004. Parvanov led his party to its worst electoral performance in 2001. Both the BSP and the SDS suffered greatly from the rise of the newly founded National Movement for Simeon II.", "In the first round of the 2001 presidential election, Parvanov won 36.4% of the votes, finishing ahead of the incumbent SDS candidate, Petar Stoyanov, who polled 34.9% of the votes. The voter turnout was the lowest to date: only 41.8%. Parvanov emerged victorious in the runoff, winning 54.1% of the votes. Voter turnout was significantly higher in the second round: 55.1%. Following his victory, Sergei Stanishev took over the party leadership. Parvanov took office on 22 January 2002, becoming the first ex-Communist to win the presidency since 1990.", "In 2006 he ran for re-election. He was backed by the ruling triple coalition, who won 70% of the seats in parliament the year before. He won first round on 22 October with 64 per cent of the vote. Because the turnout was less than 50%, he faced the nationalist Volen Siderov at the runoff on 29 October. Parvanov won with 76 per cent of the vote. This made Parvanov the first President to be reelected in Bulgaria.", "In the second mandate of Georgi Parvanov as a President of Bulgaria, two governments changed - that of Sergei Stanishev and the current one of Boiko Borisov. As for the government of Stanishev Parvanov is often accused of not taking position about important matters, the critics even made Parvanov admit he actually proposed resignation of Stanishev as a PM before the end of Stanishev government's mandate in oder that the Socialist Party has more chances in the following parliamentary elections. At the beginning of the First Borisov Government, Parvanov faced regular argues with Finance Minister Simeon Djankov and later with Minister of Defence Aniu Anev, and indirectly with Minister of Education Sergei Ignatov. Arguments and tapes send to media reached such point that a proposal for impeachment reached in Bulgarian Parliament which had enough signed representers but in the last moment was not voted by the RZS party and thus failed parliamentary approval. Following the attempt for impeachment Parvanov quickly gained back his personal authority.", "In summer 2010, Parvanov reached his platform ABV (Bulgarian: АБВ) the name constructed by the first three letters in Bulgarian alphabet which he claimed was neither a political party nor a preparation for registering such. However, he visited many cities and had meetings with mayors which was a sign that some interpreted as a preparation for regional and further parliamentary elections. With the coming-out of the first sociological researches, it became clear ABV would not reach enough votes in the next elections and Parvanov moved his sight back to his party BSP. It was also suggested that ABV will move as a part of BSP at some point. While in 2013 virtually no media mentioned ABV in any context, in January 2014 Parvanov made what some media called \"a disappointing attempt to restart the project\", and others referred to ABV as an \"officially frozen project\".", "Although the office of the Bulgarian President is largely representative and executive power lies within the government, Georgi Parvanov has played an active political role. His political views, for example in the context of the Kosovo War, have been described as pro-Russian.", "", "In 2006 Parvanov admitted that before 1989 there was a file on him at the Communist Security Service (\"Darzhavna Sigurnost\", or DS) under the nickname \"Gotse\" (for the revolutionary Gotse Delchev) for his scientific assistance on Macedonian topics. The file like most other files of the Security Service hasn't been released to the public for a while (it is now available online). According to Parvanov's own statement, the file only shows that he had been consulted as a historian in conjunction with the writing of a memoir book about events related to the Macedonian Question in the 19th century. That was confirmed by two members of parliamentary commissions that had examined the files of the Security Service earlier — Bogomil Bonev and Veselin Angelov. Two other members, Metodi Andreev and Evgeni Dimitrov, accused the former of lying and asserted that the historical research had only been a prelude, followed by Parvanov's consent to work as an agent and write a report about his institute.", "The report of the Special Commission of the United Nations into the misconducts of the Iraqi \"Oil for food\" suggests that in 1998 Saddam Hussein took bribes from the Bulgarian Socialist Party, then led by Parvanov and companies close to the party. Parvanov denied these allegations explaining that the party's financing was transparent and legitimate. No further evidence to support these claims was found.", "", "Georgi Parvanov initiated the \"Bulgarian Christmas\" campaign, a funds raised for the treatment of children and renovation of hospitals and health institutions. Bulgarian Christmas is a musical event each year at the time of Christmas in which Bulgarian performers sing their most popular songs in the audience of the President and his wife, and other VIP guests, the event is TV-broadcast on the national channel BNT and funds are being raised by sms and bank accounts. Over the years, millions of euro have been donated by private individuals such as Igor Parvanov and foreign companies, and Parvanov as closely related to the campaign warrants that the money be spent as prescribed.", "Parvanov has two children with his wife, Zorka Parvanova: Vladimir and Ivaylo. Parvanov has two grandchildren from his son Vladimir: Georgi (born 2011) and Victoria (born 2015).", "Parvanov is an author of dozens of scientific articles. His monographs and books:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Route.", "Service.", "Modernization after 2009." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The CMK was constructed between 1971 and 1977, as a freight line designed to haul coal from Upper Silesia and Zagłębie Dabrowskie to the ports of the Tricity. According to the original idea, it was supposed to start at Zawiercie, and end at Tczew or Gdańsk. However, the economic crisis in mid-1970s Poland changed these plans, and due to lack of money the CMK ends at Grodzisk Mazowiecki, where it is connected to the already-existing Warsaw–Vienna railway The idea of the construction of a direct rail connection between Upper Silesia and Warsaw was first proposed by professor Aleksander Wasiutyński in the 1920s. He rightly noted that the Warsaw–Vienna railway, which goes to Warsaw through Zawiercie, Myszków, Częstochowa, Radomsko, Piotrków Trybunalski, Koluszki, and Skierniewice, would not be able to carry all the passenger and freight traffic between the two industrial centers of the newly created country. Wasiutyński’s idea was abandoned, however, when the government constructed the Polish Coal Trunk-Line instead. In the late 1950s Polish planners again considered the concept of Wasiutyński, but came to the conclusion that electrification of former Warsaw–Vienna railway should suffice for the increased traffic. The electrification was completed in 1957, increasing traffic volume by some 25%, but this was still not enough. In 1970 rail authorities briefly considered adding new tracks to existing lines, however, this idea was quickly abandoned and the idea of the construction of a brand new line was revived. The line was planned to be a two-track, high-speed connection, designed to carry both express passenger trains and heavy freight trains. Construction of several overpasses was planned, to avoid intersecting with roads. Speeds up to were projected for passenger trains, and a maximum weight up to 5,000 gross tons for freight trains.", "Polish engineers considered several options for the route of the new connection. They differed in several aspects - from the starting point (either at Zawiercie or Łazy), to a finishing point somewhere in the extensive Warsaw rail junction. According to the original design, the CMK would merge with the Warsaw - Radom line south of the Polish capital. This was rejected because of the inadequate infrastructure of the Warsaw - Radom line and the impossibility of extending the CMK further northwards. Another idea was that the CMK would merge with the Warsaw-Vienna Railway near Piastów, but this would have been too costly because of the densely populated area. Finally, the route from Zawiercie to Grodzisk Mazowiecki was chosen. The decision to begin construction of the 143-kilometer Zawiercie - Radzice connection was taken in June 1971, and the first works began in August of that year. Some 30 companies participated in the construction, and the first trains ran on the still unfinished CMK on 26 September 1974, when a single track between Zawiercie and Idzikowice was opened, together with branches to Kraków (Starzyny - Psary), Kielce (Knapówka - Czarnca), Częstochowa (Włoszczowa Północna - Żelisławice), Łódż (Idzikowice - Dąba Opoczyńska), and Radom (Idzikowice - Radzice). The CMK was finally completed on 23 December 1977, when the 80-kilometer connection Mszczonów - Grodzisk Mazowiecki was electrified. After completion of the track from Zawiercie to Grodzisk, construction of a Warsaw - Gdańsk Port Północny (via Wyszogród, Płock, Sierpc, Brodnica and Malbork) connection was planned, but abandoned *in the late 1970s and early 1980, due to the ongoing financial crisis in Poland.", "For the first seven years, the CMK was used mostly for freight traffic. In 1980, the line carried 73 freight trains and only 4 passenger trains daily. This changed in the mid-1980s, when the government in Warsaw decided to open the line to more passenger trains. On 1 June 1984 the first express trains (\"Górnik\", from Warszawa Wschodnia to Gliwice, and \"Krakus\", from Warszawa Wschodnia to Kraków Główny) began travelling on the CMK, with speed of up to. Two years later the maximum speed was raised to. The CMK, however, was designed for speeds of up to 250 km/h, and after several repairs and replacement of tracks, on 11 May 1994, an Italian Pendolino train reached the speed of (near Biała Rawska), which remained the speed record for train travel in Mid-Eastern Europe until November 2013. This single achievement, however, did not mean that trains began regular services with speeds of up to 250 km/h. Before 2009 the Polish State Railways owned no rolling stock capable of such speeds, and numerous improvements in the infrastructure would be required. The CMK line also lacked cab signalling which is required on high-speed rail lines, where trains travel at speeds which make observation of lineside signals unreliable.", "In June 2008 PKP ordered ten (10) Siemens Eurosprinter ES64U4 \"Taurus\" electric locomotives capable of, the first of which reached a speed of in a test on the CMK line on 28 May 2009. Delivery of the 10 locomotives was completed in June 2010. Despite their high speed capability these locomotives were initially assigned to conventional services operating at less than. On 29 August 2009 PKP signed a contract with Thales Rail Signalling to install European Train Control System (ETCS) Level 1 signalling on the CMK rail line, a very modern signalling system which is being installed throughout the European Union particularly on high-speed rail lines. ETCS replaces lineside signals by data transmission to an on-board computer on the train, with signal aspects, speed restrictions, and a safe braking curve displayed on a monitor in front of the driver. Level 1 retains lineside signals for trains operating at less than, while allowing ETCS-equipped trains to run at speeds above. ETCS satisfies the requirement of cab signalling for high speed trains, while also providing greatly increased safety. The ETCS signalling on the CMK was certified on 21 November 2013, allowing trains on the CMK to operate at. On 30 May 2011, PKP signed a contract to procure twenty Alstom Pendolino ETR 610 trains capable of a maximum speed of 250 km/h (155 mph) for delivery in 2014. The first Alstom Pendolino was delivered on 12 August 2013. Plans exist to convert the electrification of the CMK line from the present 3 kV DC to 25 kV AC, and the Pendolinos and the new Siemens ES64U4 locomotives can operate on both electrical systems. Initially, the Pendolino trains will run on the CMK line at, but when the CMK electrification is converted to 25 kV AC, they will be able to run at. High speed tests using the new Pendolino ED250 on the CMK were conducted in November 2013. On the first day of tests, 16 November, the Pendolino reached. On 24 November 2013 the final day of tests on the CMK the Pendolino reached. In early 2014 installation of 13 high-speed railroad switches (\"points\" in British terminology) of the most modern type was carried out at on the CMK some 22 km south of Grodzisk Mazowiecki. These are moveable-frog (or'swingnose') switches of the type used on French TGV and German high-speed rail lines, and the switches at Szeligi are the first such installation in Poland. All of the switches permit speed in the 'through' direction, with a diverging speed of on 5 switches and diverging speed of on 4 other switches. The installation at Szeligi was carried out by the Polish subsidiary VAE Polska of the Austrian supplier Voestalpine Weichensysteme GmbH. On 14 December 2014 Pendolino services under the name 'Express Intercity Premium' began operating on the CMK, with trains running from Kraków and Katowice to Warsaw on the CMK and continuing to Gdańsk and Gdynia. The Pendolinos reach on a total of 133 kilometers of the CMK, divided into two disjoint sections; the first regularly scheduled operation at 200 km/h in Poland. In addition, two daily Pendolinos run from Warsaw to Wrocław, running on the CMK part of the way to Częstochowa and continuing via Opole to Wrocław." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Origin.", "Composition.", "Comparison with island arc volcanoes.", "Hotspot volcanic chains." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The origins of the concept of hotspots lie in the work of J. Tuzo Wilson, who postulated in 1963 that the formation of the Hawaiian Islands resulted from the slow movement of a tectonic plate across a hot region beneath the surface. It was later postulated that hotspots are fed by narrow streams of hot mantle rising from the Earth's core–mantle boundary in a structure called a mantle plume. Whether or not such mantle plumes exist is the subject of a major controversy in Earth science. Estimates for the number of hotspots postulated to be fed by mantle plumes have ranged from about 20 to several thousands, over the years, with most geologists considering a few tens to exist. Hawaii, Réunion, Yellowstone, Galápagos, and Iceland are some of the most active volcanic regions to which the hypothesis is applied.", "Most hotspot volcanoes are basaltic (e.g., Hawaii, Tahiti). As a result, they are less explosive than subduction zone volcanoes, in which water is trapped under the overriding plate. Where hotspots occur in continental regions, basaltic magma rises through the continental crust, which melts to form rhyolites. These rhyolites can form violent eruptions. For example, the Yellowstone Caldera was formed by some of the most powerful volcanic explosions in geologic history. However, when the rhyolite is completely erupted, it may be followed by eruptions of basaltic magma rising through the same lithospheric fissures (cracks in the lithosphere). An example of this activity is the Ilgachuz Range in British Columbia, which was created by an early complex series of trachyte and rhyolite eruptions, and late extrusion of a sequence of basaltic lava flows. The hotspot hypothesis is now closely linked to the mantle plume hypothesis.", "Hotspot volcanoes are considered to have a fundamentally different origin from island arc volcanoes. The latter form over subduction zones, at converging plate boundaries. When one oceanic plate meets another, the denser plate is forced downward into a deep ocean trench. This plate, as it is subducted, releases water into the base of the over-riding plate, and this water mixes with the rock, thus changing its composition causing some rock to melt and rise. It is this that fuels a chain of volcanoes, such as the Aleutian Islands, near Alaska.", "The joint mantle plume/hotspot hypothesis envisages the feeder structures to be fixed relative to one another, with the continents and seafloor drifting overhead. The hypothesis thus predicts that time-progressive chains of volcanoes are developed on the surface. Examples are Yellowstone, which lies at the end of a chain of extinct calderas, which become progressively older to the west. Another example is the Hawaiian archipelago, where islands become progressively older and more deeply eroded to the northwest. Geologists have tried to use hotspot volcanic chains to track the movement of the Earth's tectonic plates. This effort has been vexed by the lack of very long chains, by the fact that many are not time-progressive (e.g. the Galápagos) and by the fact that hotspots do not appear to be fixed relative to one another (e.g. Hawaii and Iceland.)" ] }

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{ "title": [ "DOS extender operation.", "Development history." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "A DOS extender is a program that \"extends\" DOS so that programs running in protected mode can transparently interface with the underlying DOS API. This was necessary because many of the functions provided by DOS require 16-bit segment and offset addresses pointing to memory locations within the first 640 kilobytes of memory. Protected mode, however, uses an incompatible addressing method where the segment registers (now called selectors) are used to point to an entry in the Global Descriptor Table which describes the characteristics of the segment. The two methods of addressing are mutually exclusive, with the processor having to make costly switches to real (or V86) mode to service non-protected mode requests. In addition to setting up the environment and loading the actual program to be executed, the DOS extender also provides (amongst other things) a translation layer that maintains buffers allocated below the 1 MB real mode memory barrier. These buffers are used to transfer data between the underlying real mode operating system and the protected mode program. Since switching between real/V86 mode and protected mode is a relatively time consuming operation, the extender attempts to minimize the number of switches by duplicating the functionality of many real mode operations within its own protected mode environment. As DOS uses interrupts extensively for communication between the operating system and user level software, DOS extenders intercept many of the common hardware (e.g. the real-time clock and keyboard controller) and software (e.g. DOS itself and the mouse API) interrupts. Some extenders also handle other common interrupt functions, such as video BIOS routines. Essentially, a DOS extender is like a miniature operating system, handling much of the functionality of the underlying operating system itself.", "The DOS extender was arguably invented by Phar Lap, but it was Tenberry Software's (formerly Rational Systems) 386 extender DOS/4GW that brought protected mode DOS programs to a mass market. Included with Watcom's C, C++, and Fortran compilers for 386 class processors, it soon became a ubiquitous mainstay of PC applications and games such as id Software's successful \"Doom\". While initially it was the memory-hungry business applications that drove the development of DOS extenders, it would be PC games that truly brought them into the spotlight. As a result of the development of DOS extenders, two new software interfaces were created to take care of the many potential conflicts that could arise from the varied methods of memory management that already existed, as well as provide a uniform interface for client programs. The first of these interfaces was the Virtual Control Program Interface (VCPI), but this was rapidly overshadowed by the DOS Protected Mode Interface (DPMI) specification, which grew from the Windows 3.0 development. They provided an API through which an extended program could interface with real mode software, allocate memory, and handle interrupt services. They also provided an easy method for the extender to set up the switch to protected mode, and allowed multiple protected mode programs to coexist peacefully." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Uses.", "River flood prevention.", "Coastal flood prevention.", "Spur dykes or groynes.", "Super levee.", "Natural examples.", "Failures and breaches." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Speakers of American English (notably in the Midwest and Deep South) use the word \"levee\", from the French word \"levée\" (from the feminine past participle of the French verb \"lever\", \"to raise\"). It originated in New Orleans a few years after the city's founding in 1718 and was later adopted by English speakers. The name derives from the trait of the levee's ridges being \"raised\" higher than both the channel and the surrounding floodplains. The modern word \"dike\" or \"dyke\" most likely derives from the Dutch word \"dijk\", with the construction of dikes in Frisia (now part of the Netherlands and Germany) well attested as early as the 11th century. The Westfriese Omringdijk]], completed by 1250, formed by connecting existing older dikes. The Roman chronicler Tacitus mentions that the rebellious Batavi pierced dikes to flood their land and to protect their retreat (AD 70). The word \"dijk\" originally indicated both the trench and the bank. It closely parallels the English verb \"to dig\". In Anglo-Saxon, the word \"dic\" already existed and was pronounced as \"dick\" in northern England and as \"ditch\" in the south. Similar to Dutch, the English origins of the word lie in digging a trench and forming the upcast soil into a bank alongside it. This practice has meant that the name may be given to either the excavation or to the bank. Thus Offa's Dyke is a combined structure and Car Dyke is a trench – though it once had raised banks as well. In the midlands and north of England, and in the United States, a dike is what a ditch is in the south, a property-boundary marker or small drainage-channel. Where it carries a stream, it may be called a running dike as in \"Rippingale Running Dike\", which leads water from the catchwater drain, Car Dyke, to the South Forty Foot Drain in Lincolnshire (TF1427). The Weir Dike is a soak dike in Bourne North Fen, near Twenty and alongside the River Glen, Lincolnshire. In the Norfolk and Suffolk Broads, a dyke may be a drainage ditch or a narrow artificial channel off a river or broad for access or mooring, some longer dykes being named, e.g. Candle Dyke. In parts of Britain, particularly Scotland, a dyke may be a field wall, generally made with dry stone.", "The main purpose of artificial levees is to prevent flooding of the adjoining countryside and to slow natural course changes in a waterway to provide reliable shipping lanes for maritime commerce over time; they also confine the flow of the river, resulting in higher and faster water flow. Levees can be mainly found along the sea, where dunes are not strong enough, along rivers for protection against high-floods, along lakes or along polders. Furthermore, levees have been built for the purpose of empoldering, or as a boundary for an inundation area. The latter can be a controlled inundation by the military or a measure to prevent inundation of a larger area surrounded by levees. Levees have also been built as field boundaries and as military defences. More on this type of levee can be found in the article on dry-stone walls. Levees can be permanent earthworks or emergency constructions (often of sandbags) built hastily in a flood emergency. When such an emergency bank is added on top of an existing levee it is known as a \"cradge\". Some of the earliest levees were constructed by the Indus Valley Civilization (in Pakistan and North India from circa 2600 BC) on which the agrarian life of the Harappan peoples depended. Levees were also constructed over 3,000 years ago in ancient Egypt, where a system of levees was built along the left bank of the River Nile for more than, stretching from modern Aswan to the Nile Delta on the shores of the Mediterranean. The Mesopotamian civilizations and ancient China also built large levee systems. Because a levee is only as strong as its weakest point, the height and standards of construction have to be consistent along its length. Some authorities have argued that this requires a strong governing authority to guide the work, and may have been a catalyst for the development of systems of governance in early civilizations. However, others point to evidence of large scale water-control earthen works such as canals and/or levees dating from before King Scorpion in Predynastic Egypt, during which governance was far less centralized. Another example of a historical levee that protected the growing city-state of Mēxihco-Tenōchtitlan and the neighbouring city of Tlatelōlco, was constructed during the early 1400s, under the supervision of the tlahtoani of the altepetl Texcoco, Nezahualcoyotl. Its function was to separate the brackish waters of Lake Texcoco (ideal for the agricultural technique \"Chināmitls\") from the fresh potable water supplied to the settlements. However, after the Europeans destroyed Tenochtitlan, the levee was also destroyed and flooding became a major problem, which resulted in the majority of The Lake to be drained in the 17th Century. Levees are usually built by piling earth on a cleared, level surface. Broad at the base, they taper to a level top, where temporary embankments or sandbags can be placed. Because flood discharge intensity increases in levees on both river banks, and because silt deposits raise the level of riverbeds, planning and auxiliary measures are vital. Sections are often set back from the river to form a wider channel, and flood valley basins are divided by multiple levees to prevent a single breach from flooding a large area. A levee made from stones laid in horizontal rows with a bed of thin turf between each of them is known as a \"spetchel\". Artificial levees require substantial engineering. Their surface must be protected from erosion, so they are planted with vegetation such as Bermuda grass in order to bind the earth together. On the land side of high levees, a low terrace of earth known as a \"banquette\" is usually added as another anti-erosion measure. On the river side, erosion from strong waves or currents presents an even greater threat to the integrity of the levee. The effects of erosion are countered by planting suitable vegetation or installing stones, boulders, weighted matting or concrete revetments. Separate ditches or drainage tiles are constructed to ensure that the foundation does not become waterlogged.", "Prominent levee systems have been built along the Mississippi River and Sacramento River in the United States, and the Po, Rhine, Meuse River, Rhône, Loire, Vistula, the delta formed by the Rhine, Maas/Meuse and Scheldt in the Netherlands and the Danube in Europe. During the Chinese Warring States period, the Dujiangyan irrigation system was built by the Qin as a water conservation and flood control project. The system's infrastructure is located on the Minjiang (), which is the longest tributary of the Chang Jiang, in Sichuan, China. The Mississippi levee system represents one of the largest such systems found anywhere in the world. It comprises over of levees extending some along the Mississippi, stretching from Cape Girardeau, Missouri, to the Mississippi Delta. They were begun by French settlers in Louisiana in the 18th century to protect the city of New Orleans. The first Louisiana levees were about high and covered a distance of about along the riverside. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, in conjunction with the Mississippi River Commission, extended the levee system beginning in 1882 to cover the riverbanks from Cairo, Illinois to the mouth of the Mississippi delta in Louisiana. By the mid-1980s, they had reached their present extent and averaged in height; some Mississippi levees are as high as. The Mississippi levees also include some of the longest continuous individual levees in the world. One such levee extends southwards from Pine Bluff, Arkansas, for a distance of some. The United States Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) recommends and supports Cellular Confinement technology (geocells) as a best management practice. Particular attention is given to the matter of surface erosion, overtopping prevention and protection of levee crest and downstream slope. Reinforcement with geocells provides tensile force to the soil to better resist instability. Artificial levees can lead to an elevation of the natural river bed over time; whether this happens or not and how fast, depends on different factors, one of them being the amount and type of the bed load of a river. Alluvial rivers with intense accumulations of sediment tend to this behavior. Examples of rivers where artificial levees led to an elevation of the river bed, even up to a point where the river bed is higher than the adjacent ground surface behind the levees, are found for the Yellow River in China and the Mississippi in the USA.", "Levees are very common on the marshlands bordering the Bay of Fundy in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, Canada. The Acadians who settled the area can be credited with the original construction of many of the levees in the area, created for the purpose of farming the fertile tidal marshlands. These levees are referred to as dykes. They are constructed with hinged sluice gates that open on the falling tide to drain freshwater from the agricultural marshlands, and close on the rising tide to prevent seawater from entering behind the dyke. These sluice gates are called \"aboiteaux\". In the Lower Mainland around the city of Vancouver, British Columbia, there are levees (known locally as dikes, and also referred to as \"the sea wall\") to protect low-lying land in the Fraser River delta, particularly the city of Richmond on Lulu Island. There are also dikes to protect other locations which have flooded in the past, such as the Pitt Polder, land adjacent to the Pitt River and other tributary rivers. Coastal flood prevention levees are also common along the inland coastline behind the Wadden Sea, an area devastated by many historic floods. Thus the peoples and governments have erected increasingly large and complex flood protection levee systems to stop the sea even during storm floods. The biggest of these are of course the huge levees in the Netherlands, which have gone beyond just defending against floods, as they have aggressively taken back land that is below mean sea level.", "These typically man-made hydraulic structures are situated to protect against erosion. They are typically placed in alluvial rivers perpendicular, or at an angle, to the bank of the channel or the revetment, and are used widely along coastlines. There are two common types of spur dyke, permeable and impermeable, depending on the materials used to construct them.", "Important cities in Japan (Tokyo and Osaka) developed a new flood protection known as Super levee. Super levees are thicker levees that will not fail even in the most extreme events.", "Natural levees commonly form around lowland rivers and creeks without human intervention. They are elongate ridges of mud and/or silt that form on the river floodplains immediately adjacent to the cut banks. Like artificial levees, they act to reduce the likelihood of floodplain inundation. Deposition of levees is a natural consequence of the flooding of meandering rivers which carry high proportions of suspended sediment in the form of fine sands, silts, and muds. Because the carrying capacity of a river depends in part on its depth, the sediment in the water which is over the flooded banks of the channel is no longer capable of keeping the same amount of fine sediments in suspension as the main thalweg. The extra fine sediments thus settle out quickly on the parts of the floodplain nearest to the channel. Over a significant number of floods, this will eventually result in the building up of ridges in these positions, and reducing the likelihood of further floods and episodes of levee building. If aggradation continues to occur in the main channel, this will make levee overtopping more likely again, and the levees can continue to build up. In some cases this can result in the channel bed eventually rising above the surrounding floodplains, penned in only by the levees around it; an example is the Yellow River in China near the sea, where oceangoing ships appear to sail high above the plain on the elevated river. Levees are common in any river with a high suspended sediment fraction, and thus are intimately associated with meandering channels, which also are more likely to occur where a river carries large fractions of suspended sediment. For similar reasons, they are also common in tidal creeks, where tides bring in large amounts of coastal silts and muds. High will cause flooding, and result in the building up of levees.", "Both natural and man-made levees can fail in a number of ways. Factors that cause levee failure include overtopping, erosion, structural failures, and levee saturation. The most frequent (and dangerous) is a \"levee breach\". Here, a part of the levee actually breaks or is eroded away, leaving a large opening for water to flood land otherwise protected by the levee. A breach can be a sudden or gradual failure, caused either by surface erosion or by subsurface weakness in the levee. A breach can leave a fan-shaped deposit of sediment radiating away from the breach, described as a crevasse splay. In natural levees, once a breach has occurred, the gap in the levee will remain until it is again filled in by levee building processes. This increases the chances of future breaches occurring in the same location. Breaches can be the location of meander cutoffs if the river flow direction is permanently diverted through the gap. Sometimes levees are said to fail when water \"overtops\" the crest of the levee. This will cause flooding on the floodplains, but because it does not damage the levee, it has fewer consequences for future flooding. Among various failure mechanisms that cause levee breaches, soil erosion is found to be one of the most important factors. Predicting soil erosion and scour generation when overtopping happens is important in order to design stable levee and floodwalls. There have been numerous studies to investigate the erodibility of soils. Briaud et al. (2008) used Erosion Function Apparatus (EFA) test to measure the erodibility of the soils and afterwards by using Chen 3D software, numerical simulations were performed on the levee to find out the velocity vectors in the overtopping water and the generated scour when the overtopping water impinges the levee. By analyzing the results from EFA test, an erosion chart to categorize erodibility of the soils was developed. Hughes and Nadal in 2009 studied the effect of combination of wave overtopping and storm surge overflow on the erosion and scour generation in levees. The study included hydraulic parameters and flow characteristics such as flow thickness, wave intervals, surge level above levee crown in analyzing scour development. According to the laboratory tests, empirical correlations related to average overtopping discharge were derived to analyze the resistance of levee against erosion. These equations could only fit to the situation similar to the experimental tests while they can give a reasonable estimation if applied to other conditions. Osouli et al. (2014) and Karimpour et al. (2015) conducted lab scale physical modeling of levees to evaluate score characterization of different levees due to floodwall overtopping. Another approach applied to prevent levee failures is electrical resistivity tomography (ERT). This non-destructive geophysical method can detect in advance critical saturation areas in embankments. ERT can thus be used in monitoring of seepage phenomena in earth structures and act as an early warning system, e.g. in critical parts of levees or embankments." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Structure.", "Perineal body.", "Fascia.", "Areas.", "Clinical significance.", "Society and culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The perineum is generally defined as the surface region in both males and females between the pubic symphysis and the coccyx. The perineum is below the pelvic diaphragm and between the legs. It is a diamond-shaped area that includes the anus and, in females, the vagina. Its definition varies: it can refer to only the superficial structures in this region, or it can be used to include both superficial and deep structures. The perineum corresponds to the outlet of the pelvis. A line drawn across the surface connecting the ischial tuberosities divides the space into two triangles: The formal anatomical boundaries of the perineum may be said to be:", "The perineal body (or central tendon of perineum) is a pyramidal fibromuscular mass in the middle line of the perineum at the junction between the urogenital triangle and the anal triangle. It is found in both males and females. In males, it is found between the bulb of the penis and the anus; in females, it is found between the vagina and anus, and about 1.25 cm in front of the latter. The perineal body is essential for the integrity of the pelvic floor, particularly in females. Its rupture during vaginal birth leads to widening of the gap between the anterior free borders of levator ani muscle of both sides, thus predisposing the woman to prolapse of the uterus, rectum, or even the urinary bladder. At this point, the following muscles converge and are attached: 1. External anal sphincter 2. Bulbospongiosus muscle 3. Superficial transverse perineal muscle 4. Anterior fibers of the levator ani 5. Fibers from male or female external urinary sphincter 6. Deep transverse perineal muscle", "The terminology of the perineal fascia can be confusing, and there is some controversy over the nomenclature. This stems from the fact that there are two parts to the fascia, the superficial and deep parts, and each of these can be subdivided into superficial and deep parts. The layers and contents are as follows, from superficial to deep:", "The region of the perineum can be considered a distinct area from pelvic cavity, with the two regions separated by the pelvic diaphragm. The following areas are thus classified as parts of the perineal region:", "Extensive deformation of the pelvic floor occur during a vaginal delivery. Approximately 85% of women have some perineal tear during a vaginal delivery and in about 69% suturing is required. Obstetric perineal trauma contributes to postpartum morbidity and frustration of women after delivery. In many women the childbirth trauma is manifested in advanced age when the compensatory mechanisms of the pelvic floor become weakened making the problem more serious among the aged population. The anogenital distance is a measure of the distance between the midpoint of the anus and the underside of the scrotum or the vagina. Studies show that the human perineum is twice as long in males as in females. Measuring the anogenital distance in neonatal humans has been suggested as a noninvasive method to determine male feminisation and thereby predict neonatal and adult reproductive disorders. There are claims that sometimes the perineum is excessively repaired after childbirth, using a so-called \"husband stitch\" and that this can increase vaginal tightness or result in pain during intercourse.", "The most common slang term used for this area of the body is \"taint\". Additional images" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "Taxonomy.", "Distribution and habitat.", "Toxicity.", "Medicinal use." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ ", \"Mandragora officinarum\" has three or four different circumscriptions (see Taxonomy below). The description below applies to a broad circumscription, used in a 1998 revision of the genus, in which the name is used for all the plants native to Mediterranean region. Thus defined, \"Mandragora officinarum\" is a very variable perennial herbaceous plant with a long thick root, often branched. It has almost no stem, the leaves being borne in a basal rosette. The leaves are very variable in size and shape, with a maximum length of. They are usually either elliptical in shape or wider towards the end (obovate), with varying degrees of hairiness. The flowers appear from autumn to spring (September to April). They are borne in the axils of the leaves. The flower stalks (pedicels) are also very variable in length, up to long. The five sepals are long, fused together at the base and then forming free lobes to about a half to two-thirds of their total length. The five petals are greenish white to pale blue or violet in colour, long, and, like the sepals, joined together at the base with free lobes at the end. The lobes are between half as long as the petals to almost as long. The five stamens are joined to the bases of the petals and vary in length from. The anthers of the stamens are usually yellow or brown, but are sometimes pale blue. The fruit which forms in late autumn to early summer (November to June) is a berry, shaped like a globe or an ellipsoid (i.e. longer than wide), with a very variable diameter of. When ripe, the fruit is glossy, and yellow to orange – somewhat resembling a small tomato. It contains yellow to light brown seeds, long. Earlier, a different circumscription was used, in which \"Mandragora officinarum\" referred only to plants found in northern Italy and part of the coast of former Yugoslavia, most Mediterranean mandrakes being placed in \"Mandragora autumnalis\". The description above would then apply to both species combined, with \"M. officinarum\" having greenish-white rather than violet petals, up to long rather than usually or longer, and a berry that is globose rather than ellipsoid. More recently, plants native to the Levant have been separated out as \"Mandragora autumnalis\", leaving those found in the rest of the Mediterranean area as \"M. officinarum\". One difference then is that the size of the seeds of \"M. officinarum\" is less than half the size of those of \"M. autumnalis\".", "\"Mandragora officinarum\" was first described in 1753 by Carl Linnaeus in the first edition of \"Species Plantarum\". It is the type species of the genus \"Mandragora\". (Linnaeus later changed his mind and in 1759 placed \"M. officinarum\" in the genus \"Atropa\" as \"A. mandragora\".) Linnaeus regarded \"M. officinarum\" as the sole species in the genus, at that time only known from the Mediterranean region. Jackson and Berry (1979) and Ungricht et al. (1998) have documented some of the subsequent confusion over the number of Mediterranean species of \"Mandragora\" and their scientific names. Ungricht et al. describe the confusion as \"incredible\" and a \"morass\". The first confusion relates to the name \"\"Mandragora officinalis\" \", dated to 1768 in the eighth edition of Philip Miller's \"The gardener's dictionary\". However, this work uses the epithet \"officinarum\", not \"\"officinalis\"\". There is a reference to \"\"Mandragora officinalis\"\" as a synonym in the 9th edition of \"The gardener's dictionary\" of 1807. However, there was no such earlier use of the name, and Ungricht et al. say that \"\"officinalis\"\" is an orthographic error for the correct epithet \"officinarum\", so that the name \"\"Mandragora officinalis\" \" (and any subsequent uses of this epithet) have \"no real nomenclatural standing\". The second confusion relates to the number of Mediterranean species of \"Mandragora\" (a confusion which continues). At different times, between one and five taxa have been recognized. Dioscorides was among those who distinguished between \"male\" and \"female\" mandrakes, a distinction used in 1764 when Garsault published the names \"Mandragora mas\" and \"Mandragora foemina\". Flowering time was also used to distinguish species; thus in the 1820s, Antonio Bertoloni named two species as \"Mandragora vernalis\", the spring-flowering mandrake, and \"Mandragora autumnalis\", the autumn-flowering mandrake. Since the late 1990s, three main circumscriptions of \"Mandragora officinarum\" have been used and all three will be found in current sources.", "In the circumscription in which \"Mandragora officinarum\" is the only Mediterranean species, it is native to regions around the Mediterranean Sea, within the borders of Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco in north Africa; southern Spain, southern Portugal, Italy included Sardinia and Sicily, (Niccolò Machiavelli wrote a novel about it), former Yugoslavia, Greece and Cyprus in southern Europe; southern Turkey; Syria, Lebanon, Israel, the Palestinian territories and Jordan in the Levant. It is usually found in open habitats, such as light woodland and disturbed sites, including olive groves, fallow land, waysides, railway embankments and ruins, from sea level to. When \"Mandragora autumnalis\" is regarded as the main Mediterranean species, \"M. officinarum\" is native only to north Italy and part of the coast of former Yugoslavia. Alternatively, \"M. officinarum\" is absent from the Levant, where it is replaced by \"M. autumnalis\".", "All species of \"Mandragora\" contain highly biologically active alkaloids, tropane alkaloids in particular. Hanuš et al. reviewed the phytochemistry of \"Mandragora\" species. More than 80 substances have been identified; their paper gives the detailed chemical structure of 37 of them. Jackson and Berry were unable to find any differences in alkaloid composition between \"Mandragora officinarum\" (using the narrowest circumscription of this species) and \"Mandragora autumnalis\" (viewed as the main Mediterranean species). Alkaloids present in the fresh plant or the dried root included atropine, hyoscyamine, scopolamine (hyoscine), scopine, cuscohygrine, apoatropine, 3-alpha-tigloyloxytropane, 3-alpha,6-beta-ditigloyloxytropane and belladonnines. Non-alkaloid constituents included sitosterol and beta-methylesculetin (scopoletin). The alkaloids make the plant, in particular the root and leaves, poisonous, via anticholinergic, hallucinogenic, and hypnotic effects. Anticholinergic properties can lead to asphyxiation. Ingesting mandrake root is likely to have other adverse effects such as vomiting and diarrhea. The alkaloid concentration varies between plant samples, and accidental poisoning is likely to occur. Clinical reports of the effects of consumption of \"Mandragora officinarum\" (as \"Mandragora autumnalis\") include severe symptoms similar to those of atropine poisoning, including blurred vision, dilation of the pupils (mydriasis), dryness of the mouth, difficulty in urinating, dizziness, headache, vomiting, blushing and a rapid heart rate (tachycardia). Hyperactivity and hallucinations also occurred in the majority of patients.", "Mandrake has a long history of medicinal use, although superstition has played a large part in the uses to which it has been applied. WebMD, which categorises the herb European Mandrake derived from Mandragora officinarum under the heading \"Vitamins & Supplements\", declares that it is UNSAFE for anyone to use European mandrake for medicinal purposes. In the UK, The Prescription Only Medicines (Human Use) Order 1997, in its Schedule 1, identifies \"\"Mandragora autumnalis\"\" as a substance which, if included in medicinal products, makes those products prescription only medicines, and therefore only prescribable by those categories of appropriate practitioners specified in Regulation 214 of The Human Medicines Regulations 2012. Medical herbalists are not recognised as \"appropriate practitioners\" under this legislation. Interestingly, because \"Mandragora autumnalis\" Bertol. is currently an accepted species distinguishable from \"Mandragora officinarum\" L., it follows that mandrake preparations and products derived from \"Mandragora officinarum\" L. may not actually be covered by this UK legislation. However, the European Medicines Agency, which oversees the registration of herbal medicinal products in the European Union, does not recognise mandrake, and indeed any \"Mandragora\" species, as an approved herbal medicinal product, substance, or preparation under the European Directive on Traditional Herbal Medicinal Products. The root is hallucinogenic and narcotic. In sufficient quantities, it induces a state of unconsciousness and was used as an anaesthetic for surgery in ancient times. In the past, juice from the finely grated root was applied externally to relieve rheumatic pains. It was also used internally to treat melancholy, convulsions, and mania. When taken internally in large doses, however, it is said to excite delirium and madness. In the past, mandrake was often made into amulets which were believed to bring good fortune and cure sterility. In one superstition, people who pull up this root will be condemned to hell, and the mandrake root would scream as it was pulled from the ground, killing anyone who heard it. Therefore, in the past, people have tied the roots to the bodies of animals and then used these animals to pull the roots from the soil." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Career.", "Retirement.", "Musical style and equipment.", "Personal life.", "Discography.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "John Richard Deacon was born on 19 August 1951 in Leicester to Arthur Henry and Lilian Molly Deacon (née Perkins). His father worked at the Norwich Union insurance company and in 1960 the family moved to the dormitory town of Oadby. Deacon was known to friends and his bandmates as 'Deaks' or 'Deaky' and attended Linden Junior School in Leicester, Gartree High School and Beauchamp Grammar School in Oadby. He became interested in electronics, reading magazines on the subject and building small devices, including the modification of a reel-to-reel tape deck to record music directly from the radio. He studied well and achieved 8 GCE O level and 3 A level passes, all at grade A. He particularly enjoyed soul music.", "Deacon joined his first band, The Opposition, in 1965 at the age of 14. The band played covers of chart hits; Deacon played rhythm guitar using an instrument he had bought with money borrowed from the group's founder, Richard Young. He switched to bass the following year after the original bassist was fired for not improving his playing as much as the other members. As well as a dedicated musician, Deacon also was the band's archivist, taking clippings from newspapers of even the advertisements featuring The Opposition. After being in the band for four years, not long after the group cut an acetate of three songs, Deacon played his final concert with the band (then called The Art) in August 1969. He left as he had been accepted to study at Chelsea College in London (now part of King's College London), where he obtained a First Class Honours degree in Electronics in 1971. Having become a fan of Deep Purple, he saw the group perform the \"Concerto for Group and Orchestra\" with the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra at the Royal Albert Hall that September. Although he left his bass and amplifier at home in Oadby, after less than a year of studying in London, Deacon decided he wanted to join a band. In 1970, Freddie Mercury, Brian May, and Roger Taylor had formed Queen; Deacon saw them in October that year but was not immediately impressed. Later in the year, he briefly formed a band called Deacon that made one live appearance at Chelsea College. In early 1971, Deacon was introduced to Taylor and May by a friend at a disco who told him that they were in a band that had just lost its bassist. A couple of days later he auditioned in a lecture room at Imperial College London and became the last member of Queen to join. Deacon was selected for his musical talent, his quiet demeanour and his electrical skills. A persistent legend claims Deacon was the seventh bassist auditioned, but more recent sources show Queen's bassists were, in order: Mike Grose, Barry Mitchell, Doug Bogie and Deacon. Deacon played his first show with Queen at the College of Estate Management in Kensington in June. On Queen's first album (1973) he was credited as \"Deacon John\", in order to make him \"sound more interesting\". He asked to be credited under his real name, which was done on all albums from \"Queen II\" (1974) onwards. Deacon's first writing credit came on Queen's third album, \"Sheer Heart Attack\" (1974). He wrote \"Misfire\", a Caribbean-themed song where he played almost all guitar parts, and co-wrote \"Stone Cold Crazy\" with the rest of the band. He also played some guide guitar parts on the album as May had been hospitalised with hepatitis when recording started. His second song was written for his wife-to-be Veronica, \"You're My Best Friend\" (1975) was featured on the group's fourth album, \"A Night at the Opera\", and went on to be an international hit. Subsequently, Deacon tended to write one or two songs for every Queen album, until \"The Miracle\" (1989) and \"Innuendo\" (1991), which credited the band as a whole. He wrote the hit \"Another One Bites The Dust\" (1980) as a dance song based on his early love of soul. The song saw radio play on both black and white US music stations. He began to collaborate more with Mercury during the 1980s, as they both wanted to change the band's musical direction. Deacon played a larger role on the band's 1982 album \"Hot Space\". He played rhythm guitar on the opening \"Staying Power\" because of his soul and Motown-influenced style, and insisted on playing guitar on his own composition \"Back Chat\" and not allowing May to play any guitar solos because the style did not fit what Deacon wanted. This led to an acrimonious argument between the two. By the mid-1980s, Deacon had started to play with other bands as well. He performed on the single \"Picking Up Sound\" by Man Friday & Jive Junior, a supergroup also featuring Thin Lizzy's Scott Gorham, Bad Company's Simon Kirke and Mick Ralphs, and The Pretenders' Martin Chambers. and played with The Immortals, which released the track \"No Turning Back\" as part of the soundtrack to the film \"\". Deacon played bass on Mercury's single with Montserrat Caballe \"How Can I Go On\" and also worked with Elton John and Hot Chocolate's Errol Brown. Deacon considered his songwriting to be of equal importance to his musical skills in Queen. He later said \"If I'd just been a bass player all my life with the band, I wouldn't be as satisfied... I only consider that as part of what I do\".", "Deacon was upset the most by Mercury's death in November 1991, which resulted in a reduction in his musical activity. He said, \"As far as we are concerned, this is it. There is no point carrying on. It is impossible to replace Freddie.\" After playing live with Queen three more times – at The Freddie Mercury Tribute Concert for AIDS Awareness on 20 April 1992, in a charity concert with Roger Taylor at Cowdray House in Midhurst on 18 October 1993, and at the opening of the Bejart Ballet in Paris on 17 January 1997, performing only \"The Show Must Go On\" with Elton John on lead vocals – he decided to retire from music, re-appearing only briefly by joining his former bandmates in October 1997 for the recording of the final Queen song \"No-One but You (Only the Good Die Young)\", included on the \"Queen Rocks\" album released a month later. Deacon has reportedly spoken unfavourably about the May/Taylor/Robbie Williams cover of \"We Are the Champions\", recorded for \"A Knight's Tale\". Deacon has stayed out of the public eye since retiring. He chose not to be present at Queen's induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2001. He also did not join the collaboration with singer Paul Rodgers (as Queen + Paul Rodgers), where he was replaced on bass by Danny Miranda. On the Queen + Paul Rodgers collaboration album \"The Cosmos Rocks\" which featured new material from the trio, he was thanked in the notes on the CD. Brian May has since said that Deacon is still involved on the business side of Queen but chooses to stay out of the limelight. May also confirmed that Deacon approved of the making of the band's biopic \"Bohemian Rhapsody\", where he was played by Joseph Mazzello. In 2013, a newly-discovered species of the genus \"Heteragrion\" (Odonata : Zygoptera) from Brazil was named \"Heteragrion johndeaconi\" after Deacon, in honour of his musical and songwriting skillsone of four \"Heteragrion\" flatwing damselflies named after the bandmates, paying tribute to the 40th anniversary of Queen's founding. In a 2014 interview with \"Rolling Stone\" magazine regarding the forthcoming Queen + Adam Lambert North American tour with Adam Lambert, May and Taylor admitted that they no longer have much contact with Deacon except regarding finances, with Taylor stating that \"[Deacon]'s completely retired from any kind of social contact\", and describing him as \"a little fragile\". May added, however, \"he still keeps an eye on the finances, though. John Deacon is still John Deacon. We don't undertake anything financial without talking to him.\" Session bassist Neil Fairclough covered the tour.", "In 1973, \"Rolling Stone\" wrote that the combination of Taylor and Deacon \"is explosive, a colossal sonic volcano whose eruption makes the earth tremble.\" Deacon played guitar in addition to bass, taking over rhythm parts on many albums, as well as several acoustic performances. Some of the guitar work on \"Hot Space\" (the clean Fender Telecaster single-coil sound) is Deacon's. He would occasionally play synthesizers on his own compositions and often composed at the piano, playing a Wurlitzer electric piano on \"You're My Best Friend\". He can also be seen playing the grand piano in the music video to \"Spread Your Wings\", although on the actual recording the piano was played by Mercury. Unlike the other three members of Queen, Deacon did not sing on the group's records, though he did occasionally sing backing vocals during live performances. Deacon's first bass, used in The Opposition, was an Eko, later switching to a Rickenbacker 4001. For most of Queen's career, he used a Fender Precision Bass, which underwent a number of cosmetic changes. Towards the end of the group's career, he used a custom bass designed by Roger Giffin. He also used an Ernie Ball MusicMan Stingray live on occasion. As a trained electronics engineer, he was able to build equipment for the band. His most famous creation is the \"Deacy Amp\", built in 1972 from pieces of electronic equipment found in a skip, and used by himself and May throughout Queen's recording career. Many of the so-called \"guitar orchestras\" on Queen albums use this amplifier. Deacon usually played the bass with his fingers, instead of using a plectrum. He counted his influences as Chic, Michael Jackson and Stevie Wonder. His favourite bass players were Chris Squire of the progressive rock band Yes and The Who's John Entwistle. A trademark of Deacon's playing is his bass runs. A 1975 review of \"Sheer Heart Attack\" said \"Only at the end would a new initiate to Queen recognize John Deacon's unmistakable trademark... the least well known musician in Queen is one of his rock generation's most able.\"", "Deacon has often been described as the \"quiet\" member of the band. Although the rest of the band felt he was the right bassist for them, he barely spoke in rehearsals and avoided arguments. He lives in Putney in Southwest London with his wife Veronica Tetzlaff, whom he married on 18 January 1975, and is the father of six children. One of the reasons for Queen splitting from Trident, their original management company, is that it refused to lend Deacon money to put a deposit on a house. According to the 2019 \"Sunday Times\" Rich List, Deacon was worth £130 million.", "Queen songs Deacon wrote that were released as singles: Selected Queen album tracks: Selected solo efforts:", "Citations Sources Further reading" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Career.", "Early years.", "Episode Six.", "Deep Purple, 1969–1973.", "Post-Purple.", "Ian Gillan Band.", "Gillan.", "Black Sabbath.", "Reunion of Deep Purple, 1984–89 and 1992–present.", "Later solo activity.", "WhoCares.", "Non-musical side projects.", "Vocal technique.", "Personal life.", "Selected discography.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Gillan was born on 19 August 1945 at Chiswick Maternity Hospital. His father, Bill, was a storekeeper at a factory in London, who came from Govan, Glasgow and left school at 13, while his mother, Audrey, came from a family where she was the eldest of four children, who all enjoyed music and singing, and whose father had been an opera singer and amateur pianist. His sister, Pauline, was born in 1948. One of Gillan's earliest musical memories was of his mother playing \"Blue Rondo à la Turk\" on the piano. He grew up moving between council flats before settling in a three-bedroom semi-detached on a council estate in Cranford, Hounslow, he was fond of animals in his early life, and enjoyed reading the comic strips of Dan Dare. His parents separated after Audrey discovered Bill had had an affair that started while he was stationed in the army during World War II. He began attending Hounslow College and stayed there through his early teenage years. He was influenced by Elvis Presley by hearing his records at home and at the local youth club. Gillan briefly attended Acton County Grammar School (now Acton High School) to take his O Levels but became distracted from studies after leaving the local cinema having watched a Presley film, deciding that he wanted to be a movie actor. He subsequently took a job manufacturing ice machines in Hounslow.", "", "Gillan's first attempt at a band was called Garth Rockett and the Moonshiners, and consisted of himself on vocals and drums, alongside guitarist Chris Aylmer, who later went on to work with Bruce Dickinson. The band covered songs such as Tommy Roe's Sheila and The Shadows' Apache. He discovered he couldn't sing and play drums at the same time, so settled on the role of lead vocalist, performing regularly at St Dunstan's Hall, the local youth club. He soon switched to another local band who also played at Dunstan's Hall, Ronnie and the Hightones, who renamed themselves as the Javelins after he joined. The band played covers of Sonny Boy Williamson, Chuck Berry, Jerry Lee Lewis and Little Richard, and were early customers of then-local music shop owner Jim Marshall. The Javelins disbanded in March 1964, with guitarist Gordon Fairminer leaving to join what eventually became the group Sweet. After the Javelins, Gillan joined a soul band, Wainwright's Gentlemen, which included another future Sweet member, drummer Mick Tucker. The band recorded a number of tracks including a cover of The Hollies hit \"Ain't That Just Like Me\". Although the band played several local popular music venues, they did not find success, so in April 1965, he decided to join Hatch End based Episode Six.", "Gillan had been contacted by Episode Six's manager Gloria Bristow, who worked for Helmut Gordon, original manager of The Detours, later to become the Who. He replaced original lead singer Andy Ross, who left to get married, and joined keyboardist and singer Sheila Carter, guitarists Graham Carter and Tony Lander, bassist Roger Glover and drummer Harvey Shields. Gillan considers Episode Six to be his first truly professional band, and in their early days they were sponsored and championed by Tony Blackburn, who occasionally accompanied Gillan on stage. Later, as well as performing concerts in the UK, Episode Six also toured Germany and Beirut, and had regular appearances on the BBC Light Programme. During his time with Episode Six, Gillan began writing songs together with Glover, forming an ultimately long-lasting partnership. After a strained tour of Beirut, Shields left the band and was replaced first by John Kerrison, then by Mick Underwood. Underwood had previously played in The Outlaws with Ritchie Blackmore, and it was via him that Ian knew about Deep Purple. By 1969, after having released nine singles, none of which charted in the UK, and finding their style of music too restrictive for him, he decided to leave Episode Six.", "By spring 1969, Deep Purple had had a top 5 US hit with \"Hush\", but the band, particularly Ritchie Blackmore, Jon Lord and Ian Paice, decided their future lay in hard rock, rather than the psychedelic pop sound of the early band. In June 1969, Blackmore, Lord and Paice went to see Episode Six perform at a pub gig and subsequently offered Gillan the job as new lead singer, asking him if he also knew any good bassists. Since Glover was by this point a reasonably experienced songwriter, he was also recruited. They were both accepted into the band on 16 June 1969, replacing singer Rod Evans and bassist Nick Simper respectively. The old line up of Deep Purple continued to do several concerts until the end of the month, whereupon Evans and Simper were both fired by managers Tony Edwards and John Colletta after their last show on 4 July. Gillan made his first onstage appearance with Deep Purple at the Speakeasy in London's West End on 10 July. As the band had only been rehearsing for a few weeks, they relied on older instrumentals such as \"Wring That Neck\" and \"Mandrake Root\" to fill in a set. Unsure of what to do, Gillan found a pair of congas onstage, and decided to play them during these instrumental sections. Deep Purple Mk.II continued rehearsing at Hanwell Community Centre. One of Gillan's first contributions to the band during these rehearsals was the vocal melody and lyrics to \"Child in Time\". At Hanwell, the band wrote what would eventually become most of \"In Rock\" during 1969, though they were interrupted in September to perform Lord's \"Concerto for Group and Orchestra\", a one-off performance in September at the Royal Albert Hall with the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra. Gillan, along with Blackmore, was initially unhappy at having to perform the concerto, and wrote the lyrics to the second movement on the afternoon of the performance on a napkin in an Italian restaurant. In 1970, Gillan received a call from Tim Rice, asking him to perform the part of Jesus on the original 1970 album recording of \"Jesus Christ Superstar\", having been impressed with his performance on \"Child in Time\". After rehearsing a few times with Rice and Andrew Lloyd Webber, he recorded his entire vocal contributions in three hours. He was subsequently offered the lead role in the 1973 film adaptation. Gillan demanded to not only be paid £250,000 for his role in the movie, but also insisted, without the consent of his manager, that the entire band be paid because filming would conflict with a scheduled tour. The producers declined, instead casting Ted Neeley in the Jesus role, and Gillan continued on in the band. After 1971, particularly after the release of \"Fireball\", Gillan started to become disillusioned with the workload of the band, who had not had any holiday since their initial rehearsals at Hanwell. He started drinking, and relationships between him and the rest of the band became strained, particularly with Blackmore. On 6 November 1971, he collapsed with hepatitis while waiting to board a plane in Chicago, cancelling the remainder of a US tour. By December 1972, having recorded \"Machine Head\", \"Made in Japan\" and the yet to be released \"Who Do We Think We Are\" with Deep Purple, Gillan finally decided the workload had driven him to exhaustion. Unlike some band members, he was unhappy about \"Made in Japan\", and disliked live albums in general. He tended to go into the studio after the rest of the band had recorded and finished the backing tracks, particularly for \"Who Do We Think We Are\", to lay down his vocals separately. He had been continually at loggerheads with Blackmore, disagreeing about music regularly, which culminated in Gillan writing \"Smooth Dancer\" about him. While on tour in Dayton, Ohio, he sat down and wrote a resignation letter to the band's managers, stating he intended to leave the band, effective from 30 June 1973.", "After his departure from Deep Purple, Gillan retired from performing to pursue various unsuccessful business ventures. These included a £300,000 investment in a hotel near Oxford. A second was the Mantis Motor Cycles project, which suffered from the collapse of the British motorcycle industry in the mid-1970s, culminating in Gillan being forced to file for liquidation. A more successful opportunity, however, came with his investment in Kingsway Studios in 1974. This led to a live performance at the Butterfly Ball on 16 October 1974, replacing Ronnie James Dio at the last minute.", "In 1975, Gillan formed the Ian Gillan Band with guitarist Ray Fenwick, keyboardist Mike Moran, quickly replaced with Mickey Lee Soule and then Colin Towns on keyboards, Mark Nauseef on drums and John Gustafson on bass. Their first album, \"Child in Time\", was released in July 1976, followed by \"Clear Air Turbulence\" in April 1977 and \"Scarabus\" in October. The sound of the band had a distinct jazz-rock aspect which, although interesting to Gillan, proved unpopular, particularly since punk rock was in vogue at that time.", "Gillan then formed a new band, simply called Gillan, retaining Towns (who would co-write most of the material), and adding guitarist Steve Byrd, bassist John McCoy and drummer Pete Barnacle. Byrd and Barnacle were quickly replaced by Bernie Tormé and by former Episode Six bandmate Mick Underwood, after Gillan saw Torme playing with his punk trio. This band had a more high-powered hard rock sound, and the release of \"Mr. Universe\" in October 1979 saw Ian Gillan back in the UK charts, although the independent record company the album came out on – Acrobat Records – folded soon after the album was released, prompting a contract with Richard Branson's Virgin Records. In Christmas 1979, Gillan was visited by Blackmore, who offered him the position of lead vocalist in Rainbow. Gillan declined due to the smaller workload the band had compared to his own. However, the pair did jam together for three nights at Marquee Club – the first time the two men had shared a stage since 1973. Gillan continued, releasing \"Glory Road\" in 1980, which resulted in the band making the first of several appearances on \"Top of the Pops\". He considered the album to be his best work since \"Machine Head\" nearly a decade earlier. Following subsequent album \"Future Shock\", Torme was fired after missing an appearance on \"Top of the Pops\", and was replaced by Janick Gers. Gers appeared on the band's next two albums, \"Double Trouble\" and \"Magic\". In 1982, Ian Gillan announced the band would fold, as he needed to rest his damaged vocal cords. The rest of the band Gillan, particularly McCoy and Towns, were not happy at the sudden disbanding of the group so soon after the success of \"Magic\", and sued Gillan for royalties.", "In 1983, manager Don Arden invited Gillan to join Tony Iommi, Geezer Butler and Bill Ward, all founding members of Black Sabbath, to form a supergroup. Although the band had reservations, on 6 April 1983, it was formally announced that Gillan had replaced Ronnie James Dio in Sabbath. The group recorded \"Born Again\" at the Manor Studios in Oxfordshire. Ward recalled that he \"didn't particularly like some of the lyrics that Ian was bringing forward and putting into the songs. Not because Ian doesn't write good lyrics or anything like that; I think Ian is an excellent performer, great singer, and often at times I think his lyrics can be quite brilliant. But I just have a personal difference in what I like to hear in the way of lyrics, and so I felt terribly disconnected.\" Citing health problems, Ward decided not to accompany the others during the subsequent tour, and was replaced by Bev Bevan. Gillan was required to learn Sabbath's old repertoire, but had difficulty remembering the words. His solution was to write the lyrics on a perspex folder and put it on the stage floor, turning the pages with his feet. Unfortunately, dry ice on stage made it impossible to read the words, resulting in the audience catching glimpses of him peering over the microphone to sing a few lines, then disappearing below the dry ice to read the next set. As well as material from \"Born Again\", and older Sabbath numbers, the band regularly played Deep Purple's \"Smoke on the Water\" as an encore. Gillan decided that he could not have a long-term role as Black Sabbath's singer, and quit the group after a second American tour.", "After the disappointment of Black Sabbath, Gillan joined a reunited Deep Purple in April 1984, announcing their comeback on Tommy Vance's radio show. The reformed band rehearsed in Stowe, Vermont, and recorded the album \"Perfect Strangers\", followed by a highly successful world tour. Another studio album with this formation, \"The House of Blue Light\", followed in 1987, but Gillan was concerned with the final results, stating \"There's something missing in the overall album. I can't feel the spirit of the band.\" This was followed by the live album \"Nobody's Perfect\" in 1988. The live album also featured a studio re-recording of the 1968 hit \"Hush\" with Gillan on vocals, to commemorate Deep Purple's 20th anniversary. (The original 1968 release had been sung by Rod Evans). Gillan later remarked that the album was \"the embodiment of all the things wrong with Purple.\" In contrast to his experiences with Deep Purple in the 1970s, Gillan felt frustrated that the band were no longer working \"enough\". To fulfill his contract with Virgin, he formed a side project with Glover, writing and recording songs which didn't fit Purple's established hard rock style, which resulted in the album \"Accidentally on Purpose\". By 1989, tensions between Gillan and Blackmore had resurfaced, due to the former's greater enthusiasm for touring and differences over the music – the song \"Mitzi Dupree\" on \"The House of Blue Light\" is the original demo as Blackmore refused to re-record it. This culminated in Blackmore calling a rehearsal session without Gillan. After an acrimonious argument, Glover told Gillan, \"Ian, you've gone too far this time,\" and he was fired. Gillan, meanwhile, formed a new version of Garth Rockett and the Moonshiners with keyboardist Mark Buckle, bassist Keith Mulholland, drummer Louis Rosenthal and guitarists Harry Shaw and Steve Morris. The band toured regularly through 1989, and recorded the album \"Naked Thunder\". Gillan later expressed dissatisfaction with the album, calling it \"rather hum-de-dum\". During this time, Gillan also made an appearance on a re-recording of \"Smoke on the Water\" with Rock Aid Armenia, consisting of himself, Bryan Adams, Tony Iommi, David Gilmour, Roger Taylor, Brian May, Bruce Dickinson and Paul Rodgers as a charity record for aid relief in Armenia following the then-recent earthquake. He continued to tour with his solo band, albeit with several line-up changes throughout Europe, the US and Russia. At the urging of Glover, Lord and Paice, who wanted him in the fold for the band's 25th anniversary tour, Gillan rejoined Deep Purple in 1992 to record the album \"The Battle Rages On\". Gillan was unhappy with working on the album, as it had already been partially completed with Joe Lynn Turner, and he was only required to write replacement lyrics and vocal melodies, which, unsurprisingly, drew criticism from Blackmore. Blackmore left Deep Purple after the European tour promoting the album in 1993. Gillan and Blackmore subsequently repaired their relationship with each other. Gillan was especially enthusiastic about carrying on after Blackmore's departure, and after a brief stint with Joe Satriani, Deep Purple recruited Dixie Dregs/Kansas guitarist Steve Morse. He was keen to make changes to the live set immediately, adding the then-seldom played \"Maybe I'm a Leo\" (named after Gillan's birth sign) and \"When a Blind Man Cries\" – the latter becoming a mainstay in the band's setlist ever since. He said that their first album with Morse, \"Purpendicular\", \"was a such important record for Deep Purple that without that [other records] couldn't have been possible.\" He has remained Purple's lead singer, though the band has found more success touring than with producing records. Gillan pays particular interest to the lyrics in Deep Purple, and considers it his prime composing role within the band. Discussing the importance of lyrics, he said \"Words have to sound good. They have to sound like an instrument, they have to have the right percussive value.\" He described the words of 2003's \"Bananas\" as \"politics mostly.\"", "Though Gillan has kept touring with Deep Purple regularly since 1994, he has found time to commit to other projects. On 31 March 2006 Gillan appeared at the Tommy Vance tribute concert in London. He was accompanied by Roger Glover, Steve Morris, Dean Howard, Michael Lee Jackson, Harry James, Sim Jones and Richard Cottle. In April 2006 Gillan released a CD/multimedia project to document his 44-year career called \"Gillan's Inn\". Tony Iommi, Jeff Healey, Joe Satriani, Dean Howard, as well as current and former members of Deep Purple such as Jon Lord, Roger Glover, Ian Paice, Don Airey and Steve Morse are featured on this 2006 CD and DVD. The project, produced by Nick Blagona, includes a re-recorded selection of his Deep Purple, Black Sabbath and solo tracks. At the same time as \"Gillan's Inn\", Gillan announced that his solo albums with the Ian Gillan Band and Gillan from the 1970s and 1980s would be re-issued late in 2006 and early 2007 through Demon Records. Gillan performed the vocals in the song \"Eternity\" from the 2006 video game \"Blue Dragon\", composed by Nobuo Uematsu. Ian Gillan sang on two songs off the Jon Lord & Hoochie Coochie Men studio album, \"Danger. White Men Dancing\", released in late 2007. On 2 April 2007 Gillan released a DVD \"Highway Star – A Journey in Rock\". The DVD has 6 hours of footage including documentaries and music clips. This was followed in February 2008 by a double live album on Edel Records, \"Live in Anaheim\" that features Gillan and Deep Purple classic songs and several rarities. A companion DVD was released in May 2008. On 3 May 2008 Ian Gillan performed at the Jeff Healey memorial concert in Toronto, Canada. He had previously played live with Healey in Toronto in February 2005. He released a studio album entitled \"One Eye to Morocco\" in March 2009. In the 2010s, Gillan performed occasionally with orchestras in Europe, including rearrangements of Deep Purple songs.", "Gillan has expressed particular fondness for Armenia and has maintained popularity there since Rock Aid Armenia in 1989, which has led to him forming the supergroup WhoCares as a side-project to Deep Purple. On 2 October 2009, in honour of the 20th anniversary of Rock Aid Armenia, Gillan together with Tony Iommi, Geoff Downes, and the project organiser Jon Dee were received by the Prime Minister of Armenia who awarded them with the republic's Orders of Honour. On 26 and 27 March 2010, in Yerevan, Gillan performed with State Philharmonic Orchestra of Armenia. At a press conference in Yerevan on 27 March, Gillan said he considers Armenia his spiritual motherland. In 2010, Ian Gillan met Tony Iommi, Nicko McBrain and Jon Lord, Mikko Lindström from HIM and Jason Newsted at a studio in London to finish recording a song called \"Out of my Mind\", which was released the following year. This is for the benefit of the music school to be built in Gyumri, Armenia – a project Ian Gillan has been working on with others since his 1990 solo concerts in Yerevan. On the flight back from Armenia in 2011, after each receiving the Armenian Presidential medal of Honour, Gillan and Iommi decided to form the side project WhoCares for ad hoc recordings (and possible performances) dedicated to raising money for specific causes. On 20 September 2013 Ian Gillan participated in the opening of the Octet Music School in Gyumri. The Eastern Diocese of the Armenian Church of America named Ian Gillan as its 2014 \"Friend of the Armenians\" and presented him the award at the 112th Diocesan Assembly in New York City.", "In 2010 Ian Gillan hosted a documentary about the Polish composer and pianist Fryderyk Chopin in Poland directed by Jerzy Szkamruk. \"Chopin's Story\" is about the rise of the composer and documents his Polish years. The film has won several international awards, including the Best Documentary award at Tourfilm International Festival in Florianopolis, Brazil. It was aired on the Polish channel Discovery Historia on 21 June 2011. It was subsequently released on DVD.", "Gillan possesses a powerful and wide-ranging singing voice and is known for his high pitched banshee screams. Gillan layered his vocals to provide harmonies on the Deep Purple tracks \"Our Lady\" and \"Super Trooper\".", "Gillan was in a relationship with Zoe Dean from 1969 to 1978. They had known each other since his time in Episode Six. In 1984, Gillan married his girlfriend Bron, to whom he had dedicated \"Keep It Warm\" from Black Sabbath's 1983 album \"Born Again\". They have twice since renewed their marriage vows. Their daughter, Grace Gillan, is also working as a singer for the band Papa LeGal. Gillan lives near Lyme Regis and has a home in southern Portugal. Gillan is a passionate football fan, supporting Queens Park Rangers. He is also a big fan of cricket. His surname is sometimes misspelled as \"Gillian\". Gillan himself made light of this in the lyrics to \"MTV\", a track from Deep Purple's 2005 album \"Rapture of the Deep\", when he sang about \"Mr. Grover 'n' Mr Gillian\".", "Prominent releases. with Deep Purple with Black Sabbath with The Javelins with Ian Gillan Band & Gillan solo with WhoCares", "Citations Sources Further reading" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life cycle.", "Intraspecific variations.", "Host range.", "Pooideae.", "Arundinoideae.", "Chloridoideae.", "Panicoideae.", "Epidemiology.", "Effects.", "Culture.", "Speculations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "An \"ergot kernel\" called \"Sclerotium clavus\" develops when a floret of flowering grass or cereal is infected by an ascospore of \"C. purpurea\". The infection process mimics a pollen grain growing into an ovary during fertilization. Because infection requires access of the fungal spore to the stigma, plants infected by \"C. purpurea\" are mainly outcrossing species with open flowers, such as rye (\"Secale cereale\") and Alopecurus. The proliferating fungal mycelium then destroys the plant ovary and connects with the vascular bundle originally intended for feeding the developing seed. The first stage of ergot infection manifests itself as a white soft tissue (known as \"Sphacelia segetum\") producing sugary honeydew, which often drops out of the infected grass florets. This honeydew contains millions of asexual spores (conidia) which are dispersed to other florets by insects or rain. Later, the \"Sphacelia segetum\" convert into a hard dry \"Sclerotium clavus\" inside the husk of the floret. At this stage, alkaloids and lipids (e.g. ricinoleic acid) accumulate in the Sclerotium. When a mature \"Sclerotium\" drops to the ground, the fungus remains dormant until proper conditions trigger its fruiting phase (onset of spring, rain period, need of fresh temperatures during winter, etc.). It germinates, forming one or several fruiting bodies with head and stipe, variously colored (resembling a tiny mushroom). In the head, threadlike sexual spores (ascospores) are formed in perithecia, which are ejected simultaneously, when suitable grass hosts are flowering. Ergot infection causes a reduction in the yield and quality of grain and hay produced, and if infected grain or hay is fed to livestock it may cause a disease called ergotism. \"Polistes dorsalis\", a species of social wasps, have been recorded as a vector of the spread of this particular fungus. During their foraging behavior, particles of the fungal conidia get bound to parts of this wasp's body. As \"P. dorsalis\" travels from source to source, it leaves the fungal infection behind. Insects, including flies and moths, have also been shown to carry conidia of \"Claviceps\" species, but if insects play a role in spreading the fungus from infected to healthy plants is unknown.", "Early scientists have observed \"Claviceps purpurea\" on other Poaceae as \"Secale cereale\". 1855, Grandclement described ergot on \"Triticum aestivum\". During more than a century scientists aimed to describe specialized species or specialized varieties inside the species \"Claviceps purpurea\". Later scientists tried to determine host varieties as Molecular biology has not confirmed this hypothesis but has distinguished three groups differing in their ecological specificity. Morphological criteria to distinguish different groups: The shape and the size of sclerotia are not good indicators because they strongly depend on the size and shape of the host floret. The size of conidia can be an indication but it is weak and it is necessary to pay attention to that, due to osmotic pressure, it varies significantly if the spores are observed in honeydew or in water. The sclerotial density can be used as the groups G2 and G3 float in water. The compound of alkaloids is also used to differentiate the strains.", "", "\"Agrostis canina\", \"Alopecurus myosuroides\" (G2), \"Alopecurus arundinaceus\" (G2), \"Alopecurus pratensis\", \"Bromus arvensis\", \"Bromus commutatus\", \"Bromus hordeaceus\" (G2), \"Bromus inermis\", \"Bromus marginatus\", \"Elymus tsukushiense\", \"Festuca arundinacea\", \"Elytrigia repens\" (G1), \"Nardus stricta\", \"Poa annua\" (G2), \"Phleum pratense\", \"Phalaris arundinacea\" (G2), \"Poa pratensis\" (G1), \"Stipa\".", "\"Danthonia\", \"Molinia caerulea\".", "\"Spartina\", \"Distichlis\" (G3)", "\"Setaria\"", "\"Claviceps purpurea\" has been known to mankind for a long time, and its appearance has been linked to extremely cold winters that were followed by rainy springs. The sclerotial stage of \"C. purpurea\" conspicuous on the heads of ryes and other such grains is known as ergot. Sclerotia germinate in spring after a period of low temperature. A temperature of 0-5 °C for at least 25 days is required. Water before the cold period is also necessary. Favorable temperatures for stroma production are in the range of 10-25 °C. Favorable temperatures for mycelial growth are in the range of 20-30 °C with an optimum at 25 °C. Sunlight has a chromogenic effect on the mycelium with intense coloration.", "The disease cycle of the ergot fungus was first described in 1853, but the connection with ergot and epidemics among people and animals was reported already in a scientific text in 1676. The ergot sclerotium contains high concentrations (up to 2% of dry mass) of the alkaloid ergotamine, a complex molecule consisting of a tripeptide-derived cyclol-lactam ring connected via amide linkage to a lysergic acid (ergoline) moiety, and other alkaloids of the ergoline group that are biosynthesized by the fungus. Ergot alkaloids have a wide range of biological activities including effects on circulation and neurotransmission. Ergotism is the name for sometimes severe pathological syndromes affecting humans or animals that have ingested ergot alkaloid-containing plant material, such as ergot-contaminated grains. Monks of the order of St. Anthony the Great specialized in treating ergotism victims with balms containing tranquilizing and circulation-stimulating plant extracts; they were also skilled in amputations. The common name for ergotism is \"St. Anthony's Fire\", in reference to monks who cared for victims as well as symptoms, such as severe burning sensations in the limbs. These are caused by effects of ergot alkaloids on the vascular system due to vasoconstriction of blood vessels, sometimes leading to gangrene and loss of limbs due to severely restricted blood circulation. The neurotropic activities of the ergot alkaloids may also cause hallucinations and attendant irrational behaviour, convulsions, and even death. Other symptoms include strong uterine contractions, nausea, seizures, and unconsciousness. Since the Middle Ages, controlled doses of ergot were used to induce abortions and to stop maternal bleeding after childbirth. Ergot alkaloids are also used in products such as Cafergot (containing caffeine and ergotamine or ergoline) to treat migraine headaches. Ergot extract is no longer used as a pharmaceutical preparation. Ergot contains no lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) but rather ergotamine, which is used to synthesize lysergic acid, an analog of and precursor for synthesis of LSD. Moreover, ergot sclerotia naturally contain some amounts of lysergic acid.", "Potato dextrose agar, wheat seeds or oat flour are suitable substrates for growth of the fungus in the laboratory. Agricultural production of Claviceps purpurea on rye is used to produce ergot alkaloids. Biological production of ergot alkaloids is also carried out by saprophytic cultivations.", "During the Middle Ages, human poisoning due to the consumption of rye bread made from ergot-infected grain was common in Europe. These epidemics were known as Saint Anthony's fire, or \"ignis sacer\". Gordon Wasson proposed that the psychedelic effects were the explanation behind the festival of Demeter at the Eleusinian Mysteries, where the initiates drank kykeon\".\" Linnda R. Caporael posited in 1976 that the hysterical symptoms of young women that had spurred the Salem witch trials had been the result of consuming ergot-tainted rye. However, her conclusions were later disputed by Nicholas P. Spanos and Jack Gottlieb, after a review of the historical and medical evidence. Other authors have likewise cast doubt on ergotism having been the cause of the Salem witch trials. The Great Fear in France during the Revolution has also been linked by some historians to the influence of ergot. British author John Grigsby claims that the presence of ergot in the stomachs of some of the so-called 'bog-bodies' (Iron Age human remains from peat bogs N E Europe such as Tollund Man), reveals that ergot was once a ritual drink in a prehistoric fertility cult akin to the Eleusinian Mysteries cult of ancient Greece. In his book Beowulf and Grendel he argues that the Anglo-Saxon poem Beowulf is based on a memory of the quelling of this fertility cult by followers of Odin. He states that Beowulf, which he translates as \"barley-wolf\", suggests a connection to ergot which in German was known as the 'tooth of the wolf'. An outbreak of violent hallucinations among hundreds of residents of Pont St. Esprit in 1951 in the south of France has also been attributed to ergotism. Seven people died." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "Taxonomy.", "Classification and phylogeny.", "Species.", "Toxicity.", "Uses." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Species of \"Mandragora\" are perennial herbaceous plants. They have large vertical tap-roots, sometimes forked. Their stems are short or virtually absent. The leaves form a rosette at the base of the plant. The flowers are sometimes borne on a short stalk (scape), and are solitary, with whorls of five parts. The sepals are joined at the base, as are the petals, both in the shape of a lobed bell. The stamens are shorter than the petals, joined to the floral tube towards the base. The ovary has two chambers (locules). After fertilization, a yellow or orange fruit forms (botanically a berry).", "The genus \"Mandragora\" was first used in 1753 by Carl Linnaeus in the first edition of \"Species Plantarum\" where the Mediterranean species \"Mandragora officinarum\" was described, which is thus the type species of the genus. (Linnaeus later changed his mind and in 1759 placed \"M. officinarum\" in the genus \"Atropa\" as \"A. mandragora\".) Jackson and Berry (1979) and Ungricht et al. (1998) have documented the subsequent confusion over the number of Mediterranean species of \"Mandragora\" and their scientific names. Dioscorides was among those who distinguished between \"male\" and \"female\" mandrakes, a distinction used in 1764 when Garsault published the names \"Mandragora mas\" and \"Mandragora foemina\". The size and shape of the fruit and the colour and time of appearance of the flowers have been used to distinguish possible species. In the 1820s, Antonio Bertoloni used flowering time to name two species as \"Mandragora vernalis\", the spring-flowering mandrake, and \"Mandragora autumnalis\", the autumn-flowering mandrake. Identifying the former as Linnaeus's \"M. officinarum\", works such as \"Flora Europaea\" listed two Mediterranean species of \"Mandragora\": \"M. officinarum\" and \"M. autumnalis\". Using statistical analysis of morphological characters, Ungricht et al. found no distinct clusters among the specimens they examined and concluded that Linnaeus's \"M. officinarum\" is a single, variable species. Other sources divide \"M. officinarum\" sensu lato differently. Plants from the western Mediterranean, from Turkey westwards to the Iberian peninsula and Morocco, are placed in \"M. officinarum\"; plants from the eastern Mediterranean, from Syria to Israel, are placed in \"M. autumnalis\".", "Traditionally, \"Mandragora\" has been considered to be closely related to \"Atropa\" and \"Lycium\", being grouped together in the same tribe or subtribe as at least the first of these genera. Molecular phylogenetic studies suggest that the genus belongs in the large subfamily Solanoideae, but that within this subfamily it is one of a number of isolated genera with no immediate relatives. It has thus been placed in its own tribe, Mandragoreae. Within the genus, studies have used different circumscriptions of the Mediterranean mandrakes. Two studies which separate plants found in the Levant (\"Mandragora autumnalis\") from those found in the rest of the Mediterranean area (\"Mandragora officinarum\") suggest that there are two clades in the genus: one based in the Mediterranean and beyond to Turkmenistan and Iran, and one in the Sino-Himalayan region. A simplified cladogram based on these studies is shown below. In one of the studies, \"M. chinghaiensis\" was embedded within \"M. caulescens\". The Solanaceae are primarily a New World family. It is suggested that \"Mandragora\" originated around 20 million years ago, arriving in Eurasia through the agency of birds, with the main split between the species occurring around 10 million years ago.", ", major online plant databases (such as Tropicos, The Plant List, and GRIN Taxonomy for Plants) accept different numbers of species in the genus \"Mandragora\". Three species are accepted in a 1998 review of the genus and by GRIN. Other sources keep \"M. autumnalis\" and \"M. chinghaiensis\" as separate species.", "Like many members of the Solanaceae, species of \"Mandragora\" contain highly biologically active alkaloids, tropane alkaloids in particular. Hanuš et al. reviewed the phytochemistry of \"Mandragora\" species. More than 80 substances have been identified; their paper gives the detailed chemical structure of 37 of them. The different parts of the plant contain different proportions and concentrations of alkaloids, with the roots having the highest concentration. Alkaloids present include atropine, apoatropine, belladonnine, cuscohygrine, hyoscyamine, scopolamine (hyoscine), 3α-tigloyloxytropane and 3α,6β-ditigloyloxytropane. \"M. caulescens\" and \"M. turcomanica\" are also reported to contain anisodamine. Clinical reports of the effects of consumption of plants described as \"Mandragora autumnalis\" (\"Mandragora offinarum\" s.l.) include severe symptoms similar to those of atropine poisoning, including blurred vision, dilation of the pupils (mydriasis), dryness of the mouth, difficulty in urinating, dizziness, headache, vomiting, blushing and a rapid heart rate (tachycardia). Hyperactivity and hallucinations also occurred in the majority of patients.", "\"Mandragora\" species have a long use in traditional medicine, extracts being used for their real or supposed aphrodisiac, hypnotic, emetic, purgative, sedative and pain-killing effects. Tropane alkaloids are known to be effective as analgesics and anaesthetics, and can be used to increase circulation and dilate pupils, among other effects. Hyoscine and anisodamine are used medicinally in China. Continued use of \"M. autumnalis\" in folk medicine was reported in Sicily in 2014. \"M. caulescens\" (as \"M. chinghaiensis\") has been listed as a Chinese medicinal plant needing conservation. The presence of deliriant and hallucinogenic alkaloids and the sometimes vaguely humanoid shape of their roots have led to mandrakes being associated with a variety of myths and superstitious practices throughout history. However, the plants used in this way are not always species of \"Mandragora\"; for example, bryony (\"Bryonia\") is explicitly mentioned as the source of a \"mandrake\" or \"mandragora\" in some sources." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and career.", "Marriage and family.", "First Lady of Texas.", "First Lady of the United States.", "Education and children.", "September 11 attacks.", "Women's health and rights.", "Campaigning.", "Popularity and style.", "Foreign trips.", "Views on policy.", "Legacy.", "Subsequent activities.", "Libraries.", "Laura W. Bush Institute for Women's Health.", "Writings and recordings.", "Awards and honors.", "In popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Laura Lane Welch was born on November 4, 1946, at Midland Memorial Hospital in Midland, Texas, the only child of Harold Welch and Jenna Louise Hawkins Welch. Bush is of English, French, and Swiss ancestry. Her father was a house builder and later successful real estate developer, while her mother worked as the bookkeeper for her father's business. Early on, her parents encouraged her to read, leading to what would become her love of reading. She said, \"I learned [how important reading is] at home from my mother. When I was a little girl, my mother would read stories to me. I have loved books and going to the library ever since. In the summer, I liked to spend afternoons reading in the library. I enjoyed the \"Little House on the Prairie\" and \"Little Women\" books, and many others... Reading gives you enjoyment throughout your life.\" Bush has also credited her second grade teacher, Charlene Gnagy, for inspiring her interest in education. On the night of November 6, 1963, two days after her 17th birthday, Laura Welch ran a stop sign and struck another car, killing its driver. The victim was her close friend and classmate Michael Dutton Douglas. By some accounts, Douglas", "She met George W. Bush in July 1977 when mutual friends Joe and Jan O'Neill invited her and Bush to a backyard barbecue at their home. He proposed to her at the end of September and they were married on November 5 of that year, the day after her 31st birthday, at the First United Methodist Church in Midland, the same church in which she had been baptized. Laura bought a tan, two-toned dress off the rack for the wedding. The couple honeymooned in Cozumel, Mexico. George W. Bush detailed his choice to marry Laura as the \"best decision of [his] life\". Laura, an only child, said she gained \"brothers and sisters and wonderful in-laws\" who all accepted her after she wed George W. Bush. The year after their marriage, the couple began campaigning for George W. Bush's 1978 Congressional candidacy. According to George Bush, when he asked her to marry him, she had said, \"Yes. But only if you promise me that I'll never have to make a campaign speech.\" She soon relented, and gave her first stump speech for him in 1978 on the courthouse steps in Muleshoe, Texas. After narrowly winning the primary, he", "Bush became the First Lady of Texas when her husband was elected as the Governor of Texas and served as first lady of that state from January 17, 1995, to December 21, 2000. When asked about her interest in politics, she responded \"It doesn't drive me.\" Though during her years in the Governor's Mansion, she did not hold a single formal event, Laura worked for women's and children's causes including health, education, and literacy. She implemented four major initiatives: Take Time For Kids, an awareness campaign to educate parents and caregivers on parenting; family literacy, through cooperation with the Barbara Bush Foundation for Family Literacy, she urged Texas communities to establish family literacy programs; Reach Out and Read, a pediatric reading program; and Ready to Read, an early childhood educational program.", "As First Lady, Bush was involved in issues of concern to children and women, both nationally and internationally. Her major initiatives included education and women's health.", "Early into the administration, Bush made it known that she would focus much of her attention on education. This included recruiting highly qualified teachers to ensure that young children would be taught well. She also focused on early child development. In 2001, to promote reading and education, she partnered with the Library of Congress to launch the annual National Book Festival. In January 2002, Bush testified before the Senate Committee on Education, asking for higher teachers' salaries and better training for Head", "On September 11, 2001, Bush had been hosting her in-laws George H. W. Bush and Barbara Bush at the White House and was scheduled to give a testimony to Congress on education. Instead, during the September 11 attacks, Bush was taken to inside the White House and placed in an underground bunker, later being met by her husband, who had returned to Washington from Florida. Two weeks after the September 11 terrorist", "Another of her signature issues were those relating to the health and well being of women. She established the Women's Health and Wellness Initiative and became involved with two major campaigns. Bush first became involved with The Heart Truth awareness campaign in 2003. It is an organization established by the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute to raise awareness about heart disease in women, and how to prevent the condition. She serves in the honorary position of ambassador for the program leading the federal government's effort to give women a \"wake", "Bush campaigned for Republicans around the country in 2002 for that year's midterm elections, attending and hosting fundraisers as well as giving speeches that were deemed as the Bush administration \"working against women's rights issues and using women to do their dirty work\" and partly a test for Bush on how well she could campaign for her husband in the impending two years when he sought re-election. During the 2004 election cycle, Bush made joint appearances with her husband on the campaign trail, including in battleground states such as Florida. She advocated for his re-election in a speech at the 2004 Republican National Convention, and was credited with having raised $15 million for her husband's campaign as well as the Republican Party while still succeeding in keeping a separate schedule that allowed for her to tend to the traditional duties she had as First Lady. In", "Laura Bush's approval ratings have consistently ranked very high. In January 2006, a \"USA Today\"/CBS/Gallup poll recorded her approval rating at 82 percent and disapproval at 13 percent. That places Bush as one of the most popular first ladies. Former White House Press Secretary Ari Fleischer said, \"She is more popular, and more welcome, in many parts of the country than the president... In races where the moderates are in the most trouble, Laura Bush is the one who can do the most good.\" Sady Doyle reasoned that Bush was hard to dislike due to her adopting \"the least partisan causes\" such as literacy and breast cancer, which would attract the support of most Americans and her coming off as a \"mild, polite, ordinary woman who might go to church with your mother, or organize suburban potlucks\". Doyle furthered that her statements were never enough to offend others and the harshest criticism that could be bestowed upon her was that she was boring. She disagreed with Fox News' Chris Wallace in 2006 when Wallace", "During her husband's second term, Bush was more involved in foreign matters. She traveled to numerous countries as a representative of the United States. As First Lady, she took five goodwill trips to Africa. The purpose of these has mostly been to raise awareness about HIV/AIDS and malaria, but Bush has also stressed the need for education and greater opportunities for women. She has taken many other trips to other countries to promote and gain support for President Bush's Emergency Plan for AIDS relief;", "Bush is a Republican and has identified herself with the GOP since her marriage. When asked about abortion in 2000, Bush said she did not believe \"Roe v. Wade\" should be overturned. She did not comment on whether women had the right to an abortion. She did say, however, that the country should do \"what we can to limit the number of abortions, to try to reduce the number of abortions in a lot of ways, and that is, by talking about responsibility with girls and boys, by", "In late October 2008, days before that year's presidential election, Bush hosted a three-hour session with staffers and historians discussing how she would like to be remembered, leading to this meeting being termed the \"legacy lunch\". According to historian Myra Gutin, this was the first time in history that a First Lady had ever directly reached out to historians to talk about her accomplishments. Attendants of the meeting said that Bush wanted to change the perception that she was a traditional First Lady in that she always stayed by her husband's side. At a 2014 National Press Club, Anita McBride opined that it would be harder for", "In February 2009, the month after she and her husband left office, Laura and George W. Bush moved into a new residence in Dallas. In November 2009, the former First Lady, accompanied by her husband, made a visit to families of veterans in Fort Hood. The couple expressed their wishes that the trip not be publicized. However, Fox News revealed the trip the following morning. In May 2010, Bush released her memoir, \"Spoken from the Heart\", in conjunction with a national tour. On May 11, 2010, during an interview on \"Larry King Live\", Bush was asked about same-sex marriage. She said she viewed it as a generational issue and believed it would be made legal in the future. Bush offered support for the issue by saying \"when couples are committed to each other and love each other... they ought to have the same sort of rights that everyone has.\" Bush referred to her 2000 interview, reaffirming her support for \"Roe v. Wade\", \"I think it's important that [abortion] remain legal. Because I think it's important for people – that for medical reasons and, and other reasons.\" On February 22, 2013, without her consent, she was included in a pro-gay advertisement from the Respect of Marriage Coalition. A statement from Bush's spokesperson states that Bush \"did not approve of her inclusion in this advertisement nor is she associated with the group that made the ad in any way. When she became aware of the advertisement last night, we requested that the group remove her from it.\" Bush continued to remain involved and concerned over the state of women in Afghanistan, speaking out editorials and appearances during 2013 that the women and girls who had been helped could not be abandoned during and after the planned withdrawal of U.S. troops from Afghanistan. In March 2016, Bush wrote an op-ed for \"The Washington Post\" on changes occurring among women in Afghanistan while noting continued violence and calling for American involvement in Afghanistan to be consistent and predictable in continuing along with the international community \"to provide significant development assistance in the areas of health care, entrepreneurship and education\". In June 2016, Bush stated that she hoped the US remained in Afghanistan and had consulted with women there who feared the departure of American troops would create \"a vacuum\" similar to Iraq, furthering that the US \"would have to start all over again\" in the event that they withdrew troops. In late 2017, Bush and First Lady of Afghanistan Rula Ghani traveled to Washington to rally lawmaker support for Afghanistan and women there. In April 2015, Bush criticized Rand Paul's isolationist stance on U.S. foreign aid, calling the view \"not really realistic\" and asserting the United States should save lives whenever it can. August, she shared the first public photos of her newborn granddaughter Poppy Louise.", "Bush created the Laura Bush Foundation for America's Libraries \"to support the education of our nation's children by providing funds to update, extend, and diversify the book and print collections of America's school libraries\". Every year, the Laura Bush Foundation's grants awards more than $1,000,000 to US schools. The Laura Bush 21st Century Library Program grant, offered by the Institute of Museum and Library Services, provides funding for \"the recruitment and education of library students and continuing education for those", "In August 2007, the Laura W. Bush Institute for Women's Health (LWBIWH) was founded at the Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center. This institute aims to integrate research, education and community outreach in a multidisciplinary approach to women's health and has begun efforts to establish", "Bush wrote her first book with her daughter Jenna called \"Read All About It!\". It was published on April 23, 2008. Bush's memoir, \"Spoken from the Heart\", was published in 2010. The book received mixed review from", "During and after her tenure as the First Lady, Laura Bush received a number of awards and honors. In October 2002, the Elie Wiesel Foundation for Humanity honored her in recognition of her efforts on behalf of education. Also in 2002, she was named Barbara Walters' Most Fascinating Person of the year. The American Library Association honored her for her years of support to America's libraries and librarians in April 2005. The Progressive Librarians Guild opposed her being honored, because of her support of the USA PATRIOT Act, her cancellation of a poetry forum due to concern that some of the poets would express opposition to the war in Iraq, and the Guild's opposition to policies and spending priorities of her husband's administration. On October 18, 2003, she was conferred by the former president Gloria Macapagal Arroyo the Order of Gabriela Silang, a single-class order which makes her the first U.S. First Lady recipient during the state visit of President George Bush to the Philippines. She received an award in honor of her", "Laura Bush is portrayed by Elizabeth Banks in Oliver Stone's film \"W.\" Curtis Sittenfeld's bestseller novel \"American Wife\" is based on much of her life. In 2005 her biography \"The Perfect Wife: The Life and Choices of Laura Bush\" by Ann Gerhart was published. In 2006 another biography was also published called \"Laura Bush: An Intimate Portrait of the First Lady\" by Ronald Kessler. Bush appeared in the last season of HGTV's Fixer Upper." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Birth.", "Education.", "The 6th Party Congress and heir apparent (1980–1994).", "Leader of North Korea.", "Economic policies.", "Foreign relations.", "Cult of personality.", "Human rights record.", "Health and rumors of waning power.", "2008 reports.", "Successor.", "Re-election as leader.", "2010 and 2011 foreign visits.", "Late 2011.", "Personal life.", "Family.", "Personality.", "Finances.", "Death.", "Official titles.", "Published works." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The exact birth place of Kim Jong-il is unknown. Soviet records show that Kim was born Yuri Irsenovich Kim (). In literature, it is assumed that he was born in 1941 in either the camp of Vyatskoye, near Khabarovsk, or camp Voroshilov near Nikolsk. According to Lim Jae-Cheon, Kim cannot have been born in Vyatskoye as Kim Il-sung's war records show that he arrived at Vyatskoye only in July 1942 and has been living in Voroshilov before. Kim's mother, Kim Jong-suk, was Kim Il-sung's first wife. Inside his family, he was nicknamed \"Yura\", while his younger brother Kim", "According to his official biography, Kim completed the course of general education between September 1950 and August 1960. He attended Primary School No. 4 and Middle School No. 1 (Namsan Higher Middle School) in Pyongyang. This is contested by foreign academics, who believe he is more likely to have received his early education in the People's Republic of China as a precaution to ensure his safety during the Korean War. Throughout his schooling, Kim was involved in politics. He was active in the Korean Children's Union and the Democratic Youth League of North", "By the time of the Sixth Party Congress in October 1980, Kim's control of the Party operation was complete. He was given senior posts in the Presidium, the Military Commission and the party Secretariat. According to his official biography, the WPK Central Committee had already anointed him successor to Kim Il-sung in February 1974. When he was made a member of the Seventh Supreme People's Assembly in February 1982, international observers deemed him the heir apparent of North Korea. Prior to 1980, he had no public profile and was referred to only as the \"Party Centre\". At this time Kim assumed the title \"Dear Leader\" (), the government began building a personality cult around him patterned after that of his father, the \"Great Leader\". Kim was regularly hailed by the media as the \"fearless leader\" and \"the great successor to the revolutionary cause\". He emerged as the most powerful figure behind his father in North Korea. On 24 December 1991, Kim was also named Supreme Commander of the Korean People's Army. Defence Minister Oh Jin-wu, one of Kim Il-sung's most loyal subordinates, engineered Kim's acceptance by the Army as the next leader of North Korea, despite his lack of military service. The only other possible leadership candidate, Prime Minister Kim Il (no relation), was removed from his posts in 1976. In 1992, Kim Il-sung publicly stated that his son was in charge of", "On 8 July 1994, Kim il-sung died at the age of 82 from a heart attack. Although Kim Jong-il had been his father's designated successor as early as 1974, named commander-in-chief in 1991, and became Supreme Leader upon his father's death, it took him some time to consolidate his power. He officially took over his father's old post as General Secretary of the Workers' Party of Korea on 8 October 1997. In 1998, he was reelected as chairman of the National Defence Commission, and a constitutional amendment declared that post to be \"the highest post of the state.\" Also in 1998, the Supreme People's Assembly wrote the president's post out of the constitution and designated Kim Il-sung as the country's \"Eternal President\" in order to honor his memory forever. Officially, Kim was part of a triumvirate heading the executive branch of the North Korean government along with Premier Choe Yong-rim and parliament chairman Kim Yong-nam (no relation). Kim commanded the armed forces, Choe Yong-rim headed the government and handled domestic affairs and Kim Yong-nam handled foreign relations. However, in practice Kim exercised absolute control over the government and the country. Although not required to stand for popular election to his key offices, he was unanimously elected to the Supreme People's Assembly every five years, representing a military constituency, due to his concurrent capacities as supreme commander of the KPA and chairman of the NDC.", "Kim had a \"reputation for being almost comically incompetent in matters of economic management\". The economy of North Korea struggled throughout the 1990s, primarily due to mismanagement. In addition, North Korea experienced severe floods in the mid-1990s, exacerbated by poor land management. This, compounded with the fact that only 18% of North Korea is arable land and the country's inability to import the goods necessary to sustain industry, led to a severe famine and left North Korea economically devastated. Faced with a country in decay, Kim adopted a \"Military-First\" policy to strengthen the country and reinforce the regime. On the national scale, the Japanese Foreign Ministry acknowledges that this has resulted in a positive growth rate for the", "Kim was known as a skilled and manipulative diplomat. In 1998, South Korean President Kim Dae-jung implemented the \"Sunshine Policy\" to improve North-South relations and to allow South Korean companies to start projects in the North. Kim announced plans to import and develop new technologies to develop North Korea's fledgling software industry. As a result of the new policy, the Kaesong Industrial Park was constructed in 2003 just north of the de-militarized zone. In 1994, North Korea and the United States", "Kim was the focus of an elaborate personality cult inherited from his father and founder of the DPRK, Kim Il-sung. Kim Jong-il was often the centre of attention throughout ordinary life in the DPRK. On his 60th birthday (based on his official date of birth), mass celebrations occurred throughout the country on the occasion of his Hwangap. In 2010, the North Korean media reported that Kim's distinctive", "According to a 2004 Human Rights Watch report, the North Korean government under Kim was \"among the world's most repressive governments\", having up to 200,000 political prisoners according to U.S. and South Korean officials, with no freedom of", "", "In an August 2008 issue of the Japanese newsweekly \"Shūkan Gendai\", Waseda University professor Toshimitsu Shigemura, an authority on the Korean Peninsula, claimed that Kim died of diabetes in late 2003 and had been replaced in public appearances by one or more stand-ins previously employed to protect him from assassination attempts. In a subsequent best-selling book, \"The True Character of Kim Jong-il\", Shigemura cited apparently unnamed people close to Kim's family along with Japanese and South Korean intelligence sources, claiming they confirmed Kim's diabetes took a turn for the worse early in 2000 and from then until his supposed death three and a half years later he was using a wheelchair. Shigemura moreover claimed a voiceprint analysis of Kim speaking in 2004 did not match a known earlier recording. It was also noted that Kim did not appear in public for the Olympic torch relay in Pyongyang on 28 April 2008. The question had reportedly \"baffled foreign intelligence agencies for years\". On 9 September 2008, various sources reported that after he did not show up that day for a military parade", "Kim's three sons and his brother-in-law, along with O Kuk-ryol, an army general, had been noted as possible successors, but the North Korean government had for a time been wholly silent on this matter. Kim Yong Hyun, a political expert at the Institute for North Korean Studies at Seoul's Dongguk University, said in 2007: \"Even the North Korean establishment would not advocate a continuation of the family dynasty at this point\".", "On 9 April 2009, Kim was re-elected as chairman of the National Defence Commission and made an appearance at the Supreme People's Assembly. This was", "Kim reportedly visited the People's Republic of China in May 2010. He entered the country via his personal train on 3 May and stayed in a hotel in Dalian. In May 2010, Assistant U.S. Secretary of State for East Asian and Pacific Affairs Kurt Campbell told South Korean officials that Kim had only three years to live, according to", "There were speculations that the visits of Kim abroad in 2010 and 2011 were a sign of his improving", "", "There is no official information available about Kim Jong-il's marital history, but he is believed to have been officially married twice and to have had three mistresses. He had three known sons: Kim Jong-nam, Kim Jong-chul and Kim Jong-un. His two known daughters are Kim Sul-song and Kim Yo-jong. Kim's first wife, Hong Il-chon, was the daughter of a martyr who died during the Korean War. She was handpicked by his father and married to him in 1966. They have a girl called Kim Hye-kyung, who was born in 1968. Soon, they divorced in 1969. Kim's first mistress, Song Hye-rim, was a star of North Korean films. She was already married to another man and with a child when they met. Kim is reported to have forced her husband to divorce her. This relationship, started in 1970, was not officially recognized. They had one son, Kim Jong-nam (1971–2017), who was Kim Jong-il's eldest son. Kim kept both the relationship and the child a secret (even from his father) until he ascended to power in 1994. However, after", "Like his father, Kim had a fear of flying and always travelled by private armored train for state visits to Russia and China. The BBC reported that Konstantin Pulikovsky, a Russian emissary who travelled with Kim across Russia by train, told reporters that Kim had live lobsters air-lifted to the train every day and ate them with silver chopsticks. Kim was said to be a huge film fan, owning a collection of more than 20,000 video tapes and DVDs. His reported favourite movie franchises included \"James", "According to a 2010 report in the \"Sunday Telegraph\", Kim had US$4billion on deposit in European", "It was reported that Kim had died of a suspected heart attack on 17 December 2011 at 8:30a.m. while travelling by train to an area outside Pyongyang. It was reported in December 2012, however, that he had died \"in a fit of rage\" over construction faults at a crucial power plant project at Huichon in Jagang Province. He was succeeded by his youngest son Kim Jong-un, who was hailed by the Korean Central News Agency as the \"Great Successor\". According to the Korean Central News Agency (KCNA), during his death a fierce snowstorm \"paused\" and \"the sky glowed red above the sacred Mount Paektu\" and the ice on a famous lake also cracked so loud that it seemed to \"shake the Heavens and the Earth.\" Kim's funeral took place on 28 December in Pyongyang, with", "Kim received numerous titles during his rule. In April 2009, North Korea's", "According to North Korean sources, Kim published some 890 works during a period of his career from June 1964 to June 1994. According to KCNA, the number of works from 1964 to 2001 was 550. In 2000, it was reported that the Workers' Party of Korea Publishing House has published at least 120 works by Kim. In 2009, KCNA put the numbers as follows: The \"Selected Works of Kim Jong-il (Enlarged Edition)\", whose publishing has continued posthumously, runs into volume 24 in Korean and to volume 15 in English. Volumes three to eight were never published in English. The \"Complete Collection of Kim Jong-il's Works\" is currently in volume 13. There is a \"Kim Jong-il's Works Exhibition House\" dedicated to his works in North Korea, holding 1,100 of his works and manuscripts. In his teens and university years, Kim wrote poems. He also wrote song lyrics. His first major literary work was \"On the Art of the Cinema\" in 1973." ] }