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StivenLancheros

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Medieval.", "Early modern.", "English Civil War.", "Late modern.", "20th and 21st centuries.", "Geography.", "Physical.", "Location.", "Climate.", "Human.", "Suburbs.", "Green belt.", "Economy.", "Car production.", "Publishing.", "Science and technology.", "Education.", "Brewing.", "Bellfounding.", "Shopping.", "Landmarks.", "University of Oxford.", "The city centre.", "The Bodleian Library.", "Museums and galleries.", "Parks and nature walks.", "Transport.", "Air.", "Buses.", "Coach.", "Cycling.", "Rail.", "Rail–airport links.", "River and canal.", "Roads.", "A roads.", "Motorway.", "Education.", "Universities and colleges.", "Media.", "Culture.", "Literature and film.", "Music.", "Sport.", "Football.", "Rugby league.", "Rugby union.", "Speedway and greyhound racing.", "Hockey.", "Ice hockey.", "American football.", "Cricket.", "Rowing.", "Other sports.", "International relations.", "Freedom of the City." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Oxford was first settled by the Anglo-Saxons and was initially known as Oxenaforda, meaning \"ford of the oxen\", as referenced in Florence of Worcester's \"Chronicon ex chronicis\". A river crossing for oxen began around AD 900. In the 10th century, Oxford became an important military frontier town between the kingdoms of Mercia and Wessex and was raided by Danes. In 1002, many Danes were killed in Oxford during the St. Brice's Day massacre ordered by Æthelred the Unready. The skeletons of more than thirty suspected victims were unearthed in 2008 during the course of building work at St John's College. The ‘massacre’ was a contributing factor to King Sweyn I of Denmark’s invasion of England in 1003 and the sacking of Oxford by the Danes in 1004. Oxford was heavily damaged during the Norman Invasion of 1066. Following the conquest, the town was assigned to a governor, Robert D'Oyly, who ordered the construction of Oxford Castle to confirm Norman authority over the area. The castle has never been used for military purposes and its remains survive to this day. D'Oyly set up a monastic community in the castle", "", "During the English Civil War, Oxford housed the court of Charles I in 1642, after the king was expelled from London. The town yielded to Parliamentarian forces under General Fairfax in the Siege of Oxford of 1646. It later housed the court of Charles II during the Great Plague of London in 1665–66. Although reluctant to do so, he was forced to evacuate when the plague got too close. The city suffered two serious fires in 1644 and 1671.", "In 1790, the Oxford Canal connected the city with Coventry. The Duke's Cut was completed by the Duke of Marlborough in 1789 to link the new canal with the River Thames; and, in 1796, the Oxford Canal company built its own link to the Thames, at Isis Lock. In 1844, the Great Western Railway linked Oxford with London via Didcot and Reading, and other rail routes soon followed. In the 19th century, the controversy surrounding the Oxford Movement in the Anglican Church drew attention to the city as a focus of theological thought. A permanent military presence was established in the city with", "During the First World War, the population of Oxford changed. The number of University members was significantly reduced as students, fellows and staff enlisted. Some of their places in college accommodation were taken by soldiers in training. Another reminder of the ongoing war was found in the influx of wounded and disabled soldiers, who were treated in new hospitals housed in buildings such as the university's Examination School, the town hall and Somerville College. By the early 20th century, there was rapid industrial and population", "", "", "Oxford's latitude and longitude are or (at Carfax Tower, which is usually considered the centre). Oxford is north-west of Reading, north-east of Swindon, east of Cheltenham and east of Gloucester, south-west of Milton", "Oxford has a maritime temperate climate (Köppen: \"Cfb\"). Precipitation is uniformly distributed throughout the year and is provided mostly by weather systems that arrive from the Atlantic. The lowest temperature ever recorded in Oxford was in December 1860. The highest temperature ever recorded in Oxford is in July 2019 during the 2019 European heat wave. Oxford's climate is similar to that of Pershore, Worcestershire. The average conditions below are from the Radcliffe Meteorological Station. It boasts the longest series of temperature and rainfall records for one site in Britain. These records are continuous from January 1815. Irregular observations of rainfall, cloud and temperature exist from 1767. The driest year on record was 1788, with of rainfall. Whereas, the wettest year was 1960, with. The wettest month on record was September 1774. The warmest month on record is July 1921, with an average of and the coldest is January 1963, with an average of. The warmest year on record is 1949, with an average of and the coldest are 1829 and 1879, both with a mean temperature of.", "Twenty-two percent of the population come from black or ethnic minority (BME) groups.", "Aside from the city centre, there are several suburbs and neighbourhoods", "Oxford is at the centre of the Oxford Green Belt, which is an environmental and planning policy that regulates the rural space in Oxfordshire surrounding the city which aims to prevent urban sprawl and minimize convergence with nearby settlements. The policy has been blamed for the large rise in house prices in Oxford, making it the least affordable city in the UK outside London, with estate agents calling for brownfield land inside the green belt to be released for new housing. The vast majority of area covered is outside the city, but there are some green spaces within that are covered by the designation such as much of the Thames and Cherwell river flood-meadows, and the village of Binsey, along with several smaller portions on the fringes. Other landscape features and places of interest covered include Cutteslowe Park and the mini railway attraction, the University Parks, Hogacre Common Eco Park, numerous sports grounds, Aston's Eyot, St Margaret's Church and well, and Wolvercote Common and community orchard.", "Oxford's economy includes manufacturing, publishing and science-based industries as well as education, research and tourism.", "Oxford has been an important centre of motor manufacturing since Morris Motors was established in the city in 1910. The principal production site for Mini cars, owned by BMW since 2000,", "Oxford University Press, a department of the University of Oxford, is based in the city, although it no", "The presence of the university has given rise to many science and technology based businesses, including Oxford Instruments, Research Machines and Sophos. The university established Isis Innovation in 1987 to promote technology transfer. The", "The presence of the university has also led to Oxford becoming a centre for the education industry. Companies", "There is a long history of brewing in Oxford. Several of the colleges had private breweries, one of which, at Brasenose, survived until 1889. In the 16th century brewing and malting appear to have been the most popular trades in the city. There were breweries in Brewer Street and Paradise Street, near the Castle Mill Stream. The rapid expansion of Oxford and the development of its railway links after the 1840s facilitated expansion of the brewing trade. As well as expanding the market for Oxford's brewers, railways enabled brewers further from the city to compete for a share of its market. By 1874 there were nine breweries in Oxford and 13 brewers' agents in Oxford shipping beer in from elsewhere. The nine breweries were: Flowers & Co in Cowley Road, Hall's St Giles Brewery, Hall's Swan", "The Taylor family of Loughborough had", "Outside the", "Oxford has numerous major tourist attractions, many belonging to the university and colleges. As well as several famous institutions, the town centre is home to Carfax Tower and the University Church of St Mary the Virgin, both of which offer views over the spires of the city. Many tourists shop at the historic Covered Market. In the summer punting on the Thames/Isis and the Cherwell is popular.", "The University of Oxford is the oldest university in the English-speaking world and one of the most famous and prestigious higher education institutions of the world, averaging nine applications to every available place, and", "As well as being a major draw for tourists (9.1 million in 2008, similar in 2009), Oxford city centre has many shops, several theatres and an ice rink. The historic buildings make this location a popular target for film and TV crews. The city centre is relatively small, and is centred on Carfax, a crossroads which forms the junction of Cornmarket Street (pedestrianised), Queen Street (mainly pedestrianised), St Aldate's and the High Street (\"the High\"; blocked for through traffic). Cornmarket Street and Queen Street are home to Oxford's various chain stores, as well as a small number of independent retailers, one of the", "The University of Oxford maintains the largest university library system in the UK, and, with over 11 million volumes housed on of shelving, the Bodleian group is the second-largest library in the UK, after the British Library. The Bodleian is a legal deposit library, which means that it is entitled to request", "Oxford is home to many museums, galleries, and collections, most of which are free of admission charges and are major tourist attractions. The majority are departments of the University of Oxford. The first of these to be established was the Ashmolean Museum, the world's first university museum, and the oldest museum in the UK. Its first building was erected in 1678–1683 to house a cabinet of curiosities given to the University of Oxford in 1677. The museum reopened in 2009 after a major redevelopment. It holds significant collections of art and archaeology, including works by Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci, Turner, and Picasso, as well as treasures such as the Scorpion Macehead, the Parian Marble and the Alfred Jewel. It also contains \"The Messiah\", a pristine Stradivarius violin, regarded by some as one of the finest examples in existence. The University Museum of Natural History holds the University's zoological, entomological and geological specimens. It is housed in a large", "Oxford is a very green city, with several parks and nature walks within the ring road,", "", "In addition to the larger airports in the region, Oxford is served by nearby Oxford Airport, in Kidlington. The airport", "Bus services in Oxford and its suburbs are run by the Oxford Bus Company and Stagecoach Oxfordshire as well as other operators including Arriva Shires & Essex and Thames Travel. Arriva Shires & Essex operates Sapphire route 280 to Aylesbury via Wheatley, Thame and Haddenham seven days a week, at a frequency of up to every 20 minutes. The new Sapphire buses have three-pin power sockets, leather seats and free, onboard Wi-Fi. Oxford has five park and ride car parks with frequent bus links to the city centre: There are also bus services to the John Radcliffe Hospital (from Thornhill and Water Eaton/Oxford Parkway) and to the Churchill and Nuffield Hospitals (from Thornhill)., Oxford has one of the largest urban park and ride networks in the UK. Its five sites have a combined capacity", "The Oxford to London coach route offers a frequent coach service to London. The Oxford Tube is operated by Stagecoach Oxfordshire and the Oxford Bus Company runs the Airline services to Heathrow", "Among UK cities, Oxford has the", "In 1844, the Great Western Railway linked Oxford with London Paddington via and ; in 1851, the London and North Western Railway opened its own route from Oxford to London Euston, via Bicester, and Watford; and in 1864 a third route, also to Paddington, running via, and, was provided; this was shortened in 1906 by the opening of a direct route between High Wycombe and London Paddington by way of. The distance from Oxford to London was via Bletchley; via Didcot and Reading; via Thame and Maidenhead; and via Denham. Only the original (Didcot) route is still in use for its full length, portions of the others remain. There were also routes to the north and west. The line to was opened in 1850, and was extended to Birmingham Snow Hill in 1852; a route to Worcester opened in 1853. A branch to Witney was opened in 1862, which was extended to in 1873. The line to Witney and Fairford closed in 1962, but the others remain open. Oxford has had three main railway stations.", "From Oxford station direct trains run to where interchange with the Heathrow Express train links with Heathrow Airport.", "Oxford was historically an important port on the River Thames, with this section of the river being called the Isis; the Oxford-Burcot Commission in the 17th century attempted to improve navigation to Oxford. Iffley Lock and Osney Lock lie within the bounds of the city. In the", "Oxford's central location on several transport routes means that it has long been a crossroads city with many coaching inns, although road traffic is now strongly discouraged from using the city centre. From 2020, a new Zero Emission Zone will mean any vehicles which are not zero-emission will be banned from the city centre during certain hours. The Oxford Ring Road surrounds the city centre and close suburbs Marston, Iffley, Cowley and Headington; it consists of the A34 to the west, a 330-yard section of the A44, the A40 north and north-east, A4142/A423 to the east. It is a dual carriageway, except for a 330-yard section of the A40 where two residential service roads adjoin, and was completed in 1966.", "The main", "The city is served by the M40 motorway, which connects London to Birmingham. The M40 approached Oxford in 1974, leading from London to Waterstock, where the A40 continued to Oxford. When the M40 extension to Birmingham was completed in January 1991, it curved sharply north, and a mile of the old motorway became a spur. The M40 comes no closer than away from the city centre, curving to the east of Otmoor. The M40 meets the A34 to the north of Oxford.", "", "There are two universities in Oxford, the University of Oxford and Oxford Brookes University, as well as the", "As well as the BBC national radio stations, Oxford and the surrounding area has several local stations, including BBC Oxford, Heart Thames Valley, Destiny 105, Jack FM and Jack FM 2 along with Oxide: Oxford Student Radio (which went on terrestrial radio at 87.7 MHz FM in late May 2005). A local TV station, Six TV: The Oxford Channel, was also available but closed in April 2009; a service operated by That's TV, originally called That's Oxford (now That's Oxfordshire), took to the airwaves in 2015.", "", "Well-known Oxford-based authors include:", "Holywell Music Room is said to be the oldest purpose-built music room in Europe, and hence Britain's first concert hall. Tradition has it that George Frideric Handel performed there, though there is little evidence. Joseph Haydn was awarded an honorary doctorate by Oxford University in 1791, an event commemorated by three concerts of his music at the Sheldonian Theatre, directed by the composer and from which his Symphony No. 92 earned the nickname of the \"Oxford\" Symphony. Victorian composer Sir John Stainer was organist at Magdalen College and later Professor of Music at the university, and is buried in Holywell", "", "The city's leading football club, Oxford United, are currently in League One, the third tier of league football, though they enjoyed some success in the past in the upper reaches of the league. They were elected to the Football League in 1962, reached the Third Division after three years and the Second Division after six, and most notably reached the First Division in 1985 – 23 years after joining the Football League. They spent three seasons in the top flight, winning the Football League Cup a year after promotion. The 18 years that followed relegation in 1988 saw their fortunes decline gradually, though a brief respite in 1996", "In 2013, Oxford Rugby League entered rugby league's semi-professional Championship 1, the third tier of British rugby league. Oxford Cavaliers, who", "Oxford Harlequins RFC is the city's main Rugby Union team and currently plays in the South West Division. Oxford R.F.C is the oldest city team and currently plays in the Berks, Bucks and Oxon Championship. Their most famous player was arguably Michael James Parsons known as Jim Parsons", "Oxford Cheetahs motorcycle speedway team has raced at Oxford Stadium in Cowley on and off since 1939. The Cheetahs competed in the Elite League and then the Conference League until 2007. They were Britain's most successful club in the late 1980s,", "There are several hockey clubs based in Oxford. The Oxford Hockey Club (formed after a merger of City of Oxford HC and Rover Oxford HC in 2011) plays most", "Oxford City Stars is the local Ice Hockey Team which plays at Oxford Ice Rink. There is a senior/adults’ team and a junior/children's team. The Oxford University Ice Hockey", "Oxford Saints is Oxford's senior American Football team. One of the longest running American football clubs", "Oxford University Cricket Club is Oxford's most famous club with more than 300 Oxford players", "Oxford University Boat Club compete in the world-famous Boat Race. Since 2007 the club has been based at a training", "Headington Road Runners based at the OXSRAD sports facility in Marsh Lane (next to Oxford City F.C.) is", "Oxford is", "The following people and military units have received the Freedom of the City of Oxford." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Warsaw and St. Petersburg (1898–1917).", "Career.", "Paris (1918–1939).", "The United States and Mexico (1939–1980).", "Rediscovery.", "Style and subjects.", "Personal life.", "Bisexuality.", "Legacy.", "Art market." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "She was born on 16 May 1898, in Warsaw, then part of Congress Poland of the Russian Empire. Her father was Boris Gurwik-Górski, a Russian Jewish attorney for a French trading company, and her mother was Malwina Dekler, a Polish socialite who had lived most of her life abroad and who met her husband at one of the European spas. When she was ten, her mother commissioned a pastel portrait of her by a prominent local artist. She detested posing and was dissatisfied with the finished work. She took the pastels, had her younger sister pose, and made her first portrait. In 1911 her parents sent her to a boarding school in Lausanne, Switzerland, but she was bored and she feigned illness to be permitted to leave the school. Instead, her grandmother took her on a tour of Italy, where she developed her interest in art. After her parents divorced in 1912, she chose to spend the summer with her wealthy Aunt Stefa in Saint Petersburg. There, in 1915, she met and fell in love with a prominent Polish lawyer, Tadeusz Łempicki (1888–1951). Her family offered him a large dowry, and they were married in 1916 in the chapel of the Knights of Malta in St. Petersburg. The Russian Revolution in November 1917 overturned their comfortable life. In December 1917, Tadeusz Łempicki was arrested in the middle of the night by the Cheka, the secret police. Tamara searched the prisons for him, and with the help of the Swedish consul, to whom she offered her favors, she secured his release. They traveled to Copenhagen then to London and finally to Paris, where Tamara's family had also found refuge.", "", "In Paris, the Łempickis lived for a while from the sale of family jewels. Tadeusz proved unwilling or unable to find suitable work. Their daughter, Maria Krystyna \"Kizette\", was born around 1919, adding to their financial needs. Lempicka decided to become a painter at her sister's suggestion, and studied both at the Saint Petersburg Academy of Arts and Académie de la Grande Chaumière with Maurice Denis and then with André Lhote, who was to have a greater influence on her style. Her first paintings were still lifes and portraits of her daughter Kizette and her neighbor. She sold her first paintings through the Galerie Colette-Weil, which allowed her to exhibit at the \"Salon des independents\", the \"Salon d'automne\", and the \"Salon des moins de trente ans\", for promising young painters. She exhibited at the \"Salon d'automne\" for the first time in 1922. During this period, she signed her paintings \"Lempitzki\"—the masculine form of her name. Her breakthrough came in 1925, with the International Exhibition of Modern Decorative and Industrial Arts, which later gave its name to the style Art Deco. She exhibited her paintings in two of the major venues, the \"Salon des Tuileries\" and the \"Salon des femmes peintres\". Her paintings were spotted by American journalists from \"Harper's Bazaar\" and other fashion magazines, and her name became known. In the same year, she had her first major exposition in Milan, Italy, organized for her by Count Emmanuele Castelbarco. For this show, Lempicka painted 28 new works in six months. During her Italian tour, she took a new lover, the Marquis Sommi Picenardi. She was also invited to meet the famous Italian poet and playwright Gabriele d'Annunzio. She visited him twice at his villa on Lake Garda, seeking to paint his portrait; he, in turn, was set on seduction. After her unsuccessful attempts to secure the commission, she went away angry, while d'Annunzio also remained unsatisfied. In 1927, Lempicka won her first major award, the first prize at the Exposition Internationale des Beaux Arts in Bordeaux, France, for her portrait of \"Kizette on the Balcony\". In 1929, another portrait of Kizette, at her First Communion, won a bronze medal at the international exposition in Poznań, Poland. In 1928 she was divorced from Tadeusz Łempicki. That same year, she met Raoul Kuffner, a baron of the former Austro-Hungarian Empire and an art collector. His title was not an ancient one; his family had been granted the title by the second-to-last Austro-Hungarian Emperor, Franz-Joseph I, because Kuffner's family had been the supplier of beef and beer to the imperial court. He owned properties of considerable size in eastern Europe. He commissioned her to paint his mistress, the Spanish dancer Nana de Herrera. Lempicka finished the portrait (which was not very flattering to de Herrera) and took the place of de Herrera as the mistress of the baron. She bought an apartment on rue Méchain in Paris and had it decorated by the modernist architect Robert Mallet-Stevens and her sister Adrienne de Montaut. The furniture was by Rene Herbst. The austere, functional interiors appeared in decoration magazines. In 1929, Lempicka painted one of her best-known works, \"Autoportrait (Tamara in a Green Bugatti)\", for the cover of the German fashion magazine \"Die Dame\". This showed her at the wheel of a Bugatti racing car wearing a leather helmet and gloves and wrapped in a gray scarf, a portrait of cold beauty, independence, wealth, and inaccessibility. In fact, she did not own a Bugatti automobile; her own car was a small yellow Renault, which was stolen one night when she and her friends were celebrating at La Rotonde in Montparnasse. She traveled to the United States for the first time in 1929 to paint a portrait of the fiancée of the American oilman Rufus T. Bush and to arrange a show of her work at the Carnegie Institute in Pittsburgh. The exposition was a success, but the money she earned was lost when the bank she used collapsed following the stock market crash of 1929. The portrait of Joan Jeffery, fiancée of Rufus T. Bush, was completed but put into storage following the couple's divorce in 1932. It was sold by Christies in 2004 following the death of Joan (now Vanderpool). Lempicka's career reached a peak during the 1930s. She painted portraits of King Alfonso XIII of Spain and Queen Elizabeth of Greece. Museums began to collect her works. In 1933, she traveled to Chicago where her pictures were shown alongside those of Georgia O'Keeffe, Santiago Martínez Delgado, and Willem de Kooning. Despite the Great Depression, she continued to receive commissions and showed her work at several Paris galleries. The wife of Baron Kuffner died in 1933. De Lempicka married him on 3 February 1934 in Zurich. She was alarmed by the rise of the Nazis and persuaded her husband to sell most of his properties in Hungary and to move his fortune and his belongings to Switzerland.", "In the winter of 1939, following the outbreak of World War II, Lempicka and her husband moved to the United States. They settled first in Los Angeles. The Paul Reinhard Gallery organized a show of her work, and they moved to Beverly Hills, settling into the former residence of the film director King Vidor. Shows of her work were organized at the Julian Levy Gallery in New York, the Courvoisier Galleries in San Francisco, and the Milwaukee Institute of Art, but her shows did not have the success she had hoped for. Her daughter Kizette was able to escape from occupied France via Lisbon and joined them in Los Angeles in 1941. Kizette married a Texas geologist, Harold Foxhall. In 1943, Baron Kuffner and de Lempicka relocated to New York City. In the postwar years, she continued a frenetic social life, but she had fewer commissions for society portraits. Her art deco style looked anachronistic in the period of postwar modernism and abstract expressionism. She expanded her subject matter to include still lifes, and in 1960 she began to paint abstract works and to use a palette knife instead of her smooth earlier brushwork. She sometimes reworked earlier pieces in her new style. The crisp and direct \"Amethyste\" (1946) became the pink and fuzzy \"Girl with Guitar\" (1963). She had a show at the Ror Volmar Gallery in Paris in May and June 1961, but it did not revive her earlier success. Baron Kuffner died of a heart attack on November 1961 on the ocean liner \"Liberté\" en route to New York. Following his death, Lempicka sold many of her possessions and made three around-the-world trips by ship. In 1963, Lempicka moved to Houston, Texas, to be with Kizette and her family and retired from her life as a professional artist. She continued to repaint her earlier works. She repainted her well-known \"Autoportrait\" (1929) twice between 1974 and 1979; \"Autoportrait III\" was sold, though she hung \"Autoportrait II\" in her retirement apartments, where it would remain until her death. The last work she painted was the fourth copy of her painting of St. Anthony. In 1974, she decided to move to Cuernavaca, Mexico. After the death of her husband in 1979, Kizette moved to Cuernavaca to take care of de Lempicka, whose health was declining. De Lempicka died in her sleep on 18 March 1980. Following her wishes, her ashes were scattered over the volcano Popocatépetl.", "A resurgence of interest in Art Deco began in the late 1960s. A retrospective of her work was held at the Luxembourg Gallery in Paris in 1972, a few years before her death, and received positive reviews. After her death, her early Art Deco paintings were being shown and purchased once again. A stage play, \"Tamara\", was inspired by her meeting with Gabriele D'Annunzio and was first staged in Toronto; it then ran in Los Angeles for eleven years (1984–1995) at the Hollywood American Legion Post 43, making it the longest running play in Los Angeles, and some 240 actors were employed over the years. The play was also subsequently produced at the Seventh Regiment Armory in New York City. In 2005, the actress and artist Kara Wilson performed \"Deco Diva\", a one-woman stage play based on Lempicka's life. Her life and her relationship with one of her models is fictionalized in Ellis Avery's novel \"The Last Nude\", which won the American Library Association Stonewall Book Awards Barbara Gittings Literature Award for 2013.", "The best description of Lempicka's work was her own: \"I was the first woman to make clear paintings\", she later told her daughter, \"and that was the origin of my success. Among a hundred canvases, mine were always recognizable. The galleries tended to show my pictures in the best rooms, because they attracted people. My work was clear and finished. I looked around me and could only see the total destruction of painting. The banality in which art had sunk gave me a feeling of disgust. I was searching for a craft that no longer existed; I worked quickly with a delicate brush. I was in search of technique, craft, simplicity and good taste. My goal: never copy. Create a new style, with luminous and brilliant colors, rediscover the elegance of my models.\" She was one of the best-known painters of the Art Deco style, a group which included Jean Dupas, Diego Rivera, Josep Maria Sert, Reginald Marsh, and Rockwell Kent, but unlike these artists, who often painted large murals with crowds of subjects, she focused almost exclusively on portraits. Her first teacher at the Academie Ranson in Paris was Maurice Denis, who taught her according to his celebrated maxim: \"Remember that a painting, before it is a war horse, a nude woman or some anecdote, is essentially a flat surface covered with colors assembled in a certain order.\" He was primarily a decorative artist, who taught her the traditional craftsmanship of painting. Her other influential teacher was André Lhote, who taught her to follow a softer, more refined form of cubism that did not shock the viewer or look out of place in a luxurious living room. Her cubism was far from that of Pablo Picasso or Georges Braque; For her, Picasso \"embodied the novelty of destruction\". Lempicka combined this soft cubism with a neoclassical style, inspired largely by Ingres, particularly his famous \"Turkish Bath\", with its exaggerated nudes crowding the canvas. Her painting \"La Belle Rafaëlla\" was especially influenced by Ingres. Lempicka's technique, following Ingres, was clean, precise, and elegant, but at the same time charged with sensuality and a suggestion of vice. The cubist elements of her paintings were usually in the background, behind the Ingresque figures. The smooth skin textures and equally smooth, luminous fabrics of the clothes were the dominant elements of her paintings. Known especially for her portraits of wealthy aristocrats, she also painted highly stylized nudes. The nudes are usually female, whether depicted alone or in groups; \"Adam and Eve\" (1931) features one of her few male nudes. After the mid-1930s, when her Art Deco portraits had gone out of fashion and \"a serious mystical crisis, combined with a deep depression during an economic recession, provoked a radical change in her work,\" she turned to painting less frivolous subject matter in the same style. She painted a number of Madonnas and turbaned women inspired by Renaissance paintings, as well as mournful subjects such as \"The Mother Superior\" (1935), an image of a nun with a tear rolling down her cheek, and \"Escape\" (1940), which depicts refugees. Of these, art historian Gilles Néret wrote, \"The baroness's more 'virtuous' subjects are, it must be said, lacking in conviction when compared with the sophisticated and gallant works on which her former glory had been founded.\" Lempicka introduced elements of Surrealism in paintings such as \"Surrealist Hand\" (c. 1947) and in some of her still lifes, such as \"The Key\" (1946). Between 1953 and the early 1960s, Lempicka painted hard-edged abstractions that bear a stylistic similarity to the Purism of the 1920s. Her last works, painted in warm tones with a palette knife, have usually been considered her least successful.", "Lempicka placed high value on working to produce her own fortune, famously saying, \"There are no miracles, there is only what you make.\" She took this personal success and created a hedonistic lifestyle for herself, accompanied by intense love affairs within high society.", "Famous for her libido, Lempicka was bisexual. Her affairs with both men and women were conducted in ways that were considered scandalous at the time. She often used formal and narrative elements in her portraits, and her nude studies included themes of desire and seduction. In the 1920s, she became closely associated with lesbian and bisexual women in writing and artistic circles, among them Violet Trefusis, Vita Sackville-West, and Colette. She also became involved with Suzy Solidor, a nightclub singer at the Boîte de Nuit, whose portrait she later painted. Kizette rarely saw her mother, but was immortalized in her paintings. Lempicka painted her only child repeatedly, leaving a striking portrait series: \"Kizette in Pink\", 1926; \"Kizette on the Balcony\", 1927; \"Kizette Sleeping\", 1934; \"Portrait of Baroness Kizette\", 1954–1955, among others. In other paintings, the women depicted tend to resemble Kizette.", "American singer Madonna is an admirer and collector of Lempicka's work and has lent paintings to events and museums. Madonna has featured Lempicka's work in her music videos for \"Open Your Heart\" (1987), \"Express Yourself\" (1989), \"Vogue\" (1990) and \"Drowned World/Substitute for Love\" (1998). She also used paintings by Lempicka on the sets of her 1987 Who's That Girl and 1990 Blond Ambition world tours. Other notable Lempicka collectors include actor Jack Nicholson and singer-actress Barbra Streisand. Robert Dassanowsky's book \"Telegrams from the Metropole: Selected Poems 1980–1998\" includes the poems \"Tamara de Lempicka\" and \"La Donna d'Oro\" dedicated to Kizette de Lempicka. Lempicka's paintings are featured on the UK book covers of \"Atlas Shrugged\" and \"The Fountainhead\" by Ayn Rand. On 16 May 2018, in celebration of the 120th anniversary of her birth, Google made her the subject of the daily Google Doodle. In July 2018, a biographical musical, \"Lempicka\", premiered at the Williamstown Theatre Festival.", "In February 2020, her painting \"Portrait de Marjorie Ferry\" (1932) set a record for a work by Lempicka by fetching £16.3 million ($21.2 million) at the Impressionist and Modern Art Evening Sale at Christie's, London." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Development.", "Expansion.", "Sport fishing.", "Fishing techniques.", "Fishing tackle.", "Rules and regulations.", "Fish logs.", "Competitions.", "Industry.", "Biological invasions." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The early evolution of fishing as recreation is not clear. For example, there is anecdotal evidence for fly fishing in Japan as early as the ninth century BCE, and in Europe Claudius Aelianus (175–235 CE) describes fly fishing in his work \"On the Nature of Animals\". But for the early Japanese and Macedonians, fly fishing was likely to have been a means of survival, rather than recreation. It is possible that antecedents of recreational fly fishing arrived in England with the Norman conquest of 1066. Although the point in history where fishing could first be said to be recreational is not clear, it is clear that recreational fishing had fully arrived with the publication of \"The Compleat Angler\". The earliest English essay on recreational fishing was published in 1496, shortly after the invention of the printing press. The authorship of this was attributed to Dame Juliana Berners, the prioress of the Benedictine Sopwell Nunnery. The essay was titled \"Treatyse of Fysshynge wyth an Angle\", and was published in the second \"Boke of Saint Albans\", a treatise on hawking, hunting, and heraldry. These were major interests of the nobility, and the publisher, Wynkyn de Worde, was concerned that the book should be kept from those who were not gentlemen, since their immoderation in angling might \"utterly destroy it\". During the 16th century the work was much read, and was reprinted many times. \"Treatyse\" includes detailed information on fishing waters, the construction of rods and lines, and the use of natural baits and artificial flies. It also includes modern concerns about conservation and angler etiquette. The earliest English poetical treatise on Angling by John Dennys, said to have been a fishing companion of Shakespeare, was published in 1613, \"The Secrets of Angling\". Footnotes of the work, written by Dennys' editor, William Lawson, make the first mention of the phrase to 'cast a fly': \"The trout gives the most gentlemanly and readiest sport of all, if you fish with an artificial fly, a line twice your rod's length of three hairs' thickness... and if you have learnt the cast of the fly.\" In The Outdoor Industry Association, Fishing participation has continued its 11-year upward trajectory, adding 300,000 participants and reaching its highest number of participants since 2007. At the same time,the participation rate dipped slightly by 0.1%, bringing the fishing rate to 16.4%. This was due to the increasing population of the United States. The \"Leaky Bucket\" illustrates the annual churn of fishing participants, or those people joining/ rejoining the activity and those quitting in a given year. From 2017 to 2018, there was significant churn in fishing participation. While 9.1 million people stopped fishing, 9.4 million started. All of this change led to a fairly high churn rate of 18.5%, but also resulted in a net gain of 300,000 fishing participants. In 2018 participants spent a collective 883 million days fishing, averaging 17.9 annual fishing days per person. These average outing were done by an average of 2.1% over the past 3 years.", "Recreational fishing took a great leap forward after the English Civil War, where a newly found interest in the activity left its mark on the many books and treatises that were written on the subject at the time. The renowned officer in the Parliamentary army, Robert Venables, published in 1662 \"The Experienced Angler, or Angling improved, being a general discourse of angling, imparting many of the aptest ways and choicest experiments for the taking of most sorts of fish in pond or river\". Another Civil War veteran to enthusiastically take up fishing, was Richard Franck. He was the first to describe salmon fishing in Scotland, and both in that and trout-fishing with artificial fly he was a practical angler. He was the first angler to name the burbot, and commended the salmon of the River Thames. \"Compleat Angler\" was written by Izaak Walton in 1653 (although Walton continued to add to it for a quarter of a century) and described the fishing in the Derbyshire Wye. It was a celebration of the art and spirit of fishing in prose and verse; 6 verses were quoted from John Dennys's earlier work. A second part to the book was added by Walton's friend Charles Cotton. More than 300 editions of \"The Compleat Angler\" have been published. The pastoral discourse was enriched with country fishing folklore, songs and poems, recipes and anecdotes, moral meditations, and quotes from classic literature. The central character, Piscator, champions the art of angling, but with an air of tranquility also relishes the pleasures of friendship, verse and song, and good food and drink. Cotton's additions completed the instruction in fly fishing and advised on the making of artificial flies where he listed sixty five varieties. Charles Kirby designed an improved fishing hook in 1655 that remains relatively unchanged to this day. He went on to invent the Kirby bend, a distinctive hook with an offset point, still commonly used today. During the 18th century, the fishing industry became commercialized - rods and tackle were sold at the haberdashers store. After the Great Fire of London in 1666, artisans moved to Redditch which became a centre of production of fishing related products from the 1730s. Onesimus Ustonson established his trading shop in 1761, and his establishment remained as a market leader for the next century. He received a Royal Warrant from three successive monarchs starting with King George IV. Some have credited Onesimus with the invention of the multiplying winch, although he was certainly the first to advertise its sale. Early multiplying reels were wide and had a small diameter, and their gears, made of brass, often wore down after extensive use. His earliest advertisement in the form of a trading card date from 1768 and was entitled \"To all lovers of angling\". A full list of the tackles he sold included artificial flies, and 'the best sort of multiplying brass winches both stop and plain'. The commercialization of the industry came at a time of expanded interest in fishing as a recreational hobby for members of the aristocracy.", "British fly-fishing continued to develop in the 19th century, with the emergence of fly fishing clubs, along with the appearance of several books on the subject of fly tying and fly fishing techniques. Alfred Ronalds took up the sport of fly fishing, learning the craft on the rivers Trent, Blythe and Dove. On the River Blythe, near what is today Creswell Green, Ronalds constructed a bankside fishing hut designed primarily as an observatory of trout behaviour in the river. From this hut, and elsewhere on his home rivers, Ronalds conducted experiments and formulated the ideas that eventually were published in \"The Fly-fisher's Entomology\" in 1836. He combined his knowledge of fly fishing with his skill as an engraver and printer, to lavish his work with 20 colour plates. It was the first comprehensive work related to the entomology associated with fly fishing and most fly-fishing historians credit Ronalds with setting a literature standard in 1836 that is still followed today. Describing methods, techniques and, most importantly, artificial flies, in a meaningful way for the angler and illustrating them in colour is a method of presentation that can be seen in most fly-fishing literature today. By the mid to late 19th century, expanding leisure opportunities for the middle and lower classes began to have its effect on fly fishing, which steadily grew in mass appeal. The expansion of the railway network in Britain allowed the less affluent for the first time to take weekend trips to the seaside or to rivers for fishing. Richer hobbyists ventured further abroad. The large rivers of Norway replete with large stocks of salmon began to attract fishers from England in large numbers in the middle of the century - \"Jones's guide to Norway, and salmon-fisher's pocket companion\", published in 1848, was written by Frederic Tolfrey and was a popular guide to the country. In southern England, dry-fly fishing acquired an elitist reputation as the only acceptable method of fishing the slower, clearer rivers of the south such as the River Test and the other chalk streams concentrated in Hampshire, Surrey, Dorset and Berkshire (see Southern England Chalk Formation for the geological specifics). The weeds found in these rivers tend to grow very close to the surface, and it was felt necessary to develop new techniques that would keep the fly and the line on the surface of the stream. These became the foundation of all later dry-fly developments. However, there was nothing to prevent the successful employment of wet flies on these chalk streams, as G. E. M. Skues proved with his nymph and wet fly techniques. To the horror of dry-fly purists, Skues later wrote two books, \"Minor Tactics of the Chalk Stream\", and \"The Way of a Trout with a Fly\", which greatly influenced the development of wet fly fishing. In northern England and Scotland, many anglers also favored wet-fly fishing, where the technique was more popular and widely practiced than in southern England. One of Scotland's leading proponents of the wet fly in the early-to-mid 19th century was W.C. Stewart, who published \"The Practical Angler\" in 1857. In the United States, attitudes toward methods of fly fishing were not nearly as rigidly defined, and both dry- and wet-fly fishing were soon adapted to the conditions of the country. Fly anglers there, are thought to be the first anglers to have used artificial lures for bass fishing. After pressing into service the fly patterns and tackle designed for trout and salmon to catch largemouth and smallmouth bass, they began to adapt these patterns into specific bass flies. Fly anglers seeking bass developed the spinner/fly lure and bass popper fly, which are still used today. In the late 19th century, American anglers, such as Theodore Gordon, in the Catskill Mountains of New York began using fly tackle to fish the region's brook trout-rich streams such as the Beaverkill and Willowemoc Creek. Many of these early American fly anglers also developed new fly patterns and wrote extensively about their sport, increasing the popularity of fly fishing in the region and in the United States as a whole. Albert Bigelow Paine, a New England author, wrote about fly fishing in \"The Tent Dwellers\", a book about a three-week trip he and a friend took to central Nova Scotia in 1908. Participation in fly fishing peaked in the early 1920s in the eastern states of Maine and Vermont and in the Midwest in the spring creeks of Wisconsin. Along with deep sea fishing, Ernest Hemingway did much to popularize fly fishing through his works of fiction, including The Sun Also Rises. Big-game fishing started as a sport after the invention of the motorized boat. In 1898, Dr. Charles Frederick Holder, a marine biologist and early conservationist, pioneered this sport and went on to publish many articles and books on the subject noted for their combination of accurate scientific detail with exciting narratives. One method of growing popularity is kayak fishing. Kayaks are stealthy and allow anglers to reach areas not fishable from land or by conventional boat. In addition, fishing from kayaks is regarded by some as an effort to level the playing field, to a degree, with their quarry and/or to challenge their angling abilities further by bringing an additional level of complexity to their sport.", "Sport fishing methods vary according to the area fished, the species targeted, the personal strategies of the angler, and the resources available. It ranges from the aristocratic art of fly fishing elaborated in Great Britain, to the high-tech methods used to chase marlin and tuna. Sport fishing is usually done with hook, line, rod and reel rather than with nets or other aids. Among the most common offshore salt water game fish are marlin, tuna, sailfish, shark, and mackerel. In North America, freshwater fish include trout, bass, pike, catfish, walleye and muskellunge. The smallest fish are called panfish, because they can fit whole in a normal cooking pan. Examples are perch and sunfish (Centrarchidae). In the past, sport fishers, even if they did not eat their catch, almost always killed them to bring them to shore to be weighed or for preservation as trophies. In order to protect recreational fisheries sport fishermen now often catch and release, and sometimes tag and release, which involves fitting the fish with identity tags, recording vital statistics, and sending a record to a government agency.", "Recreational fishing techniques include hand gathering, spearfishing, netting, angling and trapping. Most recreational fishers use a fishing rod with a fishing line and a hook at the end of the line. The rod may be equipped with a reel so the line can be reeled in, and some form of bait or a lure attached to the hook. Fly fishing is a special form of rod fishing in which the reel is attached to the back end of the rod, and heavy line is cast with a complex, repetitive whipping motion to deliver the ultra light artificial fly to its target. Another less common technique is bowfishing using a regular bow or a crossbow. The \"arrow\" is a modified bolt with barbs at the tip, connected to a fishing line so the fish can be retrieved. Some crossbows are fitted with a reel. The effective use of fishing techniques often depends on knowledge about the fish and their behaviour including migration, foraging and habitat. Although there is certainly an element of \"luck\" to fishing, a recent science-based synthesis article reveals that fish capture is a complex function of three interdependent key processes: an individual fish's internal state, its encounter with the gear, and the characteristics of the encountered gear (http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/faf.12219/full).", "Fishing tackle is the equipment used by fishers. Almost any equipment or gear used for fishing can be called fishing tackle. Some examples are hooks, lines, sinkers, floats, rods, reels, baits, lures, spears, nets, gaffs, traps, waders and tackle boxes. Tackle that is attached to the end of a fishing line is called terminal tackle. This includes hooks, sinkers, floats, leaders, swivels, split rings and wire, snaps, beads, spoons, blades, spinners and clevises to attach spinner blades to fishing lures. The line, hook, bait and other fishing tackle arranged together form a fishing rig. Fishing tackle can be contrasted with fishing techniques. Fishing tackle refers to the physical equipment that is used when fishing, whereas fishing techniques refers to the ways the tackle is used when fishing.", "Recreational fishing has conventions, rules, licensing restrictions and laws that limit the way in which fish may be caught. The International Game Fish Association (IGFA) makes and oversees a set of voluntary guidelines. Typically, these prohibit the use of nets and the catching of fish with hooks not in the mouth. Enforceable regulations are put in place by governments to ensure sustainable practice amongst anglers. For example, in the Republic of Ireland, the Central Fisheries Board oversees the implementation of all angling regulations, which include controls on angling lures, baits and number of hooks permissible, as well as licensing requirements and other conservation-based restrictions. Regulations notwithstanding, voluntary catch and release fishing as a means of protecting and sustaining game species has become an increasingly common practice among conservation-minded recreational anglers. Policy makers have largely ignored the recreational fishing sector but there is now a framework for better engagement to ensure that recreational fisheries receive the same attention as commercial fisheries. In many places they have their rules in an \"anglers' handbook\". Each year the handbook is updated and new rules such as catch and release, areas to fish and limits on fish can be found.", "Some recreational anglers keep a log of the fish they catch, and submit trophy-sized fish to independent record keeping bodies. In the Republic of Ireland, the Irish Specimen Fish Committee verifies and publicizes the capture of trophy fish caught with rod and line by anglers in Ireland, both in freshwater and at sea. The committee also ratifies Irish record rod caught fish. It uses a set of 'fair play' regulations to ensure fish are caught in accordance with accepted angling norms.", "Recreational fishing competitions (tournaments) are a recent innovation in which fishermen compete for prizes based on the total weight of a given species of fish caught within a predetermined time. This sport evolved from local fishing contests into large competitive circuits, especially in North America. Competitors are most often professional fishermen who are supported by commercial endorsements. Other competitions are based purely on length with mandatory catch and release. Either longest fish or total length is documented with a camera and a mandatory sticker or unique item, a practice used since it is hard to weigh a living fish accurately in a boat. Sport fishing competitions involve individuals if the fishing occurs from land, and usually teams if conducted from boats, as well as specified times and areas for catching fish. A score is awarded for each fish caught. The points awarded depend on the fish's weight and species. Occasionally a score is divided by the strength of the fishing line used, yielding more points to those who use thinner, weaker line. In tag and release competitions, a flat score is awarded per fish species caught, divided by the line strength. Usually sport fishing competitions award a prize to the boat or team with the most points earned. In Australia, a self-administered standard for the environmental assessment of tournament fishing has been proposed as an alternative and possible pathway to the ISO 14001 international standard. The standard assesses environmental, social, economic, and public risk factors. Tournament organizers may apply for voluntary certification. In some US states, fishery agencies and competition organizers create their own codes of practice.", "The recreational fishing industry consists of enterprises such as the manufacture and retailing of fishing tackle, the design and building of recreational fishing boats, and the provision of fishing boats for charter and guided fishing trips. \"Pay to fish\" enterprises provide anglers with controlled access to stocked lakes, ponds, or canals. These provide fishing opportunities outside of the permitted seasons and quotas applied to public waters. In the United Kingdom, commercial fisheries of this sort charge access fees. In North America, establishments usually charge for the fish caught, by length or by weight, rather than for access to the site although some establishments charge both types of fees. Recreational fishing is a multibillion-dollar industry. In the United States in 2014, about 11 million recreational saltwater fishers generated $58 billion in sales impacts. By contrast, commercial fishing generated $141 billion in sales impacts.", "Several species, such as \"Cichla kelberi\", \"C. piquiti\", rainbow trout, and many species in the family Centrarchidae have been introduced in natural or artificial environmental to the sport fishing. Some of these species have caused several impacts in aquatic biota." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Design.", "Design goal.", "Vehicle description.", "Cabin.", "Spaceplane navigation.", "Hybrid rocket motor.", "Launch aircraft.", "Flight profile.", "Development and winning the X Prize.", "Flights.", "Astronauts.", "Retirement.", "Replicas.", "Subsequent spacecraft." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The Scaled Composites model 316, known as SpaceShipOne, was a spaceplane designed to:", "The fuselage is cigar-shaped, with an overall diameter of about. The main structure is of a graphite/epoxy composite material. From front to back, it contains the crew cabin, oxidizer tank, fuel casing, and rocket nozzle. The craft has short, wide wings, with a span of and a chord of. There are large vertical tailbooms mounted on the end of each wing, with horizontal stabilizers protruding from the tailbooms. It has gear for horizontal landings. The overall mass of the fully fueled craft is, of which is taken by the fully loaded rocket motor. Empty mass of the spacecraft is, including the empty motor casing. Originally the nozzle protruded from the back, but this turned out to be aerodynamically disadvantageous. In June 2004, between flights 14P and 15P, a fairing was added, smoothly extending the fuselage shape to meet the flared end of the nozzle. On flight 15P the new fairing overheated, due to being black on the inside and facing a hot, black nozzle. The fairing softened, and the lower part crumpled inwards during boost. Following that flight the interior of the fairing was painted white, and some small stiffening ribs were added. The craft has a single unsteerable and unthrottleable hybrid rocket motor, a cold gas reaction control system, and aerodynamic control surfaces. All can be controlled manually. See the separate section below concerning the rocket engine. The reaction control system is the only way to control spacecraft attitude outside the atmosphere. It consists of three sets of thrusters: there are thrusters at each wingtip to control roll, at the top and bottom of the nose to control pitch, and at the sides of the fuselage to control yaw. All thrusters have redundant backups, so there are twelve thrusters in all. The aerodynamic control surfaces of SpaceShipOne are designed to operate in two distinct flight regimes, subsonic and supersonic. The supersonic flight regime is of primary interest during the boost phase of a flight, and the subsonic mode when gliding. There are separate upper and lower rudders, and elevons. These are controlled using aviation-style stick and pedals. In supersonic mode the trim tabs are controlled electrically, whereas the subsonic mode uses mechanical cable-and-rod linkage. The wings of SpaceShipOne can be pneumatically tilted forwards into an aerodynamically stable high-drag \"feathered\" shape. This removes most of the need to actively control attitude during the early part of reentry: Scaled Composites refer to this as \"care-free reentry\". One of the early test flights actually performed re-entry inverted, demonstrating the flexibility and inherent stability of Burt Rutan's \"shuttlecock\" design. This feathered reentry mode is claimed to be inherently safer than the behavior at similar speeds of the Space Shuttle. The Shuttle undergoes enormous aerodynamic stresses and must be precisely steered in order to remain in a stable glide. (Although this is an interesting comparison of behavior, it is not an entirely fair comparison of design concepts: the Shuttle starts reentry at much higher speed than SpaceShipOne, and so has some very different requirements. SpaceShipOne is more similar to the X-15 vehicle.) An early design called for a permanently shuttlecock-like shape, with a ring of feather-like stabilising fins. This would have made the spacecraft incapable of landing independently, requiring mid-air retrieval. This was deemed too risky, and the hybrid final design manages to incorporate the feathering capability into a craft that can land in a conventional manner. The tiltable rear sections of the wings and the tailbooms are collectively referred to as \"the feather\". The landing gear consists of two widely separated main wheels and a nose skid. These are deployed using springs, assisted by gravity. Once deployed, they cannot be retracted inflight. The spacecraft is incapable of independent takeoff from the ground. It requires a launch aircraft to carry it to launch altitude for an air launch. The parts of the craft that experience the greatest heating, such as the leading edges of the wings, have about of ablative thermal protection material applied. The main ingredient of this material was accidentally leaked to \"Air and Space\". If it flew with no thermal protection, the spacecraft would survive reentry but would be damaged. There is an acknowledged \"known deficiency\" with the spacecraft's aerodynamic design that makes it susceptible to roll excursions. This has been seen on SpaceShipOne flight 15P where wind shear caused a large roll immediately after ignition, and SpaceShipOne flight 16P where circumstances not yet fully understood caused multiple rapid rolls. This flaw is not considered dangerous, but in both of these flights led to the achievement of a much lower altitude than expected. The details of the flaw are not public.", "The spacecraft cabin, designed to hold three humans, is shaped as a short cylinder, diameter, with a pointed forward end. The pilot sits towards the front, and two passengers can be seated behind. The cabin is pressurized, maintaining a sea level breathable atmosphere. Oxygen is introduced to the cabin from a bottle, and carbon dioxide and water vapor are removed by absorbers. The occupants do not wear spacesuits or breathing masks, because the cabin has been designed to maintain pressure in the face of faults: all windows and seals are doubled. The cabin has sixteen round double-pane windows, positioned to provide a view of the horizon at all stages of flight. The windows are small compared to the gaps between them, but there are sufficiently many for human occupants to patch together a moderately good view. The nose section can be removed, and there is also a hatch below the rear windows on the left side. Crew ingress and egress is possible by either route.", "The core of the spacecraft avionics is the System Navigation Unit (SNU). Together with the Flight Director Display (FDD), it comprises the Flight Navigation Unit. The unit was developed jointly by Fundamental Technology Systems and Scaled Composites. The SNU is a GPS-based inertial navigation system, which processes spacecraft sensor data and subsystem health data. It downlinks telemetry data by radio to mission control. The FDD displays data from the SNU on a color LCD. It has several distinct display modes for different phases of flight, including the boost phase, coast, reentry, and gliding. The FDD is particularly important to the pilot during the boost and coast phase in order to \"turn the corner\" and null rates caused by asymmetric thrust. A mix of commercial and bespoke software is used in the FDD.", "Tier One uses a hybrid rocket motor supplied by SpaceDev, with solid hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene (HTPB, or rubber) fuel and liquid nitrous oxide oxidizer. It generates of thrust, and can burn for about. The physical layout of the engine is novel. The oxidizer tank is a primary structural component, and is the only part of the engine that is structurally connected to the spacecraft: the tank is in fact an integral part of the spacecraft fuselage. The tank is a short cylinder of diameter approximately, with domed ends, and is the forwardmost part of the engine. The fuel casing is a narrow cylinder cantilevered to the tank, pointing backwards. The cantilevered design means that a variety of motor sizes can be accommodated without changing the interface or other components. The nozzle is a simple extension of the fuel casing; the casing and nozzle are actually a single component, referred to as the CTN (case, throat, and nozzle). Burt Rutan has applied for a patent on this engine configuration. There is considerable use of composite materials in the engine design. The oxidizer tank consists of a composite liner with graphite/epoxy over-wrap and titanium interface flanges. The CTN uses a high-temperature composite insulator with a graphite/epoxy structure. Incorporating the solid fuel (and hence the main part of the engine) and the ablative nozzle into this single bonded component minimizes the possible leak paths. The oxidizer tank and CTN are bolted together at the main valve bulkhead, which is integrated into the tank. There are O-rings at the interface to prevent leakage; this is the main potential leak path in the engine. The ignition system, main control valve, and injector are mounted on the valve bulkhead, inside the tank. Slosh baffles are also mounted on this bulkhead. Because the oxidizer is stored under pressure, no pump is required. The tank liner and the fuel casing are built in-house by Scaled Composites. The tank over-wrap is supplied by Thiokol. The ablative nozzle is supplied by AAE Aerospace. The oxidizer fill, vent, and dump system is supplied by Environmental Aeroscience Corporation. The remaining components—the ignition system, main control valve, injector, tank bulkheads, electronic controls, and solid fuel casting—are supplied by SpaceDev. The CTN must be replaced between firings. This is the only part of the craft, other than the fuel and oxidizer themselves, that must be replaced. The solid fuel is cast with four holes. This has the disadvantage that it is possible for chunks of fuel between the holes to become detached during a burn and obstruct the flow of oxidizer and exhaust. Such situations tend to rapidly self-correct. The oxidizer tank is filled and vented through its forward bulkhead, on the opposite side of the tank from the fuel and the rest of the engine. This improves safety. It is filled to a pressure of at room temperature. The nozzle has an expansion ratio of 25:1, which is optimized for the upper part of the atmosphere. A different nozzle, with an expansion ratio of 10:1, is used for test firing on the ground. The nozzles are black on the outside, but for aerodynamic testing, red dummy nozzles are used instead. The rocket is not throttleable. Once lit, the burn can be aborted, but the power output cannot otherwise be controlled. The thrust in fact varies, for two reasons. Firstly, as the pressure in the oxidizer tank decreases, the flow rate reduces, reducing thrust. Secondly, in the late stages of a burn the oxidizer tank contains a mixture of liquid and gaseous oxidizer, and the power output of the engine varies greatly depending on whether it is using liquid or gaseous oxidizer at a particular moment. (The liquid, being far denser, allows a greater burn rate.) Both the fuel and oxidizer can be stored without special precautions, and they do not burn when brought together without a significant source of heat. This makes the rocket far safer than conventional liquid or solid rockets. It is also relatively non-polluting: the combustion products are water vapor, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, nitrogen, and some carbon monoxide. The engine was upgraded in September 2004, between flights 15P and 16P. The upgrade increased the oxidizer tank size, to provide greater thrust in the early part of the burn, allow a longer burn, and delay the onset of the variable thrust phase at the end of the burn. Prior to the upgrade the engine generated of thrust and could burn for. After the upgrade it was capable of thrust and an burn.", "Tier One's launch aircraft, Scaled Composites model 318, known as White Knight, is designed to take off and land horizontally and attain an altitude of about, all while carrying the Tier One spacecraft in a parasite aircraft configuration. Its propulsion is by twin turbojets: afterburning J-85-GE-5 engines, rated at of thrust each. It has the same cabin, avionics, and trim system as SpaceShipOne. This means it can flight-qualify almost all components of SpaceShipOne. It also has a high thrust-to-weight ratio and large speed brakes. These features combined allow it to be used as a high-fidelity moving platform flight simulator for SpaceShipOne. White Knight is also equipped with a trim system which (when activated) causes it to have the same glide profile as SpaceShipOne; this allows the pilots to practice for landing SpaceShipOne. The same pilots fly White Knight as fly SpaceShipOne. The aircraft's distinctive shape features long, thin wings, in a flattened \"W\" shape, with a wingspan of, dual tailplanes, and four wheels (front and rear at each side). The rear wheels retract, but the front ones, which are steerable, are permanently deployed, with small fairings, referred to as \"spats\", in front. Another way to look at the overall shape is as two conventional planes, with very thin fuselages, side-by-side and joined together at their wingtips, with the cockpit and engines mounted at the point of joining. Although White Knight was developed for certain roles in the Tier One program, it is a very capable aircraft in its own right. Scaled Composites describe it as a \"high-altitude research aircraft\".", "SpaceShipOne takes off from the ground, attached to White Knight in a parasite configuration, and under White Knight's power. The combination of SpaceShipOne and White Knight can take off, land, and fly under jet power to high altitude. A captive carry flight is one where the two craft land together without launching SpaceShipOne; this is one of the main abort modes available. For launch, the combined craft flies to an altitude of around, which takes about an hour. SpaceShipOne is then drop-released, and briefly glides unpowered. Rocket ignition may take place immediately, or may be delayed. If the rocket is never lit then SpaceShipOne can glide down to the ground. This is another major abort mode, in addition to being flown deliberately in glide tests. The rocket engine is ignited while the spacecraft is gliding. Once under power, it is raised into a 65° climb, which is further steepened in the higher part of the trajectory. The maximum acceleration during ascent was recorded at 1.70G. By the end of the burn the craft is flying upwards at some multiple of the speed of sound, up to about and Mach 3.5, and it continues to coast upwards unpowered (i.e. ballistically). If the burn was long enough then it will exceed an altitude of, at which height the atmosphere presents no appreciable resistance, and the craft experiences free fall for a few minutes. While at apogee the wings are reconfigured into high-drag mode. As the craft falls back it achieves high speeds comparable to those achieved on the way up; when it subsequently reenters the atmosphere it decelerates violently, up to 5.75G. At some altitude between and it reconfigures into low-drag glider mode, and glides down to a landing in about 20 minutes. White Knight takes longer to descend, and typically lands a few minutes after SpaceShipOne.", "SpaceShipOne was developed by Mojave Aerospace Ventures (a joint venture between Paul Allen and Scaled Composites, Burt Rutan's aviation company, in their Tier One program), without government funding. On June 21, 2004, it made the first privately funded human spaceflight. On October 4, it won the US$10 million Ansari X Prize, by reaching 100 kilometers in altitude twice in a two-week period with the equivalent of three people on board and with no more than ten percent of the non-fuel weight of the spacecraft replaced between flights. Development costs were estimated to be, funded completely by Paul Allen. During its test program, SpaceShipOne set a number of important \"firsts\", including first privately funded aircraft to exceed Mach 2 and Mach 3, first privately funded crewed spacecraft to exceed 100km altitude, and first privately funded reusable crewed spacecraft. SpaceShipOne was registered with the FAA as \"N\" is the prefix for US-registered aircraft; \"328KF\" was chosen by Scaled Composites to stand for 328 kilofeet (about 100 kilometers), the officially designated edge of space. The original choice of registry number,, was already taken. N328KF is registered as a glider, reflecting the fact that most of its independent flight is unpowered. SpaceShipOne's first flight, 01C, was an uncrewed captive flight test on May 20, 2003. Glide tests followed, starting with flight 03G on August 7, 2003. Its first powered flight, flight 11P, was made on December 17, 2003, the 100th anniversary of the first powered flight. On April 1, 2004, Scaled Composites received the first license for suborbital rocket flights to be issued by the US Office of Commercial Space Transportation. This license permitted the company to conduct powered test flights over the course of one year. On June 17, 2004, under the leadership of airport CEO Stuart O. Witt, Mojave Airport reclassified itself as the Mojave Air and Space Port. Flight 15P on June 21, 2004, was SpaceShipOne's first spaceflight, and the first privately funded human spaceflight. There were a few control problems, but these were resolved prior to the Ansari X PRIZE flights that followed, with flight 17P to 112 km on October 4, 2004, winning the prize. The SpaceShipOne Team was awarded the Space Achievement Award by the Space Foundation in 2005.", "On 17 December 2003—on the 100th anniversary of the Wright brothers first powered flight of an aircraft—\"SpaceShipOne\", piloted by Brian Binnie on Flight 11P, made its first rocket-powered flight, and became the first privately built craft to achieve supersonic flight. All of the flights of SpaceShipOne were from the Mojave Airport Civilian Flight Test Center. Flights were numbered, starting with flight 01 on May 20, 2003. One or two letters are appended to the number to indicate the type of mission. An appended C indicates that the flight was a captive carry, G indicates an unpowered glide, and P indicates a powered flight. If the actual flight differs in category from the intended flight, two letters are appended: the first indicating the intended mission and the second the mission actually performed. The flights were accompanied by two chase planes—an Extra 300 owned and flown by Chuck Coleman, and a Beechcraft Starship.", "The SpaceShipOne pilots came from a variety of aerospace backgrounds. Mike Melvill is a test pilot, Brian Binnie is a former Navy pilot, and Peter Siebold is an engineer at Scaled Composites. They qualified to fly SpaceShipOne by training on the Tier One flight simulator and in White Knight and other Scaled Composites aircraft.", "SpaceShipOne's spaceflights were watched by large crowds at Mojave Spaceport. A fourth suborbital flight, Flight 18P, was originally scheduled for October 13, 2004. However, Burt Rutan decided not to risk damage to the historic craft, and cancelled it and all future flights. On July 25, 2005 SpaceShipOne was taken to the Oshkosh Airshow in Oshkosh, Wisconsin. After the airshow, Mike Melvill and crew flew the White Knight, carrying SpaceShipOne, to Wright-Patterson Air Force Base in Dayton, Ohio, where Melvill spoke to a group of about 300 military and civilian personnel. Later in the evening, Melvill gave a presentation at the Dayton Engineers Club, entitled \"Some Experiments in Space Flight\", in honor of Wilbur Wright's now-famous presentation to the American Society of Mechanical Engineers in 1901 entitled \"Some Experiments in Flight.\" The White Knight then transported SpaceShipOne to the Smithsonian Institution's National Air and Space Museum to be put on display. It was unveiled on Wednesday October 5, 2005 in the Milestones of Flight gallery and is now on display to the public in the main atrium with the \"Spirit of St. Louis\", the Bell X-1, and the Apollo 11 command module \"Columbia\". Commander Brian Binnie donated the flight suit and checklist used during his Ansari X Prize-winning flight to an auction benefitting Seattle's Museum of Flight. Entertainer and fundraising auctioneer Fred Northup Jr. purchased the flight suit and checklist book, and the flight suit is on display at the museum's Charles Simonyi Space Gallery. A piece of SpaceShipOne's carbon fiber material was launched aboard the \"New Horizons\" mission to Pluto in 2006.", "A year after its appearance in the Oshkosh Airventure airshow, the Experimental Aircraft Association featured a full-scale replica of the spacecraft in a wing of its museum which housed other creations of Burt Rutan. Using the same fiberglass molds as the original, it was so exact in its replication—despite not having any doors or interior—that it was dubbed \"Serial 2 Scaled\" by Scaled Composites. Each detail in its appearance was matched, down to the N328KF registration number on its fuselage. It is so precise that, during a 7-minute video presentation held every hour on the half hour in the museum, it can display the two different modes of its 'feathering' ability, albeit through the aid of pulleys and wires (there is no machinery in the replica). Other full-scale replicas are at the William Thomas Terminal at Meadows Field Airport in Bakersfield the Mojave Spaceport's Legacy Park alongside the original Roton Atmospheric Test Vehicle, the Flying Heritage Collection at Paine Field in Everett, and Google's Mountain View Campus. SpaceShipOne was also made into a model rocket in 2004.", "With the success of Tier One meeting its project goals, a successor project started in 2004 was Tier 1b. The successor ships are named SpaceShipTwo and White Knight Two. The name of the joint venture between Virgin Group and Scaled Composites is called The Spaceship Company, with a goal of carrying passengers under the name Virgin Galactic, a spaceliner with an initial target of a commercial fleet of five spacecraft. In August 2005, Virgin Galactic stated that if the upcoming suborbital service with SpaceShipTwo is successful, the follow-up will be known as SpaceShipThree. On 13 December 2018, VSS \"Unity\" achieved the SpaceShipTwo project's first suborbital space flight, VSS Unity VP-03, with two pilots, reaching an altitude of, and officially entering outer space by US standards." ] }

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{ "title": [ "General cuboids.", "Rectangular cuboid.", "Nets." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "By Euler's formula the numbers of faces \"F\", of vertices \"V\", and of edges \"E\" of any convex polyhedron are related by the formula \"F\" + \"V\" = \"E\" + 2. In the case of a cuboid this gives 6 + 8 = 12 + 2; that is, like a cube, a cuboid has 6 faces, 8 vertices, and 12 edges. Along with the rectangular cuboids, any parallelepiped is a cuboid of this type, as is a square frustum (the shape formed by truncation of the apex of a square pyramid).", "In a rectangular cuboid, all angles are right angles, and opposite faces of a cuboid are equal. By definition this makes it a right rectangular prism, and the terms \"rectangular parallelepiped\" or \"orthogonal parallelepiped\" are also used to designate this polyhedron. The terms \"rectangular prism\" and \"oblong prism\", however, are ambiguous, since they do not specify all angles. The square cuboid, square box, or right square prism (also ambiguously called \"square prism\") is a special case of the cuboid in which at least two faces are squares. It has Schläfli symbol {4} × { }, and its symmetry is doubled from [2,2] to [4,2], order 16. The cube is a special case of the square cuboid in which all six faces are squares. It has Schläfli symbol {4,3}, and its symmetry is raised from [2,2], to [4,3], order 48. If the dimensions of a rectangular cuboid are \"a\", \"b\" and \"c\", then its volume is \"abc\" and its surface area is 2(\"ab\" + \"ac\" + \"bc\"). The length of the space diagonal is Cuboid shapes are often used for boxes, cupboards, rooms, buildings, containers, cabinets, books, a sturdy computer chassis, printing devices, electronic calling touchscreen devices, washing and drying machines, etc. Cuboids are among those solids that can tessellate 3-dimensional space. The shape is fairly versatile in being able to contain multiple smaller cuboids, e.g. sugar cubes in a box, boxes in a cupboard, cupboards in a room, and rooms in a building. A cuboid with integer edges as well as integer face diagonals is called an Euler brick, for example with sides 44, 117 and 240. A perfect cuboid is an Euler brick whose space diagonal is also an integer. It is currently unknown whether a perfect cuboid actually exists.", "The number of different nets for a simple cube is 11, however this number increases significantly to 54 for a rectangular cuboid of 3 different lengths." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Birth and family.", "Education.", "Early career.", "New York lawyer.", "Civil War.", "New York politician.", "Conkling's machine.", "Clash with Hayes.", "Election of 1880.", "Vice presidency.", "Presidency 1881–1885.", "Taking office.", "Civil service reform.", "Surplus and the tariff.", "Foreign affairs and immigration.", "Naval reform.", "Civil rights.", "Native American policy.", "Health, travel, and 1884 election.", "Judicial appointments.", "Later years.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Chester Alan Arthur was born October 5, 1829, in Fairfield, Vermont. Arthur's mother, Malvina Stone, was born in Berkshire, Vermont, the daughter of George Washington Stone and Judith Stevens. Her family was primarily of English and Welsh descent, and her grandfather, Uriah Stone, had served in the Continental Army during the American Revolution. Arthur's father, William Arthur, was born in Dreen, Cullybackey, County Antrim, Ireland to a Presbyterian family of Scots-Irish descent; he graduated from college in Belfast and emigrated to the Province of Lower Canada in 1819 or 1820. Malvina Stone met William Arthur when Arthur was teaching school in Dunham, Quebec, near the Vermont border. They married in Dunham on April 12, 1821, soon after meeting. The Arthurs moved to Vermont after the birth of their first child, Regina. They quickly moved from Burlington to Jericho, and finally to Waterville, as William received positions teaching at different schools. William Arthur also spent a brief time studying law, but while still in Waterville, he departed from both", "Arthur spent some of his childhood years living in the New York towns of York, Perry, Greenwich, Lansingburgh, Schenectady, and Hoosick. One of his first teachers said Arthur was a boy \"frank and open in manners and genial in disposition.\" During his time at school, he gained his first political inclinations and supported the Whig Party. He joined other young Whigs in support of Henry Clay, even participating in a brawl against students who supported James K. Polk. Arthur also supported the Fenian Brotherhood, an Irish republican organization founded in America; he showed this support by wearing a green coat. After completing his college preparation at the Lyceum of Union Village (now Greenwich) and a grammar school in Schenectady, Arthur enrolled at Schenectady's Union College in 1845, where he studied", "", "When Arthur joined the firm, Culver and New York attorney John Jay (the grandson of the Founding Father John Jay) were pursuing a \"habeas corpus\" action against Jonathan Lemmon, a Virginia slaveholder who was passing through New York with his eight slaves. In \"Lemmon v. New York\", Culver argued that, as New York law did not permit slavery, any slave arriving in New York was automatically freed. The argument was successful, and after several appeals was upheld by the New York Court of Appeals in 1860. Campaign biographers would later give Arthur much of the credit for the victory; in fact his role was minor, although he was certainly an active participant in the case. In another civil rights case in 1854, Arthur was the lead attorney representing Elizabeth Jennings Graham after she was denied a seat on a streetcar", "In 1861, Arthur was appointed to the military staff of Governor Edwin D. Morgan as engineer-in-chief. The office was a patronage appointment of minor importance until the outbreak of the Civil War in April 1861, when New York and the other northern states were faced with raising and equipping armies of a size never before seen in American history. Arthur was commissioned as a brigadier general and assigned to the state militia's quartermaster department. He was so efficient at housing and outfitting the troops that poured", "", "The end of the Civil War meant new opportunities for the men in Morgan's Republican machine, including Arthur. Morgan leaned toward the conservative wing of the New York Republican party, as did the men who worked with him in the organization, including Weed, Seward (who continued in office under President Andrew Johnson), and Roscoe Conkling (an eloquent Utica Congressman and rising star in the party). Arthur rarely articulated his own political ideas during his time as a part of the machine; as was common at the time, loyalty and hard work on the machine's behalf was more important than actual political positions. At the time, U.S. custom houses were managed by political appointees who served as Collector, Naval Officer, and Surveyor. In 1866, Arthur unsuccessfully attempted to secure the position of Naval Officer at the New York Custom House, a lucrative job subordinate only to the Collector. He continued his law practice (now a solo practice after", "Arthur's four-year term as Collector expired on December 10, 1875, and Conkling, then among the most powerful politicians in Washington, arranged his protégé's reappointment by President Grant. By 1876, Conkling was considering a run for the presidency himself, but the selection of reformer Rutherford B. Hayes by the 1876 Republican National Convention preempted the machine boss. Arthur and the machine gathered campaign funds with their usual zeal, but Conkling limited his own campaign activities to a few speeches. Hayes's opponent, New York Governor Samuel J. Tilden, carried New York and won the popular vote nationwide, but after the resolution of several months of disputes over twenty electoral votes (from the", "Conkling and his fellow Stalwarts, including Arthur, wished to follow up their 1879 success at the 1880 Republican National Convention by securing the nomination for their ally, ex-President Grant. Their opponents in the Republican party, known as Half-Breeds, concentrated their efforts on James G. Blaine, a Senator from Maine who was more amenable to civil service reform. Neither candidate commanded a majority of delegates and, deadlocked after thirty-six ballots, the convention turned to a dark horse, James A. Garfield, an Ohio Congressman and Civil War general who was neither Stalwart nor Half-Breed. Garfield and his supporters knew they would face a difficult election without the support of the New York Stalwarts and decided to offer one of them the vice presidential nomination. Levi P. Morton, the first choice of Garfield's supporters, consulted with Conkling, who advised him to decline, which he did. They next approached Arthur, and Conkling advised him to also reject the nomination, believing the Republicans would lose. Arthur thought otherwise and accepted. According to a purported eyewitness account by journalist William C. Hudson, Conkling and Arthur argued, with Arthur telling Conkling, \"The office of the Vice-President is a greater honor than I ever dreamed of", "After the election, Arthur worked in vain to persuade Garfield to fill certain positions with his fellow New York Stalwarts—especially that of the Secretary of the Treasury; the Stalwart machine received a further rebuke when Garfield appointed Blaine, Conkling's arch-enemy, as Secretary of State. The running mates, never close, detached as Garfield continued to freeze out the Stalwarts from his patronage. Arthur's status in the administration diminished when, a month before inauguration day, he gave a speech before reporters suggesting the election in Indiana, a swing state, had been won by Republicans through illegal machinations. Garfield ultimately appointed a Stalwart, Thomas Lemuel James, to be Postmaster General, but the cabinet fight and Arthur's ill-considered speech left the President and Vice President clearly estranged when they took office on March 4, 1881. The Senate in the 47th United States Congress was divided among 37 Republicans, 37 Democrats, one independent (David Davis) who caucused with the Democrats, one Readjuster (William Mahone), and four vacancies. Immediately, the Democrats attempted to organize the Senate, knowing that the vacancies would soon be filled by Republicans. As vice president, Arthur cast tie-breaking votes in favor of the Republicans when Mahone opted to join their caucus. Even so, the Senate remained deadlocked for two months over Garfield's nominations because of Conkling's opposition to some of them. Just before going into recess in May 1881, the situation became more complicated when Conkling and the other Senator from New York, Thomas C. Platt, resigned in protest of Garfield's continuing opposition to their faction. With the Senate in recess, Arthur had no duties in Washington and returned to New York City. Once there, he traveled with Conkling to Albany, where the former Senator hoped for a quick", "", "Arthur arrived in Washington, D.C. on September 21. On September 22, he re-took the oath of office, this time before Chief Justice Morrison R. Waite. Arthur took this step to ensure procedural compliance; there had been a lingering question about whether a state court judge (Brady) could administer a federal oath of office. He initially took up residence at the home of Senator John P. Jones, while a White House remodeling he had ordered was carried out, including addition of an elaborate fifty-foot glass screen by Louis Comfort Tiffany. Arthur's sister, Mary Arthur McElroy, served as White House hostess for her widowed brother; Arthur became Washington's most eligible bachelor and his social life became the subject of rumors, though romantically, he remained singularly devoted to the memory of his late wife. His son, Chester Jr., was then a freshman at Princeton University and his daughter, Nell, stayed in New York with a governess until 1882; when she arrived, Arthur shielded her from the intrusive press as much as he could. Arthur quickly", "In the 1870s, a scandal was exposed, in which contractors for star postal routes were greatly overpaid for their services with the connivance of government officials (including Second Assistant Postmaster General Thomas J. Brady and former Senator Stephen Wallace Dorsey). Reformers feared Arthur, as a former supporter of the spoils system, would not commit to continuing the investigation into the scandal. But Arthur's Attorney General, Brewster, did in fact continue the investigations begun by MacVeagh, and hired notable Democratic lawyers William W. Ker and Richard T. Merrick to strengthen the prosecution team and forestall the skeptics.", "With high revenue held over from wartime taxes, the federal government had collected more than it spent since 1866; by 1882 the surplus reached $145 million. Opinions varied on how to balance the budget; the Democrats wished to lower tariffs, in order to reduce revenues and the cost of imported goods, while Republicans believed that high tariffs ensured high wages in manufacturing and mining. They preferred the government spend more on internal improvements and reduce excise taxes. Arthur agreed with his party, and in 1882 called for the abolition of excise taxes on everything except liquor, as well as a simplification of the complex tariff structure. In May of that year, Representative William D. Kelley of Pennsylvania introduced a bill to establish a tariff commission; the bill passed and Arthur signed it into law but appointed mostly protectionists to the committee. Republicans were pleased with the committee's make-up but were surprised when, in December 1882,", "During the Garfield administration, Secretary of State James G. Blaine attempted to invigorate United States diplomacy in Latin America, urging reciprocal trade agreements and offering to mediate disputes among the Latin American nations. Blaine, venturing a greater involvement in affairs south of the Rio Grande, proposed a Pan-American conference in 1882 to discuss trade and an end to the War of the Pacific being fought by Bolivia, Chile, and Peru. Blaine did not remain in office long enough to see the effort through, and when Frederick T. Frelinghuysen", "In the years following the Civil War, American naval power declined precipitously, shrinking from nearly 700 vessels to just 52, most of which were obsolete. The nation's military focus over the fifteen years before Garfield and Arthur's election had been on the Indian wars in the West, rather than the high seas, but as the region was increasingly pacified, many in Congress grew concerned at the poor state of the Navy. Garfield's Secretary of the Navy, William H. Hunt, advocated reform of the Navy and his successor, William E. Chandler, appointed an advisory board to prepare", "Like his Republican predecessors, Arthur struggled with the question of how his party was to challenge the Democrats in the South and how, if at all, to protect the civil rights of black southerners. Since the end of Reconstruction, conservative white Democrats (or \"Bourbon Democrats\") had regained power in the South, and the Republican party dwindled rapidly as their primary supporters in the region, blacks, were disenfranchised. One crack in the solidly Democratic South emerged with the growth of a new party, the Readjusters, in Virginia. Having won an election in that state on a platform of more education funding (for black and white schools alike) and abolition of the poll tax and the whipping post, many northern Republicans saw the Readjusters as a more viable ally in the South than the moribund southern Republican party. Arthur agreed, and directed the federal patronage in Virginia through the Readjusters rather than the Republicans. He followed the same pattern in other Southern states, forging", "The Arthur administration was challenged by changing relations with western Native American tribes. The American Indian Wars were winding down, and public sentiment was shifting toward more favorable treatment of Native Americans. Arthur urged Congress to increase funding for Native American education, which it did in 1884, although not to the extent he wished. He also favored a move to the allotment system, under which individual Native Americans, rather than tribes, would own land. Arthur was unable to convince Congress to adopt the idea", "Shortly after becoming president, Arthur was diagnosed with Bright's disease, a kidney ailment now referred to as nephritis. He attempted to keep his condition private, but by 1883 rumors of his illness began to circulate; he had become thinner and more aged in appearance, and struggled to keep the pace of the presidency. To rejuvenate his health outside the confines of Washington, Arthur and some political friends traveled to Florida in April 1883. The vacation had the opposite effect, and Arthur suffered from intense pain before returning to Washington. Later that year, on the advice of Missouri Senator George Graham Vest, he visited Yellowstone National Park. Reporters accompanied the presidential party, helping to publicize the new National Park system. The Yellowstone trip was more beneficial to Arthur's health than his Florida excursion, and he returned to Washington refreshed after two months of travel. As the 1884 presidential election approached, James G. Blaine was considered the", "Arthur made appointments to fill two vacancies on the United States Supreme Court. The first vacancy arose in July 1881 with the death of Associate Justice Nathan Clifford, a Democrat who had been a member of the Court since before the Civil War. Arthur nominated Horace Gray, a distinguished jurist from the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court to replace him, and the nomination was easily confirmed. The second vacancy occurred when Associate Justice Ward", "Arthur left office in 1885 and returned to his New York City home. Two months before the end of his term, several New York Stalwarts approached him to request that he run for United States Senate, but he declined, preferring to return to his old law practice at Arthur, Knevals & Ransom. His health limited his activity with the firm, and Arthur served only of counsel. He took on few assignments with the firm and was often too ill to leave his house. He managed a few public appearances, until the end of 1885. After spending the summer of 1886 in New London, Connecticut, he returned home where he", "Several Grand Army of the Republic posts were named for Arthur, including Goff, Kansas, Lawrence, Nebraska, Medford, Oregon, and Ogdensburg, Wisconsin. On April 5, 1882, Arthur was elected to the District of Columbia Commandery of the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States (MOLLUS) as a Third Class Companion (insignia number 02430), the honorary membership category for militia officers and civilians who made significant contributions to the war effort. Union College awarded Arthur the honorary degree of LL.D. in 1883. In 1898, the Arthur memorial statue—a, bronze figure of Arthur standing on a Barre Granite pedestal—was created by sculptor George Edwin Bissell and installed at Madison Square, in New York City. The statue was dedicated in 1899 and unveiled by Arthur's sister, Mary Arthur McElroy. At the dedication, Secretary of War Elihu Root described Arthur as, \"...wise in statesmanship and firm and effective in administration,\" while acknowledging that Arthur was isolated in office and unloved by his own party. Arthur's unpopularity in life carried over into his assessment by historians, and his reputation after leaving office disappeared. By 1935, historian George F. Howe said that Arthur had achieved \"an obscurity in strange contrast to his significant part in American history.\" By 1975, however, Thomas C. Reeves would write that Arthur's \"appointments, if unspectacular, were unusually sound; the corruption and scandal that dominated business and politics of the period did not tarnish his administration.\" As 2004 biographer Zachary Karabell wrote, although Arthur was \"physically stretched and emotionally strained, he strove to do what was right for the country.\" Indeed, Howe had earlier surmised, \"Arthur adopted [a code] for his own political behavior but subject to three restraints: he remained to everyone a man of his word; he kept scrupulously free from corrupt graft; he maintained a personal dignity, affable and genial though he might be. These restraints... distinguished him sharply from the stereotype politician.\" Arthur's townhouse, the Chester A. Arthur Home, was sold to William Randolph Hearst. Since 1944 it has been the location of Kalustyan's Spice Emporium." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Chinese region.", "Kazakh region.", "Ili Delta.", "Historical connections.", "Fishing." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Earlier mentions of \"Ili\" river can be traced back to the Mahmud al-Kashgari's dictionary of Turkic languages, the \"Dīwānu l-Luġat al-Turk\" (written in 1072–74). In the book, the author defines it in the following way: \"Ili, the name of a river. Turkic tribes of \"Yaghma\", \"Tokhsi\" and \"Chiglig\" live on its banks. Turkish countries regard the river as their Jayhoun (Amu Darya).\" The name possibly originated from Uyghur word \"Il\", meaning \"hook\", resembling the river's geographical shape.", "The upper Ili Valley is separated from the Dzungarian Basin in the north (by the Borohoro Mountains), and from the Tarim Basin in the south (by the Tian Shan). This region was the stronghold of the Qing administration in Xinjiang in the late 18th and 19th centuries. It was occupied by Russia from 1871 to 1881 (from the Yaqub Beg rebellion until the Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881)). Presently, the region forms part of Xinjiang's Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture. The main city of the region, Yining (Kulja), is located on the northern side of the river (about upstream from the international border). Until the early 1900s, the city was commonly known under the same name as the river, 伊犁 (Pinyin: Yīlí; Wade-Giles: Ili). Qapqal Xibe Autonomous County in located on the southern side, which is home to many of the China's Xibe people (who resettled there in the 18th century as part of the Manchu Garrison). There are at least two dams on the Ili's tributary: the Kash River (喀什河) in Nilka County, at and. At least two dams have been constructed on the Ili's left tributary, the Tekes River, and the Qiapuqihai Hydropower Station (恰甫其海水电站) in Tokkuztara County (). There is also another smaller dam at, on the border of Tokkuztara and Künes Counties.", "The region of Kazakhstan partially drained by the Ili and its tributaries is known in Kazakh as Zhetysu ('Seven Rivers'). In Russian it is known as Semirechye (meaning the same). The Kapshagay Hydroelectric Power Plant was constructed between 1965 and 1970 near Kapchagay in the middle reaches of the Ili River. This currently comprises the Kapchagay Reservoir, an artificial long lake north of Almaty. The Tamgaly-Tas, a protected site that comprises rock drawings, is located downstream along the Ili River. The name \"Tamgaly\" in Kazakh means \"painted\" or \"marked place\" (\"Tas\" means \"stone\").", "The Ili River flows into the southeastern edge of Lake Balkhash, where it forms a large delta of about. The delta is situated between the Saryesik-Atyrau Desert and the Taukum Desert. An area of 9,766 km (3,771 sq mi) within the delta has been designated as a Ramsar Site. This site has 427 species of plants and 345 species of animals, including important populations of rare species (Dalmatian pelican, goitered gazelle, marbled polecat, white-headed duck, red-breasted goose, ship sturgeon, and others). The delta has also become popular amongst anglers for its wels catfish, which can grow up to over. The Ili river ranks third in Kazakhstan after the Irtysh river and the Ural river in terms of water content. The Government of Kazakhstan plans to join the three sanctuaries Balkash, Karoy and Kukan (situated in the delta) into one National Park. Until 1948, the delta was a refuge of the extinct Caspian tiger. An introduction of the Siberian tiger to the delta has been proposed on account that it is a genetically close relative of the Caspian tiger. A large population of wild boar, the main prey base of the Caspian tiger, can be still found in the delta. There is also a small population of roe deer. In the drier steppes to the south of the delta live saiga antelopes and goitered gazelles. Reintroduction of the Bactrian deer, another prey of the Caspian tiger, is currently under consideration. Another potential prey species considered to be reintroduced is the Asiatic wild ass.", "The Ili River treaty of 638 AD formalized the division of the Western Turkic Kaganate (552–638 AD) into the Nushibi and the Dulu. It also established the Ili River as the border between the two states. In the 21st century, increasing need for water in both China and Kazakhstan makes the management of the cross-border Ili River a topic of concern for environmentalists and politicians in Kazakhstan (who feel that their country may not get enough water flowing in from China any more). The amount of precipitation in summer reaches 150-250 cubic meters.", "On the river, the most popular type of fishing is fishing for catfish, one of the largest aquatic predators, which reaches 5 meters in length and weighs up to 300 kg. on the river, or catch smaller specimens – 50 – 100 kg." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Fly fishing.", "Technological improvements.", "Modern design.", "Rod making bench.", "Specifications.", "Power.", "Action.", "Bending curve and tapering.", "Line weight.", "Lure weight.", "Number of pieces.", "Types.", "Carbon fibre rods.", "Fly rods.", "Tenkara rods.", "IM/Modulus.", "Spin casting rods.", "Baitcasting rods.", "Spinning rods.", "Ultra-light rods.", "Ice rods.", "Sea rods.", "Surf rods.", "Trolling rods.", "Telescopic rods." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Judging by stone inscriptions dating back to 2000 BC, fishing rods go back to ancient Egypt, China, Greece, Trinidad and Tobago, Rome and medieval England.", "The art of fly fishing took a great leap forward after the English Civil War, where a newly found interest in the activity left its mark on the many books and treatises that were written on the subject at the time. The renowned officer in the Parliamentary army, Robert Venables, published in 1662 \"The Experienced Angler, or Angling improved, being a general discourse of angling, imparting many of the aptest ways and choicest experiments for the taking of most sorts of fish in pond or river\". \"Compleat Angler\" was written by Izaak Walton in 1653 (although Walton continued to add to it for a quarter of a century) and described the fishing in the Derbyshire Wye. It was a celebration of the art", "The impact of the Industrial Revolution was first felt in the manufacture of fly lines. Instead of anglers twisting their own lines, a laborious and time-consuming process, the new textile spinning machines allowed for a variety of tapered lines to be easily manufactured and marketed. The material used for the rod itself changed from the heavy woods native to England, to lighter and more elastic varieties imported from abroad, especially from South America and the West Indies. Bamboo rods became the generally favoured option from the mid 19th century, and", "In theory, an ideal rod should gradually taper from butt to tip, be tight in all its joints (if any), and have a smooth, progressive taper, without 'dead spots'. Modern design and fabrication techniques, along with advanced materials such as graphite, boron and fiberglass composites as well as stainless steel (see Emmrod) – have allowed rod makers to tailor both the shape and action of fishing rods for greater casting distance, accuracy, and fish-fighting qualities. Today, fishing rods are identified by their weight (meaning the weight of line or lure required to flex a fully loaded rod) and action (describing the speed with which the rod returns to its neutral position). Generally there are three types of rods used today graphite, fiberglass, and bamboo rods. Bamboo rods are the heaviest of the three, but people still use it for its feel. Fiberglass rods are the heaviest of the new", "An old rod-making bench would generally consist of a bench, vice, a drawing knife, a jack, a fore plane, large coarse flat file, sand paper, and several strips of wood about long with different size grooves in them.", "There are several specifications manufacturers use to delineate rod uses. These include power, action, line weight, lure weight, and number of pieces.", "Also known as \"power value\" or \"rod weight\". Rods may be classified as ultra-light, light, medium-light, medium, medium-heavy, heavy, ultra-heavy, or other similar combinations. Power is often an indicator of what types of fishing, species of fish, or size of fish a particular pole may be best used for. Ultra-light rods are suitable for catching small bait fish and also panfish, or situations where rod responsiveness is critical. Ultra-heavy rods", "\"Action\" refers to the speed with which the rod returns to its neutral position. An action may be slow, medium, fast, or anything in between (e.g. medium-fast). Contrary to how it is often presented, action does not refer to the bending curve. A rod with fast action can as easily have a progressive bending curve (from tip to butt) as a top only bending curve. The action can be influenced by the tapering of a rod, the length and the materials used for the blank. Typically a rod which uses a glass fibre composite blank is slower than a rod which uses a carbon fibre composite blank. Action, however, is also often a subjective description of a manufacturer. Very often action is misused to note the bending curve instead of the speed. Some manufacturers list the power value", "A fishing rod's main function is to bend and deliver a certain resistance or power: While casting, the rod acts as a catapult: by moving the rod forward, the inertia of the mass of the bait or lure and rod itself, will load (bend) the rod and launch the lure or bait. When a bite is registered and the fisherman strikes, the bending of the rod will dampen the strike to avoid line failure. When fighting a fish, the bending of the rod not only enables the fisherman to keep the line under tension, but the bending of the rod will also keep the fish under a constant pressure which will exhaust the fish and enable the fisherman to", "A rod is usually also classified by the optimal weight of fishing line or in the case of fly rods, fly line the rod should handle. Fishing line weight is described in pounds of tensile force before the line parts. Line weight for a rod is expressed as a range that the", "A rod may also be described by the weight of lure or", "Rods that are one piece from butt to tip are considered to have the most natural \"feel\", and are preferred by many, though the difficulty in transporting them safely becomes an increasing problem with increasing rod length. Two-piece rods, joined by a ferrule, are very common, and if well engineered (especially with tubular glass or carbon fibre rods), sacrifice very little in the way of natural feel. Some fishermen do feel a", "Fishing rods can be constructed out of a vast number of materials. Generally they are made with either fiberglass, graphite, or a new generation composite, also known as carbon fibre. Many times carbon fibre and graphite are used together in the rod making process.", "A carbon fibre rod is not necessarily better than a glass fibre rod; the two fibres have different properties, with their own tradeoffs. Carbon fibre is less flexible (stiffer) than glass fibre and more brittle and prone to breakage when misused, while carbon fibre allows", "Fly rods, thin, flexible fishing rods designed to cast an artificial fly, usually consisting of a hook tied with fur, feathers, foam, or other lightweight material. More modern flies are also tied with synthetic materials. Originally made of yew, green heart, and later split bamboo (Tonkin cane), most modern fly rods are constructed from man-made composite materials, including fibreglass, carbon/graphite, or graphite/boron composites. Split bamboo rods are generally considered the most beautiful, the most \"classic\", and are also generally the most fragile of the styles, and they require a great deal of care to last well. Instead of a weighted lure, a fly rod uses the weight of the fly line for casting, and lightweight rods are capable of casting the very smallest and lightest fly. Typically, a monofilament segment called a \"leader\" is tied to the fly line on one end and the fly on the other. Each rod is sized to the fish being sought, the wind and water conditions and also to a particular weight of line: larger and heavier line sizes will cast heavier, larger flies. Fly rods come in a wide variety of line sizes, from size #000 to #0 rods for", "Tenkara rods are a type of fly rod used for tenkara fishing in Japan. A mixture of the rods in the other categories, they are carbon rods, fly rods and telescopic rods all in one. These are ultra-light and very portable telescopic rods (read more about telescopic below). Their extended length normally ranges from, and they have a very soft action. The action of tenkara rods has been standardized as a ratio of \"how many parts are stiffer : how many tip parts bend more easily\". The standard actions are 5:5, 6:4, 7:3, and 8:2, with 5:5 being a softer/slower", "IM6, IM7, etc. are trade names for particular graphite produced by the Hexcel Corporation. These numbers are not industry standards nor an indication of quality, especially since other companies use the designations to refer to graphite not made by Hexcel. At best, they allow you to compare the quality of the material used to build different rods by the same manufacturer: an IM7 rod would use better graphite than an IM6 rod if both are made by the same manufacturer. It is more difficult to say the same about rods from two different companies, since they could", "Spin casting rods are rods designed to hold a spin casting reel, which are normally mounted above the handle. Spin casting rods also have small eyes and, frequently, a forefinger grip trigger. They are very similar to bait casting rods, to the point where", "While the easy to use spin casting rods are often used by novice anglers, baitcasting rods and reels are generally more difficult to use. Professional anglers, however, prefer baitcasting rod and reel", "Spinning rods are made from graphite or fiberglass with a cork or PVC foam handle, and tend to be between in length. Typically, spinning rods have anywhere from 5–8 guides arranged along the underside of the rod to help control the line. The eyes decrease in size from the handle to the tip, with the one nearest the handle usually much larger than the rest to allow less friction as the coiled line comes off the reel, and to gather the very large loops of line that come off the spinning reel's spool. Unlike bait casting and spin casting reels, the spinning reel hangs beneath the rod rather than sitting", "These rods are used to fish for smaller species, they provide more sport with larger fish, or to enable fishing with lighter line and smaller lures. Though the term is commonly used to refer to spinning or spin-cast rods and tackle, fly rods in smaller line weights (size #0–#3) have also long been utilized for ultra-light fishing, as well as to protect the thin-diameter, lightweight end section of leader,", "Modern ice rods are typically very short spinning rods, varying between in length. Classic ice rods – still widely used – are simply stiff rod-like pieces of wood,", "Sea rods are designed for use with fish from the ocean. They are long, (around on average), extremely thick, and feature huge and heavy", "The most common type of sea rods are for surf casting. Surf casting rods resemble oversized spinning or bait casting rods with long grip handles intended for two-handed casting techniques. Generally between in length, surf casting rods need to be longer in order for the user cast the", "Trolling is a fishing method of casting the lure or bait to the side of, or behind, a moving boat, and letting the motion of the boat pull the bait through the water. In theory, for light and medium freshwater gamefishing, any casting or spinning rod (with the possible exception of ultralight rods) can be used for trolling. In the last 30 years, most manufacturers have developed a complete line of generally long, heavily built rods sold as \"Trolling Rods\", and aimed generally at ocean anglers and Great Lakes salmon and steelhead fishermen. A rod effective for trolling", "Telescopic fishing rods are designed to collapse down to a short length and open to a long rod. rods can close to as little as. This makes the rods very easy to transport to remote areas or travel on buses, compact cars, or public buses and subways. Telescopic fishing rods are made from the same materials as conventional multi-piece rods. Graphite, carbon, and sometimes fibreglass, or composites of these materials, are designed to slip into each other so that they open and close. The eyes on the spinning rods are generally, but not always, a special design to aid in making the end of each section stronger. Various grade eyes available in conventional rods are also available in telescopic fishing rods. The eyeless Tenkara style rods" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Sport.", "Music.", "Innovation.", "Speedway.", "Location and transportation.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The ground opened for the 1958 FIFA World Cup held across Sweden. It hosted four matches in Group D, including a play-off. It also held a quarter-final, a semi-final and the third-place match. The stadium's record attendance for football is 52,194, set on 3 June 1959 when Örgryte IS played against IFK Göteborg. The stadium hosted the 1983 European Cup Winners' Cup Final, which saw Scotland's Aberdeen defeat Spanish giants Real Madrid 2–1 after extra time. It also hosted the first leg of the 1987 UEFA Cup Final between IFK Göteborg and Dundee United of Scotland. The hosts won the game 1-0 thanks to a goal from Stefan Pettersson. The Swedish side would go on to lift the trophy for the second time in their history after a 1-1 draw at Tannadice Park, Dundee in the second leg. It was also the venue for the first game between National Football League teams to be played on the European continent, organised by Swedish motor company Volvo. In a pre-season game on 14 August 1988, the Minnesota Vikings won 28–21 against the Chicago Bears. The 1990 European Cup Winners' Cup Final was also held at the stadium. It saw Sampdoria of Italy defeat Anderlecht of Belgium 2-0 after extra-time. Ullevi held three Group B matches at UEFA Euro 1992 as well as a semi-final, and the final itself on 26 June in which Denmark won the trophy against Germany. The 2004 UEFA Cup Final was held at the stadium on 19 May of that year. Valencia of Spain defeated Marseille of France, 2–0. The annual Världsungdomsspelen (translation: World Youth Games) track and field competition is held at the stadium and the mass event has around 3000 athletes competing each year.", "Ullevi nearly collapsed during a Bruce Springsteen concert on 8 June 1985 due to the rhythmic movement of tens of thousands of people in the audience and the clay soil on which the stadium is built. The concert also caused nearly £3 million in damages, while David Bowie's Glass Spider Tour in June 1987 was relocated from Ullevi to Eriksberg because of fears about the safety of the structure. Since then, the concrete pillars supporting the stadium have been extended down to the bedrock. Springsteen has performed at the stadium on subsequent tours. Pink Floyd performed at Ullevi on 27 August 1994 as part of their The Division Bell Tour. Michael Jackson came to Ullevi on August 16, 1997 as part of his HIStory World Tour, performing for a crowd of 50,000 people. Elton John hosted a sell-out concert in 1998. It was part of the Face-To-Face Tour with Billy Joel, although Joel was unable to perform because of illness. John played for over three hours. Tina Turner came to Ullevi on August 9, 1996 as part of her Wildest Dreams Tour and August 5, 2000 as part of her Twenty Four Seven Tour with a sold-out crowd of 55,180. The \"big four\" of thrash metal (Slayer, Anthrax, Megadeth and Metallica) played in the stadium on 3 July 2011. U2 have performed at the stadium four times: the first occasion was on 2 August 1997 during their PopMart Tour, in front of a crowd of 46,658 people. The second was on 29 July 2005 during their Vertigo Tour, in front of a sold-out crowd of 58,478 people. The third and the fourth were on 31 July and 1 August 2009 during their U2 360° Tour, in front of a total sold-out crowd of 119,297 people. The performance of \"The Unforgettable Fire\" from the first 2009 show was recorded for the group's live album \"U22\". Foo Fighters performed at the venue on 12 June 2015 on the Sonic Highways World Tour. However, Dave Grohl fell off stage during the second song of the concert, breaking his leg. He was treated in the stadium before returning to the stage to continue the rest of the concert sitting down in a chair while a medic applied a cast. Despite Grohl's injuries, the band was able to complete the concert. Iron Maiden performed at the stadium four times. The first was on 9 July 2005 during their Eddie Rips Up the World Tour. The second time was on 26 July 2008 during their Somewhere Back in Time World Tour. The third time was on 1 July 2011 during The Final Frontier World Tour. The fourth time was on 17 June 2016 during The Book of Souls World Tour.", "Since March 2007, Ullevi has one of Sweden's largest solar power plants, consisting of 600m2 of solar photovoltaic panels situated on the roof of the luxury boxes section. The top effect is 86.4 kW and the yield is supposed to cover the total power used by the artificial lighting for events, with a surplus.", "Ullevi has also hosted Motorcycle speedway and hosted the Speedway World Championship on no less than eight occasions, second only to the old Wembley Stadium in London, England which hosted the World Final a record 26 times. The track is a dirt surface laid out over the athletics track and is officially long with a track record of 69.4 seconds (4 laps clutch start). The first Championship World Final to be held at Ullevi was the inaugural Speedway World Team Cup competition in 1960. Led by reigning world champion Ove Fundin and his teammates Olle Nygren, Rune Sörmander and Björn Knutsson, Sweden swept to victory over England, Czechoslovakia and Poland. Ullevi would have to wait 26 years before World Team Cup competition returned with the stadium hosting the first round of the three round 1986 Final. The first ever Individual World Final staged at Ullevi was in 1964 when New Zealand's Barry Briggs won with a 15-point maximum. The largest attendance for a World Final at Ullevi occurred in 1974 when 38,390 turned out to see Sweden's own Anders Michanek win his only World Championship with an unbeaten 15 point maximum. No World Championship winners at Ullevi dropped more than one point in their five rides with five of the seven World Finals being won with a 15-point maximum. The stadium also hosted other qualifying rounds for the Individual World Final including the inaugural running of the Intercontinental Final in 1975 won by New Zealand legend Ivan Mauger. Since the World Championship was changed in 1995 from a single meeting Final to the Speedway Grand Prix (SGP), Ullevi has hosted a round of the series in 2002, 2003, 2004 (Grand Prix of Scandinavia), 2008, 2009, 2010 and \"2011\" (Grand Prix of Sweden). No rider who has won a SGP at Ullevi has gone on to be that years World Champion, though 2011 Swedish Grand Prix winner Chris Holder from Australia did go on to become the 2012 World Champion. Ullevi hosted its only World Pairs Championship Final in 1983 when Peter Collins and Kenny Carter won England's 6th Pairs crown.", "Ullevi is located on the eastern edge of Gothenburg's city centre and is one of the centre pieces of the event district Evenemangsstråket, with Scandinavium, Liseberg, Universeum, the Museum of World Culture and Bergakungen nearby. Public transport is easily accessible. There are two tram stops named after the stadium; Ullevi Norra (North) and Ullevi Södra (South). Both tram stops serve lines 6 (orange) and 8 (purple). Ullevi Södra also serves lines 2 (yellow) and 13 (beige), while Ullevi Norra also serves lines 1 (white) and 3 (blue). Approximately 700 metres west of Ullevi lies the Gothenburg Central Station and Nils Ericson Terminal. 900 metres south of Ullevi lies Korsvägen, a major public transport hub which serves more than fifteen different bus lines and several tram lines, and the Liseberg station serving the Gothenburg commuter rail. The stadium has 650 parking spaces located in a garage underneath the pitch. Additionally visitors are guided to eighteen nearby parking lots and parking garages—with a total of 7,000 parking spaces—by the event districts parking guidance and information system. The system has a total of 130 digital signs, located on motorways with information about which exit to use, and on streets in the city with more detailed information about directions and number of available parking spaces.", "https://www.aftonbladet.se/nojesbladet/musik/rockbjornen/a/KVmpe/sa-bra-var-hakan-hellstroms-sista-spelning-pa-ullevi https://www.aftonbladet.se/nojesbladet/musik/rockbjornen/a/rqjqm/sa-bra-var-hakan-hellstroms-forsta-spelning-pa-ullevi" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Overview.", "Floor plan topics.", "Building blocks.", "Plan view.", "3D floor plans." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Similar to a map, the orientation of the view is downward from above, but unlike a conventional map, a plan is drawn at a particular vertical position (commonly at about four feet above the floor). Objects below this level are seen, objects at this level are shown 'cut' in plan-section, and objects above this vertical position within the structure are omitted or shown dashed. Plan view or planform is defined as a vertical orthographic projection of an object on a horizontal plane, like a map. The term may be used in general to describe any drawing showing the physical layout of objects. For example, it may denote the arrangement of the displayed objects at an exhibition, or the arrangement of exhibitor booths at a convention. Drawings are now reproduced using plotters and large format xerographic copiers. A \"reflected ceiling plan\" (RCP) shows a view of the room as if looking from above, through the ceiling, at a mirror installed one foot below the ceiling level, which shows the \"reflected\" image of the ceiling above. This convention maintains the same orientation of the floor and ceilings plans – looking down from above. RCPs are used by designers and architects to demonstrate lighting, visible mechanical features, and ceiling forms as part of the documents provided for construction.", "", "A floor plan is not a top view or birds eye view. It is a measured drawing to scale of the layout of a floor in a building. A top view or bird's eye view does not show an orthogonally projected plane cut at the typical four foot height above the floor level. A floor plan could show:", "A plan view is an orthographic projection of a three-dimensional object from the position of a horizontal plane through the object. In other words, a plan is a section viewed from the top. In such views, the portion of the object above the plane (section) is omitted to reveal what lies beyond. In the case of a floor plan, the roof and upper portion of the walls may typically be omitted. Whenever an interior design project is being approached, a floor plan is the typical starting point for any further design considerations and decisions. Roof plans are orthographic projections, but they are not sections as their viewing plane is outside of the object. A plan is a common method of depicting the internal arrangement of a three-dimensional object in two dimensions. It is often used in technical drawing and is traditionally crosshatched. The style of crosshatching indicates the type of material the section passes through.", "A 3D floor plan can be defined as a virtual model of a building floor plan. It is often used to better convey architectural plans to individuals not familiar with floor plans. Despite the purpose of floor plans originally being to depict 3D layouts in a 2D manner, technological expansion has made rendering 3D models much more cost effective. 3D plans show a better depth of image and are often complemented by 3D furniture in the room. This allows a greater appreciation of scale than with traditional 2D floor plans." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Representation.", "Matrix format.", "Stop-specific displays.", "Electronic displays.", "Formats.", "Scheduling.", "Headway services.", "National timetables.", "Asia.", "China.", "Japan.", "Europe.", "Germany.", "Netherlands.", "Switzerland.", "Coherent, integrated online timetables.", "United Kingdom.", "History." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "4", "3", "4" ], "content": [ "The first compilation of railway timetables in the United Kingdom was produced in 1839 by George Bradshaw. Greater speeds and the need for more accurate timings led to the introduction of standard railway time in Great Western Railway timetables in 1840, when all their trains were scheduled to \"London time\", i.e. Greenwich Mean Time (GMT), which replaced solar time. Until railway time was introduced, local times for London, Birmingham, Bristol and Manchester could differ by as much as 16 to 20 minutes; in India and North America these differences could be 60 minutes or more. The \"European Rail Timetable\", a compendium of the schedules of major European railway services, has been in publication since 1873 (appearing monthly since 1883). Originally, and for most of its history, it was published by Thomas Cook & Son and included \"Thomas Cook\" or \"Cook's\" in its title. Although Thomas Cook Group plc ceased publication in 2013, the \"Thomas Cook European Rail Timetable\" was revived by a new company in early 2014 as simply the \"European Rail Timetable\". From 1981 to 2010, Cook also produced a similar bi-monthly Overseas volume covering the rest of the world, and some of that content was moved into the \"European Timetable\" in 2011.", "A timetable can be produced dynamically, on request, for a particular journey on a particular day around a particular time (see journey planner, below), or in a timetable that gives an overview of all services in a particular category and is valid for a specified period. The latter could take the form of a book, leaflet, billboard, or a (set of) computer file(s), and makes it much easier to find out, for example, whether a transport service at a particular time is offered every day at that time, and if not, on which days; with a journey planner one may have to check every day of the year separately for this.", "Many timetables comprise tables with services shown in columns, and stations or stops on the rows of the table. There will often be separate tables for each direction of travel, and often separate (pairs of) tables for weekdays, Saturdays and Sundays. Generally the times shown against each station or stop will be the departure time, except for the last stop of the service which will be the arrival time. The left hand column will list the stations in route order, and the other columns are arranged from left to right in chronological order. If the service is scheduled to wait, both arrival and departure times might be shown on consecutive rows. If a slow service is overtaken by a fast service, the slow service will often occupy more than one column, to keep the times in order. There may be additional rows showing connecting services. In most parts of the world times are shown using the 24-hour clock (although in the United States the 12-hour clock, with the addition of \"am/A\" or \"pm/P\" or with pm times in bold, is more often used). If services run at the same minutes past each hour for part of the day, the legend \"and at the same minutes past each hour\" or similar wording may be shown instead of individual timings. Other information may be shown, often at the tops of the columns, such as day(s) of operation, validity of tickets for each service, whether seat reservations are required, the type of vehicle used (e.g. for heritage railways and airline timetables), the availability of on-board facilities such as refreshments, availability of classes, and a service number. Timetables with services arranged in rows of tables and stops or stations in columns are less common but otherwise similar to timetables with services in columns.", "Some timetables, particularly at railway stations and bus stops, list the times that services depart from that location, sometimes with other information such as destinations and stopping conditions. Again, there may be separate lists for different days of the week. There may be a separate list for each line/direction, or a combined chronological list (as in the picture). In parts of mainland Europe train departures are listed on a yellow poster, and arrivals on a white poster. These posters are placed at entrances to stations and on platforms.", "Dynamic electronic displays in stations may be at a central place and list the next few departures for each line, or all departures in the next hour. Displays on platforms usually just show the next departure (or perhaps the next few) from that platform.", "Timetables may be printed as books, booklets, folded or plain cards or paper, posters, or hand-written on posters or blackboards, shown on back-lit displays, or published on-line or as SMS or text messages. With the development of the internet and electronic systems, conventional thick paper timetables are gradually being replaced by website searching or CD-ROM style timetables, and the publication of comprehensive printed timetables is generally decreasing. Transport schedule data itself is increasingly being made available to the public digitally, as specified in the General Transit Feed Specification (GTFS) format.", "In many modern public transport systems, timetables and rostering are generated by computer, with the operators specifying the required operating span, minimum frequencies, route length/time and other such factors. Design of the schedule may aim to make times memorable for passengers, through the use of clock-face scheduling — services departing at regular intervals, at the same times every hour. This is less likely to apply at peak times, when the priority is optimum utilisation of available vehicles and staff.", "In large cities services may be so frequent that consulting a timetable is unnecessary. In some cases public transport operators do not publish public timetables for busy times of day, or they may simply state \"services run every 3–5 minutes\" (or words to that effect) A monthly timetable book of major trains, some bus and ferry services in Europe. A bi-monthly timetable book of major trains, and some bus and ferry services outside Europe, ceased December 2010. A monthly air timetable book published by OAG (Official Airline Guide), and covers all airlines and airports in the world. The official timetable book, published twice a year.", "", "", "Published twice a year by China Railway Publishing, in Chinese. The former timetable includes all trains, the latter fast express trains only. Published irregularly (last January 2015) by Duncan Peattie, in English. It includes all trains shown in the Chinese Railway Passenger Train Timetable, but not all stations. Published once a year in English and Hindi.", "The first regularly published appeared in 1894, published by a private company. By the time of the nationalization of Japanese railways in 1906, three competing timetables were being published and it was decided that only one official timetable should be offered to the public. Five thousand copies of the first official timetable were published in January 1915. In 2010, two printed national timetables were available; one published by JTB Corporation and one published by the \"Transportation News Company/Kotsu Shimbunsha\", itself owned by all constituent companies of the Japan Railways Group (barring the RTRI) and SoftBank. These thick books - the February 2009 edition of the JTB timetable, for example, contains 1152 pages - are published every month and cover all stations and trains of JR and private railways, as well as long distance bus, ferry and air services. For frequent JR urban lines, subway trains, private railways and urban buses, only summary timetables are shown. In 2009, a book was published to mark the 1000th edition of the JTB timetable, containing reproductions of all one thousand covers, selected timetables and maps, and articles on the way the timetable is produced. There are also many searchable online timetables covering all forms of transport, for example http://www.hyperdia.com/. Timetables for PDAs, mobile phones and PCs are readily available. Published every month and covers all trains, highway bus, ferry and domestic air services.", "Every year, in December and June, the European train timetables are amended. There are seldom major changes to important routes, but the change allows for alterations to international services and for seasonal variation. Currently the dates for the European train timetable changes are usually the Sunday of the second weekend in June and in December. In the months leading up to the changeover date booking will be restricted as some railway operators are sometimes late loading in the new data (between several weeks and a few days before the change). However, in Switzerland timetable changes only happen once a year in December. In Switzerland major changes happen only in odd years. One of the most comprehensive European-wide timetable information is provided by the electronic timetable search engine of German Railways Deutsche Bahn (information is also available in Danish, Dutch, French, Italian, Polish, Spanish and Turkish). The same information, but differently presented, one also find on the online timetables by the Swiss Federal Railways (in English, German, French, and Italian) and the timetable by the Czech Ministry of Transport (in Czech, and - however not to every detail - in English and German). This is a free timetable leaflet distributed in express train and has information about the departure, arrival time of the train and connecting services.", "For many years the “Kursbuch Gesamtausgabe” (\"complete timetable\"), a very thick timetable book, was published but its contents are now available on the Deutsche Bahn website and CD ROM. Covers most trains.", "See Timetables for the Netherlands.", "In Switzerland timetables change happens only once a year in December all over Switzerland for any kind of public transportation means; major changes even happens only every second year on odd years. A large annual publication consisting of all Swiss railways, funiculairs, most lake and river boats, cableways, Swiss PostBus, and all other country buses timetables.", "All online timetables provide information for the same timetable as the printed \"Official Timetable\" plus all Swiss city transit systems and networks as well as most railways in Europe. The user interface as well as all Swiss railways stations, and bus, boat, cable car stops are transparently available in German, French, Italian, and English spelling.", "Published by The Stationery Office (the official UK Government publishers), and contains information, according to its title page, \"with permission of Network Rail and obtained under licence the Rail Delivery Group. It closely resembles Network Rail's former timetable book, which ceased publication in 2007, but PDF timetable files are on its website.<br> It appears twice per year:", "Until 1974 each region of British Rail published its own timetable. The first Great Britain timetable started on 4 May 1974. Prior to that the only joint publication between regions had been a publication of 30 principal passenger services from 1962, following the demise of Bradshaw in 1961. The final printed all-line timetable was produced by Network Rail in 2007, after which versions were published both by the Stationery Office and Middleton Press. Subsequently, The Stationery Office version has been discontinued and for the summer of 2016 Middleton Press only published a reprint of the UK pages of the European Rail Timetable, although a limited two-volume comprehensive version belatedly appeared in August." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Roman Catholic Church.", "Anglican Communion." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In the Roman Catholic Church, a coadjutor bishop is an immediate collaborator of the diocesan bishop, similar to an auxiliary bishop. However, unlike auxiliary bishops, coadjutors are given the right of succession to the episcopal see. When the diocesan bishop dies, retires, resigns, or is reassigned, the coadjutor automatically becomes the next bishop of the local Church (diocese). Until then, the diocesan bishop appoints the coadjutor to act as vicar general. He needs to be a bishop, and, in a now-discontinued practice, held a titular see until his succession. In modern church practice, the appointment of a coadjutor is usually done in cases where a diocesan bishop feels that he will not be able to continue in his position for health reasons or impending retirement. In such cases, the Pope may assign a coadjutor in order to give him time to become familiar with the diocese that he will eventually take over. For example, Bishop Dennis Marion Schnurr of the Diocese of Duluth, Minnesota, was named Coadjutor Archbishop of the Archdiocese of Cincinnati, Ohio, in 2008 to succeed aging Archbishop Daniel Edward Pilarczyk. At times, the appointment of a coadjutor is used to discreetly remove a diocesan bishop who has become involved in scandal or other problems. An example of this occurred in the Archdiocese of Dubuque in the 1940s, when Archbishop Francis Beckman involved the archdiocese in what turned out to be a dubious mining scheme. When the scheme fell apart and resulted in serious financial problems for Beckman and the archdiocese, Bishop Henry Rohlman, of Davenport, Iowa, was appointed Coadjutor Archbishop of Dubuque. While Beckman was allowed to retain the office of Archbishop, it was made clear to him by the Holy See that the actual power rested with Rohlman. Prior to the reform of the Code of Canon Law in 1983, a distinction was made between coadjutor bishops \"cum jure succesionis\" (\"with the right of succession\") and those without. Some coadjutors were appointed with the right of succession, and others were without such a right, usually as archbishops in particularly large dioceses who also held other important posts and to honor certain auxiliary bishops. For an example of a coadjutor without right of succession, see John J. Maguire, coadjutor archbishop of New York (1965-1980). Now, every coadjutor who is appointed has the concomitant right of succession. An Apostolic Vicar may also have a coadjutor, who, like him, will be a titular bishop.", "In some provinces of the Anglican Communion, a bishop coadjutor (the form usually used) is a bishop elected or appointed to follow the current diocesan bishop upon the incumbent's death or retirement. For example, in the Episcopal Church in the United States of America, when a diocesan bishop announces a retirement, a special diocesan convention is held to elect a coadjutor. Usually, the coadjutor serves with the incumbent for a short time before the latter's retirement, when the coadjutor becomes the diocesan bishop. Bishops coadjutor are also appointed in the Reformed Episcopal Church. The role of \"assistant bishop\" (with no expectation to succeed the diocesan see) in the Church of England is fulfilled by a suffragan. There have been bishops coadjutor in the Anglican Church of Australia without the right of succession to the diocesan see." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name.", "History.", "Geography.", "Gaelic language.", "Politics.", "Councillors.", "Political composition.", "Members of the Scottish Parliament.", "Members of Parliament." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "3", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Unlike the other council areas of Scotland, the name \"Highland\" is often not used as a proper noun. The council's website only sometimes refers to the area as being \"Highland\", and other times as being \"the Highland Council Area\" or \"the Highlands\". Road signs on the boundary of the council area say \"Welcome to the Highlands\" rather than \"Welcome to Highland\". To many people within the area, using the name \"Highland\" as a noun sounds wrong. \"Dingwall in Highland\", for example, sounds strange and is not idiomatic usage. To refer specifically to the area covered by the council, people tend to say \"the Highland Council area\" or \"the Highland area\" or \"the Highland region\". Otherwise, they may also refer to the traditional county names, such as \"Ross\". Although named after it, the Highland council area does not cover the entire geographic region of the Scottish Highlands themselves. Other parts belong to the council areas of Aberdeenshire, Angus, Argyll and Bute, Moray, North Ayrshire, Perth and Kinross, Stirling or West Dunbartonshire.", "In 1975, the area was created as a two-tier region, under the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1973, with an elected council for the whole region and, in addition, elected councils for each of eight districts, Badenoch and Strathspey, Caithness, Inverness, Lochaber, Nairn, Ross and Cromarty, Skye and Lochalsh and Sutherland. The act also abolished county and burgh councils. In 1996, under the Local Government etc. (Scotland) Act 1994, the Highland Regional Council and the district councils were wound up and their functions were transferred to a new Highland Council. The Highland Council adopted the districts as management areas and created area committees to represent them. However, the boundaries of committee areas ceased to be aligned exactly with those of management areas as a result of changes to ward boundaries in 1999. Ward boundaries changed again in 2007, and the management areas and related committees have now been abolished in favour of three new corporate management areas: Caithness, Sutherland and Easter Ross; Inverness, Nairn and Badenoch and Strathspey; and Ross, Skye and Lochaber. The names of these areas are also names of constituencies, but the boundaries are different.", "The Highland Council is based in Inverness, with most previous district council offices retained as outstations. The council area covers an area of – which is 11.4% of the land area of Great Britain, 32.9% of the land area of Scotland and an area 20% larger than Wales. The Highland and Islands division of Police Scotland also includes the Western Isles, Orkney and Shetland (the former area of the Northern Constabulary) and therefore covers an area of, which is larger than that of the state of Belgium. Though relatively populous for a Scottish council area, it is also sparsely populated. At 9.0 per km in 2012, the population density is less than one seventh of Scotland's as a whole, and comparable with that of Bolivia, Chad and Russia. Historically, the area was home to a much higher percentage of Scotland's population. The rural population of the Highlands (both within and outwith the council area) declined in the late 19th century even as Scotland's grew substantially. For example, the population of Skye declined from 23,082 in 1841 to 15,705 in 1891 and a low point of 7,183 in 1971, before growing in more recent decades. Inverness is by far the largest settlement, with a population of 46,870 in 2012. The urban area around Inverness includes a few outlying villages and has a population of 59,910. The highest point in the Highland council area is Ben Nevis, the tallest mountain in both Scotland and the United Kingdom as a whole. Its northernmost point is Island of Stroma, in the Pentland Firth. Its southernmost point is on the Morvern peninsula. Highland contains the northernmost and westernmost points of the island of Great Britain, respectively at Dunnet Head and. Despite the name, not all of Highland is mountainous. The areas east of Inverness, as well as the Black Isle, eastern Sutherland, and all of Caithness are, in fact, low-lying.", "According to the 2011 UK census, there are nearly 12,000 Scottish Gaelic speakers in the Highland area.", "", "The Highland Council represents 22 wards, of which each elects three or four councillors by the single transferable vote system of election, to produce a form of proportional representation in a council of 80 members.", "The 2017 election resulted in the following composition:", "For elections to the Scottish Parliament the Highland area is within the Highlands and Islands electoral area, which elects eight first past the post constituency Members of the Scottish Parliament (MSPs) and seven additional member MSPs. Three of the region's constituencies, each electing one MSP, are within the Highland area: Caithness, Sutherland and Ross, Inverness and Nairn and Skye, Lochaber and Badenoch. The MSPs as at December 2019 are as follows:", "In the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom the Highland area is represented by Members of Parliament (MPs) elected from three constituencies: Caithness, Sutherland and Easter Ross; Inverness, Nairn, Badenoch and Strathspey; and Ross, Skye and Lochaber. Each constituency elects one MP by the first past the post system of election. As of the 2019 United Kingdom general election, the members of parliament are:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Geography.", "Districts and neighborhoods.", "Climate.", "Demographics.", "Religion.", "Language.", "Education.", "Schools.", "Universities.", "Economy.", "Transportation.", "Tourist attractions.", "Sports.", "Culture.", "The seven treasures of cultural heritage material of Asunción.", "Media.", "Newspapers.", "Television.", "International relations.", "Twin towns – Sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "The Spanish conquistador Juan de Ayolas (died c. 1537) may have first visited the site of the future city on his way north, up the Paraguay River, looking for a passage to the mines of Alto Perú (present-day Bolivia). Later, Juan de Salazar y Espinosa and Gonzalo de Mendoza, a relative of Pedro de Mendoza, were sent in search of Ayolas, but failed to find him. On his way up and then down the river, de Salazar stopped briefly at a bay in the left bank to resupply his ships. He found the natives friendly, and decided to found a fort there in August 1537. He named it Nuestra Señora Santa María de la Asunción (Our Lady Saint Mary of the Assumption – the Roman Catholic Church celebrates the Feast of the Assumption on August 15). In 1542 natives destroyed Buenos Aires, and the Spaniards there fled to Asunción. Thus the city became the center of a large Spanish colonial province comprising part of Brazil, present-day Paraguay and northeastern Argentina: the Giant Province of the Indies. In 1603 Asunción was the seat of the First Synod of Asunción, which set guidelines for the evangelization of the natives in their lingua franca, Guaraní. In 1731 an uprising under José de Antequera y Castro was one of the first rebellions against Spanish colonial rule. The uprising failed, but it was the first sign of the independent spirit that was growing among the criollos, mestizos and natives of Paraguay. The event influenced the independence of Paraguay, which subsequently materialised in 1811. The secret meetings between the independence leaders to plan an ambush against the Spanish Governor in Paraguay (Bernardo de Velasco) took place at the home of Juana María de Lara, in downtown Asunción. On the night of May 14 and May 15, 1811, the rebels succeeded and forced governor Velasco to surrender. Today, Lara's former home, known as Casa de la Independencia (House of the Independence), operates as a museum and historical building. After Paraguay became independent, significant change occurred in Asunción. Under the rule of Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia (in office 1813–1840) roads were built throughout the city and the streets were named. However, during the presidency of Carlos Antonio López (President 1844–1862) Asunción (and Paraguay) saw further progress as the new president implemented new economic policies. More than 400 schools, metallurgic factories and the first railroad service in South America were built during the López presidency. After López died (1862), his son Francisco Solano López became the new president and led the country through the disastrous Paraguayan War that lasted for five years (1864-1870). On 1 January 1869, the capital city Asunción fell to Brazilian forces led by Gen. João de Souza da Fonseca Costa. After the end of the armed conflict, Brazilian troops occupied Asunción until 1876. Many historians have claimed that this war provoked a steady downfall of the city and country, since it massacred two thirds of the country's population. Progress slowed down greatly afterwards, and the economy stagnated. After the Paraguayan War, Asunción began a slow attempt at recovery. Towards the end of the 19th century and during the early years of the 20th century, a flow of immigrants from Europe and the Ottoman Empire came to the city. This led to a change in the appearance of the city as many new buildings were built and Asunción went through an era more prosperous than any since the war.", "Asunción is located between the parallels 25° 15' and 25° 20' of south latitude and between the meridians 57° 40' and 57° 30' of west longitude. The city sits on the left bank of the Paraguay River, almost at the confluence of this river with the River Pilcomayo. The Paraguay River and the Bay of Asunción in the northwest separate the city from the Occidental Region of Paraguay and Argentina in the south part of the city. The rest of the city is surrounded by the Central Department. With its location along the Paraguay River, the city offers many landscapes; it spreads out over gentle hills in a pattern of rectangular blocks. Places such as Cerro Lambaré, a hill located in Lambaré, offer a spectacular show in the springtime because of the blossoming lapacho trees in the area. Parks such as Parque Independencia and Parque Carlos Antonio López offer large areas of typical Paraguayan vegetation and are frequented by tourists. There are several small hills and slightly elevated areas throughout the city, including Cabará, Clavel, Tarumá, Cachinga, and Tacumbú, among others.", "Asunción is organized geographically into districts and these in turn bring together the different neighborhoods.", "Asunción has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen: \"Cfa\") that closely borders on a tropical savanna climate (Köppen \"Aw\"), characterized by hot, humid summers (average of in January), and mild winters (average of in July). Relative humidity is high throughout the year, so the heat index is higher than the true air temperature in the summer, and in the winter it can feel cooler. The average annual temperature is. The average annual precipitation is high, with distributed in over 80 days yearly. The highest recorded temperature was on 2 January 1934, while the lowest recorded temperature was on 27 June 2011. Snow is unknown in modern times, but it fell during the Little Ice Age, last time in June 1751. Asunción generally has a very short dry season between May and September, but the coldest months are June, July and August. Slight frosts can occur on average one or two days a year. The wet season covers the remainder of the year. During the wet season, Asunción is generally hot and humid though towards the end of this season, it becomes noticeably cooler. In contrast, Asunción's dry season is pleasantly mild. Asuncion's annual precipitation values observe a summer maximum, due to severe subtropical summer thunderstorms which travel southward from northern Paraguay, originating in the Gran Chaco region of the northwestern part of the country. The wettest and driest months of the year are April and July, on average receiving respectively and of precipitation.", "The population is approximately 540,000 people in the city proper. Roughly 30% of Paraguay's 6 million people live within Greater Asunción. Sixty-five percent of the total population in the city are under the age of 30. The population has increased greatly during the last few decades as a consequence of internal migration from other Departments of Paraguay, at first because of the economic boom in the 1970s, and later because of economic recession in the countryside. The adjacent cities in the Gran Asunción area, such as Luque, Lambaré, San Lorenzo, Fernando de la Mora and Mariano Roque Alonso, have absorbed most of this influx due to the low cost of the land and easy access to Asunción. The city has ranked as the least expensive city to live in for five years running by Mercer Human Resource Consulting. Population by sex and age according to the 2002 census", "Approximately 90% of the population of Asunción professes Catholicism. The Catholic Archdiocese of Asunción covers an area of including the city and surrounding area and has a total population of 1,780,000 of whom 1,612,000 are Catholic. The Catholic Archbishop is Eustaquio Pastor Cuquejo Verga, C.SS.R. In Paraguay's capital there are also places of worship of other Christian denominations, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, as well as of other religions including Islam, Buddhism and Judaism.", "Most people in Paraguay speak one of two languages as their principal language: Paraguayan Spanish (spoken by 56.9% of the population) and Guaraní (spoken by 90.1%). 27.4% of the population speaks the Jopará dialect, a mix of Guaraní with loanwords from Spanish (Creole). Other languages are represented by 4.5% of the population.", "", "The city has a large number of both public and private schools. The best-known public schools are the Colegio Nacional de la Capital (which is one of the oldest schools in the city, founded in 1877), Colegio Técnico Nacional, Colegio Nacional Presidente Franco and Colegio Nacional Asunción Escalada. The best-known private schools are, American School of Asunción, Colegio San José, St. Annes School, Colegio del Sol, Colegio Santa Clara, Colegio Goethe and Colegio de la Asunción, Colegio Las Almenas, Colegio Campoalto, Colegio Dante Alighieri, Colegio San Francisco, Colegio San Ignacio de Loyola, Colegio Santa Teresa de Jesús, Colegio Inmaculado Corazón de María, Salesianito, Colegio Cristo Rey, Colegio Internacional.", "The main universities in the city are the Universidad Americana and the Universidad Nacional de Asunción (state-run). The Universidad Nacional de Asunción was founded in 1889 and has an enrollment of just over 40,000 students. The Universidad Católica Nuestra Señora de la Asunción was founded in 1960 and has a current enrollment of around 21,000 students. The Católica has a small campus in the downtown area next to the Cathedral and a larger campus in the Santa Ana neighborhood, outwards toward the adjoining city of Lambaré, while the Universidad Nacional has its main campus in the city of San Lorenzo, some eastward from Asunción. There are also a number of smaller privately run universities such as Uninorte, Universidad Católica Nuestra Señora de la Asunción and Universidad Autónoma de Asunción, among others.", "In terms of commerce, this sector has grown considerably in recent years stretching towards the suburbs where shopping malls and supermarkets have been built. Paraguay's only stock exchange, the BVPASA, is located here. The city itself is listed on it, as. In Asuncion, the most important companies, businesses and investment groups are headquartered. The attractiveness of the city can be attributed to its easy going tax policies. Asunción has unrestrained taxes on the investments and movements of capital. In addition to this, the Asunción stock exchange traded up 485.7% in August 2012 relative to August 2011. There is also no income tax for investors in Bonds of Asunción Stock Exchange. Incentives like these attract significant foreign investment into the city. By many Latin American experts, Paraguay is tapped as one of the top three counties with the best investment climate in Latin America and the Caribbean as well it remains the most attractive nation of the hemisphere in doing business and is equipped with a series of legislations that protect strategic investments and guarantee a friendly environment for the development of large industrial plants and infrastructure projects. The city is the economic center of Paraguay, followed by Ciudad del Este and Encarnación.", "Because the Paraguay River runs right next to Asunción the city is served by a river terminal in the downtown area. This port is strategically located inside a bay and it is where most freight enters and leaves the country. There is a lesser terminal in the Sajonia neighbourhood, and a shuttle port in Ita Enramada, almost opposite the Argentine city of Clorinda, Formosa. Public transportation is used heavily and is served through buses that reach all the regions of the city and surrounding dormitory communities. The main long-distance bus terminal is on the Avenida República Argentina and its bus services connect all of the Departments of Paraguay, as well as international routes to nearby countries such as Argentina, Brazil, Bolivia and Uruguay. Silvio Pettirossi International Airport is Paraguay's main national and international gateway, located at Luque, suburb of the capital Asunción. It is named after Paraguayan aviator Silvio Petrossi and is formerly known as Presidente Stroessner International Airport. As Paraguay's busiest airport, it is the hub of TAM Paraguayan Airlines.", "The city is home to the Godoy Museum, the Museo Nacional de Bellas Artes (which contains paintings from the 19th century), the Church of La Encarnación, the Metropolitan Cathedral and the National Pantheon of the Heroes, a smaller version of Les Invalides in Paris, where many of the nation's heroes are entombed. Other landmarks include the Palacio de los López, the old Senate building (a modern building opened to house Congress in 2003) and the Casa de la Independencia (one of the few examples of colonial architecture remaining in the city). Calle Palma is the main street downtown where several historical buildings, plazas, shops, restaurants and cafés are located. The \"Manzana de la Rivera\", located in front of the Presidential Palace, is a series of old traditional homes that have been restored and serve as a museum showcasing the architectural evolution of the city. The old railway station maintains the old trains that now are used in tourist trips to the cities of Luque and Areguá. Asunción also has luxurious malls that contain shops selling well-known brands. The biggest shopping malls are Shopping del Sol; Mariscal López Shopping, Shopping Villa Morra in the central part of the city, Shopping Multiplaza on the outskirts of the city and the Mall Excelsior located downtown. Pinedo Shopping and San Lorenzo Shopping are the newest and also sizeable shopping malls located just from Asunción's boundaries respectively, in the city of San Lorenzo, part of Greater Asunción. In 2016 a new shopping mall, La Galeria, was inaugurated. It is in between the blue towers, and is now the largest shopping mall in the country.", "Association football is the main sport in Paraguay, and Asunción is home to some of the most important and traditional teams in the country. These include Olimpia, Cerro Porteño, Club Libertad, Club Nacional, Club Guaraní and Club Sol de América, which have their own stadiums and sport facilities for affiliated members. The Defensores del Chaco stadium is the main football stadium of the country and is located in the neighbourhood of Sajonia, just a few blocks away from the centre of Asunción. Since it is a national stadium sometimes it is used for other activities such as rock concerts. Asunción is also the heart of Paraguayan rugby union. The nightlife revolves around two areas: one in the downtown part of the city and the other in the neighbourhoods of Manora and Las Carmelitas, a night full of nightclubs and bars.", "Asunción also hosts several symphony orchestras, and ballet, opera and theater companies. The most well known orchestras are the City of Asunción's Symphony Orchestra (OSCA), the National Symphony Orchestra and the Northern University Symphony Orchestra. Among professional ballet companies, most renowned are the Asunción Classic and Modern Municipal Ballet, the National Ballet and the Northern University Ballet. The main opera company is the Northern University Opera Company. A long-standing theater company is Arlequín Theater Foundation's. Traditional venues include the Municipal Theater, the Paraguayan-Japanese Center, the Central Bank's Great Lyric Theater, the Juan de Salazar Cultural Center, the Americas Theater, the Tom Jobim Theater, the Arlequín Theater and the Manzana de la Rivera. Asunción is also the center of Architecture in Paraguay.", "The choice of the seven treasures of cultural heritage material has been developed Asunción during the months of April and May 2009. Promoted by the \"Organización Capital Americana de la Cultura\", with the collaboration of the Paraguayan authorities participating in the election was carried out with the intention to disclose the material cultural heritage of Assumption. A total of 45 candidates have chosen to become one of the treasures of cultural heritage material Assumption. The result of the vote, which involved 12,417 people, is as follows:", "", "The most read newspapers are: \"Diario La Nación\", \"Diario Hoy\", \"Diario ABC\", \"Diario Última Hora\", and \"Diario Crónica\", although the most successful are \"ABC\" and \"Última Hora\".", "The most important tv channel are SNT and the other free to air channels Paravisión, Sur TV, Unicanal, Latele, C9N, RPC, Telefuturo and the public station of tv Paraguay TV.", "", "Asunción is twinned with:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Names.", "Present.", "Past.", "History.", "Access.", "Conditions at the summit.", "Human response.", "View.", "Weather." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Gerlachovský štít means the \"Peak (of the village) of Gerlachov\". The Slovak colloquial (unofficial) name is \"Gerlach\". The Polish official names are \"Gerlach\" or \"Gierlach\", while its Polish colloquial names are \"Girlach\" and \"Garłuch.\" The name of the village of Gerlachov itself is of German origin, because the Spiš region around the High Tatra Mountains in Slovakia used to be inhabited by German settlers for several centuries.", "The peak's earliest recorded name was the Szepes-German \"Kösselberg\" (Cauldron Mountain) on a map from 1762. The Slovak name of the mountain was first recorded as \"Kotol\", also meaning \"Cauldron\", in 1821. Both names referred to the peak's characteristic cauldron-like cirque. The name that became common in travel books and other literature in the 19th century, however, is its current name, linking the mountain to the village of Gerlachov at its foot. It echoed the oldest known undifferentiated reference to the peaks on or near Gerlachov's municipal lands, \"Gerlachfalvenses montes\" (Latin with Hungarian elements for the \"Gerlachov Village Mountains\"), in a drawing of the High Tatras from 1717. It also paralleled the name \"Gerlsdorfer Spitze\" (Gerlachov Peak) used by the first person to identify it as the highest peak in the Tatras in 1838 (see below), which was rendered as \"gerlachovský chochol\" (Gerlach crest) in a Slovak version of his report in 1851. Several other mountains in the High Tatras have acquired their names from villages in the foothills. Once it was determined that the mountain was the highest point in the region, the succession of the authorities that held control over it took an interest in its name and changed it periodically for symbolic reasons. In 1896, as part of Austria-Hungary, the highest peak of the Carpathians received its first government-sponsored name − after the contemporary head of state Emperor Francis Joseph I. Guidebooks sometimes did not catch up on these name changes. After the dissolution of the monarchy in 1918, the mountain continued to be known simply as \"Gerlachovský štít\" because it belonged to the village of Gerlachov. The Polish government, claiming the territory of the High Tatras for Poland, simultaneously called the mountain \"Szczyt Polski\" (Polish Peak), but never gained control over it. The new Czechoslovak government changed the name to \"Štít legionárov\" (Legionnaires Peak) in honor of the Czechoslovak Legions in 1923, but the name was dropped in favor of the earlier \"Gerlachovský štít\" in 1932. As a result of the Communist coup d'état in 1948, the mountain was renamed once more − to \"Stalinov štít\" (Stalin Peak) in 1949. Its traditional name \"Gerlachovský štít\" was restored yet again a decade later and has remained unchanged through the present.", "Gerlachovský štít was not always considered the highest mountain in the Tatras. After the first official measurement of peaks in the Tatras during the period of the Habsburg Monarchy in the 18th century, Kriváň (2,494 m) was considered the highest. Other candidate peaks for the status of the highest mountain at that time were Lomnický štít (2,633 m) and Ľadový štít (2,627 m). The first person to accurately name Gerlachovský štít as the highest peak was the forester Ľudovít (Ludwig) Greiner in 1838. Greiner's measurement was formally confirmed by an Austrian Army survey party in 1868. However, it was generally accepted only after the Vienna Military Institute for Geography issued a new, authoritative collection of maps of Central Europe in ca. 1875. The first confirmed ascent was made by Ján (Johann) Still from the village of Nová Lesná in 1834. In 1880, the routes through the \"Velická próba\" (Velická Challenge) and \"Batizovská próba\" (Batizovská Challenge) were secured by chains.", "Only members of a national UIAA club are allowed to climb the peak on their own. Other visitors have to take a certified mountain guide. The two easiest routes, usually up the \"Velická próba\" and down the \"Batizovská próba\" named after their respective valleys, are protected by chains. Because of an exposed section along the \"Velická próba\" and tricky orientation especially on the ridge, both are among the more difficult scrambling routes in the High Tatras, although it's rather climbing, since there are many moments when one must rely on ones hands to hold ones bodyweight. With no snow, guidebooks grade the routes as a II or III climb (UIAA scale) or lower. The total elevation gain is about for those who spend the night at the Sliezsky Dom Hotel or are driven there by a mountain guide, and about for those who hike from Tatranská Polianka. In winter, Gerlachovský štít offers a challenging alpine climb, with mixed climbing and a risk of avalanches. The unmarked trailhead is on the green-marked trail leading up Velická Valley near the southern edge of the first plateau (Kvetnica) above the Sliezsky Dom. The equally unmarked, indistinct route to Gerlach veers off north-west towards the mountain's eastern slopes at the elevation of ca., but occasional cairns begin to appear farther on. The fastest and easiest descent is down the \"Batizovská próba.\" Mountain guides always follow the route in the east-west direction, ascending from Velická Valley and descending into Batizovská Valley, in order to reduce logjams. Two most popular multi-pitch routes for technical climbing are on the eastern and south-western walls. Both are exceptionally long and situated on solid granite walls. The best season for climbing is mid September to mid October or until the snow falls. Another good season lasts from late June to early August. The route to Gerlachovský štít falls under the Tatra National Park ordinance, according to which hikers who depart from marked trails may be subject to fines unless they are UIAA members, or are led by an IFMGA-certified mountain guide. Camping is subject to similar restrictions. Rangers and some mountain guides are authorized to collect fines on the spot. Cairns that hikers build to mark the trailhead are periodically taken apart.", "", "Although authors estimate that at least some of the manifestations of altitude sickness may appear at elevations as low as it has not been reported in the Tatras. Low air pressure begins to have marginal but detectable effects at the summit (). Water boils at about and arterial oxygen saturation is about 8% lower than at most visitors' places of residence, but it is difficult to distinguish slight oxygen deprivation at the summit from fatigue caused by the exertion required to reach it. Authors speak of possible minimal sensory impairment above. Unlike fitness, age in itself is not a determinant factor in reaching the highest point in the Tatras. The famed Tatra guide Ján Počúvaj took clients to the summit of Gerlach until the age of 76.", "Like a 19th-century comment in a British guidebook, \"impressive and picturesque\", modern hikers usually appreciate the panoramic view of the highest and many other peaks in the High Tatras, from Kriváň in the west to Široká in the north and Lomnický štít in the east. Farther on, but often visible, are the eastern Low Tatras in the south and part of the Belianske Tatras in the east. Better than usual visibility, a rare occurrence except in the fall and winter, is needed to see the Stolické vrchy, Volovské vrchy, the Slovak Paradise region, and Branisko. Quite exceptionally, visibility may extend to the Austrian Alps and the Polish–Czech Giant Mountains hundreds of miles away. Hikers' reported enjoyment of the view is at least partly attributable to their awareness that they are at the highest point in all of northern and central Europe (Visegrád countries). Visibility is merely or less on most summer afternoons because of the amount of water vapor in the air or because of cloudiness (fog). Days with afternoon visibility of or more are common only later in the fall and in winter. The view is partly blocked by the long ridge of Končistá in the west, areas near the mountain towards the south and north are obscured by the Gerlach massif itself. Several other summits in the High Tatras, including some with marked trails, offer views with precipitous drops, varied scenery, and wide vistas.", "The effects of high-altitude weather on those who ascend Gerlachovský štít may be more pronounced than its altitude alone. The temperature gradient between the Tatra mountain resorts () and the summit can be steep. Low air temperature higher up can be masked by high insolation under clear skies, but will take its effect with increased cloud cover. Combined with windy conditions, the impact may be considerably detrimental even without rain or snow. The summit disappears in the clouds for periods of time on most days, which translates to fog at that elevation and possible disorientation as well as anxiety. While temperatures are somewhat lower on Gerlachovský štít because of its elevation, the weather and its potential impact on visitors is little different from other summits in the High Tatras both with and without marked trails. The typical daily weather pattern in the summer is a clear morning, clouds gathering by mid-morning—noon, occasional showers and storms in the afternoon. The chance of rain is lowest between 9–10 am and peaks between 2–3 pm, with a drop-off after 6 pm. The frequency of storms with lightning (as opposed to rainstorms) on Gerlach's summit and on the other highest ridges is little different from lower elevations, too, but people exposed to wind, (sometimes freezing) rain, and lightning have greater difficulty to cope. The nearest shelter for those who ascend Gerlach is the Sliezsky Dom Hotel, there are no natural shelters along the route." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot.", "Part 1.", "Part 2.", "Alternative titles." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "In the summer of 1866, in Aurangabad, the British colonial government announces a bounty on the head of Nana Sahib, who is supposed to be hiding in that presidency. Nana Sahib, disguised as a sage, stalks and kills the man who claims to know face of Nana Sahib. Nana Sahib escapes from Aurangabad the same night and, taking his brother Bala Rao and followers, hidden in Ajanta and Ellora caves respectively, retreats to the Vindhiyanchal mountains to hide from colonial forces. Nana Sahib, along with his brother and followers, hides in various small fortresses called \"Pals,\" and mostly inside \"Pal of Tandil.\" His brother Bala Rao, who is extremely similar to Nana sahib in physical appearance, inquires about the inhabitants of the fortress and learns from locals that none except local outlaws, insurgents and a mad woman knows about the place. The mad woman is known as Rowing Flame as she carries a burning torch and roams the wilderness in the valley of Narmada. The locals respect the mysterious lady and feed and cloth her. From this hiding place, Nana Sahib launches an underground movement and secretly visit local chieftains for persuading them for an uprising. Meanwhile, in Calcutta, a group of Europeans is planning for a voyage through India. The group consist of Banks, a railroad engineer; Maucler, the French adventurer and narrator for most of the story; Captain Hood, a hunter craving his \"half century\" of tigers, retired Colonel Sir Edward Munro, whose motive behind joining this expedition is to find and kill Nana Sahib to avenge his wife, who supposedly died in the Cawnpore massacre. Servants accompanying them include Sergaent McNeil, Munro's faithful servant; Fox, the faithful servant of Captain Hood and fellow hunter, who has killed 37 tigers; Monsieur Parazard; a Negro cook of French origins; Storr, a British Engine driver; Kilouth, an Adivasi coal shoveler and Gotimi, the faithful Gurkha servant of Colonel Munro. Banks, the Engineer, introduces the machine he invented, a Steam powered mechanical elephant, which pulls two comfortable carriages having all the comforts of a 19th-century house. The machine can walk across land and float across rivers using embedded paddle wheels. The steam elephant is named \"Behemoth\" and together with two carriages, it is called the Steam House. The first carriage is used by the gentlemen, while the other is reserved for the servants. They start from Calcutta, and travel around the French town of Chandannagar, and Burdawan, Patna and Chitra, reach Gaya, where they visit various Hindu and Buddhist temples and bathing Ghat. On the way to Banaras they are interrupted by Hindu fanatics who consider the Steam House to be the chariot of their deity. Banks frightens them away by directing steam exhaust at them. In Banaras, Banks and Maucler notice a man spying on them but resolve not to tell the Colonel. From Banaras,they travel to Allahabad, where they learn that Nana Sahib has been declared dead after a skirmish in the defiles of Satpuda. Colonel Munro is shocked by this news, as he wanted to take revenge himself. After Munro's request, they decides to pass through Kanpur, where an emotional Colonel visits his old house and the well which is supposedly the grave of Mrs. Munro and other victims of the massacre. The group decides to journey towards a northern forest, and pass the Monsoon season there, hunting wild animals. On the way to Terai, they defeat three elephants of an arrogant Gujarati Prince in a competition with Behemoth. Near Terai, they are caught in a violent thunderstorm and Gautami narrowly survives after being struck by lightning. The man who was spying on the Steam House meets Nana in Bhopal and informs him of further plans of the inhabitants of the Steam House. Nana orders his faithful follower Kalagni to infiltrate the Steam House and lure them near Nana Sahib's hiding place. While returning to their hiding place, near the Pal of Tandil, they are ambushed by British forces, who were directed unwittingly by the madwoman Rowing Flame. A body matching the description of Nana Sahib is found and he is declared dead by the British authorities.", "The inhabitants of the Steam House camp on a plateau in Terai. During a hunting expedition, they rescue Mathias Van Guitt, an animal purveyor, from his own trap. They visit the kraal of Van Guitt, where Colonel Munro is saved from a poisonous snake by one of Van Guitt's servants, Kalagni. The Steam House dwellers frequently visit the kraal and invite Van Guitt to the Steam House. Van Guitt tries to capture animals, while the inhabitants of the Steam House hunt animals. One night, tigers and other predatory animals attack the kraal. The protagonists narrowly escape death but many Indian servants are killed. The buffaloes are either killed by animals or driven away into the jungle. Consequently, Van Guitt has the protagonists drag his caravan of cages to the nearest railway station. After reaching the station and loading his cargo, Van Guitt and the protagonists part ways. The protagonists employ Kalagni as guide and servants and head for Bombay through Central India. During the journey through jungles, they encounter a herd of monkeys and a grain transport caravan. Kalagni meets an old acquaintance in the caravan and chats mysteriously with him. On their way to Jabalpur in the jungle, they are cornered and attacked by a herd of elephants, which results in the loss of the second carriage. To escape from the herd, Banks drives the Steam House into Lake Puturia. All the food and provisions are lost with the second carriage and after some time, the fuel is exhausted, resulting in the Steam House floating in the middle of the lake. Kalagni volunteers to swim to shore and fetch help. Colonel Munro, suspecting him, sends his faithful servant Gautami with him. Both swim to shore while the steam House slowly drift in the fog. As soon as they reach the shore, Kalagni meets Nassim, a follower of Nana, and tries to attack Goumi, who swiftly escapes. With the morning breeze, the Steam House drifts towards the bank. As the protagonists land, they are attacked by a group of men led by Kalagni and Nassim who attack and kidnap Colonel Munro, leaving the others bonded with ropes. Colonel Munro is taken to an abandoned fort, where Nana Sahib shows up and reveals the reality of the news of his death. The dead person who was identified as Nana Sahib was actually his look-alike brother, Balao Rao. Due to their physical similarity, the British authorities mistook Balao Rao for Nana Sahib. Nana Sahib proclaims death for Colonel Munro To avenge death of his brother, members of the royal family of the last Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah II and other victims of British suppuration of the Indian Rebellion of 1857. Colonel Munro is tied on the mouth of a large cannon, to be shot at sunrise. Nana leaves for a meeting in a nearby village. Near dawn, Munro is rescued by Goumi, who had hid himself inside the cannon after running away from Lake Puturia and overhearing the plans of the rebels. As they are escaping, they encounter Rowing Flame. Colonel Munro recognizes her as his wife Lady Munro, but she has lost her sanity and doesn't recognize him and refuses to go with him. Sparks from her torch cause the canon to go off. Munro and Goumi escape with Lady Munro while the people in the fort are confused. But soon they are spotted by Kalagni and his men and encounter Nana Sahib on his way back to fort. Goumi and Munro quickly overpowers Nana and his assistant. As they are being chased by the men led by Kalagni, they are rescued by other protagonists riding on Behemoth. They take Nana Sahib as prisoner and they are chased through the jungle. Capt Hood and Sgt. McNeil shoot down many of their adversaries, including Kalagni. As they near a military outpost, Banks supercharges the boiler and the protagonists escape the Behemoth, leaving bounded Nana Sahib inside the machine. As the men approach the machine, the boiler bursts, leaving everyone near it dead, although Nana's body is not found. The protagonists are rescued by the stationed regiment as the rest of the insurgents flee to inner country. They head for Mumbai via railway and than to Calcutta. In the care of Colonel Munro, Lady Munro regains her sanity and memory. When Munro tell Hood about not being able to achieve his target of killing 50 tigers, Hood replies that Kalagni was his 50th tiger.", "The novel is usually published in two volumes or parts." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and career.", "Childhood.", "Move to Tennessee.", "Johnson's slaves.", "Political rise.", "Tennessee politician.", "United States Representative (1843–1853).", "Governor of Tennessee (1853–1857).", "United States Senator.", "Homestead Bill advocate.", "Secession crisis.", "Military Governor of Tennessee.", "Vice President (1865).", "Presidency (1865–1869).", "Accession.", "Reconstruction.", "Background.", "Presidential Reconstruction.", "Break with the Republicans: 1866.", "Radical Reconstruction.", "Impeachment.", "Foreign policy.", "Administration and Cabinet.", "Judicial appointments.", "Reforms initiated.", "Completion of term.", "Post-presidency and return to Senate.", "Historical reputation and legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Andrew Johnson was born in Raleigh, North Carolina, on December 29, 1808, to Jacob Johnson (1778–1812) and Mary (\"Polly\") McDonough (1783–1856), a laundress. He was of English, Scots-Irish, and Irish ancestry. He had a brother William, four years his senior, and an older sister Elizabeth, who died in childhood. Johnson's birth in a two-room shack was a political asset in the mid-19th century, and he would frequently remind voters of his humble origins. Jacob Johnson was a poor man, as had been his father, William Johnson, but he became town constable of Raleigh before marrying and starting a family. Both Jacob and Mary were illiterate, and had worked as tavern servants, while Johnson never attended school and grew up in poverty. Jacob died of an apparent heart attack while ringing the town bell, shortly after rescuing three drowning men, when his son Andrew was three. Polly Johnson worked as a washerwoman and became the sole support of her family. Her occupation was then looked down on, as it often took her into other homes unaccompanied. Since Andrew did not resemble either of his siblings, there are rumors that he may have been fathered by another man. Polly", "Johnson left North Carolina for Tennessee, traveling mostly on foot. After a brief period in Knoxville, he moved to Mooresville, Alabama. He then worked as a tailor in Columbia, Tennessee, but was called back to Raleigh by his mother and stepfather, who saw limited opportunities there and who wished to emigrate west. Johnson and his party traveled through the Blue Ridge Mountains to Greeneville, Tennessee. Andrew Johnson fell in love with the town at first sight, and when he became prosperous purchased the land where he had first camped and planted a tree in commemoration. In Greeneville, Johnson established a successful tailoring business in the front of his home. In 1827, at the age of 18, he married 16-year-old Eliza McCardle, the daughter of", "In 1843, Johnson purchased his first slave, Dolly, who was 14 years old at the time. Soon after, he purchased Dolly's half-brother Sam. Dolly had three children—Liz, Florence and William. In 1857, Andrew Johnson purchased Henry, who was 13 at the time and would later accompany the Johnson family to the White House. Sam Johnson and his wife Margaret had nine children. Sam became a commissioner of the Freedmen's Bureau and was known", "", "Johnson helped organize a mechanics' (working men's) ticket in the 1829 Greeneville municipal election. He was elected town alderman, along with his friends Blackston McDannel and Mordecai Lincoln. Following the 1831 Nat Turner slave rebellion, a state convention was called to pass a new constitution, including provisions to disenfranchise free people of color. The convention also wanted to reform real estate tax rates, and provide ways of funding improvements to Tennessee's infrastructure. The constitution was submitted for a public vote, and Johnson", "Having served in both houses of the state legislature, Johnson saw election to Congress as the next step in his political career. He engaged in a number of political maneuvers to gain Democratic support, including the displacement of the Whig postmaster in Greeneville, and defeated Jonesborough lawyer John A. Aiken by 5,495 votes to 4,892. In Washington, he joined a new Democratic majority in the House of Representatives. Johnson advocated for the interests of the poor, maintained an anti-abolitionist stance, argued for only limited spending by the government and opposed protective tariffs. With Eliza remaining in Greeneville, Congressman Johnson shunned social functions in favor of study in the Library of Congress. Although a fellow Tennessee Democrat, James K. Polk, was elected", "If Johnson considered retiring from politics upon deciding not to seek reelection, he soon changed his mind. His political friends began to maneuver to get him the nomination for governor. The Democratic convention unanimously named him, though some party members were not happy at his selection. The Whigs had won the past two gubernatorial elections, and still controlled the legislature. That party nominated Henry, making the \"Henry-mandering\" of the First District an immediate issue. The two men debated in county seats the length of Tennessee before the meetings were called", "", "The victors in the 1857 state legislative campaign would, once they convened in October, elect a United States Senator. Former Whig governor William B. Campbell wrote to his uncle, \"The great anxiety of the Whigs is to elect a majority in the legislature so as to defeat Andrew Johnson for senator. Should the Democrats have the majority, he will certainly be their choice, and there is no man living to whom the Americans and Whigs have as much antipathy as Johnson.\" The governor spoke widely in the campaign, and his party won the gubernatorial race and control of the legislature. Johnson's final address as governor gave", "In October 1859, abolitionist John Brown and sympathizers raided the federal arsenal at Harpers Ferry, Virginia (today West Virginia). Tensions in Washington between pro- and anti-slavery forces increased greatly. Johnson gave a major speech in the Senate in December, decrying Northerners who would endanger the Union by seeking to outlaw slavery. The Tennessee senator stated that \"all men are created equal\" from the Declaration of Independence did not apply to African Americans, since the Constitution of Illinois contained that phrase—and that document barred voting by African Americans. Johnson, by this time, was a wealthy man who owned a few household slaves, 14 slaves, according to the 1860 Federal Census. Johnson hoped that he would be a compromise candidate for the presidential nomination as the Democratic Party tore itself apart over the slavery question. Busy with the Homestead Bill during the 1860 Democratic National Convention in Charleston, South Carolina, he sent two of his sons and his chief political adviser to represent his interests in the backroom deal-making. The convention deadlocked, with no candidate able to gain the required two-thirds vote, but the sides were too far apart to consider Johnson as a compromise. The party split, with Northerners backing Illinois Senator Stephen Douglas while Southerners, including Johnson, supported Vice President Breckinridge for president. With former Tennessee senator John Bell running a fourth-party candidacy and further dividing the vote, the Republican Party elected its first president, former Illinois representative Abraham Lincoln. The election of Lincoln, known to be against the spread of slavery, was unacceptable to many", "Johnson's first tenure in the Senate came to a conclusion in March 1862 when Lincoln appointed him military governor of Tennessee. Much of the central and western portions of that seceded state had been recovered. Although some argued that civil government should simply resume once the Confederates were defeated in an area, Lincoln chose to use his power as commander in chief to appoint military governors over Union-controlled Southern regions. The Senate quickly confirmed Johnson's nomination along with the rank of brigadier general. In response, the Confederates confiscated his land and his slaves, and turned his home into a military hospital. Later in 1862, after his departure from the Senate and in the absence of most Southern legislators, the Homestead Bill was finally enacted. Along with legislation for land-grant colleges and for the transcontinental railroad, the Homestead Bill has been credited with opening the American West to settlement. As military governor, Johnson sought to eliminate", "In 1860, Lincoln's running mate had been Maine Senator Hannibal Hamlin. Vice President Hamlin had served competently, was in good health, and was willing to run again. Nevertheless, Johnson emerged as running mate for Lincoln's reelection bid in 1864. Lincoln considered several War Democrats for the ticket in 1864, and sent an agent to sound out General Benjamin Butler as a possible running mate. In May 1864, the President dispatched General Daniel Sickles to Nashville on a fact-finding mission. Although Sickles denied he was there either to investigate or interview the military governor, Johnson biographer Hans L. Trefousse believes Sickles's trip was connected to Johnson's subsequent nomination for vice president. According to historian Albert Castel in his account of Johnson's presidency, Lincoln was impressed by Johnson's administration of Tennessee. Gordon-Reed points out that while the Lincoln-Hamlin ticket might have been considered geographically balanced in 1860, \"having Johnson, the \"southern\" War Democrat, on the ticket sent the right message about the folly of secession and the continuing capacity for union within the country.\" Another factor was the desire of Secretary of State William Seward to frustrate the vice-presidential candidacy of his fellow New Yorker, former senator Daniel S. Dickinson, a War Democrat, as Seward would probably have had to yield his place if another New Yorker became vice president. Johnson, once he was told by reporters the likely purpose of Sickles' visit, was active on his own behalf, giving speeches and having his political friends work behind the scenes to boost his candidacy. To sound a theme of unity, Lincoln in 1864 ran under the banner of the National Union Party, rather than the Republicans. At the party's convention in Baltimore in June, Lincoln was easily nominated, although there had been some talk of replacing him with a Cabinet officer or one of the more successful generals. After the convention backed Lincoln, former Secretary of War Simon Cameron offered a resolution to nominate Hamlin, but it was defeated. Johnson was nominated for vice president by C.M. Allen of Indiana with an Iowa delegate as seconder. On the first ballot, Johnson led with 200 votes to 150 for Hamlin and 108 for Dickinson. On the second ballot, Kentucky switched to vote for Johnson, beginning a stampede. Johnson was named on the second ballot with 491 votes", "", "On the afternoon of April 14, 1865, Lincoln and Johnson met for the first time since the inauguration. Trefousse states that Johnson wanted to \"induce Lincoln not to be too lenient with traitors\"; Gordon-Reed agrees. That night, President Lincoln was shot and mortally wounded by John Wilkes Booth, a Confederate sympathizer. The shooting of the President was part of a conspiracy to assassinate Lincoln, Johnson, and Seward the same night. Seward barely survived his wounds, while Johnson escaped attack as his would-be assassin, George Atzerodt, got drunk instead of killing the vice president. Leonard J. Farwell, a fellow boarder at the Kirkwood House, awoke Johnson with news of Lincoln's shooting at Ford's Theatre. Johnson rushed to the President's deathbed, where he remained a short time, on his return promising, \"They shall suffer for this. They shall suffer for this.\" Lincoln died at 7:22 am the next morning; Johnson's swearing-in occurred between 10 and 11 am with Chief Justice Salmon P. Chase presiding in the presence of most of the Cabinet. Johnson's demeanor was described by the newspapers as \"solemn and dignified\". Some Cabinet members had last seen Johnson, apparently drunk, at the inauguration. At noon, Johnson", "", "Upon taking office, Johnson faced the question of what to do with the Confederacy. President Lincoln had authorized loyalist governments in Virginia, Arkansas, Louisiana, and Tennessee as the Union came to control large parts of those states and advocated a ten percent plan that would allow elections after ten percent of the voters in any state took an oath of future loyalty to the Union. Congress considered this too lenient; its own plan, requiring a majority of voters to take the loyalty oath, passed both houses in 1864, but Lincoln pocket vetoed it. Johnson had three goals in Reconstruction. He sought a speedy restoration of the states, on the grounds that they had never truly left the Union, and thus should again be recognized once loyal citizens formed a government. To Johnson, African-American suffrage was a delay and a distraction; it had always been a state responsibility to decide", "Johnson was initially left to devise a Reconstruction policy without legislative intervention, as Congress was not due to meet again until December 1865. Radical Republicans told the President that the Southern states were economically in a state of chaos and urged him to use his leverage to insist on rights for freedmen as a condition of restoration to the Union. But Johnson, with the support of other officials including Seward, insisted that the franchise was a state, not a federal matter. The Cabinet was divided on the issue. Johnson's first Reconstruction actions were two proclamations, with the unanimous backing of his Cabinet, on May 29. One recognized the Virginia government led by provisional Governor Francis Pierpont. The second provided amnesty for all ex-rebels except those holding property valued at $20,000 or more; it also appointed a temporary governor for North Carolina and authorized elections. Neither of these proclamations included provisions regarding black suffrage or freedmen's rights. The President ordered constitutional conventions in other former rebel states. As Southern states began the process of forming governments, Johnson's policies received considerable public support in the North, which he took as unconditional backing for quick reinstatement of the South. While", "Congress was reluctant to confront the President, and initially only sought to fine-tune Johnson's policies towards the South. According to Trefousse, \"If there was a time when Johnson could have come to an agreement with the moderates of the Republican Party, it was the period following the return of Congress\". The President was unhappy about the provocative actions of the Southern states, and about the continued control by the antebellum elite there, but made no statement publicly, believing that Southerners had a right to act as they did, even if it was unwise to do so. By late January 1866, he was convinced that winning a showdown with the Radical Republicans was necessary to his political plans – both for the success of Reconstruction and for reelection in 1868. He would have preferred that the conflict arise over the legislative efforts to enfranchise African Americans in the District of Columbia, a proposal that had been defeated overwhelmingly in an all-white referendum. A bill to accomplish this passed", "Even with the Republican victory in November 1866, Johnson considered himself in a strong position. The Fourteenth Amendment had been ratified by none of the Southern or border states except Tennessee, and had been rejected in Kentucky, Delaware, and Maryland. As the amendment required ratification by three-quarters of the states to become part of the Constitution, he believed the deadlock would be broken in his favor, leading to his election in 1868. Once it reconvened in December 1866, an energized Congress began passing legislation, often over a presidential veto; this included the District of Columbia voting bill. Congress admitted Nebraska to the Union over a veto, and the Republicans gained two senators and a state that promptly ratified the amendment. Johnson's veto of a bill for statehood for Colorado Territory was sustained; enough senators agreed that a district with a population of 30,000 was not yet worthy of statehood to win the day. In January 1867, Congressman Stevens introduced legislation to dissolve", "Secretary of War Edwin Stanton was an able and hard-working man, but difficult to deal with. Johnson both admired and was exasperated by his War Secretary, who, in combination with General of the Army Grant, worked to undermine the president's Southern policy from within his own administration. Johnson considered firing Stanton, but respected him for his wartime service as secretary. Stanton, for his part, feared allowing Johnson to appoint his successor and refused to resign, despite his public disagreements with his president. The new Congress met for a few weeks in March 1867, then adjourned, leaving the House Committee on the Judiciary behind, charged with reporting back to the full House whether there were grounds for Johnson to be impeached. This committee duly met, examined the President's bank accounts, and summoned members of the Cabinet to testify. When a federal court released former Confederate president Davis on bail on May 13 (he had been captured shortly after the war), the committee investigated whether the President had impeded the prosecution. It learned that Johnson was eager to have Davis tried. A bipartisan majority of the committee voted down impeachment charges; the committee adjourned on June 3. Later in June, Johnson and Stanton battled over the question of whether the military officers placed in command of the", "Soon after taking office as president, Johnson reached an accord with Secretary of State William H. Seward that there would be no change in foreign policy. In practice, this meant that Seward would continue to run things as he had under Lincoln. Seward and Lincoln had been rivals for the nomination in 1860; the victor hoped that Seward would succeed him as president in 1869. At the time of Johnson's accession, the French had intervened in Mexico, sending troops there. While many politicians had indulged in saber rattling over the Mexican matter, Seward preferred quiet diplomacy, warning the French through diplomatic channels that their presence in Mexico was not acceptable. Although the President preferred a more aggressive approach, Seward persuaded him to follow his lead. In April 1866, the French government informed Seward that its troops would be brought home in stages, to conclude by November 1867. Seward was an expansionist, and sought opportunities to gain territory for the United States. By 1867, the Russian government saw its North American colony (today Alaska) as a financial liability, and feared losing control as American", "", "Johnson appointed nine Article III federal judges during his presidency, all to United States district courts; he did not appoint a justice to serve on the Supreme Court. In April 1866, he nominated Henry Stanbery to fill the vacancy left with the death of John Catron, but Congress eliminated the seat to prevent the appointment, and to ensure that he did not get to make any appointments eliminated the next vacancy as well, providing that the court would shrink by one justice when one next departed from office. Johnson appointed his Greeneville crony, Samuel Milligan, to the United States Court of Claims, where he served from 1868 until his death in 1874.", "In June 1866, Johnson signed the Southern Homestead Act into law, believing that the legislation would assist poor whites. Around 28,000 land claims were successfully patented, although few former slaves benefitted from the law, fraud was rampant, and much of the best land was off-limits, reserved for grants to veterans or railroads. In June 1868, Johnson", "Johnson sought nomination by the 1868 Democratic National Convention in New York in July 1868. He remained very popular among Southern whites, and boosted that popularity by issuing, just before the convention, a pardon ending the possibility of criminal proceedings against any Confederate not already indicted, meaning that only Davis and a few others still might face trial. On the first ballot, Johnson was second to former Ohio representative George H. Pendleton, who had been his Democratic opponent for vice president in 1864. Johnson's support was mostly from the South, and fell away as the ballots passed. On the 22nd ballot, former New York governor Horatio Seymour was nominated, and the President received only four votes, all from Tennessee. The conflict with Congress continued. Johnson sent Congress proposals for amendments to limit the president to a single six-year term and make the president and the Senate directly elected, and for term limits for judges. Congress took no action on them. When the President was slow to officially report ratifications of the Fourteenth Amendment by the new Southern legislatures, Congress passed a bill, again over his veto, requiring him to do so within ten", "After leaving the presidency, Johnson remained for some weeks in Washington, then returned to Greeneville for the first time in eight years. He was honored with large public celebrations along the way, especially in Tennessee, where cities hostile to him during the war hung out welcome banners. He had arranged to purchase a large farm near Greeneville to live on after his presidency. Some expected Johnson to run for Governor of Tennessee or for the Senate again, while others thought that he would become a railroad executive. Johnson found Greeneville boring, and his private life was embittered by the suicide of his son Robert in 1869. Seeking vindication for himself, and revenge against his political enemies, he launched a Senate bid soon after returning home. Tennessee had gone Republican, but court rulings restoring the vote to some whites and the violence of the Ku Klux Klan kept down the African-American vote, leading to a Democratic victory in the legislative elections in August 1869. Johnson was seen as a likely victor in the Senate election, although hated by Radical Republicans, and also by some Democrats because of his wartime activities. Although he was at one point within a single vote of victory in the legislature's balloting, the Republicans eventually elected Henry Cooper over Johnson, 54–51. In 1872, there was a special election for an ; Johnson initially sought the Democratic nomination, but when he saw that it would go to former Confederate general Benjamin F. Cheatham, decided to run as an independent. The former president was defeated, finishing third, but the split in the Democratic Party defeated Cheatham in favor of an old Johnson Unionist ally, Horace Maynard. In 1873, Johnson contracted cholera during an epidemic but recovered; that year he lost about $73,000, when the First National Bank of Washington went under, though he was eventually repaid much of the sum. He began looking towards the next Senate election, to take place in the legislature in early 1875. Johnson began to woo the farmers' Grange movement; with his Jeffersonian leanings, he easily gained their support. He spoke throughout the state in his final campaign tour. Few African Americans outside the large towns were now able to vote as Reconstruction faded in Tennessee, setting a pattern that would be repeated in the other Southern states; the white domination would last almost a century. In the Tennessee legislative elections in August, the Democrats elected 92 legislators to the Republicans' eight, and Johnson went to Nashville for the legislative session. When the balloting for the Senate seat began on January 20, 1875, he led with 30 votes, but did not have the required majority as three former Confederate generals, one former colonel, and a former Democratic congressman split the vote with him. Johnson's opponents tried to agree on a single candidate who might gain majority support and defeat him, but failed, and he was elected on January 26 on the 54th ballot, with a margin of a single vote. Nashville erupted in rejoicing; remarked Johnson, \"Thank God for the vindication.\" Johnson's comeback garnered national attention, with the \"St. Louis Republican\" calling it, \"the most magnificent personal triumph which the history of American politics can show\". At his swearing-in in the Senate on March 5, 1875, he was greeted with flowers and sworn in with his predecessor as vice president, Hamlin, by that office's current incumbent, Henry Wilson, who as senator had voted for his ousting. Many Republicans ignored Senator Johnson, though some, such as Ohio's John Sherman (who had voted for conviction), shook his hand. Johnson remains the only former president to serve in the Senate. He spoke only once in the short session, on March 22 lambasting President Grant for his use of federal troops in support of Louisiana's Reconstruction government. The former president asked, \"How far off is military despotism?\" and concluded his speech, \"may God bless this people and God save the Constitution.\"", "According to Castel, \"historians [of Johnson's presidency] have tended to concentrate to the exclusion of practically everything else upon his role in that titanic event [Reconstruction]\". Through the remainder of the 19th century, there were few historical evaluations of Johnson and his presidency. Memoirs from Northerners who had dealt with him, such as former vice president Henry Wilson and Maine Senator James G. Blaine, depicted him as an obstinate boor who tried to favor the South in Reconstruction, but who was frustrated by Congress. According to historian Howard K. Beale in his journal article about the historiography of Reconstruction, \"Men of the postwar decades were more concerned with justifying their own position than they were with painstaking search for truth. Thus [Alabama congressman and historian] Hilary Herbert and his corroborators presented a Southern indictment of Northern policies, and Henry Wilson's history was a brief for the North.\" The turn of the 20th century saw the first significant historical evaluations of Johnson. Leading the wave was Pulitzer Prize-winning historian James Ford Rhodes, who wrote of the former president: Rhodes ascribed Johnson's faults to his personal weaknesses, and blamed him for the problems of the postbellum South. Other early 20th-century historians, such as John Burgess, Woodrow Wilson (who later became president himself) and William Dunning, all Southerners, concurred with Rhodes, believing Johnson flawed and politically inept, but concluding that he had tried to carry out Lincoln's plans for the South in good faith. Author and journalist Jay Tolson suggests that Wilson \"depict[ed Reconstruction] as a vindictive program that hurt even repentant southerners while benefiting northern opportunists, the so-called Carpetbaggers, and cynical white southerners, or Scalawags, who exploited alliances with blacks for political gain\". Even as Rhodes and his school wrote, another group of historians was setting out on the full rehabilitation of Johnson, using for the first time primary sources such as his papers, provided by his daughter Martha before her death in 1901, and the diaries of Johnson's Navy Secretary, Gideon Welles, first published in 1911. The resulting volumes, such as David Miller DeWitt's \"The Impeachment and Trial of President Andrew Johnson\" (1903), presented him far more favorably than they did those who had sought to oust him. In James Schouler's 1913 \"History of the Reconstruction Period\", the author accused Rhodes of being \"quite unfair to Johnson\", though agreeing that the former president had created many of his own problems through inept political moves. These works had an effect; although historians continued to view Johnson as having deep flaws which sabotaged his presidency, they saw his Reconstruction policies as fundamentally correct. Castel writes: Beale wondered in 1940, \"is it not time that we studied the history of Reconstruction without first assuming, at least subconsciously, that carpetbaggers and Southern white Republicans were wicked, that Negroes were illiterate incompetents, and that the whole white South owes a debt of gratitude to the restorers of 'white supremacy'?\" Despite these doubts, the favorable view of Johnson survived for a time. In 1942, Van Heflin portrayed the former president as a fighter for democracy in the Hollywood film \"Tennessee Johnson\". In 1948, a poll of his colleagues by historian Arthur M. Schlesinger deemed Johnson among the average presidents; in 1956, one by Clinton L. Rossiter named him as one of the near-great Chief Executives. Foner notes that at the time of these surveys, \"the Reconstruction era that followed the Civil War was regarded as a time of corruption and misgovernment caused by granting black men the right to vote\". Earlier historians, including Beale, believed that money drove events, and had seen Reconstruction as an economic struggle. They also accepted, for the most part, that reconciliation between North and South should have been the top priority of Reconstruction. In the 1950s, historians began to focus on the African-American experience as central to Reconstruction. They rejected completely any claim of black inferiority, which had marked many earlier historical works, and saw the developing civil rights movement as a second Reconstruction; some writers stated they hoped their work on the postbellum era would advance the cause of civil rights. These authors sympathized with the Radical Republicans for their desire to help the African American, and saw Johnson as callous towards the freedman. In a number of works from 1956 onwards by such historians as Fawn Brodie, the former president was depicted as a successful saboteur of efforts to better the freedman's lot. These volumes included major biographies of Stevens and Stanton. Reconstruction was increasingly seen as a noble effort to integrate the freed slaves into society. In the early 21st century, Johnson is among those commonly mentioned as the worst presidents in U.S. history. According to historian Glenn W. Lafantasie, who believes Buchanan the worst president, \"Johnson is a particular favorite for the bottom of the pile because of his impeachment... his complete mishandling of Reconstruction policy... his bristling personality, and his enormous sense of self-importance.\" Tolson suggests that \"Johnson is now scorned for having resisted Radical Republican policies aimed at securing the rights and well-being of the newly emancipated African-Americans\". Gordon-Reed notes that Johnson, along with his contemporaries Pierce and Buchanan, are generally listed among the five worst presidents, but states, \"there have never been more difficult times in the life of this nation. The problems these men had to confront were enormous. It would have taken a succession of Lincolns to do them justice.\" Trefousse considers Johnson's legacy to be \"the maintenance of white supremacy. His boost to Southern conservatives by undermining Reconstruction was his legacy to the nation, one that would trouble the country for generations to come.\" Gordon-Reed states of Johnson:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Mozilla Firefox name conflict.", "Storage and index technology.", "The Multi-Generational Architecture (MGA).", "Indexes.", "Licensing.", "Connectivity APIs.", "Low-level Firebird Native API, Services API and embedded SQL." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Within a week of the InterBase 6.0 source being released by Borland on 25 July 2000, the Firebird project was created on SourceForge. Firebird 1.0 was released for Linux, Microsoft Windows and Mac OS X on 11 March 2002, with ports to Solaris, FreeBSD 4, HP-UX following over the next two months. Work on porting the codebase from C to C++ began in 2000. On 23 February 2004, Firebird 1.5 was released, which was the first stable release of the new codebase. Version 1.5 featured an improved query optimizer, SQL-92 conditional expressions, savepoints and support for explicit locking. Firebird 2.0 was released on 12 November 2006, adding support for 64-bit architectures, tables nested in FROM clauses, and programmable lock timeouts in blocking transactions. The previous stable release was version 2.1.6, which added new features including procedural triggers, recursive queries, and support for MERGE statements. Firebird 2.5 introduced new features like improved multithreading, regular expression syntax and the ability to query remote databases. The most recent stable version is Firebird 3.0, released 19 April 2016, with focus in performance and security. A major re-architecture of the code allowed total support to SMP machines when using the SuperServer version. Through the Google Summer of Code 2013 work has begun on integrating Firebird as a replacement for HSQLDB in LibreOffice.", "In April 2003, the Mozilla Organization announced a rename of its web browser from \"Phoenix\" to \"Firebird\" after a trademark dispute with Phoenix Technologies. This decision caused concern within the Firebird database project due to the assumption that users and Internet search engines would be confused by a database and a web browser both using the name Firebird. The Mozilla developers issued a statement, making clear that their software package was called \"Mozilla Firebird\", not \"Firebird\". The statement also said that the Mozilla Firebird name was a project codename. The dispute was resolved on February 9, 2004, when Mozilla changed the name of its browser to Mozilla Firefox, thus ending the conflict.", "", "Firebird inherited the storage architecture of Interbase. To ensure the ACID properties of transactions, the database engine keeps different versions of each record changed by the active users in the database. When the transactions are committed, the last version of every changed record is marked as the definitive. If transactions are rolled back, the database engine keeps the mark on the original record versions, leaving them untouched. As a result, Firebird disk writes are very reduced compared to databases that use the traditional transaction log architecture. Writing transactions does not prevent reading and vice versa, because each one sees its own version of the database. The tradeoff is that some maintenance (“sweeping”) is required from time to time to clean up old record versions and free disk space. The multi-generational architecture ensures that OLTP and DSS/OLAP operations can be run simultaneously without the delays caused by locking mechanisms found in other products.", "Firebird makes all indices of the database behave like well-tuned “clustered indexes” used by other architectures. Firebird index buckets aren't subject to two-phase locking, and boolean “and” and “or” operations can be performed on intermediate bitmaps at a negligible cost, eliminating the need for the optimizer to choose between alternative indexes.", "The Firebird database engine and its modules are released under an open-source license, the Initial Developer's Public License (IDPL), a variant of the Mozilla Public License (MPL) version 1.1. It does not require the developer to open the products using Firebird or even custom-derivatives made from its source code, but if the developer chooses to do so, then some terms and conditions should be honored. The IDPL allows the developer to make proprietary, closed-source applications that use Firebird or are based on it.", "", "The Firebird native API is used directly or indirectly by applications or middleware that connect to a Firebird database. It is implemented in the client library, fbclient.dll, on Windows systems, and in libfbclient.so on Unix ones. The Services API is a special function set for accessing and controlling service administration tasks such as user management, backup/restore and statistics gathering. Embedded SQL is a technique that simplifies the development of C/C++ and COBOL Firebird applications, by using a preprocessor called gpre, which allows the embedding of SQL statements directly into the source code of the host language." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Design and development." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "The Quadruplane serial no N546 was a prototype designed by Wight Aircraft general manager and design chief Howard T. Wright in 1916. Inspired by the Sopwith Triplane and other multi-wing aircraft of its time, it had an unusual arrangement in which the fuselage was placed between the middle two wings with upper and lower wings attached by struts. Another remarkable feature was that its wingspan was less than the overall length. The wings were cambered on the leading and trailing edges with a flat middle section. This wing design proved to be very inefficient. Power was provided by a Clerget 9Z nine-cylinder air cooled rotary engine and it was to be armed with two Vickers machine guns. The original version had two cabane struts of long chord length supporting the upper wing. Four similar type interplane struts were used between the upper three wings, all of which had ailerons. The bottom wing had a shorter span with pairs of struts and cut outs for the landing gear wheels. Because the axle was the same height as the lower wing, the tailskid was very tall to prevent that wings trailing edge from contacting the ground. When tested in mid 1916 the aircraft had difficulty taking off due to shallow wing incidence and displayed dangerous tendencies because of a lack of yaw control and a major redesign was required. In February 1917 the second version was ready for testing. The single thick struts were replaced with more conventional parallel wire braced struts and the landing gear was lengthened. The new wings were of varying chord and the overall diameter of the fuselage was increased. Most importantly, a larger dorsal fin and rudder were installed. After several disappointing flights at Martlesham Heath the machine was returned to the aircraft production facilities in Cowes for another rework. The final version had new wings of decreasing span from top to bottom and ailerons only on the upper two wings. At Martlesham Heath in July 1917, flight testing again revealed an unsatisfactory lack of control. In February 1918 the Quadruplane crashed into a cemetery and was written off." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Artificial baits.", "Natural baits.", "Worms.", "Spreading disease." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Using lures is a popular method for catching predatory fish. Lures are artificial baits designed to resemble the appearance and movement of prey, usually small fish. The lure may require a specialised presentation to impart an enticing action as, for example, in fly fishing. A common way to fish a soft plastic worm is the Texas rig.", "The natural bait angler, with few exceptions, will use a common prey species of the fish as an attractant. The natural bait used may be alive or dead. Common natural baits include worms, leeches (notably bait-leech \"Nephelopsis obscura\"), minnows, frogs, salamanders, and insects. Natural baits are effective due to the lifelike texture, odour and colour of the bait presented. Cheese has been known to be a very successful bait due to its strong smell and light colours.", "The common earthworm is a universal bait for fresh water angling. Grubs and maggots are also excellent bait when trout fishing. Grasshoppers, bees and even ants are also used as bait for trout in their season, although many anglers believe that trout or salmon and many other fresh water fish roe is superior to any other bait. In lakes in southern climates such as Florida, United States, fish such as bream will take bread bait. Bread bait is a small amount of bread, often moistened by saliva, balled up to a small size that is bite size to a small fish. Most common earthworm species, such as \"Lumbricus terrestris\", which can often be dug up in the garden, are eminently suitable for freshwater fishing. However, on a commercial scale they are not really candidates for worm farming for providing fishing bait. The greyish brown common earthworms are deep burrowing (\"anecic\") and do not readily breed in the shallow worm farm bins. The red compost worms, such as the well known red wiggler or the European nightcrawler, are better candidates, as they are epigeic, or surface dwellers. This is the reason that red worms are more usually available commercially for bait worms. Their natural home is just below the surface in rotting leaves, dung heaps and other plant litter. They are called detritivourous because they eat detritus (waste material). The larger species, the European nightcrawler is much sought after for fishing bait as it tolerates near freezing water and is one of the few earthworms suitable for salt-water fishing. These worms can grow up to 7 inches (18 cm) in length, but usually are between 3 and 4 inches (7–10 cm) long. Worm farmers also offer other worm species for bait, depending on availability, which usually depends on the prevalent climatic conditions.", "The capture, transportation and the culture of bait fish can spread damaging organisms between ecosystems, endangering them. In 2007, several American states enacted regulations designed to slow the spread of fish diseases, including viral hemorrhagic septicemia, by bait fish. Because of the risk of transmitting \"Myxobolus cerebralis\" (whirling disease), trout and salmon should not be used as bait. Anglers may increase the possibility of contamination by emptying bait buckets into fishing venues and collecting or using bait improperly. The transportation of fish from one location to another can break the law and cause the introduction of fish alien to the ecosystem." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography.", "River Tisza.", "Demographics.", "Ethnicity.", "Religion.", "Economy.", "Politics.", "Municipalities.", "International relations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg is located in the north-eastern tip of Hungary. It borders Ukraine (Zakarpattia Oblast), Slovakia (Košice Region), and Romania (Bihor and Satu Mare Counties), and has good connections both by road and rail. Within Hungary, the county is bordered by Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén county and the River Tisza to the north west and Hajdú-Bihar county to the south west. The early Hungarians transformed this region significantly by clearing large areas of forest to make way for pastures and farmland. Approximately 5 to 6 square kilometres of forest were cleared for the construction of the Szabolcs earthwork in the ninth and tenth centuries, and its ruins are still present. The area was the gateway for the Mongol invasion of Hungary in the 1240s, and suffered considerable destruction and population decrease during the raids. With the subsequent development of the country, the region became even more marginalized in the 15th century. Ongoing civil war, rebellion, and war exacted a heavy price and further hindered the region's development. The county's borders have been altered frequently over the years, its current territory being established in 1950 with the amalgamation of the counties of Szabolcs-Ung and Szatmár-Bereg-Ugocsa. There are many forests, fields, pastures, meadows, and moorland forests in the county. The bog moss moors at Csaroda, the Nyíres lake, and the Bábtava lake are especially valuable, as they contain many rare species of fauna and flora. Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg is Hungary's sixth biggest county with a total land area of 5,936 square kilometres. From a geographical aspect, it is possible to divide the county into two main regions: The Upper Tisza Valley and the Nyírség. Tisza is one of the most important rivers of the county, entering Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg — and Hungary — at Tiszabecs, and leaving at Tiszadob. Its segment in Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg county is 235 kilometres long, out of which 208 kilometres belongs to the Upper Tisza Valley, reaching the area of Tokaj and Rakamaz. The larger area named the Nyírség is derived from the word nyír meaning birch, as the region is dominated by birch woodlands. The northern part of Nyírség is covered with sandy forest soils, the southern areas have loose wind-blown sand. Alluvial and meadow soils are found in the Upper Tisza region. The county has a continental climate; it is cooler than the Great Plain because it is further north. Summers are cooler than in other parts of the Plains. Annual precipitation is 550-600 millimetres. The higher than average number of days of sunshine make ideal conditions for the growing of tomatoes, sunflower, tobacco, apples, and other fruits such as plums—for which the county is famous, being eaten fresh, dried into prunes (some made into lekvar) and fermented into well-known brandies. The county has 229 settlements, of which 20 are towns. The county capital and largest city is Nyíregyháza with a population of 116,900 in 2003. The other cities have relatively small populations, only those of Kisvárda and Mátészalka having around 18,000 inhabitants. The eastern part of the county is lightly populated and is dotted with small villages which often have very poor economic conditions.", "The Upper Tisza region has many streams and rivers, but the Nyírség region has little surface water. The most important of River Tisza's tributaries is the River Szamos, which is also characterised by great variations in water volume. There are irrigation systems, a water barrage, and a hydroelectric power station on the Tisza at Tiszalök. Lakes of various sizes have evolved in sandy areas such as the basin of the Sóstó (Salty lake) of Nyíregyháza, whose alkaline, hydrogen-carbonated waters have medicinal qualities. Many water reservoirs have been built according to local demand. Thermal waters of 55-65 °C can be brought to the surface from wells as shallow as 1,000 metres. The most important thermal water reserves are in Nyíregyháza, Kisvárda, Mátészalka, and Tiszavasvári. The county's geothermal energy still awaits exploitation. The county has relatively few mineral reserves. Almost all of the large energy source transport systems cross the county.", "In 2015, it had a population of 562,357 and the population density was 92/km2.", "Besides the Hungarian majority, the main minorities are the Roma (approx. 44,000), German (2,000) and Ukrainian (1,000). Total population (2011 census): 559,272 Ethnic groups (2011 census): Identified themselves: 525,958 persons: Approx. 66,000 persons in Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg County did not declare their ethnic group at the 2011 census.", "Religious adherence in the county according to 2011 census:", "The county borders three countries, and it is the only Hungarian county bordering Ukraine. The railway border crossing towards Ukraine is well developed; its high capacity is able to meet the requirements of transit and bilateral trade. Following the reconstruction of the road border crossing, the county is also able to cope with increased road transportation. Several regions in the county have tourism potential, mostly unexploited. Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg has several agricultural products of excellent quality, with capacity for higher production. There is an abundance of low-cost, semiskilled labour. The county's biggest problem is the economic crisis. There is a shortage of local capital and inward investment, which restrains the creation of new jobs, thus the unemployment rate remains the second highest in Hungary. Manufacturing lags the rest of the country, most notably lacking high quality, high value-added products. The marginal soil quality limits the scope of agricultural production to a few products which suffer from shrinking export markets to the east. It is home to the Szakoly Power Plant.", "The Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg County Council, elected at the 2019 local government elections, is made up of 25 counselors, with the following party composition:", "Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg County has 1 urban county, 27 towns, 15 large villages and 186 villages. (ordered by population, as of 2011 census)", "Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg County has a partnership relationship with:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Methods.", "Types.", "Daisy chain." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In early time, fishing lures were made from bone or bronze. The Chinese and Egyptians used fishing rods, hooks, and lines as early as 2,000 B.C., though most of the first fishermen used handlines. The first hooks were made out of bronze, which was strong but still very thin and less visible to the fish. The Chinese were the first to make fishing line, spun from fine silk. Nordic people have been making spoon lures from the 8th-13th century AD. Most of the lures are made from iron, bronze, copper, and in one case an iron hook soldered to a copper spoon. Many lures had varying shapes and sizes fitting different scenarios like ice fishing and summer fishing. English tackle shops are recorded as selling tin minnows in the middle of the 18th century, and realistic imitations of bugs and grubs made from painted rubber appeared as early as 1800. Spoons appear to have originated in Scandinavia in the late 1700s. Early English minnow baits were largely designed to spin as their attracting action, as exemplified by the “Devon” style lure first produced in quantity by F. Angel of Exeter. The number and variety of artificial baits increased dramatically in the mid to late 19th century. The first production lures made in the United States, mostly metal spoons and spinners, came on the market in the last half of the 19th century. The makers included Julio T. Buel, Riley Haskell, W. D. Chapman and Enterprise Manufacturing Company. Modern fishing plugs were first made commercially in the United States in the early 1900s by firms including Heddon in Michigan and Enterprise Mfg. (Pflueger) in Ohio. Before this time most fishing lures were made by individual craftsman. Commercial-made lures were based on the same ideas that the individual craftsmen were making but on a larger scale.", "The fishing lure is either tied with a knot, such as the improved clinch knot, or connected with a tiny safety pin-like device called a \"snaps\" onto the fishing line which is in turn connected to the reel via the arbor. The reel is attached to a rod. The motion of the lure is made by winding line back on to the reel, by sweeping the fishing rod, jigging movements with the fishing rod, or by being pulled behind a moving boat (trolling). Exceptions include artificial flies, commonly called \"flies\" by fly fishers, which either float on the water surface, slowly sink or float underwater, and represent some form of insect fish food.", "There are many types of fishing lures. Today's modern definition for lures are that they be made of wood, plastic, rubber, metal, cork, and materials like feathers, animal hair, string, tinsel and others. They could also have any number of moving parts or no moving parts. They can be retrieved fast or slow. Some of the lures can be used alone, or with another lure. In most cases they are manufactured to resemble prey for the fish, but they are sometimes engineered to appeal to a fishes' sense of territory, curiosity or aggression. Most lures are made to look like dying, injured, or fast moving fish. They include the following types: One advantage of use of lure in general is the reduction in the use of live bait. This contributes to resolving one of the marine environment's more pressing problems; the undermining of marine food webs by overharvesting \"bait\" species which tend to occur lower in the food chain. Another advantage of lures is that their use promotes improved survival of fish during catch and release fishing. This is because lures reduce the incidence of deep hooking which has been correlated to fish mortality in many studies.", "A daisy chain is a teaser consisting of a \"chain\" of plastic lures run without hooks. The daisy chain mimics a possible school of baitfish, food for a larger predator. The purpose of a daisy chain is to attract pelagic fish to the stern of a boat into the lure \"spread\", which consists of a number of lures rigged with hooks. Typically, the main line of the daisy chain is clear monofilament line with crimped on droppers that connect the lure to the main line. The last lure can be rigged with a hook or unrigged. The unrigged versions are used as teasers while the hooked versions are connected to a rod and reel. The lures used on a daisy chain are made from cedar plugs, plastic squids, jets, and other soft and/or hard plastic lures. In some countries (e.g. New Zealand) daisy chains can sometimes refer to a rig which is used to catch baitfish in a similar arrangement to a 'flasher rig' or a'sabiki rig'; a series of hooks with a small piece of colourful material/feather/plastic attached to each hook." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Types.", "Photomicrograph.", "Electron micrograph.", "Magnification and micron bars.", "Micrography as art." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "A light micrograph or photomicrograph is a micrograph prepared using an optical microscope, a process referred to as \"photomicroscopy\". At a basic level, photomicroscopy may be performed simply by connecting a camera to a microscope, thereby enabling the user to take photographs at reasonably high magnification. Scientific use began in England in 1850 by Prof Richard Hill Norris FRSE for his studies of blood cells. Roman Vishniac was a pioneer in the field of photomicroscopy, specializing in the photography of living creatures in full motion. He also made major developments in light-interruption photography and color photomicroscopy. Photomicrographs may also be obtained using a USB microscope attached directly to a home computer or laptop.", "An electron micrograph is a micrograph prepared using an electron microscope.", "Micrographs usually have micron bars, or magnification ratios, or both. Magnification is a ratio between the size of an object on a picture and its real size. Unfortunately, magnification can be a misleading parameter as it depends on the final size of a printed picture and therefore varies with picture size. A \"scale bar\", or \"micron bar\", is a line of known length displayed on a picture. The bar can be used for measurements on a picture. When the picture is resized the bar is also resized making it possible to recalculate the magnification. Ideally, all pictures destined for publication/presentation should be supplied with a scale bar; the magnification ratio is optional. All but one (limestone) of the micrographs presented on this page do not have a micron bar; supplied magnification ratios are likely incorrect, as they were not calculated for pictures at the present size.", "The microscope has been mainly used for scientific discovery. It has also been linked to the arts since its invention in the 17th century. Early adopters of the microscope, such as Robert Hooke and Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, were excellent illustrators. Cornelius Varley's graphic microscope made sketching from a microscope easier with a camera-lucida-like mechanism. After the invention of photography in the 1820s the microscope was later combined with the camera to take pictures instead of relying on an artistic rendering. Since the early 1970s individuals have been using the microscope as an artistic instrument. Websites and traveling art exhibits such as the Nikon Small World and Olympus Bioscapes have featured a range of images for the sole purpose of artistic enjoyment. Some collaborative groups, such as the Paper Project have also incorporated microscopic imagery into tactile art pieces as well as 3D immersive rooms and dance performances. In 2015, photographer and gemologist Danny J. Sanchez photographed mineral and gemstone interiors in works referred to as \"otherworldly.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Constitution.", "History.", "Name.", "Operations.", "Styles.", "Auditors." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The pope appoints the auditors of the Rota and designates one of them the dean. On Saturday, September 22, 2012, Pope Benedict XVI accepted the resignation as dean, for reasons of age, of Bishop Antoni Stankiewicz, and appointed in his place Msgr. Pio Vito Pinto, until then serving as a prelate auditor of the Court of First Instance. The Rota issues its decrees and sentences in Latin. The Rota adjudicates cases in a panel (called a \"turnus\") of three auditors, or more, depending on the complexity of the matter, assigned by the dean of the tribunal, though sometimes a larger number of auditors are assigned to a particular case. The auditors of the Rota are selected from among recognized ecclesiastical judges serving various dioceses around the world.", "The Rota's official records begin in 1171. Until the Risorgimento and the loss of the Papal States in 1870, the Rota was a civil tribunal and its judgements had the status of law in the Papal States. In March 2020, Pope Francis issued a new Vatican law which provides for greater independence of judicial bodies and magistrates dependent on the Pope. It also specifies the requirements for the appointment of judges and it simplifies the judicial system while increasing the staff of the court.", "Until the 14th century the court was formally known as the \"Apostolic Court of Audience\". The first recorded use of the term \"Rota\", which referred to the wheel-shaped arrangement of the benches used by the court in the great hall at Avignon, is in Thomas Fastolf's \"Decisiones rotae\", consisting of reports on thirty-six cases heard at the Court of Audience in Avignon between December 1336 and February 1337. Its first usage in a papal bull is in 1418. It is also possible that the term \"Rota\" comes from the porphyry wheel that was centered in the marble floor of Avignon, or even from the wheel-like cases in which parchment roll records were kept.", "The Rota's main function is that of an appellate tribunal, ordinarily reviewing decisions of lower courts if the initial court (first instance) and the first appellate court (second instance) do not agree on the outcome of a case; however, any party to an initial decision before a court of the Latin Church (and also some Eastern Churches) has the right to file a second-instance appeal directly to the Rota. Dominating its caseload are petitions seeking the issuance of a decree of nullity of a marriage, although it has jurisdiction to hear any other type of judicial and non-administrative case in any area of canon law. The Rota serves as a tribunal of first instance (in Anglo-American common law what would be termed exclusive original jurisdiction) in certain cases such as any contentious case in which a Bishop of the Latin Church is a defendant. If the case can still be appealed after a Rotal decision, the appeal goes to a different turnus, or panel, of the Rota. The Rota is the highest appeals court for all judicial trials in the Catholic Church. A judgment of the Rota can, however with the greatest difficulty, be vacated by the Supreme Tribunal of the Apostolic Signatura, which is the highest administrative court in the Catholic Church. However, the legal procedure or process used by the judges of the Rota, not the merits of the case, are on trial before the Signatura: the Signatura is only able to grant the petitioner a new trial to be held before a new \"turnus\" of the Rota, if the Rota was found to have erred in procedure (\"\"de procedendo\"\"). The Roman Rota proceedings are governed by a specific set of rules, the \"Normae Romanae Rotae Tribunalis\", promulgated in 1994 by Pope John Paul II. Only advocates who are registered in a specific list are allowed to represent the parties before the Tribunal. Since Pope Benedict XVI issued the \"motu proprio\" \"Quaerit semper\" the Rota has had exclusive competence to dispense from marriages \"ratum sed non consummatum\" and is also competent to examine cases concerning the nullity of sacred ordination, in accordance with both universal and proper law.", "In recognition of the Tribunal's almost 800 years of history and signal reputation, the Prelate Auditors, by exception to numerous norms promulgated by both Popes Paul VI and John Paul II, are to be addressed with the traditional title \"Most Illustrious and Most Reverend\" (\"\"Illustrissimus ac Reverendissimus\". The dean of the Rota, even if not already consecrated a bishop, is to be addressed with the traditional title of \"Your Excellency\" (\"\"Excellentia Tua\"\"). All Prelate Auditor Judges of the Rota are styled, \"Most Reverend Monsignor.\"", "The active auditors of the Rota, with their dates of appointment by the pope, are:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name.", "History.", "Safety by modern standards.", "Uses of the Niva.", "Assembly outside Russia.", "Chevrolet Niva.", "Niva Concept.", "Lada 4x4 Vision Concept.", "Versions by AvtoVAZ subsidiaries.", "Motility.", "Bronto.", "VIS.", "Notable owners." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The Lada 4×4 was formerly called the Lada Niva, or the VAZ-2121 in the domestic Russian market. The name change occurred after the Niva brand was transferred to General Motors, though AvtoVAZ retains the rights to the equivalent Cyrillic name, \"Нива\". It was also marketed as the Lada Sport in Iceland, Lada Taiga in Austria, Bognor Diva in Uruguay, and Lada Cossack in the United Kingdom. Since 2014, it has been sold as the LADA 4×4 in Russia, a name which is also", "The Niva was described by its designers as a \"Renault 5 put on a Land Rover chassis\" Development began in 1971, after the 24th Congress of CPSU, where Alexei Kosygin (the then-Premier of the Soviet Union) gave the designers at VAZ and AZLK the task of creating a car suitable for rural areas – for the villagers and farmers of the Soviet Union – since the usual Zhiguli, Moskvitch and Zaporozhets, intended primarily for ordinary people, were not much of use in isolated areas, which made up a large part of the USSR. In the same year, a team of VAZ designers, under Vladimir Solovyev as a chief designer, began competing with AZLK to work on a \"civilized\" four-wheel drive vehicle. The new car was inspired in part by the IZh-14 prototype of 1974. It was VAZ's first model not based on Fiat, although much of its mechanics were carried over from the earlier Fiat 124- or 125-based Zhiguli models (mostly the VAZ-2103 and 2106). However, the body, four-wheel drive system, and front suspension were designed by VAZ. The first prototypes appeared quickly in 1971 and 1972, but were rejected as too utilitarian, so doors and a hardtop were added. This version debuted in 1973 and was a major step away from the off-road vehicles of the period, seeing as they used an ordinary car body, in this case a modern hatchback of the time. This took its inspiration from the prototype known as the VAZ-1101 (itself derived from the Fiat 127), and was created by designer Valery Pavlovitch. The 1974 prototype was finally derived from one of already existing models, in this case the VAZ-2103 (then the newest model in VAZ arsenal), by using its 1,452- cc engine, as well as sharing some of its features, like chrome-plated bumpers, as well as its headlights and taillights, instruments, seats, steering wheel, and other parts. The 1974 prototype was ready to be put into mass production in 1975; however, the appearance of new VAZ-2106 at the end of the same year resulted in its delay due to developing another prototype based on that model. Until the beginning of its production, the Niva was in trials over a period of years by a team of VAZ testers under Vadim Kotlyarov in the most difficult terrain of former Soviet Union, such as the Ural Mountains and Siberia, as well as deserts of the Kazakh SSR and the Pamir Mountains in the Tajik SSR, where it was put up against its military counterpart the UAZ-469, and even against some Western off-road vehicles: the British-made Land Rover Series and the Range Rover Classic. In these places, it showed its outstanding off-road capabilities, which were mainly due to its effective (permanent) four-wheel drive system featuring a transfer case and central differential lock, together with the excellent combination of relatively low weight (just over a ton) and small dimensions, combined with high ground clearance (about 265 mm). Also, its large, narrow wheels (175/80-R16), originally featuring domestically designed \"Voltyre\" VLI-5 tires, offered relatively strong ground pressure, and thus had good performance in terms of slipping or getting bogged down off-road. For example, in trials during 1973 and 1974, the Niva showed it could climb a 58% slope, and ford of water and of mud or snow. Solovyev died the following year, and his place as a chief designer of the project was then taken by engineer Pyotr Prusov, who in the end took credit for creating the car. In 1976, the final prototype appeared, with the engine changed to a, the most powerful engine in VAZ range during Soviet era, taken from their newest model the VAZ-2106 (from which the production model of the first Niva generation was generally derived). It also featured permanent four-wheel drive and a transfer case with a lockable central differential. The VAZ prototype displayed better design and real-world performance than its AZLK counterpart, the Moskvitch 416, so was, after the 25th Congress of CPSU, approved for production in March of the same year. (The Moskvitch prototype was then rejected for serial production by the government.) It was the Niva 1600 (Field) for export, or VAZ-2121 (alternatively Niva 2121 or simply VAZ Niva) for the domestic market in the former Soviet Union. For domestic customers, it was described as: \"A high-speed car with the improved capabilities and comfort of all VAZ models\", and also as: \"A combination of the speed and comfort of a Zhiguli with the capabilities of a UAZ\". Actual production began in the following year on 5 April 1977, while the first export models appeared in 1978 at the Paris Motor Salon and rapidly captured at least 40% of Europe's market for four-wheel drive vehicles, making it Lada's top-selling export. Moreover, it became the only Soviet car that was ever sold in Japan, starting from early 1980s, inspiring their Suzuki Samurai. Because of export demand and the higher priority given to exports, domestic customers faced long waiting lists, despite the fact that the car was developed primarily for the Soviet people, as mentioned above. Initially, the Niva had a normally aspirated 1.6-l overhead-cam four-cylinder petrol engine producing 56 kW (76 hp) and 126 N·m (93 lb·ft) at 5,000 rpm, a four-speed manual transmission (starting with new model from 1994, a five-speed), and a full-time four-wheel drive. The drive system employs three differentials (center, front, and rear). The transfer case involves a high/low range selector lever and a lever to lock the central differential. Low range can be selected with the center differential locked or unlocked. Like the usual gear shifting, both of the mentioned features naturally require the use of clutch to be properly used (selected). However, while the central differential can be usually locked while in motion, the transfer case requires the car to be firstly brought to a complete stop to be changed to low gear, otherwise, a serious damage of transfer case and transmission is inevitable – approximately equal to consequence of shifting of gears without the use of clutch or shifting in reverse gear while the car is in forward motion, as an example. The original Niva had a maximum speed of, and can cruise at while consuming petrol at. Its towing capacity is rated for up to 860 kg (1900 lb). Coil springs are located at each of the four wheels, and suspension is independent in front, whereas the rear axle is a five-link live-type, with ratios between 3.90 and 4.30 depending on the model and market. Ground clearance is good at 235 mm (9.25 in) and water 510 mm (20 in) deep can be negotiated. The brakes (disc front, drum rear) are servo-assisted dual-circuit style and the clutch is hydraulic. The turning circle is a relatively low 36.25 ft. Cargo space is 0.48 m3 (17 ft3), or 1.33 m3 (47 ft3) with the rear seats folded down and, like the classic Zhiguli, the front seats can be set up to make two berths (by removing headrests, shifting the seats into foremost position and setting the backrest in plane with the back seat – this feature later disappeared when the new model with different seats was introduced in 1994). A spare tyre is located in the engine bay under the bonnet. The latter feature is considered a useful and practical feature by off-road fans. Additional equipment for the basic model was rather simple and was equal to other Lada and generally Eastern bloc cars of the period, as it included headlight wipers, rear fog lamp, right external mirror (right mirror for domestic models only, since the export ones had both by default, but at the end of 1980s, even domestic models of all Lada cars also received both mirrors), then rear seat belts, rear (tailgate) window wiper, rear window heater, and a radio set. On new model (Niva 1.7/VAZ-21213) starting from 1994, all those features except headlight wipers and rear fog lamp (which are discontinued) became default and optional is air conditioning, antilock braking system, and hydraulic servomotor for the steering column, which are now becoming parts of standard equipment on the newest models. Foreign (usually Western) local Lada importers often also offered their own additional equipment (mainly for off-roading) prior to buying the car, such as front and rear bull bars and roll bars, side rocker rails, roof rails, winch, fender plastics, additional headlights for front bumper and for roof rails and even aftermarket (aluminium) rims, which can be often seen mounted on many Nivas. The existing model was slightly restyled during first half of 1980s, when VAZ for the first time discontinued one of its models, the VAZ-2103 (which was slowly being replaced with VAZ-2106 since 1975). Some of the chromed elements have disappeared in all future models due to high price and complexity of production, such as, in Niva case, the chromed mask and rocker panel edges, which were removed, as well as external/side mirrors, which became black metallic. Chrome even disappeared from ashtrays and door panel edges. Also, background of front Lada badge was changed to white (later black; on new model) on all models instead of red as until then. Rear Niva 1600 tailgate label (which was originally located in the center of the tailgate) was relocated to its right corner due to rear window wiper, which was, on buyer request, installed onto its former place as additional equipment. Side rear retroreflectors (or turn signals on some models; depended on market) were replaced by Lada (left) and Niva (right) labels and the rear mudflaps received the brand logo on them. Interior was only minimally changed, along with some minor changes to the instrument panel, choke knob, and other details, probably the most notable differences are firstly in its VAZ-2106 steering wheel, which was now decorated with classic Russian ornaments featuring the Lada logo on its central (leather) part and slightly different leather pattern on seats. Those pre-1985 models are visually best recognizable by mentioned details and are today extremely rare (in preserved condition almost nonexistent anymore), so are very valued by collectors. The first generation (VAZ-2121 Niva, or Lada Niva 1600 as known commercially) was in production until 1993 (existing in parallel in production with new model until the end of the same year) when the new and more powerful (1.7-l, 80 horsepower) four-cylinder petrol engine (designed purposely for Niva, thus was not used by any other VAZ model until then) was introduced, replacing the previously used (1.6-l, 75-hp) VAZ-2106 engine and making the appearance of the new model (VAZ-21213/21214 or Lada Niva 1.7/1.7i), as was the carburetor replaced by single-point fuel injection supplied initially by General Motors on 21214/1.7i model and the usual Weber carburetor was replaced by improved Solex one on 21213/1.7 model. The transmission was changed from four to five speeds, mechanical ignition was replaced with electronic and suspension received some relatively minor changes. The exhaust system was also slightly redesigned, and on newer models, the drive shafts received homokinetic joints instead of usual universal ones. Also, the exterior rear section of the body was redesigned with the tailgate extended and license plate as a part of it (so it could have a lower opening, now bordering with the rear bumper), due to which it also received new, vertical taillights, replacing the former VAZ-2106 horizontal ones and VAZ-2102 chromed tailgate knob, which was replaced by a simple plastic handle (which now opens from interior; below the driver's seat, in contrast to previous which required a side doors key to be opened exclusively from the outside). On newest models, the old hand-adjustable, square black-metallic (previously chromed) side mirrors, which originated from 1970s VAZ-2103 were finally replaced with larger plastic ones featuring automatic adjustment. The previous front Lada badge was also replaced with the current and larger one of ellipsoid design. However, the aging Fiat 125 chromed doorknobs are still present, although they are not chromed anymore on newest models, but plastic. Although the rest of the exteriors remained generally unchanged to this day (except for LADA 4×4 URBAN and BRONTO), the interior was, however, almost completely redesigned and shares only a few interchangeable parts with the previous one; the archaic VAZ-2106 steering wheel with chrome elements was replaced with more modern and thicker one, firstly from VAZ-2107 and later even newer, as well as its VAZ-2103/2106 instruments, which were replaced with dashboard from VAZ-21099. The berth-foldable, black artificial leather seats, which were also originated from the VAZ-2106 were replaced by more modern and higher ones from the VAZ-2108 with the front surface made out of polyester (with which the berth feature disappeared), while the rear seat was improved to fold easier. The old Fiat 124 swivelling windows from side doors disappeared and were replaced with air conditioning for that role, which is on request, (together with ABS and servomotor for the steering column) installed as additional equipment, while headlight wipers and rear fog lamp disappeared. It also received completely new front and door panels (with interior door knobs relocated above the handrests instead of under like on previous generation), various plastics and even new floor mats. The hand opening of side-door windows was replaced with automatic on newest models (and on LADA 4×4 URBAN), starting from 2014. Multipoint fuel injection designed by Bosch is used since 2004, replacing the previously mentioned single-point injection from General Motors. In 1993, the lengthened model of Niva appeared for the first time, known as VAZ-2129 and was being produced very briefly (only for about a year) due to which it is very rare and was also never exported. Although having a much longer wheelbase, it retained usual three doors like the basic hatchback model (it only featured additional square middle window added at the sides); however, in design it was actually a hybrid of old and new generations, since it featured the old VAZ-2121 (Niva 1600) body and interiors combined with new VAZ-21213 (Niva 1.7) 1680-cc engine and 5-speed transmission (although later, 1994 production models featured even new body and interiors). In 1995, the lengthened estate model with longer wheelbase and five-door appeared, originally known as the VAZ-2131 Niva; commercially, it has no difference in name than standard (three-door) model, which is why it is often referred simply as Niva five- door. Due to its longer wheelbase and thus increased weight, it can use the even more powerful 1774-cc inline four petrol engine, producing 63kW/85 hp. Although still in production like the basic model, it had limited use and is also infrequently exported, mainly due to longer wheelbase and increased weight offering somewhat inferior off-road capabilities, as well as slightly higher price when compared to the standard model. In 2015, the five-door model also appeared for LADA 4×4 URBAN. In 1999, a diesel-engine model of Niva appeared for the first time, known as the VAZ-21215 Niva or commercially as the Lada Niva 1.9, which was produced until 2007 and sold only in few markets. It was powered by a 1905-cc Peugeot XUD 9SD inline four diesel engine, delivering 55kW/75 hp, so was slightly less powerful than the standard VAZ-21213/21214 1680-cc petrol engine (it was roughly equal in power to 1568-cc VAZ-2106 engine used by the previous generation). However, the VAZ-21215 was a relatively short-lived model and is not available because, despite much lower fuel consumption, it was not very popular in domestic market (mainly due to harsh winter conditions, less power, lower reliability, higher price, and higher maintenance costs when compared to the petrol-engine model), as well as Peugeot stopping production of XUD engines back in 2001 (existing supplies were available until 2007, when the last VAZ-21215 came off the production line) and VAZ never made another contract for production of diesel engines for Niva. In 2006, the model with carbureted engine of new generation (VAZ-21213/Lada Niva 1.7) was discontinued, and in the same year, the name Niva was formally dropped in favor to new official name LADA 4×4 (although the former name was still being used in export markets at least until 2009 and it is still informally used worldwide). This was done because General Motors (which first supplied an injection system to VAZ) got rights to the name Niva, which had to be discontinued in further production, together with old Soviet VAZ-2121 classification for the domestic market, which was loosely abandoned by the plant itself at the end of 1990s. In 2014, the new, restyled model called LADA 4×4 URBAN appeared, with generally more modern looks resembling an ordinary SUV; new mask, plastic bumpers, new side mirrors, different (aluminium) rims (with the original Soviet \"Voltyre\" VLI-5 off-road tires replaced with classic road tires), central brake light, heated front seats, and slightly restyled interior. However, it did not replace the current LADA 4×4, which remains in parallel production with it. A common misconception associated with the introduction of the 4x4 Urban is the introduction of Airbags. Despite the relatively modern look of the Urbans distinct steering wheel, it contains no Airbag for any market. As of 2019, no version of the Lada 4x4 features any Airbags. In 2017, another model appeared, the LADA 4×4 BRONTO, intended mainly for off-road use. It features characteristic mask and plastic bumpers with integrated front and rear fog lamps, as well as plastic roof rails and larger wheels with new, black aluminium rims featuring new 235/75-R16 \"Bontyre Stalker\" domestically produced off-road tires, even higher ground clearance (increased for further 35 mm) and plastic rust-protected body edges (fenders and rocker panels). Internally, it is similar to the LADA 4×4 URBAN, also featuring heated front seats. Additional equipment includes a front winch, roof headlights, and additional fog lights on the front bumper. With all mentioned equipment included, the BRONTO is currently the most expensive LADA 4×4 model with a current price of 720 thousand RU in the domestic market (around €10,130). The slightly different pickup model designed by VIS was also revealed (featuring integrated metallic grille, different bumpers, and a snorkel), called LADA BRONTO AMC; however, according to LADA official website, it is not serially produced yet becauset it is not offered anywhere on sale. On 5 April of the same year, at the car's 40th anniversary since the beginning of production, a special, limited edition of the classic LADA 4×4 was presented, called the LADA 4×4 40th-Anniversary, which was made in exactly 1977 copies (the year when Lada Niva appeared). It features new aluminium rims, (similar to the URBAN), as well as five new color schemes, \"40th Anniversary\" metallic labels on the fenders, tailgate, glove compartment cover, front-seat backrests, and floor mats. Also, it has slightly restyled interior featuring genuine leather seat upholstery and steering wheel cover, as well as sills made out of stainless steel. The model is available from June 2017 in both domestic and export markets. A soft-top version appeared back in 1983, but it was neither serially produced nor designed by its native VAZ, but was actually just a modification of the original Niva 1600 (2121) bodied by French coachbuilder Wassermann for the local market. This was known as the Niva Plein Soleil (Sunlight) and was just one of many Niva modifications made by local importers for their markets. (Lada Cossack, Hussar, and Lada Taiga as examples, were modifications for British and West German markets).", "In 2002, the Lada Niva was awarded zero stars out of a possible four by the modern Russian ARCAP safety-assessment program. The reviewer noted the very rugged body of the car as the only positive aspect in terms of safety. During the safety test, the", "In Russia and Europe, the Niva has been used as an ambulance, a military vehicle, and by various police forces and utility companies. It also served for a time as a vehicle for lifeguards on beaches in the Netherlands. The Croatian Army was notable as being the only army that used Nivas (taken from civilians during the wartime) as their standard military 4×4 vehicle due to serious lack of proper military vehicles, such as UAZ-469 or GAZ-69 (which were also in use), until it was later replaced by British Land Rover Defender and Austrian Puch G, which are still being used today. Transmanche-Link, the commercial consortium that built the Channel Tunnel between England and France, used a fleet of 45 Nivas to aid in the enormous project. Each Niva accumulated in excess of off-road during its employment, and after construction had been completed in 1993, the fleet was sold off to a local dealer. In Brazil, the Niva was the best-selling off-road vehicle during the early 1990s. In fact, the Niva was so cheap that even with the 85% importation value tax, it was", "Car manufacturer Bognor in Uruguay assembled a version of the Niva, called Bognor Diva, released in 2004.", "GM-AvtoVAZ, a joint venture between AvtoVAZ and General Motors, produces the Chevrolet Niva. (previously known as VAZ-2123 Niva in domestic market). It features an updated body and 1.7-l gasoline engine with fuel injection. Although the body and the interiors are new, it is still based on the old VAZ-2121 engine, transmission, and most mechanicals. Its off-road ability is exemplary compared with many modern budget SUVs, having been designed for tough tundra territory.", "In August 2014 at the Moscow International Automobile Salon GM-AvtoVAZ introduced the next generation Niva. The car had a longitudinal mounted engine, full-time four-wheel-drive, two-gear transfer case", "In August 2018 AvtoVAZ presented the concept of", "", "LLC", "PSA", "VIS versions: The car can be equipped with a", "A notable Niva buyer in May 2009 was Russia's then-Prime Minister Vladimir Putin. He flaunted his camouflage-painted Opel-engined offroader in the Russian media, allegedly to support domestic car producers despite the financial crisis. Serbian football player Aleksandar Kolarov received a certificate for a Lada 4×4/Niva, as a reward for scoring a goal in his team's match against Costa Rica, during the Russia 2018 World Cup." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Establishment.", "1970s.", "1980s.", "Post-privatization.", "Involvement of Renault-Nissan.", "Recent developments.", "Groupe Renault takeover.", "Company structure.", "Ownership.", "Subsidiaries.", "Export.", "Motorsport.", "World Touring Car Championship.", "Sponsorship." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The company was established in 1966 in cooperation with Fiat, with Viktor Polyakov (later Minister of Automobile Industry) as director, and Vladimir Solovyov as chief designer, and intended to produce popular economy cars that would meet the growing demand for personal transport. It was set up as a collaboration between Italy and the Soviet Union and built on the banks of the Volga River in 1966. A new town, Tolyatti, named after the Italian Communist Party leader Palmiro Togliatti, was built around the factory. The cost of the VAZ plant was estimated at $800 million in 1970 (equivalent to $ billion in ). The plant contained many of the automation systems being developed by Fiat's various subsidiaries (which were eventually amalgamated as Comau), so the Togliatti factory acted as a trial before Fiat implemented them in its plants in Italy. The car brand to be produced (\"Zhiguli\") was envisaged as a \"people's car\" like the Citroën 2CV or the VW Type 1. Production was intended to be 220,000 cars a year, beginning in 1971 (other sources listed 300,000 in 1971); car production actually began before the plant was finished in 1970. The VAZ trademark, at first, was a silver Volga boat on a red pentagonal background, with \"Togliatti\" superposed in Cyrillic (Тольятти); the first badges, manufactured in Turin, mistakenly had the Cyrillic \"Я\" rendered \"R\" instead (Тольʀтти), making them collector's items. Although the company was not as vertically integrated as other Soviet enterprises, for example it purchased components from a variety of suppliers over which it exerted little control., unlike Western automakers, a large proportion of the components for the cars were made entirely in-house - for example the Togliatti works contained its own foundry for manufacturing steel from raw iron ore, and even made its own tyres and glass from raw materials.", "The first VAZ-2101 was produced on 22 April 1970, the 100th anniversary of Lenin's birth. About 22,000 VAZ-2101s were built in 1970, with capacity at the end of 1973 reaching 660,000 a year; 21 December, the one millionth 2101 was built. A third production line was added in October 1974, boosting output to 2,230 cars a day. The same year, total VAZ production reached 1.5 million. The VAZ plant was described as 'ultra-modern' by the Chicago Tribune in a 1973 article. Production reached 750,000 cars a year in 1975, making the Tolyatti plant the third most productive in the world. Between 1977 and 1981, AvtoVAZ acquired 30 welding robots from Japanese firms. The original, Fiat-based models included the VAZ-2101 sedan and the VAZ-2102 estate. 1972 saw the introduction of a deluxe version of the sedan, VAZ-2103, which was based on the Fiat 124 Special and featured a new 1.5 L engine and twin headlights. In 1974, the original VAZ-2101 was updated with new engines and interiors, whereas the VAZ-2102 underwent the same improvements in 1976. The body style with two round headlights was manufactured until 1988. The VAZ-2106, introduced in December 1975 as an updated version of the VAZ-2103, was based on the 1972 Fiat 124 Special T, featuring different interiors and new 1.6 L engine. The 2106 was one of the most popular rear-wheel drive AvtoVAZ models in the past; its production ended in 2001 from Tolyatti, but continued at Izhavto (Izhevsk), ending there in December 2005. In 1974, VAZ was given permission to begin producing Wankel engines under licence from NSU. Work began in 1976, with a single-rotor Lada appearing in 1978; the first 250 of these went on sale in the summer of 1980. After having built a number of prototypes and experimental vehicles, AvtoVAZ designers launched the first car entirely of their own design, the VAZ-2121 Niva, in 1977. This highly popular and innovative SUV was made with off-road use in mind, featuring a gearbox with a central differential lock lever as well as a low- and high-range selector lever. The VAZ-2105, based on the Fiat 124 mechanicals but modernised and restyled, was introduced in 1979 and marketed outside the Soviet Union under the Riva or Laika trade names, depending on the country. Square headlights and new body panels distinguish this car from the earlier models. The 2105 was third best selling automobile platform after the Volkswagen Beetle and the Ford Model T, and one of the longest production run platforms alongside the Volkswagen Beetle, the Hindustan Ambassador and the Volkswagen Type 2.", "In May 1980, a series of mass strikes at the Togliatti plant involving hundreds of thousands of workers were reported by the western press. In 1982 the VAZ-2107, a deluxe version of the 2105, was introduced; it featured a better engine, refined interiors and a chrome radiator grille. In 1984, the VAZ-2104 station wagon completed the line-up. Based on the success of the Niva, the design department prepared a new family of front-wheel drive models by 1984, which was of a completely domestic design. Production started with the VAZ-2108 \"Sputnik\" three-door hatchback, the series was commercially known as Samara. It was the first front-wheel drive serial car built in the Soviet Union after the LuAZ- 969V. The Samara engine was mostly designed and produced in-house, had a new single overhead camshaft (SOHC) design and was driven by a more modern rubber belt. The five-door VAZ-2109 hatchback followed in 1987, and the four-door 1.5 L sedan, the VAZ-21099, was introduced in 1990. The same year, the front sides and radiator grille were restyled on the whole Samara range. A white 2108 would become the nine millionth Lada built, on 24 May 1985, with the ten millionth, on 9 October 1986, also a 2108. The twelve millionth, a right-hand drive 2109, was produced 6 July 1989. The VAZ-1111 Oka micro-car was introduced in 1988, and in 1991 the production was transferred to the KamAZ and SeAZ factories. By the late 1980s AvtoVAZ was suffering from the deterioration of its capital goods such as tools and machinery, resulting from insufficient levels of investment over a long period. Unproductive and antiquated management techniques also contributed to the decline, as did the absence of market competition. The first privately owned AvtoVAZ dealership was established by Boris Berezovsky in 1989. Dealerships quickly turned into criminal rackets that at times simply stole cars from the factory.", "In June 1991 Bear Stearns was hired by the Soviet government to conduct an appraisal of AvtoVAZ and negotiate a venture with a Western partner, in preparation for the privatization of the company. An independent trade union was started during the same year, as workers deemed the traditional trade union to be too close to the interests of management. In January 1993 AvtoVaz was re-established as a joint-stock company under Russian law. The company came to be controlled by the management, including Vladimir Kadannikov, head of AvtoVAZ. It was listed on the Moscow Stock Exchange. As with many other privatized post-Soviet companies the financial situation at AvtoVAZ was dire, with workers being unpaid for months at a time. In 1994 Boris Berezovsky’s dealership company, called Logovaz, accounted for nearly 10% of the domestic sales of AvtoVAZ. Despite the state of the Russian economy at the time demand for AvtoVAZ cars remained buoyant, but widespread corruption in the distribution network led the company to accumulate massive debts. The 110-series sedan was introduced in 1995, two years late on its original 1993 deadline. Development costs for the car were estimated at $2 billion. The 2111 station wagon followed in 1998 and the 2112 hatchback completed the range in 2001. A five-door version of the Niva, the VAZ-2131, was introduced in 1995. By 1995 car sales, distribution and spare parts at AvtoVAZ were all controlled by criminal organizations. This situation was made possible by the close relationship that existed between the criminals and part of the management. Additionally, gangsters were used to control the workers and break strikes. By late 1996 AvtoVAZ had become the country's largest tax debtor, owing $2.4 billion in unpaid taxes. In 1997, the Ministry of Internal Affairs launched Operation Cyclone, an investigation which ultimately uncovered evidence that gangsters connected to AvtoVAZ had carried out at least 65 murders of company managers, dealers and business rivals. The 1998 Russian financial crisis improved the company's market position, by improving the effectiveness of export sales and making imported cars too expensive for most Russians. The VAZ-2120 Nadezhda, a minivan based on the Lada Niva, was introduced in 1998. In the second half of the 1990s some efforts were made to improve the quality of production, but in 1999 there were still nearly 50,000 cases of cars being assembled with missing parts. In 2001 GM-AvtoVAZ, a joint-venture with General Motors, was established. Increased competition from foreign car manufacturers saw the company's share of the Russian market fall to 49% in 2002, compared to 56% four years earlier. In 2003, VAZ presented the concept car Lada Revolution, an open single seater sports car powered by a 1.6 L engine producing. Production of the Wankel engine used on some Lada models (mostly the police versions) stopped in 2004. 2005 saw the introduction of the new Kalina B-segment lineup to the market. AvtoVAZ has built a new modern plant for this model and is hoping to sell some 200,000 cars annually. The Kalina had been originally designed in the early 1990s, and its launch was repeatedly delayed, exemplifying the company's difficulty in bringing products to market in time. In October 2005 the control of the company, which had until then been exercised by subsidiaries of AvtoVAZ connected to Kadannikov, was transferred to Rosoboronexport. March 2007 saw the start of production of Lada Priora, a restyled and modernised 110-series model.", "In March 2008, Renault purchased a 25% stake in AvtoVAZ in a US$1 billion deal, with Rostec retaining the remaining 75%. The deal was agreed at a time when the Russian car market was booming. The onset of the Great Recession caused considerable problems to the company. By April 2009 AvtoVAZ was on the verge of bankruptcy, which was only avoided because of $600 million bailout from the Russian government. As an anti-crisis measure, the Russian government introduced a car scrappage scheme in March 2010. Avtovaz sales doubled in the second quarter of 2010 as a result, and the company returned to profit. By the end of 2010, automotive production in Russia had returned to pre-crisis levels. In 2011 production of the classic Fiat 124-based 2105 and 2107 series models was completely moved from the Togliatti plant to the IzhAvto plant near Izhevsk, to make space for the company's forthcoming 2016 model. In April 2012, AvtoVAZ confirmed the end of the model 2107 (Lada Riva or Lada Nova), after more than forty years. Sales of the Lada Granta, a subcompact car developed in collaboration with Renault, started in December 2011. The Lada Largus was launched in the Russian market in the middle of July 2012. In August 2012, the Lada XRAY concept car was launched at the Moscow International Automobile Salon. The XRAY was designed by chief designer Steve Mattin, formerly of Volvo and Mercedes-Benz. The second generation of the Lada Kalina, basically a facelifted first generation, was also revealed at the 2012 Moscow International Motor Show. The Kalina is also produced as the more powerful version named Lada Kalina Sport. On 3 May 2012, the Renault-Nissan alliance has signed letter of intent to raise its stake in Avtovaz to 51.01%. On 12 December 2012, the Renault–Nissan Alliance formed a joint venture with Rostekhnologii (Alliance Rostec Auto BV) with the aim of becoming the long-term controlling shareholder of AvtoVAZ. In the same year, it was announced that Avtovaz and Sollers plan to jointly produce vehicles in Kazakhstan. The plant, which will be open in 2016, will be built in Ust-Kamenogorsk, in the eastern part of the country, and will produce around 120,000 cars a year.", "In November 2013, Bo Andersson joined AvtoVAZ as CEO, the first non-Russian to head the company. He became involved in conflicts with local suppliers, which he accused of supplying low-quality products. The takeover of AvtoVAZ was completed in June 2014, and the two companies of the Renault-Nissan Alliance took a combined 67.1% stake of Alliance Rostec, which in turn acquired a 74.5% of AvtoVAZ, thereby giving Renault and Nissan indirect control over the Russian manufacturer. In 2014, AvtoVAZ sold 448,114 vehicles, down 16.3 percent comparing to the previous year, due to the overall market slowdown in Russia. The total production of the Togliatti factory is 910,000 vehicles. By 2014 the company's liabilities exceeded assets by 68 billion rubles, for UK based Ernst & Young to express “significant doubt” about the company's “ability to continue as a going concern”. In 2014, the Largus got a new modification, the Lada Largus Cross. In the fall of 2014 AvtoVAZ began production of a new Kalina model, the Lada Kalina Cross. Production of the Lada Vesta, based on a new b\\C platform developed by AvtoVAZ in cooperation with Renault-Nissan Alliance, started on September 25, 2015, at Lada Izhevsk manufacturing site. For the first time in LADA history, one year has passed between concept-car and start of production. Lada XRAY is the first compact city crossover in company’s history. Starts of sales was held on February 14, 2016. Total Lada sales in 2015 amounted to 269,096 cars, of which 207,389 were built by AvtoVAZ in Tolyatti, while the rest were made by Lada Izhevsk, giving the company a 17.9% share of the Russian automotive market. In March 2016 Nicolas Maure became the company's CEO. In April 2016, Carlos Ghosn, Renault-Nissan Chairman, ceded his AvtoVAZ chairmanship position to Sergey Skvortsov, Deputy General Director of Russian state-owned Rostec, the minority shareholder in Avtovaz. Despite massive layoffs since 2008, in 2016 the company remained unprofitable.", "In October 2016 Renault invested $1.33 billion in another recapitalization of AvtoVAZ, this time without involvement from Nissan, making the company a subsidiary of the French group. In September 2017 Nissan sold its AvtoVAZ stake to Renault for €45 million. In December 2018, Renault and Rostec completed the acquisition of all AvtoVAZ shares through their Alliance Rostec venture. The company then delisted from the Moscow Exchange. In 2018 AvtoVAZ posted a net profit of $90.5 million, its first positive result in a decade. In June 2019 Rostec announced it would reduce its stake in AvtoVAZ to 25%. In December 2019, AvtoVAZ acquired General Motors' stake in their GM-AvtoVAZ joint venture. As part of the deal, AvtoVAZ is set to use the Chevrolet branding for the Niva models until August 2020, before replacing it with Lada.", "", "After its re-establishment as a joint stock company in January 1993, the ownership structure of AvtoVAZ became opaque, with two different management groups controlling the majority of the shares, one led by company chairman Kadannikov, holding 33.2% through the AVVA company, while another group held 19.2% through the AFC company. AvtoVAZ, in turn, owned over 80% of AVVA, which was said to be under the influence of Boris Berezovsky. , AvtoVAZ's owner is Alliance Rostec Auto B.V., which is a joint venture of Renault and Russian company Rostec. Renault owns a controlling 67.61% stake of Alliance Rostec Auto, while Rostec owns a 32.39%. Following a recapitalization of AvtoVAZ in 2016, Renault holds over 50% of the company, making it a subsidiary of the French group.", "Production sites for Lada vehicles in Russia:", "Exports of AvtoVAZ vehicles to the West began in 1974; Ladas were sold as in several Western nations during the 1970s and 1980s, including Canada, the United Kingdom, France, Belgium, Luxembourg and the Netherlands, though trade sanctions banned their export to the United States. Under the original agreement with Fiat, the car could not be sold in competition with the 124 until its replacement (the Fiat 131 Mirafiori) had been released and all Fiat production of the 124 had ceased. Economic instability in the former Soviet Union in the 1990s, tightening emissions and safety legislation meant that AvtoVAZ withdrew from most Western markets by the late 1997. In later years, Lada is again exported. The Lada is marketed in Russia, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Belarus, Bolivia, Bulgaria, Chile, Egypt, Georgia, Germany, Hungary, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Lebanon, Moldova, Slovakia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, Uzbekistan, South Ossetia, Serbian Republic, Syria, Peru and Jordan. In 2015, 28,461 Lada cars were exported, mostly to Kazakhstan (14,278 vehicles), Azerbaijan (4,690), Belarus (2,360), Egypt (2,128) and Germany (1,515).", "In 1970, AvtoVAZ CEO Viktor Polyakov set the task to create sport versions of the Lada 2101. The engines were built in Italy, whereas fine tuning was done by engineers in Togliatti. In 1971, three sport cars based on the 2101 model took part in the Soviet Winter Rally Championship. Later in the same year, a VAZ-Autoexport team earned their first prize, the Silver Cup in the 1971 Tour d'Europe. In the 1970s–1980s, the Autoexport racing team, using different Lada models, participated in different motorsport competitions. A special Zhiguli class was created for the Soviet Rally Championship. There were different rally and track races featuring Avtovaz sports cars. In 1978, a Lada Niva took part in the famous Dakar Rally. It was also successful in a number of international competitions. In 1981, Guy Moerenhout Racing made two special models for Lada Belgium: Lada 21011 RS Sport, model with two Weber carburetors and special sport equipment, and Lada Niva Dream, with big wing extension, special colours and larger wheels. In the late 1990s, Lada Canada supported a rally operation in the Canadian Rally Championship, winning in the 'Production 1750' class on numerous occasions. In 2012, the Lada Granta Cup was launched. The first stage of the new race series began in Moscow on the Myachkovo race track.", "In 2008, AvtoVAZ took part in the WTCC World Championship, raced and developed by Russian Bears Motorsport, although badged as a factory team. The team raced the Lada 110 in the 2008 season, but ran a trio of Lada Prioras in the 2009 WTCC. The team scored their first championship points at Imola with renowned BTCC two-time champion James Thompson. Lada withdrew from the WTCC for the 2010 season, but returned in 2012, with TMS Sport entering a Lada Granta WTCC for Thompson in two rounds. The team added a second car for the 2013 season, driven by Alexey Dudukalo, and achieved their best result to date, finishing fifth in their home race in Russia. In 2013, AvtoVAZ returned to the WTCC championship. The team received a new car: the Lada Granta WTCC with the new driver, WTCC World Champion Robert Huff. The team returned for the 2014 World Touring Car Championship season, again fielding a Granta. Since the beginning of 2015, the Lada team takes part in the WTCC as Lada Sport Rosneft. Starting with the 2015 season, Lada Sport currently uses Lada Vesta.", "HC Lada Togliatti, an ice hockey team currently playing in the Kontinental Hockey League, takes its name from the marque. They won two league titles as well as the 1996 European Cup. Lada sponsored Aldershot Football Club of the English Football League for two seasons leading up their bankruptcy in 1992. Lada also sponsored Colo Colo (Chile) during their championship season in 1991. Lada sponsored the Renault F1 Team in 2010 after they signed Russia's first Formula One driver Vitaly Petrov." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Field of competence.", "History.", "Current membership." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Roman Rota is the ordinary appellate tribunal of the Apostolic See. The Signatura's competence covers: Apart from these judicial matters, the Signatura has competence as an administrative tribunal to deal with controversies over administrative decisions made by or approved by dicasteries of the Roman Curia if it is contended that the decision violated some law, either in the decision-making process or in the procedure used. It can also deal with administrative controversies referred to it by the Pope or those departments, and with conflicts of competence between the departments. A third field of competence for the Signatura is that of overseeing all the tribunals of the Catholic Church, with power to extend the competence (jurisdiction) of tribunals, to grant dispensations from procedural laws, to establish interdiocesan tribunals, and to discipline canonical advocates. The Apostolic Signatura is also the final court of cassation in the civil legal system of Vatican City State. According to Vatican City State Law CCCLI given \"motu proprio\" on 16 March 2020, its competence includes appeals concerning legal procedure and judicial competence. According to a 2008 law issued by Pope Benedict XVI, the civil legal system of Vatican City State recognizes canon law as its first source of norms and first principle of interpretation. Pope Francis has stated that principles of canon law are essential to the interpretation and application of the laws of Vatican City State.", "In the thirteenth century the Popes made use of \"referendarii\" to investigate and prepare the signing - hence the name \"signatura\" - of petitions and other cases presented to the Holy See. Pope Eugene IV entrusted these referendaries with authority to sign certain petitions and thereby established a permanent office for this purpose. Under Popes Alexander VI, Sixtus IV and Julius II this office was divided into two, the \"Signatura gratiae\" for examining petitions for favours, and the \"Signatura iustitiae\" for contentious cases. The honourable office of referendary came to be conferred frequently as a merely honorary title, but Pope Sixtus V put a limit on their number, and Pope Alexander VII combined the limited number of voting referendaries into a college, assisted by the simple referendaries, who had only a consultative position. The \"Signatura gratiae\" gradually lost its functions to other bodies, and the growth of the work of the Roman Rota, the foundation of the Congregations of Cardinals resulted in the \"Signatura iustitiae\" becoming mainly a Supreme Court of the Papal States. On 29 June 1908, Pope Pius X reestablished a single Apostolic Signatura consisting of six cardinals, one of whom acted as its prefect. On 28 June 1915, Pope Benedict XV reconstituted the college of the voting referendaries and simple referendaries with consultative functions and the 1917 Code of Canon Law removed the limitation of the number of cardinals members of this Supreme Tribunal. The present competence of the Apostolic Signatura is that laid down in the apostolic constitution \"Pastor Bonus\" of 28 June 1988. On 16 March 2020, Pope Francis issued a new Vatican City civil law which makes the Apostolic Signatura itself the final court of cassation for Vatican City State and provides for greater independence of judicial bodies and magistrates dependent on the Pope. It also specifies the requirements for the appointment of judges and it simplifies the judicial system while increasing the staff of the court. Prior to that, the Cardinal Prefect of the Apostolic Signatura had served \"ex officio\" as the President of the Supreme Court of Vatican City (\"Corte di Cassazione\"). The two other members of the Supreme Court were also Cardinals of the Apostolic Signatura and were chosen by the Cardinal Prefect on a yearly basis.", "The members of the Apostolic Signatura are: Cardinals Bishops" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Reductionism.", "Antiquity.", "Greek atomism.", "Geometry and atoms.", "Rejection in Aristotelianism.", "Later ancient atomism.", "Atomism and ethics.", "Indian atomism.", "Middle Ages.", "Medieval Hinduism.", "Medieval Buddhism.", "Medieval Islam.", "Medieval Christendom.", "Atomist renaissance.", "Corpuscularianism.", "Modern atomic theory." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Philosophical atomism is a reductive argument, proposing not only that everything is composed of atoms and void, but that nothing they compose really exists: the only things that really exist are atoms ricocheting off each other mechanistically in an otherwise empty void. Atomism stands in contrast to a substance theory wherein a prime material continuum remains qualitatively invariant under division (for example, the ratio of the four classical elements would be the same in any portion of a homogeneous material). Indian Buddhists, such as Dharmakirti ( 6th or 7th century) and others, developed distinctive theories of atomism, for example, involving momentary (instantaneous) atoms (\"kalapa\"s) that flash in and out of existence.", "", "In the 5th century BCE, Leucippus and his pupil Democritus proposed that all matter was composed of small indivisible particles called atoms. Nothing whatsoever is known about Leucippus except that he was the teacher of Democritus. Democritus, by contrast, was a prolific writer, who wrote over eighty known treatises, none of which have survived to the present day complete. However, a massive number of fragments and quotations of his writings have survived. These are the main source of information on his teachings about atoms. Democritus's argument for the existence of atoms hinged on the idea that it is impossible to keep dividing matter for infinity and that matter must therefore be made up of extremely tiny particles. Democritus believed that atoms are too small for human senses to detect, they are infinitely many, they come in infinitely many varieties, and that they have always existed. They float in a vacuum, which Democritus called the \"void\", and they vary in form, order, and posture. Some atoms, he maintained, are convex, others concave, some shaped like hooks, and others like eyes. They are constantly moving and colliding into each other. Democritus wrote that atoms and void are the only things that exist and that all other things are merely said to exist by social convention. The objects humans see in everyday life are composed of many atoms united by random collisions and their forms and materials are determined by what kinds of atom make them up. Likewise, human perceptions are caused by atoms as well. Bitterness is caused by small, angular, jagged atoms passing across the tongue; whereas sweetness is caused by larger, smoother, more rounded atoms passing across the tongue. Parmenides denied the existence of motion, change and void. He believed all existence to be a single, all-encompassing and unchanging mass (a concept known as monism), and that change and motion were mere illusions. This conclusion, as well as the reasoning that led to it, may indeed seem baffling to the modern empirical mind, but Parmenides explicitly rejected sensory experience as the path to an understanding of the universe, and instead used purely abstract reasoning. Firstly, he believed there is no such thing as void, equating it with non-being (i.e. \"if the void is, then it is not nothing; therefore it is not the void\"). This in turn meant that motion is impossible, because there is no void to move into. Democritus accepted most of Parmenides' arguments, except for the idea that change is an illusion. He believed change was real, and if it was not then at least the illusion had to be explained. He thus supported the concept of void, and stated that the universe is made up of many Parmenidean entities that move around in the void. The void is infinite and provides the space in which the atoms can pack or scatter differently. The different possible packings and scatterings within the void make up the shifting outlines and bulk of the objects that organisms feel, see, eat, hear, smell, and taste. While organisms may feel hot or cold, hot and cold actually have no real existence. They are simply sensations produced in organisms by the different packings and scatterings of the atoms in the void that compose the object that organisms sense as being \"hot\" or \"cold\". The work of Democritus only survives in secondhand reports, some of which are unreliable or conflicting. Much of the best evidence of Democritus' theory of atomism is reported by Aristotle in his discussions of Democritus' and Plato's contrasting views on the types of indivisibles composing the natural world.", "Plato ( – BCE), if he had been familiar with the atomism of Democritus, would have objected to its mechanistic materialism. He argued that atoms just crashing into other atoms could never produce the beauty and form of the world. In Plato's \"Timaeus\" the character of Timeaus insisted that the cosmos was not eternal but was created, although its creator framed it after an eternal, unchanging model. One part of that creation were the four simple bodies of fire, air, water, and earth. But Plato did not consider these corpuscles to be the most basic level of reality, for in his view they were made up of an unchanging level of reality, which was mathematical. These simple bodies were geometric solids, the faces of which were, in turn, made up of triangles. The square faces of the cube were each made up of four isosceles right-angled triangles and the triangular faces of the tetrahedron, octahedron, and icosahedron were each made up of six right-angled triangles. He postulated the geometric structure of the simple bodies of the four elements as summarized in the adjacent table. The cube, with its flat base and stability, was assigned to earth; the tetrahedron was assigned to fire because its penetrating points and sharp edges made it mobile. The points and edges of the octahedron and icosahedron were blunter and so these less mobile bodies were assigned to air and water. Since the simple bodies could be decomposed into triangles, and the triangles reassembled into atoms of different elements, Plato's model offered a plausible account of changes among the primary substances.", "Sometime before 330 BCE Aristotle asserted that the elements of fire, air, earth, and water were not made of atoms, but were continuous. Aristotle considered the existence of a void, which was required by atomic theories, to violate physical principles. Change took place not by the rearrangement of atoms to make new structures, but by transformation of matter from what it was in potential to a new actuality. A piece of wet clay, when acted upon by a potter, takes on its potential to be an actual drinking mug. Aristotle has often been criticized for rejecting atomism, but in ancient Greece the atomic theories of Democritus remained \"pure speculations, incapable of being put to any experimental test. Granted that atomism was, in the long run, to prove far more fruitful than any qualitative theory of matter, in the short run the theory that Aristotle proposed must have seemed in some respects more promising\". \"Minima naturalia\" were theorized by Aristotle as the smallest parts into which a homogeneous natural substance (e.g., flesh, bone, or wood) could be divided and still retain its essential character. Unlike the atomism of Democritus, the Aristotelian \"natural minimum\" was not conceptualized as physically indivisible. Instead, the concept was rooted in Aristotle's hylomorphic worldview, which held that every physical thing is a compound of matter (Greek \"hyle\") and an immaterial substantial form (Greek \"morphe\") that imparts its essential nature and structure. For instance, a rubber ball for a hylomorphist like Aristotle would be rubber (matter) structured by spherical shape (form). Aristotle's intuition was that there is some smallest size beyond which matter could no longer be structured as flesh, or bone, or wood, or some other such organic substance that for Aristotle, living before the microscope, could be considered homogeneous. For instance, if flesh were divided beyond its natural minimum, what would be left might be a large amount of the element water, and smaller amounts of the other elements. But whatever water or other elements were left, they would no longer have the \"nature\" of flesh: in hylomorphic terms, they would no longer be matter structured by the form of flesh; instead the remaining water, e.g., would be matter structured by the form of water, not the form of flesh.", "Epicurus (341–270 BCE) studied atomism with Nausiphanes who had been a student of Democritus. Although Epicurus was certain of the existence of atoms and the void, he was less sure we could adequately explain specific natural phenomena such as earthquakes, lightning, comets, or the phases of the Moon (Lloyd 1973, 25–6). Few of Epicurus' writings survive and those that do reflect his interest in applying Democritus' theories to assist people in taking responsibility for themselves and for their own happiness—since he held there are no gods around that can help them. He understood gods' role as moral ideals. His ideas are also represented in the works of his follower Lucretius, who wrote \"On the Nature of Things\". This scientific work in poetic form illustrates several segments of Epicurean theory on how the universe came into its current stage and it shows that the phenomena we perceive are actually composite forms. The atoms and the void are eternal and in constant motion. Atomic collisions create objects, which are still composed of the same eternal atoms whose motion for a while is incorporated into the created entity. Human sensations and meteorological phenomena are also explained by Lucretius in terms of atomic motion.", "Some later philosophers attributed the idea that man created gods and that gods did not create man to Democritus. For example, Sextus Empiricus noted: Three hundred years after Epicurus, Lucretius in his epic poem \"On the Nature of Things\" would depict him as the hero who crushed the monster Religion through educating the people in what was possible in the atoms and what was \"not\" possible in the atoms. However, Epicurus expressed a non-aggressive attitude characterized by his statement: \"The man who best knows how to meet external threats makes into one family all the creatures he can; and those he can not, he at any rate does not treat as aliens; and where he finds even this impossible, he avoids all dealings, and, so far as is advantageous, excludes them from his life.\"", "In ancient Indian philosophy, preliminary instances of atomism are found in the works of Vedic sage Aruni, who lived in the 8th century BCE, especially his proposition that \"particles too small to be seen mass together into the substances and objects of experience\". Later, the Charvaka, and Ajivika schools of atomism originated as early as the 7th century BCE. Bhattacharya posits that Charvaka may have been one of several atheistic, materialist schools that existed in ancient India. Kanada founded the Vaisheshika school of Indian philosophy that also represents the earliest Indian physics. The Nyaya and Vaisheshika schools developed theories on how atoms combined into more complex objects. Several of these doctrines of atomism are, in some respects, \"suggestively similar\" to that of Democritus. McEvilley (2002) assumes that such similarities are due to extensive cultural contact and diffusion, probably in either direction. The Nyaya–Vaisesika school developed one of the earliest forms of atomism; scholars date the Nyaya and Vaisesika texts from the 9th to 4th centuries BCE. Vaisesika atomists posited the four elemental atom types, but in Vaisesika physics atoms had 25 different possible qualities, divided between general extensive properties and specific (intensive) properties. The Nyaya–Vaisesika atomists had elaborate theories of how atoms combine. In Vaisesika atomism, atoms first combine in pairs (dyads), and then group into trios of pairs (triads), which are the smallest visible units of matter. The Buddhist atomists had very qualitative, Aristotelian-style atomic theory. According to ancient Buddhist atomism, which probably began developing before the 4th century BCE, there are four kinds of atoms, corresponding to the standard elements. Each of these elements has a specific property, such as solidity or motion, and performs a specific function in mixtures, such as providing support or causing growth. Like the Hindus, the Buddhists were able to integrate a theory of atomism with their theological presuppositions. Later Indian Buddhist philosophers, such as Dharmakirti and Dignāga, considered atoms to be point-sized, durationless, and made of energy. Some of the canonical texts make reference to matter and atoms (called \"paramāṇu\", a term already used in Yajnavalkya, Lalitha Sahasranama and Yoga Sutra), including \"Pancastikayasara\", \"Kalpasutra\" and \"Tattvarthasutra\". The Jains envisioned the world as consisting wholly of atoms, except for souls. Atoms were considered as the basic building blocks of all matter. Each atom had \"one kind of taste, one smell, one color, and two kinds of touch\", though it is unclear what was meant by \"kind of touch\". Atoms can exist in one of two states: subtle, in which case they can fit in infinitesimally small spaces, and gross, in which case they have extension and occupy a finite space. The texts also give \"detailed theories\" of how atoms could combine, react, vibrate, move, and perform other actions, all of which were thoroughly deterministic.", "", "Ajivika is a \"Nastika\" school of thought whose metaphysics included a theory of atoms or atomism which was later adapted in Vaiśeṣika school, whichpostulated that all objects in the physical universe are reducible to \"paramāṇu\" (atoms), and one's experiences are derived from the interplay of substance (a function of atoms, their number and their spatial arrangements), quality, activity, commonness, particularity and inherence. Everything was composed of atoms, qualities emerged from aggregates of atoms, but the aggregation and nature of these atoms was predetermined by cosmic forces. His traditional name \"Kanada\" means \"atom eater\", and he is known for developing the foundations of an atomistic approach to physics and philosophy in the Sanskrit text \"Vaiśeṣika Sūtra\". His text is also known as \"Kanada Sutras\", or Aphorisms of Kanada.", "Medieval Buddhist atomism, flourishing in ca. the 7th century, was very different from the atomist doctrines taught in early Buddhism. Medieval Buddhist philosophers Dharmakirti and Dignāga considered atoms to be point-sized, durationless, and made of energy. In discussing the two systems, Fyodor Shcherbatskoy (1930) stresses their commonality, the postulate of \"absolute qualities\" (\"guna-dharma\") underlying all empirical phenomena. Still later, the Abhidhammattha-sangaha, a text dated to the 11th or 12th century, postulates the existence of \"rupa-kalapa\", imagined as the smallest units of the physical world, of varying elementary composition. Invisible under normal circumstances, the \"rupa-kalapa\" are said to become visible as a result of meditative samadhi.", "Atomistic philosophies are found very early in Islamic philosophy and was influenced by earlier Greek and to some extent Indian philosophy. Like both the Greek and Indian versions, Islamic atomism was a charged topic that had the potential for conflict with the prevalent religious orthodoxy, but it was instead more often favoured by orthodox Islamic theologians. It was such a fertile and flexible idea that, as in Greece and India, it flourished in some leading schools of Islamic thought. The most successful form of Islamic atomism was in the Asharite school of Islamic theology, most notably in the work of the theologian al-Ghazali (1058–1111). In Asharite atomism, atoms are the only perpetual, material things in existence, and all else in the world is \"accidental\" meaning something that lasts for only an instant. Nothing accidental can be the cause of anything else, except perception, as it exists for a moment. Contingent events are not subject to natural physical causes, but are the direct result of God's constant intervention, without which nothing could happen. Thus nature is completely dependent on God, which meshes with other Asharite Islamic ideas on causation, or the lack thereof (Gardet 2001). Al-Ghazali also used the theory to support his theory of occasionalism. In a sense, the Asharite theory of atomism has far more in common with Indian atomism than it does with Greek atomism. Other traditions in Islam rejected the atomism of the Asharites and expounded on many Greek texts, especially those of Aristotle. An active school of philosophers in Al-Andalus, including the noted commentator Averroes (1126–1198 CE) explicitly rejected the thought of al-Ghazali and turned to an extensive evaluation of the thought of Aristotle. Averroes commented in detail on most of the works of Aristotle and his commentaries became very influential in Jewish and Christian scholastic thought.", "While Aristotelian philosophy eclipsed the importance of the atomists in late Roman and medieval Europe, their work was still preserved and exposited through commentaries on the works of Aristotle. In the 2nd century, Galen (AD 129–216) presented extensive discussions of the Greek atomists, especially Epicurus, in his Aristotle commentaries. According to historian of atomism Joshua Gregory, there was no serious work done with atomism from the time of Galen until Gassendi and Descartes resurrected it in the 17th century; \"the gap between these two'modern naturalists' and the ancient Atomists marked \"the exile of the atom\" and \"it is universally admitted that the Middle Ages had abandoned Atomism, and virtually lost it.\" However, although the ancient atomists' works were unavailable, Scholastic thinkers still had Aristotle's critiques of atomism. In medieval universities there were expressions of atomism. For example, in the 14th century Nicholas of Autrecourt considered that matter, space, and time were all made up of indivisible atoms, points, and instants and that all generation and corruption took place by the rearrangement of material atoms. The similarities of his ideas with those of al-Ghazali suggest that Nicholas may have been familiar with Ghazali's work, perhaps through Averroes' refutation of it (Marmara, 1973–74). Although the atomism of Epicurus had fallen out of favor in the centuries of Scholasticism, the \"minima naturalia\" of Aristotelianism received extensive consideration. Speculation on \"minima naturalia\" provided philosophical background for the mechanistic philosophy of early modern thinkers such as Descartes, and for the alchemical works of Geber and Daniel Sennert, who in turn influenced the corpuscularian alchemist Robert Boyle, one of the founders of modern chemistry. A chief theme in late Roman and Scholastic commentary on this concept is reconciling \"minima naturalia\" with the general Aristotelian principle of infinite divisibility. Commentators like John Philoponus and Thomas Aquinas reconciled these aspects of Aristotle's thought by distinguishing between mathematical and \"natural\" divisibility. With few exceptions, much of the curriculum in the universities of Europe was based on such Aristotelianism for most of the Middle Ages.", "In the 17th century, a renewed interest arose in Epicurean atomism and corpuscularianism as a hybrid or an alternative to Aristotelian physics. The main figures in the rebirth of atomism were René Descartes, Pierre Gassendi, and Robert Boyle, as well as other notable figures. One of the first groups of atomists in England was a cadre of amateur scientists known as the Northumberland circle, led by Henry Percy, 9th Earl of Northumberland (1564–1632). Although they published little of account, they helped to disseminate atomistic ideas among the burgeoning scientific culture of England, and may have been particularly influential to Francis Bacon, who became an atomist around 1605, though he later rejected some of the claims of atomism. Though they revived the classical form of atomism, this group was among the scientific avant-garde: the Northumberland circle contained nearly half of the confirmed Copernicans prior to 1610 (the year of Galileo's \"The Starry Messenger\"). Other influential atomists of late 16th and early 17th centuries include Giordano Bruno, Thomas Hobbes (who also changed his stance on atomism late in his career), and Thomas Hariot. A number of different atomistic theories were blossoming in France at this time, as well (Clericuzio 2000). Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) was an advocate of atomism in his 1612, \"Discourse on Floating Bodies\" (Redondi 1969). In \"The Assayer\", Galileo offered a more complete physical system based on a corpuscular theory of matter, in which all phenomena—with the exception of sound—are produced by \"matter in motion\". Galileo identified some basic problems with Aristotelian physics through his experiments. He utilized a theory of atomism as a partial replacement, but he was never unequivocally committed to it. For example, his experiments with falling bodies and inclined planes led him to the concepts of circular inertial motion and accelerating free-fall. The current Aristotelian theories of impetus and terrestrial motion were inadequate to explain these. While atomism did not explain the law of fall either, it was a more promising framework in which to develop an explanation because motion was conserved in ancient atomism (unlike Aristotelian physics). René Descartes' (1596–1650) \"mechanical\" philosophy of corpuscularism had much in common with atomism, and is considered, in some senses, to be a different version of it. Descartes thought everything physical in the universe to be made of tiny \"vortices\" of matter. Like the ancient atomists, Descartes claimed that sensations, such as taste or temperature, are caused by the shape and size of tiny pieces of matter. The main difference between atomism and Descartes' concept was the existence of the void. For him, there could be no vacuum, and all matter was constantly swirling to prevent a void as corpuscles moved through other matter. Another key distinction between Descartes' view and classical atomism is the mind/body duality of Descartes, which allowed for an independent realm of existence for thought, soul, and most importantly, God. Gassendi's concept was closer to classical atomism, but with no atheistic overtone. Pierre Gassendi (1592–1655) was a Catholic priest from France who was also an avid natural philosopher. He was particularly intrigued by the Greek atomists, so he set out to \"purify\" atomism from its heretical and atheistic philosophical conclusions (Dijksterhius 1969). Gassendi formulated his atomistic conception of mechanical philosophy partly in response to Descartes; he particularly opposed Descartes' reductionist view that only purely mechanical explanations of physics are valid, as well as the application of geometry to the whole of physics (Clericuzio 2000). Johann Chrysostom Magnenus ( – ) published his \"Democritus reviviscens\" in 1646. Magnenus was the first to arrive at a scientific estimate of the size of an \"atom\" (i.e. of what would today be called a molecule). Measuring how much incense had to be burned before it could be smelled everywhere in a large church, he calculated the number of molecules in a grain of incense to be of the order 10, only about one order of magnitude below the actual figure.", "Corpuscularianism is similar to atomism, except that where atoms were supposed to be indivisible, corpuscles could in principle be divided. In this manner, for example, it was theorized that mercury could penetrate into metals and modify their inner structure, a step on the way towards transmutative production of gold. Corpuscularianism was associated by its leading proponents with the idea that some of the properties that objects appear to have are artifacts of the perceiving mind:'secondary' qualities as distinguished from 'primary' qualities. Not all corpuscularianism made use of the primary-secondary quality distinction, however. An influential tradition in medieval and early modern alchemy argued that chemical analysis revealed the existence of robust corpuscles that retained their identity in chemical compounds (to use the modern term). William R. Newman has dubbed this approach to matter theory \"chymical atomism,\" and has argued for its significance to both the mechanical philosophy and to the chemical atomism that emerged in the early 19th century. Corpuscularianism stayed a dominant theory over the next several hundred years and retained its links with alchemy in the work of scientists such as Robert Boyle and Isaac Newton in the 17th century. It was used by Newton, for instance, in his development of the corpuscular theory of light. The form that came to be accepted by most English scientists after Robert Boyle (1627–1692) was an amalgam of the systems of Descartes and Gassendi. In The Sceptical Chymist (1661), Boyle demonstrates problems that arise from chemistry, and offers up atomism as a possible explanation. The unifying principle that would eventually lead to the acceptance of a hybrid corpuscular–atomism was mechanical philosophy, which became widely accepted by physical sciences.", "By the late 18th century, the useful practices of engineering and technology began to influence philosophical explanations for the composition of matter. Those who speculated on the ultimate nature of matter began to verify their \"thought experiments\" with some repeatable demonstrations, when they could. Roger Boscovich provided the first general mathematical theory of atomism, based on the ideas of Newton and Leibniz but transforming them so as to provide a programme for atomic physics. In 1808, John Dalton assimilated the known experimental work of many people to summarize the empirical evidence on the composition of matter. He noticed that distilled water everywhere analyzed to the same elements, hydrogen and oxygen. Similarly, other purified substances decomposed to the same elements in the same proportions by weight. Furthermore, he concluded that there was a unique atom for each element, using Lavoisier's definition of an element as a substance that could not be analyzed into something simpler. Thus, Dalton concluded the following. And then he proceeded to give a list of relative weights in the compositions of several common compounds, summarizing: Dalton concluded that the fixed proportions of elements by weight suggested that the atoms of one element combined with only a limited number of atoms of the other elements to form the substances that he listed. Dalton's atomic theory remained controversial throughout the 19th century. Whilst the Law of definite proportion was accepted, the hypothesis that this was due to atoms was not so widely accepted. For example, in 1826 when Sir Humphry Davy presented Dalton the Royal Medal from the Royal Society, Davy said that the theory only became useful when the atomic conjecture was ignored. Sir Benjamin Collins Brodie in 1866 published the first part of his Calculus of Chemical Operations as a non-atomic alternative to the Atomic Theory. He described atomic theory as a 'Thoroughly materialistic bit of joiners work'. Alexander Williamson used his Presidential Address to the London Chemical Society in 1869 to defend the Atomic Theory against its critics and doubters. This in turn led to further meetings at which the positivists again attacked the supposition that there were atoms. The matter was finally resolved in Dalton's favour in the early 20th century with the rise of atomic physics. Atoms and molecules had long been theorized as the constituents of matter, and Albert Einstein published a paper in 1905 that explained in precise detail how the motion that Brown had observed was a result of the pollen being moved by individual water molecules, making one of his first big contributions to science. This explanation of Brownian motion served as convincing evidence that atoms and molecules exist, and was further verified experimentally by Jean Perrin in 1908. Perrin was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1926 \"for his work on the discontinuous structure of matter\". The direction of the force of atomic bombardment is constantly changing, and at different times the particle is hit more on one side than another, leading to the seemingly random nature of the motion." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Theoretical definition.", "Related concepts.", "Theoretical implications of one-way functions.", "Candidates for one-way functions.", "Multiplication and factoring.", "The Rabin function (modular squaring).", "Discrete exponential and logarithm.", "Cryptographically secure hash functions.", "Other candidates.", "Universal one-way function." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "A function \"f\" : {0,1} → {0,1} is one-way if \"f\" can be computed by a polynomial time algorithm, but any polynomial time randomized algorithm formula_1 that attempts to compute a pseudo-inverse for \"f\" succeeds with negligible probability. That is, for all randomized algorithms formula_1, all positive integers \"c\" and all sufficiently large \"n\" = length(\"x\"), where the probability is over the choice of \"x\" from the discrete uniform distribution on {0,1}, and the randomness of formula_1. Note that, by this definition, the function must be \"hard to invert\" in the average-case, rather than worst-case sense. This is different from much of complexity theory (e.g., NP-hardness), where the term \"hard\" is meant in the worst-case. That is why even if some candidates for one-way functions (described below) are known to be NP-complete, it does not imply their one-wayness. The latter property is only based on the lack of known algorithm to solve the problem. It is not sufficient to make a function \"lossy\" (not one-to-one) to have a one-way function. In particular, the function that outputs the string of \"n\" zeros on any input of length \"n\" is \"not\" a one-way function because it is easy to come up with an input that will result in the same output. More precisely: For such a function that simply outputs a string of zeroes, an algorithm \"F\" that just outputs any string of length \"n\" on input \"f\"(\"x\") will \"find\" a proper preimage of the output, even if it is not the input which was originally used to find the output string.", "A one-way permutation is a one-way function that is also a permutation—that is, a one-way function that is bijective. One-way permutations are an important cryptographic primitive, and it is not known if their existence is implied by the existence of one-way functions. A trapdoor one-way function or trapdoor permutation is a special kind of one-way function. Such a function is hard to invert unless some secret information, called the \"trapdoor\", is known. A collision-free hash function \"f\" is a one-way function that is also \"collision-resistant\"; that is, no randomized polynomial time algorithm can find a collision—distinct values \"x\", \"y\" such that \"f\"(\"x\") = \"f\"(\"y\")—with non-negligible probability.", "If \"f\" is a one-way function, then the inversion of \"f\" would be a problem whose output is hard to compute (by definition) but easy to check (just by computing \"f\" on it). Thus, the existence of a one-way function implies that FP≠FNP, which in turn implies that P≠NP. However, it is not known whether P≠NP implies the existence of one-way functions. The existence of a one-way function implies the existence of many other useful concepts, including: The existence of one-way functions also implies that there is no natural proof for P≠NP.", "The following are several candidates for one-way functions (as of April 2009). Clearly, it is not known whether these functions are indeed one-way; but extensive research has so far failed to produce an efficient inverting algorithm for any of them.", "The function \"f\" takes as inputs two prime numbers \"p\" and \"q\" in binary notation and returns their product. This function can be \"easily\" computed in \"O\"(\"b\") time, where \"b\" is the total number of bits of the inputs. Inverting this function requires finding the factors of a given integer \"N\". The best factoring algorithms known run in formula_5time, where b is the number of bits needed to represent \"N\". This function can be generalized by allowing \"p\" and \"q\" to range over a suitable set of semiprimes. Note that \"f\" is not one-way for randomly selected integers \"p,q\">1, since the product will have 2 as a factor with probability 3/4 (because the probability that an arbitrary \"p\" is odd is 1/2, and likewise for \"q\", so if they're chosen independently, the probability that both are odd is therefore 1/4; hence the probability that p or q is even is 1 - 1/4 = 3/4).", "The Rabin function, or squaring modulo formula_6, where and are primes is believed to be a collection of one-way functions. We write to denote squaring modulo : a specific member of the Rabin collection. It can be shown that extracting square roots, i.e. inverting the Rabin function, is computationally equivalent to factoring (in the sense of polynomial-time reduction). Hence it can be proven that the Rabin collection is one-way if and only if factoring is hard. This also holds for the special case in which and are of the same bit length. The Rabin cryptosystem is based on the assumption that this Rabin function is one-way.", "Modular exponentiation can be done in polynomial time. Inverting this function requires computing the discrete logarithm. Currently there are several popular groups for which no algorithm to calculate the underlying discrete logarithm in polynomial time is known. These groups are all finite abelian groups and the general discrete logarithm problem can be described as thus. Let \"G\" be a finite abelian group of cardinality \"n\". Denote its group operation by multiplication. Consider a primitive element α ∈ \"G\" and another element β ∈ \"G\". The discrete logarithm problem is to find the positive integer \"k\", where 1 ≤ \"k\" ≤ n, such that: The integer \"k\" that solves the equation is termed the discrete logarithm of β to the base α. One writes \"k\" = log β. Popular choices for the group \"G\" in discrete logarithm cryptography are the cyclic groups (Z) (e.g. ElGamal encryption, Diffie–Hellman key exchange, and the Digital Signature Algorithm) and cyclic subgroups of elliptic curves over finite fields (\"see\" elliptic curve cryptography). An elliptic curve is a set of pairs of elements of a field satisfying \"y\" = \"x\" + \"ax\" + \"b\". The elements of the curve form a group under an operation called \"point addition\" (which is not the same as the addition operation of the field). Multiplication \"kP\" of a point \"P\" by an integer \"k\" (\"i.e.\", a group action of the additive group of the integers) is defined as repeated addition of the point to itself. If \"k\" and \"P\" are known, it is easy to compute \"R\" = \"kP\", but if only \"R\" and \"P\" are known, it is assumed to be hard to compute \"k\".", "There are a number of cryptographic hash functions that are fast to compute, such as SHA 256. Some of the simpler versions have fallen to sophisticated analysis, but the strongest versions continue to offer fast, practical solutions for one-way computation. Most of the theoretical support for the functions are more techniques for thwarting some of the previously successful attacks.", "Other candidates for one-way functions have been based on the hardness of the decoding of random linear codes, the subset sum problem (Naccache-Stern knapsack cryptosystem), or other problems.", "There is an explicit function \"f\" that has been proved to be one-way, if and only if one-way functions exist. In other words, if any function is one-way, then so is \"f\". Since this function was the first combinatorial complete one-way function to be demonstrated, it is known as the \"universal one-way function\". The problem of finding a one way function is thus reduced to proving that one such function exists." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Gameplay.", "Plot.", "Development.", "Origin and writing.", "Creative and technical design.", "Special edition.", "Reception.", "Special edition.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "\"The Secret of Monkey Island\" is a 2D adventure game played from a third-person perspective. Via a point-and-click interface, the player guides protagonist Guybrush Threepwood through the game's world and interacts with the environment by selecting from twelve verb commands (nine in newer versions) such as \"talk to\" for communicating with characters and \"pick up\" for collecting items between commands and the world's objects in order to successfully solve puzzles and thus progress in the game. While conversing with other characters, the player may choose between topics for discussion that are listed in a dialog tree; the game is one of the first to incorporate such a system. The in-game action is frequently interrupted by cutscenes. Like other LucasArts adventure games, \"The Secret of Monkey Island\" features a design philosophy that makes the player character's death nearly impossible (Guybrush does drown if he stays underwater for more than ten minutes).", "A youth named Guybrush Threepwood arrives on the fictional Mêlée Island, with the desire to become a pirate. He seeks out the island's pirate leaders, who set him three trials that must be completed to become a pirate: winning a sword duel against Carla, the island's resident swordmaster, finding a buried treasure, and stealing a valuable idol from the governor's mansion. These quests take Guybrush throughout the island, where he hears of stories of the Ghost Pirate LeChuck, who apparently died in an expedition to the mysterious Monkey Island, an act that was meant to win the love of the governor Elaine Marley. Guybrush meets several characters of interest, including a local voodoo priestess, Stan the Used Boat Salesman, Carla the Sword Master, a prisoner named Otis, and Meathook, whose hands have been replaced by hooks. Guybrush also encounters the governor and is instantly smitten, and she soon reciprocates. However, as he completes the tasks set for him, the island is raided by LeChuck and his undead crew, who abduct Elaine and then retreat to their secret hideout on Monkey Island. Guybrush takes it upon himself to rescue her, buying a ship and hiring Carla, Otis, and Meathook as crew before setting sail for the fabled island. When Guybrush reaches Monkey Island, he discovers a village of cannibals in a dispute with Herman Toothrot, a ragged castaway marooned there. He settles their quarrel, and then recovers a magical \"voodoo root\" from LeChuck's ship for the cannibals, who provide him with a seltzer bottle of \"voodoo root elixir\" that can destroy ghosts. When Guybrush returns to LeChuck's ship with the elixir, he learns that LeChuck has returned to Mêlée Island to marry Elaine at the church. He promptly returns to Mêlée Island and gatecrashes the wedding, only to ruin Elaine's own plan for escape; in the process he loses the elixir. Now confronted with a furious LeChuck, Guybrush is savagely beaten by the ghost pirate in a fight ranging across the island. The fight eventually arrives at the island's ship emporium, where Guybrush finds a bottle of root beer. Substituting the beverage for the lost elixir, he sprays LeChuck, destroying the ghost pirate. With LeChuck defeated, Guybrush and Elaine enjoy a romantic moment, watching fireworks caused by LeChuck exploding.", "", "Ron Gilbert conceived the idea of a pirate adventure game in 1988, after completing \"Zak McKracken and the Alien Mindbenders\". He first wrote story ideas about pirates while spending the weekend at a friend's house. Gilbert experimented with introductory paragraphs to find a satisfactory idea. His initial story featured unnamed villains that would eventually become LeChuck and Elaine; Guybrush was absent at this point. He pitched it to Lucasfilm Games's staff as a series of short stories. Gilbert's idea was warmly received, but production was postponed because Lucasfilm Games assigned its designers, including Gilbert, to \"\". Development of \"The Last Crusade\" was finished in 1989, which allowed Gilbert to begin production of \"The Secret of Monkey Island\", then known internally under the working title \"Mutiny on Monkey Island\". Gilbert soon realised that it would be difficult to design the game by himself; he decided to join forces with Tim Schafer and Dave Grossman, both of whom he hired for Lucasfilm. The game's insult sword fighting mechanics were influenced by swashbuckling movies starring Errol Flynn, which Gilbert, Schafer and Grossman often watched for inspiration. They noticed that pirates in those films often taunted their opponents instead of attacking them, which gave the designers the idea to base the game's duels on insults rather than combat. Writer Orson Scott Card helped them write the insults during a visit to Lucasfilm's headquarters at Skywalker Ranch. Many of Gilbert's original gameplay ideas were abandoned during the production process, although he stated that \"most of that stuff was left out for a reason\". The game's plot, as described by Dave Grossman: \"It's a story about this young man who comes to an island in search of his life's dream. He's pursuing his career goals and he discovers love in the process and winds up thinking that was actually more important than what he was doing to begin with. You’re laughing, but there's actually something deeper going on as well.\" When work on the plot began, Gilbert discovered that Schafer's and Grossman's writing styles were too different to form a cohesive whole: Grossman's was \"very kind of a dry, sarcastic humor\" and Schafer's was \"just a little more in your face\". In reaction, Gilbert assigned them to different characters and story moments depending on what type of comedy was required. Grossman believed that this benefited the game's writing, as he and Schafer \"were all funny in slightly different ways, and it worked well together\". Schafer and Grossman wrote most of the dialogue while they were programming the game; as a result, much of it was improvised. Some of the dialogue was based on the designers' personal experiences, such as Guybrush's line \"I had a feeling in hell there would be mushrooms\", which came from Schafer's own hatred of fungi. The game's world and characters were designed primarily by Gilbert. After having read Tim Powers' historical fantasy novel \"On Stranger Tides\", he decided to add paranormal themes to the game's plot. He also cited Powers' book as an influence on the characters, particularly those of Guybrush and LeChuck. Inspiration for the game's ambiance came from Gilbert's favorite childhood amusement park ride, Pirates of the Caribbean. Grossman said that Gilbert always wanted \"to step off the ride\" and \"talk to the people who lived in that world\". Near the final stages of the design work, Gilbert introduced several characters who were not directly related to the game's story. He considered this to be an important decision, as the player would need those seemingly minor characters in later parts of the game and would receive a chance to \"really interact with them\".", "Gilbert, Schafer and Grossman's primary goal was to create a simpler and more accessible gameplay model than those presented in previous Lucasfilm titles. Gilbert had conceived the main designs and puzzles before production began, which resulted in the bulk of the designers' work to flesh out his ideas. He was frustrated by the adventure games that Sierra On-Line was releasing at the time, and later said that \"you died any time you did anything wrong\". Gilbert considered such gameplay as \"a cheap way out for the designer\". He had previously applied his design ideas to the 1987 graphic adventure title \"Maniac Mansion\", but committed a number of mistakes during development, such as dead-end situations that prevented the player from completing the game and poorly implemented triggers for cutscenes. Gilbert aimed to avoid such errors in \"The Secret of Monkey Island\". The team decided to make it impossible for the player character to die, with one notable exception, which focused gameplay primarily on world exploration. The Sierra game-over screen was parodied, when Guybrush falls off a cliff only to be bounced back up by a \"rubber tree\". Guybrush can also be killed by drowning, though it is an Easter Egg unlikely to be found without conscientious effort. \"The Secret of Monkey Island\" was the fifth Lucasfilm Games project powered by the SCUMM engine, originally developed for \"Maniac Mansion\". The company had gradually modified the engine since its creation. For \"Maniac Mansion\", the developers hard coded verb commands in the SCUMM scripting language. These commands become more abstract in subsequent versions of the engine. The developers carried over the practice of referring to individual segments of the gameworld as \"rooms\", even though the areas in \"Monkey Island\" were outdoors. The game uses the same version of the engine used in \"Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade\", with minor changes. A dialogue tree was added, which facilitated conversation options and the sword-fighting puzzles. The developers removed the \"What is\" option (an input command that describes an on-screen object to the player) in favor of allowing the player to simply highlight the object with the mouse cursor. The game's improved interface became the standard for the company's later titles. The game also introduced logical verb shortcuts, which could be performed with the mouse; for example, clicking on a character defaults to the \"talk\" action, the most obvious action in the situation. SCUMM's visuals were updated for the game—the original EGA version had a 320x200 pixel resolution rendered in 16 colors. According to artist Steve Purcell, that became a major limitation for the art team; due to a low number of \"ghastly\" colors, they often chose bizarre tones for backgrounds. They chose black and white for Guybrush's outfit for the same reason. The VGA version of the game later corrected these issues by implementing 256-color support, which allowed for more advanced background and character art. The VGA (and other platform releases) removed the infamous \"stump joke\" from the game, which was a joke in the EGA version in which the player would examine a tree stump in the forest. Guybrush would exclaim that there is an opening to a system of catacombs and attempt to enter, but this would result in a message stating the player needed to insert disc 22, then 36, then 114 in order to continue. The joke resulted in numerous calls to the LucasArts hotline asking about missing discs. As a result, the joke was removed from later editions and is mentioned as a conversation option for the LucasArts Hint Hotline in the sequel. The game's \"pirate reggae\" music was composed by Lucasfilm Games' in-house musician Michael Land in MIDI format. It was his first project at the company. The game was originally released for floppy disk in 1990, but a CD-ROM version with a high-quality CD soundtrack followed in 1992. The music has remained popular, and has been remixed by the musicians of OverClocked ReMix and by the game's fans. \"The Secret of Monkey Island\" ultimately cost $200,000 to produce, and was developed over nine months.", "LucasArts released a remake with updated audiovisuals titled \"The Secret of Monkey Island: Special Edition\" in July 2009 for iPhone, Microsoft Windows, and Xbox 360 exclusively via digital distribution. PlayStation 3, macOS and iPad versions followed early in 2010 for download on their respective services. LucasArts confirmed the game's development on June 1, 2009; rumors appeared several days earlier when the Xbox 360 version of the game received an USK rating. The game was first displayed to the public at the 2009 E3 in June. The remake features hand-drawn visuals with more detail, a remastered musical score, voice work for characters, and a hint system. The developers included the function to switch between 2009 and original audiovisuals at will. The voice actors included Dominic Armato as Guybrush Threepwood and Earl Boen as LeChuck; most had provided voice work in sequels to \"The Secret of Monkey Island\". LucasArts's game producer Craig Derrick and his team conceived the idea of the remake in 2008. After researching the \"Monkey Island\" series' history, they decided to make \"something fresh and new while staying true to the original\", which resulted in the idea of \"The Secret of Monkey Island\" remake. The developers tried to leave much of the original design unchanged. Any changes were intended to achieve the level of immersion desired for the original. To that end, they added details like a pirate ship or pirates talking in the background of scenes. While the team considered the SCUMM interface revolutionary at the time, LucasArts community manager Brooks Brown noted that it is incompatible with an analog stick, which most consoles use. The designers made the cursor contextual to the game objects as the primary interface. Brown had considered updating the reference to advertise \"\" because \"Loom\" was not on the market at the time, but concluded that the game would not be the same if such changes were implemented. Prior to the \"Special Edition\" release, however, LucasArts announced that \"Loom\", along with other games from its back catalog, would be made available on Steam. Brown stated that the decision to distribute the game online was because \"digital downloads have finally gotten going\".", "\"The Secret of Monkey Island\" received positive reviews from critics. According to Gilbert, it \"sold well\" but was \"never a big hit\". Grossman later summarized that the game's sales were \"north of 100,000, far south of 1 million\". According to \"Next Generation\", \"The Secret of Monkey Island\" was a \"relatively minor hit\" in the United States, but the game and its sequel became \"blockbusters on the PC and the Amiga throughout Europe.\" Hartley, Patricia, and Kirk Lesser of \"Dragon\" praised the designers' attention to detail, and cited the game's humor as a high point. Although they believed that the game was too expensive, they summarized it as \"a highly enjoyable graphic adventure replete with interesting puzzles, a fantastic Roland soundtrack, superb VGA graphics, smooth-scrolling animation, and some of the funniest lines ever seen on your computer screen.\" Duncan MacDonald of \"Zero\" praised the graphics and found the game \"quite amusing\". His favorite aspect was the fine-tuned difficulty level, which he believed was \"just right\". He ended his review, \"At last an adventure game that's enjoyable rather than frustrating.\" Paul Glancey of \"Computer and Video Games\" consider the game superior to Lucasfilm's earlier adventure titles, and wrote that, \"Usually the entertainment you get from an adventure is derived solely from solving puzzles, but the hilarious characters and situations, and the movie-like presentation... make playing this more like taking part in a comedy film, so it's much more enjoyable.\" He considered the puzzles to be \"brilliantly conceived\" and found the game's controls accessible. He summarized it as \"utterly enthralling\". \"ACE\"s Steve Cooke also found the controls convenient, and he praised the game's atmosphere. He wrote that, \"in graphics and sound terms... \"Monkey Island\", along with \"King's Quest V\", is currently at the head of the pack.\" However, he disliked the designers' running joke of placing \"TM\" after character and place names, which he thought detracted from the atmosphere. He singled out the game's writing, characters and plot structure as its best elements. \"Amiga Power\"s Mark Ramshaw wrote, \"With \"The Secret of Monkey Island\", the mouse-controlled, graphic-adventure comes of age.\" He lauded its comedic elements, which he believed were the highlight of the game. The reviewer also praised the control scheme, noting that it allows the player to \"more or less forget about the specifics of what [they are] physically doing... and lose [themselves] in the adventure instead.\" He noted that the game's plot and visual and aural presentation fit together to create a thick atmosphere, and finished, \"Forget all those other milestone adventures (\"Zork\", \"The Hobbit\", \"\" \"et al\") — for sheer enjoyment and general all-round perfection, \"The Secret of Monkey Island\" creams 'em all in style.\" The game, along with its sequel, was ranked the 19th best game of all time by \"Amiga Power\". Writing for \"The One\", Paul Presley stated that \"Lucasfilm appears to have taken all of the elements that worked in its previous releases and, not only incorporated them into this tale of scurvy swashbuckling, but even improved on them in the process!\" Like the other reviewers, he praised its controls. He also lauded its \"hilarious storyline, strong characters and... intriguing setting\", but complained about graphical slowdowns. Nick Clarkson of \"Amiga Computing\" cited the game's graphics as \"flawless\", noting that \"the characters are superbly animated and the backdrops simply ooze atmosphere.\" He highly praised its sound effects and music, and believed that its controls \"couldn't be simpler\". The staff of \"Amiga Action\" wrote that the \"attention to detail and the finely tuned gameplay cannot be faulted.\" They called the graphics \"stunning throughout\", and believed that, when they were combined with the \"excellent Caribbean tunes\", the result is a game filled with \"character and atmosphere.\" They ended by stating that \"there is absolutely no excuse for not owning this game.\" \"Computer Gaming World\" said that \"\"Monkey Island\" offers up LucasArt's famous humor at its best... For an adventure you'll long remember, raise your cup of grog\". \"The Secret of Monkey Island\" has featured regularly in lists of \"top\" games, such as \"Computer Gaming World's\" Hall of Fame and IGN's Video Game Hall of Fame. In 1991, \"PC Format\" placed \"The Secret of Monkey Island\" on its list of the 50 best computer games of all time, calling it \"genuinely funny\". In 1996, \"Computer Gaming World\" ranked it as the 19th best game of all time, writing, \"Who could ever forget the insult-driven duel system or the identity of the mysterious Swordmaster?\". In 2004, readers of \"Retro Gamer\" voted it as the 33rd top retro game. IGN named \"The Secret of Monkey Island\" one of the ten best LucasArts adventure games in 2009, and ranked the Xbox Live Arcade version as the 20th best title of all time for that platform in 2010. In 2017, \"The Secret of Monkey Island\" ranked 78th in the \"Scientifically Proven Best Video Games of All Time,\" a statistical meta-analysis compiled by Warp Zoned of 44 \"top games\" lists published between 1995 and 2016.", "Like the original release, \"The Secret of Monkey Island: Special Edition\" received positive reviews from critics. Sean Ely of \"GamePro\" praised its updated audio, and said that the new graphics \"blow the old clunker visuals... out of the water\". He cited its script, humor, plot, puzzles and balanced difficulty level as high points, and finished, \"\"The Secret of Monkey Island: Special Edition\" is impressive, hilarious and downright worth your money.\" Daemon Hatfield of IGN wrote, \"Almost 20 years after its release, [\"The Secret of Monkey Island\"] remains a blast to play.\" He called the new graphics \"slick, if a little generic\", and noted that the \"original graphics have a certain charm to them that the fancy pants new visuals just don't.\" However, he enjoyed the redone music, the new hint function, and the added sound effects and voice acting. He summarized it as \"one of the best times you'll ever have pointing and clicking\", and noted that \"few games are this funny.\" Justin Calvert of GameSpot noted that \"the Special Edition looks much better and is the only way to play if you want to hear... what characters are saying, whereas the original game's interface is less clunky.\" However, he wrote that \"the voice work is such a great addition to the game that it's difficult to go back to the original edition.\" He praised its humor, writing, puzzles and characters, and he believed that it had aged well. Eurogamer's Dan Whitehead wrote, \"Purists like me will almost certainly find something to grumble about over the span of the game, but the overall impact of the redesign is undeniably for the better.\" However, he preferred the original game's Guybrush design, and believed that the new control system was \"rather less intuitive\" than the old one. He finished by stating that \"few games can stand the test of time with such confidence\".", "\"The Secret of Monkey Island\" spawned four sequels. The first, \"\", was released in 1991 and focuses on LeChuck's return. Six years later, LucasArts released \"The Curse of Monkey Island\", which features a new visual design. In 2000, the company released \"Escape from Monkey Island\", which uses the GrimE engine of \"Grim Fandango\" to produce 3D graphics. The next title, \"Tales of Monkey Island\" released in 2009, is a series of five episodic chapters. Elements of the game have appeared elsewhere in popular culture. The original version was selected as one of five for the exhibition \"The Art of Video Games\" in the Smithsonian American Art Museum in 2011. A fictive drink recipe in the game for grog was mistakenly reported as real in 2009 by Argentinian news channel C5N, which urged adolescents against consuming the dangerous \"Grog XD\" drink. In \"Tales of Monkey Island\", Guybrush refers to this news story while pushing the Grog XD button on a Grog machine." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Terminology.", "Examples.", "Formula.", "Point reflection as a special case of uniform scaling or homothety.", "Point reflection group.", "Point reflection in analytic geometry.", "Properties.", "Inversion centers in crystallography.", "Inversion with respect to the origin.", "Representations.", "Properties.", "Geometry.", "Clifford algebras and spin groups." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The term \"reflection\" is loose, and considered by some an abuse of language, with \"inversion\" preferred; however, \"point reflection\" is widely used. Such maps are involutions, meaning that they have order 2 – they are their own inverse: applying them twice yields the identity map – which is also true of other maps called \"reflections\". More narrowly, a \"reflection\" refers to a reflection in a hyperplane (formula_1 dimensional affine subspace – a point on the line, a line in the plane, a plane in 3-space), with the hyperplane being fixed, but more broadly \"reflection\" is applied to any involution of Euclidean space, and the fixed set (an affine space of dimension \"k\", where formula_2) is called the \"mirror\". In dimension 1 these coincide, as a point is a hyperplane in the line. In terms of linear algebra, assuming the origin is fixed, involutions are exactly the diagonalizable maps with all eigenvalues either 1 or −1. Reflection in a hyperplane has a single −1 eigenvalue (and multiplicity formula_1 on the 1 eigenvalue), while point reflection has only the −1 eigenvalue (with multiplicity \"n\"). The term \"inversion\" should not be confused with inversive geometry, where \"inversion\" is defined with respect to a circle.", "In two dimensions, a point reflection is the same as a rotation of 180 degrees. In three dimensions, a point reflection can be described as a 180-degree rotation composed with reflection across a plane perpendicular to the axis of rotation. In dimension \"n\", point reflections are orientation-preserving if \"n\" is even, and orientation-reversing if \"n\" is odd.", "Given a vector a in the Euclidean space R, the formula for the reflection of a across the point p is In the case where p is the origin, point reflection is simply the negation of the vector a. In Euclidean geometry, the inversion of a point \"X\" with respect to a point \"P\" is a point \"X\"* such that \"P\" is the midpoint of the line segment with endpoints \"X\" and \"X\"*. In other words, the vector from \"X\" to \"P\" is the same as the vector from \"P\" to \"X\"*. The formula for the inversion in \"P\" is where a, x and x* are the position vectors of \"P\", \"X\" and \"X\"* respectively. This mapping is an isometric involutive affine transformation which has exactly one fixed point, which is \"P\".", "When the inversion point \"P\" coincides with the origin, point reflection is equivalent to a special case of uniform scaling: uniform scaling with scale factor equal to −1. This is an example of linear transformation. When \"P\" does not coincide with the origin, point reflection is equivalent to a special case of homothetic transformation: homothety with homothetic center coinciding with P, and scale factor −1. This is an example of non-linear affine transformation).", "The composition of two point reflections is a translation. Specifically, point reflection at p followed by point reflection at q is translation by the vector 2(q − p). The set consisting of all point reflections and translations is Lie subgroup of the Euclidean group. It is a semidirect product of R with a cyclic group of order 2, the latter acting on R by negation. It is precisely the subgroup of the Euclidean group that fixes the line at infinity pointwise. In the case \"n\" = 1, the point reflection group is the full isometry group of the line.", "Given the point formula_5 and its reflection formula_6 with respect to the point formula_7, the latter is the midpoint of the segment formula_8; Hence, the equations to find the coordinates of the reflected point are Particular is the case in which the point C has coordinates formula_11 (see the paragraph below)", "In even-dimensional Euclidean space, say 2\"N\"-dimensional space, the inversion in a point \"P\" is equivalent to \"N\" rotations over angles in each plane of an arbitrary set of \"N\" mutually orthogonal planes intersecting at \"P\". These rotations are mutually commutative. Therefore, inversion in a point in even-dimensional space is an orientation-preserving isometry or direct isometry. In odd-dimensional Euclidean space, say (2\"N\" + 1)-dimensional space, it is equivalent to \"N\" rotations over in each plane of an arbitrary set of \"N\" mutually orthogonal planes intersecting at \"P\", combined with the reflection in the 2\"N\"-dimensional subspace spanned by these rotation planes. Therefore, it \"reverses\" rather than preserves orientation, it is an indirect isometry. Geometrically in 3D it amounts to rotation about an axis through \"P\" by an angle of 180°, combined with reflection in the plane through \"P\" which is perpendicular to the axis; the result does not depend on the orientation (in the other sense) of the axis. Notations for the type of operation, or the type of group it generates, are formula_13, \"C\", \"S\", and 1×. The group type is one of the three symmetry group types in 3D without any pure rotational symmetry, see cyclic symmetries with \"n\" = 1. The following point groups in three dimensions contain inversion: Closely related to inverse in a point is reflection in respect to a plane, which can be thought of as a \"inversion in a plane\".", "Molecules contain an inversion center when a point exists through which all atoms can reflect while retaining symmetry. In crystallography, the presence of inversion centers distinguishes between centrosymmetric and noncentrosymmetric compounds. Crystal structures are composed of various polyhedra, categorized by their coordination number and bond angles. For example, four-coordinate polyhedra are classified as tetrahedra, while five-coordinate environments can be square pyramidal or trigonal bipyramidal depending on the bonding angles. All crystalline compounds come from a repetition of an atomic building block known as a unit cell, and these unit cells define which polyhedra form and in what order. These polyhedra link together via corner-, edge- or face sharing, depending on which atoms share common bonds. Polyhedra containing inversion centers are known as centrosymmetric, while those without are noncentrosymmetric. Six-coordinate octahedra are an example of centrosymmetric polyhedra, as the central atom acts as an inversion center through which the six bonded atoms retain symmetry. Tetrahedra, on the other hand, are noncentrosymmetric as an inversion through the central atom would result in a reversal of the polyhedron. It is important to note that bonding geometries with odd coordination numbers must be noncentrosymmetric, because these polyhedra will not contain inversion centers. Real polyhedra in crystals often lack the uniformity anticipated in their bonding geometry. Common irregularities found in crystallography include distortions and disorder. Distortion involves the warping of polyhedra due to nonuniform bonding lengths, often due to differing electrostatic attraction between heteroatoms. For instance, a titanium center will likely bond evenly to six oxygens in an octahedra, but distortion would occur if one of the oxygens were replaced with a more electronegative fluorine. Distortions will not change the inherent geometry of the polyhedra—a distorted octahedron is still classified as an octahedron, but strong enough distortions can have an effect on the centrosymmetry of a compound. Disorder involves a split occupancy over two or more sites, in which an atom will occupy one crystallographic position in a certain percentage of polyhedra and the other in the remaining positions. Disorder can influence the centrosymmetry of certain polyhedra as well, depending on whether or not the occupancy is split over an already-present inversion center. Centrosymmetry applies to the crystal structure as a whole, as well. Crystals are classified into thirty-two crystallographic point groups which describe how the different polyhedra arrange themselves in space in the bulk structure. Of these thirty-two point groups, eleven are centrosymmetric. The presence of noncentrosymmetric polyhedra does not guarantee that the point group will be the same—two noncentrosymmetric shapes can be oriented in space in a manner which contains an inversion center between the two. Two tetrahedra facing each other can have an inversion center in the middle, because the orientation allows for each atom to have a reflected pair. The inverse is also true, as multiple centrosymmetric polyhedra can be arranged to form a noncentrosymmetric point group.", "Inversion with respect to the origin corresponds to additive inversion of the position vector, and also to scalar multiplication by −1. The operation commutes with every other linear transformation, but not with translation: it is in the center of the general linear group. \"Inversion\" without indicating \"in a point\", \"in a line\" or \"in a plane\", means this inversion; in physics 3-dimensional reflection through the origin is also called a parity transformation. In mathematics, reflection through the origin refers to the point reflection of Euclidean space R across the origin of the Cartesian coordinate system. Reflection through the origin is an orthogonal transformation corresponding to scalar multiplication by formula_14, and can also be written as formula_15, where formula_16 is the identity matrix. In three dimensions, this sends formula_17, and so forth.", "As a scalar matrix, it is represented in every basis by a matrix with formula_14 on the diagonal, and, together with the identity, is the center of the orthogonal group formula_19. It is a product of \"n\" orthogonal reflections (reflection through the axes of any orthogonal basis); note that orthogonal reflections commute. In 2 dimensions, it is in fact rotation by 180 degrees, and in dimension formula_20, it is rotation by 180 degrees in \"n\" orthogonal planes; note again that rotations in orthogonal planes commute.", "It has determinant formula_21 (from the representation by a matrix or as a product of reflections). Thus it is orientation-preserving in even dimension, thus an element of the special orthogonal group SO(2\"n\"), and it is orientation-reversing in odd dimension, thus not an element of SO(2\"n + 1) and instead providing a splitting of the map formula_22, showing that formula_23 as an internal direct product. Analogously, it is a longest element of the orthogonal group, with respect to the generating set of reflections: elements of the orthogonal group all have length at most \"n\" with respect to the generating set of reflections, and reflection through the origin has length \"n,\" though it is not unique in this: other maximal combinations of rotations (and possibly reflections) also have maximal length.", "In SO(2\"r\"), reflection through the origin is the farthest point from the identity element with respect to the usual metric. In O(2\"r\" + 1), reflection through the origin is not in SO(2\"r\"+1) (it is in the non-identity component), and there is no natural sense in which it is a \"farther point\" than any other point in the non-identity component, but it does provide a base point in the other component.", "It should \"not\" be confused with the element formula_25 in the spin group. This is particularly confusing for even spin groups, as formula_26, and thus in formula_27 there is both formula_14 and 2 lifts of formula_15. Reflection through the identity extends to an automorphism of a Clifford algebra, called the \"main involution\" or \"grade involution.\" Reflection through the identity lifts to a pseudoscalar." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name.", "History.", "Geography.", "Climate.", "Parks and nature.", "Architecture.", "Characteristic buildings.", "Culture.", "Museums.", "Leisure and entertainment.", "Festivals and fairs.", "Music.", "Sports.", "Economy.", "Government.", "Proportion of foreign born.", "Education.", "Transport.", "Public transport.", "Rail and intercity bus.", "Air.", "Sea.", "Freight.", "Notable people.", "International rankings.", "International relations.", "Twin towns and sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "The city was named Göteborg in the city's charter in 1621 and simultaneously given the German and English name Gothenburg. The Swedish name was given after the \"Göta älv\", called Göta River in English, and other cities ending in \"-borg\". Both the Swedish and German/English names were in use before 1621 and had already been used for the previous city founded in 1604 and burned down in 1611. Gothenburg is one of few Swedish cities to still have an official and widely used exonym. Another example is the province of Scania in southern Sweden. The city council of 1641 consisted of four Swedish, three Dutch, three German, and two Scottish members. In Dutch, Scots, English, and German, all languages with a long history in", "In the early modern period, the configuration of Sweden's borders made Gothenburg strategically critical as the only Swedish gateway to Skagerrak, the North Sea and Atlantic, situated on the west coast in a very narrow strip of Swedish territory between Danish Halland in the south and Norwegian Bohuslän in the north. After several failed attempts, Gothenburg was successfully founded in 1621 by King Gustavus Adolphus (Gustaf II Adolf). The site of the first church built in Gothenburg, subsequently destroyed by Danish invaders, is marked by a stone near the north end of the Älvsborg Bridge in the Färjenäs Park. The church was built in 1603 and destroyed in 1611. The city was heavily influenced by the Dutch, Germans, and Scots, and Dutch planners and engineers were contracted to construct the city as they had the skills needed to drain and build in the marshy areas chosen for the city. The town was designed like Dutch cities such as Amsterdam, Batavia (Jakarta) and New Amsterdam (Manhattan). The planning of the streets and canals of Gothenburg closely resembled that of Jakarta, which was built by the Dutch around the same time. The Dutchmen initially won political power, and it was not until 1652, when the last Dutch politician in the city's council died, that Swedes acquired political power over Gothenburg. During the Dutch period, the town followed Dutch town laws and Dutch was proposed as the official language in the town. Robust city", "Gothenburg is located on the west coast, in southwestern Sweden, about halfway between the capitals Copenhagen, Denmark, and Oslo, Norway. The location at the mouth of the Göta älv, which feeds into Kattegatt, an arm of the North Sea, has helped the city grow in significance as a trading city. The archipelago of Gothenburg consists of rough, barren rocks and cliffs, which also is typical for the coast of Bohuslän. Due to the Gulf Stream, the city has a mild climate and moderately heavy precipitation. It is the second-largest", "Gothenburg has a warm-summer humid continental climate using the 0 °C isotherm (Köppen \"Dfb\") and an oceanic climate using the -3 °C isotherm (Köppen \"Cfb\") according to the Köppen climate classification. Despite its northern latitude, temperatures are quite mild throughout the year and warmer than places in similar latitude, for example, Stockholm, or even somewhat further south, mainly because of the moderating influence of the warm Gulf Stream. During the summer, daylight extends 18 hours and 5 minutes, but lasts", "Gothenburg has several parks and nature reserves ranging in size from tens of square metres", "Very few houses are left from the 17th century when the city was founded, since all but the military and royal houses were built of wood. A rare exception is the Skansen Kronan. The first major architecturally interesting period is the 18th century when the East India Company made Gothenburg an important trade city. Imposing stone houses in Neo-Classical style were erected around the canals. One example from this period is the East India House, which today houses the Göteborg City Museum. In the 19th century, the wealthy bourgeoisie began to move outside the city walls which had protected the city. The style now was an eclectic, academic, somewhat overdecorated style which the middle-class favoured. The working class lived in the overcrowded city district Haga in wooden houses. In the 19th century, the first comprehensive town plan after the founding of city was created, which led to the construction of the main street, Kungsportsavenyen. Perhaps the most significant type of houses of the city, Landshövdingehusen, were built in the end of the 19th century – three-storey houses with the first floor in stone and the other two in wood. The early 20th century, characterized by the National Romantic style, was rich in architectural achievements. Masthugg Church is a noted example of the style of this period. In the early 1920s, on the city's 300th anniversary, the Götaplatsen square with its Neoclassical look was built. After this, the predominant style in Gothenburg and rest of Sweden was Functionalism which especially dominated the suburbs such as Västra Frölunda and Bergsjön. The Swedish functionalist architect Uno Åhrén served as city planner from 1932 through 1943. In the 1950s, the big stadium Ullevi was built when Sweden hosted the 1958 FIFA World Cup. The modern architecture of the city has been formed by such architects as Gert Wingårdh, who started as a Post-modernist in the 1980s. Gustaf Adolf Square is a town square located in central Gothenburg. Noted buildings on the square include Gothenburg City Hall (formerly the stock exchange, opened in 1849) and the Nordic Classicism law court. The main canal of Gothenburg also flanks the square.", "The Gothenburg Central Station is in the centre of the city, next to Nordstan and Drottningtorget. The building has been renovated and expanded numerous times since the grand opening in October 1858. In 2003, a major reconstruction was finished which brought the 19th-century building into the 21st century expanding the capacity for trains, travellers, and shopping. Not far from the central station is the Skanskaskrapan, or more commonly known as \"The Lipstick\". It is high with 22 floors and coloured in red-white stripes. The skyscraper was designed by Ralph Erskine and built by Skanska in the late 1980s as the headquarters for the company. By the shore of the Göta Älv at Lilla Bommen", "The sea, trade, and industrial history of the city are evident in the cultural life of Gothenburg. It is also a popular destination for tourists on the Swedish west coast.", "Many of the cultural institutions, as well as hospitals and the university, were created by donations from rich merchants and industrialists, for example the Röhsska Museum. On 29December 2004, the Museum of World Culture opened near Korsvägen. Museums include the Gothenburg Museum of Art, and several museums of sea and navigation history, natural history, the sciences, and East India. Aeroseum, close to", "The most noted attraction is the amusement park Liseberg, located in the central part of the city. It is the largest amusement park in Scandinavia by number of rides, and was chosen as one of the top ten amusement parks in the world (2005) by \"Forbes\". It is the most popular attraction in Sweden by number of visitors per year (more than 3 million). There are a number of independent theatre ensembles in the city, besides institutions such as Gothenburg City Theatre, Backa Theatre (youth theatre), and Folkteatern. The main boulevard is called Kungsportsavenyn (commonly known as \"Avenyn\", \"The Avenue\"). It is about long and starts at Götaplatsen – which is the location of the Gothenburg Museum of Art, the city's theatre, and the city library, as well as the concert hall – and stretches all the way to Kungsportsplatsen in the", "The annual Gothenburg Film Festival, is the largest film festival in Scandinavia. The Gothenburg Book Fair, held each year in September. It is the largest literary festival in Scandinavia, and the second largest book fair in Europe. The International Science Festival in Gothenburg is an annual festival since April", "Gothenburg has a diverse music community—the Gothenburg Symphony Orchestra is the best-known in classical music. Gothenburg also was the birthplace of the Swedish composer Kurt Atterberg. The first internationally successfully Swedish group, instrumental rock group The Spotnicks came from Gothenburg. Bands such as The Soundtrack of Our Lives and Ace of Base are well-known pop representatives of the city. During the 1970s, Gothenburg had strong roots in the Swedish progressive movement (progg) with such groups as Nationalteatern, Nynningen, and Motvind. The record company Nacksving and the editorial office for the magazine Musikens Makt which also were part of the progg movement was located in Gothenburg during this time as well. There is also an active indie scene in Gothenburg. For example, the musician Jens Lekman was born in the suburb of Angered and named", "As in all of Sweden, a variety of sports are followed, including football, ice hockey, basketball, handball, baseball, and figure skating. A varied amateur and professional sports clubs scene exists. Gothenburg is the birthplace of football in Sweden as the first football match in Sweden was played there in 1892. The city's three major football clubs, IFK Göteborg, Örgryte IS, and GAIS share a total of 34 Swedish championships between them. IFK has also won the UEFA Cup twice. Other notable clubs include BK Häcken (football), Pixbo Wallenstam IBK (floorball), multiple national handball champion Redbergslids IK, and four-time national ice hockey champion Frölunda HC, Gothenburg had a professional basketball team, Gothia Basket, until 2010 when it ceased. The bandy department of GAIS, GAIS Bandy, played the first season in the highest division Elitserien last season. The group stage match between the main rivals Sweden and Russia in the 2013 Bandy World Championship was played at Arena Heden in central Gothenburg. The city's most notable sports venues are Scandinavium, and Ullevi (multisport) and the newly built Gamla Ullevi (football). The 2003 World Allround Speed Skating Championships were held in Rudhallen, Sweden's only indoor speed-skating arena. It is a", "Due to Gothenburg's advantageous location in the centre of Scandinavia, trade and shipping have always played a major role in the city's economic history, and they continue to do so. Gothenburg port has come to be the largest harbour in Scandinavia. Apart from trade, the second pillar of Gothenburg has traditionally been manufacturing and industry, which significantly contributes to the city's wealth. Major companies operating plants in the area include SKF, Volvo (both cars and trucks), and Ericsson. Volvo Cars is the largest employer in Gothenburg, not including jobs in supply", "Gothenburg became a city municipality with an elected city council when the first Swedish local government acts were implemented in 1863. The municipality has an assembly consisting of 81 members, elected every fourth year. Political decisions depend on citizens considering them legitimate. Political legitimacy can be based on various factors: legality, due process, and equality before the law, as well as the efficiency and effectiveness of public policy. One method used to achieve greater legitimacy for controversial policy reforms such as congestion charges is to allow citizens to decide or advise on the issue in public", "In 2019, approximately 28% (159,342 residents) of the population of Gothenburg were foreign born and approximately 46% (265,019 residents) had at least one parent", "Gothenburg has two universities, both of which started as colleges founded by private donations in the 19th century. The University of Gothenburg has about 38,000 students and is one of the largest universities in Scandinavia, and one of the most versatile in Sweden. Chalmers University of Technology is a well-known university located in Johanneberg south of the inner city, lately also established at Lindholmen in Norra Älvstranden, Hisingen. In 2015,", "", "With over of double track, the Gothenburg tram network covers most of the city and is the largest tram/light rail network in Scandinavia. Gothenburg also has a bus network. Boat", "Other major transportation hubs are \"Centralstationen\" (Gothenburg Central Station) and the Nils Ericson", "Gothenburg is served by Göteborg Landvetter Airport, located about 20 km (12 mi) east of the city centre. It is named after nearby locality Landvetter. Flygbussarna offer frequent bus connections to and from Gothenburg with travel time 20–30 minutes. Swebus, Flixbus and Nettbuss also serve the airport with several daily departures to Gothenburg, Borås and other destinations along European route E4. Västtrafik, the local public transport provider in the area, offers additional connections to Landvetter. The airport is operated by Swedish national airport operator Swedavia, and with 6.8 million passengers served in 2017, it is Sweden's second-largest airport after Stockholm Arlanda. It serves as a base for several domestic and international airlines, e.g. Scandinavian Airlines, Norwegian Air Shuttle and Ryanair. Göteborg Landvetter, however,", "The Swedish company Stena Line operates between Gothenburg/Frederikshavn in Denmark and Gothenburg/Kiel in Germany. The \"England ferry\" (\"Englandsfärjan\") to Newcastle via Kristiansand (run by the Danish company DFDS Seaways) ceased at the end of October", "Gothenburg is an intermodal logistics hub and Gothenburg harbour has access to Sweden and Norway via", "Two of the noted people from Gothenburg are fictional, but have become synonymous with \"people from Gothenburg\". They are a working class couple called Kal and Ada, featured in \"Gothenburg jokes\" (\"göteborgsvitsar\"), songs, plays and names of events. Each year two persons who have significantly contributed to culture in the city are given the honorary titles of \"Kal", "Gothenburg has performed well in international rankings, some of which are mentioned below: The Global Destination Sustainability Index has named Gothenburg the world's most sustainable destination every year", "The Gothenburg Award is the city's international prize that recognises and supports work to achieve sustainable development – in the Gothenburg region and from a global perspective. The award, which is one million Swedish crowns, is administrated and funded by a coalition of the City of Gothenburg and 12 companies. Past winners of the award have included Kofi Annan, Al Gore, and Michael Biddle.", "Gothenburg is twinned with: With Lyon (France) there is no formal partnership, but \"a joint willingness to cooperate\". Gothenburg" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Early life and education.", "Becoming a writer.", "Early works.", "Life after \"Last Exit to Brooklyn\".", "Works.", "Unfinished and unpublished." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Hubert Selby was born in 1928 in Brooklyn, New York City, to Adalin and Hubert Selby Sr., a merchant seaman and former coal miner from Kentucky. Selby and his wife Adalin had settled in Bay Ridge. The boy attended public schools, including the competitive Stuyvesant High School. His childhood nickname, \"Cubby\", accompanied him through his life. Selby Jr. dropped out of school at the age of 15, to work in the city docks, before becoming a merchant seaman in 1947. That year, while at sea, Selby Jr. was diagnosed with advanced tuberculosis (\"TB\") due to the cows on board, which had bovine tuberculosis; doctors predicted that he would live less than a year. He was taken off the ship in Bremen, Germany, and sent back to the United States. For the next three and a half years, Selby was in and out of the U.S. Public Health Hospital (part of a system of hospitals originally established to care for merchant seamen) in New York for treatment. Antibiotics had not been available and TB was widespread. Selby went through an experimental drug treatment, streptomycin, that later caused some severe complications. During an operation, surgeons removed several of Selby's ribs in order to reach his lungs. One of his lungs collapsed, and doctors removed part of the other. While the surgery saved Selby's life, he had a year-long recuperation and chronic pulmonary problems for the rest of his life. Selby was given painkillers, among them morphine, because of the severity of the surgery, and he became addicted. He struggled with substance abuse for decades.", "With no qualifications, no work experience aside from the Merchant Marine, and his poor health, Selby had trouble finding a job. He had married his wife Inez V. \"Tiny\" Taylor and they had two children, whom he raised while his wife worked in a department store. For the next ten years, Selby was mostly bedridden; he was frequently hospitalized with a variety of lung-related ailments. The doctors offered a bleak prognosis, suggesting he was unlikely to survive long because he \"just didn't have enough lung capacity\". Gilbert Sorrentino, a childhood friend who had become a writer, encouraged Selby to write fiction. Unable to have regular work because of his health, Selby decided, \"I know the alphabet. Maybe I could be a writer.\" He later wrote: I was sitting at home and had a profound experience. I experienced, in all of my Being, that someday I was going to die, and it wouldn't be like it had been happening, almost dying but somehow staying alive, but I would just die! And two things would happen right before I died: I would regret my entire life; I would want to live it over again. This terrified me. The thought that I would live my entire life, look at it and realize I blew it forced me to do something with my life. With no formal training, Selby used a raw language to portray the bleak and violent world that was part of his youth. He has said, \"I write, in part, by ear. I hear, as well as feel and see, what I am writing. I have always been enamoured with the music of the speech in New York.\" Little concerned with proper grammar, punctuation, or diction, Selby used unorthodox techniques in most of his works. He indented his paragraphs with alternating lengths, often by simply dropping down one line when finished with a paragraph. Like Jack Kerouac in his \"spontaneous prose\", Selby often completed his writing in a fast, stream-of-consciousness style. He replaced apostrophes with forward slashes \"/,\" which were closer on the typewriter, to avoid interrupting his flow of writing. He did not use quotation marks. He might present a dialogue as a complete paragraph, with no denotation among alternating speakers. His prose was stripped down, bare and blunt. Aspects of his experiences with longshoremen, the homeless, thugs, pimps, transvestites, prostitutes, homosexuals, addicts and the overall poverty-stricken community, is expressed in \"Last Exit to Brooklyn\".", "Selby started working on his first short story, \"The Queen Is Dead,\" in 1958. At the time, he had a succession of day jobs, but he wrote every night. During the day, he worked as a secretary, a gas station attendant, and a freelance copywriter. The short story developed slowly for the next six years before he published it. In 1961, his short story \"Tralala\" was published in the literary journal \"The Provincetown Review\". It also appeared in \"Black Mountain Review\" and \"New Directions\". His unstructured style and coarse descriptions supported his portrayal of the seedy life (ridden with violence, theft and mediocre con-artistry) and the gang rape of a prostitute. A number of critics attacked the subjects and harshness of the story. The journal editor was arrested for selling pornographic literature to a minor. The journal was used as evidence in an obscenity trial, but the case was later dismissed on appeal. On 24 October 1964, Selby married Judith Lumino, but the marriage soon fell apart. As he continued to write, his longtime friend LeRoi Jones (later Amiri Baraka), the poet and playwright, encouraged him to contact Sterling Lord, then Kerouac's agent. Selby combined \"Tralala\", \"The Queen Is Dead\" and four other loosely linked short stories as part of his first novel, \"Last Exit to Brooklyn\" (1964). The novel was accepted and published by Grove Press, which had already published works by William S. Burroughs. In November 1964, New York Times literary critic Eliot Fremont-Smith described the novel as \"a brutal book,\" concluding that it \"is not a book one'recommends'--except perhaps to writers. From them, those who wish to read it, it deserves attention.\" The novel was praised by many, including the poet Allen Ginsberg, who predicted that it would \"explode like a rusty hellish bombshell over America and still be eagerly read in a hundred years.\" But, at a time when literature excluded much that was harsh, not everyone wanted to read his detailed depictions of homosexuality and drug addiction, as well as gang rape and other forms of human brutality and cruelty. In 1967, the novel was prosecuted for obscenity in the United Kingdom. The notable British writer Anthony Burgess was among a number of writers who appeared as witnesses in its defense. The jury's conviction was later reversed on appeal. The novel was banned in Italy. Although he wrote all his work while sober, Selby continued to battle drug addiction. In 1967 he was arrested for heroin possession and served two months in the Los Angeles County jail. After his release, he moved from New York to Los Angeles to try to escape his addictions and finally kicked the habit. He stayed clean of drugs but continued to battle alcohol abuse for the next two years. Also that year, Selby met his future wife, Suzanne Victoria Shaw, at a bar in West Hollywood. The couple moved in together two days after they met. They married in 1969, after Selby and his second wife, Judith, had finalized their divorce. For the next decade, Suzanne and Selby traveled back and forth between their home in Southern California and the East Coast, settling permanently in the Los Angeles area in 1983. They had two children, daughter Rachel and son William.", "In 1971, Selby published his second novel, \"The Room,\" which received positive reviews. It featured a criminally insane man, locked in a room in a prison, who reminisces about his disturbing past. Selby described \"The Room\" as \"the most disturbing book ever written.\" He said he could not read it for decades after writing it. Selby continued to write short fiction, as well as screenplays and teleplays at his apartment in West Hollywood. His work was published in many magazines, including \"Black Mountain Review\", \"Evergreen Review\", \"Provincetown Review\", \"Kulchur\", \"New Directions Annual\", \"Yugen\", \"Swank\" and \"Open City\". In the 1980s, Selby met punk rock singer Henry Rollins, who had long admired the writer's works and publicly championed them. Rollins helped broaden Selby's readership, and also arranged recording sessions and reading tours for Selby. Rollins issued original recordings through his own 2.13.61 publications, and distributed Selby's other works. For the last 20 years of his life, Selby also taught creative writing as an adjunct professor in the Master of Professional Writing program at the University of Southern California. A film adaptation of \"Last Exit to Brooklyn\", directed by Uli Edel, was made in 1989. Selby appeared in \"Brooklyn\" in a brief cameo as a taxi driver. \"Requiem for a Dream\" (1978) was adapted as a film of the same name released in 2000. He had a small role as a prison guard taunting Marlon Wayans, suffering through forced labor while withdrawing. The last month of his life, Selby spent in and out of the hospital and died in Highland Park, Los Angeles, on April 26, 2004 of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. He refused morphine on his deathbed, although he was in pain. \"The New York Times\" published his obituary the next day. Selby was the subject of the 2005 documentary, \"\"", "", "At least one work-in-progress remained unfinished and unpublished at the time of Selby's death: \"The Seeds of Pain and the Seeds of Love\". Excerpts from this work are heard on the \"Live in Europe 1989\" CD." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Definitions.", "Historical origin.", "Regimental system.", "Commonwealth armies.", "British Army.", "Armour.", "Artillery.", "Infantry.", "Corps.", "United States Armed Forces.", "United States Army.", "United States Marine Corps.", "Russian/Soviet Armed Forces.", "Motorised Rifle Regiment.", "Tank Regiment.", "Artillery Regiment.", "SAM Regiment.", "Antiaircraft Artillery Regiment.", "Irish Army.", "Indian Army." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "During the modern era, the word \"regiment\" – much like \"corps\" – may have two somewhat divergent meanings, which refer to two distinct roles: In many armies, the first role has been assumed by independent battalions, battlegroups, task", "The French term \"régiment\" is considered to have entered military usage in Europe at the end of the 16th century, when armies evolved from collections of retinues who followed knights, to formally organised, permanent military forces. At that time, regiments were usually named after their commanding colonels, and disbanded at the end of the campaign or war; the colonel and his regiment might recruit from and serve several monarchs or countries. Later, it was customary to name the regiment by its precedence in the line of battle, and to recruit from specific places, called cantons. The oldest regiments which still exist, and their dates of establishment, include the Spanish 9th Infantry Regiment \"Soria\" (originally the \"Tercio de Nápoles\") (1505), Swedish Life Guards (1521), the British Honourable Artillery Company (1537) and the King's Own Immemorial Regiment of Spain, first established in 1248 during the conquest of Seville by King Ferdinand the Saint. In the 17th century, brigades were formed as units combining infantry, cavalry, and artillery that were more", "In the regimental system, each regiment is responsible for recruiting, training, and administration; each regiment is permanently maintained and therefore the regiment will develop its unique \"esprit de corps\" because of its unitary history, traditions, recruitment, and function. Usually, the regiment is responsible for recruiting and administering all of a soldier's military career. Depending upon the country, regiments can be either combat units or administrative units or both. This is often contrasted to the \"continental system\" adopted by many armies. In the continental system, the division is the functional army unit, and its commander is the administrator of every aspect of the formation: his staff train and administer the soldiers, officers, and commanders of the division's subordinate units. Generally, divisions are garrisoned together and share the same installations: thus, in divisional administration, a battalion commanding officer is just another officer in a chain of command. Soldiers and officers are transferred in and out of divisions as required. Some regiments recruited from specific geographical areas, and usually incorporated the place name into the regimental name. In other cases, regiments would recruit from a given age group within a nation (e.g. Zulu Impis), an ethnic group (e.g. the Gurkhas), or foreigners (e.g. the French Foreign Legion). In other cases, new regiments were raised for new functions within an army; e.g. the Fusiliers, the Parachute Regiment (British Army), and the U.S. Army 75th Ranger Regiment. Disadvantages of the regimental system are hazardous regimental competition, a lack of interchangeability between units of different regiments, and more pronounced \"old boy networks\" within the military that may hamper efficiency and fairness. A key aspect of the regimental system is that the regiment or battalion is the fundamental tactical building block. This flows historically from the colonial period, when battalions were widely dispersed and virtually autonomous, but is easily adapted to a number of different purposes. For example, a regiment might include different types of battalions (e.g. infantry or artillery) of different origins (e.g. regular or reserve). Within the regimental system, soldiers, and usually officers, are always posted to a tactical unit of their own regiment whenever posted to field duty. In addition to combat units, other organizations are very much part of the regimental family: regimental training schools, serving members on \"extra-regimental employment\", regimental associations (retirees), bands and associated cadet groups. The aspects that an administrative regiment might have in common include a symbolic colonel-in-chief (often a member of the royal family), a colonel of the regiment or \"honorary colonel\" who protects the traditions and interests of the regimental family and insists on the maintenance of high standards, battle honours (honours earned by one unit of an administrative regiment are credited to the regiment), ceremonial uniforms, cap badges, peculiarities of insignia, stable belts, and regimental marches and songs. The regiment usually has a traditional \"home station\" or Regimental depot, which is often a historic garrison that houses the regimental museum and regimental headquarters. The latter has a modest staff to support regimental committees and administer both the regular members and the association(s) of retired members.", "In the British Army and armies modeled on it (such as the Australian, the New Zealand, the Canadian, the Pakistani and the Indian), the term \"regiment\" is used confusingly in two different ways: it can mean an administrative identity and grouping, or a tactical unit. In the former Dominion of Newfoundland, \"Regiment\" was used to describe the entirety of the fighting armed forces, such as the Royal Newfoundland Regiment. In the Commonwealth countries listed above, the large administrative regiment has been the normal practice for many years. In the case of India, \"large regiments\" of four to five battalions date from 1923 and, since the 1950s, many of these have expanded even further. As an example, the Punjab Regiment of the Indian Army has expanded from four battalions in 1956 to its present strength of 20, while, in Pakistan, several regiments have over 50 battalions. In Canada, the regiment is a formation of one or more units; existing almost exclusively for reasons of heritage, the continuance of battle honors and \"esprit de corps\". The three regular force infantry regiments each consist of three regular force battalions of approximately 600 soldiers, in addition to one or more reserve battalions. Canadian battalions are employed tactically and administratively within brigade groups. In Australia, there is but one administrative infantry regiment in the regular army: the Royal Australian Regiment, consisting of all seven regular infantry battalions in the Army. The Australian Army Reserve also has state-based infantry regiments which administer the reserve infantry battalions. In Pakistan, the word regiment is an administrative grouping. While individual battalions may have different roles (for example different battalions of the Frontier Force Regiment may be mechanized infantry, paratroop infantry, or mountain troops), the regiment is considered to encompass all of them.", "The modern British regimental system came about as a result of the 19th century Cardwell Reforms. In the British Army, for most purposes, the regiment is the largest \"permanent\" organisational unit. Above regimental level, the organisation is changed to meet the tasks at hand. Because of their permanent nature, many regiments have long histories, often going back for centuries: the oldest British regiment still in existence is the Royal Jersey Militia, established in 1337 although historically the Jersey Militia are referred to as a regiment it is disputed that they are in fact a corps. The Buffs (Royal East Kent Regiment), formed in 1572, was the oldest infantry regiment. It now forms part of the Princess of Wales Royal Regiment. In the United Kingdom, there existed until recently a number of administrative \"divisions\" in the infantry that encompassed several regiments, such as the Guards Division, the former", "Armoured regiments in Canada since the end of the Second World War have usually consisted of a single tactical regiment. During the 1960s, three Canadian regiments had both regular and militia components, which were disbanded shortly after unification in 1968. Currently, one regiment is organised with", "All of a nation's artillery units are considered part of a single administrative regiment, but there are typically several tactical artillery regiments. They are designated by numbers, names or", "Administrative infantry regiments are composed of one or more battalions. When a regiment has only one battalion, the battalion may have exactly the same name as the regiment. For example, The North Saskatchewan Regiment is the only battalion in the administrative regiment of the same name. When there is more than one battalion, they are distinguished by numbers, subsidiary titles or both. In Britain, every infantry battalion bears a number, even if it is the only remaining battalion in the regiment (in that case it is the 1st Battalion, with the exception of The Irish Regiment of Canada, which has a 2nd Battalion only). Until after the Second World War, every regiment had at least two battalions. Traditionally, the regular", "The British Army also has battalion-sized tactical regiments of the", "", "Historically, the United States Army was organized into regiments, except from 1792 to 1796 during the existence of the Legion of the United States. During this period the Army, or \"Legion\", was organized into four \"sub-legions\", 18th century forerunners of the modern combined arms brigade. When combined with other regiments during wartime, for active field operations, regiments were further formed into brigades and divisions. From colonial times, the regiment consisted of a small regimental headquarters (regimental headquarters companies not existing before 1915) and in 1775 ten \"line\" companies, based on the British Army model, without any permanent intermediate level of organization, viz., battalion headquarters organic to the regiment. From 1776 through 1783 American infantry regiments contained from as few as seven companies (e.g. South Carolina Rifles) to as many as twelve (Pennsylvania Rifles and Maryland State troops) with Continental Army infantry regiments having eight companies (increased to nine in 1781). (Briefly, from 1790 to 1792, regiments were organized into three battalions of four companies each.) Traditionally, the regiment and battalion were one and the same, with the \"battalion\" simply being the regiment organized for battle. During the Civil War, there were nine new United States regular army infantry regiments (11th though the 19th) added to the ten already existing. The old regiments (1st through 10th) were single-battalion, ten-company regiments, but the new regiments were authorized three battalions of eight", "The historical background of the use of regiments in the United States Marine Corps is contained within \"USMC: A Complete History\" (Hoffman, 2002) and a summary of that information follows: Before 1913, indeed since the American Revolution, it was common practice for Marine detachments (both ship-based, and shore-based) to be combined to form provisional (viz., temporary) units. Most often these formations took the form of provisional battalions, but on occasion would become provisional regiments, provisional brigades, or rarely (especially when combined with Navy personnel) naval infantry brigades. These organizations were intentionally temporary as the Marine Corps did not usually maintain standing forces larger than company size, but rather created \"task units\" on an \"as needed\" basis. While provisional regiments, designated variously as the 1st through 4th Regiments, had", "The regiments () of the Russian Army, and armed forces influenced by Russia consist of battalions (), in the infantry or tank troops, divisions () in the artillery troops, and squadrons () in aviation troops. Land forces regiments are subdivided into companies () (or batteries in the artillery) and platoons (). These also include many support units of either company or platoon size.", "The Motorised Rifle Regiment was one of the basic tactical units within the Soviet Armed Forces, totaling around 2,500 officers and other ranks. While normally operating as part of a Motorised Rifle Division or Tank Division, it was capable of short-term independent operations. By the late 1980s, it consisted of a regimental headquarters in command of three Motorised Rifle Battalions, each numbering around five hundred personnel and equipped with either BMP infantry fighting vehicles or BTR armoured personnel carriers, and one Tank Battalion, typically consisting of thirty-one T-64, T-72", "The Tank Regiment was found in both Motorised Rifle Divisions and Tank Divisions, with slight organisational differences depending between the two. By the late 1980s, Tank Regiments operating as part of Motorised Rifle Divisions contained slightly over 1,100 officers and other ranks while those operating within Tank Divisions contained over 1,600. A regimental headquarters oversaw command of", "The Artillery Regiment was used to provide fire support, but differed depending on whether it was part of a Motorised Rifle Division or Tank Division. The artillery regiment of an MRD consisted of three battalions of eighteen 2S3 Akatsiyas each and a battalion of eighteen BM-21 Grads, numbering just under 1,300 personnel total, while a TD", "The SAM regiment was an important part of a Motorised Rifle Division or Tank Division's effort to envelop the battlefield in an extensive air defence network. Numbering a little over five hundred personnel total, the SAM regiment consisted of a regimental headquarters in charge of twenty SA-6 Gainfuls organised into five", "Antiaircraft artillery (AAA) regiments in the late 1980s took the place of SAM regiments in divisions which were assigned to rear areas. These were equipped with twenty-four S-60", "The Irish Army field artillery units are called regiments. They are divided into batteries and", "Indian army has many regiments. Many regiments of Indian army are legacy of British army when British ruled India before 15 August 1947. Each regiment may have one or more battalions. There are regimental headquarters for each regiment. The regiment are commanded by Colonel." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Early life.", "Debut and departure from the Comédie-Française (1862–1864).", "The Gymnase and Brussels (1864–1866).", "The Odéon (1866–1872).", "\"Ruy Blas\" and return to the Comédie française (1872–1878).", "Triumph in London and departure from the Comédie Française (1879–1880).", "\"La Dame aux camélias\" and first American tour (1880–1881).", "Return to Paris, European tour, \"Fédora\" to \"Theodora\" (1881–1886).", "World tours (1886–1892).", "\"La Tosca\" to \"Cleopatra\" (1887–1893).", "Théâtre de la Renaissance (1893–1899).", "Théâtre Sarah Bernhardt (1899–1900).", "Farewell tours (1901–1913).", "Amputation of leg and wartime performances (1914–1918).", "Final years (1919–1923).", "Motion pictures.", "Painting and sculpture.", "\"The Art of the Theater\".", "Memory and improvisation.", "Critical appraisals.", "Personal life.", "Paternity, date of birth, ancestry, name.", "Lovers and friends.", "Marriage with Jacques Damala.", "Belle-Île.", "Vegetarianism.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Henriette-Rosine Bernard was born at 5 rue de L'École-de-Médicine in the Latin Quarter of Paris on 22 or 23 October 1844. She was the illegitimate daughter of Judith Bernard (also known as Julie and in France as Youle), a Dutch Jewish courtesan with a wealthy or upper-class clientele. The name of her father is not recorded. According to some sources, he was probably the son of a wealthy merchant from Le Havre. Bernhardt later wrote that her father's family paid for her education, insisted she be baptized as a Catholic, and left a large sum to be paid when she came of age. Her mother", "Bernhardt studied acting at the Conservatory from January 1860 until 1862 under two prominent actors of the Comédie Française, Joseph-Isidore Samson and Jean-Baptiste Provost. She wrote in her memoirs that Provost taught her diction and grand gestures, while Samson taught her the power of simplicity. For the stage, she changed her name from \"Bernard\" to \"Bernhardt\". While studying, she also received her first marriage proposal, from a wealthy businessman who offered her 500 thousand francs. He wept when she refused. Bernhardt wrote that she was \"confused, sorry, and delighted—because he loved me the way people love", "Her family could not understand her departure from the theater; it was inconceivable to them that anyone would walk away from the most prestigious theater in Paris at the age of 18. Instead, she went to a popular theater, the Gymnase, where she became an understudy to two of the leading actresses. She almost immediately caused another offstage scandal, when she was invited to recite poetry at a reception at the Tuileries Palace hosted by Napoleon III and the Empress Eugenie, along with other actors of the Gymnase. She chose to recite two romantic poems by Victor Hugo, unaware that Hugo was a bitter critic of the emperor. Following the first poem, the Emperor and Empress rose and walked out, followed by the court and the other guests. Her next role at the Gymnase, as a foolish Russian princess, was entirely unsuited for her; her mother told her that her performance was \"ridiculous\". She decided abruptly to quit the theater to travel, and like her mother, to take on lovers. She went briefly to Spain, then, at the suggestion of Alexandre Dumas, to Belgium. She carried to Brussels letters of introduction from Dumas, and was admitted to the highest", "To support herself after the birth of Maurice, Bernhardt played minor roles and understudies at the Port-Saint-Martin, a popular melodrama theater. In early 1866, she obtained a reading with Felix Duquesnel, director of the Théâtre de L’Odéon on the Left Bank. Duquesnel described the reading years later, saying, \"I had before me a creature who was marvelous gifted, intelligent to the point of genius, with enormous energy under an appearance frail and delicate, and a savage will.\" The co-director of the theater for finance, Charles de Chilly, wanted to reject her as unreliable and too thin, but Duquesnel was enchanted; he hired her for the theater at a modest salary of 150 francs a month, which he paid out of his own pocket. The Odéon was second in prestige only to the Comédie Française, and unlike that very traditional theater, specialized in more modern productions. The Odéon was popular with the students of the Left Bank. Her first performances with the theater were not successful. She was cast in highly stylized and frivolous 18th-century comedies, whereas her strong point on stage was her complete sincerity. Her thin figure also made her look ridiculous in the ornate costumes. Dumas, her strongest supporter, commented after one performance, \"she has the head of a virgin and the body of a broomstick.\" Soon, however, with different plays and more experience, her performances improved; she was praised for her performance of Cordelia in \"King Lear.\" In June 1867, she played two roles in \"Athalie\" by Jean Racine; the part of a young woman and a young boy, Zacharie, the first of many male parts she played in her career. The influential critic Sarcey wrote \"... she charmed her audience like a little Orpheus.\" Her breakthrough performance was in the 1868 revival of \"Kean\" by Alexandre Dumas, in which she played the female lead part of Anna Danby. The play was interrupted in the beginning by disturbances in the audience by young spectators who called out, \"Down with Dumas! Give us Hugo!\". Bernhardt addressed the audience directly: \"Friends, you wish to defend the cause of", "The Tuileries Palace, city hall of Paris, and many other public buildings had been burned by the Commune or damaged in the fighting, but the Odéon was still intact. Charles-Marie Chilly, the co-director of the Odéon, came to her apartment, where Bernhardt received him reclining on a sofa. He announced that the theater would reopen in October 1871, and he asked her to play the lead in a new play, \"Jean-Marie\" by André Theuriet. Bernhardt replied that she was finished with the theater and was going to move to Brittany and start a farm. Chilly, who knew Bernhardt's moods well, told her that he understood and accepted her decision, and would give the role to Jane Essler, a rival actress. According to Chilly, Bernhardt immediately jumped up from the sofa and asked when the rehearsals would begin. \"Jean-Marie\", about a young Breton woman forced by her father", "Bernhardt was earning a substantial amount at the theater, but her expenses were even greater. By this time she had eight servants, and she built her first house, an imposing mansion on rue Fortuny, not far from the Parc Monceau. She looked for additional ways to earn money. In June 1879, while the theater of the Comédie Française in Paris was being remodeled, Perrin took the company on tour to London. Shortly before the tour began, a British theater impresario named Edward Jarrett traveled to Paris and proposed that she give private performances in the homes", "In April 1880, as soon as he learned Bernhardt had resigned from the Comédie Française, the impresario Edward Jarrett hurried to Paris and proposed that she make a theatrical tour of England and then the United States. She could select her repertoire and the cast. She would receive 5,000 francs per performance, plus 15% of any earnings over 15,0000 franca, plus all of her expenses, plus an account in her name for 100,000 francs, the amount she owed to the Comédie Française. She accepted immediately. Now on her own, Bernhardt first assembled and tried out her new troupe at the Théâtre de la Gaîté-Lyrique in Paris. She performed for the first time \"La Dame aux Camélias\", by Alexandre Dumas, \"fils\".", "No crowd greeted Bernhardt when she returned to Paris on 5 May 1881, and theater managers offered no new roles; the Paris press ignored her tour, and much of the Paris theater world resented her leaving the most prestigious national theater to earn a fortune abroad. When no new plays or offers appeared, she went to London for a successful three-week run at the Gaiety Theater. This London tour included the first British performance of \"La Dame aux Camelias\" at the Shaftesbury Theater; her friend, the Prince of Wales, persuaded Queen Victoria to authorize the performance. Many years later, she gave a private performance of the play for the Queen while she was on holiday in Nice. When she returned to Paris, Bernhardt contrived to make a surprise performance at the annual", "\"Theodora\" was followed by two failures. In 1885, in homage to Victor Hugo, who had died a few months earlier, she staged one of his older plays, \"Marion Delorme\", written in 1831, but the play was outdated and her role did not give her a chance to show her talents. She next put on \"Hamlet\", with her lover Philippe Garnier in the leading role and Bernhardt in the relatively minor role of Ophelia. The critics and audiences were not impressed, and the play was unsuccessful. Bernhardt had built", "When Bernhardt returned from her 1886–87 tour, she received a new invitation to return to the Comédie Française. The theater management was willing to forget the conflict of her two previous periods there, and offered a payment of 150,000 francs a year. The money appealed to her, and she began negotiations. However, the senior members of the company protested the high salary offered, and conservative defenders of the more traditional theater also complained; one anti-Bernhardt critic, Albert Delpit of \"Le", "Bernhardt made a two-year world tour (1891–1893) to replenish her finances. Upon returning to Paris, she paid 700,000 francs for the Théâtre de la Renaissance, and from 1893 until 1899, was its artistic director and lead actress. She managed every aspect of the theater, from the finances to the lighting, sets, and costumes, as well as appearing in eight performances a week. She imposed a rule that women in the audience, no matter how wealthy or famous, had to take off their hats during performances, so the rest of the audience could see, and", "Despite her successes, her debts continued to mount, reaching two million gold francs by the end of 1898. Bernhardt was forced to give up the Renaissance, and was preparing to go on another world tour when she learned that a much larger Paris theater, the Théâtre des Nations on Place du Châtelet, was for lease. The theater had 1,700 seats, twice the size of the Renaissance, enabling her to pay off the cost of performances more quickly; it had an enormous stage and backstage, allowing her to present several different plays a week; and since it was originally designed as a concert hall, it had excellent", "After her season in Paris, Bernhardt performed \"L'Aiglon\" in London, and then made her sixth tour to the United States. On this tour, she traveled with Constant Coquelin, then the most popular leading man in France. Bernhardt played the secondary role of Roxanne to his Cyrano de Bergerac, a role which he had premiered, and he co-starred with her as Flambeau in \"L'Aiglon\" and as the first grave-digger in \"Hamlet\". She also changed, for the first time, her resolution not to perform in Germany or the \"occupied territories\" of Alsace and Lorraine. In 1902, at the invitation of the French ministry of culture, she took part in the first cultural exchange between Germany and France since the 1870 war. She performed \"L'Aiglon\" 14 times in Germany; Kaiser William II of Germany attended two performances and hosted a dinner in her honor in Potsdam. During her German tour, she began to suffer agonizing pain in her right knee, probably connected with a fall she had suffered on stage during her tour in South America. She was forced to reduce her movements in \"L'Aiglon\". A German doctor recommended that she halt the tour immediately and have surgery, followed by six months of complete immobilization of her leg. Bernhardt promised to see a doctor when she returned to", "In December 1913, Bernhardt performed another success with the drama \"Jeanne Doré\". On 16 March, she was made a Chevalier of the Legion d'Honneur. Despite her successes, she was still short of money. She had made her son Maurice the director of her new theater, and permitted him to use the receipts of the theater to pay his gambling debts, eventually forcing her to pawn some of her jewels to pay her bills. In 1914, she went as usual to her holiday home on Belle-Île with her family", "In 1920, she resumed acting in her theater, usually performing single acts of classics such as Racine's \"Athelee\", which did not require much movement. For her curtain calls, she stood, balancing on one leg and gesturing with one arm. She also starred in a new play, \"Daniel\", written by her grandson-in-law, playwright Louis Verneuil. She played the male lead role, but appeared in just two acts. She took the play and other famous scenes from her repertory on a European tour and then for her last tour of England, where she gave a special command performance for Queen Mary, followed by a tour of the British provinces. In 1921, Bernhardt made her last tour of the French provinces, lecturing about theater and reciting the poetry of Rostand. Later that year, she produced a new play by Rostand, \"La Gloire\", and another play by Verneuil, \"Régine Arnaud\" in 1922. She continued to entertain guests at her home. One such guest, French author Colette, described being served coffee by Bernhardt: \"The delicate and withered hand offering", "Bernhardt was one of the first actresses to star in moving pictures. The first projected film was shown by the Lumiere brothers at the Grand Café in Paris on 28 December 1895. In 1900, the cameraman who had shot the first films for the Lumiere brothers, Clément Maurice, approached Bernhardt and asked her to make a film out of a scene from her stage production of \"Hamlet\". The scene was Prince Hamlet's duel with Laertes, with Bernhardt in the role of Hamlet. Maurice made a phonograph recording at the same time, so the film could be accompanied by sound. The sound of the clashing wooden prop swords was not loud and realistic enough, so Maurice had a stage hand bang pieces of metal together in sync with the sword fight. Maurice's finished two-minute film, \"Le Duel d'Hamlet\", was presented to the public at the 1900 Paris Universal Exposition between 14 April and 12 November 1900 in Paul Decauville's program, Phono-Cinéma-Théâtre. This program contained short films of many other famous French theatre stars of the day. The sound quality on the disks and the synchronization were very poor, so the system never became a commercial success. Nonetheless, her film is cited as one of the first examples of a sound film. Eight years later, in 1908, Bernhardt made a second motion picture, \"La Tosca\". This was produced by Le Film d’Art and directed by André Calmettes from the play by Victorien Sardou. The film has been lost. Her next film, with her co-star and lover Lou Tellegen, was \"La Dame aux Camelias\", called \"Camille\". When she performed on this film, Bernhardt changed both the fashion in which she performed, significantly accelerating the", "Bernhardt began painting while she was at the Comédie-Française; since she rarely performed more than twice a week, she wanted a new activity to fill her time. Her paintings were mostly landscapes and seascapes, with many painted at Belle-Île. Her painting teachers were close and lifelong friends Georges Clairin and Louise Abbéma. She exhibited a 2-m-tall canvas, \"The Young Woman and Death\", at the 1878 Paris Salon. Her passion for sculpture was more serious. Her sculpture teacher was Mathieu-Meusnier, an academic sculptor who specialized in public monuments and sentimental storytelling pieces. She quickly picked up the techniques; she exhibited and sold a high-relief plaque of the death of Ophelia and, for the architect Charles Garnier, she created the allegorical figure of \"Song\" for the group \"Music\" on the facade of the Opera House of Monte Carlo. She also exhibited a group of figures, called \"Après la", "In her final years, Bernhardt wrote a textbook on the art of acting. She wrote whenever she had time, usually between productions, and when she was on vacation at Belle-Île. After her death, the writer Marcel Berger, her close friend, found the unfinished manuscript among her belongings in her house on boulevard Pereire. He edited the book, and it was published as \"L'Art du Théâtre\" in 1923. An English translation was published in 1925. She paid particular attention to the use of the voice, \"the instrument the most necessary to the dramatic artist.\" It was the element, she wrote, which connected the artist with the audience. \"The voice must have all the harmonies,... serious, plaintive, vibrant and metallic.\" For a voice to be fully complete, she wrote, \"It is necessary that it be very slightly nasal. An artist who has a dry voice can never touch the public.\" She also stressed the importance for artists to train their breathing for long", "Bernhardt had a remarkable ability to memorize a role quickly. She recounted in \"L'Art du Théâtre\" that \"I only have to read a role two or three times and I know it completely; but the day that I stop playing the piece the role escapes me entirely... My memory can't contain several parts at the same time, and it's impossible for me to recite off-hand a tirade from \"Phèdre\" or \"Hamlet\". And yet I can remember the smallest events from my childhood.\" She also suffered, particularly early in her career, bouts of memory loss and stage fright. Once, she was seriously ill before a performance of \"L'Etrangére\" at the Gaiety Theater", "French drama critics praised Bernhardt's performances; Francisque Sarcey, an influential Paris critic, wrote of her 1871 performance in \"Marie\", \"She has a sovereign grace, a penetrating charm, and I don't know what. She is a natural and an incomparable artist.\" Reviewing her performance of \"Ruy Blas\" in 1872, the critic Théodore de Banville wrote that Bernhardt \"declaimed like a bluebird sings, like the wind sighs, like the water murmurs.\" Of the same performance, Sarcey wrote: \"She added the music of her voice to the music of the verse. She sang, yes, sang with her melodious voice...\" Victor Hugo was a fervent admirer of Bernhardt, praising her \"golden voice\". Describing her performance in his play, \"Ruy Blas\" in 1872, he wrote in his \"Carnets\", \"It is the first time this play has really been played! She is better than an actress, she is a woman. She is adorable; she is better than beautiful, she has the harmonious movements and looks of irresistible seduction.\" Her 1882 performance of \"Fédora\" was described by the French critic Maurice Baring: \"A secret atmosphere emanated from her, an aroma, an attraction which was at once exotic and cerebral... She literally hypnotized the audience\", and played \"with such tigerish passion and feline seduction which, whether it be good or bad art, nobody has been able to match since.\" In 1884, Sigmund Freud saw Bernhardt perform \"Theodora\", writing: She also had her critics, particularly in her later", "", "The identity of Bernhardt's father is not known for certain. Her original birth certificate was destroyed when the Paris Commune burned the Hotel de Ville and city archives in May 1871. In her autobiography, \"Ma Double Vie\", she describes meeting her father several times, and writes that his family provided funding for her education, and left a sum of 100,000 francs for her when she came of age. She said he frequently travelled overseas, and that when she was still a child, he died in Pisa \"in unexplained circumstances which remain mysterious.\" In February 1914, she presented a reconstituted birth certificate, which stated that her legitimate father was one Édouard Bernhardt. On 21 May 1856, when she was baptized, she was registered as the daughter of \"Edouard Bernhardt residing in Le Havre and Judith Van Hard, residing in Paris.\" A more recent biography by Helene Tierchant (2009) suggests her father may have been a young man named De Morel, whose family members were notable shipowners and merchants in Le Havre. According to Bernhardt's autobiography, her grandmother and uncle in Le Havre", "Early in Bernhardt's career, she had an affair with a Belgian nobleman, Charles-Joseph Eugène Henri Georges Lamoral de Ligne (1837–1914), son of Eugène, 8th Prince of Ligne, with whom she bore her only child, Maurice Bernhardt (1864–1928). Maurice did not become an actor, but worked for most of his life as a manager and agent for various theaters and performers, frequently managing his mother's career in her later years, but rarely with great success. Maurice and his family were usually financially dependent, in full or in part, on his mother until her death. Maurice married a Polish princess, Maria Jablonowska, of the House of Jablonowski, with whom he had two daughters: Simone, who married Edgar Gross, son of a wealthy Philadelphia soap manufacturer; and Lysiana, who married the playwright Louis", "In 1882, in Paris, Bernhardt met a Greek diplomat, Aristide Damala (known in France by his stage name Jacques Damala), who was 11 years her junior, and notorious for his romantic affairs. Bernhardt's biographer described him as \"handsome as Adonis, insolent, vain, and altogether despicable.\" His affairs with married women had already led to one suicide and two divorces, and the French government had asked him to leave Paris, transferring him to the Greek Embassy in St. Petersburg. She already had a lover at the time, Philippe Garnier, her leading man, but", "After her 1886–87 tour, Bernhardt recuperated on Belle-Île, a small island off the coast of Brittany, 10 miles south of the Quiberon peninsula. She purchased a ruined 17th-century fortress, located at the end of the island and approached by a drawbridge, and turned it into her vacation retreat. Between 1886 and 1922, she spent nearly every summer, the season when her theater was closed, on Belle-Île. She built bungalows for her son Maurice and her grandchildren, and bungalows with studios for her close friends, the painters Georges Clairin and Louise Abbéma. She also took with her large collection of animals, including several dogs, two horses, a donkey, a hawk given to her by the Russian Grand Duke", "Bernhardt was described as a strict vegetarian (what would later be termed vegan), as she avoided dairy, eggs and meat. Her diet consisted of cereal, fruit, nuts", "Mexican actress Virginia Fábregas (1871–1950) was nicknamed \"The Mexican Sarah Bernhardt.\" After Bernhardt's death, her theater was managed by her son Maurice until his death in 1928. It kept its name until the occupation of Paris by the Germans in World War II, when, because of Bernhardt's Jewish ancestry, the name was changed to Théâtre de la Cité. The name was changed back to the Théâtre Sarah-Bernhardt in 1947, then in 1957 became the Théâtre des Nations. In 1968, it was renamed the Théâtre de la Ville, which is the name it has today. In 1876, Bernhardt constructed a large townhouse at 35 rue Fortuny in the 17th arrondissement, not far from Parc Monceau, for her family, servants, and animals. In 1885, when her debts mounted, she sold the house. Once her fortune was replenished by her tours abroad, she bought an even larger house at 56 avenue Pereire in the 17th arrondissement, where she died in 1923. The house was demolished in the 1960s and replaced by a modern apartment building. A plaque on the facade commemorates Bernhardt's earlier residence. In 1960, Bernhardt was inducted into the Hollywood Walk of Fame with a motion pictures star located at 1751 Vine Street. To date, she is the earliest born person on the Walk (born in 1844), followed by Thomas Edison and Siegmund Lubin. In 2018 Roundabout Theatre Company produced Theresa Rebeck's play \"Bernhardt/Hamlet\". In the play, Rebeck explores the controversy surrounding Bernhardt's decision to play Hamlet. The play opened on Broadway in September at the American Airlines Theater for a limited run. It starred Janet McTeer as Bernhardt and it was directed by Moritz von Stuelpnagel. McTeer received a Tony Award nomination for portraying Bernhardt." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography.", "History.", "Population.", "Economy.", "The town today." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The town lies in the undulating and hilly landscape and gave it its name – \"Skutečská Upland\" (geomorphological unit). It is part of the Iron Mountains. A part of the cadastral territory of the town is a part of the nature reserve \"Anenské valley\". In the valley flows \"Anenský brook\" and in the middle of the valley is the Chapel of St. Anne. Landscape area is a part of the National Geopark Iron Mountain.", "Status of town according to historical sources already won probably around 1330 during the reign of King John of Luxembourg (1310–1346). The first written mention is from 1289, is about the village Skuteč (in the document called \"Zkuts\") and is mentioned in the contract about castles and towns concluded between the Czech King Wenceslas II. and the Earl Friedrich from Meissen. The Charter was found in Dresden (a city in Germany today). The document discovered by Czech historian August Sedláček and published it in 1882 (the work \"Castles, palaces and fortresses of the Czech Kingdom\"). There is a memorial desk reminding lessons of T. G. Masaryk in a Heyduk street no. 436 in 15-th August 1906. Several Skuteč legionars met him during the war in 1917 to 1918 in Russia.", "As of 1 January 2019, a total of 5,046 people was living in the town, with an average age of 43.6 years.", "20th century in Skuteč was significantly associated with shoemaking tradition Botana, companies producing shoes since 1963 by an internationally known brand Botas. Skuteč is known for mining granite and stone industry.", "Municipal Authority in Skuteč manages the town. The administrative building is located on Palacký Square, which is a natural centre of the town. The town has two elementary schools (Primary school at Komenský Square and Primary school at Smetana street) and art school of Vitězslav Novák. In Skuteč town is significant High School – Gymnasium of the Sovereign Maltese Knights order. Each year the town organizes the festival of classical music and of choir singing \"Musical of Skuteč Tomášek and Novák\". In the town is town museum, library and cultural center. Significant is Rubeš choir, brass band, Children's Choir Cantando." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Definitions.", "Sexual orientation, identity, and behavior.", "Kinsey scale.", "Demographics and prevalence.", "Studies, theories and social responses.", "Community.", "General social impacts.", "Perceptions and discrimination.", "Symbols.", "In BDSM.", "In feminism.", "History.", "Media.", "Film.", "Literature.", "Music.", "Television.", "Webseries.", "Among other animals." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Bisexuality is romantic or sexual attraction to both males and females. The American Psychological Association states that \"sexual orientation falls along a continuum. In other words, someone does not have to be exclusively homosexual or heterosexual, but can feel varying degrees of both. Sexual orientation develops across a person's lifetime–different people realize at different points in their lives that they are heterosexual, bisexual or homosexual.\" Sexual attraction, behavior, and identity may also be incongruent, as sexual attraction or behavior may not necessarily be consistent with identity. Some", "In the 1940s, the zoologist Alfred Kinsey created a scale to measure the continuum of sexual orientation from heterosexuality to homosexuality. Kinsey studied human sexuality and argued that people have the capability of being hetero- or homosexual even if this trait does not present itself in the current circumstances. The Kinsey scale is used to describe a person's sexual experience or response at a given time. It ranges from 0,", "Studies estimating the demographics for bisexuality have varied. \"The Janus Report on Sexual Behavior\", published in 1993, showed that 5 percent of men and 3 percent of women considered themselves bisexual and 4 percent of men and 2 percent of women considered themselves homosexual. A 2002 survey in the United States by National Center for Health Statistics found that 1.8 percent of men ages 18–44 considered themselves bisexual, 2.3 percent homosexual, and 3.9 percent as \"something else\". The same study found that 2.8 percent of women ages 18–44 considered themselves bisexual, 1.3 percent homosexual, and 3.8 percent as \"something else\". In 2007, an article in the 'Health' section of \"The New York Times\" stated that \"1.5 percent of American women and 1.7 percent of", "There is no consensus among scientists about the exact reasons that an individual develops a heterosexual, bisexual or homosexual orientation. Although scientists favor biological models for the cause of sexual orientation, they do not believe that the development of sexual orientation is the result of any one factor. They generally believe that it is determined by a complex interplay of biological and environmental factors, and is shaped at an early age. There is considerably more evidence supporting nonsocial, biological causes of sexual orientation than social ones, especially for males. There is no substantive evidence which suggests parenting or early childhood experiences play a role with regard to sexual orientation. Scientists do not believe that sexual orientation is a choice. The American Psychiatric Association stated: \"To date there are no replicated scientific studies supporting any specific biological etiology for homosexuality. Similarly, no specific psychosocial or family dynamic cause for homosexuality has been identified, including histories of childhood sexual abuse.\" Research into how sexual orientation may be determined by genetic or other prenatal factors plays a role in political and social debates about homosexuality, and also raises fears about genetic profiling and prenatal testing. Magnus Hirschfeld argued that adult sexual orientation can be explained in terms of the bisexual nature of the developing fetus: he believed that in every embryo there is one rudimentary neutral center for attraction to males and another for attraction to females. In most fetuses, the center for attraction to the opposite sex developed while the center for attraction to the same sex regressed, but in fetuses that became homosexual, the reverse occurred. Simon LeVay has criticized Hirschfeld's theory of an early bisexual stage of development, calling it confusing; LeVay maintains that Hirschfeld failed to distinguish between saying that the brain is sexually undifferentiated at an early stage of development and saying that an individual actually experiences sexual attraction to both men and women. According to LeVay, Hirschfeld believed that in most bisexual people the strength of attraction to the same sex was relatively low, and that it was therefore possible to restrain its development in young people, something Hirschfeld supported. Hirschfeld created a ten-point scale to measure the strength of sexual desire, with the direction of desire being represented by the letters A (for heterosexuality), B (for homosexuality), and A + B (for bisexuality). On this scale, someone who was A3, B9 would be weakly attracted to the opposite sex and very strongly attracted to the same sex, an A0, B0 would be asexual, and an A10, B10 would be very attracted to both sexes. LeVay compares Hirschfeld's scale to that developed by Kinsey decades later. Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, believed that every human being is bisexual in the sense of incorporating general attributes of both sexes. In his view, this was true anatomically and therefore also psychologically, with sexual attraction to both sexes being an aspect of this psychological bisexuality. Freud believed that in the course of sexual development the masculine side of this bisexual disposition would normally become dominant in men and the feminine side in women, but that all adults still have desires derived from both the masculine and the feminine sides of their natures. Freud did not claim that everyone is bisexual in the sense of feeling the same level of sexual attraction to both genders. Freud's belief in innate bisexuality was rejected by Sándor Radó in 1940 and, following Radó, by many later psychoanalysts. Radó argued that there is no biological bisexuality in humans. The psychoanalyst Edmund Bergler argued in \"\" (1956) that bisexuality does not exist and that all supposed bisexuals are homosexuals. Alan P. Bell, Martin S. Weinberg, and Sue Kiefer Hammersmith reported in \"Sexual Preference\" (1981) that sexual preference was much less strongly connected with pre-adult sexual feelings among bisexuals than it was among heterosexuals and homosexuals. Based on this and other findings, they suggested that bisexuality is more influenced by social and sexual learning than is exclusive homosexuality. Letitia Anne Peplau et al. wrote that while Bell et al.'s view that biological factors may be more influential on homosexuality than on bisexuality might seem plausible, it has not been directly tested and appears to conflict with available evidence, such as that concerning prenatal hormone exposure. Human bisexuality has mainly been studied alongside homosexuality. Van Wyk and Geist argue that this is a problem for sexuality research because the few studies that have observed bisexuals separately have found that bisexuals are often different from both heterosexuals and homosexuals. Furthermore, bisexuality does not always represent a halfway point between the dichotomy. Research indicates that bisexuality is influenced by biological, cognitive and cultural variables in interaction, and this leads to different types of bisexuality. In the current debate around influences on sexual orientation, biological explanations have been questioned by social scientists, particularly by feminists who encourage women to make conscious decisions about their life and sexuality. A difference in attitude between homosexual men and women has also been reported, with men more likely to regard their sexuality as biological, \"reflecting the universal male experience in this culture, not the complexities of the lesbian world.\" There is also evidence that women's sexuality may be more strongly affected by cultural and contextual factors. The critic Camille Paglia has promoted bisexuality as an ideal. Harvard Shakespeare professor Marjorie Garber made an academic case for bisexuality with her 1995 book \"Vice Versa: Bisexuality and the Eroticism of Everyday Life,\" in which she argued that most people would be bisexual if not for repression and other factors such as lack of sexual opportunity.", "", "The bisexual community (also known as the bisexual/pansexual, bi/pan/fluid, or non-monosexual community) includes members of the LGBT community who identify as bisexual, pansexual or fluid. Because some bisexual people do not feel that they fit into either the gay or the heterosexual world, and because they have a tendency to be \"invisible\" in public, some bisexual persons are committed to forming their own communities, culture, and political movements. Some who identify as bisexual may merge themselves into either homosexual or heterosexual society. Other bisexual people see this merging as enforced rather than voluntary; bisexual people can face exclusion from both homosexual and heterosexual society on coming out. Psychologist Beth Firestein states that bisexuals tend to internalize social tensions related to their choice", "Like people of other LGBT sexualities, bisexuals often face discrimination. In addition to the discrimination associated with homophobia, bisexuals frequently contend with discrimination from gay men, lesbians, and straight society around the word \"bisexual\" and bisexual identity itself. The belief that everyone is bisexual (especially women as opposed to men), or that bisexuality does not exist as a unique identity, is common. This stems from two views: In the heterosexist view, people are presumed to be sexually attracted to the opposite sex, and it is sometimes reasoned that a bisexual person is simply a heterosexual person who is sexually experimenting. In", "A common symbol of the bisexual community is the bisexual pride flag, which has a deep pink stripe at the top for homosexuality, a blue one on the bottom for heterosexuality, and a purple one – blending the pink and blue – in the middle to represent bisexuality. Another symbol with a similarly symbolic color scheme", "In Steve Lenius' original 2001 paper, he explored the acceptance of bisexuality in a supposedly pansexual BDSM community. The reasoning behind this is that \"coming-out\" had become primarily the territory of the gay and lesbian, with bisexuals feeling the push to be one or the other (and being right only half the time either way). What he found in 2001, was that people in BDSM were open to discussion about the topic of bisexuality and pansexuality and all controversies they bring to the table, but personal biases and issues stood in the way of actively using such labels. A decade later, Lenius (2011) looked", "Feminist positions on bisexuality range greatly, from acceptance of bisexuality as a feminist issue to rejection of bisexuality as reactionary and anti-feminist backlash to lesbian feminism. A number of women who were at one time involved in lesbian-feminist activism have since come out as bisexual after realizing their attractions to men. A widely studied example of lesbian-bisexual conflict in feminism was the Northampton Pride March during the years between 1989 and 1993, where many feminists involved debated over whether bisexuals should be included and whether or not bisexuality was compatible with feminism. Common lesbian-feminist critiques leveled at bisexuality were that bisexuality was anti-feminist, that bisexuality was a form of false consciousness, and that bisexual women who pursue relationships with men were \"deluded and desperate.\" Tensions between bisexual feminists and lesbian feminists have eased since the 1990s, as", "Ancient Greeks and Romans did not associate sexual relations with well-defined labels, as modern Western society does. Men who had male lovers were not identified as homosexual, and may have had wives or other female lovers. Ancient Greek religious texts, reflecting cultural practices, incorporated bisexual themes. The subtexts varied, from the mystical to the didactic. Spartans thought that love and erotic relationships between experienced and novice soldiers would solidify combat loyalty and unit cohesion, and encourage heroic tactics as men vied to impress their lovers. Once the younger soldiers reached maturity, the relationship was supposed to become non-sexual, but it is not clear how strictly this was followed. There was some stigma attached to young men who continued their relationships with their mentors into adulthood. For example, Aristophanes calls them \"euryprôktoi\", meaning \"wide arses\", and depicts them like women. Similarly, in ancient Rome, gender did not determine whether a sexual partner was acceptable, as long as a man's enjoyment did not encroach on another's man integrity. It was socially acceptable for a freeborn Roman man to want sex with both female and male partners, as long as he took the penetrative role. The morality of the behavior depended on the social standing of the partner,", "Bisexuality tends to be associated with negative media portrayals; references are sometimes made to stereotypes or mental disorders. In an article regarding the 2005 film \"Brokeback Mountain\", sex educator Amy Andre argued that in films, bisexuals are often depicted negatively: Using a content analysis of more than 170 articles written between 2001 and 2006, sociologist Richard N. Pitt, Jr. concluded that the media pathologized black bisexual men's behavior while either ignoring or sympathizing with white bisexual men's similar actions. He argued that the black bisexual man is often described as a \"duplicitous heterosexual\" man spreading the HIV/AIDS virus. Alternatively, the white bisexual man is often described in pitying language as a \"victimized homosexual\" man forced into the closet by the heterosexist society around him.", "In 1914 the first documented appearance of bisexual characters (female and male) in an American motion picture occurred in \"A Florida Enchantment\", by Sidney Drew. However, under the censorship required by the Hays Code, the word \"bisexual\" could not be mentioned, and almost no bisexual characters appeared in American film from 1934 until 1968.", "Virginia Woolf's \"\" (1928) is an early example of bisexuality in literature. The story, of a man who changes into a woman without a second thought, was based on the life of Woolf's lover Vita Sackville-West. Woolf used the gender switch to avoid the book being banned for homosexual content. The pronouns switch from male to female as Orlando's gender changes. Woolf's lack of definite pronouns allows for ambiguity and lack of emphasis on gender labels. Her", "Rock musician David Bowie famously declared himself bisexual in an interview with \"Melody Maker\" in January 1972, a move coinciding with the first shots in his campaign for stardom as Ziggy Stardust. In a September 1976 interview with \"Playboy\", Bowie said, \"It's true—I am a bisexual. But I can't deny that I've used that fact very well. I suppose it's the best thing that ever happened to me.\" In a 1983 interview, he said it was \"the biggest mistake I ever made\", elaborating in 2002 he explained \"I don't think it was a mistake in Europe, but it was a lot tougher in America. I had no problem with people knowing I was bisexual. But I had no inclination to hold any banners or be a representative of any group of people. I knew what I wanted to be, which was a songwriter and a performer [...] America is a very puritanical place, and I think it stood in the way of so much I wanted to do.\" Queen singer Freddie Mercury was also open about his bisexuality, though did not publicly discuss", "In the Netflix original series \"Orange is the New Black\" the main character, Piper Chapman, played by actress Taylor Schilling, is a bisexual female inmate who is shown having relationships with both men and women. In season one, before entering the prison, Piper is engaged to male fiancé Larry Bloom, played by actor Jason Biggs. Then, upon entering the prison, she reconnects with former lover (and fellow inmate), Alex Vause, played by Laura Prepon. Another character who is portrayed as bisexual in the show is an inmate named Lorna Morello, played by actress Yael", "In October 2009, \"A Rose By Any Other Name\" was released as a \"webisode\" series on YouTube. Directed", "Many non-human animal species exhibit bisexual behavior. Examples of mammals that display such behavior include the bonobo (formerly known as the pygmy chimpanzee), orca, and the bottlenose dolphin. Examples of birds include some species of gulls and Humboldt penguins. Other examples of bisexual behavior occur among fish and flatworms. Many species of animals are involved in the acts of forming sexual and non-sexual relationship bonds between the same sex; even when offered the opportunity to breed with members of the opposite sex, they pick the same sex. Some of these species are gazelles, antelope, bison, and sage grouse. In some cases, animals will choose to engage in sexual activity with different sexes at different times in their lives, and will sometimes engage in sexual activity with different sexes at random. Same-sex sexual activity can also be seasonal in some animals, like male walruses who often engage in same-sex sexual activity with each other outside of the breeding season and will revert to heterosexual sexual activity during breeding season." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Aesthetics.", "Consumption.", "Mechanics.", "Critical perspectives.", "Social classes.", "Imitation and distinction.", "Criticism of class-based theories.", "Bad taste." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The concept of aesthetics has been the interest of philosophers such as Plato, Hume and Kant, who understood aesthetics as something pure and searched the essence of beauty, or, \"the ontology of aesthetics\". But it was not before the beginning of the cultural sociology of early 19th century that the question was problematized in its social context, which took the differences and changes in historical view as an important process of aesthetical thought. Although Immanuel Kant's \"Critique of Judgement\" (1790) did formulate a non-relativistic idea of aesthetical universality, where both personal pleasure and pure beauty coexisted, it was concepts such as class taste that began the attempt to find essentially sociological answers to the problem of taste and aesthetics. Metaphysical or spiritual interpretations of common aesthetical values have shifted towards locating social groups that form the contemporary artistic taste or fashion. In his aesthetic philosophy, Kant denies any standard of a good taste, which would be the taste of the majority or any social group. For Kant, as discussed in his book titled the \"Critique of Judgment\", beauty is not a property of any object, but an aesthetic judgement based on a subjective feeling. He claims that a genuine good taste does exist, though it could not be empirically identified. Good taste cannot be found in any standards or generalizations, and the validity of a judgement is not the general view of the majority or some specific social group. Taste is both personal and beyond reasoning, and therefore disputing over matters of taste never reaches any universality. Kant stresses that our preferences, even on generally liked things, do not justify our judgements. Every judgement of taste, according to Kant, presumes the existence of a \"sensus communis\", a consensus of taste. This non-existent consensus is an idea that both enables judgements of taste and is constituted by a somewhat conceptual cultivation of taste. A judgement does not take for granted that everyone agrees with it, but it proposes the community to share the experience. If the statement would not be addressed to this community, it is not a genuine subjective judgement. Kant's idea of good taste excludes fashion, which can be understood only in its empirical form, and has no connection with the harmony of ideal consensus. There is a proposition of a universal communal voice in judgements of taste, which calls for a shared feeling among the others. Bourdieu argued against Kantian view of pure aesthetics, stating that the legitimate taste of the society is the taste of the ruling class. This position also rejects the idea of genuine good taste, as the legitimate taste is merely a class taste. This idea was also proposed by Simmel, who noted that the upper classes abandon fashions as they are adopted by lower ones. Fashion in a Kantian sense is an aesthetic phenomenon and source of pleasure. For Kant, the function of fashion was merely a means of social distinction, and he excluded fashion from pure aesthetics because of its content's arbitrary nature. Simmel, following Kantian thought, recognises the usefulness of fashionable objects in its social context. For him, the function lies in the whole fashion pattern, and cannot be attributed to any single object. Fashion, for Simmel, is a tool of individuation, social distinction, and even class distinction, which are neither utilitarian or aesthetical criteria. Still, both Kant and Simmel agreed that staying out of fashion would be pointless.", "Taste and consumption are closely linked together; taste as a preference of certain types of clothing, food and other commodities directly affects the consumer choices at the market. The causal link between taste and consumption is however more complicated than a direct chain of events in which taste creates demand that, in turn, creates supply. There are many scientific approaches to taste, specifically within the fields of economics, psychology and sociology.", "Definition of consumption in its classical economical context can be summed up in the saying \"supply creates its own demand\". In other words, consumption is created by and equates itself to production of market goods. This definition, however, is not adequate to accommodate any theory that tries to describe the link between taste and consumption. A more complex economic model for taste and consumption was proposed by economist Thorstein Veblen. He challenged the simple conception of man as plain consumer of his utmost necessities, and suggested that the study of the formation of tastes and consumption patterns was essential for economics. Veblen did not disregard the importance of the demand for an economic system, but rather insisted on rejection of the principle of utility-maximization. The classical economics conception of supply and demand must be therefore extended to accommodate a type of social interaction that is not immanent in the economics paradigm. Veblen understood man as a creature with a strong instinct to emulate others to survive. As social status is in many cases at least partially based on or represented by one's property, men tend to try and match their acquisitions with those who are higher in a social hierarchy. In terms of taste and modern consumption this means that taste forms in a process of emulation: people emulate each other, which creates certain habits and preferences, which in turn contributes to consumption of certain preferred goods. Veblen's main argument concerned what he called \"leisure class\", and it explicates the mechanism between taste, acquisition and consumption. He took his thesis of taste as an economic factor and merged it with the neoclassical hypothesis of nonsatiety, which states that no man can ever be satisfied with his fortune. Hence, those who can afford luxuries are bound to be in a better social situation than others, because acquisition of luxuries by definition grants a good social status. This creates a demand for certain leisure goods, that are not necessities, but that, because of the current taste of the most well off, become wanted commodities. In different periods of time, consumption and its societal functions have varied. In 14th century England consumption had significant political element. By creating an expensive luxurious aristocratic taste the Monarchy could legitimize itself in high status, and, according to the mechanism of taste and consumption, by mimicking the taste of the Royal the nobility competed for high social position. The aristocratic scheme of consumption came to an end, when industrialization made the rotation of commodities faster and prices lower, and the luxuries of the previous times became less and less indicator of social status. As production and consumption of commodities became a scale bigger, people could afford to choose from different commodities. This provided for fashion to be created in market. The era of mass consumption marks yet another new kind of consumption and taste pattern. Beginning from the 18th century, this period can be characterized by increase in consumption and birth of fashion, that cannot be accurately explained only by social status. More than establishing their class, people acquired goods just to consume hedonistically. This means, that the consumer is never satisfied, but constantly seeks out novelties and tries to satisfy insatiable urge to consume. In above taste has been seen as something that presupposes consumption, as something that exists before consumer choices. In other words, taste is seen as an attribute or property of a consumer or a social group. Alternative view critical to the attributative taste suggests that taste doesn't exist in itself as an attribute or a property, but instead is an activity in itself. This kind of pragmatic conception of taste derives its critical momentum from the fact that individual tastes can not be observed in themselves, but rather that only physical acts can. Building on Hennion, Arsel and Bean suggest a practice-theory approach to understanding taste.", "Consumption, especially mass consumerism has been criticized from various philosophical, cultural and political directions. Consumption has been described as overly conspicuous or environmentally untenable, and also a sign of bad taste. Many critics have voiced their opinion against the growing influence of mass culture, fearing the decline in global divergence of culture. For example, it is claimed that the convenience of getting the same hamburger at fast food places like McDonald's can reduce consumer interest in traditional culinary experiences. The Western culture of consumerism has been criticized for its uniformity. The critics argue, that while the culture industry promises consumers new experiences and adventures, people in fact are fed the same pattern of swift but temporary fulfillment. Here taste, it is suggested, is used as a means of repression; as something that is given from above, or from the industry of the mass culture, to people who are devoid of contentual and extensive ideologies and of will. This critique insists that the popular Western culture does not fill people with aesthetic and cultural satisfaction.", "Arguably, the question of taste is in many ways related to the underlying social divisions of community. There is likely to be variation between groups of different socioeconomic status in preferences for cultural practices and goods, to the extent that it is often possible to identify particular types of class taste. Also, within many theories concerning taste, class dynamics is understood as one of the principal mechanisms structuring taste and the ideas of sophistication and vulgarity.", "Sociologists suggest that people disclose much about their positions in social hierarchies by how their everyday choices reveal their tastes. That is preference for certain consumer goods, appearances, manners etc. may signal status because it is perceived as part of the lifestyle of high-status groups. But, it is further argued, not just that patterns of taste are determined by class structure. because people may also strategically employ distinctions of taste as resources in maintaining and redefining their social status. When taste is explained on account of its functions for status competition, interpretations are often built on the model of social emulation. It is assumed, firstly, that people desire to distinguish themselves from those with lower status in the social hierarchy and, secondly, that people will imitate those in higher positions. The German sociologist Georg Simmel (1858–1918) examined the phenomenon of fashion - as manifested in rapidly changing patterns of taste. According to Simmel, fashion is a vehicle for strengthening the unity of the social classes and for making them distinct. Members of the upper classes tend to signal their superiority, and they act as the initiators of new trends. But upper-class taste is soon imitated by the middle classes. As goods, appearances, manners etc. conceived as high-class status markers become popular enough, they lose their function to differentiate. So the upper classes have to originate yet more stylistic innovations. The particular taste of the upper classes has been further analyzed by an economist Thorsten Veblen (1857–1929). He argues that distancing oneself from hardships of productive labour has always been the conclusive sign of high social status. Hence, upper-class taste is not defined by things regarded as necessary or useful but by those that are the opposite. To demonstrate non-productivity, members of the so-called leisure class waste conspicuously both time and goods. The lower social stratum try their best to imitate the non-productive lifestyle of the upper classes, even though they do not really have means for catching up. One of the most widely referenced theories of class-based tastes was coined by the French sociologist Pierre Bourdieu (1930–2002), who asserted that tastes of social classes are structured on basis of assessments concerning possibilities and constraints of social action. Some choices are not equally possible for everyone. The constraints are not simply because members of different classes have varying amounts of economic resources at their disposal. Bourdieu argued that there are also significant non-economic resources and their distribution effects social stratification and inequality. One such resource is cultural capital, which is acquired mainly through education and social origin. It consists of accumulated knowledge and competence for making cultural distinctions. To possess cultural capital is a potential advantage for social action, providing access to education credentials, occupations and social affiliation. By assessing relationships between consumption patterns and the distribution of economic and cultural capital, Bourdieu identified distinct class tastes within French society of the 1960s. Upper-class taste is characterized by refined and subtle distinctions, and it places intrinsic value on aesthetic experience. This particular kind of taste was appreciated as the legitimate basis for \"good taste\" in French society, acknowledged by the other classes as well. Consequently, members of the middle classes appeared to practice \"cultural goodwill\" in emulating the high-class manners and lifestyles. The taste of the middle classes is not defined as much by authentic appreciation for aesthetics as by a desire to compete in social status. In contrast, the popular taste of the working classes is defined by an imperative for \"choosing the necessary\". Not much importance is placed on aesthetics. This may be because of actual material deprivation excluding anything but the necessary but, also, because of a habit, formed by collective class experiences. Class related tastes become manifest in different cultural domains such as food, clothing, arts, humor, and even religion.", "Theories of taste which build on the ideas of status competition and social emulation have been criticized from various standpoints. Firstly, it has been suggested that it is not reasonable to trace all social action back to status competition. That is while marking and claiming status are strong incentives, people also have other motivations as well. Secondly, it has been argued that it not plausible to assume that tastes and lifestyles are always diffusing downwards from the upper classes. and that in some situations the diffusion of tastes may move in the opposite direction. It has also been argued that the association between social class and taste is no longer quite as strong as it used to be. For instance, theorists of the Frankfurt School have claimed that the diffusion of mass cultural products has obscured class differences in capitalist societies. That is that products consumed passively by members of different social classes are virtually all the same, with only superficial differences regarding to brand and genre. Other criticism has concentrated on the declassifying effects of postmodern culture; that consumer tastes are now less influenced by traditional social structures, and they engage in play with free-floating signifiers to perpetually redefine themselves with whatever they find pleasurable.", "\"Bad taste\" (also poor taste or vulgarity) is generally a title given to any object or idea that does not fall within a person's idea of the normal social standards of the time or area. Varying from society to society and from time to time, bad taste is generally thought of as a negative thing, but also changes with each individual. A contemporary view is that \"a good deal of dramatic verse written during the Elizabethan and Jacobean periods is in poor taste because it is bombast\" or high-sounding language with little meaning." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Career.", "Findings." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Pierre's father was chemistry professor Victor Auger. Pierre Auger was a student at the École normale supérieure in Paris from 1919 to 1922, the year when he passed the agrégation of physics. He then joined the physical chemistry laboratory of the faculté des sciences of the University of Paris under the direction of Jean Perrin to work there on the photoelectric effect.", "In 1926 he obtained his doctorate in physics from the University of Paris. In 1927, he was named assistant to the faculté des sciences of Paris and, at the same time, adjoint chief of service to l'Institut de biologie physico-chimique. Chief of work to faculty in 1934 and general secretary of the annual tables of the constants in 1936, he was named university lecturer in physics to the faculty on the first of November 1937. He was charged with, until 1940, the course on the experimental bases of the quantum theory within the chair of theoretical physics and astrophysics. He was also adjoint director of the laboratory of physical chemistry. He then occupied the chair of quantum physics and relativity of the faculté des sciences of Paris. At the end of World War II, he was named director of higher education from 1945 to 1948, which permitted him to introduce the first chair of genetics at the Sorbonne, conferred upon Boris Ephrussi. The process where Auger electrons are emitted from atoms is used in Auger electron spectroscopy to study the elements on the surface of materials. This method was named after him, despite the fact that Lise Meitner discovered the process a few years before in 1922.", "In his work with cosmic rays, he found that the cosmic radiation events were coincident in time meaning that they were associated with a single event, an air shower. He estimated that the energy of the incoming particle that creates large air showers must be at least 10 electronvolts (eV) = 10 particles of 10 eV (critical energy in air) and a factor of ten for energy loss from traversing the atmosphere." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Benefits.", "Costs.", "Hardware.", "Software." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "There are several incentives for a company to implement backward compatibility. Backward compatibility can be used to preserve older software that would have otherwise been lost when a manufacturer decides to stop supporting older hardware. Classic video games are a common example used when discussing the value of supporting older software. The cultural impact of video games is a large part of their continued success, and some believe ignoring backward compatibility would cause these titles to disappear. Backward compatibility also acts as an additional selling point for new hardware, as an existing player base can more affordably upgrade to subsequent generations of a console. This also helps to make up for a lack of content in the early launch of new systems, as users can pull from the previous console's large library of games while developers slowly transition to the new hardware. One example of this is the Sony PlayStation 2 (PS2) which was backward compatible with games for its predecessor PlayStation (PS1). While the selection of PS2 games available at launch was small, sales of the console were nonetheless strong in 2000-2001 thanks to the large library of games for the preceding PS1. This bought time for the PS2 to grow a large installed base and developers to release more quality PS2 games for the crucial 2001 holiday season. Additionally, and despite not being included at launch, Microsoft slowly incorporated backward compatibility for select titles on the Xbox One several years into its product life cycle. Players have racked up over a billion hours with backward compatible games, and it is rumored that next generation console like the XBOX Series X will also support this feature. A large part of the success and implementation of this feature is that the hardware within newer generation consoles is both powerful and similar enough to legacy systems that older titles can be broken down and re-configured to run on the Xbox One. The backward compatibility program not only supports the previous generation Xbox 360, but also titles from the original Xbox system. Some titles are even given slight visual improvements and additional levels at no cost to the user. This program has proven incredibly popular with Xbox players and goes against the recent trend of studio made remasters of classic titles, creating what some believe to be an important shift in console maker's strategies.", "The literal costs of supporting old software is considered a large drawback to the usage of backward compatibility. The associated costs of backward compatibility are a higher bill of materials if hardware is required to support the legacy systems; increased complexity of the product that may lead to longer time to market, technological hindrances, and slowing innovation; and increased expectations from users in terms of compatibility. Because of this, several gaming consoles chose to phase out backward compatibility toward the end of the console generation in order to reduce cost and briefly re-invigorate sales before the arrival of newer hardware. A notable example is the Sony PlayStation 3, as the first PS3 iteration was expensive to manufacture in part due to including the Emotion Engine from the preceding PS2 in order to run PS2 games, since the PS3 architecture was completely different from the PS2. Subsequent PS3 hardware revisions have eliminated the Emotion Engine as it saved production costs while removing the ability to run PS2 titles, as Sony found out that backward compatibility was not a major selling point for the PS3 in contrast to the PS2. The PS3's chief competitor, the Microsoft Xbox 360, took a different approach to backward compatibility by using software emulation in order to run games from the first Xbox, rather than including legacy hardware from the original Xbox which was quite different from the Xbox 360, however Microsoft stopped releasing emulation profiles after 2007. However, with the current decline in physical game sales and the rise of digital storefronts and downloads, some believe backwards compatibility will soon be as obsolete as the phased-out consoles it supports. Many game studios are re-mastering and re-releasing their most popular titles by improving the quality of graphics and adding new content. These remasters have found success by appealing both to nostalgic players who remember enjoying the original versions when they were younger, and to newcomers who may not have had the original system it was released on. For most consumers, digital remasters are more appealing than hanging on to bulky cartridges and obsolete hardware. For the manufacturers of consoles, digital re-releases of classic titles are a large benefit. It not only removes the financial drawbacks of supporting older hardware, but also shifts all of the costs of updating software to the developers. The manufacturer gets a new addition to their system with strong name recognition, and the studio does not have to completely develop a game from the ground up.", "A simple example of both backward and forward compatibility is the introduction of FM radio in stereo. FM radio was initially mono, with only one audio channel represented by one signal. With the introduction of two-channel stereo FM radio, many listeners had only mono FM receivers. Forward compatibility for mono receivers with stereo signals was achieved through sending the sum of both left and right audio channels in one signal and the difference in another signal. That allows mono FM receivers to receive and decode the sum signal while ignoring the difference signal, which is necessary only for separating the audio channels. Stereo FM receivers can receive a mono signal and decode it without the need for a second signal, and they can separate a sum signal to left and right channels if both sum and difference signals are received. Without the requirement for backward compatibility, a simpler method could have been chosen. Full backward compatibility is particularly important in computer instruction set architectures, one of the most successful being the x86 family of microprocessors. Their full backward compatibility spans back to the 16-bit Intel 8086/8088 processors introduced in 1978. (The 8086/8088, in turn, were designed with easy machine-translatability of programs written for its predecessor in mind, although they were not instruction-set compatible with the 8-bit Intel 8080 processor as of 1974. The Zilog Z80, however, was fully backwards compatible with the Intel 8080.) Fully backwards compatible processors can process the same binary executable software instructions as their predecessors, allowing the use of a newer processor without having to acquire new applications or operating systems. Similarly, the success of the Wi-Fi digital communication standard is attributed to its broad forward and backward compatibility; it became more popular than other standards that were not backward compatible.", "Compiler backward compatibility may refer to the ability of a compiler of a newer version of the language to accept programs or data that worked under the previous version. A data format is said to be backward compatible with its predecessor if every message or file that is valid under the old format is still valid, retaining its meaning under the new format." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Early years (1992–2000).", "Rat trick and a trip to the Stanley Cup Finals.", "New arena and a decade of struggles (1998–2010).", "Dale Tallon era (2010–present).", "Logo and uniforms.", "Season-by-season record.", "League and team honors.", "Awards and trophies.", "Hockey Hall of Fame inductees.", "Franchise scoring leaders." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "3", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Blockbuster Video magnate Wayne Huizenga was awarded an NHL franchise for Miami on December 10, 1992, the same day The Walt Disney Company earned the rights to start a team in Anaheim that would become the Mighty Ducks. At the time, Huizenga owned both the newly founded Florida Marlins of Major League Baseball and a share of the National Football League (NFL)'s Miami Dolphins. The entry fee was $50 million, but despite fellow Florida team Tampa Bay Lightning starting play the year before, the NHL did not consider it to be a case of territory infringement. Huizenga announced the team would play at the Miami Arena, sharing the building with the National Basketball Association's Miami Heat, until a new arena was built. Offices for the team were only established in June 1993, while vice president of business operations Dean Jordan conceded that \"none of the business people, myself included, knew anything about hockey.\" On April 20, 1993, a press conference in Ft. Lauderdale announced that the team would be named Florida Panthers, with former New York Islanders general manager Bill Torrey as president and Bobby Clarke as general manager. The team is named for the Florida panther, an endangered species of large cat endemic to the nearby Everglades region. Once the logos and uniforms were unveiled on June 15, the team also announced its financial commitment to the panther preservation cause. Huizenga held the Panthers trademark since 1991, when he purchased it from a group of Tampa investors who sought to create an MLB team in the Tampa Bay area. The new franchise would join the NHL for participation in the 1993–94 season, along with the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim. The Panthers' and Ducks' roster was filled up in both the expansion draft and the 1993 NHL Entry Draft in June 1993, hosted by Quebec City; that draft produced ten players who would eventually be a part of the 1996 Eastern Conference-winning team. The Panthers' first major stars were New York Rangers goaltender castoff John Vanbiesbrouck, rookie Rob Niedermayer and forward Scott Mellanby, who scored 30 goals in Florida's inaugural season. Their first game was a 4–4 tie on the road against the Chicago Blackhawks, while their first win was a 2–0 shutout of the Tampa Bay Lightning in the Thunderdome before a then-NHL record crowd of 27,227. The Panthers had one of the most successful first seasons of any expansion team, finishing just two points below.500 and narrowly missing out on the final 1994 playoff spot in the East. Their first-year success was attributed mainly to the \"trap defense\" that first-year coach Roger Neilson implemented. This conservative style was widely criticized by NHL teams; some even suggested that the Panthers were ruining the game at the time. While the team executives expected the audience to consist of mostly \"snowbird\" Canadians living in Florida, the Floridians soon embraced the Panthers. Helped by Miami's other teams having middling performances, the club averaged 94% capacity at the 14,500-seat Miami Arena, and managed to sell 8,500 season tickets in 100 days. In August 1994, general manager Clarke left to work for the Philadelphia Flyers, while Bryan Murray was brought in from the Detroit Red Wings as his replacement. After another close brush with the playoffs, finishing the lockout-shortened 1994–95 season again in ninth, Neilson was fired following an argument with Murray regarding Ed Jovanovski, whom the Panthers chose as the number one overall pick at the 1994 NHL Entry Draft. Doug MacLean, who had been the team's player development director, was promoted to coach. The team then acquired Ray Sheppard from the San Jose Sharks at the NHL trade deadline and looked toward the playoffs for the first time.", "A very unusual goal celebration developed in Miami during the 1995–96 season. On the night of the Panthers' 1995–96 home opener, a rat scurried across the team's locker room. Scott Mellanby reacted by \"one-timing\" the rat against the wall, killing it. That night, he scored two goals, which Vanbiesbrouck quipped was \"a rat trick.\" Two nights later, as the story found its way into the world, a few fans threw rubber rats on the ice in celebration of a goal. The rubber rat count went from 16 for the third home game to over 2,000 during the playoffs. In the 1996 playoffs, as the fourth seed in the East, the Panthers faced the Boston Bruins in the first round and won in five games. Bill Lindsay's famous series-clinching goal is still a trademark image for the incredible run the third-year franchise went on. The Panthers went on to upset the top-seeded Philadelphia Flyers in six games followed by the second-seeded Pittsburgh Penguins in seven (with Tom Fitzgerald scoring what would end up being the game-winning goal) to reach the Stanley Cup Finals against the Colorado Avalanche, another team making its first Finals appearance. The Avalanche, however, swept the Panthers in four games. Despite losing in the Finals, the Panthers set a record for most wins by an expansion team in their first postseason appearance with 12 victories (this record would later be broken by the Vegas Golden Knights during their inaugural season in 2017–18). For his team's surprising success, Bryan Murray was honored as NHL Executive of the Year. The Panthers would begin the next season with a 12–game unbeaten streak but faded in the second half of the season after trading second line center Stu Barnes. They lost in the first round of the playoffs to the Wayne Gretzky-led New York Rangers in five games. The team would plummet in the 1997–98 season. After a 7–12–4 start, the Panthers fired Doug MacLean, replacing him for the season with general manager Bryan Murray. The change did not aid matters, however, as Florida posted a franchise-worst 24–43–15 record, including a 15–game winless streak. This season would also mark the end of goaltender John Vanbiesbrouck's time in Florida; in the midst of that streak, he was shelled by the Chicago Blackhawks and never played another game for the Panthers. He would later sign with the Flyers that off-season as a free agent.", "The Panthers moved into the brand new National Car Rental Center (later Office Depot and BankAtlantic Center, now known as BB&T Center) in 1998. In 1998–99, they acquired Pavel Bure (the \"Russian Rocket\"), in a blockbuster trade with the Vancouver Canucks. They then reached the playoffs again in 1999–2000, losing in a first-round sweep to the eventual Stanley Cup champion New Jersey Devils. The team slumped in 2000–01. Afterward, Huizenga sold the Panthers to an ownership group led by Alan Cohen. The following season, 2001–02, the Panthers had their worst record ever. Bure struggled despite being reunited with his brother Valeri, and was traded to the Rangers at the 2002 trade deadline. The Panthers then began eyeing defenceman Jay Bouwmeester, who was widely tipped to be picked first overall pick at the 2002 Draft. However, then-general manager Rick Dudley sent Florida's first pick to the Columbus Blue Jackets, who selected winger Rick Nash, and in return the Panthers received the right to trade first round selections with the Blue Jackets in the 2003 Draft, a right which was not exercised when the Panthers received the first overall selection in 2003 as well. The Atlanta Thrashers, after picking goaltender Kari Lehtonen second overall, announced that the Panthers had given them two draft picks to guarantee that Bouwmeester would still be available for Florida's selection. Bouwmeester was selected third overall by the Panthers. Said then-head coach Mike Keenan, \"We shouldn't have done that... Jay would have been number-one if we'd kept that pick.\" In 2003, the Panthers hosted the NHL All-Star Weekend in which the Western Conference earned a 6–5 victory after the first overtime shootout in All-Star history. The West overcame a four-goal outburst by Thrashers winger Dany Heatley, who took home MVP honors in his first All-Star appearance. On June 23, 2006, the Panthers were again involved in a blockbuster trade with Vancouver, sending Roberto Luongo, Lukas Krajicek and a sixth-round draft pick (Sergei Shirokov) in exchange for Todd Bertuzzi, Alex Auld and Bryan Allen. This trade has been regarded by some as one of the worst trades in professional sports history – Luongo, who was at the prime of his career, was one of the League's top goaltenders, while Bertuzzi played just a handful of games for Florida before getting injured. He would later be traded to Detroit Red Wings at the trade deadline for Shawn Matthias. Additionally, Auld ended up a poor replacement for Luongo, and was ultimately let go after one season with the team. On June 22, 2007, the Panthers were involved in yet another draft day deal involving a goaltender. The team acquired Tomas Vokoun from the Nashville Predators in exchange for three draft picks – a first-round pick in 2008, a second-round pick in 2008 and a conditional second round pick that can be used in 2007 or 2008. The move would eventually pay off when Vokoun was selected to the Eastern Conference All-Star Team. On July 28, 2007, Florida unveiled their new jerseys to over 11,000 fans at the BankAtlantic Center during the first intermission of the Panthers' 1996 Reunion game. Star forwards Nathan Horton and Stephen Weiss were both in full gear to help showcase the sweater changes. In June 2008, the Panthers traded their captain Olli Jokinen to the Phoenix Coyotes for a second-round draft pick and defensemen Keith Ballard and Nick Boynton. The Panthers finished the 2008–09 season with a strong 41–30–11 record and 93 points, their second-highest finish in franchise history. Despite this, however, the Panthers missed the playoffs for an eighth-straight season, the then-longest streak in the NHL. In November 2009, Cliff Viner and Stu Siegel became the new majority owners. On November 23, 2009 the Panthers made their third jersey, ridding red from the alternate jersey, replacing it with powder blue. The Panthers missed the playoffs for the ninth consecutive time in the 2009–10 season, making them the first team in NHL history to do so in one city.", "Panthers management hired Dale Tallon as the team's new general manager on May 17, 2010. Tallon rebuilt the team with 2010 draft picks Erik Gudbranson, Nick Bjugstad and Quinton Howden, as well as the acquisition of players, including Steve Bernier, Michael Grabner, Marty Reasoner, Ryan Carter and Sergei Samsonov. All of the above-mentioned players, however, were traded at the 2011 trade deadline or released during the 2011 off-season, save for Gudbranson, Bjugstad and Howden. At the end of the 2010–11 season, just Stephen Weiss and David Booth remained from the pre-lockout era Panthers roster. On June 1, 2011, Kevin Dineen, head coach of the American Hockey League (AHL)'s Portland Pirates, was named to be the 11th head coach of the Panthers. The team also rebranded their image, releasing a new home jersey, predominantly red with navy blue sleeves, and eliminating the navy blue piping on the road jersey; this new replaced the navy blue one as the main home jersey. The 2011 off-season saw the acquisitions of Scottie Upshall, Tomas Fleischmann, Sean Bergenheim, Marcel Goc, Matt Bradley, Ed Jovanovski, Jose Theodore, Kris Versteeg, Tomas Kopecky and Brian Campbell. After several more trades and over 300-man-games lost to injury throughout the season, the Panthers were able to finish first in the Southeast Division, marking the end of their record-setting decade-long postseason drought. The Panthers won the first-ever division title in franchise history with a 4–1 victory over the Carolina Hurricanes on April 7, 2012. However, the Panthers were eliminated in the first round of the playoffs by the eventual Eastern Conference champion New Jersey Devils, losing at home in double overtime of Game 7. In the lockout-shortened 2013 season, the Panthers had an abysmal season. Unable to regain their form from last season, the Panthers suffered key injuries and fell back down into the basement with the worst record in the League. In the 2013–14 season, the Panthers failed to gain any momentum and finished 29th out of 30 teams. The team then fired head coach Kevin Dineen and replaced him with Peter Horachek. At the trade deadline, the Panthers reacquired Roberto Luongo from Vancouver. The Panthers would relieve Horachek of his duties at the end of the season, replacing him with former Columbus Blue Jackets head coach Gerard Gallant. The team also received the first overall pick in the 2014 NHL Entry Draft, using it to select Barrie Colts defenseman Aaron Ekblad. The Panthers' 2014–15 home opener on October 12, 2014, set a team record for the lowest attendance at a home opener, with only 11,419 spectators in attendance. The team's next game against the Ottawa Senators marked the team's lowest attendance ever, with only 7,311 in attendance. Despite finishing with a record of 38–29–15, the Panthers missed the 2015 playoffs by seven points. On December 8, 2015, the Panthers announced that they signed a 13-year lease, and an $86 million funding agreement with Broward County and would have a new logo and uniforms after the 2015–16 season. Their original logo had remained almost unchanged since their first season in 1993. In the 2015–16 season, the team set a franchise record with a 12-game win streak. They also set a franchise record for most wins in a regular season with 47 wins and won their division for the second time in their existence. However, the Panthers lost to the New York Islanders in six games in the first round of the playoffs; this would be the first playoff series win for the Islanders since the 1992–93 season. Head coach Gerard Gallant was nominated as a finalist for the Jack Adams Award, which recognizes the NHL Coach of the Year. The 2016–17 season began with the promotion of general manager Dale Tallon to an executive position within the organization and assistant general manager Tom Rowe was promoted to general manager. After an 11–10–1 start to the season, the Panthers fired head coach Gerard Gallant and general manager Tom Rowe took over as interim head coach. At the end of the season, Rowe was relieved of his duties as both coach and general manager and was named special advisor to Tallon, who returned to positions of team president and general manager. On June 12, 2017, the Panthers named Bob Boughner as their new head coach. The 2017–18 season began with a 19–22–6 record leading up to the 2018 NHL All-Star Game. The Panthers then went on a 25–8–2 run in their last 35 games, ending up one point short of a playoff berth. Their 44–30–8 record earned 96 regular season points, tying the league record of the 2014–15 Boston Bruins and the 2018–19 Montreal Canadiens for the team with the most regular season points to miss the postseason.", "The Florida Panthers have had just three primary logos over the course of its history. Their first logo, used from 1993 to 2009 and from 2011 to 2016, depicted a leaping panther. This design was later tweaked in the 2009–10 season to feature a hockey stick broken in half, however, it was used for only two seasons. It was redesigned and relegated to an alternate logo when the Panthers unveiled a new logo in the 2016–17 season. The current primary logo is a shield with the profile of a panther head below the word \"Florida\"; the same logo with the word \"Panthers\" above is also used interchangeably. The Panthers' first uniform set was used from 1993 to 2007. The red road and white home uniforms featured the leaping panther crest in front and the alternate palm tree logo on the shoulders. Diagonal stripes accentuated the sleeves and the yoke design was triangular in shape. Yellow and navy were used as accent colors. In 1998, the Panthers debuted an alternate navy uniform, with the front crest depicting the leaping panther holding a pair of broken hockey sticks. Prior to the 2003–04 season, the navy uniform became the primary home uniform while the red uniform was relegated to alternate status. The crests on both uniforms were also switched. Adopting the Reebok Edge template in 2007, the Panthers revealed new uniform designs. The navy and white uniforms sported a thicker stripe on each sleeve along with added piping. In 2009, the Panthers unveiled a navy alternate uniform, featuring a roundel crest depicting a panther head surrounded by the team name. Powder blue replaced red as trim color and the alternate \"FLA\" sunshine logo was placed on the shoulders. This uniform was used for three seasons. Before the 2011–12 season, the Panthers retired their primary navy uniforms and returned to wearing red uniforms at home. The piping on the chest was also eliminated. The Panthers overhauled their visual design prior to the 2016–17 season, replacing yellow with flat gold as trim color. Red uniforms featured the shield logo with the team name, while the white uniforms used the variation with the city name. An alternate logo featuring the flag of Florida below a crawling panther is added on the sleeves. Both sets feature thick contrasting stripes on the chest and sleeves. The basic design was retained once Adidas took over as supplier prior to the 2017–18 season.", "\"This is a partial list of the last five seasons completed by the Panthers. For the full season-by-season history, see List of Florida Panthers seasons.\" \"Note: GP = Games played, W = Wins, L = Losses, T = Ties, OTL = Overtime Losses, Pts = Points, GF = Goals for, GA = Goals against\"", "", "Prince of Wales Trophy Maurice \"Rocket\" Richard Trophy Lady Byng Memorial Trophy Calder Memorial Trophy Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy", "The Florida Panthers have an affiliation with a number of inductees to the Hockey Hall of Fame. Inductees affiliated with the Panthers include six former players and two builders of the sport. Builders that have an affiliation with the Panthers include former head coach Roger Nielson, and Bill Torrey, former general manager of the Panthers. Former play-by-play commentator, Dave Strader was also a recipient of the Foster Hewitt Memorial Award from the Hockey Hall of Fame, for his contributions in hockey broadcasting.", "These are the top-ten-point-scorers in franchise history. Figures are updated after each completed NHL regular season. \"Note: Pos = Position; GP = Games Played; G = Goals; A = Assists; Pts = Points; P/G = Points per game\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Structure.", "Microanatomy.", "Variation.", "Development.", "Function.", "Clinical significance.", "Gallstones.", "Inflammation.", "Gallbladder removal.", "Complication.", "Cancer.", "Tests.", "Other animals.", "History.", "Society and culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The gallbladder is a hollow organ that sits in a shallow depression below the right lobe of the liver, that is grey-blue in life. In adults, the gallbladder measures approximately in length and in diameter when fully distended. The gallbladder has a capacity of about. The gallbladder is shaped like a pear, with its tip opening into the cystic duct. The gallbladder is divided into three sections: the \"fundus\", \"body\", and \"neck\". The \"fundus\" is the rounded base, angled so that it faces the abdominal wall. The \"body\" lies in a depression in the surface of the lower liver. The \"neck\" tapers and is continuous with the cystic duct, part of the biliary tree. The gallbladder fossa, against which the fundus and body of the gallbladder lie, is found beneath the junction of hepatic segments IVB and V. The cystic duct unites with the common hepatic duct to become the common bile duct. At the junction of the neck of the gallbladder and the cystic duct, there is an out-pouching of the gallbladder wall forming a mucosal fold known as \"Hartmann's pouch\". Lymphatic drainage of the gallbladder follows the cystic node which is located between cystic duct and common hepatic ducts. Lymphatics from the lower part of the drain into lower hepatic lymph nodes. All the lymph finally drains into celiac lymph nodes.", "The gallbladder wall is composed of a number of layers. The gallbladder wall's innermost surface is lined by a single layer of columnar cells with a brush border of microvilli, very similar to intestinal absorptive cells. Underneath the epithelium is an underlying lamina propria, a muscular layer, an outer perimuscular layer and serosa. Unlike elsewhere in the intestinal tract, the gallbladder does not have a muscularis mucosae, and the muscular fibres are not arranged in distinct layers. The mucosa, the inner portion of the gallbladder wall, consists of a lining of a single layer of columnar cells, with cells possessing small hair-like attachments called microvilli. This sits on a thin layer of connective tissue, the lamina propria. The mucosa is curved and collected into tiny outpouchings called \"rugae\". A muscular layer sits beneath the mucosa. This is formed by smooth muscle, with fibres that lie in longitudinal, oblique and transverse directions, and are not arranged in separate layers. The muscle fibres here contract to expel bile from the gallbladder. A distinctive feature of the gallbladder is the presence of \"Rokitansky–Aschoff sinuses\", deep outpouchings of the mucosa that can extend through the muscular layer, and which indicate adenomyomatosis. The muscular layer is surrounded by a layer of connective and fat tissue. The outer layer of the fundus of gallbladder, and the surfaces not in contact with the liver, are covered by a thick serosa, which is exposed to the peritoneum. The serosa contains blood vessels and lymphatics. The surfaces in contact with the liver are covered in connective tissue.", "The gallbladder varies in size, shape, and position between different people. Rarely, two or even three gallbladders may coexist, either as separate bladders draining into the cystic duct, or sharing a common branch that drains into the cystic duct. Additionally, the gallbladder may fail to form at all. Gallbladders with two lobes separated by a septum may also exist. These abnormalities are not likely to affect function and are generally asymptomatic. The location of the gallbladder in relation to the liver may also vary, with documented variants including gallbladders found within, above, on the left side of, behind, and detached or suspended from the liver. Such variants are very rare: from 1886 to 1998, only 110 cases of left-lying liver, or less than one per year, were reported in scientific literature. An anatomical variation can occur, known as a Phrygian cap, which is an innocuous fold in the fundus, named after its resemblance to the Phrygian cap.", "The gallbladder develops from an endodermal outpouching of the embryonic gut tube. Early in development, the human embryo has three germ layers and abuts an embryonic yolk sac. During the second week of embryogenesis, as the embryo grows, it begins to surround and envelop portions of this sac. The enveloped portions form the basis for the adult gastrointestinal tract. Sections of this foregut begin to differentiate into the organs of the gastrointestinal tract, such as the esophagus, stomach, and intestines. During the fourth week of embryological development, the stomach rotates. The stomach, originally lying in the midline of the embryo, rotates so that its body is on the left. This rotation also affects the part of the gastrointestinal tube immediately below the stomach, which will go on to become the duodenum. By the end of the fourth week, the developing duodenum begins to spout a small outpouching on its right side, the hepatic diverticulum, which will go on to become the biliary tree. Just below this is a second outpouching, known as the \"cystic diverticulum\", that will eventually develop into the gallbladder.", "The main function of the gallbladder is to store bile, also called gall, needed for the digestion of fats in food. Produced by the liver, bile flows through small vessels into the larger hepatic ducts and ultimately through the cystic duct (parts of the biliary tree) into the gallbladder, where it is stored. At any one time, of bile is stored within the gallbladder. When food containing fat enters the digestive tract, it stimulates the secretion of cholecystokinin (CCK) from I cells of the duodenum and jejunum. In response to cholecystokinin, the gallbladder rhythmically contracts and releases its contents into the common bile duct, eventually draining into the duodenum. The bile emulsifies fats in partly digested food, thereby assisting their absorption. Bile consists primarily of water and bile salts, and also acts as a means of eliminating bilirubin, a product of hemoglobin metabolism, from the body. The bile that is secreted by the liver and stored in the gallbladder is not the same as the bile that is secreted by the gallbladder. During gallbladder storage of bile, it is concentrated 3-10 fold by removal of some water and electrolytes. This is through the active transport of sodium and chloride ions across the epithelium of the gallbladder, which creates an osmotic pressure that also causes water and other electrolytes to be reabsorbed.", "", "Gallstones form when the bile is saturated, usually with either cholesterol or bilirubin. Most gallstones do not cause symptoms, with stones either remaining in the gallbladder or passed along the biliary system. When symptoms occur, severe \"colicky\" pain in the upper right part of the abdomen is often felt. If the stone blocks the gallbladder, inflammation known as cholecystitis may result. If the stone lodges in the biliary system, jaundice may occur; if the stone blocks the pancreatic duct, then pancreatitis may occur. Gallstones are diagnosed using ultrasound. When a symptomatic gallstone occurs, it is often managed by waiting for it to be passed naturally. Given the likelihood of recurrent gallstones, surgery to remove the gallbladder is often considered. Some medication, such as ursodeoxycholic acid, may be used; lithotripsy, a procedure used to break down the stones, may also be used.", "Known as cholecystitis, inflammation of the gallbladder is commonly caused by obstruction of the duct with gallstones, which is known as cholelithiasis. Blocked bile accumulates, and pressure on the gallbladder wall may lead to the release of substances that cause inflammation, such as phospholipase. There is also the risk of bacterial infection. An inflamed gallbladder is likely to cause pain, fever, and tenderness in the upper, right corner of the abdomen, and may have a positive Murphy's sign. Cholecystitis is often managed with rest and antibiotics, particularly cephalosporins and, in severe cases, metronidazole.", "A cholecystectomy is a procedure in which the gallbladder is removed. It may be removed because of recurrent gallstones and is considered an elective procedure. A cholecystectomy may be an open procedure, or one conducted by laparoscopy. In the surgery, the gallbladder is removed from the neck to the fundus, and so bile will drain directly from the liver into the biliary tree. About 30 percent of patients may experience some degree of indigestion following the procedure, although severe complications are much rarer. About 10 percent of surgeries lead to a chronic condition of postcholecystectomy syndrome.", "Biliary injury (bile duct injury) is the traumatic damage of the bile ducts. It is most commonly an iatrogenic complication of cholecystectomy — surgical removal of gall bladder, but can also be caused by other operations or by major trauma. The risk of biliary injury is more during laparoscopic cholecystectomy than during open cholecystectomy. Biliary injury may lead to several complications and may even cause death if not diagnosed in time and managed properly. Ideally biliary injury should be managed at a center with facilities and expertise in endoscopy, radiology and surgery. Biloma is collection of bile within the abdominal cavity. It happens when there is a bile leak, for example after surgery for removing the gallbladder (laparoscopic cholecystectomy), with an incidence of 0.3–2%. Other causes are biliary surgery, liver biopsy, abdominal trauma, and, rarely, spontaneous perforation.", "Cancer of the gallbladder is uncommon and mostly occurs in later life. When cancer occurs, it is mostly of the glands lining the surface of the gallbladder (adenocarcinoma). Gallstones are thought to be linked to the formation of cancer. Other risk factors include large (>1 cm) gallbladder polyps and having a highly calcified \"porcelain\" gallbladder. Cancer of the gallbladder can cause attacks of biliary pain, yellowing of the skin (jaundice), and weight loss. A large gallbladder may be able to be felt in the abdomen. Liver function tests may be elevated, particularly involving GGT and ALP, with ultrasound and CT scans being considered medical imaging investigations of choice. Cancer of the gallbladder is managed by removing the gallbladder, however, the prognosis remains poor. Cancer of the gallbladder may also be found incidentally after surgical removal of the gallbladder, with 1–3% of cancers identified in this way. Gallbladder polyps are mostly benign growths or lesions resembling growths that form in the gallbladder wall, and are only associated with cancer when they are larger in size (>1 cm). Cholesterol polyps, often associated with cholesterolosis (\"strawberry gallbladder\", a change in the gallbladder wall due to excess cholesterol), often cause no symptoms and are thus often detected in this way.", "Tests used to investigate for gallbladder disease include blood tests and medical imaging. A full blood count may reveal an increased white cell count suggestive of inflammation or infection. Tests such as bilirubin and liver function tests may reveal if there is inflammation linked to the biliary tree or gallbladder, and whether this is associated with inflammation of the liver, and a lipase or amylase may be elevated if there is pancreatitis. Bilirubin may rise when there is obstruction of the flow of bile. A CA 19-9 level may be taken to investigate for cholangiocarcinoma. An ultrasound is often the first medical imaging test performed when gallbladder disease such as gallstones are suspected. An abdominal X-ray or CT scan is another form of imaging that may be used to examine the gallbladder and surrounding organs. Other imaging options include MRCP (magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography), ERCP and percutaneous or intraoperative cholangiography. A cholescintigraphy scan is a nuclear imaging procedure used to assess the condition of the gallbladder.", "Most vertebrates have gallbladders, but the form and arrangement of the bile ducts may vary considerably. In many species, for example, there are several separate ducts running to the intestine, rather than the single common bile duct found in humans. Several species of mammals (including horses, deer, rats, and laminoids), several species of birds, lampreys and all invertebrates lack a gallbladder altogether. The bile from several species of bears is used in traditional Chinese medicine; bile bears are kept alive in captivity while their bile is painfully extracted, in an industry characterized by animal cruelty.", "Depictions of the gallbladder and biliary tree are found in Babylonian models found from 2000 BCE, and in ancient Etruscan model from 200 BCE, with models associated with divine worship. Diseases of the gallbladder have been recorded in humans since antiquity, with gallstones found in the mummy of Princess Amenen of Thebes dating to 1500 BCE. Some historians believe the death of Alexander the Great may have been associated with an acute episode of cholecystitis. The existence of the gallbladder has been noted since the 5th century, but it is only relatively recently that the function and the diseases of the gallbladder has been documented, particularly in the last two centuries. The first descriptions of gallstones appear to have been in the Renaissance, perhaps because of the low incidence of gallstones in earlier times owing to a diet with more cereals and vegetables and less meat. Anthonius Benevinius in 1506 was the first to draw a connection between symptoms and the presence of gallstones. Courvoisier, after examining a number of cases in 1890 that gave rise to the eponymous Courvoisier's law, stated that in an enlarged, nontender gallbladder, the cause of jaundice is unlikely to be gallstones. The first surgical removal of a gallstone (cholecystolithotomy) was in 1676 by physician Joenisius, who removed the stones from a spontaneously occurring biliary fistula. Stough Hobbs in 1867 performed the first recorded cholecystotomy, although such an operation was in fact described earlier by French surgeon Jean Louis Petit in the mid eighteenth century. German surgeon Carl Langenbuch performed the first cholecystectomy in 1882 for a sufferer of cholelithiasis. Before this, surgery had focused on creating a fistula for drainage of gallstones. Langenbuch reasoned that given several other species of mammal have no gallbladder, humans could survive without one. The debate whether surgical removal of the gallbladder or simply gallstones was preferred was settled in the 1920s, with the consensus that removal of the gallbladder was preferred. It was only in the mid and late parts of the twentieth century that medical imaging techniques such as use of contrast medium and CT scans were used to view the gallbladder. The first laparoscopic cholecystectomy performed by Erich Mühe of Germany in 1985, although French surgeons Phillipe Mouret and Francois Dubois are often credited for their operations in 1987 and 1988 respectively.", "To have \"gall\" is associated with bold behaviour, whereas to have \"bile\" is associated with bitterness. In the Chinese language, the gallbladder () is associated with courage and a myriad of related idioms, including using terms such as \"a body completely [of] gall\" () to describe a brave person, and \"single gallbladder hero\" () to describe a lone hero. In the Zangfu theory of Chinese medicine, the gallbladder not only has a digestive role, but is seen as the seat of decision-making." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Design and development.", "Operational history.", "The Korean War (1950–1953).", "Defection.", "The Cold War.", "Suez Canal Crisis (1956).", "Taiwan Straits crisis.", "Vietnam.", "Other events.", "MiG-17.", "Production.", "Surviving aircraft." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The first turbojet fighter developed by Mikoyan-Gurevich OKB was the Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-9, which appeared in the years immediately after World War II. It used a pair of reverse-engineered German BMW 003 engines. The MiG-9 was a troublesome design that suffered from weak, unreliable engines and control problems. Categorized as a first-generation jet fighter, it was designed with the straight-style wings common to piston-engined fighters. The Germans had been unable to develop turbojets with thrust over running at the time of the surrender in May 1945, which limited the performance of immediate Soviet postwar jet aircraft designs. They did inherit the technology of the advanced axial-compressor and BMW 018 engines, in the class of the later Rolls-Royce Avon, that were some years ahead of the then currently available British Rolls-Royce Nene engine. The Soviet aviation minister Mikhail Khrunichev and aircraft designer A. S. Yakovlev suggested to Premier Joseph Stalin that the USSR buy the conservative but fully developed Nene engines from Rolls-Royce (having been alerted to the fact that the U.K. Labour government wanted to improve post-war UK-Russia foreign relations) for the purpose of copying them in a minimum of time. Stalin is said to have replied, \"What fool will sell us his secrets?\" However, he gave his consent to the proposal and Mikoyan, engine designer Vladimir Klimov, and others travelled to the United Kingdom to request the engines. To Stalin's amazement, the British Labour government and its Minister of Trade, Sir Stafford Cripps, were perfectly willing to provide technical information and a license to manufacture the Rolls-Royce Nene. Sample engines were purchased and delivered with blueprints. Following evaluation and adaptation to Russian conditions, the windfall technology was tooled for mass-production as the Klimov RD-45 to be incorporated into the MiG-15. To take advantage of the new engine, the Council of Ministers ordered the Mikoyan-Gurevich OKB to build two prototypes for an advanced high-altitude daytime interceptor to defend against bombers. It was to have a top speed of and a range of. Designers at MiG's OKB-155 started with the earlier MiG-9 jet fighter. The new fighter used Klimov's British-derived engines, swept wings, and a tailpipe going all the way back to a swept tail. The German Me 262 was the first fighter fitted with an 18.5° wing sweep, but it was introduced merely to adjust the center of gravity of its heavy Junkers Jumo 004 pioneering axial-compressor turbojet engines. Further experience and research during World War II later established that swept wings would give better performance at transonic speeds. At the end of World War II, the Soviets seized many of the assets of Germany's aircraft industry. The MiG team studied these plans, prototypes and documents, particularly swept-wing research and designs, even going so far as to produce a flying testbed in 1945 to investigate swept-wing design concepts as the piston-engined \"pusher\"-layout, MiG-8 \"Utka\" (Russian for \"duck\", from its tail-first canard design). The swept wing later proved to have a decisive performance advantage over straight-winged jet fighters when it was introduced into combat over Korea.", "The MiG-15 was widely exported, with the People's Republic of China (PRC) receiving MiG-15\"bis\" models in 1950. Its baptism of fire occurred during the last phases (1946–49) of the Chinese Civil War. During the first months of 1950, the aviation of Nationalist China attacked from Taiwan the communist position in continental China, especially Shanghai. Mao Zedong requested the military assistance of the USSR, and the 50th IAD (; ; Fighter Aviation Division) equipped with the MiG-15bis was deployed in the southern part of the PRC. On 28 April 1950, Captain Kalinikov shot down a P-38 of the Kuomintang, scoring the first aerial victory of the MiG-15. Another followed on 11 May, when Captain Ilya Ivanovich Schinkarenko downed the B-24 Liberator of Li Chao Hua, commander of the 8th Air Group of the nationalist Air Force. Chinese MiG-15s took part in the first jet-\"versus\"-jet dogfights during the Korean War. The swept-wing MiG-15 quickly proved superior to the first-generation, straight-wing jets of western air forces such as the Lockheed P-80 Shooting Star and the British Gloster Meteor, as well as piston-engined P-51 Mustangs and Vought F4U Corsairs with the MiG-15 of First Lieutenant Semyon Fyodorovich Khominich scoring the first jet-vs-jet victory in history when he bagged the F-80C of Frank Van Sickle, who died in the encounter (the USAF credits the loss to North Korean flak). Only the F-86 Sabre was a match for the MiG.", "When the Korean War broke out on 25 June 1950, the Korean People's Air Force (KPAF) was equipped with World War II-vintage Soviet prop-driven fighters, including 93 Il-10s and 79 Yak-9Ps, and \"40–50 assorted transport/liaison/trainer aircraft\". The vast numerical and technical superiority of the United States Air Force (USAF), led by advanced jets such as Lockheed F-80 Shooting Star and Republic F-84 Thunderjet fighters, quickly achieved air superiority, thus laying North Korea's cities bare to the destructive power of USAF B-29 bombers, which, together with Navy and Marine aircraft, roamed the skies largely unopposed for a time. In February 1950, the 50th IAD had already been moved to China to support the People's Liberation Army Air Force (PLAAF) defending Shanghai and begin training Chinese pilots in the MiG-15. The Soviet pilots and technicians who were already in China relocated from Shanghai to northeast China at the end of 1950. In the Soviet Union, more MiG-15 pilots were recruited; the volunteers had to be younger than 27 years and priority was given to World War II veterans. They formed the 29th GvIAP, which formed the core of the Soviet unit, the 64th Fighter Aviation Corps (64th IAK). The MiG-15's performance amazed its Western opponents. The British Chief of the Air Staff said \"Not only is it faster than anything we are building today, but it is already being produced in very large numbers [...] The Russians, therefore, have achieved a four year lead over British development in respect of the vitally important interceptor fighter\". The MiG-15 proved very effective in its designed role against formations of B-29 heavy bombers, shooting down numerous bombers. In a match-up with the F-86, the results were not as clear-cut, and Americans claimed that the F-86 had the advantage in combat kills. The Soviet 64th IAK claimed 1,106 UN aircraft destroyed in the Korean War, compared to Allied records that 142 Allied aircraft were downed by Soviet MiG-15 pilots. Western experts do acknowledge", "In April 1951, a crashed MiG-15 was spotted near the Chongchon River. On 17 April 1951, a USAF Sikorsky H-19 staging through Baengnyeongdo carried a US/South Korean team to the crash site. They photographed the wreck and removed the turbine blades, combustion chamber, exhaust pipe and horizontal stabilizer. The overloaded helicopter then flew the team and samples back to Paengyong-do, where they were transferred to an SA-16 and flown south and then to Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, for evaluation. In July 1951, the submerged remains of a MiG-15 were spotted by Royal Navy carrier aircraft from. The MiG-15 was broken up, a piece of the engine was visible aft of the center section, and the tail section was located some distance away. The wreck was located in an area of mudbanks with treacherous tides and at the end of a narrow channel that was supposedly mined, ca. 160 km behind the front lines. The MiG-15 was retrieved, transported to Incheon and then to Wright-Patterson Air Force Base.", "During the 1950s, the MiG-15s of the USSR and their Warsaw Pact allies on many occasions, intercepted aircraft of the NATO air", "Egypt bought two squadrons of MiG-15bis and MiG-17 fighters in 1955 from Czechoslovakia with the sponsorship and support of the USSR, just in time to participate in the Suez Canal Crisis. By the outbreak of the Suez conflict in October 1956, four squadrons of the Egyptian Air Force were equipped with the type, although few pilots were trained to fly them effectively. They first saw aerial action on the morning of 30 October, intercepting four RAF Canberra bombers on a reconnaissance mission over the Canal Zone, damaging one. Later that day, MiG-15s attacked Israeli forces at Mitla Pass and El Thamed in the Sinai, destroying half a dozen vehicles. As a result, the Israeli Air Force (IAF) instituted a standing combat air patrol over", "After the Korean War ended, Communist China turned its attention back to Nationalist China on the island of Taiwan. Chinese MiG-15s were in action over the Taiwan Strait against the outnumbered Nationalist Air Force (CNAF), and helped make possible the Communist occupation of two strategic island groups. The", "Vietnam operated a number of MiG-15s and MiG-15UTIs for training only. There is no", "The first man in space, Yuri Gagarin, was killed in a crash", "The more advanced MiG-17 \"Fresco\" was very similar in appearance, but addressed many of the limitations of the MiG-15. It introduced a new swept wing with a \"compound", "The USSR built 1344 MiG-15, 8352 MiG-15bis and 3434 two-seaters. It was also built under license in Czechoslovakia as the S-102 (MiG-15, 821 aircraft), S-103 (MiG-15bis, 620 aircraft) and CS-102 (MiG-15UTI, 2012 aircraft) and Poland as the Lim-1 (MiG-15, 227 aircraft) and Lim-2 (MiG-15bis, 500 aircraft). No two-seaters have been built in Poland as such – the SB Lim-1 and SB Lim-2 variants were remanufactured from hundreds of Polish-, Czech- and Soviet-built single-seaters. In the early 1950s, the Soviet Union", "Many MiG-15s are on display throughout the world. In addition, they are becoming increasingly common as private sport aircraft and warbirds. According to the FAA, there were 43 privately owned MiG-15s in the US in 2011, including Chinese and Polish derivatives, the first of which is owned by aviator and aerobatic flyer, Paul T. Entrekin. This aircraft is a Polish-built SB Lim-2 (MiG-15UTI), produced by WSK-Mielec in 1952. The aircraft is operated by the Norwegian Air Force. A MiG-15 is parked adjacent to the terminal building at what is now Zielona Góra Airport, near Babimost, Poland, reflecting the former airport's military origins." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Early years (1974–1982).", "Playoffs streak and first Eastern Conference championship (1982–1998).", "Fourteen consecutive playoff appearances (1983–1996).", "Return to playoffs and first Stanley Cup Finals appearance (1996–1998).", "Disappointments and rebuilding (1998–2004).", "Alexander Ovechkin and the first Stanley Cup championship (2004–present).", "Building a contender (2005–2008).", "Return to playoffs and first President's Trophy (2008–2015).", "Back-to-back Presidents' Trophies and the Stanley Cup (2015–present).", "Team information.", "Broadcasters.", "Historical.", "Logos and jerseys.", "Season-by-season record.", "League and team honors.", "Awards and trophies.", "Hall of Fame members.", "Franchise scoring leaders.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Along with the Kansas City Scouts, the Capitals joined the NHL as an expansion team for the 1974–75 season (although the city of Washington was awarded a franchise on July 8, 1972). The team was owned by Abe Pollin (also owner of the National Basketball Association's Washington Bullets/Wizards). Pollin had built the Capital Centre in suburban Landover, Maryland, to house both the Bullets (who formerly played in Baltimore) and the Capitals. His first act as owner was to hire Hall of Famer Milt Schmidt as general", "First, the team hired David Poile as general manager. Second, as his first move, Poile pulled off one of the largest trades in franchise history on September 9, 1982, when he dealt longtime regulars Ryan Walter and Rick Green to the Montreal Canadiens in exchange for Rod Langway (named captain only a few weeks later), Brian Engblom, Doug Jarvis and Craig Laughlin. This move turned the franchise around, as Langway's solid defense helped the team to dramatically reduce its goals-against, and the explosive goal-scoring of Dennis Maruk, Mike Gartner and Bobby Carpenter fueled the offensive attack. Another significant move was the drafting of defenseman Scott Stevens during the 1982 NHL Entry Draft (the pick was made by interim general manager Roger Crozier, prior to Poile's hiring). The result was a 29-point jump, a third-place finish in the powerful Patrick Division, and the team's first playoff appearance in 1983. Although they were eliminated by the three-time-defending (and eventual) Stanley Cup champion New York Islanders (three games to one), the Caps' dramatic turnaround ended any talk of the club leaving Washington.", "The Capitals would make the playoffs for each of the next 14 years in a row, becoming known for starting slow before catching fire in January and February. However, regular-season success did not carry into the playoffs. Despite a continuous march of stars like Gartner, Carpenter, Langway, Gustafsson, Stevens, Mike Ridley, Dave Christian, Dino Ciccarelli, Larry Murphy, and Kevin Hatcher, Washington was knocked out in either the first or second round seven years in a row. In 1985–86, for instance, the Caps finished with 107 points and won 50 games for the first time in franchise history, good enough for the third-best record in the", "From 1991 to 1996, the Capitals would lose in either the first or the second round of the playoffs. They would eliminate the Rangers in the first round but lost the second round to the Pittsburgh Penguins in 1991. In 1992 and 1993, they would lose in the first round to the Penguins and the Islanders, respectively. In 1994, they won their first round series against the Penguins but lost in the second round to the Rangers. In 1995 and 1996, they lost in the first round both times to the Penguins. They would miss the playoffs in 1997, but they came close to", "After their 1998 championship run, the Capitals finished the 1998–99 season with a record of 31-45-6 and failed to qualify for the playoffs. During the season, the team was sold to a group headed by AOL executive Ted Leonsis. The Capitals went on to win back-to-back Southeast Division titles in 2000 and 2001, yet both years lost in the first round of the playoffs to the Penguins. After the 2000–01 season, Adam Oates demanded a trade but management refused and stripped him of", "In the 2004 NHL Entry Draft, the Capitals won the Draft Lottery, moving ahead of the Pittsburgh Penguins, who held the NHL's worst record, and selected Alexander Ovechkin first overall. During the NHL labor dispute of 2004–05, which cost the NHL its entire season, Ovechkin stayed in Russia, playing for Dynamo Moscow. Several other Capitals played part or all of the lost season in Europe, including Olaf Kolzig, Brendan Witt, Jeff Halpern, and Alexander Semin. The Capitals' 2005 off-season consisted of making D.C.-area native Halpern the team's captain, signing Andrew Cassels, Ben Clymer, Mathieu Biron and Jamie Heward, and acquiring Chris Clark and Jeff Friesen via trade.", "The Capitals finished the 2005–06 season in the cellar of the Southeastern Division again, with a 29–41–12 campaign, earning 12 more points than the 2003–04 season, good for 27th out of the 30 NHL teams. The team, however, played close in every game, playing in 42 one-goal games, although losing two-thirds of those games. Ovechkin's rookie season exceeded the hype, as he led all 2005–06 NHL rookies in goals, points, power-play goals and shots. He finished third overall in the NHL in scoring and tied for third in goals, and his 425 shots not only led the league, but also set an NHL rookie record and was the fourth-highest total in NHL history. Ovechkin's rookie", "The accolades for the team continued to grow after the end of the season. Alexander Ovechkin won the Art Ross Trophy, the Maurice \"Rocket\" Richard Trophy, the Hart Memorial Trophy and the Lester B. Pearson Award, becoming the first player in NHL history to win all four awards in the same season. He also was the first player to win an MVP award in any major sport in the Washington, D.C., area since Joe Theismann won the National Football League (NFL) MVP award in 1983. Moreover, Ovechkin was also named an NHL First Team All-Star and became the first player since 1953 to be named as such in each of his first three years in the NHL. Nicklas Backstrom was a finalist for the Calder Trophy, but ended up second to the Chicago Blackhawks' Patrick Kane, though Backstrom was nonetheless selected to the All-Star Rookie Team. In addition to player awards, head coach Bruce Boudreau won the Jack Adams Award for the NHL's coach of the year. Ovechkin and Mike Green were named to the \"Sporting News\" All-Star Team, with Ovechkin being the \"Sporting News\" Player of the Year. The 2008–09 season was highlighted by the play of Mike Green (who was the", "In the 2015–16 season, the Capitals finished in first place in the league with a record of 56–18–8 and 120 points. In the first round of the playoffs, they would face the Philadelphia Flyers. The Capitals won the first three games of the series and were looking for their first sweep in the playoffs of a best-of-seven series in franchise history. However, the Flyers would win the next two games to send the series to a sixth game in Philadelphia; the Capitals nevertheless won that series in six games to advance to the second round of the playoffs. In the second round, they faced the Pittsburgh Penguins for the first time since 2009. After winning the first game of the series in Washington, the Capitals lost three straight games, and were in danger of elimination. Washington would stave off elimination with a win in Game 5, but they would lose the series in six games, with the Penguins going on to win the Stanley Cup. Ovechkin reached the 1,000-point milestone on January 11, 2017, with a goal against the Pittsburgh Penguins 35 seconds into the first period of that game. Ovechkin is the 84th NHL player to reach the 1,000-point milestone, the fourth Russian-born player and the 37th player to reach the milestone while playing for one team throughout their NHL career. The Capitals won their second Presidents' Trophy in a row, becoming just the seventh team in NHL history to win back-to-back Presidents' Trophies. Ovechkin finished the 2016–17 regular season with 33 goals, leading the Capitals in goals for the twelfth straight season. In the 2017 playoffs, the Capitals defeated the Toronto Maple Leafs in six games in the first round to set up a second consecutive showdown with the Pittsburgh Penguins in the second round. After falling behind 3–1 in the series, they", "", "NBC Sports Washington (NBCSW) has carried Capitals games locally since its founding as Home Team Sports (HTS) in 1984. NBC Sports Washington was known as Comcast SportsNet Mid-Atlantic (CSN) from 2001 through 2017. NBCSW's commentators are Joe Beninati, Craig Laughlin, \"Inside-the-Glass\" reporter Alan May, and rinkside reporter Al Koken. The Capitals' flagship radio station is WJFK-FM (106.7 FM); commentators are John Walton and Ken Sabourin. The team's radio network consists of stations in Washington, Virginia, Maryland, West Virginia, Pennsylvania, and North Carolina. Mike Vogel has been covering the team online for the Washington Capitals on its website since the 1995-96 season, writing daily game stories and analysis. Vogel, who also participates in podcasts and in-stadium video presentations as well as guesting on various Washington DC radio and television programs, has been described as \"the most interesting man in Caps media.\"", "WTOP-TV (channel 9) picked up television coverage for the Capitals' first three seasons, covering 15 road games in the 1974–75 season. Legendary sportscaster Warner Wolf was the commentator for the first season. Team radio broadcaster Ron Weber moved to the TV booth for telecasts in the second and third seasons. The Capitals moved to longtime home WDCA (channel 20) in the 1977–78 season. WDCA later split games with HTS/CSN upon its founding in 1984. The 1991–92 season illustrates a typical arrangement: WDCA showed 20 road games and any road playoff games, while HTS picked up 34 home games and any home playoff games, leaving 28 regular-season games not televised. After 18 seasons on WDCA, the Capitals moved their over-the-air broadcasts to WBDC (channel 50) for the 1995–96 season. All 82 games were televised for the first time in the 2001–02 season. The Capitals have not aired any games over-the-air locally since the end of the 2005–06 season. WTOP (1500 AM) was the Capitals' first radio home through the", "The Capitals took to the ice in red, white and blue jerseys featuring contrast-colored shoulders and stars on the chest and sleeves. The team originally had red, white, and blue pants options, but retired the white pants only after a few games in their first season, and the red ones at season's end. The blue pants would eventually become the only option used. Prior to the start of the 1995–96 season, in an attempt to modernize the look and improve merchandise sales, the team abandoned its traditional red, white and blue color scheme in favor of a blue, black, and bronze palette with an American bald eagle with five", "\"This is a partial list of the last five seasons completed by the Capitals. For the full season-by-season history, see List of", "", "Stanley Cup Presidents' Trophy Prince of Wales Trophy Conn Smythe Trophy Hart Memorial Trophy Lester B. Pearson/Ted Lindsay Award Art Ross Trophy Maurice \"Rocket\" Richard Trophy", "The Washington Capitals hold an affiliation with a number of inductees to the Hockey Hall of Fame. Eight inductees from the players category of the Hall of Fame are affiliated with the Capitals. In 2015, two former Capital players, Sergei Fedorov, and Phil Housley, were the latest Capitals players to be inducted into the Hall of Fame, with five out", "These are the top-ten regular season point-scorers in franchise history. Figures are updated after each completed", "Footnotes Citations" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Types.", "Uses." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The ancestors of modern stationary bicycles date back to the end of the eighteenth century. The Gymnasticon was an early example.", "Some models feature handlebars that are connected to the pedals so that the upper body can be exercised along with the lower body. Most exercise bikes provide a mechanism for applying resistance to the pedals which increases the intensity of the exercise. Resistance mechanisms include magnets, fans, and friction mechanisms. Some models allow the user to pedal backwards to exercise antagonist muscles which are not exercised in forward pedaling. Exercise bicycles are typically manufactured using a crankshaft and bottom bracket, which turns a flywheel by means of a belt or chain. The bearings on these moving parts wear with use and may require replacement. Specialized indoor bicycles manufactured using a weighted flywheel at the front are used in the indoor cycling exercises called spinning. Various types of indoor mini-cycles (also known as exercise pedallers) have also developed as portable, inexpensive alternatives to traditional stationary bicycles. They are useful when exercisers are unable to access their stationary bicycles from their homes or local gyms when travels or at work.", "Exercise bikes are used for exercise, to increase general fitness, for weight loss, and for training for cycle events. The exercise bike has long been used for physical therapy because of the low-impact, safe, and effective cardiovascular exercise it provides. The low-impact movement involved in operating an exercise bike does not put much stress on joints and does not involve sporadic motions that some other fitness equipment may require. However, as with typical biking, extended use of a stationary bike has been linked to decreased sexual function. Stationary bikes are also used for physical testing, i.e. as ergometers for measuring power. Traditionally this is done by imposing a certain level of resistance mechanically and/or measuring this. gives a good overview. Modern ergometers and even many consumer exercise bikes are fitted with electronic sensors and displays. Ergometers, such as CEVIS (Cycle Ergometer with Vibration Isolation and Stabilization System), are used in space (e.g. in the ISS) to counter cardiovascular deconditioning in the microgravity environment. Mini-cycles offer exercisers low intensity physical activities that helps \"burn calories, helps moderate blood sugar levels, help combat cholesterol, provides gentle toning, keeps joints mobile through gentle use and improves general circulation.\" They are also often used by people for rehabilitation purposes after suffering physical injuries." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Discovery and exploitation.", "Generation and reception.", "Speed, wavelength, and frequency.", "Propagation characteristics.", "Radio communication.", "Biological and environmental effects.", "Measurement." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Radio waves were first predicted by mathematical work done in 1867 by British mathematical physicist James Clerk Maxwell. His mathematical theory, now called Maxwell's equations, predicted that a coupled electric and magnetic field could travel through space as an \"electromagnetic wave\". Maxwell proposed that light consisted of electromagnetic waves of very short wavelength. In 1887, German physicist Heinrich Hertz demonstrated the reality of Maxwell's electromagnetic waves by experimentally generating radio waves in his laboratory, showing that they exhibited the same wave properties as light: standing waves, refraction, diffraction, and polarization. Italian inventor Guglielmo Marconi developed the first practical radio transmitters and receivers around 1894–1895. He received the 1909 Nobel Prize in physics for his radio work. Radio communication began to be used commercially around 1900. The modern term \"\"radio wave\"\" replaced the original name \"\"Hertzian wave\"\" around 1912.", "Radio waves are radiated by electric charges when they are accelerated. They are produced artificially by time-varying electric currents, consisting of electrons flowing back and forth in a specially-shaped metal conductor called an antenna. An electronic device called a radio transmitter applies oscillating electric current to the antenna, and the antenna radiates the power as radio waves. They are received by another antenna attached to a radio receiver. When they strike the receiving antenna they push the electrons in the metal back and forth, creating tiny oscillating currents which are detected by the receiver.", "Radio waves in a vacuum travel at the speed of light. When passing through a material medium, they are slowed according to that object's permeability and permittivity. Air is thin enough that in the Earth's atmosphere radio waves travel very close to the speed of light. The wavelength is the distance from one peak of the wave's electric field (wave's peak/crest) to the next, and is inversely proportional to the frequency of the wave. The distance a radio wave travels in one second, in a vacuum, is which is the wavelength of a 1 hertz radio signal. A 1 megahertz radio signal has a wavelength of.", "Radio waves are more widely used for communication than other electromagnetic waves mainly because of their desirable propagation properties, stemming from their large wavelength. Radio waves have the ability to pass through the atmosphere, foliage, and most building materials, and by diffraction can bend around obstructions, and unlike other electromagnetic waves they tend to be scattered rather than absorbed by objects larger than their wavelength. The study of radio propagation, how radio waves move in free space and over the surface of the Earth, is vitally important in the design of practical radio systems. Radio waves passing through different environments experience reflection, refraction, polarization, diffraction, and absorption. Different frequencies experience different combinations of these phenomena in the Earth's atmosphere, making certain radio bands more useful for specific purposes than others. Practical radio systems mainly use three different techniques of radio propagation to communicate:", "In radio communication systems, information is carried across space using radio waves. At the sending end, the information to be sent, in the form of a time-varying electrical signal, is applied to a radio transmitter. The information signal can be an audio signal representing sound from a microphone, a video signal representing moving images from a video camera, or a digital signal representing data from a computer. In the transmitter, an electronic oscillator generates an alternating current oscillating at a radio frequency, called the \"carrier wave\" because it serves to \"carry\" the information through the air. The information signal is used to modulate the carrier, altering some aspect of it, \"piggybacking\" the information on the carrier. The modulated carrier is amplified and applied to an antenna. The oscillating current pushes the electrons in the antenna back and forth, creating oscillating electric and magnetic fields, which radiate the energy away from the antenna as radio waves. The radio waves carry the information to the receiver location. At the receiver, the oscillating electric and magnetic fields of the incoming radio wave push the electrons in the receiving antenna back and forth, creating a tiny oscillating voltage which is a weaker replica of the current in the transmitting antenna. This voltage is applied to the radio receiver, which extracts the information signal. The receiver first uses a bandpass filter to separate the desired radio station's radio signal from all the other radio signals picked up by the antenna, then amplifies the signal so it is stronger, then finally extracts the information-bearing modulation signal in a demodulator. The recovered signal is sent to a loudspeaker or earphone to produce sound, or a television display screen to produce a visible image, or other devices. A digital data signal is applied to a computer or microprocessor, which interacts with a human user. The radio waves from many transmitters pass through the air simultaneously without interfering with each other. They can be separated in the receiver because each transmitter's radio waves oscillate at a different rate, in other words each transmitter has a different frequency, measured in kilohertz (kHz), megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz). The bandpass filter in the receiver consists of a tuned circuit which acts like a resonator, similarly to a tuning fork. It has a natural resonant frequency at which it oscillates. The resonant frequency is set equal to the frequency of the desired radio station. The oscillating radio signal from the desired station causes the tuned circuit to oscillate in sympathy, and it passes the signal on to the rest of the receiver. Radio signals at other frequencies are blocked by the tuned circuit and not passed on.", "Radio waves are \"nonionizing radiation\", which means they do not have enough energy to separate electrons from atoms or molecules, ionizing them, or break chemical bonds, causing chemical reactions or DNA damage. The main effect of absorption of radio waves by materials is to heat them, similarly to the infrared waves radiated by sources of heat such as a space heater or wood fire. The oscillating electric field of the wave causes polar molecules to vibrate back and forth, increasing the temperature; this is how a microwave oven cooks food. However, unlike infrared waves, which are mainly absorbed at the surface of objects and cause surface heating, radio waves are able to penetrate the surface and deposit their energy inside materials and biological tissues. The depth to which radio waves penetrate decreases with their frequency, and also depends on the material's resistivity and permittivity; it is given by a parameter called the \"skin depth\" of the material, which is the depth within which 63% of the energy is deposited. For example, the 2.45 GHz radio waves (microwaves) in a microwave oven penetrate most foods approximately 2.5 to 3.8 cm (1 to 1.5 inches). Radio waves have been applied to the body for 100 years in the medical therapy of diathermy for deep heating of body tissue, to promote increased blood flow and healing. More recently they have been used to create higher temperatures in hyperthermia treatment and to kill cancer cells. Looking into a source of radio waves at close range, such as the waveguide of a working radio transmitter, can cause damage to the lens of the eye by heating. A strong enough beam of radio waves can penetrate the eye and heat the lens enough to cause cataracts. Since the heating effect is in principle no different from other sources of heat, most research into possible health hazards of exposure to radio waves has focused on \"nonthermal\" effects; whether radio waves have any effect on tissues besides that caused by heating. Electromagnetic radiation has been classified by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) as \"Possibly carcinogenic to humans\". There is weak mechanistic evidence of cancer risk via personal exposure to RF-EMF from mobile telephones. Radio waves can be shielded against by a conductive metal sheet or screen, an enclosure of sheet or screen is called a Faraday cage. A metal screen shields against radio waves as well as a solid sheet as long as the holes in the screen are smaller than about 1/20 of wavelength of the waves.", "Since radio frequency radiation has both an electric and a magnetic component, it is often convenient to express intensity of radiation field in terms of units specific to each component. The unit \"volts per meter\" (V/m) is used for the electric component, and the unit \"amperes per meter\" (A/m) is used for the magnetic component. One can speak of an electromagnetic field, and these units are used to provide information about the levels of electric and magnetic field strength at a measurement location. Another commonly used unit for characterizing an RF electromagnetic field is \"power density\". Power density is most accurately used when the point of measurement is far enough away from the RF emitter to be located in what is referred to as the far field zone of the radiation pattern. In closer proximity to the transmitter, i.e., in the \"near field\" zone, the physical relationships between the electric and magnetic components of the field can be complex, and it is best to use the field strength units discussed above. Power density is measured in terms of power per unit area, for example, milliwatts per square centimeter (mW/cm). When speaking of frequencies in the microwave range and higher, power density is usually used to express intensity since exposures that might occur would likely be in the far field zone." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and legal career.", "Accident.", "Politics.", "2001 election.", "First term as president.", "2006 election.", "Policies.", "Health.", "Death reports.", "Treatment in France.", "Death.", "Reactions to death.", "Funeral.", "Personal life." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Mwanawasa was born in Mufulira, Northern Rhodesia, as the second of 10 children. He held a law degree from the University of Zambia. He worked in private law firms from 1974 until 1978 when he formed his own firm: Mwanawasa & Company. In 1985, Mwanawasa served as Solicitor General in the Zambian government but he went back to private practice in 1986. In 1989, he led the legal defence team for Lt. Gen Christon Tembo, who was accused by the Kenneth Kaunda government of conspiracy to overthrow the government, which was judged as an act of treason worthy of the death penalty; Tembo won the case against the state, and Mwanawasa's fame among the anti-Kaunda opposition grew. After Frederick Chiluba was elected as President, he appointed Mwanawasa as Vice-President in November 1991. Mwanawasa left his firm in March 1992.", "Before his party's convention in 1990, Mwanawasa was widely tipped to become the President of the Movement for Multiparty Democracy (MMD), but he declined the overture, citing his young age and inexperience. He opted instead to stand as a member of parliament and won with an overwhelming majority of the popular vote. On 8 December 1991 Mwanawasa was involved in a serious traffic accident in which his aide died on the spot. He suffered multiple body injuries and was flown to Johannesburg, South Africa for medical treatment. He remained hospitalised for three months. A lasting effect of the accident was his noticeably slurred speech. A commission of inquiry was set up to investigate who was responsible for the alleged assassination attempt.", "Mwanawasa served as Vice-President until he resigned in July 1994. In 1996 he unsuccessfully contested Chiluba for the presidency of the Movement for Multiparty Democracy. After the loss, Mwanawasa retired from politics until the 2001 election.", "In August 2001, the National Executive Committee of MMD elected Mwanawasa as its presidential candidate for the 2001 election. He won the election, held on 27 December 2001, with 29% due to Zambia's first past the post system, beating 10 other candidates including two other former vice-presidents (Godfrey Miyanda and Gen. Christon Tembo); Anderson Mazoka came in a close second with 27%, according to official results. Mwanawasa took office on 2 January 2002. However, the results of the elections were disputed by main opposition parties, including Mazoka's United Party for National Development, which many observers claim had actually won the elections. Both domestic and international election monitors cited serious irregularities with the campaign and election, including vote rigging, flawed voter registration, unequal and biased media coverage, and the MMD's improper use of state resources. In January 2002, three opposition candidates petitioned the Supreme Court to overturn Mwanawasa's victory. While the court agreed that the poll was flawed, it ruled in February 2005 that the irregularities did not affect the results and declined the petition.", "In February 2002, Mwanawasa's government filed defamation charges against \"Zambia Post\" editor Fred M'membe and opposition lawmaker Dipak Patel for an article in which M'membe quoted Patel as calling Mwanawasa a \"cabbage\", an apparent reference to his injuries. However, in a move Mwanawasa described as an attempt to promote \"national reconciliation\", Mwanawasa appointed a number of opposition lawmakers to his cabinet in February 2003, including Patel of the FDD as Minister of Trade, Commerce, and Industry, and Sylvia Masebo of the ZRP as Local Government Minister. However, Godfrey Miyanda, himself also belonging to the opposition, opposed the move and threatened to file a lawsuit over it. In January 2005, Mwanawasa apologised to the nation for failing to tackle Zambian poverty. About 75% of the country's population lived on less than $1 a day, the United Nations' indicator of absolute poverty. He was elected as President of the MMD for a five-year term in 2005.", "Mwanawasa ran for a second term in the presidential election held on 28 September 2006. Michael Sata of the Patriotic Front was considered his main challenger. His re-election was confirmed on 2 October; according to official results, he received 42.98% of the vote. He was sworn in for another term on 3 October. A few days later, he named a new cabinet and appointed Rupiah Banda as Vice-President.", "Foreign investors liked Mwanawasa, owing partly to his anti-corruption drive. During his presidency, Zambia received foreign investment. The main driver of economic growth was minerals. Mwanawasa's policies helped to lower inflation and spread some benefits to the poor. Tourists and white farmers diverted from Zimbabwe and helped Zambian economy. Mnwanawasa turned the Zambian town of Livingstone, near Victoria Falls, into a tourist hub. Zambia received a relatively large amount of aid and debt relief because of liberalisation and Mwanawasa's \"stolid efforts\". Overall, economic growth increased to about 6% per year. Mwanawasa criticised President Robert Mugabe of neighbouring Zimbabwe. Mwanawasa was one of the first African leaders to publicly do so. When Mwanawasa died, Zimbabwean opposition leader Morgan Tsvangirai was among the first to publicly express grief. Mwanawasa sold off Konkola Copper Mines to Vedanta for $25m despite an initial asking price of $400m. An amount (i.e. $25m) the company made back in around 3 months and was later making a minimum of $500m in profit per year despite its environmental pollutions of the local community. Mwanawasa was open to accepting climate immigrants from Kiribati into Zambia, telling Anote Tong that the country had \"plenty of room,\" but a deal was not finalized.", "In April 2006, Mwanawasa experienced a mild stroke. On 29 June 2008, while in Sharm el-Sheikh, Egypt, for an African Union summit, Mwanawasa was hospitalised due to a second stroke. On 1 July, International SOS evacuated him by air ambulance to France for further treatment. The head of the Egyptian hospital to which Mwanawasa was taken said that the doctors there had stopped the brain haemorrhage and that he was in a semi-comatose state. Vice-President Banda said that his condition was stable, and Minister of Information Mike Mulongoti noted that Mwanawasa had previously suffered from hypertension; Mulongoti also said that Mwanawasa was a \"very hard working man\" and said that this may have been a factor. Due to Mwanawasa's incapacitation, Banda became acting President.", "On 3 July 2008 news outlets began reporting that Mwanawasa had died in a Paris hospital due to his stroke. The story originated at the Johannesburg-based 702 Talk Radio, which cited Malone Zaza, who claimed to be the head of protocol at Zambia's High Commission in Pretoria, South Africa; however, the commission denied having someone employed at the embassy with that name. Mulongoti, speaking for the government, said the news of Mwanawasa's death was \"false,\" and he urged the South African media to show more restraint in its reporting. As the reports were spreading, South African President Thabo Mbeki called for a moment of silence in Mwanawasa's memory; the South African government quickly expressed regret over this misunderstanding and expressed Mbeki's hopes for Mwanawasa's recovery.", "Mwanawasa was hospitalised at the Percy Military Hospital, near Paris. In a statement on 7 July 2008, Banda said that Mwanawasa \"remain[ed] in a stable condition\" but had to undergo surgery, which Banda described as minor, to correct a breathing problem. Banda said on 8 July that this operation was successful. On 11 July, Banda said that Mwanawasa's condition was stable and that his doctors were \"satisfied with [his] current status\". Benny Tetamashimba, the MMD's chairman for Information and Publicity, subsequently said that the MMD \"should begin looking for a successor\" to Mwanawasa as President of the MMD. Mulongoti, speaking on state radio on 14 July, said that Tetamashimba's suggestion did not represent the government's views. United Party for National Development leader Hakainde Hichilema said that Mwanawasa's incapacitation had paralysed the functioning of the government. On 15 July, Patriotic Front leader Michael Sata questioned the official claims about Mwanawasa's health, and he called for a team of doctors to be sent by the Cabinet to examine Mwanawasa; this team would then disclose Mwanawasa's actual condition. On 17 July, the MMD announced that Tetamashimba was facing potential disciplinary action, including the possibility of expulsion from the party. Tetamashimba argued that he had been misunderstood. He also said that Mwanawasa's condition was improving and that he was \"responding to treatment\", while asserting that the government was functioning smoothly and criticising the opposition call for a team of doctors to report on Mwanawasa's health. Banda gave another update of Mwanawasa's condition on 24 July, saying that he was making \"steady progress... in his recovery\". Skepticism regarding Banda's optimistic updates was reportedly widespread. Minister of Health Brian Chituwo, speaking before the National Assembly on 8 August, said that Mwanawasa's \"healing process will indeed be long\" due to the \"serious nature of [his] illness\".", "Vice-President Banda said on 18 August that Mwanawasa's condition had suddenly deteriorated and urgent medical intervention was necessary. The intervention was successful, according to Banda, but Mwanawasa remained in serious condition. On 19 August, a family member who wished to remain anonymous stated that Mwanawasa had died early that morning. The news of Mwanawasa's death was confirmed by Banda through a television broadcast on the government-owned Zambia National Broadcasting Corporation (ZNBC). He informed the nation that Mwanawasa had died that morning at 10:30 (8:30 GMT) at the Percy Military Hospital in Paris. Expressing \"immense grief and deep sorrow\", Banda declared national mourning for seven days and urged Zambians to \"remain calm and mourn our President with dignity\". The mourning period was extended to 21 days on 21 August.", "The Patriotic Front's Michael Sata expressed sadness and said that Mwanawasa's death was a \"national disaster\", urging Zambians to remain calm. The \"Zambia Daily Mail\", a state-owned newspaper, said that his death marked \"a dark day for Zambia\" and had left Zambians \"shell-shocked and grief-stricken\". As the country went into mourning, with flags flying at half-staff, the National Assembly session that had been in progress was indefinitely suspended; a strike by doctors was also suspended, and sporting matches were cancelled, all social events,weddings and birthday parties, were also cancelled. Joyous music in Zambian homes and bars was not heard during the mourning period. This gesture was later noted by the media as proof of the people's love for their president. Former President Kenneth Kaunda paid tribute to Mwanawasa, saying that he was \"a true servant of the people who served this country with dignity and honour.... He observed the rule of law and he gallantly fought graft in all its forms.... We have lost a great leader who had a real vision for leadership and problems that face the country.\"", "Acting President Banda announced state funeral arrangements for Mwanawasa on 21 August. According to this programme, after Mwanawasa's body was returned to Zambia, it would first lie in state at Mulungushi International Conference Centre in Lusaka, the capital. The body would then be moved to different provincial capitals from 25 to 29 August, after which it would again lie in state at Mulungushi International Conference Centre until 2 September. His burial, planned for 3 September, was intended to coincide with his birthday; Mwanawasa would have turned 60 years old on that date. Mwanawasa's body arrived in Lusaka from France aboard a French military aircraft on 23 August. It was received with full military honours; Banda and Kaunda were present for the ceremony, which featured a 21-gun salute and jet fighter planes in the sky. It was then taken to all provincial capitals of Zambia, where members of the public had an opportunity to pay their respects. The body was accompanied by both the opposition and the ruling party leaders beside the first family during the tour. The burial of Mwanawasa occurred on 3 September at Embassy Park opposite the Zambian Cabinet Office. The funeral was attended by heads of 14 African states, including Mbeki, Zimbabwe's Robert Mugabe, and Tanzania's Jakaya Kikwete. In her eulogy at the funeral, Maureen Mwanawasa said of her husband: \"Typical of you, you died on duty. You died a sad man as no one seemed to appreciate your sacrifices. Had you been with us today, I am sure these accolades could have made you happy.\"", "Mwanawasa married Maureen Mwanawasa on 3 September 1988, and they remained married until his death. He had seven children: Miriam, Patrick, Lorna, Chipokota, Matolo, Lubona and Ntembe. Miriam and Patrick were from his first marriage. His wife was a baptised member of the Jehovah's Witnesses but has since been disfellowshiped because of her active role in politics. It is against the faith of Jehovah's Witnesses to take part or sides in politics. On February 27, 2005, Mwanawasa was baptized by Rev. Rodney Masona, pastor of Twin Palm Baptist Church in Lusaka. In September 2007, Mwanawasa travelled to Arkansas in the United States to give a speech at Harding University in Searcy and received an honorary doctorate from the college. While in Arkansas, he addressed students and press at the University of Arkansas Clinton School of Public Service about social, economic, and political development in Zambia and the region with specific attention paid to HIV/AIDS in Africa and President Mugabe of Zimbabwe." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Geography.", "Neighboring municipalities.", "Environmental problems.", "Parks and recreation.", "Education.", "Transportation.", "Roads.", "Bus lines.", "United States military installations.", "Sports.", "Notables.", "Sister city." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Under the Ryukyu Kingdom the present-day area of Okinawa City was occupied by two magiri, a type of administrative district. The Goeku magiri occupied the south of the city, and the north of the city was part of the Misato magiri. In 1908, Okinawa Prefecture ended the magiri system and established the villages of Goeku and Misato. Both villages were agricultural and lacked urbanized areas prior to World War II. After the Battle of Okinawa the United States established the first refugee camp in Okinawa in the area south of present-day Kadena Air Base. The population of the former villages swelled rapidly. An area of Goeku, called \"Goya\" (ごや), was mispronounced by Americans as \"Koza\" (コザ). During the occupation of Okinawa, the U.S. military government established the city of in Goeku. Koza was the first city to use the katakana syllabary for its name. Misato merged into a neighboring community, and in 1946, again became separate, as did Goeku. Both municipalities, which were formerly largely agricultural, became heavily urbanized as a result of the construction of refugee camps and the establishment of large-scale military bases. The area became a \"base city\" catering to United States military personnel. On June 13, 1956, Goeku changed its name to the village of Koza; on July 1 of the same year it became a city. The city of Okinawa was the site of the Koza riot on the night of December 20, 1970. Roughly 5,000 Okinawans came into violent contact with roughly 700 American MPs. Approximately 60 Americans were injured and 75 cars were burned. Additionally, several buildings on Kadena Air Base were destroyed or heavily damaged. The Koza riot was considered a symbol of Okinawan anger after 25 years of US military occupation. The riot was unexpected, and strained the ongoing negotiations on the end of the United States administration of Okinawa. The city of Okinawa was founded on April 1, 1974 with the merger of Koza and Misato.", "The commercial center of the city lies along Route 330. It extends from Goya Crossing to Koza Crossing. The district extending from Goya to the gate of Kadena Air Base, and Chūō Park Avenue, has many visitors from the U.S. military, and many shops have signs in both Japanese and English. However, the development of large shopping centers in nearby communities has resulted in some decline in these areas.", "Neighboring municipalities consist of:", "In June 2013 more than 20 barrels were found on an Okinawa city civilian soccer field built on former U.S. military land. Barrels revealed traces of herbicides and nearby water had levels of dioxin 840 times above safe limits.", "A park in the southeastern portion of the city was the site of a National Sports Festival of Japan. Other city facilities include a baseball stadium where the Hiroshima Toyo Carp hold their spring training.", "The city operates 15 elementary schools and eight middle schools. There is also a private elementary school. The five high schools are operated by Okinawa Prefecture.", "", "The Okinawa Expressway has two interchanges in the city. They are Okinawa North Number 5 and Okinawa South Number 4. The national highways passing through the city are Routes 329 and 330.", "Ryūkyū, Okinawa, and Tōyō buses operate on some 26 routes in Okinawa.", "The United States has six installations located at least partially in the city of Okinawa. These are Kadena Air Base, Kadena Ammunition Storage Area, which lie on the boundaries with the town of Kadena and the village of Onna, Camp Shields, Camp Foster, Awase Communication Station, and an Army Petroleum product depot. The Japan Ground Self-Defense Forces operate an anti-aircraft training facility.", "The city will host some matches for 2023 FIBA Basketball World Cup sharing with Philippines and Indonesia at the new Okinawa Arena.", "Notable people with links to the city of Okinawa include:", "Okinawa, Japan has the following sister cities, according to Sister Cities International and the city of Okinawa:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "NHL in Philadelphia before 1967.", "Early years (1967–1972).", "Broad Street Bullies (1972–1980).", "1973–74 Stanley Cup champions.", "1974–75 Stanley Cup champions.", "New generation takes over (1980–1990).", "Rebuilding a winning team (1990–1997).", "From highs to lows (1997–2007).", "Multiple makeovers (2007–2017).", "Vigneault era (2019–present).", "Logo and jerseys.", "Colors, name and logo.", "Jerseys.", "Cooperall pants.", "Mascots.", "Players and personnel.", "Honored members.", "Hall of Famers.", "Retired numbers.", "Flyers Hall of Fame.", "Team records.", "Season-by-season record.", "Statistical leaders.", "Scoring.", "Goaltending." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3" ], "content": [ "", "Prior to 1967, Philadelphia had only iced a team in the NHL in the 1930–31 season, when the financially struggling Pittsburgh Pirates relocated in 1930 as the Philadelphia Quakers, playing at The Arena at 46th and Market Streets. The club, garbed in orange and black like today's Flyers, was coached by J. Cooper Smeaton, who was to be elected to the Hockey Hall of Fame 30 years later, for his far more notable role as an NHL referee. Among the young Quakers' skaters in 1930–31 was another future Hall of Famer in 19-year-old rookie center Syd Howe. The Quakers' only \"claim to fame\" was to establish a single season NHL record for futility which has stood ever since, by compiling a dismal record of 4–36–4, still the fewest games ever won in a season by an NHL club. The Quakers quietly suspended operations after that single dreadful campaign to again leave the Can-Am League's Philadelphia Arrows as Philadelphia's", "The new teams were hampered by restrictive rules that kept all major talent with the \"Original Six\" teams. In the NHL Expansion Draft, most of the players available were either aging veterans or career minor-leaguers before expansion occurred. Among the Flyers' 20 selections were Bernie Parent, Doug Favell, Bill Sutherland, Ed Van Impe, Joe Watson, Lou Angotti, Leon Rochefort and Gary Dornhoefer. Having purchased the minor-league Quebec Aces, the team had a distinctly francophone flavor in its early years, with Parent, Rochefort, Andre Lacroix, Serge Bernier, Jean-Guy Gendron, Simon Nolet and Rosaire Paiement among others. Beginning play in 1967–68, the Philadelphia Flyers made their debut on October 11, 1967, losing 5–1 on the road to the California Seals. They won their first game a week later, defeating the St. Louis Blues on the road, 2–1. The Flyers made their home debut", "It was during the 1972–73 season that the Flyers shed the mediocre expansion team label and became the intimidating \"Broad Street Bullies\", a nickname coined by Jack Chevalier and Pete Cafone of the \"Philadelphia Bulletin\" on January 3, 1973, after a 3–1 brawling victory over the Atlanta Flames that led Chevalier to write in his game account, \"The image of the fightin' Flyers spreading gradually around the NHL, and people are dreaming up wild nicknames. They're the Mean Machine, the Bullies of Broad Street", "Goaltender Bernie Parent returned to the franchise in the off-season, and the Flyers proved that the expansion teams could challenge the Original Six in. The Bullies continued their rough-and-tumble ways, led by Dave Schultz's 348 penalty minutes, and reached the top of the West Division with a record of 50–16–12. The return of Parent proved to be of great benefit, as he established himself as one of if not the best goaltender in the league after winning 47 games, a record which stood for 33 years. Since the Flyers, along with Chicago, allowed the fewest goals in the league, Parent also shared the Vezina Trophy with Chicago's Tony Esposito. Come playoff time, the Flyers swept the Atlanta Flames in four games in the first round. In the Semi-finals, the Flyers faced the New York Rangers. The series,", "In the 1974–75 season, Dave Schultz topped his mark from the previous season by setting an NHL record for penalty minutes with 472. Clarke's efforts earned him his second Hart Trophy and Parent was the lone recipient of the Vezina Trophy. The Flyers as a team improved their record slightly with a mark of 51–18–11, the best record in the NHL. After a first-round bye, the Flyers easily swept the Toronto Maple Leafs and were presented with another New York-area team in the semi-finals, the New York Islanders. The Flyers looked to be headed toward another sweep after winning the first three games. However, the Islanders fought back by winning the next three games, setting up a deciding seventh game. The Flyers were finally able to shut the door on the Islanders, winning Game 7, 4–1. Facing Buffalo in the Stanley Cup Finals, the Flyers won the first two games at home. Game 3, played in Buffalo, went down in hockey lore as \"The Fog Game\" due to an unusual May heat wave in Buffalo that forced parts of the game to be played in heavy fog, as Buffalo's arena lacked air conditioning. The Flyers lost Games 3 and 4, but won Game 5 at home in dominating fashion, 5–1. On the road for Game 6, Bob Kelly scored the decisive goal and Parent pitched another shutout (a playoff record fifth shutout) as the Flyers repeated as Stanley Cup champions. Parent also repeated as the playoff MVP, winning a second consecutive Conn Smythe Trophy. The highlight of the 1975–76 season had no bearing on the season standings. On January 11 at the Spectrum, the Flyers, as part of the Super Series '76, played a memorable exhibition game against the Soviet Union's dominant Central Red Army team. As the Bullies had put intimidation to good use the past three years, the Flyers' rugged style of play led the Soviets to leave the ice midway through the first period, protesting a hit on Valeri Kharlamov, whom Clarke had slashed on the ankle in the famous Summit Series '72, by Ed Van Impe. After some delay, the Soviets returned after they were warned that they would lose their salary for the entire series. The Flyers went on to win the game rather easily, 4–1, and were the only team to defeat the Red Army outright in the series. After that win, the Spectrum became known as the \"most intimidating building to play in and has the most intimidating fans.\" Head coach Fred Shero proclaimed, \"Yes we are world champions. If they had won, they would have been world champions. We beat the hell out of a machine.\" The Flyers recorded the best record in team history", "After the loss to the Islanders, the last of the Broad Street Bullies guard moved on. Gone were the likes of Leach, MacLeish, Dupont, Kelly, Jimmy Watson and finally Barber and Clarke in 1984, and taking their spots over the next few seasons were young talent such as Brian Propp, Tim Kerr, Dave Poulin, Pelle Lindbergh and Mark Howe, who upon arrival instantly became the Flyers' top defenseman for the next decade. The Flyers made early playoff exits the next four years, including three first round exits in a row. After a tough, five-game preliminary round series win against the Quebec Nordiques, the team's 1980–81 season came to an end as they lost in the quarterfinals to the Calgary Flames in seven games. They then lost to the Rangers two years in a row in 1981–82 and 1982–83 and then were swept by the Washington Capitals in 1983–84. It was after the", "Ron Hextall continued to be hampered by injuries during the 1990–91 season. He only played in 36 games and as a result the Flyers missed the playoffs for the second consecutive year, finishing fifth in the Division and three points short of a playoff spot after a late-season collapse. Prior to the 1991–92 season, the Flyers acquired Rod Brind'Amour from St. Louis. Brind'Amour led the Flyers in goals (33), assists (44) and points (77) in his first season with the club. With Ron Sutter gone to St. Louis in the Brind'Amour trade, Rick Tocchet was named team captain. As the Flyers continued to flounder, Paul Holmgren was fired midway through the season and replaced by Bill Dineen, father of Flyer Kevin Dineen. On February 19, the Flyers and Pittsburgh made a major five-player deal which featured Tocchet—who never grew comfortably into the role of captain—heading to Pittsburgh and Mark Recchi coming to Philadelphia. Recchi recorded 27 points in his first 22 games as a Flyer, but the team missed the playoffs for the third consecutive year, due in large part to an awful road record (10–26–4). With Tocchet traded, the Flyers", "The man picked to replace Murray as coach, Wayne Cashman, was deemed ill-suited for the job as the Flyers played inconsistently throughout the 1997–98 season. With 21 games to go in the season, Roger Neilson took over as coach while Cashman was retained as an assistant. John LeClair was able to score at least 50 goals for the third consecutive year (netting 51), the first time for an American-born player, and goaltender Sean Burke was acquired at the trade deadline. Burke proved ineffective in net, as the Flyers were eliminated in the first round by Buffalo in five games. In the off-season, the Flyers went looking for a new goaltender. Burke was let go and Hextall was about to enter his final season as a backup. They chose to sign former Panther John Vanbiesbrouck as the starting goaltender. The 1998–99 season was marred by a life-threatening injury sustained by Eric Lindros on April Fools' Day during a game against the Nashville Predators, a season-ending injury later diagnosed as a collapsed lung. Up until that point, Lindros was having an MVP-type season with 40 goals and 53 assists in 71 games. Without Lindros, the Flyers had trouble scoring in the playoffs even after having re-acquired Mark Recchi at the trade deadline. Although Vanbiesbrouck allowed 9 goals to Joseph's 11 allowed, the Flyers lost their first round series with Toronto in six games. The 1999–2000 season was one of the most tumultuous seasons in franchise history and the tumult actually started three months prior to the start of the regular season. In the span of a few days in July, longtime broadcaster Gene Hart died due to illness and defenseman Dmitri Tertyshny, coming off his rookie season, was fatally injured in a freak boating accident. Head coach Roger Neilson was diagnosed with bone cancer, forcing him to step aside in February 2000 to undergo treatment, so assistant coach Craig Ramsay", "The Flyers began the 2007–08 season with the intention of putting the disaster of the previous season behind them. In June, the Flyers made a trade that sent the first-round draft pick they had acquired in the Forsberg trade (23rd overall) back to Nashville in exchange for the rights to negotiate with impending unrestricted free agents Kimmo Timonen and Scott Hartnell. Both were subsequently signed to six-year contracts. After much speculation about whether the Flyers would keep or trade the second overall pick in the 2007 NHL Entry Draft, the Flyers opted to keep it, using it to select New Jersey native James van Riemsdyk. The Flyers wasted no time in addressing their free agent needs. On July 1, the Flyers signed Buffalo co-captain Daniel Briere to an eight-year, $52 million contract. Continuing to revamp their defensive core, Joni Pitkanen and Geoff Sanderson were traded to Edmonton in exchange for Oilers captain Jason Smith and Joffrey Lupul. Smith was later named Flyers captain on October 1. The season began in the image of the \"Broad Street Bullies\" era, with multiple-game suspensions handed out to five separate players, the most serious being 25-game suspensions to both Steve Downie and Jesse Boulerice for two separate incidents. A 7–3 start in October and a 9–3–1 January run had the Flyers near the top of both the Division and Conference standings. However, a disastrous ten-game losing streak in February, reminiscent of such a streak the previous season, nearly derailed the Flyers' year. An 8–3–4 run in March, coupled with two huge wins over New Jersey and Pittsburgh over the final weekend of the regular season, put the Flyers back in the 2008 playoffs as the sixth seed, setting up a first-round matchup with Washington. After taking a three games to one lead over the Capitals, Washington then won Games 5 and 6 to force a deciding Game 7 in Washington. After an evenly fought game, the Flyers ultimately won the series in overtime via a Joffrey Lupul powerplay goal. The Flyers then drew a matchup with heavily favored Montreal in the second round. Despite being outshot a majority of the series, the Flyers upset the Canadiens in five games, advancing to the Eastern Conference Finals for the first time since 2003–04 to face Pittsburgh. Before the start of the series, the Flyers suffered a fatal blow when it was learned that Kimmo Timonen was out with a blood clot in his ankle. Coupled with a gruesome facial injury to Braydon Coburn in Game 2, Pittsburgh ran roughshod over the Flyers' depleted defense and jumped out to a 3–0 series lead. The Flyers won Game 4 at home to stave off elimination, and although Timonen returned for Game 5, Pittsburgh finished off the Flyers in five games. The Flyers began the 2008–09 season by naming Mike Richards the 17th captain in team history on September 17, with Jason Smith having departed to Ottawa as a free agent. The Flyers were looking to build on the success of the previous season, but instead got off to an 0–3–3 start. However, despite a solid December and January and finishing with four points more than the year before, for the", "Heading into the 2019–20 season, the Flyers hired coach Alain Vigneault and signed Kevin Hayes in hopes of bringing the team to cup contender status again. Opening day took place in the Czech Republic, Jake Voracek's birthplace. The Flyers beat the Blackhawks 4–2. The Flyers started off the season very well, tying a team record for the best November in team history with a record of 10-3-4. The Flyers produced", "", "On April 4, 1966, Bill Putnam—a member of the Philadelphia group that was selected by the NHL for one of the six new franchises—announced a name-the-team contest and orange, black and white as the team colors. Wanting what he referred to as \"hot\" colors, Putnam's choice was influenced by the orange and white of his alma mater – the University of Texas at Austin – and the orange and black of Philadelphia's previous NHL team, the Quakers. Also announced on April 4 was", "As with his logo design, Ciccone's jersey design was meant to represent speed. The home jersey was orange with a white stripe down each shoulder and down the arms (meant to represent wings) with a white number on the back and black sleeve numbers. The away jersey was white with orange striping, an orange number on the back and white sleeve numbers. Other than a few minor alterations to the numbers and the switch the NHL made to wear white at home and dark on the road for 1970–71, this general design was used until the end of the 1981–82 season. The Flyers unveiled second-generation jerseys for the 1982–83 season. The main difference", "The Flyers were the first and one of only two NHL teams (the Hartford Whalers being the other) to wear Cooperalls, hockey pants that", "The Flyers debuted a short-lived skating mascot named \"Slapshot\" in 1976 but dropped the character by the next season. It was the only mascot in Flyers' team history until 2018, although the team did occasionally", "", "", "The Philadelphia Flyers has an affiliation with a number of inductees to the Hockey Hall of Fame. Flyers inductees include 13 former players and six builders of the sport. The six individuals recognized as builders by the Hall of Fame includes former general managers, head coaches, and owners. Inducted in 1984, Bernie Parent was the first player", "The Flyers have retired six of their jersey numbers and taken another number out of circulation. Barry Ashbee's number 4 was retired a few months after his death from leukemia. Bernie Parent's number 1 – Parent wore number 30 during his first stint with the Flyers – and Bobby Clarke's number 16 were retired", "Established in 1988, the Flyers Hall of Fame was designed to \"permanently honor those individuals who have contributed to the franchise's success.\" Candidates for the hall are nominated and voted upon by a panel of media members and team officials. To date, 25 former players and executives have been inducted.", "Statistics and records are current after the 2018–19 season, except where noted.", "\"This is a partial list of the last five seasons completed by the Flyers. For the full season-by-season history, see List of", "", "These are the top-ten", "These are the top-ten goaltenders in franchise history by regular season wins." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Approaches.", "Software.", "Verification and validation.", "Automated program repair.", "Industry use." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "One approach and formation is model checking, which consists of a systematically exhaustive exploration of the mathematical model (this is possible for finite models, but also for some infinite models where infinite sets of states can be effectively represented finitely by using abstraction or taking advantage of symmetry). Usually this consists of exploring all states and transitions in the model, by using smart and domain-specific abstraction techniques to consider whole groups of states in a single operation and reduce computing time. Implementation techniques include state space enumeration, symbolic state space enumeration, abstract interpretation, symbolic simulation, abstraction refinement. The properties to be verified are often described in temporal logics, such as linear temporal logic (LTL), Property Specification Language (PSL), SystemVerilog Assertions (SVA), or computational tree logic (CTL). The great advantage of model checking is that it is often fully automatic; its primary disadvantage is that it does not in general scale to large systems; symbolic models are typically limited to a few hundred bits of state, while explicit state enumeration requires the state space being explored to be relatively small. Another approach is deductive verification. It consists of generating from the system and its specifications (and possibly other annotations) a collection of mathematical \"proof obligations\", the truth of which imply conformance of the system to its specification, and discharging these obligations using either interactive theorem provers (such as HOL, ACL2, Isabelle, Coq or PVS), automatic theorem provers, or satisfiability modulo theories (SMT) solvers. This approach has the disadvantage that it typically requires the user to understand in detail why the system works correctly, and to convey this information to the verification system, either in the form of a sequence of theorems to be proved or in the form of specifications of system components (e.g. functions or procedures) and perhaps subcomponents (such as loops or data structures).", "Formal verification of software programs involves proving that a program satisfies a formal specification of its behavior. Subareas of formal verification include deductive verification (see above), abstract interpretation, automated theorem proving, type systems, and lightweight formal methods. A promising type-based verification approach is dependently typed programming, in which the types of functions include (at least part of) those functions' specifications, and type-checking the code establishes its correctness against those specifications. Fully featured dependently typed languages support deductive verification as a special case. Another complementary approach is program derivation, in which efficient code is produced from functional specifications by a series of correctness-preserving steps. An example of this approach is the Bird–Meertens formalism, and this approach can be seen as another form of correctness by construction. These techniques can be \"sound\", meaning that the verified properties can be logically deduced from the semantics, or \"unsound\", meaning that there is no such guarantee. A sound technique yields a result only once it has searched the entire space of possibilities. An example of an unsound technique is one that searches only a subset of the possibilities, for instance only integers up to a certain number, and give a \"good-enough\" result. Techniques can also be \"decidable\", meaning that their algorithmic implementations are guaranteed to terminate with an answer, or undecidable, meaning that they may never terminate. Because they are bounded, unsound techniques are often more likely to be decidable than sound ones.", "Verification is one aspect of testing a product's fitness for purpose. Validation is the complementary aspect. Often one refers to the overall checking process as V & V. The verification process consists of static/structural and dynamic/behavioral aspects. E.g., for a software product one can inspect the source code (static) and run against specific test cases (dynamic). Validation usually can be done only dynamically, i.e., the product is tested by putting it through typical and atypical usages (\"Does it satisfactorily meet all use cases?\").", "Program repair is performed with respect to an oracle, encompassing the desired functionality of the program which is used for validation of the generated fix. A simple example is a test-suite—the input/output pairs specify the functionality of the program. A variety of techniques are employed, most notably using satisfiability modulo theories (SMT) solvers, and genetic programming, using evolutionary computing to generate and evaluate possible candidates for fixes. The former method is deterministic, while the latter is randomized. Program repair combines techniques from formal verification and program synthesis. Fault-localization techniques in formal verification are used to compute program points which might be possible bug-locations, which can be targeted by the synthesis modules. Repair systems often focus on a small pre-defined class of bugs in order to reduce the search space. Industrial use is limited owing to the computational cost of existing techniques.", "The growth in complexity of designs increases the importance of formal verification techniques in the hardware industry. At present, formal verification is used by most or all leading hardware companies, but its use in the software industry is still languishing. This could be attributed to the greater need in the hardware industry, where errors have greater commercial significance. Because of the potential subtle interactions between components, it is increasingly difficult to exercise a realistic set of possibilities by simulation. Important aspects of hardware design are amenable to automated proof methods, making formal verification easier to introduce and more productive. , several operating systems have been formally verified: NICTA's Secure Embedded L4 microkernel, sold commercially as seL4 by OK Labs; OSEK/VDX based real-time operating system ORIENTAIS by East China Normal University; Green Hills Software's Integrity operating system; and SYSGO's PikeOS. As of 2016, Yale and Columbia professors Zhong Shao and Ronghui Gu developed a formal verification protocol for blockchain called CertiKOS. The program is the first example of formal verification in the blockchain world, and an example of formal verification being used explicitly as a security program. As of 2017, formal verification has been applied to the design of large computer networks through a mathematical model of the network, and as part of a new network technology category, intent-based networking. Network software vendors that offer formal verification solutions include Cisco Forward Networks and Veriflow Systems. The CompCert C compiler is a formally verified C compiler implementing the majority of ISO C." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Team history.", "Early years (1967–1968).", "Lemieux–Jagr era (1984–2005).", "Crosby–Malkin era (2005–present).", "Team culture.", "Fanbase.", "Rivalries.", "Philadelphia Flyers.", "Washington Capitals.", "Team information.", "Crest and sweater design.", "Media.", "Radio.", "Broadcasters.", "Arenas.", "Minor league affiliates.", "Season-by-season record.", "Players and personnel.", "Honored members.", "Hockey Hall of Fame.", "Team captains.", "Franchise individual records.", "Franchise goaltending leaders.", "In the community.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Before the Penguins, Pittsburgh had been the home of the NHL's Pirates from 1925 to 1930 and of the American Hockey League Hornets franchise from 1936 to 1967 (with a short break from 1956 to 1961). In the spring of 1965, Jack McGregor, a state senator from Kittanning, began lobbying campaign contributors and community leaders to bring an NHL franchise back to Pittsburgh. The group focused on leveraging the NHL as an urban renewal tool for Pittsburgh. The senator formed a group of local investors that included H. J. Heinz Company heir H. J. Heinz III, Pittsburgh Steelers owner Art Rooney, and the Mellon family's Richard Mellon Scaife. The projected league expansion depended on securing votes from the then-current NHL owners; to ensure that Pittsburgh would be selected as one of the expansion cities, McGregor enlisted Rooney to petition votes from James D. Norris, owner of the Chicago Black Hawks, and his brother Bruce Norris, owner of the Detroit Red Wings. The effort was successful, and on February 8, 1966, the National Hockey League awarded an expansion team to Pittsburgh for the 1967–68 season. The Penguins paid $2.5 million ($ million today) for their entry and $750,000 ($ million today) more for start-up costs. The Civic Arena's capacity was then boosted from 10,732 to 12,500 to meet the NHL requirements for expansion. The Pens also paid an indemnification bill to settle with the Detroit Red Wings, which owned the Pittsburgh Hornets franchise. The investor group named McGregor president and chief executive officer, and he represented Pittsburgh on the NHL's Board of Governors. A contest was held where 700 of 26,000 entries picked \"Penguins\" as the nickname for the team. Mark Peters had the winning entry (which was inspired by the fact that the team was", "The team had the league's worst record in both the 1983 and 1984 seasons, and with the team suffering financial problems, it again looked as though the Penguins would either fold or relocate. Mario Lemieux, one of the most highly touted NHL draft picks in history, was due to be drafted in the 1984 NHL Entry Draft. Heading towards the end of the season ahead of the New Jersey Devils, who were placed last, the Penguins made a number of questionable moves that appeared to weaken the team in the short-term. The Penguins posted three six-game winless streaks in the last 21 games of the season and earned the right to draft Lemieux amidst protests from Devils management. Pittsburgh head coach Lou Angotti later admitted that a conscious decision was made to finish the season as the team with the worst record, stating in an interview with the \"Pittsburgh Post-Gazette\" that a mid-season lunch prompted the plan, in light of the fact that there was a high chance of the franchise folding if Lemieux was not drafted. Other teams offered substantial trade packages for the draft choice, but the Penguins kept the", "With the lockout resolved in 2005, the NHL organized an unprecedented draft lottery to set the 2005 NHL Entry Draft selection order. The draft lottery, which was held behind closed doors in a \"secure location\", resulted in the Penguins being awarded the first overall pick. This was the second time in NHL history the Penguins had won the first overall pick outright, their first overall selection in the 2003 NHL Entry Draft having come as the result of a trade with the Florida Panthers. The draft that year was being touted as having the greatest rookie class since Lemieux, himself, had been drafted. Quebec Major Junior Hockey League (QMJHL) superstar Sidney Crosby (who had been training with Lemieux over the summer) was the consensus first overall pick, with many referring to the draft lottery process as \"The Sidney Crosby Sweepstakes\". The Penguins selected Crosby on July 30, 2005, with the top pick, instantly rekindling interest in hockey in Pittsburgh. The Penguins then began rebuilding the team under the salary cap. They signed free agents Sergei Gonchar, John LeClair and Zigmund Palffy and traded for goaltender Jocelyn Thibault. However, Evgeni Malkin, the Penguins' 2004 draft pick, second overall,", "", "Despite Pittsburgh's long history with hockey and having a small, but loyal fanbase early on, the Penguins struggled with fan support early on in its history, at times only averaging 6,000 fans per game when Civic Arena had a seating capacity over 16,000. Fan support was so low by the team's first bankruptcy that the NHL had no problems with the team being moved, something that would change decades later when the team faced another relocation threat. While the drafting of Mario Lemieux began piquing interest in hockey locally, fan support was still skeptical. John Steigerwald, brother of former Penguins broadcaster Paul Steigerwald, once noted in his autobiography that upon his arrival at KDKA-TV from WTAE-TV in 1985 that", "", "Considered by some to be the best rivalry in the NHL, the Philadelphia Flyers–Pittsburgh Penguins rivalry began in 1967 when the teams were introduced into the NHL's \"Next Six\" expansion wave. The rivalry exists both due to divisional alignment and geographic location, as both teams play in Pennsylvania. The Flyers lead the head-to-head record with a 153–98-30 record.", "The two teams have faced-off 11 times in the playoffs, with the Penguins winning nine of the 11 matchups, their two series losses coming in the 1994 and 2018 playoffs. The Penguins defeated the Capitals en route to all five of their Stanley Cup victories. They have met in a decisive game 7 in the 1992, 1995, 2009 and 2017 playoffs. This rivalry was showcased at the NHL's fourth Winter Classic, played on January 1, 2011, at Heinz Field in Pittsburgh. The Capitals won the game 3–1. The rivalry can also be seen in the American Hockey League (AHL). Pittsburgh's top farm team is the Wilkes-Barre/Scranton Penguins, and their in-state and biggest rivals are the Capitals' top farm team, the Hershey Bears.", "", "When the Penguins made their NHL debut in 1967, the team wore the colors dark blue, light blue and white. The uniforms had the word \"Pittsburgh\" written diagonally down the front of the sweater with three dark blue stripes around the sleeves and bottom. The logo featured a hockey-playing penguin in a scarf over an inverted triangle, symbolizing the Golden Triangle of downtown Pittsburgh. A refined version of the logo appeared on a redesigned uniform in the second season, which removed the scarf and gave the penguin a sleeker, \"meaner\" look. The circle encompassing the logo was removed mid-season in 1971–72. The team's colors were originally powder blue, navy blue, and white. The powder blue was changed to royal blue in 1973, but returned in 1977 when navy became the predominant uniform color. The team adopted the current black and gold color scheme in January 1980 (the announcement was made at halftime of Super Bowl XIV) to unify the colors of the city's professional sports teams, although like the Pittsburgh Pirates and Steelers, the shade of gold more closely resembled yellow. The change was not without controversy, as the Boston Bruins protested by claiming to own the rights to the black and gold colors. However the Penguins cited the colors worn by the now-defunct NHL team Pittsburgh Pirates in the 1920s, as", "", "The Penguins currently have their radio home on WXDX-FM and their television home on AT&T SportsNet Pittsburgh. The Pittsburgh Penguins Radio Network consists of", "The Penguins were broadcast by local ABC affiliate WTAE-TV during the 1967–68 season, with station Sports Director Ed Conway handling the play-by-play during both the television and radio broadcasts and would remain as the lone play-by-play broadcaster until the completion of the 1968–69 season. Joe Tucker took over for Ed Conway during the 1969–70 season, when WPGH-TV and WTAE-TV split Penguins' broadcasts. WPGH-TV retained the rights to broadcast the Penguins for the 1970–71 season with Bill Hamilton handing the play-by-play duties. The 1970–71 season was also the first season where the Penguins introduced a color commentator to the broadcast team, with John MacDonald taking the position as the booth's color commentator. The broadcasting rights to the Penguins were then transferred to WIIC-TV 11 in 1971, with Sam Nover handling the play-by-play with several color commentators interchanged during his tenure. Nover eventually left WIIC to join NBC Sports as a play-by-play broadcaster for the National Football League. During the Penguins' time with WIIC, the station broadcast \"about a dozen\" Penguins game each season. Penguins' games returned to WPGH-TV for the 1977–78 season with former long-time Pittsburgh Pirates broadcaster Bob Prince handling the play-by-play. Prince was criticized by fans for not being knowledgeable towards the game and that his style was better suited for baseball than hockey. He was later removed from the broadcast team and reassigned as an intermission interviewer. In his place was Jim Forney, who had previously held the position of color commentator during Sam Novak's tenure. Mike Lange, who joined the Penguins' broadcast team as a play-by-play announcer on the radio side in 1974–75, became the play-by-play broadcaster for the team at the start of the 1979–80 season. At his side was Terry Schiffauer, who had previously held the position of Penguins' director of public relations and eventually transitioned into color commentator for Sam Nover since 1972–73. Lange and Schiffauer remained a team in the Penguins' broadcast booth until 1984–85, when Schiffauer was replaced by Paul Steigerwald. While the", "The Penguins called Civic Arena home for over 45 seasons, beginning with their inception in 1967. In September 2010, they completed the move to the state-of-the-art Consol Energy Center (now named PPG Paints Arena). The Penguins also played two \"home\" games in the Cleveland suburb of Richfield, Ohio, in 1992 and 1993 at the Richfield Coliseum (this is not unlike the Cleveland Cavaliers of the NBA playing an annual pre-season game in Pittsburgh; the Philadelphia 76ers also used the Civic Arena as a second home in the early 1970s). From 1995 to 2015 the IceoPlex at Southpointe in the South Hills suburbs served as the team's practice facility. Robert Morris University's 84 Lumber Arena has at times served as a secondary practice facility for the team. During the franchise's first pre-season", "The Penguins have two minor league affiliates assigned to their team. The Wilkes-Barre/Scranton Penguins, their AHL affiliate, have played in", "This is a partial list of the last five seasons completed by the Penguins. \"Note: GP =", "", "", "The Pittsburgh Penguins presently acknowledge an affiliation with a number of inductees to the Hockey Hall of Fame. Inductees affiliated with the Penguins include 12 former players and five builders of the sport. The four individuals recognized as builders by the Hockey Hall of Fame includes", "All the players who have served as team captain with the Penguins franchise", "These are the top-ten point-scorers in franchise", "These are the top-ten goaltenders in franchise history", "The Pittsburgh Penguins Foundation conducts numerous community activities", "Footnotes Citations" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Franchise history.", "Founding.", "The McLaughlin era (1926–1944).", "The Norris era (1944–1966).", "The Arthur Wirtz era (1966–1983).", "The Bill Wirtz era (1983–2007).", "The Rocky Wirtz era (2007–present).", "2007–2009: Rebuilding.", "2009–10: The Stanley Cup returns to Chicago.", "2010–2012.", "2012–13: Presidents' Trophy and fifth Stanley Cup.", "2013–14.", "2014–15: Sixth Stanley Cup.", "2015–present.", "Team information.", "Jerseys.", "Logo.", "Mascot.", "Fight and goal songs.", "National anthem.", "Practice facilities.", "Circus trip.", "Media and announcers.", "Season-by-season record.", "Players.", "Retired numbers.", "Hall of Famers.", "Franchise scoring leaders." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "On May 1, 1926, the NHL awarded an expansion franchise for Chicago to a syndicate headed by former football star Huntington Hardwick of Boston. At the same meeting, Hardwick arranged the purchase of the players of the Portland Rosebuds of the Western Hockey League for $100,000 from WHL president Frank Patrick in a deal brokered by Boston Bruins' owner Charles Adams. However, only one month later, Hardwick's group sold out to Chicago coffee tycoon Frederic McLaughlin. McLaughlin had been a commander with the 333rd Machine Gun Battalion of the 86th Infantry Division during World War I. This division was nicknamed the \"Blackhawk Division\" after a Native American of the Sauk nation, Black Hawk, who was a prominent figure in the history of Illinois. McLaughlin named the new hockey", "The Black Hawks played their first game on November 17, 1926, against the Toronto St. Patricks in the Chicago Coliseum. The Black Hawks won their first game 4–1, in front of a crowd of over 7,000. The Hawks' first season was a moderate success; they finished the season in third place with a record of 19–22–3. However, they lost the 1927 first-round playoff series to the Boston Bruins. Following the series, McLaughlin fired head coach Pete Muldoon. According to Jim Coleman, sportswriter for the Toronto-based \"The Globe and Mail\", McLaughlin felt", "Owner and founder Frederic McLaughlin died in December 1944. His estate sold the team to a syndicate headed by long-time team president Bill Tobin. However, Tobin was only a puppet for James E. Norris, who owned the rival Detroit Red Wings. Norris had also been the Black Hawks' landlord since his 1936 purchase of Chicago Stadium. For the next eight years, the Norris-Tobin ownership, as a rule, paid almost no attention to the Black Hawks. Nearly every trade made between Detroit and Chicago", "James D. Norris died in 1966. One of his last moves in the NHL was to arrange an expansion franchise in St. Louis, where he owned the St. Louis Arena. Tobin died in 1963, a club vice-president until his death. Ownership now passed to Norris' longtime partner, Arthur Wirtz, and his son Bill Wirtz. The Wirtz–Norris partnership dated over three decades; Arthur Wirtz had been a minority partner in the syndicate the senior Norris put together to buy the Red Wings in 1932. Goaltender Glenn Hall was drafted by the expansion St. Louis Blues for the 1967–68 season, while Pierre Pilote was traded to the Maple Leafs in exchange for Jim Pappin in 1968.", "In 1983, Arthur Wirtz died and the club came under the sole control of his son Bill Wirtz. Although the Black Hawks continued to make the playoffs each season, the club began a slow decline, punctuated with an appearance in the 1992 Stanley Cup Finals. During the 1985 playoff series against Edmonton, the Black Hawks and their fans started a tradition of cheering during the singing of \"The Star-Spangled Banner\". Moreover, prior to the 1986–87 season, while going through the team's records, someone discovered the team's original NHL contract and found that the name \"Blackhawks\" was printed as a compound word as opposed to two separate words, \"Black Hawks\", which was the way most sources had been printing it for 60 years and as the team had always officially listed it. The name officially became \"Chicago Blackhawks\" from that point on. In the late 1980s, Chicago still made the playoffs on an annual basis but made early-round exits each time. In, after three-straight first-round defeats, and despite a fourth-place finish in their division in the regular season, Chicago made it to the Conference Final in the rookie seasons of both goalie Ed Belfour and center Jeremy Roenick. However, once again they would fail to make the Stanley Cup Final, losing to the eventual champions Calgary Flames. The following season, the Hawks did prove they were late-round playoff material, running away with the Norris Division title, but, yet again, the third round continued to stymie them, this time against the eventual champion Oilers,", "", "On September 26, 2007, Bill Wirtz, the longtime owner of the Blackhawks, died after a brief battle with cancer. He was succeeded by his son, Rocky, who drastically altered his father's long-standing policies. Midway into the 2007–08 NHL season, the franchise experimented with a partnership with Comcast SportsNet Chicago and WGN-TV by airing selected Blackhawks home games on television. During the next season, Comcast and WGN began airing all of the team's regular season games. Rocky also named John McDonough, formerly the president of Major League Baseball's Chicago Cubs, as the franchise's new president. Since taking over the position, McDonough has been an instrumental figure in the Blackhawks current marketing success. Wirtz was also able to bring back former Blackhawks greats", "Prior to the 2009–10 NHL season, the Blackhawks made another major free agent purchase, signing Marian Hossa to a 12-year, US$62.8 million contract. The team also acquired Tomas Kopecky, John Madden and Richard Petiot. In early July, general manager Dale Tallon and the Blackhawks management came under fire when the National Hockey League Players' Association (NHLPA) claimed the team did not submit offers to their restricted free agents before the deadline. In the worst-case scenario, the team's unsigned restricted free agents at the time, including Calder Memorial Trophy finalist Kris Versteeg, would have become unrestricted free agents. Despite the ordeal, the Blackhawks were able to sign Versteeg and all of their restricted free agents before the NHLPA could take further action. On July 14, 2009, the Blackhawks demoted Tallon to the position of senior adviser. Stan Bowman, son of Scotty Bowman, was promoted to general manager. The Blackhawks continued to sell-out games,", "The Blackhawks immediately faced salary cap constraints prior to the 2010–11 NHL season. The team was forced to trade many players who played an integral role to their 2009–10 Stanley Cup victory, including Dustin Byfuglien, Andrew Ladd, Kris Versteeg, Brent Sopel, Ben Eager and Colin Fraser. The team was also unable to agree to terms with starting goaltender Antti Niemi, who left as restricted free agent to the San Jose Sharks. The Blackhawks signed former Dallas Stars starting goalie Marty Turco as his replacement, but eventually turned to rookie Corey Crawford to become their full-time starting goaltender. The Blackhawks also made a mid-season trade to acquire winger Michael Frolik from the Florida Panthers in exchange for Jack Skille, Hugh Jessiman and David Pacan. Amidst the roster turnaround, the Blackhawks finished the season with a 44–29–9 record and placed third in the Central Division and eighth in the Western Conference. The team's playoff fate was determined on the final day of the regular season. The Blackhawks lost their regular season finale to", "The Blackhawks started the lockout-shortened 2012–13 season with much success by establishing several new franchise and NHL records. On January 27, 2013, the Blackhawks set a new franchise record for starting the season 6–0–0 after a win against the Detroit Red Wings. On February 19, the Blackhawks tied the NHL record previously set by the Anaheim Ducks in the 2006–07 season for earning points in the first 16 consecutive games of a season, and beat the Ducks record (28 points) by one point. On March 6, the Blackhawks extended the NHL record to 24 games with a record of 21–0–3, and the franchise record for most consecutive wins to 11 games. However, the Blackhawks lost 6–2 to the Colorado Avalanche on March 8. It was their first loss in regulation and ended their 24-game streak in which they earned at least one point, an NHL record to start a season. The point streak was the third-longest in NHL history. The United Center also recorded its 200th consecutive combined regular season and playoff Blackhawks sell-out on", "The Blackhawks began the 2013–14 season in hopes of becoming the first team to win consecutive Stanley Cups since the Detroit Red Wings in 1997 and 1998. The team was dramatically altered in the off-season to remain under the salary cap. The team traded Dave Bolland, Daniel Carcillo and Michael Frolik in exchange for future draft picks, while parting ways with Ray Emery and Viktor Stalberg. Despite these changes, the Blackhawks tallied a 28–7–7 record going into January 2014. The team played their second outdoor game in franchise history, against the Pittsburgh Penguins at Soldier Field, as part of the", "The Blackhawks' roster remained largely intact following the 2013–14 season. The team signed veteran center Brad Richards and rookie goaltender Scott Darling to one-year contracts, and traded defenseman Nick Leddy to the New York Islanders in exchange for three prospects. For the first half of the season, Patrick Kane led the team in scoring and points. The Blackhawks mustered a 30–15–2 record going into the All-Star break. The Blackhawks sent six players to the All-Star Game, including Kane, Jonathan Toews, Duncan Keith, Brent Seabrook and Corey Crawford. The team also played in the 2015 NHL Winter Classic at Nationals Park in Washington, D.C., where they lost 3–2 to the Washington Capitals. However, in late February, Kane suffered a shoulder injury that was expected to sideline", "The Blackhawks' roster experienced another dramatic reconstruction before the 2015–16 season. The team was unable to come to terms with pending free agent Brandon Saad, who had played a pivotal role in the 2015 playoffs. The Blackhawks traded Saad's negotiation rights (along with prospects Alex Broadhurst and Michael Paliotta) to the Columbus Blue Jackets in exchange for Artem Anisimov, Marko Dano, Corey Tropp, Jeremy Morin and a fourth-round draft pick in the 2016 NHL Entry Draft. The Blackhawks were unable to re-sign unrestricted free agents Brad Richards, Antoine Vermette and Johnny Oduya due to salary cap constraints. The team then traded long-time veteran and fan-favorite Patrick Sharp (along with Stephen Johns) to the Dallas Stars in exchange for Trevor Daley and forward Ryan Garbutt in order to stay under the salary cap. Amidst the roster turnover, the Blackhawks signed free agent Artemi Panarin from the Kontinental Hockey League (KHL) to an entry-level contract. The Blackhawks offense was led by Patrick Kane, who scored an NHL-best 106 points in 2015–16 and also won the season's Hart Memorial Trophy as league MVP. Panarin, who skated on Kane's line, won the Calder Memorial Trophy, awarded to the NHL's best first-year player. Midway through the season, the Blackhawks attempted to supplement their roster by making several trades. The Blackhawks dealt Jeremy Morin to the Toronto Maple Leafs in exchange for Richard Panik. The team then reacquired Andrew Ladd from the Winnipeg Jets in exchange for their first round selection in the 2016 NHL Entry Draft and Marko Dano. The team then traded Phillip Danault and their 2018 second round pick to the Montreal Canadiens in exchange for forwards Dale Weise and Tomas Fleischmann. The team finished with a 46-26-9 record, good for 103 points and third place in their division. The Blackhawks were defeated by the St. Louis Blues in a seven-game series in the first round of the 2016 playoffs. The loss marked the Blackhawks earliest playoff exit since 2012. Salary cap constraints forced the Blackhawks to make additional trades before the 2016–17 season. The team traded pending free-agent Andrew Shaw to Montreal in exchange for two second-round 2016 draft picks. The Blackhawks also traded Bryan Bickell and Teuvo Teravaainen to the Carolina Hurricanes in exchange for another 2016 second-round pick in order to free additional salary cap space. The Blackhawks signed veteran Brian Campbell and KHL stand-out Michal Kempny during free agency. The team then turned to their farm system to replenish their depth. The Blackhawks promoted rookies Ryan Hartman, Gustav Forsling, Tyler Motte, Nick Schmaltz and Vinnie Hinostroza to their starting line-up to fill the vacancies left by Shaw, Bickell and Teravainen. Patrick Kane spearheaded the Blackhawks offense with 34 goals and 55 assists, tying for second in scoring during the regular season among all skaters. He was aided by his linemate, Panarin, who scored 31 goals and 43 assists. In addition to Kane and Panarin, Jonathan Toews, Marian Hossa, Artem Anisimov and Richard Panik all scored at least 20 goals. Toews, Kane, Duncan Keith and Corey Crawford were also selected to play in the All-Star Game. The Blackhawks finished the season with 109", "", "The Blackhawks wear predominantly red jerseys featuring three sets of black and white stripes along the sleeves and waist. The team's logo is displayed on the front of each jersey, along with a 'C', representing 'Chicago', on each shoulder with two crossed tomahawks. The Blackhawks debuted this design in 1955, and have since only made minor modifications to the jersey. In 2007, The Blackhawks along with all other NHL teams, made minute changes to their uniforms by adding larger logo, a new collar with the NHL logo and a 'baseball-style cut along the bottom. The team previously donned alternate third jersey that was primarily black with red and white stripes between 1996 and 2007. The Blackhawks brought this design back in 2008, before making their 2009 Winter Classic jerseys their alternates between 2009-11. The team has not used an alternate jersey home jersey since 2011. The Blackhawks' uniform was voted one of the 25 best in professional sports by Paul Lukas of GQ in November 2004. \"The Hockey News\" voted the team's jersey as the best in the NHL. Greg Wyshynski of Yahoo! Sports listed the Blackhawks home jerseys as the second best NHL jersey in the history of the NHL in 2017. The Blackhawks were voted to have the best uniform in the history of the NHL in a fan-vote conducted by the NHL in 2017. Since 2009, the Blackhawks have worn special camouflage jerseys on Veterans Day during their pregame warm-ups. The jerseys are later sold in auctions to raise", "McLaughlin's wife, Irene Castle, designed the original version of the team's logo, which featured a crudely-drawn black and white Native head in a circle. This design went through several significant changes between 1926 and 1955. During this period, seven distinct versions of the primary logo were worn on the team's uniforms. At the beginning of the 1955–56 season, the outer circle was removed and the head began to resemble the team's current primary logo. This crest and uniform went through subtle changes until the 1964–65 season; the basic logo and jersey design have remained constant ever since. In 2008, \"The Hockey News\"' staff voted the team's main logo to be the best in the NHL. In 2010, sports columnist Damien Cox called on the franchise to retire the \"racially insensitive\" logo, saying that, \"Clearly, no right-thinking person would name a team after an aboriginal figure these days any more than they would use Muslims or Africans or Chinese or any ethnic group to depict a specific sporting notion.\" Furthermore, the", "The Blackhawks mascot is Tommy Hawk, an anthropomorphic black hawk who wears the Blackhawks' four feathers on his head, along with a Blackhawks jersey and hockey pants. Tommy Hawk often", "\"Here Come the Hawks!\" is the official fight song and introduction of the Chicago Blackhawks. The song was written by J. Swayzee, an avid Blackhawks fan, and produced by the Dick Marx Orchestra and Choir in 1968 and is heard quite often both in vocal and organ renditions during Blackhawks home games. In late 2007 the song \"Keys to the City\" was released by Ministry & Co Conspirators as a gift to", "It is a tradition for Blackhawks fans to applaud and cheer loudly during the singing of the national anthem. This tradition originated during a 1985 Campbell Conference playoff game at Chicago Stadium versus the Edmonton Oilers. Wayne Messmer, the", "The Blackhawks practice facility, the Fifth Third Arena, is located in Chicago's Near West Side. The 125,000 square-foot facility opened in 2017 and cost $65 million to construct.", "The Blackhawks and their arena mates, the Chicago Bulls, embarked on an annual two-week road trip in mid-November dating back to when both teams inhabited Chicago Stadium. The Wirtz Family, who at one point owned the Blackhawks, Bulls, and Chicago Stadium, would lease the venue", "For the first time in team history, all 82 games plus playoffs were broadcast on television during the 2008–09 season. At least 20 of them aired on WGN-TV (Channel 9), the first time the Blackhawks had been seen on local over-the-air television in 30 years. Games produced by WGN-TV through its WGN Sports department are not available in its superstation feed WGN America due to league broadcast rights restrictions. Other games not broadcast by WGN-TV are aired on regional sports network NBC Sports Chicago, the first time in at least 35 years that non-nationally broadcast home games were seen locally, either over-the-air or on cable. On February 15, 2011, it was announced that the team had renewed their broadcast contract with WGN-TV for the next five years, starting in the 2011–12 NHL season. The deal was further extended for three more years on May 15, 2014, keeping the team on Channel 9 until", "\"This is a partial list of the last five seasons completed by the Blackhawks. For the full season-by-season history, see List of", "", "", "The Chicago Blackhawks presently acknowledge an affiliation with a number of inductees to the Hockey Hall of Fame. Inductees affiliated with the Blackhawks include 39 former players and 10 builders of the sport. The 10 individuals recognized as builders by the Hall of Fame includes former Blackhawks executives, general managers,", "These are the top-ten point-scorers in franchise history. Figures are updated after each completed NHL" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "Distribution and habitat.", "Biology.", "Uses." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Smaller peled much resemble slim vendace or whitefish but as they grow larger they develop a deeper body which becomes less tapered and more blocky. The jaws are of equal length which is in contrast to the whitefish which has a snout longer than its lower jaw, and the vendace which has a projecting lower jaw. Another distinction is that the first gill arch has 50–65 gill rakers, a larger number than either of the other species. This fish grows to a length of about and a maximum weight of. It has a dark back, silvery flanks and white belly.", "The peled is native to lakes and rivers of northern Russia. Its range extends from the Mezen River system emptying into the White Sea eastwards to the Kolyma River basin in eastern Siberia. It is a fish of rivers, reservoirs and lakes and it is possible that more than one species exist under the common name as there is considerable variation in growth rate, spawning date and other factors across its range.", "The peled mostly eats zooplankton, but also consumes bottom-dwelling invertebrates, fish fry, algae and floating insects. Fish mostly become mature when about three years old and can live to about twelve years old. They spawn in autumn and winter over hard sand at the edges of lakes, and over sand, gravel and pebbles in rivers. In northern rivers this may be under ice at depths down to about.", "Although edible, the peled is not highly esteemed for cooking as the flesh is rather soft and tasteless. It is sometimes salted and consumed raw." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Examples.", "Telecommunication standards.", "HTML.", "Optical media.", "NUC (not upwardly compatible)." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The introduction of FM stereo transmission, or color television, allowed forward compatibility, since monophonic FM radio receivers and black-and-white TV sets still could receive a signal from a new transmitter. It also allowed backward compatibility since new receivers could receive monophonic or black-and-white signals generated by old transmitters.", "HTML is designed to treat all tags in the same way (as inert, unstyled inline elements) unless their appearance or behavior is overridden; either by the browser's default settings, or by scripts or styles included in the page. This makes most new features degrade gracefully in older browsers. One case where this did not work as intended was script and style blocks, whose content is meant to be interpreted by the browser instead of being part of the page. Such cases were dealt with by enclosing the content within comment blocks. Because there is no mandatory upgrade of computers or web browsers, many web developers use a graceful degradation or progressive enhancement approach (often using unobtrusive JavaScript), attempting to make newly-created websites that are usable by people who have turned off Javascript or who have old computers or old web browsers or on a slow connection, yet still taking advantage of faster hardware and better JavaScript support in more modern web browsers, when available.", "Each of the three most common 12cm optical media formats (CD, DVD, and Blu-ray) was first released in read-only form years before writable forms were available. Within each format, there is both forward and backward compatibility, in that most older read-only drives and players can read (but not write) writable media in the same format, while read/write drives can read (but not write) old read-only media. There is no forward compatibility between formats; a CD player, for instance, can't read a DVD (a newer format), not even the audio tracks. There may be backward compatibility for better marketability (such as a DVD player playing an audio CD), but it is not intrinsic to the standards.", "Some products are not designed to be forward compatible, which has been referred to as NUC (not upwardly compatible). In some cases this might be intentional by the designers as a form of vendor lock-in or software regression. For example, a cubicle producer considers changing their cubicle design. One designer promotes changing the footprint from 4 foot square to 1.2 meter square. Immediately, the sales manager calls \"NUC\" and the problem is understood: if the footprint changes and existing customers are considering buying more from the producer, they will have to fit a different sized unit in an office designed for the 4 foot square cubicle. Planned obsolescence is a type of upward compatibility, but rather than adopting a policy of backwards compatibility, companies adopt a commercial policy of backwards incompatibility so that newer apps require newer devices." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Economic success.", "Design.", "Scenario." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Most traditional excavators have tracks or wheels as undercarriage which limits their usability on steep inclines, uneven tarrain or inaccessible positions. In 1966, Edwin Ernst Menzi (1897-1984) and Joseph Kaiser (1928-1993) together invented the walking excavator for work on mountain slopes. Subsequently, Kaiser AG, Schaanwald, Liechtenstein, and Menzi Muck AG, Kriessern, Switzerland, developed separately excavators. Despite the advantages of the design it failed to be widely used due to little gain in mobility, considering most work are in urban areas, less comfort, expensive design plus expensive electro-hydraulic control and maintenance. In addition, the walking excavator is still not so well known to the general public. Today, only walking excavators and forest harvester, like the Ecolog forest harvester or the TimberPro tilt cab are truly designed to move and work in mountains.", "In 2007, Kaiser AG, Schaanwald, Liechtenstein, realized a turnover of nearly 60 million Swiss francs. In 2013, Menzi Muck AG had a turnover of 56.93 million Swiss francs. In 2014, Kaiser AG had a turnover of 70 million Swiss francs.", "The walking excavator's main feature is the ability to move in a crab- or spider-like fashion and hence overcome any terrain obstacle. The undercarriage design varies widely from model to model and between specialized roles. The number of legs or wheels can also vary from e.g. three (Menzi Muck 5000T2) to four. The \"leg\" design can also vary from fixed to telescoping arms. Most modern walking excavators have rotating or powered wheels allowing them to roll or drive depending on the need.", "Often the boom is also employed in moving for example to overcome wide gaps larger than the reach of their \"legs\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Technical descriptions.", "TACACS.", "XTACACS.", "TACACS+." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "TACACS was originally developed in 1984 by BBN Technologies for administering MILNET, which ran unclassified network traffic for DARPA at the time and would later evolve into the U.S. Department of Defense's NIPRNet. Originally designed as a means to automate authentication – allowing someone who was already logged into one host in the network to connect to another on the same network without needing to re-authenticate – it was first formally described by BBN's Brian Anderson in December 1984 in IETF RFC 927. Cisco Systems began supporting TACACS in its networking products in the late 1980s, eventually adding several extensions to the protocol. In 1990, Cisco's extensions on the top of TACACS became a proprietary protocol called Extended TACACS (XTACACS). Although TACACS and XTACACS are not open standards, Craig Finseth of the University of Minnesota, with Cisco's assistance, published a description of the protocols in 1993 in IETF RFC 1492 for informational purposes.", "", "TACACS is defined in RFC 1492, and uses (either TCP or UDP) port 49 by default. TACACS allows a client to accept a username and password and send a query to a TACACS authentication server, sometimes called a TACACS daemon or simply TACACSD. It would determine whether to accept or deny the authentication request and send a response back. The TIP (routing node accepting dial-up line connections, which the user would normally want to log in into) would then allow access or not, based upon the response. In this way, the process of making the decision is \"opened up\" and the algorithms and data used to make the decision are under the complete control of whomever is running the TACACS daemon.", "XTACACS, which stands for Extended TACACS, provides additional functionality for the TACACS protocol. It also separates the authentication, authorization, and accounting (AAA) functions out into separate processes, even allowing them to be handled by separate servers and technologies.", "TACACS+ and RADIUS have generally replaced TACACS and XTACACS in more recently built or updated networks. TACACS+ is an entirely new protocol and is not compatible with its predecessors, TACACS and XTACACS. TACACS+ uses TCP (while RADIUS operates over UDP). Since TCP is a connection oriented protocol, TACACS+ does not have to implement transmission control. RADIUS, however, does have to detect and correct transmission errors like packet loss, timeout etc. since it rides on UDP which is connectionless. RADIUS encrypts only the users' password as it travels from the RADIUS client to RADIUS server. All other information such as the username, authorization, accounting are transmitted in clear text. Therefore, it is vulnerable to different types of attacks. TACACS+ encrypts all the information mentioned above and therefore does not have the vulnerabilities present in the RADIUS protocol. TACACS+ is a CISCO designed extension to TACACS that encrypts the full content of each packet. Moreover, it provides granular control (command by command authorization)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "On the Moon.", "Orbital imagery.", "Lunar north pole.", "Lunar south pole.", "On Mercury." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The ESA SMART-1, NASA \"Clementine\" and JAXA \"SELENE\" spacecrafts made maps of the lunar poles that have been used to identify sites receiving eternal light. The orbiting craft monitored the lighting at the poles and looked for seasonal variations, as well as mapping the relief so that peaks of eternal light could be identified topographically. The Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter then took a data set including 24,000 wide-area camera and 31,500 narrow-angle camera images within 2° of the poles. These were used to construct high-resolution maps that reveal illuminated terrain under varying lighting conditions. Peaks of eternal light on the Moon would not be perfectly \"eternal\", since sunlight would still be cut off occasionally by the Earth's shadow during a lunar eclipse (which can last up to 6 hours) and by the shadows of other mountains and plateaus. The term \"peak of eternal light\" for the Moon is commonly used in the technical literature and newspaper articles as a popularization and is surprisingly applied even though the duration of illumination is not permanent, excluding the lunar eclipses. No peaks of eternal light have been positively identified on the Moon, but many peaks have been detected that, in simulations based on imaging and laser and radar topography, appear to be illuminated for greater than 80% of a lunar year. Of course the concept of \"eternity\" in this case lasts only during the lifetime of the Sun (roughly 10 billion years) and will end when the Sun runs out of fuel and becomes a red giant, which will likely absorb and destroy the Moon, or else end when the Sun becomes a white dwarf and no longer produces enough light to directly illuminate the lunar surface.", "Based on images from the \"Clementine\" lunar mission, a team from Johns Hopkins University suggested that four locations along the rim of the Peary crater are candidates for peaks of eternal light. This crater lies near the north pole of the Moon. \"Clementine\"s images were taken during the northern summer, however, and did not address illumination of these peaks during the winter, when the Sun is below the horizon. Further data from the \"SELENE\" spaceprobe determined that one peak at Peary Crater receives sunlight for 89% of a lunar year.", "The lunar south pole is situated in a huge depression, leading to 16 km altitude differences over the region. Careful analysis of imagery and topographic conditions on the lunar South Pole by teams from NASA and the ESA revealed a small number of illuminated ridges within 15 km of the pole, each of them much like an island of no more than a few hundred meters across in an ocean of eternal darkness, where a lander could receive near-permanent lighting (for ~70–90% of the southern lunar winter, and likely all of the southern lunar summer). The Malapert Mountain region, on the rim of the Malapert crater 122 km from the lunar south pole on the Earth-facing side, may also have high levels of illumination. One study estimates the Malapert Mountain region to receive less than full sunlight 11% of the time. Sunlight exposure varies by year due to the Moon's orbit being 1.5° off-plane with the Sun. 2005 estimates of sunlight coverage of the Malapert Mountain region found only six partially lit or unlit events that year: 0–159 hours of complete sunset per event and 41–199 hours of complete or partial sunset per event. A later study using a combination of both \"Clementine\" imaging and \"SELENE\" topographical data estimated only 74% of full sunlight for the year 2020. This study found that two points only ~8 km from each other along a straight ridge extending from Shackleton Crater at the Lunar South Pole are illuminated a combined ~94% of a lunar year. This is because both points cast shadows upon each other during different times of the lunar year, and only a few times of darkness occur when further peaks throw shadows over both of these points simultaneously. The data set from Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter shows that some sites on the rim of Shackelton remain illuminated for 94% of a lunar year. The longest all three Shackleton outposts are eclipsed is 43 h.", "The existence of peaks of eternal light on Mercury has also been theorized, but due to the lack of detailed mapping, no Mercurian peaks have been positively confirmed or ruled out. This may change when the data from the orbiter \"MESSENGER\" is fully analyzed. Such peaks would not even suffer the sporadic shadow of an eclipse, as Mercury has no known moons." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Ornament prints and pattern books.", "Modern ornament." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The history of art in many cultures shows a series of wave-like trends where the level of ornament used increases over a period, before a sharp reaction returns to plainer forms, after which ornamentation gradually increases again. The pattern is especially clear in post-Roman European art, where the highly ornamented Insular art of the Book of Kells and other manuscripts influenced continental Europe, but the classically inspired Carolingian and Ottonian art largely replaced it. Ornament increased over the Romanesque and Gothic periods, but was greatly reduced in Early Renaissance styles, again under classical influence. Another period of increase, in Northern Mannerism, the Baroque and Rococo, was checked by Neoclassicism and the Romantic period, before resuming in the later 19th century Victorian decorative arts and their continental equivalents, to be decisively reduced by the Arts and Crafts movement and then Modernism. The detailed study of Eurasian ornamental forms was begun by Alois Riegl in his formalist study \"Stilfragen: Grundlegungen zu einer Geschichte der Ornamentik\" (\"Problems of style: foundations for a history of ornament\") of 1893, who in the process developed his influential concept of the \"Kunstwollen\". Riegl traced formalistic continuity and development in decorative plant forms from Ancient Egyptian art and other ancient Near Eastern civilizations through the classical world to the arabesque of Islamic art. While the concept of the \"Kunstwollen\" has few followers today, his basic analysis of the development of forms has been confirmed and refined by the wider \"corpus\" of examples known today. Jessica Rawson has recently extended the analysis to cover Chinese art, which Riegl did not cover, tracing many elements of Chinese decoration back to the same tradition; the shared background helping to make the assimilation of Chinese motifs into Persian art after the Mongol invasion harmonious and productive. Styles of ornamentation can be studied in reference to the specific culture which developed unique forms of decoration, or modified ornament from other cultures. The Ancient Egyptian culture is arguably the first civilization to add pure decoration to their buildings. Their ornament takes the forms of the natural world in that climate, decorating the capitals of columns and walls with images of papyrus and palm trees. Assyrian culture produced ornament which shows influence from Egyptian sources and a number of original themes, including figures of plants and animals of the region. Ancient Greek civilization created many new forms of ornament, with regional variations from Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian groups. The Romans Latinized the pure forms of the Greek ornament and adapted the forms to every purpose.", "A few medieval notebooks survive, most famously that of Villard de Honnecourt (13th century) showing how artists and craftsmen recorded designs they saw for future use. With the arrival of the print, ornament prints became an important part of the output of printmakers, especially in Germany, and played a vital role in the rapid diffusion of new Renaissance styles to makers of all sorts of object. As well as revived classical ornament, both architectural and the grotesque style derived from Roman interior decoration, these included new styles such as the moresque, a European adaptation of the Islamic arabesque (a distinction not always clear at the time). As printing became cheaper, the single ornament print turned into sets, and then finally books. From the 16th to the 19th century, pattern books were published in Europe which gave access to decorative elements, eventually including those recorded from cultures all over the world. Andrea Palladio's \"I quattro libri dell'architettura\" (Four Books on Architecture) (Venice, 1570), which included both drawings of classical Roman buildings and renderings of Palladio's own designs utilizing those motifs, became the most influential book ever written on architecture. Napoleon had the great pyramids and temples of Egypt documented in the \"Description de l'Egypte (1809)\". Owen Jones published \"The Grammar of Ornament\" in 1856 with colored illustrations of decoration from Egypt, Turkey, Sicily and Spain. He took residence in the Alhambra Palace to make drawings and plaster castings of the ornate details of the Islamic ornaments there, including arabesques, calligraphy, and geometric patterns. Interest in classical architecture was also fueled by the tradition of traveling on The Grand Tour, and by translation of early literature about architecture in the work of Vitruvius and Michelangelo. During the 19th century, the acceptable use of ornament, and its precise definition became the source of aesthetic controversy in academic Western architecture, as architects and their critics searched for a suitable style. \"The great question is,\" Thomas Leverton Donaldson asked in 1847, \"are we to have an architecture of our period, a distinct, individual, palpable style of the 19th century?\". In 1849, when Matthew Digby Wyatt viewed the French Industrial Exposition set up on the Champs-Elysées in Paris, he disapproved in recognizably modern terms of the plaster ornaments in faux-bronze and faux woodgrain: Both internally and externally there is a good deal of tasteless and unprofitable ornament... If each simple material had been allowed to tell its own tale, and the lines of the construction so arranged as to conduce to a sentiment of grandeur, the qualities of \"power\" and \"truth,\" which its enormous extent must have necessarily ensured, could have scarcely fail to excite admiration, and that at a very considerable saving of expense. Contacts with other cultures through colonialism and the new discoveries of archaeology expanded the repertory of ornament available to revivalists. After about 1880, photography made details of ornament even more widely available than prints had done.", "Modern millwork ornaments are made of wood, plastics, composites, etc. They come in many different colours and shapes. Modern architecture, conceived of as the elimination of ornament in favor of purely functional structures, left architects the problem of how to properly adorn modern structures. There were two available routes from this perceived crisis. One was to attempt to devise an ornamental vocabulary that was new and essentially contemporary. This was the route taken by architects like Louis Sullivan and his pupil Frank Lloyd Wright, or by the unique Antoni Gaudí. Art Nouveau, popular around the turn of the 20th century, was in part a conscious effort to evolve such a \"natural\" vocabulary of ornament. A more radical route abandoned the use of ornament altogether, as in some designs for objects by Christopher Dresser. At the time, such unornamented objects could have been found in many unpretending workaday items of industrial design, ceramics produced at the Arabia manufactory in Finland, for instance, or the glass insulators of electric lines. This latter approach was described by architect Adolf Loos in his 1908 manifesto, translated into English in 1913 and polemically titled \"Ornament and Crime\", in which he declared that lack of decoration is the sign of an advanced society. His argument was that ornament is economically inefficient and \"morally degenerate\", and that reducing ornament was a sign of progress. Modernists were eager to point to American architect Louis Sullivan as their godfather in the cause of aesthetic simplification, dismissing the knots of intricately patterned ornament that articulated the skin of his structures. With the work of Le Corbusier and the Bauhaus through the 1920s and 1930s, lack of decorative detail became a hallmark of modern architecture and equated with the moral virtues of honesty, simplicity, and purity. In 1932 Philip Johnson and Henry-Russell Hitchcock dubbed this the \"International Style\". What began as a matter of taste was transformed into an aesthetic mandate. Modernists declared their way as the only acceptable way to build. As the style hit its stride in the highly developed postwar work of Mies van der Rohe, the tenets of 1950s modernism became so strict that even accomplished architects like Edward Durrell Stone and Eero Saarinen could be ridiculed and effectively ostracized for departing from the aesthetic rules. At the same time, the unwritten laws against ornament began to come into serious question. \"Architecture has, with some difficulty, liberated itself from ornament, but it has not liberated itself from the \"fear\" of ornament,\" John Summerson observed in 1941. The very difference between ornament and structure is subtle and perhaps arbitrary. The pointed arches and flying buttresses of Gothic architecture are ornamental but structurally necessary; the colorful rhythmic bands of a Pietro Belluschi International Style skyscraper are integral, not applied, but certainly have ornamental effect. Furthermore, architectural ornament can serve the practical purpose of establishing scale, signaling entries, and aiding wayfinding, and these useful design tactics had been outlawed. And by the mid-1950s, modernist figureheads Le Corbusier and Marcel Breuer had been breaking their own rules by producing highly expressive, sculptural concrete work. The argument against ornament peaked in 1959 over discussions of the Seagram Building, where Mies van der Rohe installed a series of structurally unnecessary vertical I-beams on the outside of the building, and by 1984, when Philip Johnson produced his AT&T Building in Manhattan with an ornamental pink granite neo-Georgian pediment, the argument was effectively over. In retrospect, critics have seen the AT&T Building as the first Postmodernist building." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Spacecraft design.", "Mission.", "Science instruments.", "Charged Particle Telescope (CPT).", "Ultraviolet/Visible camera.", "Near-Infrared CCD Camera (NIR).", "Laser Image Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) System.", "High-Resolution Camera (HIRES).", "Bistatic Radar Experiment.", "After the lunar mission.", "External links." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The spacecraft was an octagonal prism 1.88 m high and 1.14 m across with two solar panels protruding on opposite sides parallel to the axis of the prism. A high-gain fixed dish antenna was at one end of the prism, and the 489 N thruster at the other end. The sensor openings were all located together on one of the eight panels, 90 degrees from the solar panels, and protected in by a single sensor cover. The spacecraft propulsion system consisted of a monopropellant hydrazine system for attitude control and a bipropellant nitrogen tetroxide and monomethyl hydrazine system for the maneuvers in space. The bipropellant system had a total Delta-v capability of about 1,900 m/s with about 550 m/s required for lunar insertion and 540 m/s for lunar departure. Attitude control was achieved with 12 small attitude control jets, two star trackers, and two inertial measurement units. The spacecraft was three-axis stabilized in lunar orbit via reaction wheels with a precision of 0.05 deg in control and 0.03 deg in knowledge. Power was provided by gimbaled, single axis, GaAs/Ge solar panels which charged a 15 A·h, 47 W·h/kg Nihau (Ni-H) common pressure vessel battery. Spacecraft data processing was performed using a MIL-STD-1750A computer (1.7 MIPS) for savemode, attitude control, and housekeeping operations, a RISC 32-bit processor (18 MIPS) for image processing and autonomous operations, and an image compression system provided by the French Space Agency CNES. A data handling unit sequenced the cameras, operated the image compression system, and directed the data flow. Data was stored in a 2 Gbit dynamic solid state data recorder.", "[[File:Animation of Clementine trajectory around Moon.gif |thumb |right |Animation of \"Clementine\" trajectory around [[Moon]] from February 19, 1994 to May 3, 1994<br> On January 25, 1994, \"Clementine\" was launched from Space Launch Complex 4 West at [[Vandenberg Air Force Base]], California, using a [[Titan 23G|Titan II]] launch vehicle. The mission had two phases. After two Earth flybys, lunar insertion was achieved approximately one month after launch. Lunar mapping took place over approximately two months, in two parts. The first part consisted of a five-hour elliptical [[polar orbit]] with a [[periapsis]] of about 400 km at 13 degrees south latitude and an [[apoapsis]] of 8300 km. Each orbit consisted of an 80-minute lunar mapping phase near periapsis and 139 minutes of downlink at apoapsis. After one month of mapping the orbit was rotated to a periapsis at 13 degrees north latitude, where it remained for one more month. This allowed global imaging and altimetry coverage from 60° south to 60° north, over a total of 300 orbits. After a Moon to Earth transfer and two more Earth flybys, the spacecraft was to head for [[1620 Geographos]], arriving three months later for a flyby, with a nominal approach closer than 100 km. Unfortunately, on May 7, 1994, after the first Earth transfer orbit, a malfunction aboard the craft caused one of the attitude control thrusters to fire for 11 minutes, using up its fuel supply and causing \"Clementine\" to spin at about 80 rpm (see NASA Clementine Project Info). Under these conditions, the asteroid flyby could not yield useful results, so the spacecraft was put into a [[geocentric orbit]] passing through the [[Van Allen radiation belt]]s to test the various components on board. The mission ended in June 1994 when the power level onboard dropped to a point where the [[telemetry]] from the spacecraft was no longer intelligible. However, \"because the spacecraft was fortuitously in the correct attitude to power up again, ground controllers were able to briefly regain contact between 20 February and 10 May 1995.\" NASA announced on March 5, 1998, that data obtained from \"Clementine\" indicated that there is enough water in polar craters of the Moon to support a human colony and a [[rocket]] fueling station (see [[#Bistatic Radar Experiment|Bistatic Radar Experiment]]). [[Image:Clementine Deployed.png|thumb|left|220px|Artist's conception of \"Clementine\" fully deployed]]", "", "The Charged Particle Telescope (CPT) on \"Clementine\" was designed to measure the flux and spectra of energetic protons (3–80 [[MeV]]) and electrons (25–500 keV). The primary goals of the investigation were to: (1) study the interaction of the Earth's magnetotail and interplanetary shocks with the Moon; (2) monitor the solar wind in regions far removed from other spacecraft as part of a multimission coordinated study; and, (3) measure the effects of incident particles on the operating ability of the spacecraft solar cells and other sensors. In order to meet the stringent limit on the mass of the instrument (<1 kg), it was implemented as a single element telescope. The telescope had a 10 degree half-angle field of view. The detector, a silicon surface-barrier type with an area of 100 mm and a thickness of 3 mm, was shielded so as to prevent protons below 30 MeV from reaching it from directions other than via the aperture. The aperture was covered by a very thin foil to prevent light impinging on the detector and generating noise. The signal from the detector was broken up into nine channels, the lowest six dedicated to electron detection and the highest three to protons and heavier ions.", "[[File:Reiner-gamma-clem1.jpg|thumb|The [[Reiner Gamma]] [[Lunar Swirls]] at 750 nm, as recorded by the \"Clementine\" mission]] The Ultraviolet/Visible camera (UV/Vis) was designed to study the surfaces of the Moon and the asteroid Geographos at five different wavelengths in the ultraviolet and visible spectrum. The Geographos rendezvous was canceled due to equipment malfunction. This experiment yielded information on the petrologic properties of the surface material on the Moon, as well as giving images useful for morphologic studies and cratering statistics. Most images were taken at low Sun angles, which is useful for petrologic studies but not for observing morphology. The sensor consisted of a [[catadioptric telescope]] with an aperture of 46 mm and fused silica lenses focused onto a coated Thompson CCD camera with a bandpass of 250–1000 nm and a six-position filter wheel. The wavelength response was limited on the short wavelength end by the transmission and optical blur of the lens, and on the long end by the CCD response. The CCD was a frame transfer device which allowed three gain states (150, 350, and 1000 electrons/bit). Integration times varied from 1–40 ms depending on gain state, solar [[illumination angle]], and filter. The filter center wavelengths (and bandpass widths (FWHM)) were 415 nm (40 nm), 750 nm (10 nm), 900 nm (30 nm), 950 nm (30 nm), 1000 nm (30 nm), and a broad-band filter covering 400–950 nm. The field of view was 4.2 × 5.6 degrees, translating to a cross-track width of about 40 km at a nominal 400 km lunar altitude. The image array was 288 × 384 pixels. Pixel resolution varied from 100–325 m during a single orbit mapping run at the Moon. At Geographos the pixel resolution would have been 25 m at the 100 km closest approach, giving an image size about 7 × 10 km. The camera took twelve images in each 1.3 s image burst, which occurred 125 times over the 80-minute mapping span during each five-hour lunar orbit. the Moon's surface was covered completely during the two-month lunar mapping phase of the mission. The dynamic range was 15,000. The signal-to-noise ratio varied from 25–87 depending on the surface [[albedo]] and [[phase angle (astronomy)|phase angle]], with a relative calibration of 1% and an absolute calibration of 15%.", "The \"Clementine\" Near-Infrared camera (NIR) was designed to study the surfaces of the Moon and the near-Earth asteroid 1620 Geographos at six different wavelengths in the near-infrared spectrum. This experiment yielded information on the petrology of the surface material on the Moon. The rendezvous with Geographos was canceled due to equipment malfunction. The camera consisted of a catadioptric lens which focused on a mechanically cooled (to a temperature of 70 [[Kelvin|K]]) Amber InSb CCD focal-plane array with a bandpass of 1100–2800 nm and a six-position filter wheel. The filter center wavelengths (and bandpass widths (FWHM)) were: 1100 nm (60 nm), 1250 nm (60 nm), 1500 nm (60 nm), 2000 nm (60 nm), 2600 nm (60 nm), and 2780 nm (120 nm). The aperture was 29 mm with a focal length of 96 mm. The field of view was 5.6 × 5.6 degrees, giving a cross-track width of about 40 km at a nominal 400 km lunar altitude. The Moon had complete mapping coverage during the two-month lunar phase of the mission. The image array is 256 × 256 pixels, and pixel resolution varied from 150–500 m during a single orbit mapping run at the Moon. (At Geographos the pixel resolution would have been 40 m at closest approach, giving an image size about 10 × 10 km.) The camera took twelve images in each 1.3 s image burst, which occurred 75 times over the 80 minute mapping span during each five hour lunar orbit. The dynamic range was 15,000. The [[signal-to-noise ratio]] varied from 11–97 depending on the surface albedo and phase angle, with a relative calibration of 1% and an absolute calibration of 30%. The gain varied from 0.5X to 36X.", "[[Image:Moon clementine lidar.jpg|thumb|400px|right|Relief measurements made by LIDAR]] The \"Clementine\" Laser Image Detection And Ranging ([[LIDAR]]) experiment was designed to measure the distance from the spacecraft to a point on the surface of the Moon. This will allow an altimetric map to be made, which can be used to constrain the morphology of large basins and other lunar features, study stress and strain and flexural properties of the lithosphere, and can be combined with gravity to study the density distribution in the crust. The experiment was also designed to measure distances to the surface of Geographos, but this phase of the mission was canceled due to a malfunction. The LIDAR system consisted of a 180 mJ, 1064 nm wavelength Nd-YAG ([[Yttrium]]-Aluminum-Garnet) laser transmitter which transmitted pulses to the lunar surface. The laser produced a pulse with a width less than 10 ns. At 1064 nm wavelength, the pulse had an energy of 171 mJ with a divergence less than 500 microrad. At 532 nm, it had a 9 mJ pulse with a 4 millirad divergence. The reflected pulse travelled through the High-Resolution Camera telescope, where it was split off by a dichroic filter to a silicon avalanche photodiode detector. The detector was a single 0.5 × 0.5 mm cell SiAPD receiver with a field of view of 0.057 square degrees. The laser had a mass of 1250 g, the receiver was housed in the 1120 g HIRES camera. The travel time of a pulse gave the range to the surface. The LIDAR memory could save up to six return detections per laser firing, with a threshold set for the best compromise between missed detections and false alarms. The returns were stored in 39.972 m range bins, equal to the resolution of the 14-bit clock counter. The LIDAR has a nominal range of 500 km, but altimetric data was gathered for altitudes up to 640 km, which allowed coverage from 60 degrees south to 60 degrees north by the end of the lunar phase of the mission. The vertical resolution is 40 m, and the horizontal spot resolution is about 100 m. The across track spacing of the measurements at the equator was about 40 km. One measurement was made each second over a 45-minute period during each orbit, giving an along track spacing of 1–2 km.", "The \"Clementine\" High-Resolution Camera consisted of a telescope with an image intensifier and a frame-transfer [[Charge-coupled device|CCD]] imager. The imaging system was designed to study selected portions of the surfaces of the Moon and the near-Earth asteroid 1620 Geographos, although the asteroid rendezvous was canceled due to a malfunction. This experiment allowed the detailed study of surface processes on the Moon and, combined with spectral data, allowed high-resolution compositional and geologic studies. The imager was an intensified Thompson CCD camera with a six position filter wheel. The set of filters consisted of a broad-band filter with a bandpass of 400 to 800 nm, four narrow-band filters with center wavelengths (and bandpass width (FWHM)) of 415 nm (40 nm), 560 nm (10 nm), 650 nm (10 nm), and 750 nm (20 nm), and 1 opaque cover to protect the image intensifier. The field of view was 0.3 x 0.4 degrees, translating to a width of about 2 km at a nominal lunar altitude of 400 km. The image array is 288 × 384 pixels, (pixel size of 23 × 23 micrometers) so the pixel resolution at the Moon was 7–20 m depending on the spacecraft altitude. (At Geographos the resolution would have been <5 m at closest approach.) The clear aperture was 131 mm and the focal length was 1250 mm. The nominal imaging rate was about 10 frames per second in individual image bursts covering all filters at the Moon. The high resolution and small field of view only allowed coverage of selected areas of the Moon, in the form of either long, narrow strips of a single color or shorter strips of up to four colors. The instrument has a signal to noise ratio of 13 to 41 depending on the albedo and phase angle, with a 1% relative calibration and a 20% absolute calibration, and a dynamic range of 2000. The telescope of the High-Resolution Camera was shared by the LIDAR instrument. The 1064 nm laser return was split to the LIDAR receiver (an avalanche photodiode detector) using a dichroic filter. Imagery from the HIRES can be viewed in [[NASA World Wind]] software.", "The \"[[Bistatic radar|Bistatic Radar]] Experiment\", improvised during the mission, was designed to look for evidence of [[lunar water]] at the Moon's poles. Radio signals from the \"Clementine\" probe's transmitter were directed towards the Moon's north and south polar regions and their reflections detected by [[Deep Space Network]] receivers on Earth. Analysis of the magnitude and [[Polarization (waves)|polarisation]] of the reflected signals suggested the presence of volatile ices, interpreted as including water ice, in the Moon's surface soils. A possible ice deposit equivalent to a sizeable lake was announced. However, later studies made using the [[Arecibo Observatory|Arecibo radio telescope]] showed similar reflection patterns even from areas not in permanent shadow (and in which such volatiles cannot persist), leading to suggestions that \"Clementine\"s results had been misinterpreted and were probably due to other factors such as surface roughness.", "On May 7, 1994 (UTC) \"Clementine\" experienced a computer failure after it left Lunar orbit. The failure caused it to use up its remaining propellant, spinning the spacecraft up to 80 rotations per minute. It was utilized in a geocentric orbit until the end of its mission, but the asteroid trip was aborted.", "[[Category:Missions to the Moon]] [[Category:NASA space probes]] [[Category:Spacecraft launched in 1994]] [[Category:Spacecraft that orbited the Moon]] [[Category:Missions to near-Earth asteroids]] [[Category:Derelict satellites orbiting Earth]]" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Uncompahgre Ute Indians.", "Later descriptions.", "Mechanism of action.", "Examples.", "Fractoluminescence.", "EMR propagation during fracturing.", "Theory.", "Generation of X-Rays.", "Deformation induced EMR.", "Test methods to measure EMR.", "Uses and applications." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3" ], "content": [ "", "The Uncompahgre Ute Indians from Central Colorado are one of the first documented groups of people in the world credited with the application of mechanoluminescence involving the use of quartz crystals to generate light. The Ute constructed special ceremonial rattles made from buffalo rawhide which they filled with clear quartz crystals collected from the mountains of Colorado and Utah. When the rattles were shaken at night during ceremonies, the friction and mechanical stress of the quartz crystals impacting together produced flashes of light visible through the translucent buffalo hide.", "The first recorded observation is attributed to English scholar Francis Bacon when he recorded in his 1620 \"Novum Organum\" that \"It is well known that all sugar, whether candied or plain, if it be hard, will sparkle when broken or scraped in the dark.\" The scientist Robert Boyle also reported on some of his work on triboluminescence in 1663. In the late 1790s, sugar production began to produce more refined sugar crystals. These crystals were formed into a large solid cone for transport and sale. This solid cone of sugar had to be broken into usable chunks using a device known as sugar nips. People began to notice that as sugar was \"nipped\" in low light, tiny bursts of light were visible. A historically important instance of triboluminescence occurred in Paris in 1675. Astronomer Jean-Felix Picard observed that his barometer was glowing in the dark as he carried it. His barometer consisted of a glass tube that was partially filled with mercury. Whenever the mercury slid down the glass tube, the empty space above the mercury would glow. While investigating this phenomenon, researchers discovered that static electricity could cause low-pressure air to glow. This discovery revealed the possibility of electric lighting.", "Materials scientists have not yet arrived at a full understanding of the effect, but the current theory of triboluminescence — based upon crystallographic, spectroscopic, and other experimental evidence — is that upon fracture of asymmetrical materials, charge is separated. When the charges recombine, the electrical discharge ionizes the surrounding air, causing a flash of light. Research further suggests that crystals which display triboluminescence must lack symmetry (thus being anisotropic in order to permit charge separation) and be poor conductors. However, there are substances which break this rule, and which do not possess asymmetry, yet display triboluminescence anyway, such as hexakis(antipyrine)terbium iodide. It is thought that these materials contain impurities, which make the substance locally asymmetric. The biological phenomenon of triboluminescence is conditioned by recombination of free radicals during mechanical activation.", "A diamond may begin to glow while being rubbed. This occasionally happens to diamonds while a facet is being ground or the diamond is being sawn during the cutting process. Diamonds may fluoresce blue or red. Some other minerals, such as quartz, are triboluminescent, emitting light when rubbed together. Ordinary Pressure-sensitive tape (\"Scotch tape\") displays a glowing line where the end of the tape is being pulled away from the roll. In 1953, Soviet scientists observed that unpeeling a roll of tape in a vacuum produced X-rays. The mechanism of X-ray generation was studied further in 2008. Similar X-Ray emissions have also been observed with metals. Also, when sugar crystals are crushed, tiny electrical fields are created, separating positive and negative charges that then create sparks while trying to reunite. Wint-O-Green Life Savers work especially well for creating such sparks, because wintergreen oil (methyl salicylate) is fluorescent and converts ultraviolet light into blue light. Triboluminescence can occur when a Prince Rupert's Drop is shattered by a powerful force, such as a bullet. A bright flash of white light may proceed ahead of the cracking down from the head of the drop towards the tail. Triboluminescence is a biological phenomenon observed in mechanical deformation and contact electrization of epidermal surface of osseous and soft tissues, at chewing food, at friction in joints of vertebrae, during sexual intercourse, and during blood circulation. Water jet abrasive cutting of ceramics (e.g. tiles) creates a yellow/orange glow at the point of impact of very high speed flow. Opening an envelope sealed with polymer glue causes in darkness visible blue flashes.", "\"Fractoluminescence\" is often used as a synonym for triboluminescence. It is the emission of light from the fracture (rather than rubbing) of a crystal, but fracturing often occurs with rubbing. Depending upon the atomic and molecular composition of the crystal, when the crystal fractures a charge separation can occur making one side of the fractured crystal positively charged and the other side negatively charged. Like in triboluminescence, if the charge separation results in a large enough electric potential, a discharge across the gap and through the bath gas between the interfaces can occur. The potential at which this occurs depends upon the dielectric properties of the bath gas.", "The emission of electromagnetic radiation (EMR) during plastic deformation and crack propagation in metals and rocks has been studied. The EMR emissions from metals and alloys have also been explored and confirmed. Molotskii presented a dislocation mechanism for this type of EMR emission. Recently, Srilakshmi and Misra reported an additional phenomenon of secondary EMR during plastic deformation and crack propagation in uncoated and metal-coated metals and alloys.", "EMR during the micro-plastic deformation and crack propagation from several metals and alloys and transient magnetic field generation during necking in ferromagnetic metals were reported by Misra (1973–75), which have been confirmed and explored by several researchers. Tudik and Valuev (1980) were able to measure the EMR frequency during tensile fracture of iron and aluminum in the region 10^14 Hz by using photomultipliers. Srilakshmi and Misra (2005a) also reported an additional phenomenon of secondary electromagnetic radiation in uncoated and metal-coated metals and alloys. If a solid material is subjected to stresses of large amplitudes, which can cause plastic deformation and fracture, emissions such as thermal, acoustic, ions, exo-emissions occur. With the discovery of new materials and advancement in instrumentation to measure effects of EMR, crack formation and fracture; the EMR emissions effect becomes important.", "In a moderate vacuum, peeling tape generated x-rays sufficient to x-ray a human finger.", "The study of deformation is essential for the development of new materials. Deformation in metals depends on temperature, type of stress applied, strain rate, oxidation and corrosion. Deformation induced EMR can be divided into three categories: effects in ionic crystal materials; effects in rocks and granites; and, effects in metals and alloys. EMR emission depends on the orientation of the grains in individual crystals since material properties are different in differing directions. Amplitude of EMR pulse increases as long as the crack continues to grow as new atomic bonds are broken and it leads to EMR. The Pulse starts to decay as cracking halts. Observations from experiments showed that emitted EMR signals contain mixed frequency components.", "Most widely tensile test method is used to characterize the mechanical properties of materials. From any complete tensile test record, one can obtain important information about the material's elastic properties, the character and extent of plastic deformation, yield and tensile strengths and toughness. The information which can be obtained from one test justifies the extensive use of tensile test in engineering materials research. Therefore, investigations of EMR emissions are mainly based on the tensile test of the specimens. From experiments, it can be shown that tensile crack formation excites more intensive EMR than shear cracking, increasing the elasticity, strength and loading rate during uniaxial loading increases amplitude. Poisson's ratio is a key parameter for EMR characterization during triaxial compression. If the Poisson's ratio is lower, it is harder for the material to strain transversally and hence higher is the probability of new fractures. Mechanism of plastic deformation is very important for safe operation of any component under dynamic conditions.", "This EMR can be utilized in developing sensors/smart materials. This technique can be implemented in powder metallurgy technique also. EMR is one of these emissions which accompany large deformation. If an element can be identified which gives maximum EMR response with minimum mechanical stimulus then it can be incorporated into main material and thus set new trends in the development of smart material. The deformation induced EMR can serve as a strong tool for failure detection and prevention. Orel V.E. invented the device to measure EMR whole blood and lymphocytes in laboratory diagnostics." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Structure.", "Location.", "Formation and destruction.", "Reactivation.", "Importance.", "Biotechnology.", "Endospore-forming bacteria." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Bacteria produce a single endospore internally. The spore is sometimes surrounded by a thin covering known as the exosporium, which overlies the \"spore coat\". The spore coat, which acts like a sieve that excludes large toxic molecules like lysozyme, is resistant to many toxic molecules and may also contain enzymes that are involved in germination. In \"Bacillus subtilus\" endospores, the spore coat is estimated to contain more than 70 coat proteins, which are organized into an inner and an outer coat layer. The X-ray diffraction pattern of purified \"B. subtilis\" endospores indicates the presence of a component with a regular periodic structure, which Kadota and Iijima speculated might be formed from a keratin-like protein. However, after further studies this group concluded that the structure of the spore coat protein was different from keratin. When the \"B. subtilis\" genome was sequenced, no ortholog of human keratin was detected. The \"cortex\" lies beneath the spore coat and consists of peptidoglycan. The \"core wall\" lies beneath the cortex and surrounds the protoplast or \"core\" of the endospore. The core contains the spore chromosomal DNA which is encased in chromatin-like proteins known as SASPs (small acid-soluble spore proteins), that protect the spore DNA from UV radiation and heat. The core also contains normal cell structures, such as ribosomes and other enzymes, but is not metabolically active. Up to 20% of the dry weight of the endospore consists of calcium dipicolinate within the core, which is thought to stabilize the DNA. Dipicolinic acid could be responsible for the heat resistance of the spore, and calcium may aid in resistance to heat and oxidizing agents. However, mutants resistant to heat but lacking dipicolinic acid have been isolated, suggesting other mechanisms contributing to heat resistance are also at work. Small acid-soluble proteins (SASPs) are found in endospores. These proteins tightly bind and condense the DNA, and are in part responsible for resistance to UV light and DNA-damaging chemicals. Visualising endospores under light microscopy can be difficult due to the impermeability of the endospore wall to dyes and stains. While the rest of a bacterial cell may stain, the endospore is left colourless. To combat this, a special stain technique called a Moeller stain is used. That allows the endospore to show up as red, while the rest of the cell stains blue. Another staining technique for endospores is the Schaeffer-Fulton stain, which stains endospores green and bacterial bodies red. The arrangement of spore layers is as follows:", "The position of the endospore differs among bacterial species and is useful in identification. The main types within the cell are terminal, subterminal, and centrally placed endospores. Terminal endospores are seen at the poles of cells, whereas central endospores are more or less in the middle. Subterminal endospores are those between these two extremes, usually seen far enough towards the poles but close enough to the center so as not to be considered either terminal or central. Lateral endospores are seen occasionally. Examples of bacteria having terminal endospores include \"Clostridium tetani\", the pathogen that causes the disease tetanus. Bacteria having a centrally placed endospore include \"Bacillus cereus\". Sometimes the endospore can be so large the cell can be distended around the endospore. This is typical of \"Clostridium tetani\".", "Under conditions of starvation, especially the lack of carbon and nitrogen sources, a single endospore forms within some of the bacteria through a process called sporulation. When a bacterium detects environmental conditions are becoming unfavourable it may start the process of endosporulation, which takes about eight hours. The DNA is replicated and a membrane wall known as a \"spore septum\" begins to form between it and the rest of the cell. The plasma membrane of the cell surrounds this wall and pinches off to leave a double membrane around the DNA, and the developing structure is now known as a forespore. Calcium dipicolinate, the calcium salt of dipicolinic acid, is incorporated into the forespore during this time. The dipicolinic acid helps stabilize the proteins and DNA in the endospore. Next the peptidoglycan cortex forms between the two layers and the bacterium adds a spore coat to the outside of the forespore. In the final stages of endospore formation the newly forming endospore is dehydrated and allowed to mature before being released from the mother cell. The cortex is what makes the endospore so resistant to temperature. The cortex contains an inner membrane known as the core. The inner membrane that surrounds this core leads to the endospore's resistance against UV light and harsh chemicals that would normally destroy microbes. Sporulation is now complete, and the mature endospore will be released when the surrounding vegetative cell is degraded. Endospores are resistant to most agents that would normally kill the vegetative cells they formed from. Unlike persister cells, endospores are the result of a morphological differentiation process triggered by nutrient limitation (starvation) in the environment; endosporulation is initiated by quorum sensing within the \"starving\" population. Most disinfectants such as household cleaning products, alcohols, quaternary ammonium compounds and detergents have little effect on endospores. However, sterilant alkylating agents such as ethylene oxide (ETO), and 10% bleach are effective against endospores. To kill most anthrax spores, standard household bleach (with 10% sodium hypochlorite) must be in contact with the spores for at least several minutes; a very small proportion of spores can survive longer than 10 minutes in such a solution. Higher concentrations of bleach are not more effective, and can cause some types of bacteria to aggregate and thus survive. While significantly resistant to heat and radiation, endospores can be destroyed by burning or by autoclaving at a temperature exceeding the boiling point of water, 100 °C. Endospores are able to survive at 100 °C for hours, although the larger the number of hours the fewer that will survive. An indirect way to destroy them is to place them in an environment that reactivates them to their vegetative state. They will germinate within a day or two with the right environmental conditions, and then the vegetative cells, not as hardy as endospores, can be straightforwardly destroyed. This indirect method is called tyndallization. It was the usual method for a while in the late 19th century before the introduction of inexpensive autoclaves. Prolonged exposure to ionising radiation, such as x-rays and gamma rays, will also kill most endospores. The endospores of certain types of (typically non-pathogenic) bacteria, such as \"Geobacillus stearothermophilus\", are used as probes to verify that an autoclaved item has been rendered truly sterile: a small capsule containing the spores is put into the autoclave with the items; after the cycle the content of the capsule is cultured to check if anything will grow from it. If nothing will grow, then the spores were destroyed and the sterilization was successful. In hospitals, endospores on delicate invasive instruments such as endoscopes are killed by low-temperature, and non-corrosive, non-toxic, ethylene oxide sterilizers. ETO is the only low-temperature sterilant to stop outbreaks on these instruments. In contrast, \"high level disinfection\" does not kill endospores but is used for instruments such as a colonoscope that do not enter sterile bodily cavities. This latter method uses only warm water, enzymes, and detergents. Bacterial endospores are resistant to antibiotics, most disinfectants, and physical agents such as radiation, boiling, and drying. The impermeability of the spore coat is thought to be responsible for the endospore's resistance to chemicals. The heat resistance of endospores is due to a variety of factors:", "Reactivation of the endospore occurs when conditions are more favourable and involves \"activation\", \"germination\", and \"outgrowth\". Even if an endospore is located in plentiful nutrients, it may fail to germinate unless activation has taken place. This may be triggered by heating the endospore. Germination involves the dormant endospore starting metabolic activity and thus breaking hibernation. It is commonly characterised by rupture or absorption of the spore coat, swelling of the endospore, an increase in metabolic activity, and loss of resistance to environmental stress. Outgrowth follows germination and involves the core of the endospore manufacturing new chemical components and exiting the old spore coat to develop into a fully functional vegetative bacterial cell, which can divide to produce more cells. Endospores possess five times more sulfur than vegetative cells. This excess sulfur is concentrated in spore coats as an amino acid, cysteine. It is believed that the macromolecule accountable for maintaining the dormant state has a protein coat rich in cystine, stabilized by S-S linkages. A reduction in these linkages has the potential to change the tertiary structure, causing the protein to unfold. This conformational change in the protein is thought to be responsible for exposing active enzymatic sites necessary for endospore germination. Endospores can stay dormant for a very long time. For instance, endospores were found in the tombs of the Egyptian pharaohs. When placed in appropriate medium, under appropriate conditions, they were able to be reactivated. In 1995, Raul Cano of California Polytechnic State University found bacterial spores in the gut of a fossilized bee trapped in amber from a tree in the Dominican Republic. The bee fossilized in amber was dated to being about 25 million years old. The spores germinated when the amber was cracked open and the material from the gut of the bee was extracted and placed in nutrient medium. After the spores were analyzed by microscopy, it was determined that the cells were very similar to \"Bacillus sphaericus\" which is found in bees in the Dominican Republic today.", "As a simplified model for cellular differentiation, the molecular details of endospore formation have been extensively studied, specifically in the model organism \"Bacillus subtilis\". These studies have contributed much to our understanding of the regulation of gene expression, transcription factors, and the sigma factor subunits of RNA polymerase. Endospores of the bacterium \"Bacillus anthracis\" were used in the 2001 anthrax attacks. The powder found in contaminated postal letters consisted of anthrax endospores. This intentional distribution led to 22 known cases of anthrax (11 inhalation and 11 cutaneous). The case fatality rate among those patients with inhalation anthrax was 45% (5/11). The six other individuals with inhalation anthrax and all the individuals with cutaneous anthrax recovered. Had it not been for antibiotic therapy, many more might have been stricken. According to WHO veterinary documents, \"B. anthracis\" sporulates when it sees oxygen instead of the carbon dioxide present in mammal blood; this signals to the bacteria that it has reached the end of the animal, and an inactive dispersable morphology is useful. Sporulation requires the presence of free oxygen. In the natural situation, this means the vegetative cycles occur within the low oxygen environment of the infected host and, within the host, the organism is exclusively in the vegetative form. once outside the host, sporulation commences upon exposure to the air and the spore forms are essentially the exclusive phase in the environment.", "\"Bacillus subtilis\" spores are useful for the expression of recombinant proteins and in particular for the surface display of peptides and proteins as a tool for fundamental and applied research in the fields of microbiology, biotechnology and vaccination.", "Examples of endospore-forming bacteria include the genera:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Franchise history.", "Beginnings and Stanley Cup Finals' appearances (1967–1970).", "Financial problems, near-relocation, and playoff streak (1970–1987).", "Brett Hull era (1988–1998).", "End of the playoff streak, lockout, and rebuild (1998–2011).", "Turning point, first Stanley Cup championship (2011–present).", "Team information.", "Arena.", "Attendance.", "Jerseys.", "Mascot.", "Medical team.", "Radio and television.", "Traditions.", "Season-by-season record.", "Players.", "Hall of Famers.", "Retired numbers.", "Franchise regular season scoring leaders.", "Franchise playoff scoring leaders.", "NHL awards and trophies." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The Blues were one of the six teams added to the NHL in the 1967 expansion, along with the Minnesota North Stars, Los Angeles Kings, Philadelphia Flyers, Pittsburgh Penguins, and California Seals. St. Louis was the last of the six expansion teams to gain entry into the League; the market was chosen over Baltimore at the insistence of the Chicago Black Hawks. The Black Hawks' owners, James D. Norris and Arthur Wirtz, also owned the decrepit St. Louis Arena. They sought to unload the arena, which had not been well-maintained since", "The Blues' successes in the late 1960s, however, did not continue into the 1970s, as the Stanley Cup playoff format changed and the Chicago Black Hawks were moved into the Western Division. The Blues lost Bowman, who joined the Montreal Canadiens following a power-sharing dispute with Sid Salomon III (who was taking an increasing role in team affairs), as well as Hall, Plante, Goyette and ultimately Berenson, who were all lost to retirement or trade. The Berenson trade, however, did bring then-Detroit Red Wings star center Garry Unger, who ultimately scored 30 goals in eight consecutive seasons while breaking the NHL's consecutive games played record. Defensively, however, the Blues were less than stellar and saw Chicago and the Philadelphia Flyers overtake the Division. After missing the playoffs for the first time in 1973–74, the Blues ended up in the Smythe Division after a League realignment. This division was particularly weak, and in 1976–77, the Blues won it while finishing five games below.500, though this would be their last playoff appearance in the decade. In the meantime, the franchise was on the brink of financial collapse. This was partly due to the pressures of the World Hockey Association (WHA), but mostly the result of financial decisions made when the Salomons first acquired the franchise. The deferred contracts came due just as the Blues' performance began to slip. At one point, the Salomons cut the team's staff down to three employees. One of them was Emile Francis, who served as team president, general manager and", "St. Louis kept chugging along through the late 1980s and early 1990s. General manager Ron Caron made astute moves, landing forwards Brett Hull, Adam Oates and Brendan Shanahan, defenseman Al MacInnis and goaltender Curtis Joseph, among others. While the Blues contended during this time period, they never passed the second round of the playoffs. Nonetheless, their on-ice success was enough for a consortium of 19 companies to buy the team. They also provided the capital to build the Kiel Center (now the Enterprise Center), which opened in 1994. Hull, nicknamed the \"Golden Brett\" (a reference to his father, NHL legend Bobby Hull, who was nicknamed the \"Golden Jet\"), became one of the League's top stars and a scoring sensation, netting 86 goals in 1990–91 en route to earning the Hart Memorial Trophy as the league's most valuable player. Hull's 86 goals set the record for most goals in a single season by a right-winger (and the third-most overall at the time). Only Wayne Gretzky found the net more than Hull during any given three-year period.", "Defenseman Chris Pronger (acquired from the Hartford Whalers in 1995 for Brendan Shanahan), Keith Tkachuk, Pavol Demitra, Pierre Turgeon, Al MacInnis and goaltender Roman Turek kept the Blues a contender in the NHL. In 1999–2000, the team notched a franchise-record 114 points during the regular season, earning the Presidents' Trophy for the League's best record. However, they were stunned by the San Jose Sharks in the first round of the 2000 playoffs in seven games. In 2001, the Blues advanced to the Western Conference Finals before bowing out in five games to the eventual champions, the Colorado Avalanche. Nonetheless, the team remained competitive for the next three years, despite never advancing beyond the second round. Despite years of mediocrity and the stigma of never being able to \"take the next step,\" the Blues were a playoff presence every year from 1980 to 2004 – the third longest streak in North American professional sports history (all three of which being held by NHL teams). However, they never made an appearance in the Stanley Cup Finals. In fact, they made it to the conference finals only two times in their streak (1986 and 2001). Amid several questionable personnel moves and an unstable", "On March 17, 2011, it was announced that the St. Louis Blues were for sale. During the 2011 NHL off-season, the team signed many key free agents, including Brian Elliott, Scott Nichol, Kent Huskins, Jason Arnott and Jamie Langenbrunner. They fired their head coach, Davis Payne, and named Ken Hitchcock as his replacement on November 6, 2011. David Backes was also announced as the new team captain. On March 17, 2012, the Blues became the first team to reach 100 points and clinch a playoff berth in the 2011–12 season under Hitchcock, qualifying for their first playoffs since 2008–09. They would finish second in the Western Conference, behind the Vancouver Canucks. During the 2012 playoffs, they won their first playoff series since 2002, eliminating the San Jose Sharks in five games. The Blues were swept by the eventual Stanley Cup champions, the Los Angeles Kings, in the following round. In 2012–13, the Blues completed the lockout-shortened season in fourth place in the Western Conference. They were again eliminated by Los Angeles, however, this time in six games in the first round of the playoffs, despite taking an initial 2–0 series lead. The following", "", "The Blues play in the 19,150 (not counting standing room) capacity Enterprise Center, where they have played since 1994. The arena was previously known as Scottrade Center, the Savvis Center, and before", "The St. Louis Blues are one of the more successful NHL teams in terms of attendance. After the 2004–05 lockout, the Blues attendance suffered, but has since improved every year since its", "The Blues have worn blue and white jerseys with the famous \"Blue Note\" crest and gold accents since their inception in 1967. From 1967 to 1984, the Blues jerseys featured a lighter shade of blue along with contrasting shoulder yoke and stripes. The blue jerseys lacked the contrasting yoke until 1979. In 1984, the Blues drastically redesigned their look, adding red and darkening the shade of blue. Initially the front of the jersey featured the team name above the crest logo, but was removed in 1987. In addition, the contrasting shoulder yoke was removed. For the 1994–95 season, the Blues introduced a more radical jersey set, featuring red in a more prominent role. The jersey introduced the short-lived trumpet logo on the shoulders and featured thin diagonal stripes on the tail and sleeves. The bottom of the numbers taper off to give way to the aforementioned stripes. Before the 1997–98 season, the Blues introduced a new alternate", "Louie is the mascot of the St. Louis Blues. He was introduced on October 10, 2007. On November 3, 2007, the", "The St. Louis Blues medical team is a group of Washington University in St.", "Originally, the Blues aired their games on KPLR-TV and KMOX radio, with team patron Gus Kyle calling games alongside St Louis broadcasting legend Jack Buck. Buck elected to leave the booth after one season, though, and was replaced by another famed announcer in Dan Kelly. This setup—Kelly as commentator, with either Kyle, Bob Plager, or Noel Picard (whose heavy French-Canadian accent became famous, such as pronouncing owner Sid Salomon III \"Sid the Turd\" instead of \"Third\") joining as an analyst, simulcast on KMOX and KPLR—continued through the 1975–76 season, then simulcast on KMOX and KDNL-TV for the next three seasons. KMOX is a 50,000-watt clear-channel station that reaches almost all of North America at", "The Blues have a tradition of live organ music. Jeremy Boyer, the Blues organist, plays a Glenn Miller arrangement of W. C. Handy's \"St. Louis Blues\" in its entirety before games and a short version at the end of every period, followed by \"When the Saints Go Marching In.\" Boyer also plays the latter song on the organ after Blues goals, with fans replacing the word \"Saints\" with \"Blues.\" On October 1, 2018, it was reported that, for the upcoming season, a new goal song recorded by St. Louis-based band The Urge, \"The Blues Have The Urge,\" would be played after Blues goals, immediately following the traditional organ music. At the end of the national anthem before every home game, the words \"the home of the brave\" are drowned out by fans with \"the home of the Blues.\" Starting in 2014, the team introduced a win song in the form of Pitbull's \"Don't Stop The Party\", but from 2016 to 2018, the win song was \"Song 2\" by Blur after public backlash against using a Pitbull song. Beginning in 2018, the win song has been the aforementioned song recorded by The Urge. However,", "\"This is a partial list of the last five seasons completed by the Blues. For the full season-by-season history, see List", "", "The St. Louis Blues presently acknowledge an affiliation with a number of inductees to the Hockey Hall of Fame. Inductees affiliated with the Blues include 24 former players (six of whom earned their credentials primarily with the Blues) and seven builders of the sport. The seven individuals recognized as builders", "The following numbers have been retired from use within the St. Louis Blues: In addition to the aforementioned numbers, the NHL also retired Wayne Gretzky's number 99 from use for all of its members teams,", "These are the top-ten point-scorers, goal scorers, and assist leaders in franchise regular season history. Figures are updated after", "These are the top-ten-point-scorers, goal scorers, and assist leaders in franchise playoff history. Figures are updated after each", "Stanley Cup Presidents' Trophy Clarence S. Campbell Bowl Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy Calder Memorial Trophy Conn Smythe Trophy Frank J. Selke Trophy Hart Memorial Trophy Jack Adams Award James Norris Memorial Trophy King Clancy Memorial Trophy Lady Byng Memorial Trophy Lester B. Pearson Award Lester Patrick Trophy NHL General Manager of the Year Award NHL Plus/Minus Award Vezina Trophy William M. Jennings Trophy" ] }

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{ "title": [ "General description.", "Liquid-phase reactions.", "Infrared chemiluminescence.", "Enhanced chemiluminescence.", "Biological applications." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The decay of this excited state[◊] to a lower energy level causes light emission. In theory, one photon of light should be given off for each molecule of reactant. This is equivalent to Avogadro's number of photons per mole of reactant. In actual practice, non-enzymatic reactions seldom exceed 1% Q, quantum efficiency. In a chemical reaction, reactants collide to form a transition state, the enthalpic maximum in a reaction coordinate diagram, which proceeds to the product. Normally, reactants form products of lesser chemical energy. The difference in energy between reactants and products, represented as formula_1, is turned into heat, physically realized as excitations in the vibrational state of the normal modes of the product. Since vibrational energy is generally much greater than the thermal agitation, it rapidly disperses in the solvent through molecular rotation. This is how exothermic reactions make their solutions hotter. In a chemiluminescent reaction, the direct product of the reaction is an excited electronic state. This state then decays into an electronic ground state and emits light through either an allowed transition (analogous to fluorescence) or a forbidden transition (analogous to phosphorescence), depending partly on the spin state of the electronic excited state formed. Chemiluminescence differs from fluorescence or phosphorescence in that the electronic excited state is the product of a chemical reaction rather than of the absorption of a photon. It is the antithesis of a photochemical reaction, in which light is used to drive an endothermic chemical reaction. Here, light is \"generated\" from a chemically exothermic reaction. The chemiluminescence might be also induced by an electrochemical stimulus, in this case is called electrochemiluminescence. A standard example of chemiluminescence in the laboratory setting is the luminol test. Here, blood is indicated by luminescence upon contact with iron in hemoglobin. When chemiluminescence takes place in living organisms, the phenomenon is called bioluminescence. A light stick emits light by chemiluminescence.", "Chemiluminescence in aqueous system is mainly caused by redox reactions.", "In chemical kinetics, \"infrared chemiluminiscence\" (IRCL) refers to the emission of infrared photons from vibrationally excited product molecules immediately after their formation. The intensities of infrared emission lines from vibrationally excited molecules are used to measure the populations of vibrational states of product molecules. The observation of IRCL was developed as a kinetic technique by John Polanyi, who used it to study the attractive or repulsive nature of the potential energy surface for gas-phase reactions. In general the IRCL is much more intense for reactions with an attractive surface, indicating that this type of surface leads to energy deposition in vibrational excitation. In contrast reactions with a repulsive potential energy surface lead to little IRCL, indicating that the energy is primarily deposited as translational energy.", "Enhanced chemiluminescence is a common technique for a variety of detection assays in biology. A horseradish peroxidase enzyme (HRP) is tethered to an antibody that specifically recognizes the molecule of interest. This enzyme complex then catalyzes the conversion of the enhanced chemiluminescent substrate into a sensitized reagent in the vicinity of the molecule of interest, which on further oxidation by hydrogen peroxide, produces a triplet (excited) carbonyl, which emits light when it decays to the singlet carbonyl. Enhanced chemiluminescence allows detection of minute quantities of a biomolecule. Proteins can be detected down to femtomole quantities, well below the detection limit for most assay systems.", "Chemiluminescence has been applied by forensic scientists to solve crimes. In this case, they use luminol and hydrogen peroxide. The iron from the blood acts as a catalyst and reacts with the luminol and hydrogen peroxide to produce blue light for about 30 seconds. Because only a small amount of iron is required for chemiluminescence, trace amounts of blood are sufficient. In biomedical research, the protein that gives fireflies their glow and its co-factor, luciferin, are used to produce red light through the consumption of ATP. This reaction is used in many applications, including the effectiveness of cancer drugs that choke off a tumor's blood supply. This form of bioluminescence imaging allows scientists to test drugs in the pre-clinical stages cheaply. Another protein, aequorin, found in certain jellyfish, produces blue light in the presence of calcium. It can be used in molecular biology to assess calcium levels in cells. What these biological reactions have in common is their use of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) as an energy source. Though the structure of the molecules that produce luminescence is different for each species, they are given the generic name of luciferin. Firefly luciferin can be oxidized to produce an excited complex. Once it falls back down to a ground state a photon is released. It is very similar to the reaction with luminol. Many organisms have evolved to produce light in a range of colors. At the molecular level, the difference in color arises from the degree of conjugation of the molecule, when an electron drops down from the excited state to the ground state. Deep sea organisms have evolved to produce light to lure and catch prey, as camouflage, or to attract others. Some bacteria even use bioluminescence to communicate. The common colors for the light emitted by these animals are blue and green because they have shorter wavelength than red and can transmit more easily in water. Chemiluminescence is different from fluorescence. Hence the application of fluorescent proteins such as Green fluorescent protein is not a biological application of chemiluminescence." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Signs and symptoms.", "Hallucinations.", "Delusions.", "Disorganization.", "Negative symptoms.", "Causes.", "Normal states.", "Trauma.", "Psychiatric disorder.", "Subtypes.", "Cycloid psychosis.", "Medical conditions.", "Psychoactive drugs.", "Alcohol.", "Cannabis.", "Methamphetamine.", "Medication.", "Pathophysiology.", "Neuroimaging.", "Hallucinations.", "Delusions.", "Negative symptoms.", "Neurobiology.", "Diagnosis.", "Prevention.", "Treatment.", "Medication.", "Counseling.", "Early intervention.", "History.", "Etymology.", "Classification.", "Treatment.", "Society.", "External links." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "A hallucination is defined as sensory perception in the absence of external stimuli. Hallucinations are different from illusions and perceptual distortions, which are the misperception of external stimuli. Hallucinations may occur in any of the senses and take on almost any form. They may consist of simple sensations (such as lights, colors, sounds, tastes, or smells) or more detailed experiences (such as seeing and interacting with animals and people, hearing voices, and having complex tactile sensations). Hallucinations are generally characterized as being vivid and uncontrollable. Auditory hallucinations, particularly experiences of hearing voices, are the most common and often prominent feature of psychosis. Up to 15% of the general population may experience auditory hallucinations (though not all are due to psychosis). The prevalence in schizophrenia is generally put around 70%, but may go as high as 98%. Reported prevalence in bipolar disorder ranges between 11% and 68%. During the early 20th century, auditory hallucinations were second to visual hallucinations in frequency, but they", "Psychosis may involve delusional beliefs. A delusion is commonly defined as an unrelenting sense of certainty maintained despite strong contradictory evidence. Delusions are context- and culture-dependent: a belief which inhibits critical functioning and is widely considered delusional in one population may be common (and even adaptive) in another, or in the same population at a later time. Since normative views may themselves contradict available evidence, a belief need not contravene cultural standards in order to be considered delusional. Prevalence in schizophrenia is generally considered at least 90%, and around 50% in bipolar disorder. The DSM-5 characterizes certain delusions as \"bizarre\" if they are clearly implausible, or are incompatible with the surrounding cultural context. The concept of bizarre delusions has many criticisms, the most prominent being judging its presence is not highly reliable even among trained individuals. A delusion may involve diverse thematic content. The most common type is a", "Disorganization is split into disorganized speech or thinking, and grossly disorganized motor behavior. Disorganized speech or thinking, also called formal thought disorder, is disorganization of thinking that is inferred from speech. Characteristics of disorganized speech include rapidly switching topics, called derailment or loose association; switching to topics that are unrelated, called tangential thinking; incomprehensible speech, called word salad or incoherence. Disorganized motor behavior includes repetitive, odd, or sometimes purposeless movement. Disorganized motor behavior rarely includes catatonia, and although it was a historically prominent symptom, it is rarely seen today. Whether this is due to historically used treatments or the lack thereof is unknown. Catatonia describes a profoundly agitated state in which the experience of reality is generally considered impaired. There are two primary manifestations of", "Negative symptoms include reduced emotional expression, decreased motivation, and reduced", "", "Brief hallucinations are not uncommon in", "Traumatic life events have been linked with an elevated risk in developing psychotic symptoms. Childhood trauma has specifically been shown to be a predictor of adolescent and adult psychosis. Approximately 65% of individuals with psychotic symptoms have experienced childhood trauma (e.g., physical or sexual abuse, physical or emotional", "From a diagnostic standpoint, organic disorders were believed to be caused by physical illness affecting the brain (that is, psychiatric disorders secondary to other conditions) while functional disorders were considered disorders of the functioning of the mind in the absence of physical disorders (that is, primary psychological or psychiatric disorders). Subtle physical abnormalities have been found in illnesses traditionally considered functional, such as schizophrenia. The DSM-IV-TR avoids the functional/organic distinction, and instead lists traditional psychotic illnesses, psychosis due to general medical conditions, and substance-induced psychosis. Primary psychiatric causes of psychosis include the following: Psychotic symptoms may also be seen in: Stress is known to contribute to and trigger psychotic states. A history of psychologically traumatic events, and the recent experience of a stressful event, can both contribute to the development of psychosis. Short-lived psychosis triggered by stress is known as brief reactive psychosis, and patients may spontaneously recover normal functioning within two weeks. In some rare cases, individuals may remain in a state of full-blown psychosis for many years, or perhaps have attenuated psychotic symptoms (such as low intensity hallucinations) present at most times. Neuroticism is an independent predictor of the development of psychosis.", "Subtypes of", "Cycloid psychosis is a psychosis that progresses from normal to full-blown, usually between a few hours to days, not related to drug intake or brain injury. The cycloid psychosis has a long history in European psychiatry diagnosis. The term \"cycloid psychosis\" was first used by Karl Kleist in 1926. Despite the significant clinical relevance, this diagnosis is neglected both in literature and in nosology. The cycloid psychosis has attracted much interest in the international literature of the past 50 years, but the number of scientific studies have greatly decreased over the past 15 years, possibly partly explained by the misconception that the diagnosis has been incorporated", "A very large number of medical", "Various psychoactive substances (both legal and illegal) have been implicated in causing, exacerbating, or precipitating psychotic states or disorders in users, with varying levels of evidence. This may be upon intoxication for a more prolonged period after use, or upon withdrawal. Individuals who have a substance induced psychosis tend to have a greater awareness of their psychosis and tend to have higher levels of suicidal thinking compared to individuals who have a primary psychotic illness. Drugs commonly alleged to induce psychotic symptoms include alcohol, cannabis, cocaine, amphetamines, cathinones, psychedelic drugs (such as LSD and psilocybin), κ-opioid receptor agonists (such as enadoline and salvinorin A) and NMDA receptor antagonists (such as phencyclidine and ketamine). Caffeine may worsen symptoms in those with schizophrenia and cause psychosis at very high doses in people without the condition.", "Approximately three percent of people who are suffering from alcoholism experience psychosis during acute intoxication or withdrawal. Alcohol related psychosis may manifest itself through a kindling mechanism. The mechanism of alcohol-related psychosis is due to the long-term effects of alcohol", "According to some studies, the more often cannabis is used the more likely a person is to develop a psychotic illness, with frequent use being correlated with twice the risk of psychosis and schizophrenia. While cannabis use is accepted as a contributory cause of schizophrenia by some, it remains controversial, with pre-existing vulnerability to psychosis emerging as the key factor that influences the link between cannabis use and psychosis. Some studies indicate that the effects of two", "Methamphetamine induces a psychosis in 26–46 percent of heavy users. Some of these people develop a long-lasting psychosis that can persist for longer than six months. Those who have had a short-lived psychosis from methamphetamine can have a relapse of the methamphetamine psychosis years later after a stressful event such as severe insomnia or a period of heavy alcohol abuse despite not relapsing back to methamphetamine. Individuals who have a long history of methamphetamine abuse and who have experienced psychosis in the past from methamphetamine abuse are highly likely to re-experience methamphetamine psychosis if drug use is recommenced. Methamphetamine-induced psychosis is likely gated by genetic vulnerability, which can produce long-term changes in brain neurochemistry following repetitive use.", "Administration, or sometimes withdrawal, of a large number of medications may provoke psychotic symptoms. Drugs that can induce psychosis experimentally or in a significant proportion of people include amphetamine and", "", "The first brain image of an individual with psychosis was completed as far back as 1935 using a technique called pneumoencephalography (a painful and now obsolete procedure where cerebrospinal fluid is drained from around the brain and replaced with air to allow the structure of the brain to show up more clearly on an X-ray picture). Both first episode psychosis, and high risk status is associated with reductions in grey matter volume (GMV). First episode psychotic and high risk populations are associated with similar but distinct abnormalities in GMV. Reductions in the right middle temporal gyrus, right superior temporal gyrus (STG), right parahippocampus, right hippocampus, right middle frontal gyrus, and left anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) are observed in high risk populations. Reductions in first episode psychosis span a region from the right STG to the right insula, left insula, and cerebellum, and are more severe in the right ACC,", "Studies during acute experiences of hallucinations demonstrate increased activity in primary or secondary sensory cortices. As auditory hallucinations are most common in psychosis, most robust evidence exists for increased activity in the left middle temporal gyrus, left superior temporal gyrus, and left inferior frontal gyrus (i.e. Broca's area). Activity in the ventral striatum, hippocampus, and ACC are related", "The two-factor model of delusions posits that dysfunction in both belief formation systems and belief evaluation systems are necessary for delusions. Dysfunction in evaluations systems localized to the right lateral prefrontal cortex, regardless of delusion content, is supported by neuroimaging studies and is congruent with its role in conflict monitoring in healthy persons. Abnormal activation and reduced volume is seen in people with delusions, as well as in disorders associated with delusions such as frontotemporal dementia, psychosis and Lewy body dementia. Furthermore, lesions to this region are associated with \"jumping to conclusions\", damage", "Psychosis is associated with ventral striatal hypoactivity during reward anticipation and feedback. Hypoactivity in the left ventral striatum is correlated with the severity of negative symptoms. While anhedonia is a commonly reported symptom in psychosis, hedonic experiences are actually intact in most people with schizophrenia. The impairment that may present itself as anhedonia probably actually lies in the inability to identify goals, and to identify and engage in the behaviors necessary to achieve goals. Studies support a deficiency in the neural representation of goals and goal directed behavior by demonstrating that receipt", "Psychosis has been traditionally linked to the overactivity of the neurotransmitter dopamine. In particular to its affect in the mesolimbic pathway. The two major sources of evidence given to support this theory are that dopamine receptor D2 blocking drugs (i.e., antipsychotics) tend to reduce the intensity of psychotic symptoms, and that drugs that accentuate dopamine release, or inhibit its reuptake (such as amphetamines and cocaine) can trigger psychosis in some people (see stimulant psychosis). NMDA receptor dysfunction has been proposed as a mechanism in psychosis. This theory is reinforced by the fact that dissociative NMDA receptor antagonists such as ketamine, PCP and dextromethorphan (at large overdoses) induce a psychotic state. The symptoms of dissociative intoxication are also considered to mirror the symptoms of schizophrenia, including negative symptoms. NMDA receptor antagonism, in addition to producing symptoms reminiscent of psychosis, mimics the neurophysiological aspects, such as reduction in the amplitude of P50, P300, and MMN evoked potentials. Hierarchical Bayesian neurocomputational models of sensory feedback, in agreement with neuroimaging literature, link NMDA receptor hypofunction to delusional or hallucinatory symptoms via proposing a failure of NMDA mediated top down predictions to adequately cancel out enhanced", "To make a diagnosis of a mental illness in someone with psychosis other potential causes must be excluded. An initial assessment includes a comprehensive history and physical examination by a health care provider. Tests may be done to exclude substance use, medication, toxins, surgical complications, or other medical illnesses. A person with psychosis is referred to as psychotic. Delirium should be ruled out, which can be distinguished by visual hallucinations, acute onset and fluctuating level of consciousness, indicating other underlying factors, including medical illnesses. Excluding medical illnesses associated with psychosis is performed by using blood tests to measure: Other investigations include: Because psychosis may be precipitated or exacerbated by common classes of medications, medication-induced psychosis should be ruled out, particularly for first-episode psychosis. Both substance- and medication-induced psychosis can be excluded to a high level of certainty, using toxicology screening. Because some dietary supplements may also induce psychosis or mania, but cannot be ruled out with laboratory tests, a psychotic individual's family, partner, or friends should be asked whether the patient is currently taking any dietary supplements. Common mistakes made", "The evidence for the effectiveness of early interventions to prevent psychosis appeared inconclusive. But psychosis caused by drugs can be prevented. Whilst early intervention in those with a psychotic episode might improve short-term outcomes, little", "The treatment of psychosis depends on the specific diagnosis (such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder or substance intoxication). The first-line treatment for many psychotic disorders is antipsychotic medication, which can reduce the positive symptoms of psychosis in about 7 to 14 days.", "The choice of which antipsychotic to use is based on benefits, risks, and costs. It is debatable whether, as a class, typical or atypical antipsychotics are better. Tentative evidence supports that amisulpride, olanzapine, risperidone and clozapine may be more effective for positive symptoms but result in more side effects. Typical antipsychotics have equal drop-out and symptom relapse rates to atypicals when used at low to moderate dosages. There is a good response in 40–50%, a partial response in 30–40%, and treatment", "Psychological treatments such as acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT) are possibly useful in the treatment of psychosis, helping people to focus more on what they can do in terms of valued life directions despite challenging symptomology. There are psychological interventions", "Early intervention in psychosis is based on the observation that identifying and treating someone in the early stages of a psychosis can improve their", "", "The word \"psychosis\" was introduced to the psychiatric literature in 1841 by Karl Friedrich Canstatt in his work \"Handbuch der Medizinischen Klinik\". He used it as a shorthand for 'psychic neurosis'. At that time neurosis meant any disease of the nervous system, and Canstatt was thus referring to what was considered a psychological manifestation of brain disease.", "The word was also used to distinguish a condition considered a disorder of the mind, as opposed to \"neurosis\", which was considered a disorder of the nervous system. The psychoses thus became the modern equivalent of the old notion of madness, and hence there was much debate on whether there was only one (unitary) or many forms of the new disease. One type of broad usage would later be narrowed down by Koch in 1891 to the 'psychopathic inferiorities'—later renamed abnormal personalities by Schneider. The division of the major psychoses into manic depressive illness (now", "Early civilizations considered madness a supernaturally inflicted phenomenon. Archaeologists have unearthed skulls with clearly visible drillings, some datable back to 5000 BC suggesting that trepanning was a common treatment for psychosis in ancient times. Written record of supernatural causes and resultant treatments can be traced back to the New Testament. Mark 5:8–13 describes a man displaying what would today be described as psychotic symptoms. Christ cured this \"demonic madness\" by casting out the demons and hurling them into a herd of swine. Exorcism is still utilized in some religious circles as a treatment for psychosis presumed to be demonic possession. A research study of out-patients in psychiatric clinics found that 30 percent of religious patients attributed the cause of their psychotic symptoms to evil spirits. Many of these patients underwent exorcistic healing rituals that, though largely regarded as positive experiences by the patients, had no effect on symptomology. Results did, however, show a significant worsening of psychotic symptoms associated with exclusion of", "Psychiatrist [[David Healy (psychiatrist)|David Healy]] has criticised pharmaceutical companies for promoting simplified biological theories of mental illness", "[[Category:Psychosis| ]] [[Category:Psychopathology]] [[Category:RTT]] [[Category:Words coined in the 1840s]]" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Franchise history.", "Early years (1926–1949).", "Gordie Howe era (1950–1966).", "\"Dead Wings\" era (1967–1982).", "Steve Yzerman era (1983–2006).", "The Russian Five and back-to-back Stanley Cups (1994–1998).", "Superstar acquisitions and more success (1999–2006).", "Nicklas Lidstrom and the \"Euro-Twins\" era (2006–2012).", "The final seasons at Joe Louis Arena (2012–2017).", "The opening of Little Caesars Arena and rebuilding (2017–present).", "Team information.", "Logo and uniforms.", "Fan traditions.", "Broadcasters.", "Honored broadcasters.", "Season-by-season record.", "Players.", "Hall of Fame members.", "Retired numbers.", "Team captains.", "Franchise leaders.", "All-time leading scorers.", "All-time leading goaltenders.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Following the 1926 Stanley Cup playoffs, during which the Western Hockey League (WHL) was widely reported to be on the verge of folding, the NHL held a meeting on April 17 to consider applications for expansion franchises, at which it was reported that five different groups sought a team for Detroit. During a subsequent meeting on May 15, the league approved a franchise to the Townsend-Seyburn group of Detroit and named Charles A. Hughes as governor. Frank and Lester Patrick, the owners of the WHL, made a deal to sell the league's players to the NHL and cease league operations. The new Detroit franchise purchased the players of the WHL's Victoria Cougars, who had won the Stanley Cup in 1925 and had made the Finals the previous winter, to play for the team.", "During the 1950 Stanley Cup semi-finals, Leo Reise Jr. scored the winning goal in overtime, which prevented the Maple Leafs from winning four straight championships. In the Finals, the Red Wings defeated the New York Rangers in seven games. In Game 7, Pete Babando scored the game winner in double overtime. After the game, Lindsay skated around the Olympia ice with the Stanley Cup. After being upset by the Montreal Canadiens in the 1951 semi-finals, Detroit won its fifth Stanley Cup, in 1952, sweeping both the", "Only a year after making the Finals, the Red Wings finished a distant fifth, 24 points out of the playoffs. It was the beginning of a slump that they would not emerge from in almost 20 years. This period is derisively known as the \"Dead Wings\" era. One factor in the Red Wings' decline was the end of the old development system. Another factor was Ned Harkness, who was hired as coach in 1970 and was promoted to general manager midway through the season. A successful college hockey coach, Harkness tried to force his two-way style of play on a veteran Red Wings team resistant", "In 1983, the Red Wings drafted Steve Yzerman, a center from the Peterborough Petes, with their first-round pick. He led the team in scoring in his rookie year. That season, with John Ogrodnick, Ivan Boldirev, Ron Duguay, and Brad Park, Detroit made the playoffs for the first time in six years. Park ended up winning the Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy. Park was later asked to coach the Red Wings, only to be sacked after just 45 games in 1985–86. They did end up in last place with a 17–57–6 record for only 40 points. This was the same year that the Red Wings added enforcer Bob Probert, one of the most familiar faces of the team in the 1980s and 1990s. In the 1986–87 season, with Yzerman, now the captain following the departure of Danny Gare, joined by Petr Klima, Adam Oates, Gerard Gallant, defenseman Darren Veitch and new head coach Jacques Demers, the Red Wings", "In 1993, former Montreal Canadiens coach Scotty Bowman was hired as the new head coach. In his second season, the lockout-shortened 1994–95 NHL season, Bowman guided Detroit to its first Finals appearance in 29 years, only to be swept by the New Jersey Devils. During the 1995–96 season, they won an NHL record 62 games. After defeating the St. Louis Blues in seven games, the Red Wings would fall in the Western Conference finals to the eventual Stanley Cup champion Colorado Avalanche. The following season, the Red Wings acquired Brendan Shanahan and Larry", "The following season, the Red Wings appeared to be poised to win a third consecutive Stanley Cup when they acquired three-time top blueliner Chris Chelios from his hometown Chicago Blackhawks in March 1999. Also acquired at the trade deadline were defenseman Ulf Samuelsson, winger Wendel Clark, and goaltender Bill Ranford. Despite high aspirations, however, Detroit would end up losing in the Western Conference semi-finals to Colorado in six games. In 2000, the Red Wings would finish second in the Central Division. Just like the previous season, however, they would lose to the Avalanche in the Western Conference semi-finals. In 2001, Detroit, the NHL's second-best team in the regular season, were upset in the playoffs by the Los Angeles Kings. During the ensuing offseason, the team acquired goaltender Dominik Hasek (the defending Vezina Trophy winner) and forwards Luc Robitaille and Brett Hull. Russian prospect Pavel Datsyuk also joined the team. Strengthened by the additions, the Red Wings posted the league's best record in the 2001–02 regular season and defeated Colorado in seven games in the Western Conference finals after beating the Vancouver Canucks and St. Louis Blues in rounds one and two. The Red Wings then went on to capture another Stanley Cup, in five games, over the Carolina Hurricanes, with Nicklas Lidstrom winning the Conn Smythe Trophy as the playoffs' MVP. Bowman and Hasek both retired after the season. The off-season saw the Red Wings promote associate coach Dave Lewis to the head coach position after Bowman's retirement. In the market for a new starting goaltender after Hasek's retirement, they signed Curtis Joseph from the Toronto Maple Leafs to a three-year, $24 million deal. Also new to the lineup", "The Red Wings opened the 2006–07 season with Nicklas Lidstrom as the new captain. The team retired Yzerman's jersey number 19 on January 2, 2007. The Red Wings finished first in the Western Conference and tied for first in the NHL with the Buffalo Sabres, but the Sabres were awarded the Presidents' Trophy because they had more wins. Detroit advanced to the third round of the 2007 playoffs after defeating Calgary and the San Jose Sharks both in six games, coming back to win three-straight after the Sharks had a 2–1 series lead. The Red Wings would then lose to the eventual Stanley Cup champion Anaheim Ducks in the Western Conference finals in six games. To start the 2007–08 campaign, Zetterberg recorded at least a point in each of Detroit's first 17 games, setting a club record.", "Zetterberg was named successor to Lidstrom as team captain. On July 1, 2012, the first day of the NHL free agency period, the Red Wings signed Swiss forward Damien Brunner to a one-year, entry-level contract; forward Jordin Tootoo to a three-year, $5.7 million contract; and goaltender Jonas Gustavsson to a two-year, $3 million deal. The team won their final four games of the 2012–13 season to earn the seventh seed of the playoffs. The Red Wings' 3–0 victory over the Dallas Stars on April 27, 2013 preserved their streak of 22 consecutive playoff appearances. As the seventh seed in the 2013 playoffs, the Red Wings faced the second-seeded Anaheim Ducks. They survived a fierce battle that included four overtime games, winning the series 4–3 after a 3–2 Game 7 victory in Anaheim. The next round pitted the Red Wings against the top-seeded Chicago Blackhawks. Despite jumping out to a 3–1 series lead, the Red Wings would ultimately lose to the eventual Stanley Cup champions in seven games. On July 5, 2013, the Red Wings signed long time Ottawa Senators captain Daniel Alfredsson to a one-year contract and long", "The Red Wings played their first regular season game at Little Caesars Arena on October 5, 2017, winning 4–2 over the Minnesota Wild. The Red Wings finished the 2017–18 season with a 30–39–13 record. They missed the playoffs for the second season in a row, marking the first time since the early 1980s the team missed the playoffs in consecutive years. The Red Wings finished the 2018–19 season with a 32–40–10 record, missing the playoffs for a third consecutive season. On April", "", "The Red Wings' jerseys (traditionally known in hockey as \"sweaters\") have been more or less the same since the 1930s – a white or red base with red or white piping. The only significant changes have been the replacement of the word \"Detroit\" with the \"winged wheel\" logo in 1932, and vertical arch lettering for the players' names and block letters in 1983. The Red Wings only wear the vertical arched letters in the regular season and playoffs, while using straight serifed nameplates during the preseason. \"The Hockey News\" voted the Red Wings' \"winged wheel\" logo the second best in the league in 2008. The Red Wings, like all NHL teams, updated their jerseys to the new standard for the 2007–08 NHL season. The Red", "The \"Legend of the Octopus\" is a sports tradition during Detroit Red Wings playoff games, in which an octopus is thrown onto the ice surface for good luck. During the playoffs, Joe Louis Arena was generally adorned with a giant octopus with red eyes, nicknamed \"Al\" after head ice manager Al Sobotka. The 1952 playoffs featured the start of the octopus throw. The owner of a local fish market, Peter Cusimano, threw one from the stands onto the ice. The eight legs are symbolic of the eight wins it took to win the Stanley Cup at the time. The Red Wings went on to sweep both of their opponents that year en route to a Stanley Cup championship. The NHL has, at various times, tried to eliminate this tradition but it continues to this day.", "The Red Wings' flagship radio stations are Detroit sister stations WXYT-AM 1270 and WXYT-FM 97.1. Games are carried on both stations unless there is a conflict with Detroit Tigers baseball. There are several affiliate stations throughout Michigan and Southwestern Ontario. The Red Wings' exclusive local television rights are held by Fox Sports Detroit. Announcers:", "Four members of the Red Wings organization have received the Foster Hewitt Memorial Award: Lynch called the first locally televised game at Olympia for the original WWJ-TV in 1949. He remained with the organization for", "\"This is a partial list of the last five seasons completed by the Detroit Red Wings. For the full season-by-season history, see List of Detroit Red", "", "The Detroit Red Wings acknowledge an affiliation with a number of inductees to the Hockey Hall of Fame. Red Wings inductees include 64 former players and 11 builders of the sport. The 11 individuals recognized as builders by the Hall of Fame includes former Red Wings executives, general managers, head", "The Red Wings have retired eight numbers. The first number the Red Wings retired was No. 9 in 1972 in honor of Gordie Howe, who played right wing for the team from 1946 to 1971. Howe won both the Art Ross Trophy and the Hart Memorial Trophy six times each and won the Stanley Cup as a Red Wing four times. In 2007, the Red Wings retired Steve Yzerman's No. 19. During Yzerman's career, he won the Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy, the Conn Smythe Trophy, the Frank J. Selke Trophy, the Lester Patrick Trophy, and the Ted Lindsay Award. Yzerman served as Detroit's captain for 19", "All the players who have", "", "These players rank in the top ten in franchise history in scoring as of the end of the 2018–19 season.", "These players rank in the top ten in franchise history for wins as of the end of the 2018−19 season. Figures are updated after each completed NHL season. There is a four-way tie for ninth place in postseason wins, resulting in 12 players listed in that table. \"Note: GP = Games played; W = Wins; L = Losses; T = Ties; OT = Overtime losses; SO = Shutouts; GAA = Goals against average; * = current Red Wings player\"", "Footnotes Citations" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Names." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In the 1970s the new giant Katowice Steelworks, then in its most prosperous period, required great quantities of iron ore. The main source was mines near Kryvyi Rih (then in the USSR, now in Ukraine), from where it was transported by rail via Medyka, Przemyśl, and Tarnów to Jaworzno Szczakowa. This line had inadequate capacity to carry the traffic. PKP considered two plans: to modernise the existing tracks to allow more freight to be carried, or to build a new broad-gauge line to ease transit across the border. The latter was chosen, designed by CBSiPBK (\"Central Bureau for Railway Construction Designs and Studies\") in Warsaw. Eng. Józef Skorupski was the general designer. Twenty-one other design bureaus, eight geological companies and three technical universities took part in the project. The line opened in 1979 and was used to import iron ore from the USSR and export coal and sulphur. After the fall of communism and the economic changes of 1989 traffic greatly diminished. Various schemes are being tried to increase its profitability. On January 5, 2020, the first intermodal container train from China used the line to reach the Sławków terminal, after travelling the 9 477 km route from Xi'an via Kazakhstan, Russia and Ukraine over 12 days. The company responsible for the line hopes that regular connections with China are established, taking advantage of the fact that its wide-gauge permits quick crossing of the border between Poland and Ukraine.", "The original, 1970's name of the project was \"Linia Hutniczo-Siarkowa\" (Metalworks-Sulphur Line) with an acronym LHS. Sometime in the 1990s, the name was changed to \"Linia Hutnicza Szerokotorowa\" (Broad Gauge Metallurgy Line). The new name retained the acronym LHS, which is widely known, but dropped the \"Sulphur\" part, as sulphur is no longer traded between Poland and the East." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Franchise history.", "Minnesota North Stars (1967–1993).", "Relocation and early years in Dallas (1993–1998).", "Dominance, a Stanley Cup Championship, and Deep Playoff Runs (1998–2004).", "Post-lockout era (2005–2008).", "Dallas hosts the All-Star Game (2006–2007 season).", "Return to playoff prominence (2007–2008 season).", "Transition Seasons (2008–2011).", "Tom Gaglardi era (2011–present).", "Team information.", "Arena.", "Broadcast.", "Logo and jersey design.", "Minor league affiliates.", "Traditions.", "Season-by-season record.", "Players.", "Team captains.", "League and team honors.", "Awards and trophies.", "First-round draft picks.", "Hall of Famers.", "Retired numbers.", "Franchise scoring leaders." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The Minnesota North Stars began play in 1967 as part of the league's six-team expansion. Home games were played at the newly constructed Metropolitan Sports Center (\"Met Center\") in Bloomington, Minnesota. Initially successful both on the ice and at the gate, the North Stars fell victim to financial problems after several poor seasons in the mid-1970s. In 1978, the North Stars merged with the Cleveland Barons (formerly the California Golden Seals), owned by George III and Gordon Gund. With both teams on the verge of folding, the league permitted the two failing franchises to merge. The merged team continued as the Minnesota North Stars, while the Seals/Barons franchise records were retired. However, the Gunds were the merged team's principal owners, and the North Stars assumed the Barons' place in the Adams Division in order to balance out the divisions. The merger brought with it a number of talented players, and the North Stars were revived—they reached", "In 1993, amid further attendance woes and bitter personal controversy, Green obtained permission from the league to move the team to Dallas, for the 1993–94 season, with the decision announced on March 10, 1993. Green was convinced by former Dallas Cowboys quarterback Roger Staubach that Dallas would be a suitable market for an NHL team. He decided to retain the \"Stars\" nickname, as it matched Texas' official nickname as \"The Lone Star State.\" The Stars would move into Reunion Arena, built in 1980, the downtown arena already occupied by the National Basketball Association's Dallas Mavericks. To quell the ensuing controversy, the NHL promised that the Twin Cities would receive an expansion franchise in the future; that promise was fulfilled in 2000 in the form of the Minnesota Wild. With the league changing the names of the conferences and divisions that season, the newly relocated Stars were placed in the Central Division of the Western Conference, and played their first game in Dallas on October 5, 1993, a 6–4 win against the Detroit Red Wings. In that game, Neal Broten scored the first Stars goal in Dallas. Dallas was an experiment for the league. At that time, the Stars would be one of", "In the 1998 off-season, after falling just short in the Western Conference Finals, the Stars added what they believed was the final piece toward winning a championship: star goalscoring winger Brett Hull. Hull had already had a magnificent career with the St. Louis Blues, with three consecutive 70-goal seasons and a Hart Memorial Trophy, but a fallout with Blues management led Hull to leave St. Louis via free agency. Additionally, this was the first season for the Stars in the Pacific Division after the 1998 NHL division re-alignment. The Stars 1998–99 season was excellent. The Stars won 51 games, surpassing the 50-win mark for the first time in franchise history. They also recorded 114 points, which still stands today as a franchise record. They won the Pacific Division by 24 points, their third consecutive division title; a second consecutive Presidents' Trophy; the Jennings Trophy as the league's top defensive team; and were awarded the top seed in the 1999 playoffs. Winger Jere Lehtinen was also awarded the Frank J. Selke Trophy. In the first round of the playoffs, Dallas faced their playoff arch-rivals, the Edmonton Oilers. The Stars swept the Oilers in four tough games, winning Game 4 in the third overtime on a goal by Joe Nieuwendyk. They then faced the St. Louis Blues in the second round. After taking a 2–0 series lead, the Blues stormed back to tie the series. The Stars then won the next two games to beat the Blues in six games. The series again ended on an overtime goal, this time from Mike Modano. In the Conference Finals, they faced the Colorado Avalanche for the first time in Stars history. This would be the first of four playoff meetings between the Stars and Avalanche in the next seven years. After both the Stars and the Avalanche split the first four games at a 2–2 series tie, the Avalanche won Game 5 by a score of 7–5, taking a 3–2 series lead, The Stars rallied winning game six on the road, and Game 7 at home, both by 4–1 scorelines. This", "Coming out of the owners' lockout that cancelled the entire 2004–05 season, the Stars remained one of the strongest teams in the Western Conference for the start of 2005–06, as they won four of their first five games on the way to a solid October. November would be even better for Dallas, as they won 10 of 13 games and took over first place in the Pacific Division, a position they would hold most of the season, as they went on to finish with a terrific record of 53–23–6. One reason for the Stars success was their strong play in shootouts, as forward Jussi Jokinen was nearly automatic, making 10-of-13 shot attempts. Also performing strong in shootouts was Sergei Zubov, who used a slow-but-steady backhand to go 7-for-12,", "Following the previous season's disappointing first round playoff upset at the hands of the seventh-seeded Avalanche, the Stars made a number of changes during the 2006 off-season. Former Stars goalkeeper Andy Moog was promoted to assistant general manager for player development (he kept his job as goaltending coach) and former player Ulf Dahlen was hired as an assistant coach. The Stars allowed center Jason Arnott, defenseman Willie Mitchell and goaltender Johan Hedberg to leave as free agents. Forward Niko Kapanen was traded to the Atlanta Thrashers and the remaining two years on fan-favorite right winger Bill Guerin's contract were bought out. The Stars also received Patrik Stefan and Jaroslav Modry in the Atlanta trade, and signed Eric Lindros, Jeff Halpern, Matthew Barnaby and Darryl Sydor as free agents. Young goaltender Mike Smith was promoted to the NHL to serve as Marty Turco's backup. During the season,", "In the 2007 NHL Entry Draft, the Stars drafted the relatively unknown Jamie Benn 129th overall. After starting a lackluster 7–7–3 in the 2007–08 season, general manager Doug Armstrong was fired by the team. He was replaced by an unusual \"co-general manager\" arrangement of former assistant GM Les Jackson and former Stars player Brett Hull. On November 8, 2007, Mike Modano became the top American born point scorer of all-time, finishing off a shorthanded breakaway opportunity on San Jose Sharks goaltender Evgeni Nabokov. On February 26, 2008, just hours before the trade deadline, the Stars traded for All-Star center Brad Richards from the Tampa Bay Lightning in exchange for backup goaltender Mike Smith and forwards Jussi Jokinen and Jeff Halpern. The Stars rallied to a final record of 45–30–7 and qualified for the playoffs as", "The 2008–09 season saw the early loss for the season of captain Brenden Morrow to an ACL tear. Off-season free agent acquisition Sean Avery caused a media uproar over comments he made to a Canadian reporter about ex-girlfriend Elisha Cuthbert and her relationship with Calgary Flames' defenseman Dion Phaneuf before a game in Calgary. The incident forced the team to suspend Avery for the season; he was later waived by the Stars. That incident, plus injuries to key players Brad Richards and Sergei Zubov, caused the Stars to tailspin to a 12th-place finish and the first missed playoffs for Dallas since 2002. In the wake of the season, the Stars hired a new general manager, former player and alternate captain Joe Nieuwendyk. Hull and Jackson remained with the Stars, but were reassigned to new roles within the organization. Less than a week after he was hired, Nieuwendyk fired six-season head", "As the new owner, Gaglardi's first move was bringing back former Stars President Jim Lites to once again take the reins as team president and CEO. To begin the 2011–12 season, the Stars once again jumped out to a fast start, going 22–15–1 through the first 38 games of the season. However, when the second half of the season began, the Stars slumped through the months of January and February, before getting hot again in late February. Throughout March, the Stars regained the lead of the Pacific Division. Beginning on March 26, 2012, the Stars embarked on a western road trip that saw them visit the Calgary Flames, Edmonton Oilers, Vancouver Canucks and San Jose Sharks. Going into the road trip, the Stars were in control of their own destiny, having to gain four points on the road trip to win their first Pacific Division title since the 2005–06 season. After the Stars lost 5–4 in Calgary to the Flames, the Stars beat the Oilers two nights later, 3–1. This would be their last", "", "When the Stars first moved from Minnesota, they played in Reunion Arena, which they shared with the National Basketball Association's Dallas Mavericks. For hockey, Reunion Arena held 17,001 for NHL games. Throughout the hockey history of Reunion Arena, the arena was known for having one of the worst ice surfaces in the league, especially in its final days", "All Dallas Stars games are broadcast on radio on KTCK under a five-year deal announced in January 2009. KTCK replaced WBAP, which had broadcast games since the beginning of the 1994 season after KLIF has broadcast the first season in Dallas in 1993. Television coverage occurs primarily on Fox Sports Southwest (FSN), with KTXA (Channel 21) or FSSW+ broadcasting games when FSSW has a conflict. The Stars, along with the Buffalo Sabres and Carolina Hurricanes are one of only three NHL teams to simulcast the entirety of their games on TV and radio, which the team has done since their 1993 arrival in Dallas. The original broadcast team from 1993 to 1996 was Mike Fornes (play-by-play) and Ralph Strangis (color). Fornes left the broadcast team after the 1995–96 season; Strangis moved to the play-by-play role and color commentator Daryl \"Razor\" Reaugh was added. Although both the", "When they debuted in Dallas for the 1993–94 season, they kept the same uniform design from their later Minnesota days, except for the addition of the Texas logo patch on the shoulders. Away uniforms were black and home uniforms were white. With minor trim changes, a darker shade of green, and the word 'Dallas' added in the 1994–95 season, they kept this design until their 1999 Stanley Cup-winning campaign. The black pants have the word \"Dallas\" in gold run through the sides with green stripes. In the 1997–98 season, the Stars introduced an alternate uniform", "The Dallas Stars are presently affiliated with two minor league teams. The Texas Stars are the American Hockey League (AHL) affiliate of the Dallas Stars, who after becoming unaffiliated with the Iowa Stars in 2008, did not have an AHL affiliate for the", "Since the 2005–06 season, the national anthems are performed by Celena Rae, a Fort Worth native and former semi-finalist on \"American Idol\". During \"The Star-Spangled Banner\", the fans yell the word \"stars\" in the lines \"whose broad stripes and bright stars\" and \"O say does that star spangled banner yet wave\". At games, as part of the entertainment, a Kahlenberg KDT-123 fog horn sounds after every Stars goal. When the Stars take the ice at the beginning of each game, the song \"Puck Off\" (also referred to as the \"Dallas Stars Fight Song\") by Pantera, is played in the arena. Members of the Dallas–Fort Worth–Arlington metropolitan area band had become friends with members of the Stars in the 1990s, especially following the team's Stanley Cup win in 1999. \"Puck Off\"", "\"This is a partial list of the last five seasons completed by the Stars. For the full season-by-season history, see List", "", "\"Note: This list does not include", "", "Stanley Cup Presidents' Trophy Clarence S. Campbell Bowl Art Ross Trophy", "\"Note: This list does not", "The Dallas Stars presently acknowledge an affiliation with a number of inductees to the Hockey Hall of Fame. Hall of Fame inductees acknowledged by the Stars include 13 former players and three builders of the sport. The three individuals recognized as builders by the Hall of Fame includes former Stars executives, and head coaches. The tenure of", "", "These are the top-ten point-scorers in franchise (Minnesota & Dallas) history. Figures are updated after each completed" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Versions.", "Performance history.", "Synopsis.", "Act 1.", "Act 2.", "Act 3.", "Synopsis (musical numbers).", "Act 1.", "Act 2.", "Act 3." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Puccini wrote five versions of the opera. The original two-act version, which was presented at the world premiere at La Scala on 17 February 1904, was withdrawn after the disastrous premiere. Puccini then substantially rewrote it, this time in three acts. This second version was performed on 28 May 1904 in Brescia, where it was a great success, with Solomiya Krushelnytska as Cio-Cio-san. It was this second version that premiered in the United States in 1906, first in Washington, D.C., in October, and then in New York in November, performed by Henry Savage's New English Opera Company (so named because it performed in English-language translations). In 1906, Puccini wrote a third version, which was performed at the Metropolitan Opera in New York. In 1907, Puccini made several changes in the orchestral and vocal scores, and this became the fourth version, which was performed in Paris. In 1907, Puccini made his final revisions to the opera in a fifth version, which has become known as the \"Standard Version\" and is the one which is most often performed around the world. However, the original 1904 version is occasionally performed, such as for the opening of La Scala's season on 7 December 2016, with Riccardo Chailly conducting.", "Premieres of the standard version in major opera houses throughout the world include those in the Teatro de la Opera de Buenos Aires on 2 July 1904, under Arturo Toscanini, this being the first performance in the world outside Italy. Its first performance in Britain was in London on 10 July 1905 at the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden, while the first US performance was presented in English on 15 October 1906, in Washington, D.C., at the Columbia Theater. The first performance in New York took place on 12 November of the same year at the Garden Theatre. The Metropolitan Opera first performed the work on 11 February 1907 in the presence of the composer with Geraldine Farrar as Cio-Cio San, Enrico Caruso as Pinkerton, Louise Homer as Suzuki, Antonio Scotti as Sharpless, and Arturo Vigna conducting. Three years later, the first Australian performance was presented at the Theatre Royal in Sydney on 26 March 1910, starring Amy Eliza Castles. Between 1915 and 1920, Japan's best-known opera singer Tamaki Miura won international fame for her performances as Cio-Cio-san. A memorial to this singer, along with one to Puccini, can be found in the Glover Garden in the port city of Nagasaki, where the opera is set.", "", "In 1904, a U.S. naval officer named Pinkerton rents a house on a hill in Nagasaki, Japan, for himself and his soon-to-be wife, \"Butterfly\". Her real name is Cio-Cio-san (from the Japanese word for ; \"-san\" is a plain honorific). She is a 15-year-old Japanese girl whom he is marrying for convenience, and he intends to leave her once he finds a proper American wife, since Japanese divorce laws are very lax. The wedding is to take place at the house. Butterfly had been so excited to marry an American that she had earlier secretly converted to Christianity. After the wedding ceremony, her uninvited uncle, a \"bonze\", who has found out about her conversion, comes to the house, curses her and orders all the guests to leave, which they do while renouncing her. Pinkerton and Butterfly sing a love duet and prepare to spend their first night together.", "Three years later, Butterfly is still waiting for Pinkerton to return, as he had left shortly after their wedding. Her maid Suzuki keeps trying to convince her that he is not coming back, but Butterfly will not listen to her. Goro, the marriage broker who arranged her marriage, keeps trying to marry her off again, but she does not listen to him either. The American consul, Sharpless, comes to the house with a letter which he has received from Pinkerton which asks him to break some news to Butterfly: that Pinkerton is coming back to Japan, but Sharpless cannot bring himself to finish it because Butterfly becomes very excited to hear that Pinkerton is coming back. Sharpless asks Butterfly what she would do if Pinkerton were not to return. She then reveals that she gave birth to Pinkerton's son after he had left and asks Sharpless to tell him. From the hill house, Butterfly sees Pinkerton's ship arriving in the harbour. She and Suzuki prepare for his arrival, and then they wait. Suzuki and the child fall asleep, but Butterfly stays up all night waiting for him to arrive.", "Suzuki wakes up in the morning and Butterfly finally falls asleep. Sharpless and Pinkerton arrive at the house, along with Pinkerton's new American wife, Kate. They have come because Kate has agreed to raise the child. But, as Pinkerton sees how Butterfly has decorated the house for his return, he realizes he has made a huge mistake. He admits that he is a coward and cannot face her, leaving Suzuki, Sharpless and Kate to break the news to Butterfly. Agreeing to give up her child if Pinkerton comes himself to see her, she then prays to statues of her ancestral gods, says goodbye to her son, and blindfolds him. She places a small American flag in his hands and goes behind a screen, killing herself with her father's seppuku knife. Pinkerton rushes in, but he is too late, and Butterfly dies.", "This is a synopsis of the standard version of the opera, with its arias, duets, trios, choruses, etc. The synopsis is organized into the 34 tracks that constitute most recordings.", "1. A short orchestral prelude with a busy, fugal opening theme, followed by a second theme of more overtly Japanese character, leads straight into the opening scene. 2. \"E soffitto e pareti\" (\"And ceiling and walls\"). Pinkerton and Goro are inspecting a small house which sits on a hill and overlooks the bay. Goro has found the house for Pinkerton and his bride, and is showing him the house, with its sliding doors and small garden. The butler, the cook and the bride's maid, Suzuki, enter the garden and are introduced to Pinkerton. After they leave, Goro tells Pinkerton that everything is now ready and that his intended bride, Butterfly, will arrive soon, as will the American consul, the marriage registrar and all the bride's relatives, except her uncle. Her uncle is a priest and refuses to attend the wedding ceremony. Sharpless, the American consul, has climbed up the hill from the city. He enters the garden, greets Pinkerton and Goro, and admires the view that overlooks Nagasaki's harbor and the sea. Pinkerton tells Sharpless that he has just purchased the little house for 999 years, with the right every month to cancel the agreement. Pinkerton explains that, in Japan, the law is very loose. 3. \"Dovunque al mondo\" (\"Throughout the world\"). As the orchestra plays the opening flourish to \"The Star-Spangled Banner\" (a musical theme which will characterize Pinkerton throughout the opera), Pinkerton tells Sharpless that, throughout the world, the Yankee wanderer is not satisfied until he captures the flowers of every shore and the love of every beautiful woman. \"So I am marrying in the Japanese style: for 999 years, but with the right to cancel the marriage each month\". Sharpless is critical of Pinkerton's beliefs, but they stand and agree, \"America forever\". Pinkerton tells Goro to bring Butterfly to him. When Goro leaves, Sharpless asks Pinkerton if he is really in love. 4. \"Amore o grillo\" (\"Love or fancy\"). Pinkerton admits to Sharpless that he does not know whether he is really in love or just infatuated, but he is bewitched with Butterfly's innocence, charm and beauty; she is like a butterfly fluttering around and then landing with silent grace, so beautiful \"that I must have her, even though I injure her butterfly wings\". Sharpless tells Pinkerton that he heard Butterfly speak, when she visited the consulate, and he asks Pinkerton not to pluck off her delicate wings. However, Pinkerton tells Sharpless that he will do \"no great harm, even if Butterfly falls in love.\" Sharpless takes his glass of whisky and offers a toast to Pinkerton's family at home, to which Pinkerton adds, \"and to the day when I will have a real wedding and marry a real American bride.\" Goro re-enters to tell Pinkerton and Sharpless that Butterfly's friends are coming. 5. \"Ancora un passo\" (\"One step more\"). Butterfly can be heard guiding her friends to the top of the hill, jubilantly telling them that \"Over land and sea, there floats the joyful breath of spring. I am the happiest girl in Japan, or rather in the world.\" Butterfly and her friends enter the garden. She recognizes Pinkerton and points him out to her friends, and all bow down before him. 6. \"Gran ventura\" (\"May good fortune attend you\"). Butterfly greets Pinkerton, who asks about her difficult climb up the hill. Butterfly says that, for a happy bride, the wait is even more difficult. Pinkerton thanks her for the compliment but cuts her off as she continues to compliment him further. Butterfly tells Pinkerton and Sharpless that her family is from Nagasaki and was once very wealthy. 7. \"L'Imperial Commissario\" (\"The Imperial Commissioner\"). Goro announces the arrival of both the Grand Commissioner and the Registrar of marriages. Butterfly greets her relatives, who have arrived for the wedding. Pinkerton laughs at the sight and whispers to Sharpless, \"This is a farce: all these will be my new relatives for only a month.\" Sharpless tells him that, even though he considers the marriage contract a farce, she considers it very real. Meanwhile, Butterfly tells her relatives how much she loves Pinkerton. One of her cousins says that Goro first offered Pinkerton to her, but she refused. Butterfly's relatives say that he is like a king, so rich and so handsome, and then, at a sign from Butterfly, all her friends and relatives bow to Pinkerton and walk out to the garden. Pinkerton takes Butterfly's hand and leads her into the house. 8. \"Vieni, amor mio!\" (\"Come, my love!\"). From her sleeve, Butterfly brings out to show Pinkerton all of her treasures, which include only a few handkerchiefs, a mirror, a sash, and other trinkets. Then she shows him a long, narrow case, which she tells him holds her only sacred treasure, but she cannot open it, because there are too many people around. Goro whispers to Pinkerton that the case contains a \"gift\" from the Mikado to Butterfly's father, inviting him to commit seppuku. Butterfly continues to show Pinkerton her other little treasures, including several little statues: \"They are the spirits of my ancestors.\" 9. \"Ieri son salita tutta sola\" (\"Yesterday, I went all alone\"). Butterfly tells Pinkerton that yesterday, in secret and without telling her uncle, who is a Buddhist priest, the Bonze, she went to the consulate, where she abandoned her ancestral religion and converted to Pinkerton's religion. \"I am following my destiny and, full of humility, bow to Mr. Pinkerton's God.\" 10. \"Tutti zitti\" (\"Quiet everyone\"). Everything is ready, and Goro tells everyone to be quiet. The Commissioner conducts the brief ceremony and witnesses Pinkerton and Butterfly sign the official papers. 11. \"Madama Butterfly\" (\"Madam Butterfly\"). The wedding celebration begins, and everyone wishes happiness to the new couple. After a short while, Sharpless pleads with Pinkerton not to be cruel, and he leaves with the Commissioner and the Registrar. Pinkerton, Butterfly and their guests continue the celebration with many toasts. 12. \"Cio-Cio San!\" (\"Cio-Cio San\"). The toasts are interrupted by an angry voice offstage, saying \"Cio-Cio San! Cio-Cio San! You are damned.\" Butterfly's uncle, the Bonze, has discovered that Butterfly has renounced her ancestral religion, and he has arrived to deliver his curse. He stands over Butterfly, shouting his curses at her, when Pinkerton intervenes to stop him. The Bonze is shocked at the American, and he orders all the guests to leave with him, saying to Butterfly, \"You have renounced us, and we renounce you.\" All the guests shout their renunciation as they rush away. The night is falling. Butterfly is weeping. Pinkerton consoles her. 13. \"Bimba, Bimba, non piangere\" (\"Sweetheart, sweetheart, do not weep\"). (This begins the famous long love duet, which ends act 1.) Pinkerton tells Butterfly that \"All your relatives and all the priests in Japan are not worth the tears from your loving, beautiful eyes.\" Butterfly smiles through her tears, \"You mean that? I will not cry any more. And I do not worry about their curses, because your words sound so sweet.\" They hear Suzuki offstage, saying her evening prayers. 13A. \"Viene la sera\" (\"Night is falling\"). (The long duet continues.) Pinkerton tells Butterfly that the \"Night is falling\", and Butterfly answers that \"with it comes darkness and peace.\" Pinkerton claps his hands, and the three servants enter and close up the house. Then Suzuki helps Butterfly dress for her wedding night. Pinkerton watches Butterfly, as she watches him, but her happiness is tempered, as \"still the angry voice curses me. Butterfly is renounced – renounced but happy\". 14. \"Bimba dagli occhi\" (\"Sweetheart, with eyes...\"). (The long duet continues.) Pinkerton admires the beautiful Butterfly and tells her, \"you have not yet told me that you love me.\" Butterfly replies that she does not want to say the words, \"for fear of dying at hearing them!\" She tells him that now she is happy. 15. \"Vogliatemi bene\" (\"Love me, please.\"). (The long duet concludes.) Butterfly pleads with Pinkerton to \"Love me, please.\" She asks whether it is true that, in foreign lands, a man will catch a butterfly and pin its wings to a table. Pinkerton admits that it is true but explains, \"Do you know why? So that she will not fly away.\" He embraces her and says, \"I have caught you. You are mine.\" She replies, \"Yes, for life.\"", "16. \"E Izaghi ed Izanami\" (\"And Izanagi and Izanami\"). As the curtain opens, three years have passed. Suzuki kneels in front of a Buddha, praying that Butterfly will stop crying. Butterfly hears and tells her that the Japanese gods are fat and lazy, and that the American God will answer quickly, if only He knows where they are living. Suzuki tells Butterfly that their money has almost run out and, if Pinkerton does not return quickly, they will suffer in a bad way. Butterfly assures Suzuki that Pinkerton will return, because he took care to arrange for the consul to pay the rent and to fit the house with locks to keep out the mosquitoes, relatives and troubles. Suzuki tells Butterfly that foreign husbands never return to their Japanese wives, but Butterfly replies furiously that Pinkerton had assured her, on the very last morning they were together, \"Oh, Butterfly, my little wife, I shall return with the roses, when the earth is full of joy, when the robin makes his nest.\" Suzuki begins quietly to weep. 17. \"Un bel dì vedremo\" (\"One fine day we shall see\"). In this, the opera's most famous aria (and one of the most popular works in the soprano repertoire), Butterfly says that, \"one fine day\", they will see a puff of smoke on the far horizon. Then a ship will appear and enter the harbor. She will not go down to meet him but will wait on the hill for him to come. After a long time, she will see in the far distance a man beginning the walk out of the city and up the hill. When he arrives, he will call \"Butterfly\" from a distance, but she will not answer, partly for fun and partly not to die from the excitement of the first meeting. Then he will speak the names he used to call her: \"Little one. Dear wife. Orange blossom.\" Butterfly promises Suzuki that this will happen. Suzuki departs, as Sharpless and Goro arrive in the garden. 18. \"C'e. Entrate.\" (\"She is there. Go in.\"). Sharpless greets her, \"Excuse me, Madam Butterfly.\" Without looking to see who is speaking, Butterfly corrects him, \"Madam Pinkerton, please.\" As she turns and sees that it is Sharpless who has spoken, she exclaims in happiness, \"My very dear consul. Welcome to this American home.\" Sharpless draws a letter from his pocket and tells her, \"Benjamin Franklin Pinkerton has written to me.\" Sharpless tells her that Pinkerton is perfectly well, and she says, \"I am the happiest woman in Japan.\" Butterfly asks him, \"When do the robins make their nests in America?\" The question confuses Sharpless, so Butterfly explains that Pinkerton promised to return to her \"when the robin builds his nest again.\" She says that, in Japan, the robin has already built his nest three times, and she asks if \"over there he nests less frequently.\" Sharpless, mortified, tells her that he does not know because he has not studied ornithology. At this, Butterfly hears Goro laugh, and she whispers to Sharpless that Goro is a bad man. She tells him that, after Pinkerton left, Goro came to her many times \"with presents to palm off this or that husband on me.\" She says that Goro now wants her to agree to marry the wealthy man Yamadori, who then is arriving with his entourage to a musical accompaniment that quotes the same Japanese folk tune (\"Miyasan\") that Gilbert and Sullivan set as \"Mi-ya sama\" in \"The Mikado\". 19. \"Yamadori, ancor le pene\" (\"Yamadori, are you not yet...\"). Butterfly sees Yamadori and asks him if he is not going to give up pursuing her, because \"You have already had many different wives.\" Yamadori admits that he married all of them, but says that he divorced them too. In the meantime, Sharpless gives up trying to read Pinkerton's letter to Butterfly, and he puts the letter back in his pocket. Goro tells Sharpless that Butterfly thinks that she is still married. Butterfly hears this and says, \"I do not I am; I am.\" When Goro tries to tell her about the Japanese law of marriage, Butterfly interrupts and tells him that the Japanese law is not the law of her country, the United States. She tells Goro that she understands how easy divorce is under Japanese law, \"but in America, you cannot do that.\" She turns sharply and asks Sharpless, \"Am I correct?\" Sharpless is embarrassed and must admit that she is correct. Butterfly turns triumphantly to Suzuki and asks that she serve tea. Yamadori, Sharpless and Goro quietly discuss Butterfly's blindness. Goro whispers that Pinkerton's ship is expected to arrive soon, and Sharpless explains that Pinkerton is too embarrassed to meet Butterfly and has asked Sharpless to handle it. Yamadori, offended, departs with his grand entourage and Goro. Sharpless remains, sits next to Butterfly, and takes the letter out of his pocket once more. 20. \"Ora a noi.\" (\"Now for us.\"). Sharpless begins to read Pinkerton's letter to Butterfly: \"My friend, will you find that lovely flower of a girl...\" Butterfly cannot control her happiness, as he continues, \"since that happy times, three years have passed, and Butterfly perhaps does not remember me anymore.\" Butterfly looks at Suzuki and says, \"I do not remember him? Suzuki, you tell him!\" Sharpless continues, \"If she still loves me, if she awaits me, I place myself in your hands so that you may carefully and considerately prepare her...\" Butterfly exclaims, \"He is coming! When? Soon! Soon!\" Sharpless cannot bear to continue. He puts the letter away, muttering to himself, \"that devil Pinkerton!\" Sharpless asks her gently, \"Butterfly, what would you do if he never returned?\" Butterfly is shocked. 21. \"Due cose potrei far\" (\"Two things I could do\"). Butterfly cries that, if Pinkerton never returned, she would go back to entertaining people with her songs, or, better, die. Sharpless pleads with her to accept the rich offer from Yamadori. Butterfly is upset with Sharpless and instructs Suzuki to show him out. As he begins to leave, Butterfly stops him, apologizes for her anger, and explains that his questions have hurt her \"so very, very much!\" Then she goes into another room and returns, bringing with her the blonde-haired two-year-old boy who is her constant reminder of her American husband. 22. \"Ah! M'ha scordata?\" (\"Ah! He has forgotten me?\"). Butterfly shows Sharpless her child, and Sharpless asks if Pinkerton knows. Butterfly replies, \"No. The child was born when he was away in his big country.\" She asks Sharpless to write and tell him that his son waits for him. \"And then we shall see if he does not hurry over land and sea!\" Butterfly kneels in front of her son and asks him, \"Do you know that that gentleman had dared to think that your mother would take you in her arms and walk to town, through the wind and rain, to earn your bread and clothes. And she would stretch out her arms to the pitying crowd, crying ‘Listen! Listen to my sad song, For an unhappy mother, your charity. Take pity! And Butterfly – oh, horrible destiny – will dance for you! And as she used to do, the Geisha will sing for you. And her joyful, happy song will end in a sob!\" She kneels in front of Sharpless and says that she will never do that, \"that trade which leads to dishonor. Death! Death! Never more to dance! Rather would I cut short my life! Ah! Death!\" 23. \"Io scendo al piano.\" (\"I will go now.\") Sharpless finally says, \"I will go now.\" Butterfly gives him her hand and this her child's. Sharpless asks the child his name, and Butterfly answers for him, \"Today my name is Sorrow. But write and tell Daddy that, the day he returns, my name will be Joy.\" Sharpless promises to tell Pinkerton. Offstage, Suzuki can be heard shouting, \"Snake. Damned toad!\" Suzuki enters, pulling Goro with her, and she tells Butterfly, \"He buzzes around, the snake. Every day he tells the four winds that no one knows who is the child's father!\" Goro explains that, in America, when a child is born with a curse, he will always be rejected by everyone. In a rage, Butterfly runs to the shrine, seizes the dagger and threatens to stab him, \"You are lying! You are lying! Say that again, and I will kill you!\" Goro flees. Suzuki takes the child to the other room. Butterfly replaces the dagger, goes to her son and says, \"You will see, my darling, my Sorrow. You will see, your savior will take us far, far away to his land.\" 24. \"Il cannone del porto!\" (\"The cannon at the harbor!\", often known as The Flower Duet). Just then a cannon shot is heard. Suzuki and Butterfly watch from the hill as the ship enters the harbor and drops anchor. Then Butterfly sees that the ship is the \"Abraham Lincoln\", and she tells Suzuki, \"They were all lying! All of them! I alone knew. Only I, who love him.\" She continues, \"My love, my faith, triumphs completely! He has returned, and he loves me!\" She tells Suzuki to prepare a fragrant bath and asks how long she will have to wait for him. \"An hour? Two hours, perhaps? The house must be filled with flowers. Everywhere. As the night is full of stars!\" Butterfly tells Suzuki to gather all the flowers. 25. \"Tutti i fior?\" (\"All the flowers?\"). Suzuki asks, \"All the flowers?\" Butterfly says yes, all the flowers from all the bushes and plants and trees. \"I want the whole fragrance of Spring in here.\" They continue to gather flowers and place them everywhere. 26. \"Or vienmi ad adornar\" (\"Now come to adorn me\"). Finally, Butterfly sits at her dressing table and tells Suzuki, \"Now, come and adorn me. No, first bring me the child.\" She puts a touch of rouge on her own and on her child's cheeks and then, as Suzuki does her hair, asks her, \"What will they say? My uncle, the priest? All so happy at my misery! And Yamadori, with his pursuit? Ridiculed, disgraced, made foolish, the hateful things!\" Butterfly dons the same dress that she wore as a bride, while Suzuki dresses her child. Butterfly tells Suzuki that she wants Pinkerton to see her dressed as she was on the first day \"and a red poppy in my hair.\" 27. \"Coro a bocca chiusa\" (\"Humming Chorus\"). As the off-stage chorus hums a wordless, melancholy tune, Butterfly, her child and Suzuki begin the long wait for Pinkerton to come. Night falls. Suzuki and the baby are soon asleep, but Butterfly keeps her vigil. \"There is no intermission between acts 2 and 3. The action continues without interruption as the \"Humming Chorus\" ends and morning light appears.\"", "28. \"Oh eh! Oh eh!\" (\"Heave-ho! Heave-ho!\"). Suzuki and the baby are asleep, but Butterfly remains standing and waiting. Distant voices are heard from the bay. Sailors are singing, \"Heave-ho! Heave-ho!\" The sun rises and fills Butterfly's house with light. 29. \"Già il sole!\" (\"The Sun's come up!\"). Suzuki awakes and is very sad. Butterfly tells her that \"He will come.\" Then she carries her sleeping child into the other room and tells him to sleep, while she too falls asleep. Suzuki waits in the front room and hears a knock at the door. Pinkerton and Sharpless have arrived, but Pinkerton tells Suzuki not to wake Butterfly and asks how Butterfly knew that he had arrived. Suzuki tells him that, for the last three years, Butterfly has studied every ship that entered the port. Sharpless tells Pinkerton, \"Did I not tell you so?\" Suzuki sees a strange woman in the garden, learns from Sharpless that she is Pinkerton's American wife and collapses to her knees in shock. 30. \"Io so che sue dolore\" (\"I know that her pain\"). While Pinkerton looks at the flowers, the picture of himself and the room that has remained unchanged for three years, Sharpless tells Suzuki that they can do nothing for Butterfly but that they must help her child. Sharpless tells her that Pinkerton's new wife, Kate, wants to care for the child. Suzuki goes into the garden to meet Pinkerton's new wife, while Sharpless reminds Pinkerton, \"I told you, did I not? Do you remember? When she gave you her hand: 'Take care', I said,'she believes in you'. She has been waiting for you.\" Pinkerton admits his wrong and leaves Sharpless to tell Butterfly the shameful news. 31. \"Addio, fiorito asil\" (\"Farewell, flowery refuge\"). Pinkerton says \"Farewell, flowery refuge of happiness and of love, her gentle face will always haunt me, torturing me endlessly.\" He admits that he is a coward and cannot face her, and quickly leaves as Suzuki and Kate enter from the garden. Kate is telling Suzuki to assure Butterfly that Kate will look after her child like her own son. 32. \"Suzuki! Suzuki!\" (\"Suzuki! Suzuki!\"). From offstage, Butterfly calls for Suzuki and then enters the room. As she enters, Kate retreats to the garden, so that she will not be seen. She asks Suzuki why she is crying, and then she sees Sharpless and the woman in the garden. She tells Suzuki, \"Suzuki, you are so kind. Do not cry. You love me so much. Tell me softly, just 'yes' or 'no'... Is he alive?\" When Suzuki answers, \"yes\", Butterfly understands that Pinkerton is not coming for her and that Kate is his new wife. Butterfly realizes that she must give up her son, and Kate asks her forgiveness. Finally, Butterfly tells Kate, \"I will give my child to her only if he comes himself. In half an hour, come up the hill again.\" Suzuki escorts Kate and Sharpless out, and Butterfly falls weeping. 33. \"Come una mosca\" (\"Like a little fly\"). Butterfly stands, sees Suzuki and tells her to close up the house, because it is too light and spring-like. Then she orders her to go to the other room where the child is playing. Butterfly then kneels before the statue of Buddha and prays to her ancestral gods. She rises, takes down her father's knife, kisses the blade, and reads the inscription. 34. \"Con onor muore\" (\"To die with honor\"). Butterfly reads the inscription on her father's knife: \"Who cannot live with honor must die with honor.\" 35. \"Tu? Tu? Piccolo iddio!\" (\"You? You? My little god!\"). Butterfly's child enters, but Suzuki does not. Butterfly tells her child not to feel sorrow for his mother's desertion but to keep a faint memory of his mother's face. She bids him farewell, seats him on the floor and blindfolds him gently. She gives him a miniature American flag to wave in greeting to his father, which he does, blindfolded, throughout the following action. Butterfly takes the knife and walks behind the screen. The knife clatters to the floor as Butterfly staggers from behind the screen with a scarf around her neck. She kisses her child and collapses. From outside, Pinkerton cries, \"Butterfly!\" and rushes in – but it is too late: Butterfly is dead." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Formation.", "Cow Palace years (1991–1993).", "Early success and rebuilding (1993–1997).", "Darryl Sutter years (1997–2002).", "Ron Wilson years (2003–2008).", "Todd McLellan years (2008–2015).", "Peter DeBoer years and first Stanley Cup Final (2015–2020).", "Team information.", "Logo and uniforms.", "Broadcasters.", "Traditions.", "Rivalries.", "Season-by-season record.", "Players.", "Hall of Famers.", "Retired numbers.", "Franchise regular season scoring leaders.", "Franchise playoff scoring leaders.", "NHL awards and trophies." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The Oakland Coliseum Arena was home to the California Golden Seals of the NHL from 1967 to 1976, who were neither successful on the ice nor at the box office. Gordon and George Gund III became minority owners of the Seals in 1974, and were instrumental in their move to Cleveland in 1976 and a 1978 merger with the Minnesota North Stars, which they purchased that year. They had long wanted to bring hockey back to the Bay Area, and asked the NHL for permission to move the North Stars there in the late 1980s, but the league vetoed the proposed move. Meanwhile, a group led by former Hartford Whalers owner Howard Baldwin was pushing the NHL to bring a team to San Jose, where a new arena was being built. Eventually, the League struck a compromise: the Gunds would sell their share of the North Stars to Baldwin's group, with the", "For their first two seasons, the Sharks played at the Cow Palace in Daly City, just outside San Francisco, a facility the NHL and the Seals had rejected in 1967. Pat Falloon was their first draft choice and led the team in points during their first season. The team was placed in the Campbell Conference's Smythe Division. George Kingston was their first head coach during their first two seasons. Though the 1991–92 roster consisted primarily of NHL journeymen, minor leaguers and rookies, the Sharks had at least one notable player when they acquired 14-year veteran and former Norris Trophy-winning defenseman Doug Wilson from the Chicago Blackhawks on September 6, 1991. Wilson was named the team's first captain and All-Star representative in the inaugural season. However, the Sharks' first two seasons saw the typical struggles for an expansion team.", "For their third season, 1993–94, the Sharks moved to their new home, the San Jose Arena, and were placed in the Western Conference's Pacific Division. Under head coach Kevin Constantine, the Sharks pulled off the biggest turnaround in NHL history, finishing with a 33–35–16 record and making the Stanley Cup playoffs for the first time in team history with 82 points, an NHL record 58-point jump from the previous season. They were seeded eighth in the Western Conference playoffs and faced the Detroit Red Wings, the top-seeded Western Conference team and a favorite to win the Stanley Cup. In one of the biggest upsets in Stanley Cup playoff history, the underdog Sharks shocked the Red Wings in seven games. In Game 7 at Joe Louis Arena, Jamie Baker scored the game-winning goal in the third period after goaltender Chris Osgood was out of position and the Sharks won 3–2. In the second round, the Sharks had a 3–2 series lead over the Toronto Maple Leafs, but lost the final two games in Toronto, including", "The Sharks returned to the playoffs in 1997–98 with goaltender Mike Vernon, whom they acquired from the Red Wings, and new head coach Darryl Sutter. For the next two years, the Sharks made the playoffs, yet never advanced past the first round. In 1999, San Jose acquired former Toronto Maple Leafs and Montreal Canadiens star Vincent Damphousse. San Jose's luck changed in the 1999–2000 season, when the Sharks finished with their first-ever winning record. In an upset on par with the one they had pulled on Detroit six years earlier, the Sharks managed to eliminate the St. Louis Blues, who had finished first overall in the league that year, in seven games. However, the Sharks were defeated in the second round of the playoffs by the Dallas Stars. It was their second time losing to Dallas.", "Near the 2003 NHL trade deadline, captain Owen Nolan was traded to the Toronto Maple Leafs, signaling a new era in Sharks history. In addition, the newly acquired McGillis was traded to Boston, Bryan Marchment went to Colorado, and American Hockey League (AHL) star Shawn Heins and forward Matt Bradley were moved to the Pittsburgh Penguins. The Sharks acquired Alyn McCauley and Wayne Primeau during this season. Reportedly, due to having just acquired the team as well as the team's bad start, the ownership group wanted general manager Dean Lombardi to move high-priced players on the roster. Lombardi failed to do so and consequently lost his job. During that debacle year for San Jose, there were some bright spots. Jim Fahey led all rookie defensemen in the NHL in points, despite playing in only 43 games. 2003–04, under new general manager Doug Wilson and head coach Ron Wilson saw another turnaround for the team, resulting in", "On June 11, 2008, the San Jose Sharks named former Detroit Red Wings assistant coach Todd McLellan as their new head coach for the 2008–09 season. Todd Richards, Trent Yawney and Jay Woodcroft were named assistant coaches, while Brett Heimlich was named staff assistant. During the off-season, San Jose's major headlines included signing defenseman Rob Blake, acquiring defensemen Dan Boyle and Brad Lukowich, as well as trading defenseman Craig Rivet to the Buffalo Sabres. Midway through the season, San Jose added playoff warrior Claude Lemieux to their roster. Lemieux, 43 years old, was rejoining the NHL after a five-year absence. At the trade deadline, San Jose acquired checking-line winger Travis Moen and the injured defenseman Kent Huskins from the Anaheim Ducks. The Sharks finished the regular season as presidents' Trophy champions with 53 wins and 117 points, both franchise records. Despite their successful regular season, the Sharks were eliminated by the eighth-seeded Anaheim Ducks in six games in the first round of the playoffs. The team was heavily criticized for once again failing to succeed in the post-season. General manager Doug Wilson promised the team would undergo significant changes in the off-season. In the 2009 off-season, Wilson held to his word with many major moves. The first was Christian Ehrhoff and Brad Lukowich to the Vancouver Canucks. It was widely believed that San Jose made this trade so it could free up salary cap space to make a second trade: Milan Michalek and Jonathan Cheechoo were sent to the Ottawa Senators in exchange for Dany Heatley and a draft pick. Assistant coach Todd Richards left and was replaced by Matt Shaw. Aside from the trades, several contracts were not renewed, including those of", "On May 28, 2015, the team named Peter DeBoer as their new head coach. During the off-season, the Sharks let John Scott and Scott Hannan leave as free agents. They traded goalie Antti Niemi to the Dallas Stars for a seventh-round draft pick in the 2015 Draft. Then, they acquired forward Joel Ward, goaltender Martin Jones, and defenseman Paul Martin. They also named forward Joe Pavelski the team's captain. Nearly one year after Peter DeBoer's arrival and a shaky start, the Sharks surged in the second half of the season to return to the playoffs, finishing with 98 points and third in the Pacific Division. They defeated the Los Angeles Kings in five games, the Nashville Predators in seven games and the St. Louis Blues in six games to win the Western Conference championship. This marked the first time in franchise history that the Sharks advanced to play in the Stanley Cup Final. The Sharks ultimately lost the Stanley Cup Finals in the best-of-seven series against the Pittsburgh Penguins in six", "", "The Sharks' iconic logo of a shark chomping on a hockey stick has been in use since their inaugural 1991–92 season, with slight modifications prior to the 2007–08 season. The triangle on the logo references the Bay Area's Red Triangle near the Pacific Ocean. The Sharks also use various partial and alternate logos based on the primary logo. The original Sharks' road uniforms were teal with white, gray and black striping and featured white block lettering with black trim. Home uniforms", "Television Radio One of the first group of broadcasters for the Sharks was Joe Starkey, who did play-by-play alongside Brian Hayward (1991–92) and Pete Stemkowski (1992–93) on color commentary. CSN Bay Area (now NBC Sports Bay Area) was", "The Sharks' best-known tradition is their pre-game entrance scene. At the beginning of each Sharks home game, the lights go down and a 17-foot open shark mouth is lowered from the rafters. As the mouth is lowered the eyes flash red and fog pours out. Then, a live view of the locker room tunnel with Sharks players is shown on the scoreboard and the", "The Sharks have historically had rivalries with two other California teams, the", "\"This is a partial list of the last five seasons completed by the Sharks. For the full season-by-season history, see List of", "", "The San Jose Sharks hold an affiliation with a number of inductees to the", "The Sharks have no retired numbers, but the team is unable to issue no.", "These are the top-ten-point-scorers in franchise regular season history. Figures are updated after each completed NHL", "These are the top-ten playoff point-scorers in", "Clarence S. Campbell Bowl Presidents' Trophy Art Ross Trophy Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy Calder Memorial Trophy Hart Memorial Trophy James Norris Memorial Trophy Maurice \"Rocket\" Richard Trophy NHL Foundation Player Award All-Star Game head coach" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Franchise history.", "NHL expansion and the \"Forum Blue and Gold\" years (1967–1975).", "Marcel Dionne and the \"Triple Crown Line\" (1975–1988).", "McNall brings Gretzky to LA (1988–1993).", "Bankruptcy, move to the Staples Center, and rebuild (1993–2009).", "Return to the playoffs and Stanley Cups (2009–2014).", "Playoff struggles (2014–present).", "Team identity.", "Uniforms and logos.", "Mascot.", "Rivalries.", "Season-by-season record.", "Team and League honors.", "Retired numbers.", "Hall of Famers.", "Franchise records.", "Regular-season scoring leaders.", "Playoff scoring leaders.", "Broadcasters.", "Affiliate teams." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "When the NHL decided to expand for the 1967–68 season amid rumblings that the Western Hockey League (WHL) was proposing to turn itself into a major league and compete for the Stanley Cup, Canadian entrepreneur Jack Kent Cooke paid the NHL $2 million to place one of the six expansion teams in Los Angeles. Following a fan contest to name the team, Cooke chose the name Kings because he wanted his club to take on \"an air of royalty,\" and picked the original team colors of purple (or \"Forum Blue\", as it was later officially called) and gold because they were colors traditionally associated with royalty. The same color scheme was worn by the Los Angeles Lakers of the National Basketball Association (NBA), which Cooke also owned. Cooke wanted his new NHL team to play in the Los Angeles Memorial Sports Arena, home of the Lakers, but the Los Angeles Coliseum Commission, which managed the Sports Arena (and still manages the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum", "After being eliminated in the first round of the playoffs in both 1973–74 and 1974–75, the Kings moved to significantly upgrade their offensive firepower when they acquired center Marcel Dionne from the Detroit Red Wings. Behind Dionne's offensive prowess, the strong goaltending of Rogie Vachon, and the speed and scoring touch of forward Butch Goring, the Kings played two of their most thrilling seasons yet, with playoff match ups against the then-Atlanta Flames in the first round, and the Boston Bruins in the second round, both times being eliminated by Boston. Bob Pulford left the Kings", "However, the 1988–89 season would be a big turning point for the franchise. In 1987, coin collector Bruce McNall purchased the Kings from Buss and turned the team into a Stanley Cup contender almost overnight. After changing the team colors to silver and black, McNall acquired the league's best player, Wayne Gretzky, in a blockbuster trade with the Edmonton Oilers on August 9, 1988. The trade rocked the hockey world, especially north of the border, where Canadians mourned the loss of a player they considered a national treasure. Gretzky's arrival generated much excitement", "The years after the 1993 playoff run were tough for the Kings, as a sluggish start in the 1993–94 season cost them a playoff berth, their first absence from the postseason since 1986. However, Gretzky provided a notable highlight during that year on March 23, 1994, when he scored his 802nd career goal to pass Gordie Howe as the NHL's all-time leading goal-scorer. At the same time, McNall defaulted on a loan from Bank of America, who threatened to force the Kings into bankruptcy unless he sold the team. After the federal government launched an investigation into his financial practices, McNall finally sold the club to IDB Communications founder Jeffrey Sudikoff and former Madison Square Garden president Joseph Cohen. It later emerged that McNall's", "During the 2009–10 season, the team had built a consistent roster with goalie Jonathan Quick, defenseman Drew Doughty, and forwards Dustin Brown, Anze Kopitar and Justin Williams. Finishing sixth overall in the West with 101 points, just the third 100-plus point season in franchise history, and establishing a franchise record with a nine-game unbeaten streak, the Kings returned to the playoffs, where they lost to a highly skilled Vancouver Canucks team in six games. The Kings entered the 2011 playoffs as the seventh seed in the West and played San Jose in the first round. Despite Anze Kopitar's absence with injury, the Kings pushed the series to six games until an overtime goal by Joe Thornton qualified the Sharks. A bad start to the 2011–12 season resulted in coach Terry Murray being fired, with Darryl Sutter being chosen as his replacement. The Kings were much improved under Sutter, finishing with the eight seed, having rounded out the season with a 40–27–15 record for 95 points. The Kings then headed into the 2012 playoffs against the Presidents' Trophy-winning Vancouver Canucks. After playing two", "Having won two Stanley Cup championships in the last three years, the Kings entered the 2014–15 season as the early favorites to retain their title. However, the Kings struggled often, with scoring slumps, defensemen losing games to injury and suspensions and frequent road losses. A defeat to the Calgary Flames in the penultimate game of the season eliminated the Kings from playoff contention, while qualifying Calgary, which coincidentally missed the postseason during the Kings' five-season playoff streak. Despite finishing with a record of 40–27–15, the Kings became the first defending Stanley Cup champion to miss the postseason since the 2006–07 Carolina Hurricanes and only the fourth overall since", "", "The Los Angeles Kings debuted in the NHL wearing purple – officially, \"Forum blue\" – and gold uniforms. The original design was simple and straightforward, featuring monochrome striping on the shoulders and tail, as well as purple pants with white and gold trim. Later on, white trim was added on the numbers, and names were also added, while tail stripes were adjusted. At one point, gold pants were used to pair with the gold uniforms during the 1970s. A variation of the original crown logo, with a contrasting color background, was used with this uniform. From 1980 to 1988, the Kings modified their uniforms to include a contrasting yoke that extends from sleeve to sleeve. White was also added to the socks, on the tail stripes, and at the bottom of the yoke, but the color was removed from the pants. The names and numbers were also modified to a standard NHL block lettering. Just", "The mascot of the Kings since 2007 is Bailey, a 6-foot lion (6-foot 4 inches with mane included) who wears No. 72 because it is the average temperature in", "The Kings have developed strong rivalries with the two other Californian teams of the NHL, the Anaheim Ducks – who also play in the Los Angeles metropolitan area, leading to the rivalry nickname \"Freeway Face-Off\" as both cities are separated by", "\"List of the last five seasons completed by the Kings. For the full season-by-season history, see List of Los Angeles Kings seasons\"", "", "", "The Los Angeles Kings presently acknowledge an affiliation with a number of inductees to the Hockey Hall of Fame. Inductees affiliated with the Kings include 17 former players (five of whom earned their credentials primarily as Kings) and three builders of the sport. The three individuals recognized as builders by the Hall of Fame includes former Kings head coaches, and general managers. In addition to players and builders,", "", "These are the top-ten point-scorers in franchise history. Figures are updated after each completed NHL regular", "These are the top-ten point-scorers in franchise playoff history. Figures are updated after each completed NHL regular season. \"Note: Pos = Position; GP = Games Played; G = Goals; A = Assists; Pts = Points; P/G = Points per game", "In 1973, the Kings hired Bob Miller as their play-by-play announcer. Considered to be one of the finest hockey play-by-play announcers, Miller held the post continuously until retirement in 2017, and is often referred to as the \"Voice of the Kings\". He received the Foster Hewitt Memorial Award from the NHL Hockey Broadcasters Association on November 13, 2000, making him a media honoree in the Hockey Hall of Fame, and he also earned a star in the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 2006. Miller has written two books about his experiences with the team, \"Bob Miller's Tales of the Los", "The Kings are currently affiliated with the Ontario Reign in the American Hockey League. Previous affiliates included the Manchester Monarchs, Lowell Lock Monsters, Springfield Falcons, New Haven Nighthawks, Binghamton Dusters and Springfield Kings of the AHL; Manchester Monarchs and Reading Royals in the ECHL; Long Beach Ice Dogs, Phoenix Roadrunners and Utah Grizzlies in the International Hockey League; and the Houston Apollos of the Central Hockey League." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Design and development.", "Operational history.", "First World War.", "Postwar operations.", "Survivors and reproductions.", "Reproductions." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "In April 1917, Herbert Smith, the chief designer of the Sopwith Company, began to design a fighter intended to be the replacement for Sopwith's most famous aeroplane, the successful Sopwith Camel. The resultant design, called Snipe by Sopwith, was in its initial form a single-bay biplane, slightly smaller than the Camel, and intended to be powered by similar engines. The pilot sat higher than in the Camel while the centre-section of the upper wing was uncovered, giving a better view from the cockpit. Armament was to be two Vickers machine guns. In the absence of an official order, Sopwith began construction of two prototypes as a private venture in September 1917. This took advantage of a licence that had been granted to allow construction of four Sopwith Rhino bomber prototypes, only two of which were built. The first prototype Snipe, powered by a Bentley AR.1 rotary engine was completed in October 1917. The second prototype was completed with the new, more powerful Bentley BR.2, engine, which gave in November 1917. This promised better performance, and prompted an official contract for six prototypes to be placed, including the two aircraft built as private ventures. The third prototype to fly, serial number \"B9965\", had modified wings, with a wider centre-section and a smaller cutout for the pilot, while the fuselage had a fully circular section, rather than the slab-sided one of the first two aircraft, and the tail was smaller. It was officially tested in December 1917, reaching a speed of 119 mph (192 km/h), and was then rebuilt with longer-span (30 ft (9.14 m)) two-bay wings (compared with the 25 ft 9 in (7.85 m) single bay wings). This allowed the Snipe to compete for Air Board Specification A.1(a) for a high-altitude single-seat fighter. This specification required a speed of at least 135 mph (225 km/h) at 15,000 ft (4,573 m) and a ceiling of at least 25,000 ft (7,620 m) while carrying an armament of two fixed and one swivelling machine gun. An oxygen supply and heated clothing were to be provided for the pilot to aid operation at high altitude. The Snipe was evaluated against three other fighter prototypes, all powered by the Bentley BR.2 engine: the Austin Osprey triplane, the Boulton & Paul Bobolink and the Nieuport B.N.1. While there was little difference in performance between the aircraft, the Sopwith was selected for production, with orders for 1,700 Snipes placed in March 1918. The Snipe's structure was heavier but much stronger than earlier Sopwith fighters. Although not a fast aircraft for 1918, it was very manoeuvrable, and much easier to handle than the Camel, with a superior view from the cockpit - especially forwards and upwards. The Snipe also had a superior rate of climb, and much better high-altitude performance compared with its predecessor, allowing it to fight Germany's newer fighters on more equal terms. Further modifications were made to the Snipe during the war and postwar. The Snipe was built around the Bentley BR2 engine - the last rotary to be used by the RAF. It had a maximum speed of 121 mph at 10,000 ft compared with the Camel's 115 mph (185 km/h) at the same altitude and an endurance of three hours. Its fixed armament consisted of two 0.303 in (7.7 mm) Vickers machine guns on the cowling, and it was also able to carry up to four 25 lb (11 kg) bombs for ground attack work, identical to the Camel's armament. The design allowed for a single Lewis gun to be mounted on the centre section in a similar manner to those carried by the Dolphin - in the event this was not fitted to production aircraft. The Snipe began production in 1918, with more than 4,500 being ordered. Production ended in 1919, with just under 500 being built, the rest being cancelled due to the end of the war. There was only one variant, the Snipe I, with production by several companies including Sopwith, Boulton & Paul Ltd, Coventry Ordnance Works, D. Napier & Son, Nieuport and Ruston, Proctor and Company. Two aircraft were re-engined with a 320 hp (239 kW) ABC Dragonfly radial engine and these entered production as the Sopwith Dragon. An armoured version entered production as the Sopwith Salamander.", "", "In March 1918, an example was evaluated by No.1 Aeroplane Supply Depot (No.1 ASD) at St-Omer in France. Lieutenant L. N. Hollinghurst (later an ace in Sopwith Dolphins, and an Air Chief Marshal) flew to 24,000 ft in 45 minutes. He stated that the aircraft was tail heavy and had \"a very poor rudder\", but that otherwise manoeuvrability was good. The first squadron to equip with the new fighter was No. 43 Squadron, based at Fienvillers in France, which replaced its Camels with 15 Snipes on 30 August 1918. After spending much of September training, it flew its first operational patrols equipped with the Snipe on 24 September. The Snipe also saw service with No. 4 Squadron Australian Flying Corps (AFC) from October 1918. While 43 Squadron's Snipes saw relatively little combat, the Australians had more success, claiming five victories on 26 October and six on 28 October, while on 29 October, 4 Squadron claimed eight Fokker D.VIIs destroyed and two more driven down out of control for the loss of one of 15 Snipes. No. 208 Squadron RAF converted from Camels in November, too late for the Snipes to see action. One of the most famous incidents in which the Snipe was involved occurred on 27 October 1918 when Canadian Major William G. Barker attached to No. 201 Squadron RAF flew over the Forêt de Mormal in France. Barker's Snipe (No. \"E8102\") had been brought with him for personal evaluation purposes in connection with his UK-based training duties and was therefore operationally a \"one-off\". The engagement with enemy aircraft occurred at the end of a two-week posting to renew his combat experience as Barker was returning to the UK. While on his last operation over the battlefields of France, Major Barker attacked a two-seater German aircraft and swiftly shot it down. However, Barker was soon attacked by a formation of at least 15 Fokker D.VIIs, an aircraft widely considered to be the best operational German fighter of the First World War. The ensuing melee was observed by many Allied troops. In the engagement, Barker was wounded three times, twice losing consciousness momentarily, but managing to shoot down at least three D.VIIs before making a forced landing on the Allied front lines. Barker was awarded the Victoria Cross for this action. The fuselage of this Snipe is preserved at the Canadian War Museum, Ottawa, Ontario.", "Following the Armistice with Germany that ended the First World War, Sopwith Snipes formed part of the British Army of Occupation, returning to the United Kingdom in August/September 1919, while Snipes replaced Camels in four home defence squadrons based in the United Kingdom. This force was quickly run down, however, and by the end of 1919, only a single squadron, No 80 was equipped with the Snipe. In 1919, the Snipe took part in the Allied intervention on the side of the White Russians during the Russian Civil War against the Bolsheviks, twelve Snipes being used by the RAF mission in north Russia. At least one of the RAF Snipes was captured by the Bolsheviks and pressed into service. Although the performance demonstrated by the Snipe was unimpressive (tests at Martlesham Heath in October 1918 had shown that the Snipe was inferior to the Martinsyde F.3 and Fokker D.VII), it was selected as the standard postwar single-seat fighter of the RAF almost by default, with the Martinsyde Buzzard development of the F.3 being 25 percent more expensive than the Snipe and relying on a French engine that was in short supply (the 300 hp Hispano-Suiza 8), while the range of fighters powered by the ABC Dragonfly radial engine did not come to fruition owing to failure of that engine. The last Snipes were retired by that service in 1926. The Canadian Air Force (CAF) operated the Snipe after the war, but it was phased out in 1923, a year before the Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) was formed.", "Two complete, original, Sopwith Snipes survive. \"E6938\" is displayed in the Canada Aviation and Space Museum in Ottawa. Formerly owned by film star Reginald Denny, it was restored in the 1960s. \"E8105\" is exhibited at the National Air And Space Museum in Washington, D.C. Previously, it had been at the Old Rhinebeck Aerodrome, in Rhinebeck, New York. It passed to the NASM after Cole Palen's death in December 1993. The fuselage (minus landing gear, engine and cowl) of Major William G. Barker's Snipe, \"E8102\" is on display at the Canadian War Museum, Ottawa.", "Antique Aero in California has completed construction of an airworthy, very detailed reproduction Sopwith Snipe. It awaits a new-build 230 h.p. Bentley B.R.2 engine. Another Snipe reproduction marked as \"E8102\" was built in New Zealand by The Vintage Aviator Ltd., and was subsequently purchased by Kermit Weeks for his Fantasy of Flight aviation museum in Polk City, Florida. This is airworthy and uses an original Bentley rotary engine. The RAF Museum in August 2012 took delivery of a static display reproduction of the Snipe. Marked \"E6655\", it was constructed in the Wellington workshops of The Vintage Aviator Ltd. in New Zealand. The inclusion of original, non-airworthy parts precludes this aircraft from flight status. The first reproduction was built by Richard Lincoln Day of Colonia, NJ. This Snipe, marked as \"E6837\", flew for one summer at the Old Rhinebeck Aerodrome, in Rhinebeck, NY before being purchased by Doug Champlin for his collection in Mesa, Arizona. This collection was later donated to the Museum of Flight in Seattle, Washington." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Performance history.", "Synopsis.", "Act 1.", "Act 2.", "Act 3.", "Other influences." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "\"La fanciulla del West\" was commissioned by, and first performed at, the Metropolitan Opera in New York on 10 December 1910 with Met stars Enrico Caruso and Emmy Destinn for whom Puccini created the leading roles of Dick Johnson and Minnie. However, after Puccini saw Gilda dalla Rizza as Minnie at the Opéra de Monte-Carlo in 1921, he remarked, \"At last I have seen my true Fanciulla.\" Also in the cast was Pasquale Amato as Jack Rance. The Met's music director Arturo Toscanini conducted. This was the first world premiere of an opera at the Met, and it was initially well received in the United States. However, it was never quite as popular in Europe, except perhaps in Germany. There it enjoyed a triumphant premiere at the Deutsches Opernhaus in Berlin (now known as the Deutsche Oper) in March 1913, under the musical direction of Ignatz Waghalter. Other premieres took place in London on 29 May 1911 at Covent Garden Theatre; in Rome on 12 June 1911 at the Teatro Costanzi; at the Teatro Colón, Buenos Aires on 25 July 1911; and in Melbourne on 11 June 1912 at Her Majesty's Theatre. A performance from April 11, 1966 was the very first performance at the current Lincoln Center home, at the time, was almost completed. It is presented from time to time, but is not performed nearly as often as Puccini's other mature operas. The Metropolitan Opera presented the work in its 2010/11 season to mark the work's 100th anniversary.", "", "\"Inside the Polka Saloon\" A group of Gold Rush miners enter the \"Polka\" saloon after a day working at the mine (\"Hello! Hello! Alla 'Polka'\"). After a song by traveling minstrel Jake Wallace (\"Che faranno i vecchi miei\"), one of the miners, Jim Larkens, is homesick and the miners collect enough money for his fare home (\"Jim, perché piangi?\"). A group of miners playing cards discover that Sid is cheating and want to attack him. Sheriff Jack Rance quiets the fight and pins two cards to Sid's jacket, as a sign of a cheat. A Wells Fargo agent, Ashby, enters and announces that he is chasing the bandit Ramerrez and his gang of Mexicans. Rance toasts Minnie, the woman who owns the saloon, as his future wife, which makes Sonora jealous. The two men begin to fight. Rance draws his revolver but at that moment, a shot rings out and Minnie stands next to the bar with a rifle in her hands (\"Hello, Minnie!\"). She gives the miners a reading lesson from the Bible (\"Dove eravamo?\"). The Pony Express rider arrives (\"La posta!\") and delivers a telegram from Nina Micheltorena, offering to reveal Ramerrez's hideout. The sheriff tells Minnie that he loves her, but Minnie puts him off as she is waiting for the right man (\"Ti voglio bene, Minnie\"). A stranger enters the saloon and asks for a whisky and water. He introduces himself as Dick Johnson from Sacramento, whom Minnie had met earlier. Johnson invites Minnie to dance with him and she accepts. Angrily, Rance watches them. Ashby returns with the captured Ramerrez gang member, Castro. Upon seeing his leader, Johnson, in the saloon, Castro agrees to lead Rance, Ashby and the miners in a search for Ramerrez, and the group then follows him on a false trail and in what turns out to be a wild goose chase. But before Castro leaves, he whispers to Johnson that somebody will whistle and Johnson must reply to confirm that the place is clear. A whistle is heard, but Johnson fails to reply. Minnie shows Johnson the keg of gold that she and the miners take turns to guard at night and Johnson reassures her that the gold will be safe there. Before he leaves the saloon, he promises to visit her at her cabin. They confess their love for each other. Minnie begins to cry, and Johnson comforts her before he leaves.", "\"Minnie's dwelling, later that evening\" Wowkle, a Native American woman who is Minnie's servant, her lover Billy Jackrabbit and their baby are present as Minnie enters, wanting to get ready for Johnson's visit. Johnson enters Minnie's cabin and she tells him all about her life. It begins to snow. They kiss and Minnie asks him to stay till morning. He denies knowing Nina Micheltorena. As Johnson hides, a posse enters looking for Ramerrez and reveal to Minnie that Johnson is the bandit Ramerrez himself. Angry, she orders Johnson to leave. After he leaves, Minnie hears a gunshot and she knows Johnson has been shot. Johnson staggers in and collapses, Minnie helps him by hiding him up in the loft. Rance enters Minnie's cabin looking for the bandit and is about to give up searching for Johnson when drops of blood fall on his hand. Rance forces Johnson to climb down. Minnie desperately makes Rance an offer: if she beats him at poker, he must let Johnson go free; if Rance wins, she will marry him. Hiding some cards in her stockings, Minnie cheats and wins. Rance honors the deal and Minnie throws herself on the unconscious Johnson on the floor.", "\"In the Great Californian Forest at dawn, sometime later\" Johnson is again on the run from Ashby and the miners. Nick and Rance are discussing Johnson and wonder what Minnie sees in him when Ashby arrives in triumph: Johnson has been captured. Rance and the miners all want Johnson to be hanged. Johnson accepts the sentence and only asks the miners not to tell Minnie about his capture and his fate (\"Ch'ella mi creda\"). Minnie arrives, armed with a pistol, just before the execution and throws herself in front of Johnson to protect him. While Rance tries to proceed, she convinces the miners that they owe her too much to kill the man she loves, and asks them to forgive him (\"Ah! Ah! E Minnie!\"). One by one, the miners yield to her plea (\"E anche tu lo vorrai, Joe\"). Rance is not happy but finally he too gives in. Sonora unties Johnson and sets him free. The miners bid Minnie farewell (\"Le tue parole sono di Dio\"). Minnie and Johnson leave California to start a new life together.", "The melody for Jake Wallace's song near the beginning of the first act is derived from two songs in a collection of Zuni melodies \"recorded and harmonized\" by ethnomusicologist Carlos Troyer, published in 1909. Puccini had obtained this publication in an effort to find authentic Native American music for the role of Wowkle, but he ended up using it for Jake Wallace instead. (Several books about Puccini repeat Mosco Carner's claim that the song is based on Stephen Foster's \"Old Dog Tray\"; it is not.) A climactic phrase sung by Johnson, \"E provai una gioia strana\" (alternatively \"Ho provato una gioia strana\" in some versions of the libretto) from \"Quello che tacete\" near the end of the first act, is widely cited to resemble to a similar phrase in the Phantom's song \"The Music of the Night\" in Andrew Lloyd Webber's 1986 musical \"The Phantom of the Opera\". The Puccini estate sued Lloyd Webber over copyright infringement and the matter was settled out of court. The opera was first portrayed in film in 1915 by famed director Cecil B. DeMille, and subsequently by directors Edwin Carewe in 1923, and John Francis Dillon, whose 1930 film was lost. A 1938 film directed by Robert Z. Leonard was based not on the opera but on the original play by Belasco, who wrote the screenplay; Sigmund Romberg wrote songs for this film. Other sources" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Start of a franchise (1993–1996).", "Paul Kariya era (1996–2003).", "Post-Kariya era, Selanne's return and franchise rebrand (2003–2007).", "Post-Stanley Cup, Bob Murray replaces Burke (2007–2010).", "Getzlaf and Perry era (2010–present).", "Team information.", "Name.", "Uniforms.", "Alternate uniforms.", "Colors and logos.", "Mascot.", "Rivalries.", "Season-by-season record.", "League and team honors.", "NHL awards and trophies.", "Retired numbers.", "Hall of Famers.", "Franchise scoring leaders.", "Franchise playoff scoring leaders.", "Broadcasters." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The Mighty Ducks of Anaheim were founded in 1993 by The Walt Disney Company. The franchise was awarded by the NHL in December 1992, along with the rights to a Miami team that would become the Florida Panthers. An entrance fee of $50 million was required, half of which Disney would pay directly to the Los Angeles Kings in order to \"share\" Southern California. On March 1, 1993, at the brand-new Anaheim Arena – located a short distance east of Disneyland and across the Orange Freeway from Angel Stadium – the team's name was announced. The team's name was inspired by the 1992 Disney film \"The Mighty Ducks\", about a struggling youth hockey team who, with the help of their new coach, become champions. Philadelphia-arena management specialist Tony Tavares was chosen to be team president, and Jack Ferreira, who previously helped create the San Jose Sharks, became the Ducks' general", "During the 1995–96 season, Paul Kariya was chosen to play for the Western Conference in the 1996 NHL All-Star Game as the lone Ducks representative. At the time of his selection, (January 1996), Kariya was ranked 14th in league scoring with 51 points (23 goals and 28 assists) over 42 games, although the Ducks were overall a low-scoring team. Then a mid-season blockbuster deal with the Winnipeg Jets improved the franchise. The Ducks sent Chad Kilger, Oleg Tverdovsky and a third-round pick to the Jets in return for Marc Chouinard, a fourth-round draft pick and right winger Teemu Selanne. Following the trade, Ducks center Steve Rucchin commented, \"Paul [Kariya] had a lot of pressure on him... He single-handedly won some games for us this year... Now that we have Teemu, there's no way everybody can just key on Paul.\" These three players formed one of the most potent lines of their time. Although the trade proved to be an important effort in the team, they still finished short of the playoffs, losing the eight spot in the Western Conference to the Winnipeg Jets based on the number of wins. During the 1996–97 season, Kariya became team captain following Randy Ladouceur's retirement in the off-season, and led the Ducks to their first post-season appearance after recording the franchise's first winning record of 36–33–13, good enough for home ice in the first", "After the season, Kariya promised to bring the Mighty Ducks back to the Stanley Cup Final the following year. However, Kariya left the Ducks in the summer and joined former teammate Teemu Selanne on the Colorado Avalanche. The 2003–04 season was a season to forget, as Jean-Sebastien Giguere could not repeat his stellar goaltending from the previous year. Even with newcomers Sergei Fedorov and Vaclav Prospal, the team finished in 12th place in the standings with a 29–35–10–8 record. Giguere's stats subsequently declined from the previous season, as he only won half the games he did the year before, his goals against average increased from 2.30 to 2.62, his save percentage went down from.914 to.907 and he went from eight shutouts recorded to just three. The team also went from 203 goals to 174. During the summer of 2004, as the NHL and the National Hockey League Players' Association (NHLPA)'s labor dispute was headed towards a long lockout, Disney tried to sell the team but received a low offer of US$40 million, less than the franchise's original price. In 2005, Broadcom Corporation co-founder Henry Samueli of Irvine, California, and his wife Susan bought the Mighty Ducks from The Walt Disney Company for a reported US$75 million. The Samuelis pledged to keep the team in Anaheim. Brian Burke, former Vancouver Canucks general manager and president, was appointed general manager and", "The Ducks began their title defense in the 2007–08 season without two fan favorites, Scott Niedermayer and Teemu Selanne, who were both contemplating retirement. To offset those losses, Burke signed forward Todd Bertuzzi and defenseman Mathieu Schneider. During the season, Burke put goaltender Ilya Bryzgalov on waivers, where he was picked-up by the Phoenix Coyotes. Free agent signee Jonas Hiller then became the back-up to starter Jean-Sebastien Giguere. Both Selanne and Niedermayer would ultimately return and the team finished with a 47–27–8 record, good enough to earn home ice advantage in the first", "The 2010–11 season did not begin well for the Ducks, who would lose their first three games. They maintained a.500 throughout record through the first half of the season, but would find their rhythm and finish 47–30–5, good for 99 points and fourth place in the Western Conference. Corey Perry and Jonas Hiller represented the Ducks at the All-Star Game, and Corey Perry went on to have a 50-goal, 98-point season, which won him the Maurice \"Rocket\" Richard Trophy and Hart Memorial Trophy. He became the first-ever Duck to win the Hart, as well as the first Richard winner as a Duck since Teemu Selanne won the award in 1999. However, Hiller was injured at the All-Star Game and missed the rest of the season. Even though the Ducks had a great season led by Perry, Hiller, Selanne, Visnovsky and Getzlaf, they would end up losing in the first round of the 2011 playoffs to the fifth-seeded Nashville Predators. Before the 2011–12 season began, the team mourned the loss of former Mighty Duck Ruslan Salei, who died in a plane crash with several other former NHL players of Kontinental Hockey League (KHL) club Lokomotiv Yaroslavl. The team wore a black patch with his former jersey number, 24, in current team numbering. The Ducks started the season with NHL", "", "Founded in 1993, the then-called Mighty Ducks of Anaheim were directly named for \"The Mighty Ducks\" movies. When", "The Ducks have officially worn three unique regular jerseys and five unique third jerseys in their franchise history. The original jerseys of the Ducks (then the Mighty Ducks) used jade green, purple, white and grey as primary colors for both the home and away jerseys. The team's dark jerseys were dominantly purple in color with diagonal gray and white stripes; the jersey is jade green below the stripes, which appear on the arms and waist, and the collar was jade and white. The white jerseys were similar, except that the purple is replaced mainly with white and the collar is completely purple in color. In 1996, shoulder patches were added to both jerseys featuring a forward-facing version of the main logo's \"duck mask\", surrounded by a circle reading \"Mighty Ducks of Anaheim\". The hockey pants also had a jade stripe on the sides that was eliminated after the Ducks' 2003 Stanley Cup run and heading into", "The third jerseys of the Ducks were created in 1995, 1997, 2003, 2010, 2015, 2018 and 2019. The 1995 jersey was jade green with purple and white stripes on the collar and on the end of the sleeves. The logo was of team mascot Wildwing wearing a Mighty Ducks jersey while breaking through a sheet of ice. The jersey was short-lived; as severe criticism encouraged management to retire the jersey at the end of the 1995–96 season. The 1997 third jersey came with a rare fourth jersey partner. The third was a jade green-colored jersey with silver and purple stripes at the shoulders outlined in thin", "The team's colors were purple and jade until the change of ownership in 2006. At this point, they became orange, black and gold, with white in place of black for the away jersey. The only exception is the alternate jersey, which is mostly orange. Orange, which has become one of the team's primary colors, is in reference to Orange County, where Anaheim is located. The Ducks' logo features a webbed foot forming a \"D\". The text itself is gold (which sometimes may appear as bronze as well) with orange and black accents (forming a three-dimensional appearance). The entire logo is in turn outlined by silver. This is shortened from a prior version that spelled out the word \"Ducks\" in all capital letters. The old logo of the Ducks prior to the name change featured an old-style goaltender mask, shaped to form the appearance of a duck bill. Behind the mask are two intersecting hockey sticks, a black hockey puck, and a triangle; the color of the triangle was either green or gray, depending on how the logo is used. This is now used on a shoulder patch of the current uniforms, with the triangle in orange.", "The official mascot for the Anaheim Ducks is an anthropomorphized duck by the name of Wild Wing. He has been the team's mascot since its inaugural season, and his name was chosen through fan voting. He wears a Ducks jersey with the number 93 on the back, referring to the year the Ducks became an NHL team. He regularly descends from the rafters of the arena when making his in-game entrances. In one such descent the rigging that lowered Wild Wing from the rafters malfunctioned leaving the mascot trapped fifty feet above the ice for several minutes. Another well known blunder occurred in October 1995 when Wild Wing, attempting to jump through a \"wall of fire\", accidentally tripped causing the mascot to land on the fire and set his costume ablaze.", "The Ducks have two rivalries with two teams out of geographical proximity. The Freeway Face-Off with the Los Angeles Kings as both teams arenas are accessible via Interstate 5 in California and the fact that both teams are", "\"This is a partial list of the last five seasons completed by the Ducks. For the full season-by-season history, see List of", "", "Stanley Cup Clarence S. Campbell Bowl Conn Smythe Trophy Hart Memorial Trophy William M. Jennings Trophy Lady", "The Anaheim Ducks currently have three retired numbers, Teemu Selanne's no. 8, which was retired on January 11, 2015, before a game against the Winnipeg Jets, Paul Kariya's no. 9, retired", "Former Ducks who have been", "These are the top-ten point-scorers in franchise history. Figures are updated after each completed NHL regular", "These are the top-ten playoff point-scorers in franchise playoff history. Figures are updated after each completed NHL season.", "Past announcers include Matt McConnell (who was the radio play-by-play announcer from 1993-1996), Charlie Simmer (who was the radio analyst alongside McConnell from 1993–96), Brian Hamilton (who was the radio play-by-play announcer from 1996-99), Pat Conacher (who was the radio analyst from 1996-97), Darren Eliot (who was the radio analyst alongside Hamilton from 1996-99), Mike Greenlay (who was the radio analyst from 1999-01), Brent Severyn (who became the radio analyst beginning in 2005), and Chris Madsen (who was the television play-by-play announcer from 1993-02). Television broadcasts are on Fox Sports West or Prime Ticket, as well as KCOP for scheduling conflicts. Radio broadcasts are on KLAA AM 830. Local air broadcasts were formerly on KDOC-TV. Disney planned to start an ESPN West regional sports network for the 1998–99 season, which would also carry Anaheim Angels baseball games, but the plan was abandoned." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Middle Ages.", "Modern times.", "Geography.", "Climate.", "Districts.", "Main sights.", "Culture.", "Sports.", "Education and scientific research.", "Economy and infrastructure.", "Statistics.", "Notable companies.", "Transport.", "International relations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Kiel Fjord and the village of Kiel was probably the last settled by Vikings who wanted to colonise the land that they had raided, and for many years they settled in German villages. This is evidenced by the geography and architecture of the fjord. The city of Kiel was founded in 1233 as \"Holstenstadt tom Kyle\" by Count Adolf IV of Holstein, and granted Lübeck city rights in 1242 by Adolf's eldest son, John I of Schauenburg. Being a part of Holstein, Kiel belonged to the Holy Roman Empire and was situated only a few kilometres south of the Danish border. Kiel, the capital of the county (later duchy) of Holstein, was a member of the Hanseatic League from 1284 until it was expelled in 1518 for harbouring pirates. In 1431, the \"Kieler Umschlag\" (trade fair) was first held, which became the central market for goods and money in Schleswig-Holstein, until it began to lose significance from 1850 on, being held for the last time in 1900, until recently, when it has been restarted.", "The University of Kiel was founded on 29 September 1665 by Christian Albert, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp. A number of important scholars, including Theodor Mommsen, Felix Jacoby, Hans Geiger and Max Planck, studied or taught there. From 1773 to 1864, the town belonged to the king of Denmark. However, because the king ruled Holstein as a fief of the Holy Roman Empire only through a personal union, the town was not incorporated as part of Denmark proper. Thus Kiel belonged to Germany, but it was ruled by the Danish king. Even though the empire was abolished in 1806, the Danish king continued to rule Kiel only through his position as Duke of Holstein, which became a member of the German Confederation in 1815. When Schleswig and Holstein rebelled against Denmark in 1848 (the First Schleswig War), Kiel became the capital of Schleswig-Holstein until the Danish victory in 1850. During the Second Schleswig War in 1864, Kiel and the rest of the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein were conquered by a German Confederation alliance of the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia. After the war, Kiel was briefly administered by both the Austrians and the Prussians, but the Austro-Prussian War in 1866 led to the formation of the Province of Schleswig-Holstein and the annexation of Kiel by Prussia in 1867. On 24 March 1865 King William I based Prussia's Baltic Sea fleet in Kiel instead of Danzig (Gdańsk). The Imperial shipyard Kiel was established in 1867 in the town. When William I of Prussia became Emperor William I of the German Empire in 1871, he designated Kiel and Wilhelmshaven as \"Reichskriegshäfen\" (\"Imperial War Harbours\"). The prestigious Kiel Yacht Club was established in 1887 with Prince Henry of Prussia as its patron. Emperor Wilhelm II became its commodore in 1891. Because of its new role as Germany's main naval base, Kiel very quickly increased in size in the following years, from 18,770 in 1864 to about 200,000 in 1910. Much of the old town centre and other surroundings were levelled and redeveloped to provide for the growing city. The Kiel tramway network, opened in 1881, had been enlarged to 10 lines, with a total route length of, before the end of the First World War. Kiel was the site of the sailors' mutiny which sparked the German Revolution in late 1918. Just before the end of the First World War, the German fleet stationed at Kiel was ordered to be sent out on a last great battle with the Royal Navy. The sailors, who thought of this as a suicide mission which would have no effect on the outcome of the war, decided they had nothing to lose and refused to leave the safety of the port. The sailors' actions and the lack of response of the government to them, fuelled by an increasingly critical view of the Kaiser, sparked a revolution which caused the abolition of the monarchy and the creation of the Weimar Republic. During the Second World War, Kiel remained one of the major naval bases and shipbuilding centres of the German Reich. There was also a slave labour camp for the local industry. Because of its status as a naval port and as production site for submarines, Kiel was heavily bombed by the Allies during this period. The bombing destroyed more than 80% of the remaining old town, 72% of the central residential areas, and 83% of the industrial areas. During the RAF bombing of 23/24 July 1944, Luftwaffe fighters tried to intercept the spoof (i.e. decoy) force instead of the main force attacking Kiel, and there was no water for three days; trains and buses did not run for eight days and there was no gas available for cooking for three weeks. There were several bombing raids of the port area during the period 20 February – 20 April 1945 which successfully eliminated many U-Boats, and the few large warships (cruisers Hipper, Scheer, and Köln) still afloat at that time. Although the town was beyond the stop-line set for the western Allies in the German surrender at Lüneburg Heath, it and its port, its scientists, and the canal were seized by a British T-Force led by Major Tony Hibbert on 5 May 1945. This forestalled capture of the town by the Soviets, whom the Allies expected to advance from Germany to Denmark in violation of the Yalta agreement. Like other heavily bombed German cities, the city was rebuilt after the war. In 1946, Kiel was named the seat of government for Schleswig-Holstein, and it officially became the state's capital in 1952. Today, Kiel is once again an important maritime centre of Germany, with high-tech shipbuilding, submarine construction and one of the three leading institutions in the field of marine sciences in Europe, the IFM-GEOMAR. Regular ferries to Scandinavia and Lithuania, as well as the largest sailing event in the world called the Kiel Week (Kieler Woche) in German and The Kiel Regatta in English. The \"Kieler Umschlag\" is another festival, which has been taking place again since 1975. Kiel is also home to a large service sector and a number of research institutions including the University of Kiel, which is the oldest, largest, and most prestigious university in the state.", "", "Kiel has an oceanic climate (\"Cfb\" in the Köppen climate classification).", "The city districts of Düsternbrook, Schreventeich, Ravensberg and Blücherplatz are popular places to live with many 19th century buildings, villas and tree-lined streets. The government offices, ministries and parliament of the state of Schleswig-Holstein are also mainly based in these neighbourhoods, particularly Düsternbrook. In contrast to the heavy bomb damage inflicted on the central parts of the city during the Second World War, most of the residential areas were not severely damaged. Hence, Kiel's more modern-style inner city and Kiel's more historic/elaborate residential areas stand in architectural contrast to one another. There are plans for large-scale improvement and building efforts for the inner city, providing better pavements, better access to and view of the waterfront, and a generally more attractive feel to the place. These plans, most notably the \"Kleiner Kiel Kanal\", a restoration of a historic canal that was filled in to make place for road infrastructure, are to be implemented in the next few years. The largest groups of foreign residents by 31.12.2018 are listed below :", "The oldest building in the city is the 13th century \"Church of St. Nicholas, which has a sculpture by Ernst Barlach in front of it called \"Geistkämpfer\". Kiel is Schleswig-Holstein's largest city, and therefore Kiel's shopping district is a major attraction, and will see further improvement and renovation efforts in the upcoming years. Kiel's \"Holstenstraße\" (Holsten Street) is one of the longest shopping streets in Germany. The \"Rathaus\" (Town Hall), which was built in 1911, has an operating paternoster lift and the design of its tower was based on one in Venice. The square in front of it is bordered by a lake and the Opera House. There are also a number of lakes and parks in the city centre, e.g. Schrevenpark (Schreven Park). There are two botanical gardens, the Old Botanical Garden and New Botanical Garden. As Kiel is situated near the sea, the beaches to the north of Kiel such as Strande, Kiel-Schilksee, Möltenort and Laboe are also popular places to visit in spring and summer. Kiel Week, more properly known in English as Kiel Regatta, is the largest sailing event in the world and takes place every year in the last full week in June. Many thousands of boats and ships of all kinds and eras take part in the parade. Kiel Week is also a festival, \"Volksfest\" and fair as well as a maritime event. There are a number of yachting and sailing clubs in picturesque settings. Kiel also features a number of museums, including zoological, geological, historical, fine art, industrial and military museums. Notable is the Stadt- und Schifffahrtsmuseum Warleberger Hof (City and Maritime Museum), which belongs to the association \"museen am meer\". In addition to preserving architecture from the 16th century and historic rooms with painted stucco ceilings, it displays urban and cultural exhibits of the 19th and 20th centuries. Particularly intriguing is the history of the carnival in Kiel. The Schifffahrtsmuseum is in the former fish market building in the harbour. Laboe is home to the Laboe Naval Memorial, as well as the Second World War submarine, which are popular tourist sites.", "", "There are a number of sports venues in Kiel, most notably the Sparkassen-Arena (formerly known as Baltic Sea Hall or \"Ostseehalle\"), which is the home ground of one of the most successful team handball clubs in the world and multiple German champion, THW Kiel. There is currently no Bundesliga football club in Kiel, but 2. Bundesliga side Holstein Kiel plays at Holstein-Stadion.", "The University of Kiel (German: Christian-Albrechts-Universität), which was founded by Duke Christian Albrecht in 1665, is with round about 25.000 students the only full university of Schleswig-Holstein. Independent, but partly linked to the University Kiel are other research facilities such as the German National Library of Economics – Leibniz Informationcenter for Economy, the Kiel Institute for the World Economy, the GEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research Kiel and the research institute of the Bundeswehr for water sound and geophysics. Besides these there are other educational institutions such as the Fachhochschule Kiel (founded in 1969) and the Muthesius School of Arts (founded in 1907). The projects Murmann School of Global Management and Economics and Multimedia Campus Kiel weren't successful at last. The Wirtschaftsakademie Schleswig-Holstein offers besides advanced training at the Berfusakademie dual study courses for economists, business information specialists and industrial engineers. Noteworthy as departmental research institute is the federal institute for dairy research which was merged into the Max-Rubner-Institut together with other institutions in 2004. The state capital Kiel is a corporative sponsoring member of the Max Planck Society. The ARGE-SH as eldest building research institution of the republic of Germany has its headquarters in Kiel. There are twelve Gymnasiums in Kiel, of which the Kieler Gelehrtenschule, founded in 1320 as a humanistic gymnasium, is the oldest. Other secondary schools are amongst others the Gymnasium Elmschenhagen and the Max-Planck-Schule with a focus on natural sciences. Furthermore, there are many comprehensive schools – partially with secondary schools – all over the city area and private schools, too.", "Kiel's economy is dominated by the service sector, transport and maritime industries. Kiel is also one of the major ports of the German Navy, and a leading centre of German high-tech military and civil shipbuilding. Kiel is the home of Howaldtswerke-Deutsche Werft, a shipyard founded in 1838 famed for its construction of submarines. HDW built the first German submarine \"Brandtaucher\" in 1850, and is today a subsidiary of ThyssenKrupp Marine Systems, the leading German group of shipyards.", "In 2005, the GDP per person was €35,618, which is well above the national average of Germany and 159% of the European Union average.", "Some of the most notable companies having branches or their headquarters in Kiel are: Ferry operators Military contractors Engineering and industrial machinery Others Kiel is also home to several insurances and banks, most notably the HSH Nordbank, Provinzial NordWest, Förde Sparkasse, Kieler Volksbank eG and Evangelischen Bank eG. There is also an active startup scene in Kiel with startup accelerator StarterKitchen and startups like SciEngines GmbH, Real-Eyes, myBoo, SealMedia, Cliplister, Druckpreis.DE, promotionbasis.de, Yoosello, GetAnEdge, Flowy Apps, fraguru, lokalportal, PianoMotion and ubique art. Kiel is home to several media companies, including a branch of the Norddeutscher Rundfunk producing one radio channel and several local programmes in Kiel, a station of the British Forces Broadcasting Service, the daily newspaper Kieler Nachrichten and several smaller local radio channels and magazines.", "Kiel is situated near an important pan-European motorway, the A7, which connects northern Europe with central and southern Europe. The central railway station, Kiel Hauptbahnhof, has hourly trains to Hamburg, Lübeck, Flensburg, and Husum. The \"Intercity Express\" (ICE) connects Kiel with Berlin, Frankfurt, Cologne and Munich. There are 8 regional railway stations within the city proper, which are connected with each other, the main railway station Kiel Hbf and other stations by regional trains, which can be used within the boundaries of the city with a normal bus ticket. The city's bus service is provided by local company KVG. Autokraft and Verkehrsbetriebe Kreis Plön providing regional bus service, and the Schlepp- und Fährgesellschaft Kiel provides public transport on the fjord with ferries. The Port of Kiel is a significant port for passenger and cargo shipping from Germany to Scandinavia, the Baltic States and Russia. Passenger ferries operate to and from Gothenburg in Sweden (Stena Line, 13 hours, daily), Oslo in Norway (Color Line, 19 hours, daily), and Klaipėda in Lithuania (DFDS Lisco, 21 hours, 6 times per week). Cargo ferries operate from and to Saint Petersburg in Russia (DFDS Lisco, twice a week), and Kaliningrad in Russia (NSA, once a week). The nearest international airport is Hamburg Airport, which is situated approximately to the south of Kiel. There is a shuttle bus service (\"KIELIUS\") operating between Hamburg Airport and Kiel central railway station. There is also an airport at Lübeck.", "Kiel is twinned with:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Origin of the term.", "Characteristics.", "Differences between Baroque and Rococo.", "France.", "Italy.", "Southern Germany.", "Britain.", "Russia.", "Decline and end.", "Furniture and decoration.", "Painting.", "Sculpture.", "Porcelain.", "Music.", "Fashion." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The word \"rococo\" was first used as a humorous variation of the word \"rocaille\". Rocaille was originally a method of decoration, using pebbles, seashells and cement, which was often used to decorate grottoes and fountains since the Renaissance. In the late 17th and early 18th century rocaille became the term for a kind of decorative motif or ornament that appeared in the late Style Louis XIV, in the form of a seashell interlaced with acanthus leaves. In 1736 the designer and jeweler Jean Mondon published the \"Premier Livre de forme rocquaille et cartel\", a collection of designs for ornaments of furniture and interior decoration. It was the first appearance in print of the term \"rocaille\" to designate the style. The carved or molded seashell motif was combined with palm leaves or twisting vines to decorate doorways, furniture, wall panels and other architectural elements. The term rococo was first used in print in 1825 to describe decoration which was \"out of style and old-fashioned.\" It was used in 1828 for decoration \"which belonged to the style of the 18th century, overloaded with twisting ornaments.\" In 1829 the author Stendhal described rococo as \"the rocaille style of the 18th century.\" In the 19th century, the term was used to describe architecture or music which was excessively ornamental. Since the mid-19th century, the term has been accepted by art historians. While there is still some debate about the historical significance of the style, Rococo is now often considered as a distinct period in the development of European art.", "Rococo features exuberant decoration, with an abundance of curves, counter-curves, undulations and elements modeled on nature. The exteriors of Rococo buildings are often simple, while the interiors are entirely dominated by their ornament. The style was highly theatrical, designed to impress and awe at first sight. Floor plans of churches were often complex, featuring interlocking ovals; In palaces, grand stairways became centrepieces, and offered different points of view of the decoration. The main ornaments of Rococo are: asymmetrical shells, acanthus and other leaves, birds, bouquets of flowers, fruits, musical instruments, angels and Far Eastern elements (pagodas, dragons, monkeys, bizarre flowers and Chinese people). The style often integrated painting, molded stucco, and wood carving, and \"quadratura\", or illusionist ceiling paintings, which were designed to give the impression that those entering the room were looking up at the sky, where cherubs and other figures were gazing down at them. Materials used included stucco, either painted or left white; combinations of different colored woods (usually oak, beech or walnut); lacquered wood in the Japanese style, ornament of gilded bronze, and marble tops of commodes or tables. The intent was to create an impression of surprise, awe and wonder on first view.", "The following are characteristics that Rococo has, and Baroque does not:", "The \"Rocaille\" style, or French Rococo, appeared in Paris during the reign of Louis XV, and flourished between about 1723 and 1759. The style was used particularly in salons, a new style of room designed to impress and entertain guests. The most prominent example was the salon of the Princess in Hôtel de Soubise in Paris, designed by Germain Boffrand and Charles-Joseph Natoire (1735–40). The characteristics of French Rococo included exceptional artistry, especially in the complex frames made for mirrors and paintings, which were sculpted in plaster and often gilded; and the use of vegetal forms (vines, leaves, flowers) intertwined in complex designs. The furniture also featured sinuous curves and vegetal designs. The leading furniture designers and craftsmen in the style included Juste-Aurele Meissonier, Charles Cressent, and Nicolas Pineau. The Rocaille style lasted in France until the mid-18th century, and while it became more curving and vegetal, it never achieved the extravagant exuberance of the Rococo in Bavaria, Austria and Italy. The discoveries of Roman antiquities beginning in 1738 at Herculanum and especially at Pompeii in 1748 turned French architecture in the direction of the more symmetrical and less flamboyant neo-classicism.", "Artists in Italy, particularly Venice, also produced an exuberant rococo style. Venetian commodes imitated the curving lines and carved ornament of the French rocaille, but with a particular Venetian variation; the pieces were painted, often with landscapes or flowers or scenes from Guardi or other painters, or Chinoiserie, against a blue or green background, matching the colours of the Venetian school of painters whose work decorated the salons. Notable decorative painters included Giovanni Battista Tiepolo, who painted ceilings and murals of both churches and palazzos, and Giovanni Battista Crosato who painted the ballroom ceiling of the Ca Rezzonico in the quadraturo manner, giving the illusion of three dimensions. Tiepelo travelled to Germany with his son during 1752–1754, decorating the ceilings of the Würzburg Residence, one of the major landmarks of the Bavarian rococo. An earlier celebrated Venetian painter was Giovanni Battista Piazzetta, who painted several notable church ceilings. The Venetian Rococo also featured exceptional glassware, particularly Murano glass, often engraved and coloured, which was exported across Europe. Works included multicolour chandeliers and mirrors with extremely ornate frames.", "The Rococo decorative style reached its summit in southern Germany and Austria from the 1730s until the 1770s. It was first introduced from France through the publications and works of French architects and decorators, including the sculptor Claude III Audran, the interior designer Gilles-Marie Oppenordt, the architect Germain Boffrand, the sculptor Jean Mondon, and the draftsman and engraver Pierre Lepautre. Their work had an important influence on the German Rococo style. German architects adapted the Rococo style but made it far more asymmetric and loaded with more ornate decoration than the French original. The German style was characterized by an explosion of forms that cascaded down the walls. It featured molding formed into curves and counter-curves, twisting and turning patterns, ceilings and walls with no right angles, and stucco foliage which seemed to be creeping up the walls and across the ceiling. The decoration was often gilded or silvered to give it contrast with the white or pale pastel walls. The Belgian-born architect and designer François de Cuvilliés was one of the first to create a Rococo building in Germany, with the pavilion of Amalienburg in Munich, (1734-1739), inspired by the pavilions of the Trianon and Marly in France. It was built as a hunting lodge, with a platform on the roof for shooting pheasants. The Hall of Mirrors in the interior, by the painter and stucco sculptor Johann Baptist Zimmermann, was far more exuberant than any French Rococo. Another notable example of the early German Rococo is Würzburg Residence (1737–1744) constructed for the Prince-Bishop of Wurzburg by Balthasar Neumann. Neumann had traveled to Paris and consulted with the French rocaille decorative artists Germain Boffrand and Robert de Cotte. While the exterior was in more sober Baroque style, the interior, particularly the stairways and ceilings, was much lighter and decorative. The Prince-Bishop imported the Italian Rococo painter Giovanni Battista Tiepolo in 1750–53 to create a mural over the top of the three-level ceremonial stairway. Neumann described the interior of the residence as \"a theater of light\". The stairway was also the central element in a residence Neumann built at the Augustusburg Palace in Brühl (1743–1748). In that building the stairway led the visitors up through a stucco fantasy of paintings, sculpture, ironwork and decoration, with surprising views at every turn. In the 1740s and 1750s, a number of notable pilgrimage churches were constructed in Bavaria, with interiors decorated in a distinctive variant of the rococo style. One of the most notable examples is the Wieskirche (1745–1754) designed by Dominikus Zimmermann. Like most of the Bavarian pilgrimage churches, the exterior is very simple, with pastel walls, and little ornament. Entering the church the visitor encounters an astonishing theater of movement and light. It features an oval-shaped sanctuary, and a deambulatory in the same form, filling in the church with light from all sides. The white walls contrasted with columns of blue and pink stucco in the choir, and the domed ceiling surrounded by plaster angels below a dome representing the heavens crowded with colorful Biblical figures. Other notable pilgrimage churches include the Basilica of the Fourteen Holy Helpers by Balthasar Neumann (1743–1772). Johann Michael Fischer was the architect of Ottobeuren Abbey (1748–1766), another Bavarian Rococo landmark. The church features, like much of the rococo architecture in Germany, a remarkable contrast between the regularity of the facade and the overabundance of decoration in the interior.", "In Great Britain, rococo was called the \"French taste\" and had less influence on design and the decorative arts than in continental Europe, although its influence was felt in such areas as silverwork, porcelain, and silks. William Hogarth helped develop a theoretical foundation for Rococo beauty. Though not mentioning rococo by name, he argued in his \"Analysis of Beauty\" (1753) that the undulating lines and S-curves prominent in Rococo were the basis for grace and beauty in art or nature (unlike the straight line or the circle in Classicism). Rococo was slow in arriving in England. Before entering the Rococo, British furniture for a time followed the neoclassical Palladian model under designer William Kent, who designed for Lord Burlington and other important patrons of the arts. Kent travelled to Italy with Lord Burlington between 1712 and 1720, and brought back many models and ideas from Palladio. He designed the furniture for Hampton Court Palace (1732), Lord Burlington's Chiswick House (1729), London, Thomas Coke's Holkham Hall, Norfolk, Robert Walpole's pile at Houghton, for Devonshire House in London, and at Rousham. Mahogany made its appearance in England in about 1720, and immediately became popular for furniture, along with walnut wood. The Rococo began to make an appearance in England between 1740 and 1750. The furniture of Thomas Chippendale was the closest to the Rococo style, In 1754 he published \"Gentleman's and Cabinet-makers' directory\", a catalog of designs for rococo, \"chinoiserie\" and even Gothic furniture, which achieved wide popularity, going through three editions. Unlike French designers, Chippendale did not employ marquetry or inlays in his furniture. The predominant designer of inlaid furniture were Vile and Cob, the cabinet-makers for King George III. Another important figure in British furniture was Thomas Johnson, who in 1761, very late in the period, published a catalog of Rococo furniture designs. These include furnishings based on rather fantastic Chinese and Indian motifs, including a canopy bed crowned by a Chinese pagoda (now in the Victoria and Albert Museum). Other notable figures in the British Rococo included the silversmith Charles Friedrich Kandler.", "The Russian Empress Catherine the Great was another admirer of the Rococo; The Golden Cabinet of the Chinese Palace in the palace complex of Oranienbaum near Saint Petersburg, designed by the Italian Antonio Rinaldi, is an example of the Russian Rococo.", "The art of Boucher and other painters of the period, with its emphasis on decorative mythology and gallantry, soon inspired a reaction, and a demand for more \"noble\" themes. While the Rococo continued in Germany and Austria, the French Academy in Rome began to teach the classic style. This was confirmed by the nomination of De Troy as director of the Academy in 1738, and then in 1751 by Charles-Joseph Natoire. Madame de Pompadour, the mistress of Louis XV contributed to the decline of the Rococo style. In 1750 she sent her brother, Abel-François Poisson de Vandières, on a two-year mission to study artistic and archeological developments in Italy. He was accompanied by several artists, including the engraver Charles-Nicolas Cochin and the architect Soufflot. They returned to Paris with a passion for classical art. Vandiéres became the Marquis of Marigny, and was named director general of the King's Buildings. He turned official French architecture toward the neoclassical. Cochin became an important art critic; he denounced the \"petit style\" of Boucher, and called for a grand style with a new emphasis on antiquity and nobility in the academies of painting and architecture. The beginning of the end for Rococo came in the early 1760s as figures like Voltaire and Jacques-François Blondel began to voice their criticism of the superficiality and degeneracy of the art. Blondel decried the \"ridiculous jumble of shells, dragons, reeds, palm-trees and plants\" in contemporary interiors. By 1785, Rococo had passed out of fashion in France, replaced by the order and seriousness of Neoclassical artists like Jacques-Louis David. In Germany, late 18th-century Rococo was ridiculed as \"Zopf und Perücke\" (\"pigtail and periwig\"), and this phase is sometimes referred to as \"Zopfstil\". Rococo remained popular in certain German provincial states and in Italy, until the second phase of neoclassicism, \"Empire style\", arrived with Napoleonic governments and swept Rococo away.", "The ornamental style called \"rocaille\" emerged in France between 1710 and 1750, mostly during the regency and reign of Louis XV; the style was also called \"Louis Quinze\". Its principal characteristics were picturesque detail, curves and counter-curves, asymmetry, and a theatrical exuberance. On the walls of new Paris salons, the twisting and winding designs, usually made of gilded or painted stucco, wound around the doorways and mirrors like vines. One of the earliest examples was the Hôtel Soubise in Paris (1704–05), with its famous oval salon decorated with paintings by Boucher, and Charles-Joseph Natoire. The best known French furniture designer of the period was Juste-Aurèle Meissonnier (1695–1750), who was also a sculptor, painter. and goldsmith for the royal household. He held the title of official designer to the Chamber and Cabinet of Louis XV. His work is well known today because of the enormous number of engravings made of his work which popularized the style throughout Europe. He designed works for the royal families of Poland and Portugal. Italy was another place where the Rococo flourished, both in its early and later phases. Craftsmen in Rome, Milan and Venice all produced lavishly decorated furniture and decorative items. The sculpted decoration included fleurettes, palmettes, seashells, and foliage, carved in wood. The most extravagant rocaille forms were found in the consoles, tables designed to stand against walls. The Commodes, or chests, which had first appeared under Louis XIV, were richly decorated with rocaille ornament made of gilded bronze. They were made by master craftsmen including Jean-Pierre Latz and also featured marquetry of different-coloured woods, sometimes placed in checkerboard cubic patterns, made with light and dark woods. The period also saw the arrival of Chinoiserie, often in the form of lacquered and gilded commodes, called \"falcon de Chine\" of \"Vernis Martin\", after the ebenist who introduced the technique to France. Ormolu, or gilded bronze, was used by master craftsmen including Jean-Pierre Latz. Latz made a particularly ornate clock mounted atop a cartonnier for Frederick the Great for his palace in Potsdam. Pieces of imported Chinese porcelain were often mounted in ormolu (gilded bronze) rococo settings for display on tables or consoles in salons. Other craftsmen imitated the Japanese art of lacquered furniture, and produced commodes with Japanese motifs. British Rococo tended to be more restrained. Thomas Chippendale's furniture designs kept the curves and feel, but stopped short of the French heights of whimsy. The most successful exponent of British Rococo was probably Thomas Johnson, a gifted carver and furniture designer working in London in the mid-18th century.", "Elements of the \"Rocaille\" style appeared in the work of some French painters, including a taste for the picturesque in details; curves and counter-curves; and dissymmetry which replaced the movement of the baroque with exuberance, though the French \"rocaille\" never reached the extravagance of the Germanic rococo. The leading proponent was Antoine Watteau, particularly in \"Pilgrimage on the Isle of Cythera\" (1717), Louvre, in a genre called \"Fête Galante\" depicting scenes of young nobles gathered together to celebrate in a pastoral setting. Watteau died in 1721 at the age of thirty-seven, but his work continued to have influence through the rest of the century. The \"Pilgrimage to Cythera\" painting was purchased by Frederick the Great of Prussia in 1752 or 1765 to decorate his palace of Charlottenberg in Berlin. The successor of Watteau and the \"Féte Galante\" in decorative painting was François Boucher (1703–1770), the favorite painter of Madame de Pompadour. His work included the sensual \"Toilette de Venus\" (1746), which became one of the best known examples of the style. Boucher participated in all of the genres of the time, designing tapestries, models for porcelain sculpture, set decorations for the Paris opera and \"opera-comique\", and decor for the Fair of Saint-Laurent. Other important painters of the \"Fête Galante\" style included Nicolas Lancret and Jean-Baptiste Pater. The style particularly influenced François Lemoyne, who painted the lavish decoration of the ceiling of the Salon of Hercules at the Palace of Versailles, completed in 1735. Paintings with fétes gallant and mythological themes by Boucher, Pierre-Charles Trémolières and Charles-Joseph Natoire decorated the famous salon of the Hôtel Soubise in Paris (1735–40). Other Rococo painters include: Jean François de Troy (1679–1752), Jean-Baptiste van Loo (1685–1745), his two sons Louis-Michel van Loo (1707–1771) and Charles-Amédée-Philippe van Loo (1719–1795), his younger brother Charles-André van Loo (1705–1765), and Nicolas Lancret (1690–1743). In Austria and Southern Germany, Italian painting had the largest effect on the Rococo style. The Venetian painter Giovanni Battista Tiepolo, assisted by his son, Giovanni Domenico Tiepolo, was invited to paint frescoes for the Würzburg Residence (1720–1744). The most prominent painter of Bavarian rococo churches was Johann Baptist Zimmermann, who painted the ceiling of the Wieskirche (1745–1754).", "Rococo sculpture was theatrical, colorful and dynamic, giving a sense of movement in every direction. It was most commonly found in the interiors of churches, usually closely integrated with painting and the architecture. Religious sculpture followed the Italian baroque style, as exemplified in the theatrical altarpiece of the Karlskirche in Vienna. Early Rococo or Rocaille sculpture in France sculpture was lighter and offered more movement than the classical style of Louis XIV. It was encouraged in particular by Madame de Pompadour, mistress of Louis XV, who commissioned many works for her chateaux and gardens. The sculptor Edmé Bouchardon represented Cupid engaged in carving his darts of love from the club of Hercules. Rococo figures also crowded the later fountains at Versailles, such as the Fountain of Neptune by Lambert-Sigisbert Adam and Nicolas-Sebastien Adam (1740). Based on their success at Versailles, they were invited to Prussia by Frederick the Great to create fountain sculpture for Sanssouci Palace, Prussia (1740s). Étienne-Maurice Falconet (1716–1791) was another leading French sculptor during the period. Falconet was most famous for his statue of Peter the Great on horseback in St. Petersburg, but he also created a series of smaller works for wealthy collectors, which could be reproduced in a series in terra-cotta or cast in bronze. The French sculptors, Jean-Louis Lemoyne, Jean-Baptiste Lemoyne, Louis-Simon Boizot, Michel Clodion, Lambert-Sigisbert Adam and Jean-Baptiste Pigalle all produced sculpture in series for collectors. In Italy, Antonio Corradini was among the leading sculptors of the Rococo style. A Venetian, he travelled around Europe, working for Peter the Great in St. Petersburg, for the imperial courts in Austria and Naples. He preferred sentimental themes and made several skilled works of women with faces covered by veils, one of which is now in the Louvre. The most elaborate examples of rococo sculpture were found in Spain, Austria and southern Germany, in the decoration of palaces and churches. The sculpture was closely integrated with the architecture; it was impossible to know where one stopped and the other began. In the Belvedere Palace in Vienna, (1721-1722), the vaulted ceiling of the Hall of the Atlantes is held up on the shoulders of muscular figures designed by Johann Lukas von Hildebrandt. The portal of the Palace of the Marquis of Dos Aguas in Valencia (1715-1776) was completely drenched in sculpture carved in marble, from designs by Hipolito Rovira Brocandel. The \"El Transparente\" altar, in the major chapel of Toledo Cathedral is a towering sculpture of polychrome marble and gilded stucco, combined with paintings, statues and symbols. It was made by Narciso Tomé (1721–32), Its design allows light to pass through, and in changing light it seems to move.", "A new form of small-scale sculpture appeared, the porcelain figure, or small group of figures, initially replacing sugar sculptures on grand dining room tables, but soon popular for placing on mantelpieces and furniture. The number of European factories grew steadily through the century, and some made porcelain that the expanding middle classes could afford. The amount of colourful overglaze decoration used on them also increased. They were usually modelled by artists who had trained in sculpture. Common subjects included figures from the commedia dell'arte, city street vendors, lovers and figures in fashionable clothes, and pairs of birds. Johann Joachim Kändler was the most important modeller of Meissen porcelain, the earliest European factory, which remained the most important until about 1760. The Swiss-born German sculptor Franz Anton Bustelli produced a wide variety of colourful figures for the Nymphenburg Porcelain Manufactory in Bavaria, which were sold throughout Europe. The French sculptor Étienne-Maurice Falconet (1716–1791) followed this example. While also making large-scale works, he became director of the Sevres Porcelain manufactory and produced small-scale works, usually about love and gaiety, for production in series.", "A Rococo period existed in music history, although it is not as well known as the earlier Baroque and later Classical forms. The Rococo music style itself developed out of baroque music both in France, where the new style was referred to as \"style galant\" (\"gallant\" or \"elegant\" style), and in Germany, where it was referred to as \"empfindsamer Stil\" (\"sensitive style\"). It can be characterized as light, intimate music with extremely elaborate and refined forms of ornamentation. Exemplars include Jean Philippe Rameau, Louis-Claude Daquin and François Couperin in France; in Germany, the style's main proponents were C. P. E. Bach and Johann Christian Bach, two sons of J.S. Bach. In the second half of the 18th century, a reaction against the Rococo style occurred, primarily against its perceived overuse of ornamentation and decoration. Led by Christoph Willibald Gluck, this reaction ushered in the Classical era. By the early 19th century, Catholic opinion had turned against the suitability of the style for ecclesiastical contexts because it was \"in no way conducive to sentiments of devotion\". Russian composer of the Romantic era Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky wrote The \"Variations on a Rococo Theme\", Op. 33, for cello and orchestra in 1877. Although the theme is not Rococo in origin, it is written in Rococo style.", "Rococo fashion was based on extravagance, elegance, refinement and decoration. Women's fashion of the seventeenth-century was contrasted by the fashion of the eighteenth-century, which was ornate and sophisticated, the true style of Rococo. These fashions spread beyond the royal court into the salons and cafés of the ascendant bourgeoisie. The exuberant, playful, elegant style of decoration and design that we now know to be 'Rococo' was then known as \"le style rocaille, le style moderne, le gout.\" A style that appeared in the early eighteenth-century was the \"robe volante\", a flowing gown, that became popular towards the end of King Louis XIV's reign. This gown had the features of a bodice with large pleats flowing down the back to the ground over a rounded petticoat. The colour palette was rich, dark fabrics accompanied by elaborate, heavy design features. After the death of Louis XIV the clothing styles began to change. The fashion took a turn to a lighter, more frivolous style, transitioning from the baroque period to the well-known style of Rococo. The later period was known for their pastel colours, more revealing frocks, and the plethora of frills, ruffles, bows, and lace as trims. Shortly after the typical women's Rococo gown was introduced, \"robe à la Française,\" a gown with a tight bodice that had a low cut neckline, usually with a large ribbon bows down the centre front, wide panniers, and was lavishly trimmed in large amounts of lace, ribbon, and flowers. The \"Watteau pleats\" also became more popular, named after the painter Jean-Antoine Watteau, who painted the details of the gowns down to the stitches of lace and other trimmings with immense accuracy. Later, the \"'pannier'\" and \"'mantua\"' became fashionable around 1718, they were wide hoops under the dress to extend the hips out sideways and they soon became a staple in formal wear. This gave the Rococo period the iconic dress of wide hips combined with the large amount of decoration on the garments. Wide panniers were worn for special occasions, and could reach up to 16 feet (4.8 metres) in diameter, and smaller hoops were worn for the everyday settings. These features originally came from seventeenth-century Spanish fashion, known as \"guardainfante\", initially designed to hide the pregnant stomach, then reimagined later as the pannier. 1745 became the Golden Age of the Rococo with the introduction of a more exotic, oriental culture in France called \"a la turque\". This was made popular by Louis XV's mistress, Madame Pompadour, who commissioned the artist, Charles Andre Van Loo, to paint her as a Turkish sultana. In the 1760s, a style of less formal dresses emerged and one of these was the \"polonaise\", with inspiration taken from Poland. It was shorter than the French dress, allowing the underskirt and ankles to be seen, which made it easier to move around in. Another dress that came into fashion was the \"robe a l'anglais\", which included elements inspired by the males' fashion; a short jacket, broad lapels and long sleeves. It also had a snug bodice, a full skirt without panniers but still a little long in the back to form a small train, and often some type of lace kerchief worn around the neck. Another piece was the'redingote', halfway between a cape and an overcoat. Accessories were also important to all women during this time, as they added to the opulence and the decor of the body to match their gowns. At any official ceremony ladies were required to cover their hands and arms with gloves if their clothes were sleeveless." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and career.", "Solo work.", "Reputation and charity work.", "Borrell and The Libertines.", "Xfm.", "Other work." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Borrell's father, New Zealand-born John Borrell, was a war correspondent; his mother was a primary school teacher in Tottenham. His parents divorced when he was young. Borrell lived at Highgate, where he attended Highgate School. Borrell was involved in music and the Camden scene while still at school. At 17 he played bass guitar in a band called Violet, who regularly played gigs on the Camden circuit. The band recorded an EP and started to gain some recognition before splitting acrimoniously live on stage at Dublin Castle in late '97. The title track of the EP was subsequently used in the soundtrack of the 1998 Michael Winterbottom film 'I Want You'. After the split, he briefly switched to being a solo artist covering The Clash and Lead Belly songs. Many of these shows were played with close friends The Libertines. Through his friendship with schoolmate John Hassall, at Highgate School, Borrell was involved in the early formation of The Libertines. He was present at the sessions for their debut album \"Up The Bracket\" and appears as a character in songs, notably \"Boy Looked at Johnny\" and \"Death on the Stairs\", and also \"What a Waster\" which appeared as a bonus track on the album in Japan. In 2002 he went on to form his own band which played house parties, rehearsing at a Hackney warehouse called Unit 13, comprising Carl Dalemo, Shïan Smith-Pancorvo (later replaced by Andy Burrows) and Björn Ågren. The band were watching a video recording of themselves playing a gig and misheard the ending refrain 'Its alright, it's alright' from the song \"In The City\" as 'razor-light, razor-light' which was then chosen as the band name. In early 2003 XFM DJ John Kennedy began to play the band's demos, recorded at Toerag Studios in east London with producers Liam Watson and John Fortis. Razorlight signed to Mercury Records on 23 May 2003 after the Universal label fought off bids from Sony. After the number 8 single \"Golden Touch\", their debut album, \"Up All Night\", was released on 28 June 2004, and charted at number 3 in the UK. The critical reception was generally good, receiving good reviews from \"NME\" (\"Razorlight's debut packs more tunes than Franz [Ferdinand], more spirit than The Strokes and more balls than nearly every band out there right now.\"), \"Q\" magazine, \"Billboard\" and \"Rolling Stone\" who said \"Razorlight's debut is a masterpiece. [Borrell]'s got the golden rock-star mop, the London sneer and a band full of crazy Swedes. But fortunately, he's also got the tunes.” Michael Parkinson saw coverage of the band performing at Glastonbury Festival and invited them onto his TV show. Razorlight performed \"Golden Touch\" with a gospel choir in front of the Parkinson studio audience and guest Tom Cruise. After 2004's constant touring Borrell was placed at No. 4 in NME's Cool List and Razorlight won Best New Act at 2004's Q Awards and the Best New Band category at the NME Awards in February 2005. French fashion brand Dior's creative director Hedi Slimane based his 2005 Autumn/Winter collection on Borrell and Pete Doherty and chose Razorlight to write music for the Paris show. In the Spring of 2005 Razorlight played two sold out shows at London's Alexandra Palace with Noel Fielding from The Mighty Boosh as their support act. Meanwhile, in between-album's single \"Somewhere Else\" reached number 2 in the UK charts. Q Magazine called it: “A punk rock symphony, a thrilling change in direction\", and high-profile support slots with U2, Queen, The Who and Oasis and the band's appearance at Live 8 kept Razorlight occupied through the rest of the year prior to entering the studio for their second album in early 2006. The self-titled follow up was produced by Pretenders, Sex Pistols and Roxy Music producer Chris Thomas. First single 'In The Morning' went to number 3, and when the album was released on 17 July 2006 it gave the band their first number 1 in the UK album chart. The NME gave the album 8/10 and said: “A soulful romantic album that sees Razorlight comfortably leap the ‘difficult second album’ trap” whilst The Observer Music Monthly gave it 4/5 saying \"[Borrell's] band's second album justifies the self-belief.\" Q Magazine called it \"The best guitar album since Oasis's 'Definitely Maybe'” 2006 saw Borrell and the band grow into an arena act and extend their international reach. Second single 'America' went straight to number 1 in the UK on 14 October dominating UK radio charts to the end of the year, and climbing airplay and singles charts in Ireland, the Netherlands, France, Denmark, Germany, New Zealand, Australia, Japan and America. The Rolling Stones asked the band to support them in Europe. An autumn UK arena tour culminated in a sold out Wembley Arena show and tours of Japan, Europe and the US led into a second UK arena tour and a sold out show at London's 17,000 capacity Earl's Court in April 2007. Razorlight were the only UK band to headline the main stage at Reading Festival in August 2007. The Razorlight singer next emerged in October, duetting with The Kinks' Ray Davies on 'Sunny Afternoon' for the BBC Electric Proms at London's The Roundhouse. In late 2007 Borrell secluded himself on a remote Scottish island in the Outer Hebrides to begin writing for the band's third album. 2008's London sessions at Air studios lead to a more contemplative third album titled 'Slipway Fires'. The album went to number 4 in the UK album charts in November 2008 and first single 'Wire To Wire' got to number 5. Press reaction to the record was mixed although Q's Paul Rees gave the record 4/5 and said: “Borrell and his band come up triumphant. It does what third albums traditionally used to do, which is to say, have the confidence the leap into the previously unknown, and for that, all credit to Borrell\". In Germany ‘Wire To Wire' was the sixth biggest chart hit of 2009 and the album went gold. Two round the world tours, including first visits to Australia, a move to a new label, Mercury Records/Island Def Jam and major festival appearances in the UK and across Europe took Razorlight to the end of the decade, finishing with a December headline at XFM's Brixton Academy Christmas show where they donated their fee to Borrell's charity of choice, Anno's Africa. December 2009 also saw the digital release of a documentary on Razorlight made by UK film director Charles Henri-Belleville. Titled 'Rock'n’Roll Lies' the 70-minute film follows the band on a week of UK shows intercut with band member interviews about Razorlight's history. The film also features bonus material including Borrell's charity hovercraft crossing of the English Channel and drummer Andy Burrows' trials and tribulations whilst giving up smoking while on tour.", "Borrell's debut solo album, \"Borrell 1\", was released in July 2013 in the UK. It was produced by Trevor Horn and received mixed reviews from critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a rating out of 100, the album received an average score of 46, based on 9 reviews by mainstream critics. The album was a commercial failure, selling 594 copies in its first week on sale and failed to secure a position in the UK Albums Chart.", "Borrell has sometimes been regarded as having a very arrogant attitude towards the press and is famous for his proclamations of his own abilities such as claiming he thinks he's the greatest songwriter in the world on MTV's Gonzo hosted by Zane Lowe. However, like many other artists who come across negatively in NME interviews, Borrell and supporters have accused the magazine of misrepresentation and emphasising quotes out of context. Borrell has made numerous contributions to charity. Razorlight recorded 'Kirby's House' for the 2005 Warchild album and played London, Royal Albert Hall shows in 2006 and 2008 for The Who's Teenage Cancer Trust events (in 2008 the band performed 'Summertime Blues' with Roger Daltrey). In 2006 Borrell started to work for Friends of the Earth's climate change campaign 'The Big Ask', a relationship which has continued through 2006's show in Trafalgar Square for the 'icount' campaign to playing at FOE's November 2009 Hammersmith Apollo fundraiser. Razorlight were deemed to be one of the highlights of 2 July 2005 Live 8 charity concert in Hyde Park and continued to support Borrell's global warming concerns by taking part in 7 July 2007 Live Earth event at Wembley Stadium. Borrell is one of few amongst his contemporary generation of stars to have appeared on the cover of a national UK newspaper because of his political views. On 4 November 2006 his essay on climate change was the front cover story of The Independent. Razorlight have also regularly supported Nelson Mandela's 46664 Aids charity. In July 2005 the band flew to Tromso, Norway to play a 46664 fundraiser. Mandela invited Razorlight to perform at his 1 December 2007 World Aids day concert in Johannesburg, which allowed the band to visit township AIDs projects. Borrell also worked with environmentally friendly charity Global Cool on their 2007 green campaigns. They also played at Mandela's July 2008 90th birthday celebration fund raiser in Hyde Park. Through his love of cricket (he appeared on the cover of Time Out's cricket edition in August 2005 holding a cricket ball) Borrell has become friends with some of the English cricket team including former captain Andrew Flintoff who asked Razorlight to play at the inaugural night of his charity, The Andrew Flintoff Foundation (of which Borrell is a patron) in July 2009 at London's The Hurlingham Club. Borrell also played charity shows for Nordoff Robbins, and Save The Children in the latter part of 2009 and in September duetted on 'Je Suis Venue Te Dire Que Je M'en Vais' with legendary singer Jane Birkin as part of a fundraiser for Kenyan children's charity Anno's Africa.", "Borrell is one of \"The Dalston Set\", a clique of indie notables connected to the early days of The Libertines, along with Dominic Masters of The Others, Pete Doherty, Carl Barât, John Hassall, and the Queens of Noize. It has been reported that he was briefly a stand-in bassist for The Libertines before they were signed, but in recent interviews he has claimed that this is not true; however, in Pete Welsh's \"Kids in the Riot\", it is alleged that Borrell was sacked as The Libertines' bassist for unreliable behaviour. In general though there is little animosity between the two bands, and Borrell remains friends with Carl Barât. The Libertines' song \"The Boy Looked at Johnny\" is reputedly about Borrell, and Razorlight's \"Don't Go Back To Dalston\" is reputedly directed at Pete Doherty, telling him to curtail his drug habit.", "Following his four-week residency on London radio broadcaster Xfm, Borrell joined the station for a further nine-week stint hosting a Sunday night show called The Sunday Service. It began on 6 September 2009 with Borrell playing a broad range of records spanning Jamaican dancehall, blues, rock'n’roll, krautrock and spoken word.", "Borrell has appeared twice on The Mighty Boosh, once alone as a giant rapist rabbit in the 2006 stage show and once with Razorlight in the episode \"The Priest and the Beast\". Noel Fielding also opened for Razorlight at their two sold out Alexandra Palace shows in 2005 and appeared in the Razorlight video for the song 'In the Morning' and 'Up All Night'. Borrell appeared on the front cover of the May 2007 issue of Vogue magazine, alongside supermodel Natalia Vodianova, in his trademark skinny white jeans and topless. Borrell is one of only seven men who have appeared on the cover of the UK version of Vogue. In 2008 Borrell and bandmate Andy Burrows appeared at the Teenage Cancer Trust comedy night at the Royal Albert Hall, hosted by Borrell's friend Noel Fielding. The two played a short acoustic set. Late in 2007, Borrell played keyboards in a band he helped put together for Florence Welch of Florence and the Machine. The pair had met through Florence's manager Mairead Nash. Borrell went on to co-write and produced two songs with Welch, \"The Hanging Song\" and \"Building Bricks\" although these did not end up on Florence's debut album. It was reported that Borrell would star in an Irvine Welsh scripted film alongside Colin Firth and Robert Carlyle called 'The Meat Trade', however the film did not make it into production. He has been approached with further film roles but has yet to commit to one. Borrell appeared on \"Never Mind The Buzzcocks\" in 2013, where host Jack Whitehall teased him about how Borrell used to date Whitehall's sister." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Belgian revolution.", "Synopsis.", "Act 1.", "Act 2.", "Act 3.", "Act 4.", "Act 5.", "Influence.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The opera was first given at the Salle Le Peletier of the Paris Opéra on 29 February 1828. The role of Masaniello was taken by the famous tenor Adolphe Nourrit and Princess Elvire was sung by Laure Cinti-Damoreau. The dancer Lise Noblet played the mute title role, a part later taken by other dancers such as Marie Taglioni, Fanny Elssler and Pauline Leroux, also the actress Harriet Smithson (the future wife of Hector Berlioz). Alphonse was created by Alexis Dupont, who was Lise Noblet's brother-in-law. The conductor at the premiere was Henri Valentino. \"La muette\" was innovative in a number of ways. First, it marked the introduction into opera of mime and gesture as an integral part of an opera plot (although these formats were familiar to Parisian audiences from ballet and mélodrame). Also, its historic setting, liberal political implications, use of popular melodies, handling of large orchestra and chorus and spectacular stage effects immediately marked it as different from preceding types of opera, in retrospect earning it the title of the first of the genre of grand opera. The journal \"Pandore\" commented after the premiere \"for a long time, enlightened critics have thought that alongside the old \"tragédie lyrique\" it was possible to have a more realistic and natural drama which might suit the dignity of this theatre.\" The new genre was consolidated by Rossini's \"Guillaume Tell\" (1829) and Meyerbeer's \"Robert le diable\" (1831). Richard Wagner remarked, in his 1871 \"Reminiscences of Auber\", that the opera \"whose very representation had brought [revolutions] about, was recognised as an obvious precursor of the July Revolution, and seldom has an artistic product stood in closer connection with a world-event.\" \"La muette\" was revived in Paris immediately after the French July Revolution of 1830.", "The opera was chosen for a performance at the Théâtre de la Monnaie in Brussels on 25 August 1830, as part of King William I's festival in celebration of the 15th year of his reign. The opera would cap the three-day festival of fireworks, feasts, and processions. William I had been present at the Brussels premiere of the opera in 1829, and it enjoyed several successful performances in the city. Although, when nationalist disturbances occurred during a performance around the time of the July Revolution in Paris, the opera was temporarily banned. The ban was lifted for the 25 August performance. The King's festival announcement were met with open plans for revolt. Posters were put up around Brussels that advertised, \"Monday, the 23rd, fireworks; Tuesday, the 24th, illuminations; Wednesday, the 25th, revolution.\" However, the King's only concession to public safety was to cancel the fireworks and procession on the final night, which left Auber's opera as the last public event in the king's honor. Though the subject of the opera is revolution, its role in the riots may have been more a marriage of convenience because the rebels had pre-ordained the final day of the festival as the start of the Belgian Revolution. Prior to the performance of Auber's opera, the \"\" newspaper issued a coded call for attendees to leave prior to the fifth act. There are some disagreements about when in the opera the exodus actually began, but the most commonly cited moment is the second act duet \"Amour sacré de la patrie\". One contemporary account describes what happened in the theater during the duet: When Lafeuillade and Cassel began singing the celebrated duet. \"Amour sacre de la patrie\" enthusiasm exploded irresistibly and [the singers] found it necessary to start afresh in the midst of the cheering. Finally, when Masaniello (Lafeuillade) launched into his entreaty, the invocation \"Aux armes!\", the public could no longer be restrained. They acclaimed aria and actor, they booed the fifth act in order to stop the performance, and the delirious crowd [hurled itself] out of the hall—into history. Welcomed by the other crowd which waited outside, it joined in the demonstrations which loosed the revolution of 1830.", "The opera is loosely based on the historical uprising of Masaniello against Spanish rule in Naples in 1647. The character of Fenella, the opera's eponymous heroine, was borrowed from Walter Scott's \"Peveril of the Peak\", which features a deaf and dumb dwarf of the same name.", "\"The square before a chapel\" We witness the wedding of Alfonso, son of the Viceroy of Naples, with the Spanish Princess Elvira. Alfonso, who has seduced Fenella, the Neapolitan Masaniello's mute sister and abandoned her, is tormented by doubts and remorse, fearing that she has committed suicide. During the festival Fenella rushes in to seek protection from the Viceroy, who has kept her a prisoner for the past month. She has escaped from her prison and narrates the story of her seduction by gestures, showing a scarf which her lover gave her. Elvira promises to protect her and proceeds to the altar, Fenella vainly trying to follow. In the chapel Fenella recognizes her seducer in the bridegroom of the Princess. When the newly married couple come out of the church, Elvira presents Fenella to her husband and discovers from the mute girl's gestures, that he was her faithless lover. Fenella flees, leaving Alfonso and Elvira in sorrow and despair.", "\"On the beach\" The fishermen, who have been brooding in silence over the tyranny of their foes, begin to assemble. Pietro, Masaniello's friend, has sought for Fenella in vain, but at length she appears of her own accord and confesses her wrongs. Masaniello is infuriated and swears to have revenge, but Fenella, who still loves Alfonso, does not mention his name. Then Masaniello calls the fishermen to arms and they swear perdition to the enemy of their country.", "\"The Naples marketplace\" People go to and fro, selling and buying, all the while concealing their purpose under a show of merriment and carelessness. Selva, the officer of the Viceroy's body-guard, from whom Fenella has escaped, discovers her and the attempt to rearrest her is the sign for a general revolt, in which the people are victorious.", "\"Masaniello's house\" Fenella comes to her brother's dwelling and describes the horrors, which are taking place in the town. The relation fills his noble soul with sorrow and disgust. When Fenella has retired to rest, Pietro enters with comrades and tries to excite Masaniello to further deeds, but he only wants liberty and shrinks from murder and cruelties. They tell him that Alfonso has escaped and that they are resolved to overtake and kill him. Fenella, who hears all, decides to save her lover. At this moment Alfonso begs at her door for a hiding-place. He enters with Elvira, and Fenella, though at first disposed to avenge herself on her rival, pardons her for Alfonso's sake. Masaniello, reentering, assures the strangers of his protection and even when Pietro denounces Alfonso as the Viceroy's son, he holds his promise sacred. Pietro with his fellow-conspirators leaves him full of rage and hatred. Meanwhile, the magistrate of the city presents Masaniello with the Royal crown and he is proclaimed King of Naples.", "\"Before the Viceroy's palace\" In a gathering of fishermen, Pietro confides to Moreno that he has administered poison to Masaniello, in order to punish him for his treason, and that the King of one day will soon die. While he speaks, Borella rushes in to tell of a fresh troop of soldiers, marching against the people with Alfonso at their head. Knowing that Masaniello alone can save them, the fishermen entreat him to take the command of them once more and Masaniello, though deadly ill and half bereft of his reason, complies with their request. The combat takes place, while an eruption of Vesuvius is going on. Masaniello falls in the act of saving Elvira's life. On hearing these terrible tidings Fanella rushes to the terrace, from which she leaps into the abyss beneath, while the fugitive noblemen take again possession of the city.", "\"La muette de Portici\" played a major role in establishing the genre of grand opera. Many of its elements – the five-act structure, the obligatory ballet sequence, the use of spectacular stage effects, the focus on romantic passions against a background of historical troubles – would become the standard features of the form for the rest of the 19th century. Grand opera would play a far more important role in the subsequent career of the librettist than that of the composer. Auber went on to write three more works in the genre: \"Le Dieu et la bayadère\" (1830), \"Gustave III\" (1833) and \"Le lac des fées\" (1839). But their fame would be eclipsed by the grand operas for which Scribe provided the libretti: Meyerbeer's \"Robert le diable\" (1831) and \"Les Huguenots\" (1836) and Halévy's \"La Juive\" (1835). Nevertheless, Auber's pioneering work caught the attention of the young Richard Wagner, who was eager to create a new form of music drama. He noted that in \"La muette\", \"arias and duets in the wonted sense were scarcely to be detected any more, and certainly, with the exception of a single prima-donna aria in the first act, did not strike one at all as such; in each instance it was the ensemble of the whole act that riveted attention and carried one away...\". It also played a large role in the founding of the Kingdom of Belgium. The riots that led to the independence started after hearing the opera. This opera is the inspiration for Letitia Elizabeth Landon's poem \"Fenella's Escape\" published in \"The Keepsake, 1836. The material has been used for several films: the American silent film \"The Dumb Girl of Portici\" (1916), the German silent film \"Die Stumme von Portici\", the Italian film \"La muta di Portici\" (1952).", "Notes Sources" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Toponym.", "History.", "Ancient and Early Medieval Periods.", "Late Medieval Period.", "Early Modern Period.", "Colonial Period.", "Post-Independence.", "Ecology.", "Climate.", "Air pollution.", "Civic administration.", "Government and politics.", "Economy.", "Utility services.", "Transport.", "Air.", "Road.", "Railway.", "Metro.", "Regional Rapid Transit System (RRTS).", "Demographics.", "Religion.", "Languages.", "Slums.", "Culture.", "Tourism.", "Education.", "Media.", "Sports.", "1951 Asian Games.", "1982 Asian Games.", "2010 Commonwealth Games.", "Other sports.", "External links." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "There are a number of myths and legends associated with the origin of the name \"Delhi\". One of them is derived from \"Dhillu\" or \"Dilu\", a king who built a city at this location in 50 BCE and named it after himself. Another legend holds that the name of the city is based on the Hindi/Prakrit word \"dhili\" (\"loose\") and that it was used by the Tomaras to refer to the city because the iron pillar of Delhi had a weak foundation and had to be moved. According to Panjab Notes and Queries, the name of the city at the time of King Prithviraj was \"dilpat\", and that", "", "The area around Delhi was probably inhabited before the second millennium BCE and there is evidence of continuous inhabitation since at least the 6th century BCE. The city is believed to be the site of Indraprastha, the legendary capital of the Pandavas in the Indian epic \"Mahabharata\". According to the Mahabharata, this land was initially a huge mass of forests", "The king Prithviraj Chauhan was defeated in 1192 by Muhammad Ghori in the second battle of Tarain, a Muslim invader from Afghanistan, who made a concerted effort to conquer northern India. By 1200, native Hindu resistance had begun to crumble, and the Muslim invaders were victorious. The newfound dominance of foreign Turkic Muslim dynasties in north India would last for the next five centuries. The slave general of Ghori, Qutb-ud-din Aibak, was given the responsibility of governing the conquered territories of India until Ghori returned to his capital, Ghor. When Ghori died without an heir in 1206 CE, his territories fractured, with various generals claiming sovereignty over different areas. Qutb-ud-din assumed control of Ghori's Indian possessions, and laid the foundation of the Delhi Sultanate and the Mamluk dynasty. He began construction of the Qutb Minar and Quwwat-al-Islam (Might of Islam) mosque, the earliest extant mosque in India. It was his successor, Iltutmish (1211–1236), who consolidated the Turkic conquest of northern India. Razia Sultan, daughter of Iltutmish, succeeded him as the Sultan of", "Babur was a descendant of Genghis Khan and Timur, from the Fergana Valley in modern-day Uzbekistan. In 1526, he invaded India, defeated the last Lodhi sultan in the First Battle of Panipat and founded the Mughal Empire that ruled from Delhi and Agra. The Mughal dynasty ruled Delhi for more than three centuries, with a sixteen-year hiatus during the reigns of Sher Shah Suri and Hemu from 1540 to 1556. In 1553, the Hindu king Hemu acceded to the throne of Delhi by defeating forces of Mughal Emperor Humayun at Agra and Delhi. However, the Mughals re-established their rule after Akbar's army defeated Hemu during the Second Battle of Panipat in 1556. Shah Jahan built the seventh city of Delhi that bears his name \"Shahjahanabad\", which served as the capital of the Mughal Empire from 1638 and is today known as the \"Old City\" or \"Old Delhi\". After the death of Aurangzeb in 1707, the Mughal Empire's influence declined rapidly as the Hindu Maratha Empire from Deccan Plateau rose to prominence. In 1737, Maratha forces led by Baji Rao", "In 1803, during the Second Anglo-Maratha War, the forces of British East India Company defeated the Maratha forces in the Battle of Delhi. During the Indian Rebellion of 1857, Delhi fell to the forces of East India Company after a bloody fight known as the Siege of Delhi. The city came under the direct control of the British Government in 1858. It was made a district province of the Punjab. In 1911, it was announced", "The States Reorganisation Act, 1956 created the Union Territory of Delhi from its predecessor, the \"Chief Commissioner's Province of Delhi\". The Constitution (Sixty-ninth Amendment) Act, 1991 declared the Union Territory of Delhi to be formally known as the National Capital Territory of Delhi. The Act gave", "Delhi is located in Northern India, at. The city is bordered on its northern, western, and southern sides by the state of Haryana and to the east by that of Uttar Pradesh (UP). Two prominent features of the geography of Delhi are the Yamuna flood plains and the Delhi ridge. The Yamuna river was the historical boundary between Punjab and UP, and its flood plains provide fertile alluvial soil suitable for agriculture but are prone to recurrent floods. The Yamuna, a sacred river in Hinduism, is the only major river flowing through Delhi. The Hindon River separates Ghaziabad from the eastern part of Delhi. The Delhi ridge originates from the Aravalli Range in the south and encircles the west, north-east and north-west parts of the city. It reaches a height of and is a dominant feature of the region. The National Capital Territory of Delhi covers an area of, of which is designated rural, and urban therefore making it the largest city in terms of area in the country. It has a length of and a width of. Delhi is included in India's seismic zone-IV, indicating its vulnerability to major earthquakes.", "Delhi features a dry-winter humid subtropical climate (Köppen \"Cwa\") bordering a hot semi-arid climate (Köppen \"BSh\"). The warm season lasts from 21 March to 15 June with an average daily high temperature above. The hottest day of the year is 22 May, with an average high of and low of. The cold season lasts from 26 November to 9 February with an average daily high temperature below. The coldest day of the year is 4 January, with an average low of", "According to the World Health Organization (WHO) Delhi was the most polluted city in the world in 2014. In 2016 WHO downgraded Delhi to eleventh-worst in the urban air quality database. According to one estimate, air pollution causes the death of about 10,500 people in Delhi every year. Air quality index of Delhi is generally Moderate (101–200) level between January to September, and then it drastically deteriorates to Very Poor (301–400), Severe (401–500) or Hazardous (500+) levels in three months between October to December, due to various factors including stubble burning, fire crackers burning during Diwali and cold weather. During 2013–14, peak levels of fine particulate", "Currently, the National Capital Territory of Delhi is made up of one division, 11 districts, 33 subdivisions, 59 census towns, and 300 villages. Local civic administration has, since the trifurcation of the former Municipal Corporation of Delhi (MCD) in January 2012, been in the hands of five bodies: It was in July 2012, shortly after the MCD trifurcation, that the Government of Delhi increased the number", "As a first-level administrative division, the National Capital Territory of Delhi has its own Legislative Assembly, Lieutenant Governor, council of ministers and Chief Minister. Members of the legislative assembly are directly elected from territorial constituencies in the NCT. The legislative assembly was abolished in 1956, after which direct federal control was implemented until it was re-established in 1993. The Municipal corporation handles civic administration for the city as part of the Panchayati Raj Act. The Government of India and the Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi jointly administer New Delhi, where both bodies are located. The Parliament of India, the Rashtrapati Bhavan (Presidential Palace), Cabinet Secretariat and the Supreme Court of India are", "Delhi is the largest commercial centre in northern India. recent estimates of the economy of the Delhi urban area have ranged from $167 to $370 billion (PPP metro GDP) ranking it either the most or second-most productive metro area of India. The nominal GSDP of the NCT of Delhi for 2016–17 was estimated at, 13% higher than in 2015–16. As per the Economic survey of Delhi (2005–2006), the tertiary sector contributes 70.95% of Delhi's gross SDP followed by secondary and primary sectors with 25.20% and 3.85% contributions, respectively. Delhi's workforce constitutes 32.82% of the", "Delhi's municipal water supply is managed by the Delhi Jal Board (DJB)., it supplied 650 million gallons per day (MGD), whereas the estimated consumption requirement is 963 MGD. The shortfall is met by private and public tube wells and hand pumps. At 240 MGD, the Bhakra storage is DJB's largest water source, followed by the Yamuna and Ganges rivers. Delhi's groundwater level is falling and its population density is increasing, so residents often encounter acute water shortage. Research on Delhi suggests that up to half of the city's water use is unofficial groundwater.In", "", "Indira Gandhi International Airport, situated to the south-west of Delhi, is the main gateway for the city's domestic and international civilian air traffic. In 2015–16, the airport handled more than 48 million passengers, making it the busiest airport in India and South Asia. Terminal 3, which cost to construct between 2007 and 2010, handles an additional 37 million passengers annually. In 2010, IGIA was conferred the 4th best airport award in the world in the 15–25 million category, by Airports Council International. The airport was rated as the \"Best airport in the world\" in the 25–40 million passengers category in 2015, by Airports Council International. Delhi Airport was awarded \"The Best Airport in Central Asia\" and \"Best Airport", "Delhi has the highest road density of 2103 km/100 km in India. It is connected to other parts of India by five National Highways: NH 1, NH 2, NH 8, NH 10 and NH 24. The city's road network is maintained by MCD, NDMC, Delhi Cantonment Board, Public Works Department (PWD) and Delhi Development Authority. Buses are the most popular means of road transport catering to about 60% of Delhi's total demand. Delhi has one of India's largest bus transport systems. In 1998, the Supreme Court of India ruled that all public transport vehicles in Delhi must be fuelled by compressed natural gas (CNG) to tackle increasing vehicular pollution. The state-owned Delhi Transport Corporation (DTC) is a major bus service provider which operates the world's largest fleet of CNG-fuelled buses. In addition, cluster scheme buses are operated by Delhi Integrated Multi-Modal Transit System (DIMTS) with the participation of private concessionaires and DTC. In December 2017, the DTC and cluster buses carried over 4.19 million passengers per day. Kashmiri Gate", "Delhi is a major junction in the Indian railway network and is the headquarters of the Northern Railway. The main railway stations are New Delhi, Old Delhi, Hazrat Nizamuddin, Anand Vihar, Delhi Sarai Rohilla and Delhi Cantt. The Delhi Metro, a mass rapid transit system built and operated by Delhi Metro Rail Corporation (DMRC), serves many parts of Delhi and the neighbouring", "The Delhi Metro is a rapid transit system serving Delhi, Ghaziabad, Faridabad, Gurgaon and Noida in the National Capital Region of India. Delhi Metro is the world's tenth-largest metro system in terms of length. Delhi Metro was India's second modern public transportation system, which has revolutionised travel by providing a fast, reliable, safe, and comfortable means of transport. The network consists of eleven lines with a total length of with 214 stations, which are a mix of underground, at-grade and elevated stations. All stations have escalators, lifts, and tactile tiles to guide the visually impaired from station entrances to trains. There are 18 designated parking sites at Metro stations to further encourage the use of the system. In March 2010, DMRC partnered with Google India (through Google Transit) to provide train schedule and route information to mobile devices with Google Maps. It has a combination of elevated, at-grade, and underground lines, and uses both broad", "The 08 RRTS Corridors have been proposed by National Capital Region Planning Board (NCRPB) to facilitate the people travelling from nearby cities in", "According to the 2011 census of India, the population of NCT of Delhi is 16,753,235. The corresponding population density was 11,297 persons per km with a sex ratio of 866 women per 1000 men, and a literacy rate of 86.34%. In 2004, the birth rate, death rate and infant mortality rate per 1000 population were 20.03, 5.59 and 13.08, respectively. In 2001, the population of Delhi increased by 285,000 as a result of migration and by 215,000 as a result of natural population growth, which made Delhi one of the fastest growing cities in the world. Dwarka Sub City, Asia's largest planned residential area, is located within the National Capital Territory of Delhi. Urban expansion has resulted in Delhi's urban area now being considered as extending beyond the NCT boundaries to incorporate the towns and cities of neighbouring states including Faridabad and Gurgaon of Haryana, and Ghaziabad and Noida of Uttar Pradesh, the total population of which is estimated by the United Nations at over 26 million. According to the UN this makes Delhi urban area the world's second-largest, after Tokyo, although Demographia declares the Jakarta urban area to be the second-largest. The 2011 census provided two figures for urban area population: 16,314,838 within the NCT boundary, and 21,753,486 for the \"Extended Urban Area\". The 2021 regional plan released by the Government of India renamed the \"Extended Urban Area\" from \"Delhi Metropolitan Area (DMA)\" as defined by the 2001 plan to \"Central National Capital Region (CNCR)\". Major social groups of Delhi include Brahmins, Jats, Punjabis, Purvanchalis, Vaishyas, Gujjars, Sikhs, Muslims, Uttarakhandis, Bengalis, etc.", "Hinduism is Delhi's predominant religious faith, with 81.68% of Delhi's population, followed by", "According to the 50th report of the commissioner for linguistic minorities in India, which was submitted in 2014, Hindi is Delhi's most spoken language, with 80.94% speakers, followed by Punjabi (7.14%), Urdu (6.31%)", "Around 49% of the population of Delhi lives in slums and unauthorised colonies without any civic amenities.", "Delhi's culture has been influenced by its lengthy history and historic association as the capital of India, Although a strong Punjabi Influence can be seen in language, Dress and Cuisine brought by the large number of refugees who came following the partition in 1947 the recent migration from other parts of India has made it a melting pot. This is exemplified by many significant monuments in the city. Delhi is also identified as the location of Indraprastha, the ancient capital of the Pandavas. The Archaeological Survey of India recognises 1,200 heritage buildings and 175 monuments as national heritage sites. In the Old City, the Mughals and the Turkic rulers constructed several architecturally significant buildings, such as the Jama Masjid—India's largest mosque built in 1656 and the Red Fort. Three World Heritage Sites—the Red Fort, Qutub Minar and Humayun's Tomb—are located in Delhi. Other monuments include the India Gate, the Jantar Mantar—an 18th-century astronomical observatory—and the Purana Qila—a 16th-century fortress. The Laxminarayan Temple, Akshardham temple, Gurudwara Bangla Sahib, the Bahá'í Lotus Temple and the ISKCON temple are examples of modern architecture. Raj Ghat and associated memorials houses memorials of Mahatma Gandhi and other notable personalities. New Delhi houses several government buildings and official residences reminiscent of British colonial architecture, including the Rashtrapati Bhavan, the Secretariat, Rajpath, the Parliament of India and Vijay Chowk. Safdarjung's Tomb is an example of the Mughal gardens style. Some regal \"havelis\" (palatial residences) are in the Old City. Lotus Temple is a Bahá'í House of Worship completed in 1986. Notable for its flowerlike shape, it serves as the Mother Temple of the Indian subcontinent and has become a prominent attraction in the city. The Lotus Temple has won numerous architectural awards and been featured in hundreds of newspaper and magazine articles. Like all other Bahá'í Houses of Worship, is open to all regardless of religion, or any other distinction, as emphasised in Bahá'í texts. The Bahá'í laws emphasise that the spirit of the House of Worship be that it is a gathering place where people of all religions may worship God without denominational restrictions. The Bahá'í laws also stipulate that only the holy scriptures of the Bahá'í Faith and other religions can be read or chanted inside in any language; while readings and prayers can be set to music by choirs, no musical instruments can be played inside. Furthermore, no sermons can be delivered, and there can be no ritualistic ceremonies practised. The National Museum and National Gallery of Modern Art are some of the largest museums in the country. Other museums in Delhi include the National Museum of Natural History, National Rail Museum and National Philatelic Museum. Chandni Chowk, a 17th-century market, is one of the most popular shopping areas in Delhi for jewellery and \"Zari\" saris. Delhi's arts and crafts include, \"Zardozi\"—an embroidery done with gold thread— and \"Meenakari\"—the art of enamelling.", "According to Euromonitor International, Delhi ranked as 28th-most visited city in the world and first in India by foreign visitors in 2015. There are numerous tourist attractions in Delhi, both historic and modern. The three UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Delhi, Qutb Complex, Red Fort and Humayun's Tomb are among the finest examples of Indo-Islamic architecture. Another prominent landmark of Delhi is India Gate, a 1931 built war memorial to soldiers", "Private schools in Delhi—which use either English or Hindi as the language of instruction—are affiliated to one of three administering bodies, the Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations (CISCE), the Central Board for Secondary Education (CBSE) or the National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS). In 2004–05, approximately 1,529,000 students were enrolled in primary schools, 822,000 in middle schools and 669,000 in secondary schools across Delhi. Female students represented 49% of the total enrolment. The same year, the Delhi government spent between 1.58% and 1.95% of its gross state domestic product on education. Schools and higher educational institutions in Delhi are administered either by the Directorate of Education, the NCT government or private organisations. In 2006, Delhi", "As the capital of India, Delhi is the focus of political reportage, including regular television broadcasts of Parliament sessions. Many national media agencies, including the state-owned Press Trust of India, Media Trust of India and Doordarshan, is based in the city. Television programming includes two free terrestrial television channels offered by Doordarshan, and several Hindi, English, and regional-language cable channels offered by multi system operators. Satellite television has yet to gain a large quantity of subscribers in the city. Print journalism remains a", "Delhi has hosted many major international sporting events, including the inaugural 1951 Asian Games, 1982 Asian Games, 1989 Asian Athletic Championships, 2010 Hockey World Cup, 2010 Commonwealth Games and 2011 Cricket World Cup.", "Delhi hosted the first Asian Games in 1951 from 4 to 11 March. A total of 489 athletes representing 11 Asian National Olympic Committees participated in 57 events from eight sports and discipline. The Games was the successor of", "Delhi hosted the ninth Asian Games for the second time in 1982 from 19 November to 4 December. This was the second time the city has hosted the Asian Games and was also the first", "Delhi hosted the nineteenth Commonwealth Games in 2010, which ran from 3 to 14 October and was the largest sporting event held in India. The opening ceremony of the 2010 Commonwealth Games was held at the Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium, the main stadium of the event, in New", "Cricket and football are the most popular sports in Delhi. There are several cricket grounds, or \"maidans\", located across the city. The Arun Jaitley Stadium (known commonly as the \"Kotla\") is one of the oldest cricket grounds in India and is a venue for international cricket matches. It is the home ground of the Delhi cricket team, which represents the city in the Ranji Trophy, the premier Indian domestic first-class cricket championship. The Delhi cricket team has produced several world-class international cricketers such as Virender Sehwag, Virat Kohli, Gautam Gambhir, Madan Lal, Chetan Chauhan, Shikhar Dhawan, Ishant Sharma, Manoj Prabhakar and Bishan Singh Bedi to name a few. The Railways and Services cricket", "Government General information" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early years.", "Return to politics.", "Prime Minister.", "The Őszöd Speech and the resulting riots.", "Vote of confidence.", "Resignation.", "Career after premiership.", "Personal life.", "Criticism.", "Wealth.", "Plagiarism controversy.", "Other.", "Gazprom." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Gyurcsány was born in Pápa, Hungary, into an impoverished middle-class family as the only son of Ferenc Gyurcsány Sr. and Katalin Varga. He has an elder sister, Éva. According to contemporary police documents, Gyurcsány's father was convicted on charges of minor crimes (low value thefts and fraud) multiple times. Due to his father's alcoholism Gyurcsány spent his childhood in poor conditions, though his mother's thrifty family management provided orderly and healthy living standards. Gyurcsány attended Apáczai Csere János High School in Budapest for two years; he then returned to Pápa and continued his studies there, at a local grammar school. In 1979 he was admitted to the University of Pécs, where he studied as a teacher and obtained his B.Sc. in 1984, then he studied economics at the same institution, getting his university degree in 1990. In 1981 he assumed function in the KISZ, the Organisation of Young Communists, where he mostly handled organizing student programs at the beginning. Between 1984 and 1988 he was the vice president of the organisation's committee in Pécs. Then between 1988 and 1989 he was the president of the central KISZ committee of universities and colleges. After the political change in 1989 he became vice-president of the organisation's short-lived quasi successor, the Hungarian Democratic Youth Association (DEMISZ). From 1990 onwards, he transferred from the public to the private sector, working for CREDITUM Financial Consultant Ltd. until 1992, serving as director of EUROCORP International Finance Inc. in 1992. Gyurcsány then took the position of CEO at Altus Ltd., a holding company of which he was owner, from 1992–2002 and thereafter as Chairman of the Board. By 2002, he was listed as the fiftieth-richest person in Hungary.", "Gyurcsány returned to politics in 2002 as the head strategic advisor of Péter Medgyessy, the previous Prime Minister of Hungary. From May 2003 until September 2004 Gyurcsány was a minister responsible for sports, youth and children. He became the president of the MSZP in Győr-Moson-Sopron county in January 2004, serving until September 2004. In the summer of that same year it seemed that there were larger problems in his relationship with Prime Minister Péter Medgyessy, so he resigned as minister. In a week, problems in the coalition led to the resignation of Medgyessy, and MSZP voted Gyurcsány to become Prime Minister as he was acceptable for the coalition partner, Alliance of Free Democrats (SZDSZ).", "Gyurcsány was reappointed as prime minister after the 2006 parliamentary elections, with his coalition taking 210 of the available 386 parliamentary seats, and making him the first Hungarian prime minister to keep the office after a general election since 1990. On 24 February 2007 he also became the leader of his party (being the only candidate for the post), gaining 89% of the votes. However, soon after the election victory serious financial problems arose. His government was forced to implement austerity measures to somehow manage the budget deficit, which was much higher than expected and had grown to an almost 10% of the GDP by the end of 2006. These measures were heavily criticized by both the opposition, lead by Fidesz, as being too harsh on the people, and by liberal economists, for not reducing spending enough on social benefits, including pensions. Gyurcsány was the first prime minister since the fall of communism to try to introduce a health care reform in order to rationalize and modernize the national health care system. His efforts for a renewed and more efficient health care however, have been undermined mainly by his own party, as many Socialist Party members regard this reform as a threat to the communist-era achievement of free and equal health care service to all.", "On 17 September 2006, an audio recording surfaced, allegedly from a closed-door meeting of the Prime Minister's party MSZP, held on 26 May 2006, shortly after MSZP won the election. On the recording, Gyurcsány admitted \"we have obviously been lying for the last one and a half to two years.\" (\"\"Nyilvánvalóan végighazudtuk az utolsó másfél-két évet\".\"). Despite public outrage, the Prime Minister refused to resign, and a series of demonstrations started near the Hungarian Parliament, swelling from 2,000 to about 8,000 demonstrators calling for the resignation of Gyurcsány and his government for several weeks. The Prime Minister admitted the authenticity of the recording. On 1 October, the governing party suffered a landslide defeat in the local municipal elections. On the eve of the elections, before the results were known, President László Sólyom gave a speech in which he said that the solution to the situation is in the hands of the majority in Parliament.", "As Prime Minister, Gyurcsány was a strong advocate of the South Stream pipeline project, which aimed to supply Russian gas directly to the European Union (EU), bypassing transit countries such as Ukraine. He signed the contract in Moscow just a week before the popular election in Hungary, which showed around 80% of the votes were against the government reforms. On 6 October 2006, Gyurcsány won a vote of confidence in Parliament, 207–165, with no coalition MP voting against him. The vote was public.", "On 21 March 2009, Gyurcsány announced his intention to resign as Prime Minister. He stated that he was a hindrance to further economic and social reforms. Gyurcsány asked his party to find a new candidate for prime minister in two weeks. President László Sólyom stated that instead of a short-term transactional government ruling only until the 2010 elections, early elections should be held. In the search for a new prime minister, György Surányi became the frontrunner candidate for the post; however, on 26 March he pulled out of the race. On 28 March, Gyurcsány resigned from his position as party chairman.", "In the 2010 parliamentary elections he was elected into the Parliament still as a member of MSZP, but he became more and more critical of the party's politics. Since his attempts at reforming the party failed, he left MSZP and founded a new party, the Democratic Coalition \"(Demokratikus Koalíció, DK)\" in October 2011. As a leader of DK, he announced that his party will support Gordon Bajnai as a candidate for prime minister in 2014. In September 2012, the ruling Fidesz proposed a voter-registration plan, which, according to the opposition, \"would have restricted the right to vote\". Gyurcsány and three other members of his party participated in a week-long hunger strike against the proposal. Later, in January 2013, the Constitutional Court of Hungary struck down the new electoral law as unconstitutional; after that decision, Fidesz caucus dropped the law. Gyurcsány referred to that act as his party's success. On 14 January 2014, the Democratic Coalition and four other groups founded Unity, a political alliance with the aim of defeating Fidesz at the elections in the spring. The alliance made it into the Parliament, but only as opposition. DK won only four seats, which meant that since they were below the minimum requirements of forming a parliamentary group (five seats), its MPs (including Gyurcsány) officially count as independent politicians.", "Gyurcsány is currently married to his third wife. He has two sons (Péter and Bálint) from his second marriage with Edina Bognár, and three children (Anna, Tamás and Márton) from his third marriage. His spouse is Klára Dobrev, whose maternal grandfather Antal Apró was Hungary's Minister of Industry in the 1950s–60s. He got his nickname \"Fletó\" from one of his teachers. While Prime Minister of Hungary, he did not pick up his paycheck, but instead, he donated it to varying organizations.", "", "The origin of his wealth is regularly questioned by the media and political opposition. The weekly paper \"HVG\" writes about a biography of Gyurcsány: \"[it] concludes that talent played a greater role than corruption in Gyurcsány's success. We have to question this claim. Not just because former functionaries are massively overrepresented among Gyurcsány's business partners, but also because, despite his enormous talent for business, Gyurcsány would never have got where he is today without making use of the contacts and support base of the former state party.\" József Debreczeni, the biographer in question, originally reached the conclusion \"regarding party connections and performance, the latter has been more important\". Opposition MP Péter Szijjártó, as the head of a committee set up to investigate the origins of Gyurcsány's wealth, stated in his report that one of Gyurcsány's companies leased the former vacation site of the Hungarian government in Balatonőszöd and rented the site back to a state-owned company so that the rent paid by the government covered exactly the leasing fee during the first two and a half years of the ten-year lease term (1994–2004). A person named \"Gyurcsányi\" was mentioned by Attila Kulcsár, the main defendant in the high-profile \"K&H Equities\" money laundering scandal in Hungary. The prime minister denied he had any connections with the case.", "In an article published on 2 April 2012, \"Pécsi Újság\" called into question whether Gyurcsány submitted a diploma thesis. István Geresdi, Dean of the Faculty of Sciences at the University of Pécs told \"Pécsi Újság\" that they were unable to find Gyurcsány's diploma thesis. He further added that Gyurcsány's thesis was the only missing work from that time period. On 3 April Gyurcsány published a page from his course record book that stated that he submitted and defended a college thesis. He also stated that he did not know where his own copy of his thesis was, but he would make efforts to locate and publish it. After two weeks, on 13 April he announced that he failed to find his copy of the thesis. On 27 April \"Hír TV\", a government-leaning television channel announced that they have found evidence that Szabolcs Rozs, who was Gyurcsány's brother-in-law in 1984, submitted a college thesis at the same college and department as Gyurcsány, with a title identical to Gyurcsány's work, in 1980. Three days later, on 30 April \"Hír Tv\" announced that they have located and compared the reviews of both Rozs's and Gyurcsány's work, and found that based on the common errors and omissions, the two texts are likely to be identical, supporting the allegations of plagiarism.", "He often displays himself in the role of an anti-fascist politician, who is strongly against the Hungarian radicalism and anti-semitism. However, he is the subject of criticism by his political opponents for the luxury villa of Rózsadomb in which he lives and is now the property of his recent wife, having been taken away from a Jewish family twice; first it was misappropriated when Hungary was under the rule of Arrow Cross Party, and then again during the time of the communist dictatorship of Mátyás Rákosi. On 2 September 2004, he said in the Hungarian national television: \"Who has a two-room-apartment, would in general deserve three; who has three, four; who has four, a house. Who has an eld..., olderly, elderly?... olderly \"[struggling with an unintended portmanteau]\" wife, a younger one; who has a badly behaved kid, a well-behaved. Of course, he would deserve.\" This triggered outrage from feminist organisations, women in general, and the opposition. On 2 February 2005, at the birthday party of the Hungarian Socialist Party, for the sake of a joke, Gyurcsány referred to the players of the Saudi national football team as terrorists. Later he apologized, but the kingdom recalled its ambassador from Hungary for a time. During the 2006 general election campaign, a video appeared where Gyurcsány danced as Hugh Grant in \"Love Actually\". According to government officials, the spokesperson of the government asked Gyurcsány to dance, as they re-made most parts of the film as a special gift for the wedding of spokesman András Batiz. Opposition claimed that the video was made public on purpose, as part of the election campaign, to gain popularity for the PM among young adults. After his return to politics, Gyurcsány was at first tight-lipped on his religious affiliation, leading many to assume that he is an atheist. In an interview aired on TV2 during the 2006 parliamentary election campaign, Gyurcsány said that as a teenager, he \"took part in confirmation for about two years\" and even considered becoming a priest. Since confirmation can only be taken once, some regarded this claim as a giveaway that he was not telling the truth, while others such as Catholic bishop Endre Gyulay supposed he meant he took part in preparations for a confirmation. In connection with the unrest fuelled by his speech, he has been criticised in \"The Economist\" for \"turning a blind eye to police brutality\". On 13 January 2009, Dominique Strauss-Kahn, the Managing Director of the International Monetary Fund, travelled to Budapest to ask Gyurcsány about their agreement made in October, regarding the stabilization of Hungarian government spending.", "As a Prime Minister, Gyurcsány was said to be an advocate of the South Stream pipeline project, which is aimed to supply Russian gas directly to EU, bypassing transit countries such as Ukraine. He signed the contract in Moscow just week before a referendum at Hungary, which showed around 80% of the votes were against the government reforms. However, the questions of the referendum (two concerning health care and one concerning education) had no relation to the issue of possible pipelines built in the country. Gyurcsány stated that it is an unlucky situation for a country to have only one supplier (Russia) of any resource, which in this particular case is natural gas. He said the South Stream pipeline only diversifies routes from the same source country. He also advocated the Nabucco Pipeline which was planned to transfer gas from the Middle-East, as he considered this as a pipeline which diversifies the source of natural gas also." ] }

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{ "title": [ "The Schwarzschild metric.", "History.", "Singularities and black holes.", "Alternative coordinates.", "Flamm's paraboloid.", "Orbital motion.", "Symmetries.", "Curvatures." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Schwarzschild metric is a spherically symmetric Lorentzian metric (here, with signature convention,) defined on (a subset of) where formula_2 is 3 dimensional Euclidean space, and formula_3 is the two sphere. The rotation group formula_4 acts on the formula_5 or formula_6 factor as rotations around the center formula_7, while leaving the first formula_8 factor unchanged. The Schwarzschild metric is a solution of Einstein's field equations in empty space, meaning that it is valid only \"outside\" the gravitating body. That is, for a spherical body of radius formula_9 the solution is valid for formula_10. To describe the gravitational field both inside and outside the gravitating body the Schwarzschild solution must be matched with some suitable interior solution at formula_11, such as the interior Schwarzschild metric. In Schwarzschild coordinates formula_12 the Schwarzschild metric (or equivalently, the line element for proper time) has the form where formula_14 is the metric on the two sphere, i.e. formula_15. Furthermore, The Schwarzschild metric has a singularity for formula_31 which is an intrinsic curvature singularity. It also seems to have a singularity on the event horizon formula_32. Depending on the point of view, the metric is therefore defined only on the exterior region formula_33, only on the interior region formula_34 or their disjoint union. However, the metric is actually non singular across the event horizon as one sees in suitable coordinates (see below). For formula_35, the Schwarzschild metric is asymptotic to the standard Lorentz metric on Minkowski space. For almost all astrophysical objects, the ratio formula_36 is extremely small. For example, the Schwarzschild radius formula_37 of the Earth is roughly, while the Sun, which is times as massive has a Schwarzschild radius formula_38 of approximately 3.0 km. The ratio becomes large only in close proximity to black holes and other ultra-dense objects such as neutron stars. The radial coordinate turns out to have physical significance as the \"proper distance between two events that occur simultaneously relative to the radially moving geodesic clocks, the two events lying on the same radial coordinate line\". The Schwarzschild solution is analogous to a classical Newtonian theory of gravity that corresponds to the gravitational field around a point particle. Even at the surface of the Earth, the corrections to Newtonian gravity are only one part in a billion.", "The Schwarzschild solution is named in honour of Karl Schwarzschild, who found the exact solution in 1915 and published it in January 1916, a little more than a month after the publication of Einstein's theory of general relativity. It was the first exact solution of the Einstein field equations other than the trivial flat space solution. Schwarzschild died shortly after his paper was published, as a result of a disease he contracted while serving in the German army during World War I. Johannes Droste in 1916 independently produced the same solution as Schwarzschild, using a simpler, more direct derivation. In the early years of general relativity there was a lot of confusion about the nature of the singularities found in the Schwarzschild and other solutions of the Einstein field equations. In Schwarzschild's original paper, he put what we now call the event horizon at the origin of his coordinate system. In this paper he also introduced what is now known as the Schwarzschild radial coordinate ( in the equations above), as an auxiliary variable. In his equations, Schwarzschild was using a different radial coordinate that was zero at the Schwarzschild radius. A more complete analysis of the singularity structure was given by David Hilbert in the following year, identifying the singularities both at and. Although there was general consensus that the singularity at was a 'genuine' physical singularity, the nature of the singularity at remained unclear. In 1921 Paul Painlevé and in 1922 Allvar Gullstrand independently produced a metric, a spherically symmetric solution of Einstein's equations, which we now know is coordinate transformation of the Schwarzschild metric, Gullstrand–Painlevé coordinates, in which there was no singularity at. They, however, did not recognize that their solutions were just coordinate transforms, and in fact used their solution to argue that Einstein's theory was wrong. In 1924 Arthur Eddington produced the first coordinate transformation (Eddington–Finkelstein coordinates) that showed that the singularity at was a coordinate artifact, although he also seems to have been unaware of the significance of this discovery. Later, in 1932, Georges Lemaître gave a different coordinate transformation (Lemaître coordinates) to the same effect and was the first to recognize that this implied that the singularity at was not physical. In 1939 Howard Robertson showed that a free falling observer descending in the Schwarzschild metric would cross the singularity in a finite amount of proper time even though this would take an infinite amount of time in terms of coordinate time. In 1950, John Synge produced a paper that showed the maximal analytic extension of the Schwarzschild metric, again showing that the singularity at was a coordinate artifact and that it represented two horizons. A similar result was later rediscovered by George Szekeres, and independently Martin Kruskal. The new coordinates nowadays known as Kruskal-Szekeres coordinates were much simpler than Synge's but both provided a single set of coordinates that covered the entire spacetime. However, perhaps due to the obscurity of the journals in which the papers of Lemaître and Synge were published their conclusions went unnoticed, with many of the major players in the field including Einstein believing that the singularity at the Schwarzschild radius was physical. Real progress was made in the 1960s when the more exact tools of differential geometry entered the field of general relativity, allowing more exact definitions of what it means for a Lorentzian manifold to be singular. This led to definitive identification of the singularity in the Schwarzschild metric as an event horizon (a hypersurface in spacetime that can be crossed in only one direction).", "The Schwarzschild solution appears to have singularities at and ; some of the metric components \"blow up\" (entail division by zero or multiplication by infinity) at these radii. Since the Schwarzschild metric is expected to be valid only for those radii larger than the radius of the gravitating body, there is no problem as long as. For ordinary stars and planets this is always the case. For example, the radius of the Sun is approximately, while its Schwarzschild radius is only. The singularity at divides the Schwarzschild coordinates in two disconnected patches. The \"exterior Schwarzschild solution\" with is the one that is related to the gravitational fields of stars and planets. The \"interior Schwarzschild solution\" with, which contains the singularity at, is completely separated from the outer patch by the singularity at. The Schwarzschild coordinates therefore give no physical connection between the two patches, which may be viewed as separate solutions. The singularity at is an illusion however; it is an instance of what is called a \"coordinate singularity\". As the name implies, the singularity arises from a bad choice of coordinates or coordinate conditions. When changing to a different coordinate system (for example Lemaitre coordinates, Eddington–Finkelstein coordinates, Kruskal–Szekeres coordinates, Novikov coordinates, or Gullstrand–Painlevé coordinates) the metric becomes regular at and can extend the external patch to values of smaller than. Using a different coordinate transformation one can then relate the extended external patch to the inner patch. The case is different, however. If one asks that the solution be valid for all one runs into a true physical singularity, or \"gravitational singularity\", at the origin. To see that this is a true singularity one must look at quantities that are independent of the choice of coordinates. One such important quantity is the Kretschmann invariant, which is given by At the curvature becomes infinite, indicating the presence of a singularity. At this point the metric, and spacetime itself, is no longer well-defined. For a long time it was thought that such a solution was non-physical. However, a greater understanding of general relativity led to the realization that such singularities were a generic feature of the theory and not just an exotic special case. The Schwarzschild solution, taken to be valid for all, is called a Schwarzschild black hole. It is a perfectly valid solution of the Einstein field equations, although (like other black holes) it has rather bizarre properties. For the Schwarzschild radial coordinate becomes timelike and the time coordinate becomes spacelike. A curve at constant is no longer a possible worldline of a particle or observer, not even if a force is exerted to try to keep it there; this occurs because spacetime has been curved so much that the direction of cause and effect (the particle's future light cone) points into the singularity. The surface demarcates what is called the \"event horizon\" of the black hole. It represents the point past which light can no longer escape the gravitational field. Any physical object whose radius becomes less than or equal to the Schwarzschild radius has undergone gravitational collapse and become a black hole.", "The Schwarzschild solution can be expressed in a range of different choices of coordinates besides the Schwarzschild coordinates used above. Different choices tend to highlight different features of the solution. The table below shows some popular choices. In table above, some shorthand has been introduced for brevity. The speed of light has been set to one. The notation is used for the metric of a unit radius 2-dimensional sphere. Moreover, in each entry formula_9 and formula_42 denote alternative choices of radial and time coordinate for the particular coordinates. Note, the formula_9 and/or formula_42 may vary from entry to entry.", "The spatial curvature of the Schwarzschild solution for can be visualized as the graphic shows. Consider a constant time equatorial slice through the Schwarzschild solution (, = constant) and let the position of a particle moving in this plane be described with the remaining Schwarzschild coordinates. Imagine now that there is an additional Euclidean dimension, which has no physical reality (it is not part of spacetime). Then replace the plane with a surface dimpled in the direction according to the equation (\"Flamm's paraboloid\") This surface has the property that distances measured within it match distances in the Schwarzschild metric, because with the definition of \"w\" above, Thus, Flamm's paraboloid is useful for visualizing the spatial curvature of the Schwarzschild metric. It should not, however, be confused with a gravity well. No ordinary (massive or massless) particle can have a worldline lying on the paraboloid, since all distances on it are spacelike (this is a cross-section at one moment of time, so any particle moving on it would have an infinite velocity). A tachyon could have a spacelike worldline that lies entirely on a single paraboloid. However, even in that case its geodesic path is not the trajectory one gets through a \"rubber sheet\" analogy of gravitational well: in particular, if the dimple is drawn pointing upward rather than downward, the tachyon's geodesic path still curves toward the central mass, not away. See the gravity well article for more information. Flamm's paraboloid may be derived as follows. The Euclidean metric in the cylindrical coordinates is written Letting the surface be described by the function, the Euclidean metric can be written as Comparing this with the Schwarzschild metric in the equatorial plane () at a fixed time ( = constant, ) yields an integral expression for : whose solution is Flamm's paraboloid.", "A particle orbiting in the Schwarzschild metric can have a stable circular orbit with. Circular orbits with between and are unstable, and no circular orbits exist for. The circular orbit of minimum radius corresponds to an orbital velocity approaching the speed of light. It is possible for a particle to have a constant value of between and, but only if some force acts to keep it there. Noncircular orbits, such as Mercury's, dwell longer at small radii than would be expected in Newtonian gravity. This can be seen as a less extreme version of the more dramatic case in which a particle passes through the event horizon and dwells inside it forever. Intermediate between the case of Mercury and the case of an object falling past the event horizon, there are exotic possibilities such as knife-edge orbits, in which the satellite can be made to execute an arbitrarily large number of nearly circular orbits, after which it flies back outward.", "The group of isometries of the Schwarzschild metric is the subgroup of the ten-dimensional Poincaré group which takes the time axis (trajectory of the star) to itself. It omits the spatial translations (three dimensions) and boosts (three dimensions). It retains the time translations (one dimension) and rotations (three dimensions). Thus it has four dimensions. Like the Poincaré group, it has four connected components: the component of the identity; the time reversed component; the spatial inversion component; and the component which is both time reversed and spatially inverted.", "The Ricci curvature scalar and the Ricci curvature tensor are both zero. Non-zero components of the Riemann curvature tensor are Components which are obtainable by the symmetries of the Riemann tensor are not displayed. To understand the physical meaning of these quantities, it is useful to express the curvature tensor in an orthonormal basis. In an orthonormal basis of an observer the non-zero components in geometric units are Again, components which are obtainable by the symmetries of the Riemann tensor are not displayed. These results are invariant to any Lorentz boost, thus the components do not change for non-static observers. The geodesic deviation equation shows that the tidal acceleration between two observers separated by formula_57 is formula_58, so a body of length formula_59 is stretched in the radial direction by an apparent acceleration formula_60 and squeezed in the perpendicular directions by formula_61." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Subdivisions.", "North and South.", "East and West.", "Inland and Coastal.", "Greater Kantō.", "Cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The heartland of feudal power during the Kamakura period and again in the Edo period, Kanto became the center of modern development. Within the Greater Tokyo Area and especially the Tokyo-Yokohama metropolitan area, Kanto houses not only Japan's seat of government but also the nation's largest group of universities and cultural institutions, the greatest population and a large industrial zone. Although most of the Kanto plain is used for residential, commercial or industrial construction, it is still farmed. Rice is the principal crop, although the zone around Tokyo and Yokohama has been landscaped to grow garden produce for the metropolitan market. A watershed moment of Japan's modern history took place in the late Taishō period: the Great Kanto earthquake of 1923. The quake, which claimed more than 100,000 lives and ravaged the Tokyo and Yokohama areas, occurred at a time when Japan was still reeling from the economic recession in reaction to the high-flying years during World War I. Operation Coronet, part of Operation Downfall, the proposed Allied invasion of Japan during World War II, was scheduled to land at the Kantō plain. Most of the United States military bases on the island of Honshu are situated on the Kantō plain. These include Naval Air Facility Atsugi, Yokota Air Base, Yokosuka Naval Base, and Camp Zama. The name Kanto literally means \"East of the Barrier\". The name \"Kanto\" is nowadays generally considered to mean the region east (東) of the Hakone checkpoint (関所). An antonym of Kanto, \"West of the Barrier\" means Kansai region, which lies western Honshu and was the center of feudal Japan. After the Great Kanto earthquake many people in Kanto started creating art with different varieties of colors. They made art of earthquake and small towns to symbolize the small towns destroyed in the quake. In the first \"Pokémon\" games, \"Pokémon Red and Pokémon Blue\" or Pocket Monsters Red and Pocket Monsters Green as it is known in Japan, the region the player explores is called the Kanto region.", "", "The most often used subdivision of the region is dividing it to, consisting of Ibaraki, Tochigi, and Gunma Prefectures, and, consisting of Saitama (sometimes classified North), Chiba, the Tokyo Metropolis (sometimes singulated), and Kanagawa Prefectures. South Kantō is often regarded as synonymous with the Greater Tokyo Area. As part of Japan's attempts to predict earthquakes, an area roughly corresponding to South Kantō has been designated an 'Area of Intensified Observation' by the Coordinating Committee for Earthquake Prediction. The Japanese House of Representatives' divides it into the electorate which consists of Ibaraki, Tochigi, Gunma and Saitama Prefectures, Tokyo electorate, and the electorate which consists of Chiba, Kanagawa and Yamanashi Prefectures. (Note that Yamanashi is out of Kantō region in the orthodox definition.) Keirin's consists of Chiba, Kanagawa and Shizuoka Prefectures.", "This division is not often but sometimes used.", "This division is sometimes used in economics and geography. The border can be modified if the topography is taken for prefectural boundaries.", "The Japanese national government defines the as Kantō region plus Yamanashi Prefecture. Japan's national public broadcaster NHK uses involving Yamanashi, Nagano and Niigata Prefectures for regional programming and administration.", "The Kantō region is the most highly developed, urbanized, and industrialized part of Japan. Tokyo and Yokohama form a single industrial complex with a concentration of light and heavy industry along Tokyo Bay. Other major cities in the area include Kawasaki (in Kanagawa Prefecture); Saitama (in Saitama Prefecture); and Chiba (in Chiba Prefecture). Smaller cities, farther away from the coast, house substantial light and automotive industries. The average population density reached 1,192 persons per square kilometre in 1991." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Indigenous peoples.", "Kwakwaka'wakw.", "Nuu-chah-nulth.", "Coast Salish.", "European exploration.", "Dispute over sovereignty.", "British settlement.", "Union and Confederation.", "Confederation.", "Geography.", "Rivers.", "Major centres.", "Climate.", "Geology.", "Ecology.", "Economy.", "Technology.", "Logging.", "Fishing.", "Tourism.", "Food products.", "Education.", "Public school districts.", "Transport.", "Sea.", "Rail.", "Road.", "Air." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Vancouver Island has been the homeland to many indigenous peoples for thousands of years. The groupings, by language, are the Kwakwaka'wakw (also known as the Kwakiutl), Nuu-chah-nulth, and various Coast Salish peoples. While there is some overlap, Kwakwaka'wakw territory includes northern and northwestern Vancouver Island and adjoining areas of the mainland, the Nuu-chah-nulth span most of the west coast, while the Coast Salish cover the southeastern Island and southernmost extremities along the Strait of Juan de Fuca. Their cultures are connected to the natural resources abundant in the area.", "The Kwakwaka'wakw today number about 5,500, who live in British Columbia on northern Vancouver Island and the mainland. They are also known as \"Kwakiutl\" in English, from one of their tribes, but they prefer their autonym \"Kwakwaka'wakw\". Their indigenous language, part of the Wakashan family, is Kwak'wala. The name Kwakwaka'wakw means \"speakers of Kwak'wala\". The language is now spoken by less than 5% of the population—about 250 people. Today 17 separate tribes make up the Kwakwaka'wakw. Some Kwakwaka'wakw groups are now extinct. Kwak'wala is a Northern Wakashan language, a grouping shared with Haisla, Heiltsuk and Wuikyala. Kwakwaka'wakw centres of population on Vancouver Island include communities such as Fort Rupert, Alert Bay and Quatsino, The Kwakwaka'wakw tradition of the potlatch was banned by the federal government of Canada in 1885, but has been revived in recent decades.", "The Nuu-chah-nulth (pronounced [nuːʧanˀuɬ], or approximately \"new-cha-nulth\") are indigenous peoples in Canada. Their traditional home is on the west coast of Vancouver Island. In pre-contact and early post-contact times, the number of nations was much greater, but as in the rest of the region, smallpox and other consequences of contact resulted in the disappearance of some groups, and the absorption of others into neighbouring groups. They were among the first Pacific peoples north of California to come into contact with Europeans, as the Spanish, Americans and British attempted to secure control of Pacific Northwest and the trade in otter pelts, with Nootka Sound becoming a focus of these rivalries. The Nuu-chah-nulth speak a Southern Wakashan language and are closely related to the Makah of the Olympic Peninsula, Washington State and Ditidaht.", "The Coast Salish are the largest of the southern groups. They are a loose grouping of many tribes with numerous distinct cultures and languages. On Vancouver Island, Coast Salish peoples' territory traditionally spans from the northern limit of the Gulf of Georgia on the east side of Vancouver Island and covering most of southern Vancouver Island. Distinct nations within the Coast Salish peoples on Vancouver Island include the Chemainus, the Comox of the Comox Valley area, the Cowichan of the Cowichan Valley, the Esquimalt, the Saanich of the Saanich Peninsula, the Songhees of the Victoria area and Snuneymuxw in the Nanaimo area.", "Europeans began to explore the island in 1774, when rumours of Russian fur traders caused Spain to send a number of expeditions to assert its long-held claims to the Pacific Northwest. The first expedition was that of the \"Santiago\", under the command of Juan José Pérez Hernández. In 1775, a second Spanish expedition under the Spanish Peruvian captain Juan Francisco de la Bodega y Quadra was sent. By 1776 Spanish exploration had reached Bucareli Bay including the mouth of the Columbia River between Oregon and Washington, and Sitka Sound. Vancouver Island came to the attention of Britain after the third voyage of Captain James Cook, who spent a month during 1778 at Nootka Sound, on the island's western coast. Cook claimed it for Great Britain. The fur trade began expanding into the island; this would eventually lead to permanent settlement. Fur trader John Meares arrived in 1786 and set up a single-building trading post near the native village of Yuquot (Friendly Cove), at the entrance to Nootka Sound in 1788. The fur trade began expanding across the island; this would eventually lead to permanent settlement.", "The island was further explored by Spain in 1789 with Esteban José Martínez, who established the settlement of Yuquot and the artillery battery of Fort San Miguel at Friendly Cove, which Spain called Puerto de San Lorenzo de Nuca. This was to be the only Spanish settlement in what would later be Canada. Asserting their claim of exclusive sovereignty and navigation rights, the Spanish force seized the Portuguese-flagged British ships. British naval captain George Vancouver was sent to Nootka Sound in 1792 in order to negotiate a settlement. His Spanish counterpart in the negotiations was Juan Francisco de la Bodega y Quadra, who was commandant of Santa Cruz de Nuca in 1792. Vancouver had sailed as a midshipman with Cook. The negotiations between Vancouver and Bodega y Quadra ended in a deadlock with nothing resolved. Vancouver insisted the entire Spanish establishment be turned over, but Bodega y Quadra held that there were no buildings seized in 1789, and the only possible land was a tiny and useless cove nearby. The two decided to refer the entire matter back to their respective governments. The friendly meeting between Bodega y Quadra and Vancouver led the former to propose that the island be named after both: \"Quadra and Vancouver Island\", which became the original name. While we know this island today as \"Vancouver Island\", the English explorer had not intentionally meant to name such a large body of land solely after himself. In his September 1792 dispatch log report for the British Admiralty, Captain Vancouver reveals that his decision here was rather meant to honour a request by Bodega y Quadra that Vancouver: Bodega y Quadra wrote, however, that it was Vancouver who made the suggestion of combining their names to designate some geographical feature. In 1792, the Spanish explorer Dionisio Alcalá Galiano and his crew were the first Europeans to circumnavigate Vancouver Island. On April 8, 1806, Captain John D'Wolf of Bristol, Rhode Island, sailed the \"Juno\" to Newettee, a small inlet in the northwestern promontory of Vancouver's Island. The Captain described Newette as one of the southernmost harbors frequented by American fur traders at lat. 51 degrees N. and long. 128 degrees. He relates that since Captain Robert Gray of Tiverton, Rhode Island, had sailed the Columbia River in 1792, the trade of the Northwest coast had been almost entirely in the hands of Boston merchants, so much so that the natives called all traders \"Boston Men.\" A settlement was not successfully negotiated and ownership of the island remained in dispute between Britain and the Spain in the early 1790s. The two countries nearly began a war over the issue; the confrontation became known as the Nootka Crisis. That was averted when both agreed to recognize the other's rights to the area in the first Nootka Convention in 1790, a first step to peace. Finally, the two countries signed the second Nootka Convention in 1793 and the third Convention in 1794. As per that final agreement, the Spanish dismantled their fort at Nootka and left the area, giving the British sovereignty over Vancouver Island and the adjoining islands (including the Gulf Islands). For decades, \"Quadra's and Vancouver's Island\" was the most prominent name on maps of the coast, and appeared on most British, French and Spanish maps of the period. But as Spanish interests in the region dwindled, so did the use of Bodega y Quadra's name. The Hudson's Bay Company played a major part in the transition; by 1824 'Vancouver's Island' had become the usual designation in its correspondence for the island. A quarter of a century later, Vancouver Island had become such a well-known geographical feature that the founding of the Colony of Vancouver Island in 1849 gave this name full official status. Period references to \"Vancouver\" referred to Vancouver Island until the naming of the city of Vancouver in 1885.", "In March of 1843, James Douglas of the Hudson's Bay Company and a missionary had arrived and selected an area for settlement. Construction of the fort began in June of that year. This settlement was a fur trading post originally named Fort Albert (afterward Fort Victoria). The fort was located at the Songhees settlement of Camosack (Camosun), 200 metres northwest of the present-day Empress Hotel on Victoria's Inner Harbour. In 1846, the Oregon Treaty was signed by the British and the U.S. to settle the question of the U.S. Oregon Territory borders. The Treaty made the 49th parallel latitude north the official border between the two countries. In order to ensure that Britain retained all of Vancouver Island and the southern Gulf Islands, however, it was agreed that the border would swing south around that area. In 1849, the Colony of Vancouver Island was established. The Colony was leased to the Hudson’s Bay Company (HBC) for an annual fee of seven shillings; the Company's responsibility in return was to increase the population by promoting colonisation. The first independent settler arrived that year: Captain Walter Grant started a homestead in Sooke. Following the brief governorship of Richard Blanshard, James Douglas, Chief Factor of the Hudson's Bay post, assumed the role in 1851. The island's first legislative assembly was formed in 1856. Government buildings were built and were occupied in 1859; the replacement, today's Parliament Buildings, were opened in 1898. Fort Victoria had become an important base when prospectors, miners and merchants began arriving for the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush in 1858. The Hudson's Bay lease expired in 1859 and the island reverted to Great Britain. The burgeoning town was incorporated as Victoria in 1862. Victoria became the capital of the colony of Vancouver Island, retaining this status when the island was amalgamated with the mainland in 1866. A British naval base, including a large shipyard and a naval hospital, was established at Esquimalt in 1865 and eventually taken over by the Canadian military.", "The economic situation of the colony declined following the Cariboo Gold Rush of 1861–1862, and pressure grew for amalgamation of the colony with the mainland colony of British Columbia (which had been established in 1858). The two colonies were merged in 1866 into the United Colonies of Vancouver Island and British Columbia by the Act for the Union of the colonies, passed by the Imperial Parliament. Kennedy was appointed governor of the united entity. (He would leave office in 1866 and later became Governor of the West African Settlements, British West Africa.) Victoria became the capital but the legislative assembly was located in New Westminster on the Lower Mainland. The capital was moved to Victoria in 1868.", "By 1867, Canada was established by the \"British North America Act\" and the United Colonies joined Canada on 20 July 1871. Victoria was named the capital of the province of British Columbia. Three delegates were appointed to the federal government.", "Vancouver Island is located in the southwestern corner of the province of British Columbia. It is separated from the mainland of British Columbia by Johnstone Strait and Queen Charlotte Strait on the north and northeast, and by the Strait of Georgia on the southeast, which along with the Strait of Juan de Fuca along its southwest separate it from the United States (the Straits of Georgia and Juan de Fuca are now officially also part of the Salish Sea, which includes Puget Sound as well). West of the island is the open Pacific Ocean, while to its north is Queen Charlotte Sound. The Vancouver Island Ranges run most of the length of the island, dividing it into a wet and rugged west coast and a drier, more rolling east coast. The highest point in these ranges and on the island is the Golden Hinde, at. Located near the centre of Vancouver Island in Strathcona Provincial Park, it is part of a group of peaks that include the only glaciers on the island, the largest of which is the Comox Glacier. The west coast shoreline is rugged and in many places mountainous, characterized by its many fjords, bays, and inlets. The interior of the island has many lakes (Kennedy Lake, north of Ucluelet, is the largest) and rivers.", "There are a number of rivers draining the island, some of which though short are large in volume. Among the more notable rivers are the Somass River in the Alberni Valley, the Nimpkish River in the North Island region, the Englishman River up island from Nanaimo near Parksville, and the Cowichan River whose basin forms the Cowichan Valley region in the South Island region.", "Vancouver Island's major population centre and only metropolitan area is Greater Victoria. There are also six census agglomeration areas as defined by Statistics Canada, including Nanaimo which has a population over 100,000 and as of 2016 is eligible to become a CMA. These metropolitan and agglomeration areas' populations in 2016 were as follows:", "The climate is the mildest in Canada, with temperatures on the coast even in January being usually above. In summer, the warmest days usually achieve a maximum of. However, the rain shadow effect of the island's mountains, as well as the mountains of Washington's Olympic Peninsula, creates wide variation in precipitation. The west coast is considerably wetter than the east coast. Average annual precipitation ranges from at Henderson Lake on the west coast (making it the wettest place in North America) to only at Victoria Gonzales, the driest recording station in the provincial capital of Victoria. Precipitation is heaviest in the autumn and winter. Snow is rare at low altitudes but is common on the island's mountaintops in winter. A notable feature of Vancouver Island is the extension of summer dryness to latitudes as high as 50°N. Only in the extreme north of the island near Port Hardy is the rainfall of the driest summer month as much as \"one fifth\" that of the wettest months from November to March. West coasts of other continents at similar latitudes have a practically even distribution of rainfall through the year.", "Vancouver Island is mostly made up of volcanic and sedimentary rock which was formed offshore on the now disappeared Kula oceanic plate. Around 55 million years ago, a microplate of the Kula Plate subducted below the North American continental margin with great strain. A volcanic arc on the surface of the Kula Plate was thus accreted and fused onto the western edge of North America. These terranes were subjected to extreme warping from continued subduction of the Kula plate, leading to the formation of the distorted Insular Mountains. Much of the central mountainous region around Strathcona Park is part of the Karmutsen Formation, which is a sequence of tholeiitic pillow basalts and breccias. Since Vancouver Island has become an accretionary wedge on the North American continent, the Kula Plate has fully subducted beneath it and the remnants of the Farallon Plate, the Juan de Fuca Plate, are now subducting below the island. This process has led to Vancouver Island being one of the most seismically active regions in Canada. The subduction zone off the coast of the island forms a section of the Pacific Ring of Fire. The area has been known to host megathrust earthquakes in the past, the last occurring in 1700. In 1946, the Forbidden Plateau in the east of the Vancouver Island Ranges was the epicentre of an earthquake that registered 7.3 on the moment magnitude scale, the strongest ever recorded on land in Canada. Vancouver Island was the location of the observation of the episodic tremor and slip seismic phenomenon.", "Vancouver Island lies in the temperate rainforest biome. On the southern and eastern portions of the island, this is characterized by Douglas fir, western red cedar, arbutus (or madrone), Garry oak, salal, Oregon grape, and manzanita; moreover, Vancouver Island is the location where the Douglas fir was first recorded by Archibald Menzies. Vancouver Island is also the location where some of the tallest Douglas fir were recorded. This southeastern portion of the island is the most heavily populated region of Vancouver Island and a major area for recreation. The northern, western, and most of the central portions of the island are home to the coniferous \"big trees\" associated with British Columbia's coast – western hemlock, western red cedar, Pacific silver fir, yellow cedar, Douglas fir, grand fir, Sitka spruce, and western white pine. It is also characterised by bigleaf maple, red alder, sword fern, and red huckleberry. The fauna of Vancouver Island is similar to that found on the mainland coast, with some notable exceptions and additions. For example, mountain goats, moose, porcupines, chipmunks, and numerous species of small mammals, while plentiful on the mainland, are absent from Vancouver Island. Grizzly bears are absent from the island, where black bears are prevalent, but in 2016 a pair of grizzlies were sighted swimming between smaller islands off the coast near Port McNeill. Vancouver Island does support most of Canada's Roosevelt elk, however, and several mammal species and subspecies, such as the Vancouver Island marmot are unique to the island. The island's rivers, lakes, and coastal regions are renowned for their fisheries of trout, salmon, and Steelhead. It has the most concentrated population of cougars in North America. Wolves are also present on this island. After near-total extirpation by fur traders in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, sea otters (\"Enhydra lutris\") were protected by international treaty in 1911. Despite protection, the remnant population off Vancouver Island died out with the last sea otter taken near Kyuquot in 1929. From 1969 to 1972, 89 sea otters were flown or shipped from Alaska to the west coast of Vancouver Island. This population expanded to over 3,000, and their range on the island's west coast expanded from Cape Scott in the north to Barkley Sound to the south.", "", "Within the island's largest city, Victoria, there is a significant IT and technology industry. According to the Victoria Advanced Technology Council website, over 800 technology companies operate in the Victoria area, with combined annual revenues of $1.95 billion. High-speed internet is delivered to the island by Shaw Communications, Telus, and various local providers with their own networks. Wireless Internet connections can be found all over the island, many free for public use. While the island does generate much of its own power at several hydroelectric stations, increased demand required the construction of several high-voltage power cables, both HVDC and AC, connecting to the Canadian Mainland. See power lines connecting Vancouver Island with Canadian Mainland.", "Outside of Victoria, Vancouver Island's economy is largely dominated by the forestry industry. Many of the logging operations are for export, although, historically, were for sawn lumber and pulp and paper operations. Recently, rotations are much shorter than the historical 80 years. Logging operations involving old-growth forests such as those found in Clayoquot Sound are controversial and have gained international attention through the efforts of activists and environmental organizations. Another source of controversy all over the island are logging operations occurring in community watersheds.", "Fishing plays a large role in the lives of many islanders. Commercial fishing vessels operate out of the island's ports and harbours, and coastal fish farms produce many tons of Atlantic salmon yearly.", "In recent years the government of British Columbia has engaged in an advertising program to draw more tourists to beach resorts in places such as Tofino and Ucluelet. Sport fishing, whale-watching, hiking, SCUBA diving, surfing, and skiing are just a few things for which tourists visit Vancouver Island. Visitors also come to see Victoria's nineteenth-century architecture, and the many villages which line the coast such Cowichan Bay, Chemainus, and Qualicum Beach.", "Consumer food products companies also exist in the various cities and towns on Vancouver Island. Bakeries, dairies, food processing plants, breweries, wineries, of varying size and scope, are found all along the island. Some of these organizations have international customer reach.", "Vancouver Island is home to a handful of universities, several colleges and trade-schools, hundreds of public schools, and a few dozen private schools (including Montessori and Waldorf schools).", "There are 12 school districts on Vancouver Island with several elementary, junior high, and high schools in each. Three school districts are in the Greater Victoria area and the other eight cover the rest of the island to the north. All public schooling falls under the jurisdiction of the British Columbia Ministry of Education.", "", "Marine transport is very important to Vancouver Island for access to the mainland of British Columbia and Washington. There are no bridges connecting the island to the mainland, although the idea of building one has been brought up many times. Major technical issues and cost are the largest barriers to a bridge currently though exact public support for the idea is not currently known. The only vehicle access to Vancouver Island is by ferry. BC Ferries, Washington State Ferries and Black Ball Transport Inc. operate the seven vehicle ferry routes to the island. BC Ferries Washington State Ferries Black Ball Transport Passenger-only service In addition, there is passenger-only ferry services from the mainland to Vancouver Island:", "The Island Corridor Foundation (ICF), a federally registered charity, was established in 2006 for the purposes of owning and managing the former Esquimalt and Nanaimo Railway (E&N) Corridor on Vancouver Island. The ICF has established a contract with Southern Rail of Vancouver Island (SVI) to move all rail freight on the island to and from the mainland. SVI is a private commercial rail company and subsidiary of Southern Rail of British Columbia, a short line rail operator that is part of the Washington Transportation Group. SVI assumed operating control from RailAmerica in July 2006 and offers general freight service only on the north Nanaimo to South Duncan segment of the Victoria–Courtenay main line (called the Victoria Subdivision by the railroad). The Port Alberni branch line (called the Port Alberni Subdivision by the railroad) has been out of service since late 2001. Passenger service, which had been operated by Via Rail under contract, was halted in 2011 after it was identified that a portion of the line failed to meet operating requirements for passenger service. Since then, there have been ongoing efforts to secure funding from various levels of government to complete the necessary repairs, but the decision remains open. Western Forest Products operates the Englewood Railway which is Canada's last logging railway, running from Woss to Beaver Cove on the northern end of the island. The former Canadian National Railway line running from Victoria to the Cowichan Valley was abandoned in the late 1980s/early 1990s, and the former grade between Victoria and Sooke is now the multi-use Galloping Goose Regional Trail. The BC Forest Discovery Centre has a narrow gauge railway winding around the park, and the Alberni Pacific Railway operates a tour train during the summer from the restored E&N Railway station in Port Alberni to the McLean's Mill on former E&N Railway trackage that is now owned by the ICF.", "There is one major north-south highway system on the island, which runs along the eastern side. It begins in Victoria as Highway 1 which is part of the Trans-Canada Highway system as far as Nanaimo. There, Highway 19 takes over and continues to Port Hardy. The route is a patchwork of two-, four-, and six-lane roadways between Victoria and Port Hardy. The engineering characteristics and traffic control systems of the roadway vary widely from one city or district to the next and include the following variations: Trans-Canada Highway: Highway 19: Without a \"fixed link\" to the BC mainland, there is little probability of substantial improvements in the mobility characteristics of some of the more congested or heavily signalized sections of the Island Trans-Canada Highway or the Nanaimo Parkway. Proposals have been made for this kind of link for over a century. Because of the extreme depth and soft seabed of the Georgia Strait, and the potential for seismic activity, a bridge or tunnel would face monumental engineering, safety, and environmental challenges at a prohibitive cost. Another north-south route is Highway 17 a four-lane divided highway that has a mix of interchanges and traffic lights. It connects Victoria with the Saanich Peninsula, terminating the Vancouver Island portion of its route at the Swartz Bay Ferry Terminal. The main east-west routes are mostly two-lane but are generally free of the congestion seen on some of the four-lane highways. They comprise the following: Vancouver Island is also well served by secondary routes, a growing number of which have efficient roundabouts in place of the traffic lights that can back up traffic on the main highway routes. Numerous active and decommissioned logging and forest service roads provide access into the back country. Many communities are served by public and private transit. Greater Victoria is one of the few places in North America where double-decker buses are used in the regular public transit system. Tofino Bus All Island Express serves all major cities on Vancouver Island including Greyhound stations.", "Victoria International Airport (YYJ) CFB Comox (YQQ) Nanaimo Airport (YCD) Qualicum Beach Airport (XQU), Tofino Airport (YAZ), Campbell River Airport (YBL) and Port Hardy Airport (YZT) Harbour Airports and Heliports" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Uses on a road.", "Configurations.", "Drum types.", "Tyre roller types.", "Manufacturers." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The first road rollers were horse-drawn, and were probably just borrowed farm implements\" (see Roller)\". Since the effectiveness of a roller depends to a large extent on its weight, self-powered vehicles replaced horse-drawn rollers from the mid-19th century. The first such vehicles were steam rollers. Single-cylinder steam rollers were generally used for base compaction and run with high engine revs with low gearing to promote bounce and vibration from the crankshaft through to the rolls in much the same way as a vibrating roller. The double cylinder or compound steam rollers became popular from around 1910 onwards and were used mainly for the rolling of hot-laid surfaces due to their smoother running engines, but both cylinder types are capable of rolling the finished surface. Steam rollers were often dedicated to a task by their gearing as the slower engines were for base compaction whereas the higher geared models were often referred to as \"chip chasers\" which followed behind the hot tar and chipping laying machines. Some road companies in the United States used steamrollers through the 1950s, and in the UK, some remained in commercial service until the early 1970s. As internal combustion engine technology improved during the 20th century, kerosene-, gasoline- (petrol), and diesel-powered rollers gradually replaced their steam-powered counterparts. The first internal-combustion powered road rollers were very similar to the steam rollers they replaced. They used similar mechanisms to transmit power from the engine to the wheels, typically large, exposed spur gears. Some users did not like them in their infancy, as the engines of the era were typically difficult to start, particularly the kerosene-powered ones. Virtually all road rollers in commercial use now use diesel power.", "Road rollers use the weight of the vehicle to compress the surface being rolled (static) or use mechanical advantage (vibrating). Initial compaction of the substrate on a road project is done using a padfoot drum roller, which achieves higher compaction density due to the pads having less surface area. On large freeways, a four-wheel compactor with padfoot drum and a blade, such as a Caterpillar 815/825 series machine, would be used due to its high weight, speed, and the powerful pushing force to spread bulk material. On regional roads, a smaller single padfoot drum machine may be used. The next machine is usually a single smooth drum compactor that compacts the high spots down until the soil is smooth, and this is usually done in combination with a motor grader to get a level surface. Sometimes at this stage a pneumatic tyre roller would be used. These rollers feature two rows (front and back) of pneumatic tyres that overlap, and the flexibility of the tyres provides a kneading action that seals the surface and with some vertical movement of the wheels, enables the roller to operate effectively on uneven ground. Once the soil base is flat the pad drum compactor is no longer used on the road surface. The next course (road base) would be compacted using a smooth single drum, smooth tandem roller, or pneumatic tyre roller in combination with a grader and a water truck to achieve the desired flat surface with the right moisture content for optimum compaction. Once the road base is compacted, the smooth single drum compactor is no longer used on the road surface (there is, however, an exception if the single drum has special flat-wide-base tyres on the machine). The final wear course of asphalt concrete (a.k.a. asphalt or blacktop in North America, or macadam in England) is laid using a paver and compacted using a tandem smooth drum roller, a three-point roller or a pneumatic tyre roller. Three point rollers on asphalt were very common once and are still used, but tandem vibrating rollers are the usual choice now, with the pneumatic tyre roller's kneading action being the last roller to seal off the surface. Rollers are also used in landfill compaction. Such compactors typically have padfoot or \"sheep's foot\" drums, and do not achieve a smooth surface. The pads aid in compression, due to the smaller area contacting the ground.", "The roller can be a simple drum with a handle that is operated by one person and weighs or as large as a ride-on road roller weighing and costing more than US$150,000. A landfill unit may weigh.", "Drums are available in widths ranging from.", "Tyre rollers are available in widths ranging up to, with between 7 and 11 wheels (e.g. 3 wheels at front, 4 at back): 7 and 8 wheel types are normally used in Europe and Africa; 9 and 11 in America; and any type in Asia. Very heavy tyre rollers are used to compact soil.", "KEY:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Performance history.", "Premiere seasons in Paris.", "Early performances outside Paris.", "Twentieth century.", "Twenty-first century.", "Synopsis.", "Act 1.", "Act 2.", "Act 3.", "Act 4.", "Act 5.", "Costume designs for the first production.", "Reception.", "Influence.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Giacomo Meyerbeer's early studies had been in Germany, but from 1816 to 1825 he worked in Italy. There he studied opera, then dominated by Gioachino Rossini, and wrote his own Italian operas, which were moderately successful and also had some performances in other European countries. The success of \"Il crociato in Egitto\" (1824) throughout Europe, including at Paris in 1825, persuaded Meyerbeer, who was already thirty-three years old, to fulfil at last his ambition to base himself in Paris, and to seek a suitable libretto for an opera to be launched there. Meyerbeer first mentions \"Robert le diable\" in his diaries in February 1827. The \"Journal de Paris\" announced on 19 April 1827 that the libretto of Scribe and Delavigne had been passed by the censor and that 'the music is to be entrusted to a composer, M. Meyer-Beer, who, having acquired a brilliant reputation in Germany and Italy, is extending it to our country, where several of his works have been already successfully represented.' The libretto was fabricated on the basis of old legends about Duke Robert the Magnificent of Normandy, the father of William the Conqueror, alleged in some versions to have been the son of the Devil. The librettists padded out this outline with a variety of melodramatic incidents. The plot reflected 'the fantastic legendary elements which fascinated the opera public of 1830', a taste which had evolved from the 1824 Paris production of Carl Maria von Weber's \"Der Freischütz\" (in its French version \"Robin des bois\"), which also features a doubtful hero befriended by a demon promising him success. The libretto was originally planned as a three-act \"opéra comique\" for the Opéra-Comique theatre. Meyerbeer stopped work on the opera in 1827 when the theatre underwent financial difficulties. In August 1829, the composer and librettists agreed to refashion the work in a five-act form to meet the requirements of the Paris Opéra. This entailed some significant rewriting of the storyline, reducing the essentially comic role of Raimbaut (who vanishes after Act 3 in the final version, but whose antics – including the spending of Bertram's money – continued throughout in the earlier libretto). It also meant that the traditional 'pairing' of lovers in opéra comique (Robert/Isabelle paralleled throughout by the 'lower-class' Raimbaut/Alice) was swept aside in favour of concentration on the more sensational story-line of Robert's diabolic ancestry. The contract for the opera, specifying it as a \"grand opera in five acts and seven scenes\", was signed by the then director of the Opéra, Émile Lubbert, on 29 December 1829. Meyerbeer completed the composition of the work in Spa, Belgium in June and July 1830. Its characterisation as a 'grand opera' placed it in succession to Auber's \"La muette de Portici\" (1828) and Rossini's \"Guillaume Tell\" (1829) in this new genre. The composer undertook further work on the opera in early 1831, converting spoken passages to recitatives and adding ballet episodes, including, in Act 3, the \"Ballet of the Nuns\", which was to prove one of the opera's great sensations, and which Henri Duponchel had suggested to replace the original humdrum scenario set in Olympus. He also rewrote the two major male roles of Bertrand and Robert to suit the talents of Nicolas Levasseur and Adolphe Nourrit, respectively.", "", "The opera premiered on 21 November 1831 at the Paris Opéra. The success owed much to the opera's star singers – Levasseur as Bertram, Nourrit as Robert — and to the provocative \"Ballet of the Nuns\" in the third act, featuring the great ballerina, Marie Taglioni. The choreography for the ballet was elaborated by the ballerina's father, Filippo Taglioni. The audience's prurient delight in this scandalous scene is well conveyed by the reviewer for the \"Revue des Deux-Mondes\": A crowd of mute shades glides through the arches. All these women cast off their nuns' costume, they shake off the cold powder of the grave; suddenly they throw themselves into the delights of their past life; they dance like bacchantes, they play like lords, they drink like sappers. What a pleasure to see these light women... The set for the ballet was an innovative and striking design by Henri Duponchel and Pierre-Luc-Charles Ciceri. Duponchel had also introduced technical innovations for the staging, including 'English traps' for the sudden appearance and disappearance of the ghosts. (Meyerbeer was led to complain that the spectacle was too much and was pushing his music into the background). Taglioni danced the Abbess only six times in Paris; she was replaced by Louise Fitzjames, (who danced the role 232 times). At the invitation of Nourrit, Cornélie Falcon made her debut at the age of 18 at the Opéra in the role of Alice on 20 July 1832. The cast included Nourrit. Although suffering from stage fright, Falcon managed to sing her first aria without error, and finished her role with \"ease and competence.\" Her tragic demeanor and dark looks were highly appropriate to the part, and she made a vivid impression on the public, which included on that night Auber, Berlioz, Halévy, Maria Malibran, Giulia Grisi, Honoré Daumier, Alexandre Dumas and Victor Hugo. On hearing her in the role, Meyerbeer himself declared his opera at last 'complete'. By April 1834 the opera had received over 100 performances in Paris. Nourrit sang the role of Robert until 1837, when he was replaced as premier tenor at the Opéra by Gilbert Duprez, whom, however, Meyerbeer did not like in the role; nor did he approve of an alternative, Lafont. However, he was impressed by the newcomer Mario (Cavaliere Giovanni Matteo di Candia), and wrote for him a new aria for Robert which was performed at his debut in the revival of the opera on 30 November 1838. Mario's debut was the launch of his very successful career. Others singing in the 1838 revival included Julie Dorus-Gras (Alice), Prosper Dérivis (Bertram) and François Wartel (Raimbaut). By Meyerbeer's death in 1864 the opera had been performed over 470 times in Paris alone.", "A succession of representations throughout Europe and in the Americas launched Meyerbeer's international fame. A version of the opera – under the title of \"The Fiend-Father\", by Rophino Lacy – was first presented in London at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane on 20 February 1832; the original version appeared at the Haymarket Theatre on 11 June of that year. Lacy's version was given in New York on 7 April 1834. In 1832 the opera reached Berlin, Strasbourg, Dublin and Liège; in 1833 Brussels, Copenhagen, Vienna and Marseilles; in 1834 Lyon, Budapest, The Hague, Amsterdam and Saint Petersburg; in 1835 (12 May) it obtained its first American performance in the original French at the Théâtre d'Orléans in New Orleans. Italian versions were given in Lisbon in 1838, and in Florence in 1840. Meyerbeer took particular care over the first London and Berlin productions. He travelled to London to check the singers and production for the original version, and requested that the German translation for Berlin be undertaken by the poet Ludwig Rellstab, strongly recommending that Taglioni and her father Fillipo be re-engaged, and that Ciceri's sets should be reproduced. Although Taglioni danced and the sets were retained, the translation was eventually carried out by Meyerbeer's friend Theodor Hell. Meyerbeer wrote additional ballet music for Taglioni for the Berlin production. The Danish choreographer August Bournonville saw Fitzjames's performance as the Abbess in Paris in 1841, and based his own choreography, which was used in Copenhagen between 1833 and 1863, on this. This choreography, which has been fully preserved, represents the only record of Filippo Taglioni's original. In 1847 Felix Mendelssohn attended a London performance of \"Robert\" – an opera which musically he despised – in order to hear Jenny Lind's British debut, in the role of Alice. The music critic Henry Chorley, who was with him, wrote \"I see as I write the smile with which Mendelssohn, whose enjoyment of Mdlle. Lind's talent was unlimited, turned round and looked at me, as if a load of anxiety had been taken off his mind.\"", "During the early twentieth century, Meyerbeer's operas gradually disappeared from the stage, partly due to their length and expense to mount, partly due to their denigration by supporters of Wagnerian opera. In 1898, George Bernard Shaw, in \"The Perfect Wagnerite\", had already cast scorn on \"Robert\" and commented that \"Nowadays young people cannot understand how anyone could have taken Meyerbeer's influence seriously.\" Nevertheless, productions of \"Robert\" included those in New Orleans and Nice in 1901, Paris (at the Gaité Lyrique) in 1911, Barcelona in 1917, at the Vienna Volksoper in 1921 and Bordeaux in 1928. The first production after the Second World War was in Florence in 1968, a shortened version with a cast including Renata Scotto and Boris Christoff. In 1984 the revival at the Paris Opéra with Rockwell Blake (Robert), Samuel Ramey (Bertram), Walter Donati (Raimbaut), Michèle Lagrange (Alice) and June Anderson (Isabelle) was the first performance there since 1893. In 1999 a new production was mounted at the Prague State Opera. A performance of a new critical edition of \"Robert le diable\" by Wolfgang Kühnhold was presented at the Berlin State Opera in March 2000 with Jianyi Zhang (Robert), Stephan Rügamer (Raimbaut), Kwangchul Youn (Bertram), Marina Mescheriakova (Alice), and Nelly Miricioiu (Isabelle), conducted by Marc Minkowski.", "A new production of the opera, directed by Laurent Pelly, was premiered at the Royal Opera House London on 6 December 2012, the first time it had been performed there since 1890. At La Monnaie, Brussels, there were concert performances of \"Robert le Diable\" in April 2019, with Dmitry Korchak as Robert, Nicolas Courjal as Bertram and Lisette Oropesa as Isabelle, conducted by Evelino Pidò.", "The plot of the opera has been often cut or rearranged in various productions. The outline given below follows the description given in \"The New Grove Dictionary of Opera\" (1992).", "\"On the shore at Palermo\" Robert and his mysterious friend Bertram are among a group of knights who are preparing to compete in a tournament for the hand of Princess Isabelle. They all praise wine, women and gambling (\"Versez à tasses pleines\"). Robert's attendant Raimbaut sings a ballad about a beautiful princess from Normandy who married a devil; the princess had a son, Robert, known as 'le diable'. Robert indignantly reveals that he is the son in question and condemns Raimbaut to death. Raimbaut begs for pardon and tells Robert that he is engaged to marry. Robert relents and relishes the thought of the \"droit du seigneur\". Raimbaut's fianceé arrives; Robert recognizes her as his foster-sister Alice and pardons Raimbaut. Alice tells Robert that his mother has died and that her last words were a warning about a threatening dark force (\"Va! Va! dit-elle\"). She offers Robert his mother's will. Robert is too overcome to read it and asks Alice to keep it for the present. Robert expresses his longing for his beloved Isabelle and Alice offers to take a letter to her. Alice warns Robert to beware of Bertram but he ignores her. With Bertram's encouragement, Robert gambles with the knights and loses all of his money, as well as his armour.", "\"A room in the palace at Palermo\" Isabelle is sad at Robert's absence and expresses her unease that their marriage will never take place (\"En vain j’espère\"). She is delighted when she receives Robert's letter. Robert arrives and the pair express their pleasure at being together again. Isabelle provides him with new armour for the tournament. Robert is preparing for the tournament when Bertram suddenly appears and persuades Robert to go to a nearby forest, claiming that the Prince of Granada, his rival for Isabelle's love, wants to fight with him. When Robert has left, the court gathers to celebrate the marriage of six couples with dancing. The Prince of Granada enters and asks Isabelle to present him with arms for the tournament. Isabelle expresses her sorrow at Robert's disappearance but prepares to open the tournament, singing in praise of chivalry (\"La trompette guerrière\").", "\"The countryside near Palermo\" Bertram meets Raimbaut, who has arrived for an assignation with Alice. He gives him a bag of gold and advises him not to marry Alice as his new wealth will attract plenty of women (\"Ah! l’honnête homme\"). Raimbaut leaves and Bertram gloats at having corrupted him. Bertram reveals that Robert, to whom he is truly devoted, is his son; he then enters an adjoining cave to commune with the spirits of hell. Alice enters and expresses her love for Raimbaut (\"Quand je quittai la Normandie\"). She overhears strange chanting coming from the cave and decides to listen; she learns that Bertram will lose Robert forever if he cannot persuade him to sign away his soul to the Devil by midnight. On emerging from the cave, Bertram realizes that Alice has heard everything (\"Mais Alice, qu’as-tu donc?\"). He threatens her and she promises to keep silent. Robert arrives, mourning the loss of Isabelle, and Bertram tells him that to win her he should seize a magic branch from the tomb of Saint Rosalia in a nearby deserted cloister. Although to take it is sacrilege, the branch will give Robert magical powers. Robert declares that he will be bold and do as Bertram instructs. Bertram leads Robert to the cloister. The ghosts of nuns rise from their tombs, beckoned by Bertram, and dance, praising the pleasures of drinking, gambling and lust. Robert seizes the branch and fends off the demons who surround him.", "\"A room in the palace\" Isabelle is preparing for her marriage with the Prince of Granada. Alice rushes in to inform her of what she has learnt about Robert, but she is interrupted by envoys of the Prince who enter bearing gifts. Robert arrives and, using the power of the branch, freezes everyone except himself and Isabelle. Unsettled by the power he's wielding, he confesses to Isabelle that he is using witchcraft, but begs her not to reject him. She expresses her love for him and implores him to repent (\"Robert, toi que j'aime\"). Robert breaks the branch and the spell it has created, and is taken into custody by Isabelle's attendants.", "\"Outside Palermo Cathedral\" A group of monks extol the power of the Church. Bertram has freed Robert from the guards and the two arrive to prevent the marriage of Isabelle to the Prince of Granada. Bertram attempts to get Robert to sign a document in which he promises to serve Bertram for all eternity. He reveals to Robert that he is his true father and Robert decides to sign the oath from filial devotion. Before he can do so, Alice appears with the news that the Prince has been prevented from marrying Isabelle. Alice prays for divine help (\"Dieu puissant, ciel propice\") and hands Robert his mother's will. Robert reads his mother's message, in which she warns him to beware the man who seduced and ruined her. Robert is wracked by indecision. Midnight strikes and the time for Bertram's coup is past. He is drawn down to hell. Robert is reunited with Isabelle in the cathedral, to great rejoicing.", "The costumes were designed by.", "A number of factors influenced the opera's very favourable reception. The initial cast contained leading singers of the period and, as it changed, equally brilliant stars (e.g. Falcon) were introduced as replacements. The sensational plot and the notoriety of the Nuns' ballet ensured that the opera was a hot topic in journals and reviews. This was assisted by the marketing skills of the director Véron and the publisher Schlesinger. The scenery was of exceptional quality: \"This was as much an opera to see as to hear, and it has been argued that the real hero behind \"Robert le diable\" was Cicéri, the designer.\" Meyerbeer was keen to keep influential persons on his side. For example, he sent free tickets for 'a good box' to Heinrich Heine. And of course the businessman Véron knew how to use (and pay) the claque and its leader Augustin Levasseur. But undoubtedly the novelty and colour of the music of Meyerbeer deserves major credit. The alliance of his German musical training, along with his study of opera for many years in Italy, was highly attractive to a Parisian audience which 'asked only to be astonished and surprised.' The critic Ortigue wrote that Meyerbeer'straight away [took] his position at the crossroads where Italian song and German orchestration have to meet.' Meyerbeer paid close attention to unusual combinations and textures and original orchestration, examples being the use of low brass and woodwind playing chromatic passages associated with Bertram; the use of a brass band and male choir to characterise the demons in Act 3; and so on. Hector Berlioz was particularly impressed; he wrote an entire article in the \"Revue et gazette musicale\", entitled 'On the Orchestration of \"Robert le diable\" ', which concluded: The opera was perceived to have weaknesses of characterization. For example, Robert's dithering behaviour led to one comment that \"what is least diabolical in \"Robert le diable\" is Robert himself.\" But the critic Fétis gave the consensus opinion: \"\"Robert le diable\" is not only a masterpiece; it is also a remarkable work within the history of music...[it] seems to me to unite all the qualities needed to establish a composer's reputation unshakeably.\" The success of the opera led to Meyerbeer himself becoming a celebrity. King Frederick William III of Prussia, who attended the second performance of \"Robert\", swiftly invited him to compose a German opera, and Meyerbeer was invited to stage \"Robert\" in Berlin. In January 1832 he was awarded membership of the Légion d'honneur. This success – coupled with Meyerbeer's known family wealth – inevitably also precipitated envy amongst his peers. Berlioz wrote \"I can't forget that Meyerbeer was only able to persuade [the Opéra] to put on \"Robert le diable\"... by paying the administration sixty thousand francs of his own money\"; and Chopin lamented \"Meyerbeer had to work for three years and pay his own expenses for his stay in Paris before \"Robert le diable\" could be staged... Three years, that's a lot – it's too much.\"", "The success of \"Robert\" had profound consequences, for the institution of the Paris Opéra itself, for the music, staging and popularity of nineteenth century opera as a whole, and for ballet. The fortuitous timing of the opera's premiere, not long after the July Revolution, and its sensational and novel effects, meant that it was widely identified with the new, liberal, ideas of the July Monarchy. As Berlioz commented, Meyerbeer had \"not only the luck to be talented, but the talent to be lucky.\" Honoré de Balzac (in his novella \"Gambara\") and Heinrich Heine (in his poem \"Angélique\") are just two of the contemporary writers to express their fascination with the opera. Alexandre Dumas set a chapter of \"The Count of Monte Cristo\" between two acts of \"Robert\"; and George Sand wrote about it at length in her \"Lettres d'un voyageur\". It is the only nineteenth-century opera to have a rose named after it. Also, the absence of starchy historical content in \"Robert\" doubtless played a part in attracting the bourgeoisie to the opera, until then regarded as primarily an aristocratic entertainment. The success of the opera also justified the government's policy of 'privatization' in selling the management to Véron, and this was a landmark in the dilution of state control and patronage in the fine arts. Although Véron had not commissioned it (having taken control only after the Revolution), \"Robert\" was his first new production as manager of the Opéra, and its success underwrote his policy of commissioning similar works. These were to include Meyerbeer's \"Les Huguenots\", Fromental Halévy's \"La Juive\", and Daniel Auber's \"Gustave III\". However, while they used 'the same dazzling theatrical rhetoric' as \"Robert\", they led to 'uniformly horrific dénouements' with 'gripping moral urgency', their more sophisticated plot-lines reflecting the changes in taste of the new opera clientele. They, with the Opéra itself as its centre, in the period 1830 until 1850. The Act 3 ballet is regarded by some as the first of the \"ballets blancs\" (whereby the principal ballerina and the corps de ballet are all clothed in white) which became a favourite of the nineteenth-century repertoire. Later examples include \"La Sylphide\" (1832) (also choreographed by Filippo Taglioni and danced by his daughter), \"Giselle\" (1841), \"Pas de Quatre\" (1845) and \"Les Sylphides\" (1909). Music from the opera became the subject of numerous virtuoso works of the time. The brilliant transcription of its themes (\"Reminiscences de Robert le diable\") made by the composer and virtuoso Franz Liszt was so popular that it became his calling card: on more than one occasion he was forced to interrupt his programmed concerts to play it because of the demands of the audience. On the day of its publication by Maurice Schlesinger, the edition of 500 was completely sold out and it had to be immediately reprinted. Indeed, the success of \"Robert\", whose score was also published by Schlesinger, was said to have saved him from bankruptcy. Frédéric Chopin and Auguste Franchomme jointly composed a \"Grand duo concertant\" on themes from the opera, for cello and piano, in 1832, and the Italian pianist and composer Adolfo Fumagalli composed an elaborate fantasy on the opera for left hand alone as his Op. 106. Other pieces based on the opera included works by Adolf von Henselt and Jean-Amédée Méreaux. Edgar Degas painted the scene of the Nuns' ballet twice. The earlier version (1871) is in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. In 1876 Degas painted a larger version for the singer Jean-Baptiste Faure (who had sung the part of Bertram); this version is in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London. The work's popularity spawned many parodies and pastiches including one by W. S. Gilbert, \"Robert the Devil\", which opened at the Gaiety Theatre, London in 1868. It is referenced in the opening scene of Andrew Lloyd Webber's \"The Phantom of the Opera\", where an auction item is described as \"Lot 664: a wooden pistol and three human skulls from the 1831 production of \"Robert le Diable\" by Meyerbeer.\"", "Notes Printed sources Online sources" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Components.", "Inductively coupled plasma.", "Mass spectrometry.", "Applications.", "Hardware.", "Sample introduction.", "Plasma torch.", "Advantage of argon.", "Transfer of ions into vacuum.", "Ion optics.", "Collision reaction cell and iCRC.", "Routine maintenance.", "Sample preparation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "An inductively coupled plasma is a plasma that is energized (ionized) by inductively heating the gas with an electromagnetic coil, and contains a sufficient concentration of ions and electrons to make the gas electrically conductive. Even a partially ionized gas in which as little as 1% of the particles are ionized can have the characteristics of a plasma (i.e., response to magnetic fields and high electrical conductivity). The plasmas used in spectrochemical analysis are essentially electrically neutral, with each positive charge on an ion balanced by a free electron. In these plasmas the positive ions are almost all singly charged and there are few negative ions, so there are nearly equal amounts of ions and electrons in each unit volume of plasma. What makes Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS) unique to other forms of inorganic mass spectrometry is its ability to sample the analyte continuously, without interruption. This", "For coupling to mass spectrometry, the ions from the plasma are extracted through a series of cones into a mass spectrometer, usually a quadrupole. The ions are separated on the basis of their mass-to-charge ratio and a detector receives an ion signal proportional to the concentration. The concentration", "One of the largest volume uses for ICP-MS is in the medical and forensic field, specifically, toxicology. A physician may order a metal assay for a number of reasons, such as suspicion of heavy metal poisoning, metabolic concerns, and even hepatological issues. Depending on the specific parameters unique to each patient's diagnostic plan, samples collected for analysis can range from whole blood, urine, plasma, serum, to even packed red blood cells. Another primary use for this instrument lies in the environmental field. Such applications include water testing for municipalities or private individuals all the way to soil, water and other material analysis for industrial purposes. In the forensic field, glass ICP-MS is popular for glass analysis. Trace elements on glass can be detected using the LA-ICP-MS. The trace elements from the glass can be used to match a sample found at the crime scene to a suspect. In recent years, industrial and biological monitoring has presented another major need for metal analysis via ICP-MS. Individuals working in factories where exposure to metals is likely and unavoidable, such as a battery factory, are required by their employer to have their blood or urine analyzed for metal toxicity on a regular basis. This monitoring has become a mandatory practice implemented by OSHA, in an effort to protect workers from their work environment and ensure proper rotation of work duties (i.e. rotating employees from a high exposure position to a low exposure position). ICP-MS is also used widely in the geochemistry field for radiometric dating, in which it is used to analyze relative abundance of different isotopes, in particular uranium and lead. ICP-MS is more suitable for this application than the previously used thermal ionization mass spectrometry, as species with high ionization energy such as osmium and tungsten can be easily ionized. For high precision ratio work, multiple collector instruments are normally used to reduce the effect noise on the calculated ratios. In the field of flow cytometry, a new technique uses ICP-MS to replace the traditional fluorochromes. Briefly, instead of labelling antibodies (or other biological probes) with fluorochromes, each antibody is labelled with a distinct combinations of lanthanides. When the sample of interest is analysed by ICP-MS in a specialised flow cytometer, each antibody can be identified and quantitated by virtue of a distinct ICP \"footprint\". In theory, hundreds of different biological probes can thus be analysed in an individual cell, at a rate of ca. 1,000 cells per second. Because elements are easily distinguished in ICP-MS, the problem of compensation in multiplex flow cytometry is effectively eliminated. In the pharmaceutical industry, ICP-MS is used for detecting inorganic impurities in pharmaceuticals and their ingredients. New and reduced maximum permitted exposure levels of heavy metals form dietary supplements, introduced in USP (United States Pharmacopeia) <232>Elemental Impurities—Limits and USP <233> Elemental Impurities—Procedures, will increase the need for ICP-MS technology, where, previously, other analytic methods have been sufficient. Laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) is a powerful technique for the elemental analysis of a wide variety of materials encountered in forensic casework. (LA-ICP-MS) has already successfully been applied to applications in forensics, metals, glasses, soils, car paints, bones and teeth, printing inks, trace elemental, fingerprint, and Paper. Among these, forensic glass analysis stands out as an application for which this technique has great utility to provide highly. Car hit and runs, burglaries, assaults, drive-by shootings and bombings such as these situations may cause glass fragments that could be used as evidence of association in glass transfer conditions. LA-ICP-MS is considered one of the best techniques for analysis of glass due to the short time for sample preparation and sample, small sample size of less than 250 nanograms. In addition there is no need for complex procedure and handling of dangerous materials that is used for digestion of the samples. This allows detecting major, minor and tracing elements with high level of precision and accuracy. There are set of properties that are used to measure glass sample such as physical and optical properties including color, thickness, density, refractive index (RI) and also, if necessary, elemental analysis can be conducted in order to enhance the value of an association. Cosmetics, such as lipstick, recovered from a crime scene may provide valuable forensic information. Lipstick smears left on cigarette butts, glassware, clothing, bedding; napkins, paper, etc. may be valuable evidence. Lipstick recovered from clothing or skin may also indicate physical contact between individuals. Forensic analysis of recovered lipstick smear evidence can provide valuable information on the recent activities of a victim or suspect. Trace elemental analysis of lipstick smears could be used to complement existing visual comparative procedures to determine the lipstick brand and color. Previous forensic techniques employed for the organic analysis of lipsticks by compositional comparison include thin layer chromatography (TLC), gas chromatography (GC), and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). These methods provide useful information regarding the identification of lipsticks. However, they all require long sample preparation times and destroy the sample. Nondestructive techniques for the forensic analysis of lipstick smears include UV fluorescence observation combined with purge-and-trap gas chromatography, microspectrophotometry and scanning electron microscopy-energy dispersive spectroscopy (SEM-EDS), and Raman spectroscopy.", "In terms of input and output, ICP-MS instrument consumes prepared sample material and translates it into mass-spectral data. Actual analytical procedure takes some time; after that time the instrument can be switched to work on the next sample. Series of such sample measurements requires the instrument to have plasma ignited, meanwhile a number of technical parameters has to be stable in order for the results obtained to have feasibly accurate and precise interpretation. Maintaining the plasma requires a constant supply of carrier gas (usually, pure argon) and increased power consumption of the instrument. When these additional running costs are not considered justified, plasma and most of auxiliary systems can be turned off. In such standby mode only pumps are working to keep proper vacuum in mass-spectrometer. The constituents of ICP-MS instrument are designed to allow for reproducible and/or stable operation.", "The first step in analysis is the introduction of the sample. This has been achieved in ICP-MS through a variety of means. The most common method is the use of \"analytical nebulizers.\" Nebulizer converts liquids into an aerosol, and that aerosol can then be swept into the plasma to create the ions. Nebulizers work best with simple liquid samples (i.e. solutions). However, there have been instances of their use with more complex materials like a slurry. Many varieties of nebulizers have been coupled to ICP-MS, including pneumatic, cross-flow, Babington, ultrasonic, and desolvating types. The aerosol generated is often treated to limit it to only smallest droplets, commonly by means of a Peltier cooled double pass or cyclonic spray chamber. Use of autosamplers makes this easier and faster, especially for routine work and large numbers of samples. A Desolvating Nebuliser (DSN) may also be used; this uses a long heated capillary, coated with a fluoropolymer membrane, to remove most of the solvent and reduce", "The plasma used in an ICP-MS is made by partially ionizing argon gas (Ar → Ar + e). The energy required for this reaction is obtained by pulsing an alternating electric current in load coil that surrounds the plasma torch with a flow of argon gas. After the sample is injected, the plasma's extreme temperature causes the sample to separate into individual atoms (atomization). Next, the plasma ionizes these atoms (M → M + e) so that they can be detected by the mass spectrometer. An inductively coupled plasma (ICP) for spectrometry is sustained in a torch that consists of three concentric tubes, usually made of quartz. The two major designs are the Fassel and Greenfield torches.", "Making the plasma from argon, instead of other gases, has several advantages. First, argon is abundant (in the atmosphere, as a result of the radioactive decay of potassium) and therefore cheaper than other noble gases. Argon also has a higher first ionization potential than all other elements except He, F, and Ne. Because of this high ionization energy, the reaction (Ar + e → Ar) is more energetically favorable than the reaction (M + e → M). This ensures that the sample remains ionized (as M) so that the mass spectrometer can detect it. Argon can be purchased for use with the ICP-MS in either a refrigerated liquid or a gas form. However it is important to note that whichever form of argon purchased, it should have a guaranteed purity of 99.9% Argon at a minimum. It is important to determine which type of argon will be best suited for the specific situation. Liquid argon is typically cheaper and can be stored in a greater quantity as opposed to the gas form,", "The carrier gas is sent through the central channel and into the very hot plasma. The sample is then exposed to radio frequency which converts the gas into a plasma. The high temperature of the plasma is sufficient to cause a very large portion of the sample to form ions. This fraction of ionization can approach 100% for some elements (e.g. sodium), but this is dependent on the ionization potential. A fraction", "Before mass separation, a beam of positive ions has to be extracted from the plasma and focused into the mass-analyzer. It is important to separate the ions from UV photons, energetic neutrals and from any solid particles that may have been carried into the instrument from the ICP. Traditionally, ICP-MS instruments have used transmitting ion lens arrangements for this purpose. Examples include the Einzel lens, the Barrel lens, Agilent's Omega Lens and Perkin-Elmer's Shadow Stop. Another approach is to use ion guides (quadrupoles, hexapoles, or octopoles) to guide the ions into mass analyzer along a path away from the trajectory of photons or neutral particles. Yet another approach is Varian patented used by Analytik Jena ICP-MS 90 degrees reflecting parabolic \"Ion Mirror\" optics, which are claimed to provide more efficient ion transport into the mass-analyzer, resulting in better sensitivity and reduced background. Analytik Jena ICP-MS PQMS is the most sensitive instrument on", "The collision/reaction cell is used to remove interfering ions through ion/neutral reactions. Collision/reaction cells are known under several names. The dynamic reaction cell is located before the quadrupole in the ICP-MS device. The chamber has a quadrupole and can be filled with reaction (or collision) gases (ammonia, methane, oxygen or hydrogen), with one gas type at a time or a mixture of two of them,", "As with any piece of instrumentation or equipment, there are many aspects of maintenance that need to be encompassed by daily, weekly and annual procedures. The frequency of maintenance is typically determined by the sample volume and cumulative run time that the instrument is subjected to. One of the first things that should be carried out before the calibration of the ICP-MS is a sensitivity check and optimization. This ensures that the operator is aware of any possible issues", "For most clinical methods using ICP-MS, there is a relatively simple and quick sample prep process. The main component to the sample is an internal standard, which also serves as the diluent. This internal standard consists primarily of deionized water, with nitric or hydrochloric acid, and Indium and/or Gallium. Depending on the sample type, usually 5 mL of the internal standard is added to a test tube along with 10–500 microliters of sample. This mixture is then vortexed for several seconds or until mixed well and then loaded onto the autosampler tray. For other applications that may involve very viscous samples or samples that have particulate matter, a process known as sample digestion may have to be carried out, before it can be pipetted and analyzed. This adds an extra first step to the above process, and therefore makes the sample prep more lengthy." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "D'Holbach's salon.", "Writings.", "Contributions to the \"Encyclopédie\".", "Anti-religious works.", "\"The System of Nature\".", "Politics and morals.", "Economic views.", "Death.", "D'Holbach and his contemporaries.", "D'Holbach and Diderot.", "D'Holbach and Rousseau.", "Appreciation and influence." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Sources differ regarding d'Holbach's dates of birth and death. His exact birthday is unknown, although records show that he was baptised on 8 December 1723. Some authorities incorrectly give June 1789 as the month of his death. D'Holbach's mother Catherine Jacobina née Holbach (1684–1743) was the daughter of Johannes Jacobus Holbach (died 1723) the Prince-Bishop's tax collector for the Roman Catholic Diocese of Speyer. His father, Johann Jakob Dietrich, (with other notations: ger.: \"Johann Jakob Dirre\"; fr.: \"Jean Jacques Thiry\") (1672–1756) was a wine-grower. D'Holbach wrote nothing of his childhood though it is known he was raised in Paris by his uncle Franz Adam Holbach, (or \"Adam François d'Holbach\" or \"Messire François-Adam, Baron d'Holbach, Seigneur de Heeze, Leende et autres Lieux\") (approx. 1675–1753), who had become a millionaire by speculating on the Paris stock-exchange. With his financial support, d'Holbach attended the Leiden University from 1744 to 1748. Here he became friends with John Wilkes. Later he went on to marry his second cousin, Basile-Geneviève d'Aine (1728–1754), on 11 December 1750. In 1753, a son was born: Francois Nicholas who left France before his father died. Francois moved through Germany, Holland, and England before arriving in USA (per American family bible/German and Italian references). In 1753 both his uncle and his father died, leaving d'Holbach with an enormous inheritance, such as Heeze Castle, \"Kasteel Heeze te Heeze\". D'Holbach would remain wealthy throughout his life. In 1754, his wife died from an unknown disease. The distraught d'Holbach moved to the provinces for a brief period with his friend Baron Grimm and in the following year received a special dispensation from the Pope to marry his deceased wife's sister, Charlotte-Suzanne d'Aine (1733–1814). They had a son, Charles-Marius (1757–1832) and two daughters Amélie-Suzanne (13 January 1759) and Louise-Pauline (19 December 1759 – 1830). During the summer months, when Paris was hot and humid, Baron d'Holbach retreated to his country estate at Grandval, \"Le Château de Grand-Val\" (Sucy-en-Brie today \"N° 27 rue du Grand-Val\" on the outskirts of Paris (Département Val-de-Marne). There he would invite friends to stay for a few days or weeks, and every year he invited Denis Diderot. D'Holbach was known for his generosity, often providing financial support discreetly or anonymously to his friends, amongst them Diderot. It is thought that the virtuous atheist Wolmar in Jean-Jacques Rousseau's \"Julie, ou la nouvelle Héloïse\" is based on d'Holbach. Holbach died in Paris on 21 January 1789, a few months before the French Revolution. The authorship of his various anti-religious works did not become widely known until the early 19th century. Ironically, he was buried in the Church of Saint-Roch, Paris. The exact location of the grave is unknown.", "From c. 1750 to c. 1780, Baron d'Holbach used his wealth to maintain one of the more notable and lavish Parisian \"salons\", which soon became an important meeting place for the contributors to the \"Encyclopédie\". Meetings were held regularly twice a week, on Sundays and Thursdays, in d'Holbach's home in rue Royale. Visitors to the salon were exclusively males, and the tone of discussion highbrow, often extending to topics more extensive than those of other salons. This, along with the excellent food, expensive wine, and a library of over 3000 volumes, attracted many notable visitors. Among the regulars in attendance at the salon—the \"coterie holbachique\"—were the following: Diderot, Grimm, Condillac, Condorcet, D'Alembert, Marmontel, Turgot, La Condamine, Raynal, Helvétius, Galiani, Morellet, Naigeon and, for a time, Jean-Jacques Rousseau. The salon was also visited by prominent British intellectuals, amongst them Adam Smith, David Hume, John Wilkes, Horace Walpole, Edward Gibbon, David Garrick, Laurence Sterne; the Italian Cesare Beccaria; and the American Benjamin Franklin. Morellet, a regular attendee at D'Holbach's salon, described it as In a frequently narrated story about a discussion that had taken place in D'Holbach's salon, David Hume had questioned whether atheists actually existed whereupon D'Holbach had clarified that Hume was sitting at a table with seventeen atheists.", "", "For the \"Encyclopédie\" d'Holbach authored and translated a large number of articles on topics ranging from politics and religion to chemistry and mineralogy. As a German who had become a naturalised Frenchman, he undertook the translation of many contemporary German works of natural philosophy into French. Between 1751 and 1765, D'Holbach contributed some four hundred articles to the project, mostly on scientific subjects, in addition to serving as the editor of several volumes on natural philosophy. D'Holbach may also have written several disparaging entries on non-Christian religions, intended as veiled criticisms of Christianity itself.", "Despite his extensive contributions to the \"Encyclopédie\", d'Holbach is better known today for his philosophical writings, all of which were published anonymously or under pseudonyms and printed outside France, usually in Amsterdam by Marc-Michel Rey. His philosophy was expressly materialistic and atheistic and is today categorised into the philosophical movement called French materialism. In 1761 \"Christianisme dévoilé\" appeared, in which he attacked Christianity and religion in general as an impediment to the moral advancement of humanity. The deistic Voltaire, denying authorship of the work, made known his aversion to d'Holbach's philosophy, writing that \"[the work] is entirely opposed to my principles. This book leads to an atheistic philosophy that I detest.\" \"Christianity Unveiled\" was followed by others, notably \"La Contagion sacrée\", \"Théologie portative\" and \"Essai sur les préjugés\". D'Holbach was helped in these endeavours by Jacques-André Naigeon, who would later become his literary executor.", "In 1770, d'Holbach published his most famous book, \"The System of Nature\" (\"Le Système de la nature\"), under the name of Jean-Baptiste de Mirabaud, the secretary of the Académie française who had died ten years previously. Denying the existence of a deity, and refusing to admit as evidence all \"a priori\" arguments, d'Holbach saw the universe as nothing more than matter in motion, bound by inexorable natural laws of cause and effect. There is, he wrote \"no necessity to have recourse to supernatural powers to account for the formation of things.\" \"The System of Nature\" is a long and extensive work presenting a thoroughly naturalistic view of the world. Some d'Holbach scholars have pointed out that Denis Diderot was a close personal friend of d'Holbach's, and that it is unclear to what extent d'Holbach was influenced by him. Indeed, Diderot may possibly have been the author of parts of the \"System of Nature\". Regardless, however, of the extent of Diderot's contribution to the \"System of Nature\", it is on the basis of this work that d'Holbach's philosophy has been called \"the culmination of French materialism and atheism.\" D'Holbach's objectives in challenging religion were primarily moral: He saw the institutions of Christianity as a major obstacle to the improvement of society. For him, the foundation of morality was to be sought not in Scripture but in happiness: \"It would be useless and almost unjust to insist upon a man's being virtuous if he cannot be so without being unhappy. So long as vice renders him happy, he should love vice.\" D'Holbach's radicalism posited that humans were fundamentally motivated by the pursuit of enlightened self-interest, which is what he meant by \"society,\" rather than by empty and selfish gratification of purely individual needs. Chapter 15 of Part I of \"System of Nature\" is titled \"Of Man's true Interest, or of the Ideas he forms to himself of Happiness.--Man cannot be happy without Virtue.\" The explicitly atheistic and materialistic \"The System of Nature\" presented a core of radical ideas which many contemporaries, both churchmen and \"philosophes\" found disturbing, and thus prompted a strong reaction. The Catholic Church in France threatened the crown with withdrawal of financial support unless it effectively suppressed the circulation of the book. The list of people writing refutations of the work was long. The prominent Catholic theologian Nicolas-Sylvestre Bergier wrote a refutation titled \"Examen du matérialisme\" (\"Materialism examined\"). Voltaire hastily seized his pen to refute the philosophy of the \"Système\" in the article \"Dieu\" in his \"Dictionnaire philosophique\", while Frederick the Great also drew up an answer to it. Its principles are summed up in a more popular form in d'Holbach's \"Good Sense, or Natural Ideas Opposed to Supernatural\".", "In his last works, D'Holbach's attention largely shifted away from religious metaphysics towards moral and political questions. In the \"Système social\" (1773), the \"Politique naturelle\" (1773–1774) and the \"Morale universelle\" (1776) he attempted to describe a system of morality in place of the Christian one he had so fiercely attacked, but these later writings were not as popular or influential as his earlier work. D'Holbach was critical towards abuses of power in France and abroad. Contrary to the revolutionary spirit of the time however, he called for the educated classes to reform the corrupt system of government and warned against revolution, democracy, and mob rule. His political and ethical views were influenced by British materialist Thomas Hobbes. D'Holbach personally translated Hobbes' work \"De Homine\" (\"Of Man\") into French.", "In his \"System de la nature\", the three volume \"Système social\" (1772), two volume \"Politique naturelle\" (1772) and \"Ethiocratie\" (1776), d'Holbach gave his economic views. Following Locke, d'Holbach defended private property, and stated that wealth is generated from labor and all should have the right to the product of their labor. He endorsed the theory of laissez-faire, arguing: However, D'Holbach also believed that the state should prevent a dangerous concentration of wealth amongst a few individuals from taking place. According to him hereditary aristocracy should be abolished on the ground that it breeds indolence and incompetence. He criticized the then prevailing policy of the French government to let private individuals collect tax on the ground that the tax collectors often extort double the money they are supposed to collect from the citizens. He also believed that religious groups should be voluntary organizations without any government support. In addition, D'Holbach is counted among the fiercest critics of luxury in the 18th-century debate.", "D'Holbach is believed to have died shortly before the French Revolution. He was buried on 21 January, 1789, in the ossuarium beneath the altar in the parish church of Saint-Roch, Paris. This ossuarium has been ransacked twice, once during the French Revolution, and again during the 1871 Paris Commune.", "", "It is not clear when d'Holbach and Diderot first met, but by 1752 they definitely knew each other. This was the year when Volume II of the Encyclopédie, containing contributions by d'Holbach, appeared. The two were in substantial agreement on questions related to religion and philosophy. They also shared similar interests like gourmandizing, taking country walks, and collecting fine prints, and beautiful paintings. When d'Holbach's radically atheistic and materialistic The System of Nature was first published, many believed Diderot to be the actual author of the book. Based on the writing style, the Durants opine that the book was not written by Diderot although he may have composed the flowery address to Nature towards the end of the book.", "The attendees at d'Holbach's dinners included Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Rousseau stopped attending the salon for some time after an incident in February 1754. Diderot had arranged for an acquaintance of his, the Abbé Petit, to read a tragedy composed by the Abbé at d'Holbach's. When the Abbé presented his work, he preceded it by reading his treatise on theatrical composition which the attendees at d'Holbach's found so absurd that they could not help being amused. The attendees—Diderot, Marmontel, Grimm, Saint-Lambert, and others—then proceeded to direct lavish praise at the Abbé which made him happy. D'Holbach later narrated what happened: Later in 1754, when he learnt that Mme d'Holbach had died, Rousseau wrote a tender condolence letter to d'Holbach, and the friendship between the two men was rekindled. For three more years, Rousseau would frequent the salon of d'Holbach. D'Holbach later arranged, along with Grimm and Diderot, for an annuity of 400 livres for Rousseau's common-law wife Thérèse Levasseur and her mother, pledging them not to reveal this to Rousseau for fear of wounding Rousseau's pride. When Rousseau eventually found out about this, he was furious with his friends for humiliating him.", "According to Marmontel, d'Holbach \"had read everything and never forgotten anything of interest.\" Jean-Jacques Rousseau commented that d'Holbach could hold his own among scholars since he was learned and knowledgeable. Diderot enthusiastically endorsed d'Holbach's book \"System of Nature\". D'Holbach's philosophy influenced Marat, Danton, and Camille Desmoulins. According to Faguet: \"d'Holbach, more than Voltaire, more than Diderot, is the father of all the philosophy and all the anti-religious polemics at the end of the eighteenth and the first half of the nineteenth century.\" During the French Directory, a book of d'Holbach was circulated to all departmental heads in a bid to rein in religious revivalism. In England, d'Holbach's views influenced Priestly, Godwin, and Shelley. In Germany, d'Holbach's views influenced Immanuel Kant. It is speculated that d'Holbach's views influenced the historical materialism of Karl Marx." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Clausewitz's theory.", "Definition of war.", "Purpose, goal and means." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Clausewitz was among those intrigued by the manner in which the leaders of the French Revolution, especially Napoleon, changed the conduct of war through their ability to motivate the populace and gain access to the full resources of the state, thus unleashing war on a greater scale than had previously been seen in Europe. Clausewitz was well educated and had strong interests in art, history, science, and education. He was a professional soldier who spent a considerable part of his life fighting against Napoleon. The insights he gained from his political and military experiences, combined with a solid grasp of European history, provided the basis for his work. A wealth of historical examples is being used to illustrate its various ideas. Napoleon and Frederick the Great figure prominently for having made very efficient use of the terrain, movement and the forces at their disposal.", "", "Clausewitz argued that war theory can not be a strict operational advise for generals. Instead, he wanted to highlight general principles that would result from the study of history and logical thinking. He contended that military campaigns could be planned only to a very small degree because incalculable influences or events, so-called \"friction\", would quicly make any too-detailed planning in advance obsolete. Military leaders must be capable to make decisions under time pressure with incomplete information since in his opinion \"three quarters of the things on which action is built in war\" are concealed and distorted by the \"fog of war\". In his 1812 \"Bekenntnisschrift\" (\"Notes of Confession\"), he presents a more existential interpretation of war by envisioning war as the highest form of self-assertion by a people. That corresponded in every respect with the spirit of the time when the French Revolution and the conflicts that arose from it had caused the evolution of conscript armies and guerrillas. The people's armies supported the idea that war is an existential struggle. During the following years, however, Clausewitz gradually abandoned this exalted view and concluded that the war served as a mere instrument: \"Thus, war is an act of violence in order to force our will upon the enemy.\"", "Clausewitz analyzed the conflicts of his time along the line of the categories \"Purpose\", \"Goal\" and \"Means\". He reasoned that the \"Purpose\" of war is one's will to be enforced, which is determined by politics. The \"Goal\" of the conflict is therefore to defeat the opponent in order to exact the \"Purpose\". The \"Goal\" is pursued with the help of a strategy, that might be brought about by various \"Means\" such as by the defeat or the elimination of opposing armed forces or by non-military \"Means\" (such as propaganda, economic sanctions and political isolation). Thus, any resource of the human body and mind and all the moral and physical powers of a state might serve as \"Means\" to achieve the set goal. One of Clausewitz's best-known quotes summarizes that idea: \"War is a mere continuation of politics by other means.\" That quote in itself allows for the interpretation that the military will take over from politics as soon as war has begun, as, for example, the German General Staff did during World War I. However, Clausewitz had postulated the \"primacy of politics\" and in this context elaborated: \"[...], we claim that war is nothing more than a continuation of the political process by applying other means. By applying other means we simultaneously assert that the political process does not end with the conclusion of the war or is being transformed into something entirely different, but that it continues to exist and proceed in its essence, regardless of the means, it might make use of.\" According to Azar Gat, the \"general message\" of the book was that \"the conduct of war could not be reduced to universal principles [and is] dominated by political decisions and moral forces.\" These basic conclusions are essential to Clausewitz's theory: Some of the key ideas (not necessarily original to Clausewitz or even to his mentor, Gerhard von Scharnhorst) discussed in \"On War\" include (in no particular order of importance): Clausewitz used a dialectical method to construct his argument, which led to frequent modern misinterpretation because he explores various often-opposed ideas before he came to conclusions. Modern perceptions of war are based on the concepts that Clausewitz put forth in \"On War\", but they have been diversely interpreted by various leaders (such as Moltke, Vladimir Lenin, Dwight Eisenhower, and Mao Zedong), thinkers, armies, and peoples. Modern military doctrine, organization, and norms are all still based on Napoleonic premises, but whether the premises are necessarily also \"Clausewitzian\" is debatable. The \"dualism\" of Clausewitz's view of war (that wars can vary a great deal between the two \"poles\" that he proposed, based on the political objectives of the opposing sides and the context) seems to be simple enough, but few commentators have been willing to accept that crucial variability. They insist that Clausewitz \"really\" argued for one end of the scale or the other. \"On War\" has been seen by some prominent critics as an argument for \"total war\". It has been blamed for the level of destruction involved in the First and the Second World Wars, but it seems rather that Clausewitz, who did not actually use the term \"total war\", had merely foreseen the inevitable development that started with the huge, patriotically motivated armies of the Napoleonic wars. They resulted (though the evolution of war has not yet ended) in the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, with all the forces and capabilities of the state devoted to destroying forces and capabilities of the enemy state (thus \"total war\"). Conversely, Clausewitz has also been seen as \"The preeminent military and political strategist of limited war in modern times\". (Robert Osgood, 1979) Clausewitz and his proponents have been severely criticized by other military theorists, like Antoine-Henri Jomini in the 19th century, B. H. Liddell Hart in the mid-20th century, and Martin van Creveld and John Keegan more recently. \"On War\" is a work rooted solely in the world of the nation state, states historian Martin van Creveld, who alleges that Clausewitz takes the state \"almost for granted\", as he rarely looks at anything before the Peace of Westphalia, and mediaeval warfare is effectively ignored in Clausewitz's theory. He alleges that Clausewitz does not address any form of intra/supra-state conflict, such as rebellion and revolution, because he could not theoretically account for warfare before the existence of the state. Previous kinds of conflict were demoted to criminal activities without legitimacy and not worthy of the label \"war\". Van Creveld argues that \"Clausewitzian war\" requires the state to act in conjunction with the people and the army, the state becoming a massive engine built to exert military force against an identical opponent. He supports that statement by pointing to the conventional armies in existence throughout the 20th century. However, revolutionaries like Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels derived some inspiration from Clausewitzian ideas." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Structural Design.", "Metabolic functions.", "Peroxisome assembly.", "Peroxisome interaction and communication.", "Associated medical conditions.", "Genes.", "Evolutionary origins.", "Other related organelles." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Peroxisomes (microbodies) were first described by a Swedish doctoral student, J. Rhodin in 1954. They were identified as organelles by the Belgian cytologist Christian de Duve in 1967, De Duve and co-workers discovered that peroxisomes contain several oxidases involved in the production of hydrogen peroxide (HO) as well as catalase involved in the decomposition of HO to oxygen and water. Due to their role in peroxide metabolism, De Duve named them “peroxisomes”, replacing the formerly used morphological term “microbodies”. Later, it was described that firefly luciferase is targeted to peroxisomes in mammalian cells, allowing the discovery of the import targeting signal for peroxisomes, and triggering many advances in the peroxisome biogenesis field.", "Peroxisomes are small (0.1-1 μm diameter) subcellular compartments (organelles) with a fine, granular matrix and surrounded by a single biomembrane which are located in the cytoplasm of a cell. Compartmentalization creates an optimized environment to promote various metabolic reactions within peroxisomes required to sustain cellular functions and viability of the organism. The number, size and protein composition of peroxisomes are variable and depend on cell type and environmental conditions. For example, in baker's yeast (\"S. cerevisiae\"), it has been observed that, with good glucose supply, only a few, small peroxisomes are present. In contrast, when the yeasts were supplied with long-chain fatty acids as sole carbon source up to 20 to 25 large peroxisomes can be formed.", "A major function of the peroxisome is the breakdown of very long chain fatty acids through beta oxidation. In animal cells, the long fatty acids are converted to medium chain fatty acids, which are subsequently shuttled to mitochondria where they eventually are broken down to carbon dioxide and water. In yeast and plant cells, this process is carried out exclusively in peroxisomes. The first reactions in the formation of plasmalogen in animal cells also occur in peroxisomes. Plasmalogen is the most abundant phospholipid in myelin. Deficiency of plasmalogens causes profound abnormalities in the myelination of nerve cells, which is one reason why many peroxisomal disorders affect the nervous system. Peroxisomes also play a role in the production of bile acids important for the absorption of fats and fat-soluble vitamins, such as vitamins A and K. Skin disorders are features of genetic disorders affecting peroxisome function as a result. The specific metabolic pathways that occur exclusively in mammalian peroxisomes are: Peroxisomes contain oxidative enzymes, such as D-amino acid oxidase and uric acid oxidase. However the last enzyme is absent in humans, explaining the disease known as gout, caused by the accumulation of uric acid. Certain enzymes within the peroxisome, by using molecular oxygen, remove hydrogen atoms from specific organic substrates (labeled as R), in an oxidative reaction, producing hydrogen peroxide (HO, itself toxic): Catalase, another peroxisomal enzyme, uses this HO to oxidize other substrates, including phenols, formic acid, formaldehyde, and alcohol, by means of the peroxidation reaction: This reaction is important in liver and kidney cells, where the peroxisomes detoxify various toxic substances that enter the blood. About 25% of the ethanol that humans consume by drinking alcoholic beverages is oxidized to acetaldehyde in this way. In addition, when excess HO accumulates in the cell, catalase converts it to HO through this reaction: In higher plants, peroxisomes contain also a complex battery of antioxidative enzymes such as superoxide dismutase, the components of the ascorbate-glutathione cycle, and the NADP-dehydrogenases of the pentose-phosphate pathway. It has been demonstrated that peroxisomes generate superoxide (O) and nitric oxide (NO) radicals. There is evidence now that those reactive oxygen species including peroxisomal HO are also important signalling molecules in plants and animals and contribute to healthy ageing and age-related disorders in humans. The peroxisome of plant cells is polarised when fighting fungal penetration. Infection causes a glucosinolate molecule to play an antifungal role to be made and delivered to the outside of the cell through the action of the peroxisomal proteins (PEN2 and PEN3). Peroxisomes in mammals and humans also contribute to anti-viral defense. and the combat of pathogens", "Peroxisomes can be derived from the endoplasmic reticulum under certain experimental conditions and replicate by membrane growth and division out of pre-existing organelles. Peroxisome matrix proteins are translated in the cytoplasm prior to import. Specific amino acid sequences (PTS or peroxisomal targeting signal) at the \"C-terminus\" (PTS1) or \"N-terminus\" (PTS2) of peroxisomal matrix proteins signals them to be imported into the organelle by a targeting factor. There are currently 36 known proteins involved in peroxisome biogenesis and maintenance, called peroxins, which participate in the process of peroxisome assembly in different organisms. In mammalian cells there are 13 characterized peroxins. In contrast to protein import into the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) or mitochondria, proteins do not need to be unfolded to be imported into the peroxisome lumen. The matrix protein import receptors, the peroxins PEX5 and PEX7, accompany their cargoes (containing a PTS1 or a PTS2 amino acid sequence, respectively) all the way to the peroxisome where they release the cargo into the peroxisomal matrix and then return to the cytosol – a step named \"recycling\". A special way of peroxisomal protein targeting is called piggy backing. Proteins that are transported by this unique method, do not have a canonical PTS, but rather bind on a PTS protein to be transported as a complex. A model describing the import cycle is referred to as the \"extended shuttle mechanism\". There is now evidence that ATP hydrolysis is required for the recycling of receptors to the cytosol. Also, ubiquitination is crucial for the export of PEX5 from the peroxisome, to the cytosol. The biogenesis of the peroxisomal membrane and the insertion of peroxisomal membrane proteins (PMPs) requires the peroxins PEX19, PEX3, and PEX16. PEX19 is a PMP receptor and chaperone, which binds the PMPs and routes them to the peroxisomal membrane, where it interacts with PEX3, a peroxisomal integral membrane protein. PMPs are then inserted into the peroxisomal membrane. The degradation of peroxisomes is called pexophagy.", "The diverse functions of peroxisomes require dynamic interactions and cooperation with many organelles involved in cellular lipid metabolism such as the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), mitochondria, lipid droplets, and lysosomes. Peroxisomes interact with mitochondria in several metabolic pathways, including β-oxidation of fatty acids and the metabolism of reactive oxygen species. Both organelles are in close contact with the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and share several proteins, including organelle fission factors. Peroxisomes also interact with the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and cooperate in the synthesis of ether lipids (plasmalogens) which are important for nerve cells (see above). In filamentous fungi, peroxisomes move on microtubules by 'hitchhiking,' a process involving contact with rapidly moving early endosomes. Physical contact between organelles is often mediated by membrane contact sites, where membranes of two organelles are physically tethered to enable rapid transfer of small molecules, enable organelle communication and are crucial for coordination of cellular functions and hence human health. Alterations of membrane contacts have been observed in various diseases.", "Peroxisomal disorders are a class of medical conditions that typically affect the human nervous system as well as many other organ systems. Two common examples are X-linked adrenoleukodystrophy and peroxisome biogenesis disorders.", "\"PEX\" genes encode the protein machinery (\"peroxins\") required for proper peroxisome assembly, as described above. Membrane assembly and maintenance requires three of these (peroxins 3, 16, and 19) and may occur without the import of the matrix (lumen) enzymes. Proliferation of the organelle is regulated by Pex11p. Genes that encode peroxin proteins include: PEX1, PEX2 (PXMP3), PEX3, PEX5, PEX6, PEX7, PEX9, PEX10, PEX11A, PEX11B, PEX11G, PEX12, PEX13, PEX14, PEX16, PEX19, PEX26, PEX28, PEX30, and PEX31. Between organisms, PEX numbering and function can differ.", "The protein content of peroxisomes varies across species or organism, but the presence of proteins common to many species has been used to suggest an endosymbiotic origin; that is, peroxisomes evolved from bacteria that invaded larger cells as parasites, and very gradually evolved a symbiotic relationship. However, this view has been challenged by recent discoveries. For example, peroxisome-less mutants can restore peroxisomes upon introduction of the wild-type gene. Two independent evolutionary analyses of the peroxisomal proteome found homologies between the peroxisomal import machinery and the ERAD pathway in the endoplasmic reticulum, along with a number of metabolic enzymes that were likely recruited from the mitochondria. Recently, it has been suggested that the peroxisome may have had an actinobacterial origin, however, this is controversial.", "Other organelles of the microbody family related to peroxisomes include glyoxysomes of plants and filamentous fungi, glycosomes of kinetoplastids, and Woronin bodies of filamentous fungi." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biosynthesis.", "MEP pathway.", "Carotenoid biosynthetic pathway.", "Regulation.", "Structure and function.", "Properties.", "Foods.", "Physiological effects.", "Plant colors.", "Aroma chemicals.", "Disease." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The basic building blocks of carotenoids are isopentenyl diphosphate (IPP) and dimethylallyl diphosphate (DMAPP). These two isoprene isomers are used to create various compounds depending on the biological pathway used to synthesis the isomers. Plants are known to use two different pathways for IPP production: the cytosolic mevalonic acid pathway (MVA) and the plastidic methylerythritol 4-phosphate (MEP). In animals, the production of cholesterol starts by creating IPP and DMAPP using the MVA. For carotenoid production plants use MEP to generate IPP and DMAPP. The MEP pathway results in a 5:1 mixture of IPP:DMAPP. IPP and DMAPP undergo several reactions, resulting in the major carotenoid precursor, geranylgeranyl diphosphate (GGPP). GGPP can be converted into carotenes or xanthophylls by undergoing a number of different steps within the carotenoid biosynthetic pathway.", "Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate and pyruvate, intermediates of photosynthesis, are converted to deoxy-D-xylulose 5-phosphate (DXP) using the catalyst DXP synthase (DXS). DXP reductoisomerase reduces and rearranges the molecules within DXP in the presence of NADPH, forming MEP. Next, MEP is converted to 4-(cytidine 5’-diphospho)-2-C-methyl-D-erythritol (CDP-ME) in the presence of CTP via the enzyme MEP cytidylyltransferase. CDP-ME is then converted, in the presence of ATP, to 2-phospho-4-(cytidine 5’-diphospho)-2-C-methyl-D-erythritol (CDP-ME2P). The conversion to CDP-ME2P is catalyzed by the enzyme CDP-ME kinase. Next, CDP-ME2P is converted to 2-C-methyl-D-erythritol 2,4-cyclodiphosphate (MECDP). This reaction occurs when MECDP synthase catalyzes the reaction and CMP is eliminated from the CDP-ME2P molecule. MECDP is then converted to (e)-4-hydroxy-3-methylbut-2-en-1-yl diphosphate (HMBDP) via HMBDP synthase in the presence of flavodoxin and NADPH. HMBDP is reduced to IPP in the presence of ferredoxin and NADPH by the enzyme HMBDP reductase. The last two steps involving HMBPD synthase and reductase can only occur in completely anaerobic environments. IPP is then able to isomerize to DMAPP via IPP isomerase.", "Two GGPP molecules condense via phytoene synthase (PSY), forming the 15-cis isomer of phytoene. The subsequent conversion into all-trans-lycopene depends on the organism. Bacteria and fungi employ a single enzyme, the bacterial phytoene desaturase (CRTI) for the catalysis. Plants and cyanobacteria however utilize four enzymes for this process. The first of these enzymes is a plant-type phytoene desaturase which introduces two additional double bonds into 15-cis-phytoene by dehydrogenation and isomerizes two of its existing double bonds from trans to cis producing 9,15,9’-tri-cis-ζ-carotene. The central double bond of this tri-cis-ζ-carotene is isomerized by the zeta-carotene isomerase Z-ISO and the resulting 9,9'-di-cis-ζ-carotene is dehydrogenated again via a ζ-carotene desaturase (ZDS). This again introduces two double bonds, resulting in 7,9,7’,9’-tetra-cis-lycopene. CRTISO, a carotenoid isomerase, is needed to convert the cis-lycopene into an all-trans lycopene in the presence of reduced FAD. This all-trans lycopene is cyclized; cyclization gives rise to carotenoid diversity, which can be distinguished based on the end groups. There can be either a beta ring or an epsilon ring, each generated by a different enzyme (lycopene beta-cyclase [beta-LCY] or lycopene epsilon-cyclase [epsilon-LCY]). Alpha-carotene is produced when the all-trans lycopene first undergoes reaction with epsilon-LCY then a second reaction with beta-LCY; whereas beta-carotene is produced by two reactions with beta-LCY. Alpha- and beta-carotene are the most common carotenoids in the plant photosystems but they can still be further converted into xanthophylls by using beta-hydrolase and epsilon-hydrolase, leading to a variety of xanthophylls.", "It is believed that both DXS and DXR are rate-determining enzymes, allowing them to regulate carotenoid levels. This was discovered in an experiment where DXS and DXR were genetically overexpressed, leading to increased carotenoid expression in the resulting seedlings. Also, J-protein (J20) and heat shock protein 70 (Hsp70) chaperones are thought to be involved in post-transcriptional regulation of DXS activity, such that mutants with defective J20 activity exhibit reduced DXS enzyme activity while accumulating inactive DXS protein. Regulation may also be caused by external toxins that affect enzymes and proteins required for synthesis. Ketoclomazone is derived from herbicides applied to soil and binds to DXP synthase. This inhibits DXP synthase, preventing synthesis of DXP and halting the MEP pathway. The use of this toxin leads to lower levels of carotenoids in plants grown in the contaminated soil.Fosmidomycin, an antibiotic, is a competitive inhibitor of DXP reductoisomerase due to its similar structure to the enzyme. Application of said antibiotic prevents reduction of DXP, again halting the MEP pathway.", "The structure of carotenoids imparts biological abilities, including photosynthesis, photoprotection, plant coloration, and cell signaling. The general structure of the carotenoid is a polyene chain consisting of 9-11 double bonds and possibly terminating in rings. This structure of conjugated double bonds leads to a high reducing potential, or the ability to transfer electrons throughout the molecule. Carotenoids can transfer electrons in one of two ways: 1) singlet-singlet transfer from carotenoid to chlorophyll, and 2) triplet-triplet transfer from chlorophyll to carotenoid. The singlet-singlet transfer is a lower energy state transfer and is used during photosynthesis. The length of the polyene tail enables light absorbance in the photosynthetic range; once it absorbs energy it becomes excited, then transfers the excited electrons to the chlorophyll for photosynthesis. The triplet-triplet transfer is a higher energy state and is essential in photoprotection. Both light and oxygen produce damaging species during photosynthesis, with the most damaging being reactive oxygen species (ROS). As these high energy ROS are produced in the chlorophyll the energy is transferred to the carotenoid’s polyene tail and undergoes a series of reactions in which electrons are moved between the carotenoid bonds in order find the most balanced state (lowest energy state) for the carotenoid. The length of carotenoids also has a role in plant coloration, as the length of the polyene tail determines which wavelengths of light the plant will absorb. Wavelengths that are not absorbed are reflected and are what we see as the color of a plant. Therefore, differing species will contain carotenoids with differing tail lengths allowing them to absorb and reflect different colors. Carotenoids also participate in different types of cell signaling. They are able to signal the production of absicisic acid, which regulates plant growth, seed dormancy, embryo maturation and germination, cell division and elongation, floral growth, and stress responses.", "Carotenoids belong to the category of tetraterpenoids (i.e., they contain 40 carbon atoms, being built from four terpene units each containing 10 carbon atoms). Structurally, carotenoids take the form of a polyene hydrocarbon chain which is sometimes terminated by rings, and may or may not have additional oxygen atoms attached. Their color, ranging from pale yellow through bright orange to deep red, is directly linked to their structure. Xanthophylls are often yellow, hence their class name. The double carbon-carbon bonds interact with each other in a process called conjugation, which allows electrons in the molecule to move freely across these areas of the molecule. As the number of conjugated double bonds increases, electrons associated with conjugated systems have more room to move, and require less energy to change states. This causes the range of energies of light absorbed by the molecule to decrease. As more wavelengths of light are absorbed from the longer end of the visible spectrum, the compounds acquire an increasingly red appearance. Carotenoids are usually lipophilic due to the presence of long unsaturated aliphatic chains as in some fatty acids. The physiological absorption of these fat-soluble vitamins in humans and other organisms depends directly on the presence of fats and bile salts.", "Beta-carotene, found in pumpkins, sweet potato, carrots and winter squash, is responsible for their orange-yellow colors. Dried carrots have the highest amount of carotene of any food per 100-gram serving, measured in retinol activity equivalents (provitamin A equivalents). Vietnamese gac fruit contains the highest known concentration of the carotenoid lycopene. Although green, kale, spinach, collard greens, and turnip greens contain substantial amounts of beta-carotene. The diet of flamingos is rich in carotenoids, imparting the orange-colored feathers of these birds.", "Reviews of epidemiological studies seeking correlations between carotenoid consumption in food and clinical outcomes have come to various conclusions: Carotenoids are also important components of the dark brown pigment melanin, which is found in hair, skin, and eyes. Melanin absorbs high-energy light and protects these organs from intracellular damage. Humans and other animals are mostly incapable of synthesizing carotenoids, and must obtain them through their diet. Carotenoids are a common and often ornamental feature in animals. For example, the pink color of salmon, and the red coloring of cooked lobsters and scales of the yellow morph of common wall lizards are due to carotenoids. It has been proposed that carotenoids are used in ornamental traits (for extreme examples see puffin birds) because, given their physiological and chemical properties, they can be used as visible indicators of individual health, and hence are used by animals when selecting potential mates.", "The most common carotenoids include lycopene and the vitamin A precursor β-carotene. In plants, the xanthophyll lutein is the most abundant carotenoid and its role in preventing age-related eye disease is currently under investigation. Lutein and the other carotenoid pigments found in mature leaves are often not obvious because of the masking presence of chlorophyll. When chlorophyll is not present, as in autumn foliage, the yellows and oranges of the carotenoids are predominant. For the same reason, carotenoid colors often predominate in ripe fruit after being unmasked by the disappearance of chlorophyll. Carotenoids are responsible for the brilliant yellows and oranges that tint deciduous foliage (such as dying autumn leaves) of certain hardwood species as hickories, ash, maple, yellow poplar, aspen, birch, black cherry, sycamore, cottonwood, sassafras, and alder. Carotenoids are the dominant pigment in autumn leaf coloration of about 15-30% of tree species. However, the reds, the purples, and their blended combinations that decorate autumn foliage usually come from another group of pigments in the cells called anthocyanins. Unlike the carotenoids, these pigments are not present in the leaf throughout the growing season, but are actively produced towards the end of summer.", "Products of carotenoid degradation such as ionones, damascones and damascenones are also important fragrance chemicals that are used extensively in the perfumes and fragrance industry. Both β-damascenone and β-ionone although low in concentration in rose distillates are the key odor-contributing compounds in flowers. In fact, the sweet floral smells present in black tea, aged tobacco, grape, and many fruits are due to the aromatic compounds resulting from carotenoid breakdown.", "Some carotenoids are produced by bacteria to protect themselves from oxidative immune attack. The golden pigment that gives some strains of \"Staphylococcus aureus\" their name (\"aureus\" = golden) is a carotenoid called staphyloxanthin. This carotenoid is a virulence factor with an antioxidant action that helps the microbe evade death by reactive oxygen species used by the host immune system." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot.", "Childhood.", "Gunslinger.", "First round with Custer.", "Mad hermit.", "Second round with Custer.", "Old Lodge Skins awaits death, as does Jack.", "Epilogue.", "Historical basis.", "Production.", "Reception.", "Awards and nominations.", "Legacy.", "Home media." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "In 1970, 121 year-old Jack Crabb, the oldest man in the world, is residing in a hospice and recounts his life story to a curious historian. Among other things, Crabb claims to have been a captive of the Cheyenne, a gunslinger, an associate of Wild Bill Hickok, a scout for General George Armstrong Custer, and the sole white survivor of the Battle of the Little Bighorn.", "Jack begins his story in a flashback to 1859, when he was 10 years old. He and his older sister Caroline survived the massacre of their pioneer parents by the Pawnee and are discovered by Shadow, a Cheyenne brave, who takes the siblings to his village. Caroline escapes, but Jack remains and is reared by the good-hearted tribal leader, Old Lodge Skins. As Jack gets older, he unwittingly makes an enemy of another boy, Younger Bear; however, Younger Bear eventually owes his life to Jack when he saves Younger Bear's life from a Pawnee brave. Jack is given the name \"Little Big Man\" because he is short but very brave. In 1865, when Jack is 16, he is captured by U.S. Cavalry troopers during a skirmish and renounces his Cheyenne upbringing in order to save himself from being killed. After spending time in U.S. Army custody and going through interrogations and debriefing, Jack, being a minor, is put in the foster care of Reverend Silas Pendrake and his sexually frustrated wife, Louise, who tries to seduce Jack. When he witnesses Mrs. Pendrake having sex with the soda shop owner, Jack leaves the Pendrake household and renounces his foster parents and religion.", "In 1866, Jack becomes the apprentice of the snake-oil salesman Meriweather. The two are tarred and feathered when their customers realize that Meriweather's products are fraudulent. One of the angry customers is Jack's now-grown sister, Caroline, with whom he reunites. She attempts to mold her brother into a gunslinger named \"the Soda Pop Kid\". Jack meets Wild Bill Hickok at a saloon, and Hickok takes a liking to the young man. When Hickok is forced to kill a man in self-defense, Jack loses his taste for gunslinging and Caroline deserts him. Some months later, Jack becomes a partner in a general store and marries a Swedish woman named Olga. Jack's business partner turns out to be a thieving scoundrel. The famous cavalry officer George Armstrong Custer pays a visit and suggests the couple restart their lives further west and assures them they have nothing to fear from Indians. Jack and Olga set out, but their stagecoach is ambushed by Cheyenne warriors. Olga is abducted and Jack sets out in search of her. He is reunited with Old Lodge Skins and Younger Bear. Younger Bear has become a Contrary – a warrior who does everything in reverse. Jack makes friends with the Heemaneh Little Horse, but continues on his search for Olga.", "A few months later, Jack eventually becomes a \"muleskinner\" in Custer's 7th Cavalry, only because Custer incorrectly determines that was Jack's past job. He takes part in a battle against the Cheyenne, but when the troopers begin killing women and children, Jack turns on them. On the outskirts of the massacre, Jack is attacked by Shadow, the Cheyenne warrior who saved him as a child but now does not recognize him. Shadow is killed by a cavalryman, and Jack discovers Shadow's daughter, Sunshine, giving birth while hiding from the onslaught. He returns with her to Old Lodge Skins's tribe. Sunshine becomes his wife and bears him a child. Jack again encounters Younger Bear, no longer a Contrary, is now the henpecked husband of the long-lost Olga. The traumatized Olga does not recognize Jack, who makes no attempt to make her remember him. Sunshine asks Jack to take in her three widowed sisters as wives, and to father children with them. He is reluctant at first, but finally agrees. A little later in November 1868, Custer and the 7th Cavalry make a surprise attack on the Cheyenne camp at the Washita River. Jack saves the now-blind and elderly Old Lodge Skins, but Sunshine, their child, and her sisters are killed. Jack tries to infiltrate Custer's camp to exact revenge, but loses his nerve to kill Custer.", "Disheartened, Jack withdraws from life and becomes the town drunk living in Deadwood, South Dakota for the next several years. While in a drunken stupor, he is recognized by Wild Bill Hickok, who gives him money to get cleaned up. Hickok is shot and killed while playing cards and, with his last breath, asks Jack to bring some money to a widow he was having an affair with. Jack visits the widow, now a prostitute who turns out to be Louise Pendrake. Jack gives her the money that Hickok intended for her to use to start a new life, but again rebuffs her sexual advances. Jack soon becomes a trapper and hermit. His mind becomes unhinged after coming across an empty trap with a severed animal limb. He prepares to commit suicide, but sees Custer and his troops marching nearby, and decides to return to his quest for revenge.", "Custer hires Jack as a scout, reasoning that anything he says will be a lie, thus serving as a perfect reverse barometer. Jack tricks Custer into leading his troops into a trap at the Little Bighorn (1876) by truthfully telling Custer of the overwhelming force of Native Americans hidden within the valley. As Custer's troops are slaughtered by the combined Sioux and Cheyenne group, Custer begins to rave insanely. Jack is wounded. The maddened Custer attempts to shoot Jack when he tells Custer to shut up, but is killed by Younger Bear, who then carries Jack away from the battlefield. Having thus discharged his life debt, Younger Bear tells Jack that the next time they meet, he can kill Jack without becoming an evil person.", "Back at the Cheyenne camp, Jack accompanies Old Lodge Skins to a nearby hill, the Indian burial ground, where the old man, dressed in full chief's regalia, has declared \"It is a good day to die\", and decides to end his life with dignity. He offers his spirit to the Great Spirit, and lies down at his spot at the Indian Burial Ground to wait for death. Instead, it begins to rain. Old Lodge Skins is revealed to still be alive, and says, \"Well, sometimes the magic works. Sometimes it doesn't.\" They return to his lodge to have dinner.", "Back in the present day, Jack abruptly ends his narrative story and he dismisses the historian. The final shot shows the aged Jack sitting in his wheelchair and somberly thinking back about his life in a world which no longer exists.", "The historical Little Big Man was a Native American leader bearing no resemblance to the Jack Crabb character. Little Big Man is known for his involvement in the capture and possible assassination of Crazy Horse at Fort Robinson in 1877. The movie's portrayal of the Battle of Washita River as a Custer-led massacre of women and children (which Penn compares to the Holocaust) is not entirely accurate as the camp was partially occupied by tribal warriors. The film, however, is consistent with historical records of other encounters between Indians and the U.S. Cavalry; the Cavalry's common tactic was to wait until the warriors had left the camp to hunt, or to lure the warriors away with assurances of good hunting, and then to attack the unprotected village. The two massacre scenes are historically reversed, the Sand Creek massacre occurring first in 1864, where Colorado militia (not including Custer) attacked a peaceful contingent of Native Americans, killing more than 150 women, children and elderly men. (The Sand Creek Massacre was depicted in another 1970 Western, \"Soldier Blue\".) The Custer-led raid on the Washita occurred in 1868. The film also presents an inaccurate representation of the death of Wild Bill Hickok. Hickok was actually killed nearly two months after the Battle of the Little Bighorn on August 2, 1876, while playing poker at Nuttal & Mann's Saloon in Deadwood, South Dakota. Uncharacteristically, Hickok had his back turned to the door. At 4:15 p.m., a gunslinger named Jack McCall walked in and shot Hickok in the back of the head. Hickok was famously holding two pairs—of black aces and black eights—when he was shot, a set of cards thereafter called the \"Dead Man's Hand\". The film's depiction of Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer as a lunatic at the Battle of the Little Bighorn was intended as satire, though many of his quirks and vanities were inspired by contemporary observations. Custer's fatal tactics at the Little Bighorn were far more complex than portrayed in the film, which portrays him as having a searing hatred of Indians and acting ruthlessly towards them in battle. In truth, while his actions before and during the battle remain controversial, some historians suggest that he was somewhat sympathetic to the cause of the Indian population and publicly opposed, to the detriment of his own career prospects, the Grant administration's policy of expansion into Indian lands. The character of Jack Crabb is partially based on Curley, one of Custer's Native American scouts from the Crow tribe. Curley rode with Custer's 7th Cavalry into the valley of the Little Bighorn, but was relieved of duty before the final attack, retreating to a nearby bluff and witnessing much of the action. Many conflicting stories of the era embellished Curley's participation, stating in several cases that he disguised himself with a Cheyenne blanket to escape the immediate field of battle. He was interviewed many times, with some writers claiming him to be the only surviving witness from the U.S. side of Custer's Last Stand. Curley gave several variations of his participation in the battle, and the accuracy of his later recollections has been questioned.", "To obtain the hoarse voice of a 121-year-old man, Hoffman sat in his dressing room and screamed at the top of his lungs for an hour. The makeup for the ancient Crabb was created by Dick Smith from foam latex and included revolutionary false eyelids that could blink along with the actor's. Due to editing, and much to Smith's chagrin, no blinks were visible in the finished film. Of the makeup, Hoffman was quoted in \"Life\" as saying, \"I defy you to put on that makeup and not feel old\". The role of Chief Old Lodge Skins was initially offered to Marlon Brando, Paul Scofield, and Laurence Olivier, all of whom turned it down. The Little Bighorn battle scenes were filmed on location at Crow Agency, Montana near the actual battle site. Some of the town scenes were filmed in Nevada City, Montana, a town that by 1970 consisted predominantly of historic 19th-century buildings brought from elsewhere in Montana. All outdoor Indian scenes other than the Little Bighorn battle were filmed near Calgary, Alberta, Canada. Some interior and various footage was shot on Hollywood sets. All Indian extras were North American Indians. Aimée Eccles, who played Sunshine, is actually of Chinese descent. And Cal Bellini, who played Younger Bear, is actually a Malay originally from Singapore. The old Indian chief dies at the end of the novel but not in the film. In an interview Arthur Penn explained the change: \"We thought long and hard about this and in the first draft of the script he does die, but this death would have introduced an element of sadness into the film and we didn't want this. The film would have become dramatic, even melodramatic, instead of being picaresque. I also wanted to show that not only were the Indians going to be destroyed, but they were also condemned to live. On the whole, audiences like their entertainment dramatically compact and homogenous, but I want the opposite. A film should remain free and open, not with everything defined and resolved.\"", "\"Little Big Man\" received widespread acclaim from film critics. It was among AFI's 400 movies nominated to be on their list of America's greatest 100 movies. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 24 of 25 professional critics gave the film a positive review, with a rating average of 7.9/10; in total, the film has a 96% rating on the website. In his December 15, 1970 review, Vincent Canby of \"The New York Times\" called the movie, \"Arthur Penn's most extravagant and ambitious movie, an attempt to capture the essence of the American heritage in the funny, bitter, uproarious adventures of Jack Crabb.\" Roger Ebert, of the \"Chicago Sun-Times\", agreed, giving the film four stars out of four stars, and describing \"Little Big Man\" as \"an endlessly entertaining attempt to spin an epic in the form of a yarn.\"", "Chief Dan George was nominated for an Academy Award as Best Actor in a Supporting Role. He won many honors for his performance, including the National Society of Film Critics Award and the New York Film Critics Circle Award. He was also nominated for a Golden Globe as Best Supporting Actor. Hoffman was nominated as Best Actor by the British Academy of Film and Television Arts. The screenplay by Calder Willingham was nominated for the Writers Guild of America Award as Best Drama Adapted from Another Medium. The film won a Special Mention at the 7th Moscow International Film Festival in 1971. In 2014, the film was deemed \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\" by the Library of Congress and selected for preservation in the National Film Registry.", "Arthur Hiller's 1984 comedy-drama \"Teachers\" features Richard Mulligan partially reprising his Custer role as Herbert Gower, an outpatient from a mental institution who is accidentally put in charge of a U.S. history class and teaches his pupils while impersonating historical figures such as Custer, but also Abe Lincoln and Ben Franklin, amongst others.", ", \"Little Big Man\" has been released worldwide on VHS and DVD, and in the U.S. on a region free Blu-ray." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Synopsis.", "Act 1.", "Act 2.", "Act 3.", "Writing and compositional history.", "Performance history and reception.", "Premiere and initial run.", "Early revivals.", "Entering the mainstream.", "Modern productions.", "Music.", "Musical numbers.", "Editions.", "Recordings.", "Notes and references." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Bizet's first opera, the one-act ', was written in 1856 when the 18-year-old composer was a student at the Conservatoire de Paris. It was Bizet's winning entry in a competition organised by the celebrated composer Jacques Offenbach, and gained him a cash award, a gold medal, and a performance of the prize work at the Théâtre des Bouffes-Parisiens. In 1857 Bizet was awarded the prestigious Prix de Rome, and as a result spent most of the following three years in Italy, where he wrote \"Don Procopio\", a short opera buffa in the style of Donizetti. By this time Bizet had written several non-stage works, including his Symphony in C, but the poor reception accorded to his 1858 ', a religious work he composed in Rome, helped convince him that his future lay primarily with the musical theatre. He planned and possibly began several operatic works before his return to Paris in 1860, but none of these projects came to fruition. In Paris, Bizet discovered the difficulties faced by young and relatively unknown composers trying to get their operas performed. Of the capital's two state-subsidised opera houses, the Opéra and the Opéra-Comique, the former offered a static repertoire in which works by foreign composers, particularly Rossini and Meyerbeer, were dominant. Even established French composers such as Gounod had difficulty getting works performed there. At the Opéra-Comique, innovation was equally rare; although more French works were performed, the style and character of most productions had hardly changed since the 1830s. However, one condition of the Opéra-Comique's state funding was that from time to time it should produce one-act works by former Prix de Rome laureates. Under this provision, Bizet wrote \"La guzla de l'Emir\", with a libretto by Jules Barbier and Michel Carré, and this went into rehearsal early in 1862. In April 1862, as the \"\" rehearsals proceeded, Bizet was approached by Léon Carvalho, manager of the independent Théâtre Lyrique company. Carvalho had been offered an annual grant of 100,000 francs by the retiring Minister of Fine Arts, Count Walewski, on condition that each year he stage a new three-act opera from a recent Prix de Rome winner. Carvalho had a high opinion of Bizet's abilities, and offered him the libretto of \"Les pêcheurs de perles\", an exotic story by Carré and Eugène Cormon set on the island of Ceylon (now Sri Lanka). Sensing the opportunity for a genuine theatrical success, Bizet accepted the commission. Because Walewski restricted his grant to composers who had not had any previous work performed commercially, Bizet hurriedly withdrew \"La guzla\" from the Opéra-Comique; it has never been performed, and the music has disappeared.", "", "The scene is a desolate seashore, with the ruins of a Hindu temple in the background. A chorus of pearl fishermen sing of the dangerous tasks that lie ahead (\"\"), and perform ritual dances to drive away evil spirits. They then elect one of their number, Zurga, as their leader, or \"king\". Nadir enters, and is hailed by Zurga as a long-lost friend. Left alone, the pair reminisce about their past in the city of Kandy, where their friendship was nearly destroyed by their mutual love of a young priestess whose beauty they had glimpsed briefly. They had each renounced their love for this stranger and had sworn to remain true to each other. Now, reunited, they affirm once again that they will be faithful until death (\"Au fond du temple saint\"). A boat draws up on the beach bearing the veiled figure of Leila, the virgin priestess whose prayers are required to ensure the safety of the fishermen. Although neither Nadir nor Zurga recognises her, she is the woman from Kandy with whom both had been in love. As Zurga is explaining her duties, she recognises Nadir, but she says nothing and shortly afterwards is led up to the temple by the high priest Nourabad. Zurga and the fishermen go down to the sea, leaving Nadir alone. In a troubled soliloquy before he sleeps he recalls how, in Kandy, he had broken his vows to Zurga and pursued his love for the veiled woman (\"\"). It was the rumour that she might be found in this place that brought him here. Alone in the temple, Leila prays and sings. Nadir wakes and, recognising the voice of his long-desired lover, traces it to the temple. Leila briefly draws her veil aside, he sees it is she and the pair declare their renewed passion. On the beach, the fishermen plead with her to continue protecting them, but she tells Nadir she will sing for him alone (\"\").", "In the temple with Nourabad, Leila expresses fear at being left alone, but Nourabad exhorts her to be brave and to fulfil her vows to Brahma on pain of her own death. She tells him of the courage she once displayed when, as a child, she had hidden a fugitive from his enemies and refused to give him up even when threatened with death (\"\"). The fugitive had rewarded her with a necklace that he asked her always to wear. She had kept this promise, as she would her vows. On the priest's departure, Leila quietly muses on the former times when she and Nadir would meet together secretly (\"\"). Nadir then enters; in her fear of Nourabad's threats Leila begs him to leave, but he remains and the two declare their love in a passionate duet (\"\"). He goes, promising to return next night, but as he leaves he is captured by the fishermen and brought back to the temple. Zurga, as the fishermen's leader, at first resists the fishermen's calls for Nadir's execution and advocates mercy. However, after Nourabad removes Leila's veil, Zurga recognises her as his former love; consumed by jealousy and rage, he orders that both Nadir and Leila be put to death. A violent storm erupts, as the fishermen unite in singing a hymn to Brahma (\"Brahma divin Brahma!\").", "In his tent on the beach, Zurga notes that the storm has abated, as has his rage; he now feels remorse for his anger towards Nadir (\"\"). Leila is brought in; Zurga is captivated by her beauty as he listens to her pleas for Nadir's life, but his jealousy is rekindled. He confesses his love for her, but refuses mercy (\"\"). Nourabad and some of the fishermen enter to report that the funeral pyre is ready. As Leila is taken away, Zurga observes her giving one of the fishermen her necklace, asking for its return to her mother. With a shout, Zurga rushes out after the group and seizes the necklace. Outside the temple, Nadir waits beside the funeral pyre as the crowd, singing and dancing, anticipates the dawn and the coming double execution (\"\"). He is joined by Leila; resigned now to their deaths, the pair sing of how their souls will soon be united in heaven. A glow appears in the sky, and Zurga rushes in to report that the fishermen's camp is ablaze. As the men hurry away to save their homes, Zurga frees Leila and Nadir. He returns the necklace to Leila, and reveals that he is the man she saved when she was a child. He recognises now that his love for her is in vain, and tells her and Nadir to flee. As the couple depart, singing of the life of love that awaits them, Zurga is left alone, to await the fishermen's return (\"!\").", "The libretto was written by Eugène Cormon and Michel Carré. Cormon was a prolific author of libretti and straight drama, usually in collaboration with other writers. In his career he wrote or co-wrote at least 135 works, of which ', set to music by Aimé Maillart, was perhaps the most successful. Carré, who had initially trained as a painter, had worked with Jules Barbier on Gounod's opera \"Faust\" and had co-written the play ', which became the basis of the libretto for Offenbach's opera \"The Tales of Hoffmann\". Before'Cormon and Carré had previously written a libretto for Maillart on a similar theme, ', which had been performed in 1860; they had originally planned to set their new story in Mexico before changing its location to Ceylon. By general critical consent the libretto of \"\" is a work of poor quality. The weak plot, as Bizet's biographer Winton Dean observes, turns on the unlikely coincidence regarding Leila's necklace, and no real effort is made in the text to bring any of the characters to life: \"They are the regulation sopranos, tenors, etc., with their faces blacked\". Mina Curtiss, in her book on Bizet, dismisses the text as banal and imitative. Donal Henahan of \"The New York Times\", writing in 1986, said that the libretto \"rank[ed] right down there with the most appallingly inept of its kind\". The writers themselves admitted its shortcomings: Cormon commented later that had they been aware of Bizet's quality as a composer, they would have tried harder. Carré was worried about the weak ending, and constantly sought suggestions for changing it; Curtiss records that in exasperation, the theatre manager Carvalho suggested that Carré burn the libretto. This facetious remark, Curtiss asserts, led Carré to end the opera with the fishermen's tents ablaze as Leila and Nadir make their escape. Because he did not receive Carvalho's commission until April 1863, with the projected opening night set for mid-September, Bizet composed quickly with, Curtiss says, \"a tenacity and concentration quite foreign to him in his Roman days\". He had some music available on which he could draw; through the previous winter he had worked on the score of an opera, \"Ivan IV\" with the promise, which fell through, that the work would be staged in Baden-Baden. \"Ivan IV\" provided music for three numbers in \"Les pêcheurs de perles\": the prelude; part of Zurga's \"Une fille inconnue\"; and the third act duet \"O lumière sainte\". The \"Brahma divin Brahma\" chorus was adapted from the rejected \"Te Deum\", and the chorus \"Ah chante, chante encore\" from \"Don Procopio\". It is also likely that music composed for the cancelled \"La guzla de l'émir\" found its way into the new opera's score, which was completed by early August. The libretto was changed frequently during the creation process, even when the work had reached the rehearsal stage; the chorus \"L'ombre descend\" was added at Bizet's request, and other numbers were shortened or removed.", "", "The premiere, originally planned for 14 September 1863, was postponed to the 30th because of the illness of the soprano lead, Léontine de Maësen. The first-night audience at the Théâtre Lyrique received the work well, and called for Bizet at the conclusion. The writer Louis Gallet, who later would provide several librettos for Bizet, described the composer on this occasion as \"a little dazed... a forest of thick curly hair above a round, still rather childish face, enlivened by the quick brown eyes...\" The audience's appreciation was not reflected in the majority of the press reviews, which generally castigated both the work and what they considered Bizet's lack of modesty in appearing on stage. Gustave Bertrand in \"Le Ménestrel\" wrote that \"this sort of exhibition is admissible only for a most extraordinary success, and even then we prefer to have the composer dragged on in spite of himself, or at least pretending to be\". Another critic surmised that the calls for the composer had been orchestrated by a \"claque\" of Bizet's friends, strategically distributed. Of the opera itself, Benjamin Jouvin of \"Le Figaro\" wrote: \"There were neither fishermen in the libretto nor pearls in the music\". He considered that on every page the score displayed \"the bias of the school to which [Bizet] belongs, that of Richard Wagner\". Bertrand compared the work unfavourably with those of contemporary French composers such as Charles Gounod and Félicien David. \"Nevertheless\", he wrote, \"there is a talent floating in the midst of all these regrettable imitations\". Hector Berlioz was a voice apart in the general critical hostility; his review of the work in \"Journal des Débats\" praised the music's originality and subtlety: \"The score of \"Les pêcheurs de perles\" does M. Bizet the greatest honour\", he wrote. Among Bizet's contemporaries, the dramatist Ludovic Halévy wrote that this early work announced Bizet as a composer of quality: \"I persist in finding in [the score] the rarest virtues\". The youthful composer Émile Paladilhe told his father that the opera was superior to anything that the established French opera composers of the day, such as Auber and Thomas, were capable of producing. In its initial run \"\" ran for 18 performances, alternating with Mozart's \"The Marriage of Figaro\". It closed on 23 November 1863, and although it brought the theatre little financial success, Bizet had won admiration from his peers. Carvalho was satisfied enough to ask Bizet to quickly finish \"Ivan IV\", with a view to its early production at the Théâtre Lyrique. This idea eventually came to nothing; \"Ivan IV\" remained unperformed until 1946.", "After its opening run, \"\" was not performed again until 11 years after Bizet's death when, on 20 March 1886, it was presented in Italian at La Scala, Milan. After this it received regular stagings in European cities, often with the Italian version of the libretto. These revivals, which possibly reflected the growing success of \"Carmen\", were followed by the publication of several versions of the music that incorporated significant differences from Bizet's original. In particular the finale was altered, to provide a more dramatic ending—\"a grand Meyerbeerian holocaust\" according to Dean. This revised conclusion included a trio composed by Benjamin Godard. These corrupted scores remained the basis of productions for nearly a century. The opera received its British premiere on 22 April 1887, at London's Covent Garden, under the title \"Leila\". The part of Nadir was sung by Paul Lhérie, the original Don José in the 1875 \"Carmen\". Press reactions were muted; \"The Times\"s music critic found much of the music incompatible with the exotic setting—the hymn to Brahma was, he suggested, reminiscent of a Lutheran chorale. \"The Observer\"s reporter found \"no trace of genuine inspiration\", and drew unfavourable comparisons with \"Carmen\". When Covent Garden repeated the production in May 1889 the Princess of Wales and other members of the British royal family were present. \"The Manchester Guardian\"s correspondent praised the singers but found that the work \"becomes weaker and weaker as it goes on\". \"Les pêcheurs\" returned to Paris on 20 April 1889, when it was performed—in Italian—at the Théâtre de la Gaîté. Despite a distinguished cast—Emma Calvé, Jean-Alexandre Talazac and Lhérie, now a baritone, in the role of Zurga—critical reviews were no more enthusiastic than those which had greeted the original performances. \"Le Ménestrel\" excused Bizet on account of his youth, while \"The Manchester Guardian\"s report summed up the Parisian view of the work as \"almost entirely lacking in... boldness & originality\". On 24 April 1893 Carvalho revived the work, in French, at the Opéra-Comique, its first performance at what would later become its regular home. Productions continued to proliferate in Europe, and further afield; on 25 August 1893 the opera received its American premiere in Philadelphia. Two-and-a-half years later, on 11 January 1896, the first two acts were performed at the New York Metropolitan Opera (the \"Met\"), as part of a programme that included Jules Massenet's one-act opera \"\". The cast was led by Calvé and the Italian baritone Mario Ancona. The Met's first complete staging of the opera came 20 years later, on 13 November 1916, when a star cast that included Enrico Caruso, Frieda Hempel and Giuseppe De Luca gave three performances. According to W. H. Chase in the \"Evening Sun\", the act 1 duet \"brought down the house in a superb blending of the two men's voices\"; later, in \"Je crois entendre encore\", Caruso \"did some of the most artistic singing in plaintive minor\". In \"The Sun\", W. J. Henderson, praised Hempel for her \"ravishing upper tones\", Da Luca was \"a master of the delicate finish\", and the bass Léon Rothier, in the small part of Nourabad, \"filled Bizet's requirements perfectly\".", "In the years after the First World War the work lost popularity with opera-house directors, and it was seen less frequently. The Met did not repeat its 1916 production, though individual numbers from the work—most frequently the famous duet and Leila's \"\"—were regularly sung at the Met's concert evenings. The 1930s saw a return of interest in the opera, with productions in new venues including Nuremberg and the Berlin State Opera. Some revivals were unconventional: one German production used a rewritten libretto based on a revised storyline in which Leila, transformed into a defiant Carmen-like heroine, commits suicide at the end of the final scene. Paris's Opéra-Comique staged a more traditional production in 1932, and again in 1938, Bizet's centenary year. From that time onward it has remained in the Opéra-Comique repertory. After the Second World War, although the opera was shunned by Covent Garden, the Sadler's Wells company presented it in March 1954. \"The Times\" announced this production as the first known use in Britain of the opera's English libretto. The stage designs for this production, which was directed by Basil Coleman, were by John Piper. In the early 1970s, Arthur Hammond orchestrated the sections of the neglected 1863 vocal score that had been cut out from the post-1886 scores. This led to a production in 1973, by Welsh National Opera, of a version close to Bizet's original, without Godard's trio and Zurga's violent death—the first modern performance to incorporate the original ending. The Sadler's Wells production was revived several times, but it was not until September 1987 that the company, by then transformed into English National Opera, replaced it with a new staging directed by Philip Prowse. \"The Guardian\"s report on this production mentioned that the \"Pearl Fishers Duet\" had recently topped the list in a poll of the public's \"best tunes\", and described the opera as \"one of the most sweetly tuneful in the French repertory\". This production \"...[brought] out its freshness, never letting it become sugary\". Although the run was a sell-out, ENO's managing director Peter Jonas disliked the production, and refused to revive it. It did not reappear in ENO's repertory until 1994, after Jonas's departure.", "In the latter years of the 20th century the opera was a regular feature in many European cities, and was still breaking new ground; in 1990 it made its debut at the Slovak National Theatre in Bratislava. Vienna saw it for the first time in 1994, at the Vienna Volksoper, in what John Rockwell in the \"New York Times\" described as \"an awkwardly updated production\", though well performed. The opera had not so far proved particularly popular in the United States, where since the Met premiere of 1916, performances had been rare compared with Europe. Lyric Opera of Chicago staged it in 1966, but waited until 1998 before reviving it. In 1980 the New York City Opera mounted a production based on the 1863 edition, and staged it again in 1983 and 1986. Reviewing the 1986 production, Henahan wrote that despite the inept libretto the work was saved by the \"melodic suppleness and warmth\" of Bizet's score. San Diego Opera first staged the work in 1993, but it was this company's 2004 production, designed by Zandra Rhodes, that generated new levels of enthusiasm for the opera throughout the United States. In the following few years this production was shown in seven other U.S. opera houses; in October 2008 James C. Whitson, in \"Opera News\", reported that worldwide, \"between 2007 and 2009, half of all major production of the piece have been or will be... in the U.S.\". San Diego's director, Ian Campbell, suggested that his company's 2004 production was \"created at a time when it seemed many U.S. opera companies were looking for a not-too-expensive production with melody, and a little off the beaten track... [Our] \"Les pêcheurs de perles\" fitted the bill\". In January 2008 the opera received its first performance in Sri Lanka, the land of its setting. The conductor, Benjamin Levy, directed a large group of singers and musicians, mostly young and local. In October 2010, after an interval of more than 120 years, the opera was reintroduced to London's Royal Opera House. Two concert performances were given using a new edition of the score, prepared by Brad Cohen after the discovery in the Bibliothèque nationale de France of Bizet's 1863 conducting score. Commenting on this performance in \"The Daily Telegraph\", Rupert Christiansen drew attention to the \"musing intimacy and quiet dignity\" with which the duet was sung, as compared with more traditional macho renderings. The Metropolitan New York presented a new production of the work in 2016, the first time the opera had been performed there for nearly a hundred years.", "The opera begins with a brief orchestral prelude, the principal theme of which prefigures Leila's entrance. The opening chorus is punctuated by a lively dance—the critic John W. Klein describes it as \"electrifying\". Nadir's first significant contribution is his aria \"\", sung to an accompaniment of cellos and bassoons under a string tremolo that indicates the possible influence of Meyerbeer. Flutes and harps are used to introduce the main theme of the celebrated \"Pearl Fishers Duet\", in what the opera historian Hervé Lacombe identifies as \"the most highly developed poetic scene in the opera\". The duet's theme has become the opera's principal musical signature, repeated in the work whenever the issue of the men's friendship arises—though in Dean's view the tune is not worthy of the weight it carries. Dean suggests that Bizet's ability to find the appropriate musical phrase with style and economy is better demonstrated in his treatment of Leila's oath of chastity, where a simple phrase is repeated twice in minor third steps. Nadir's aria \"Je crois entendre encore\", towards the end of act 1, is written on a barcarole rhythm, with a dominant cor anglais whereby, says Lacombe, \"[t]he listener has the impression that the horn is singing\". In act 2 a short orchestral introduction is followed by an off-stage chorus, notable for its sparse accompaniment—a tambourine and two piccolos. After Nourabad reminds Leila of her oath and leaves her alone she sings her cavatina \"\". Two French horns introduce the theme, supported by the cellos. When her voice enters, says Lacombe, \"it replaces the first horn whose characteristic sound it seems to continue\". Dean likens this song to Micaela's aria \"\" from \"Carmen\". Nadir's \"De mon amie\" which follows the cavatina has, says Dean, \"a haunting beauty\"; its introductory phrase recalls the oboe theme in Bizet's youthful Symphony in C. Dean cites the second act finale, with its repeated climaxes as the crowds demand the errant couple's deaths, as an example of Bizet's developing skills in writing theatrical music. The third act, divided into two brief scenes, begins with Zurga's entrance to quiet chromatic scales played over a tonic pedal, an effect that Bizet would later use in his incidental music to '. The duet \"Je frémis\", says Dean, has clear hints of Verdi's ', and the fiery chorus \"Dès que le soleil\" is reminiscent of a Mendelssohn scherzo, but otherwise the final act's music is weak and lacking in dramatic force. In the closing scene, in which Zurga bids a last farewell to his dreams of love, the friendship theme from the act 1 duet sounds for the final time. According to Lacombe, \"\" is characteristic of French \"opéra lyrique\", in particular through Bizet's use of arioso and dramatic recitative, his creation of atmospheres, and his evocation of the exotic. Berlioz described the opera's score as beautiful, expressive, richly coloured and full of fire, but Bizet himself did not regard the work highly, and thought that, a few numbers apart, it deserved oblivion. Parisian critics of the day, attuned to the gentler sounds of Auber and Offenbach, complained about the heaviness of Bizet's orchestration, which they said was noisy, overloaded and Wagnerian—\"a fortissimo in three acts\". The conductor Hans von Bülow dismissed the work contemptuously as \"a tragical operetta\", and when it was revived after 1886, resented having to conduct it. Modern writers have generally treated the piece more generously; the music may be of uneven quality and over-reflective of the works of Bizet's contemporaries, says Dean, but there are interesting hints of his mature accomplishments. Others have given credit to the composer for overcoming the limitations of the libretto with some genuinely dramatic strokes and the occasional inspiring melody.", "The listing is based on the 1977 EMI recording, which used the 1863 vocal score. In the post-1886 revisions the act 1 \"\" duet was replaced with a reprise of \"\". In act 3 the sequence of numbers after the chorus \"\" was changed after 1886, together with cuts from and additions to the original. \"\", was recomposed by Benjamin Godard as a trio for Nadir, Leila and Zurga. Act 1 Act 2 Act 3", "Having completed the score of \"\" in August 1863, Bizet fell out with his publisher, Choudens, over publication rights. The quarrel was patched up and Choudens retained the rights, but published only a piano vocal score in 1863. After Bizet's death in 1875 his widow Geneviève Bizet showed scant care for her husband's musical legacy; several of his autograph scores, including that of \"Les pêcheurs de perles\", were lost or given away. Choudens published a second piano vocal score in 1887–88 and a \"nouvelle édition\" in 1893 that incorporated the changes that had been introduced into recent revivals of the opera. A full orchestral score based on the nouvelle edition was published in 1893. A trend towards greater authenticity began after Hammond's orchestrations in the 1970s provided a basis for staging the work in its original form. This process was further aided by the discovery in the 1990s of Bizet's 1863 conducting score. In this, the orchestral parts were reduced to six staves, but notes and other markings in the manuscript provided additional clues to the original orchestration. These new finds became the basis for Brad Cohen's critical edition of the score, published by Edition Peters in 2002.", "The first complete recordings of the opera were issued in the early 1950s. Before then, numerous recordings of individual numbers had been issued; the duet \"\", sung in Italian by Caruso and Mario Ancona, was recorded as early as 1907. The 1919 edition of \"The Victrola Book of the Opera\" lists available recordings of several of the solo numbers, the duet, the orchestral prelude, the chorus \"\" and the act 3 finale, mainly sung in Italian. The 1977 Prétre recording of the complete opera was the first to be based on the 1863 original as represented in Bizet's vocal score. The Plasson version of 1989, while using the 1863 score, gives listeners two versions of the duet: the curtailed form in which it appeared in Bizet's original, and the extended version in which it became more popularly known. Brad Cohen's highlights version, sung in English and based on the conductor's adaptation of Bizet's conducting score, also provides both versions of the duet.", "Notes Citations Sources" ] }

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{ "title": [ "In mathematics.", "Rectangle example.", "Other mathematical examples.", "In philosophy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "In mathematics, counterexamples are often used to prove the boundaries of possible theorems. By using counterexamples to show that certain conjectures are false, mathematical researchers can then avoid going down blind alleys and learn to modify conjectures to produce provable theorems. It is sometimes said that mathematical development consists primarily in finding (and proving) theorems and counterexamples.", "Suppose that a mathematician is studying geometry and shapes, and she wishes to prove certain theorems about them. She conjectures that \"All rectangles are squares\", and she is interested in knowing whether this statement is true or false. In this case, she can either attempt to prove the truth of the statement using deductive reasoning, or she can attempt to find a counterexample of the statement if she suspects it to be false. In the latter case, a counterexample would be a rectangle that is not a square, such as a rectangle with two sides of length 5 and two sides of length 7. However, despite having found rectangles that were not squares, all the rectangles she did find had four sides. She then makes the new conjecture \"All rectangles have four sides\". This is logically weaker than her original conjecture, since every square has four sides, but not every four-sided shape is a square. The above example explained — in a simplified way — how a mathematician might weaken her conjecture in the face of counterexamples, but counterexamples can also be used to demonstrate the necessity of certain assumptions and hypothesis. For example, suppose that after a while, the mathematician above settled on the new conjecture \"All shapes that are rectangles and have four sides of equal length are squares\". This conjecture has two parts to the hypothesis: the shape must be 'a rectangle' and must have 'four sides of equal length'. The mathematician then would like to know if she can remove either assumption, and still maintain the truth of her conjecture. This means that she needs to check the truth of the following two statements: A counterexample to (1) was already given above, and a counterexample to (2) is a non-square rhombus. Thus, the mathematician now knows that both assumptions were indeed necessary.", "A counterexample to the statement \"all prime numbers are odd numbers\" is the number 2, as it is a prime number but is not an odd number. Neither of the numbers 7 or 10 is a counterexample, as neither of them are enough to contradict the statement. In this example, 2 is in fact the only possible counterexample to the statement, even though that alone is enough to contradict the statement. In a similar manner, the statement \"All natural numbers are either prime or composite\" has the number 1 as a counterexample, as 1 is neither prime nor composite. Euler's sum of powers conjecture was disproved by counterexample. It asserted that at least \"n\" \"n\" powers were necessary to sum to another \"n\" power. This conjecture was disproved in 1966, with a counterexample involving \"n\" = 5; other \"n\" = 5 counterexamples are now known, as well as some \"n\" = 4 counterexamples. Witsenhausen's counterexample shows that it is not always true (for control problems) that a quadratic loss function and a linear equation of evolution of the state variable imply optimal control laws that are linear. Other examples include the disproofs of the Seifert conjecture, the Pólya conjecture, the conjecture of Hilbert's fourteenth problem, Tait's conjecture, and the Ganea conjecture.", "In philosophy, counterexamples are usually used to argue that a certain philosophical position is wrong by showing that it does not apply in certain cases. Alternatively, the first philosopher can modify their claim so that the counterexample no longer applies; this is analogous to when a mathematician modifies a conjecture because of a counterexample. For example, in Plato's \"Gorgias\", Callicles, trying to define what it means to say that some people are \"better\" than others, claims that those who are stronger are better. But Socrates replies that, because of their strength of numbers, the class of common rabble is stronger than the propertied class of nobles, even though the masses are prima facie of worse character. Thus Socrates has proposed a counterexample to Callicles' claim, by looking in an area that Callicles perhaps did not expect — groups of people rather than individual persons. Callicles might challenge Socrates' counterexample, arguing perhaps that the common rabble really are better than the nobles, or that even in their large numbers, they still are not stronger. But if Callicles accepts the counterexample, then he must either withdraw his claim, or modify it so that the counterexample no longer applies. For example, he might modify his claim to refer only to individual persons, requiring him to think of the common people as a collection of individuals rather than as a mob. As it happens, he modifies his claim to say \"wiser\" instead of \"stronger\", arguing that no amount of numerical superiority can make people wiser." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Technology.", "Small footprint.", "Embedded or server.", "Data controller friendly inbuilt encryption.", "Multi-generational architecture.", "Concurrency control.", "Rollbacks and recovery.", "Drawbacks.", "History.", "Early years.", "The road to Borland.", "Open source.", "CodeGear.", "Recent releases." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "InterBase is a SQL-92-compliant relational database and supports standard interfaces such as JDBC, ODBC, and ADO.NET.", "A full InterBase server installation requires around 40 MB on disk. A minimum InterBase client install requires about 400 KB of disk space.", "InterBase can be run as an embedded database or regular server.", "Since InterBase XE, InterBase includes 256bit AES strength encryption that offers full database, table or column data encryption. This assists data controllers conform with data protection laws around at-rest data by providing separated encryption / db access to the database and ensuring the database file is encrypted wherever it resides. The separation of the encryption also enables developers to just develop the application rather than worry about the data visible from a specific user login.", "", "To avoid blocking during updates, Interbase uses multiversion concurrency control instead of \"locks\". Each transaction will create a version of the record. Upon the write step, the update will fail rather than be blocked initially.", "InterBase also uses multi-generational records to implement rollbacks rather than transaction logs.", "Certain operations are more difficult to implement in a multi-generational architecture, and hence perform slowly relative to a more traditional implementation. One example is the SQL codice_1 verb. Even when an index is available on the column or columns included in the codice_1, all records must be visited in order to see if they are visible under the current transaction isolation.", "", "InterBase Software—originally known as Groton Database Systems—was born in Ann Harrison's spare room. Ann was the first junior programmer for the company and worked on nearly every component between version 0 and 3.3. Jim Starkey was working at DEC on their DATATRIEVE 4th generation language 4GL product when he came up with an idea for a system to manage concurrent changes by many users. The idea dramatically simplified the existing problems of \"locking\" which were proving to be a serious problem for the new relational database systems being developed at the time. Starkey, however, had the idea after he had spun off his original relational database project to another group and a turf war ensued. Starkey left the company after shipping the first version of the Rdb/ELN product. Although InterBase's implementation is much more similar to the system described by Reed in his MIT dissertation than any other database that existed at the time and Starkey knew Bernstein from his previous position at the Computer Corporation of America and later at DEC, Starkey has stated that he arrived at the idea of multiversion concurrency control independently. In the same comment, Starkey says: The inspiration for multi-generational concurrency control was a database system done by Prime that supported page level snapshots. The intention of the feature was to give a reader a consistent view of the database without blocking writers. The idea intrigued me as a very useful characteristic of a database system. He had heard that the local workstation vendor Apollo Computer was looking for a database offering on their Unix machines, and they agreed to fund development. With their encouragement he formed Groton Database Systems (named after the town, Groton, Massachusetts, where they were located) on Labor Day 1984 and started work on what would eventually be released as InterBase. In 1986 Apollo suffered a corporate shakeup and decided to exit the software business, but by this time the product was making money.", "Between 1986 and 1991 the product was gradually sold to Ashton-Tate, makers of the famous dBASE who were at the time purchasing various database companies in order to fill out their portfolio. The company was soon in trouble, and Borland purchased Ashton-Tate in 1991, acquiring InterBase as part of the deal.", "In early 2000, Borland announced that InterBase would be released under open-source, and began negotiations to spin off a separate company to manage the product. When the people who were to run the new company and Borland could not agree on the terms of the separation, InterBase remained a Borland product, and the source code for InterBase version 6 was released under a variant of the Mozilla Public License in mid-2000. With the InterBase division at Borland under new management, the company released a proprietary version of InterBase version 6 and then 6.5. Borland released several updates to the open source code before announcing that it would no longer actively develop the open source project. Firebird, an open source fork of the InterBase 6 code, however, remains in active development. In 2001, a backdoor was discovered (and fixed) in the software that had been present in all versions since 1994.", "On February 8 of 2006, Borland announced the intention to sell their line of development tool products, including InterBase, Delphi, JBuilder, and other tools, but instead of selling the divisions, Borland spun them out as a subsidiary on 14 November 2006. InterBase, along with IDE tools such as Delphi and JBuilder were included in the new company's product lineup. Then on 7 May 2008, Borland and Embarcadero Technologies announced that Embarcadero had \"signed a definitive asset purchase agreement to purchase CodeGear.\" The acquisition, for approximately $24.5 million, closed on 30 June 2008.", "At the end of 2002, Borland released InterBase version 7, featuring support for SMP, enhanced support for monitoring and control of the server by administrators, and more. Borland released InterBase 7.1 in June 2003, 7.5 in December 2004, and 7.5.1 on June 1, 2005. In September 2006, Borland announced the availability of InterBase 2007. Its new features include point in time recovery via journaling (which also allows recoverability without the performance penalty of synchronous writes), incremental backup, batch statement operations, new Unicode character encodings, and a new ODBC driver. In September 2008, Embarcadero announced the availability of InterBase 2009. Its new features include full database encryption, selective column-level data encryption and over-the-wire encryption offering secure TCP/IP communication via Secure Socket Layer (SSL). In September 2010, Embarcadero announced the availability of InterBase XE. Its new features include a 64 bit client and server, improved security, improved scalability, support for dynamic SQL in stored procedures, and optimized performance of large objects with stream methods. In 2013/2014 Embarcadero added iOS and then Android to the available supported platforms in InterBase XE3. Additionally InterBase IBLite was released - a run time royalty free edition of InterBase covering Windows, macOS, iOS and Android. In December 2014, embarcadero released InterBase XE7 offering a brand new, patent pending change tracking technology called \"Change Views.\". Added Ubuntu to the certified Linux platforms and also added 64bit Linux support. Additional 64bit transaction ID's were introduced and new distinguished data dumps enabling rapid updates of read only copies of the master database. In March 2017, Embarcadero released InterBase 2017. InterBase 2017 includes InterBase ToGo for Linux, Server wide monitoring support for InterBase Server, a number of language enhancements (including derived tables and common table expressions, truncate table for faster data removal), enhancements to Change Views for expanding a subscription with a table wide scope, new transaction isolation levels and transaction wait time management. In Nov 2019, Embarcadero released InterBase 2020, followed by Update 1 release in May 2020. The InterBase 2020 release adds a number of new features, including tablespaces support for InterBase, allowing for better performance on servers with multiple data storage options. See further at https://www.embarcadero.com/products/interbase/version-history" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Composition history.", "Debussy's ideal of opera.", "Finding the right libretto.", "Composition.", "Putting \"Pelléas\" on stage.", "Finding a venue.", "Trouble with Maeterlinck.", "Rehearsals.", "Premiere.", "Performance history.", "Instrumentation.", "Synopsis.", "Act 1.", "Act 2.", "Act 3.", "Act 4.", "Act 5.", "Character of the work.", "An innovative libretto.", "Debussy, Wagner and French tradition.", "Subsequent opera projects.", "Recordings.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Looking back in 1902, Debussy explained the protracted genesis of his only finished opera: \"For a long time I had been striving to write music for the theatre, but the form in which I wanted it to be was so unusual that after several attempts I had given up on the idea.\" There were many false starts before \"Pelléas et Mélisande\". In the 1880s the young composer had toyed with several opera projects (\"Diane au Bois\", \"Axël\") before accepting a libretto on the theme of \"El Cid\", entitled \"Rodrigue et Chimène\", from the poet and Wagner aficionado Catulle Mendès. At this point, Debussy too was a devotee of Wagner's music, but—eager to please his father—he was probably more swayed by Mendès' promise of a performance at the Paris Opéra and the money and reputation this would bring. Mendès' libretto, with its conventional plot, offered rather less encouragement to his", "Maeterlinck's plays were tremendously popular with the avant-garde in the Paris of the 1890s. They were anti-naturalistic in content and style, forsaking external drama for a symbolic expression of the inner life of the characters. Debussy had seen a production of Maeterlinck's first play \"La princesse Maleine\" and, in 1891, he applied for permission to set it but Maeterlinck had already promised it to Vincent d'Indy. Debussy's interest shifted to \"Pelléas et Mélisande\", which he had read some time between its publication in May 1892 and its first performance at the Théâtre des Bouffes-Parisiens on 17 May 1893, which he attended. \"Pelléas\" was a work that fascinated many other musicians of the time: both Gabriel Fauré and Jean Sibelius composed incidental music for the play, and Arnold Schoenberg wrote a tone poem on the theme. Debussy found in it the", "Debussy decided to remove four scenes from the play (Act I Scene 1, Act II Scene 4, Act III Scene 1, Act V Scene 1), significantly reducing the role of the serving-women to one silent appearance in the last act. He also cut back on the elaborate descriptions that Maeterlinck was fond of. Debussy's method of composition was fairly systematic; he worked on", "", "Debussy spent years trying to find a suitable venue for the premiere of \"Pelléas et Mélisande\", realising he would have difficulties getting such an innovative work staged. As he confided to his friend Camille Mauclair in 1895: \"It is no slight work. I should like to find a place for it, but you know I am badly received everywhere.\" He told Mauclair that he had contemplated asking the wealthy aesthete Robert de Montesquiou to have it performed at his Pavillon des Muses, but nothing came of this.", "Maeterlinck wanted the role of Mélisande to go to his longtime companion Georgette Leblanc, who later claimed that Debussy had had several rehearsals with her and was \"thrilled with my interpretation\". However, she was \"persona non grata\" with Albert Carré—her performance as Carmen had been regarded as outrageous—and privately Debussy told a friend: \"not only does she sing out of tune, she speaks out of tune\". Carré was keen on a new Scottish singer, Mary Garden, who had captivated the Parisian public when she had taken over the lead role in Gustave Charpentier's \"Louise\" shortly after its premiere in 1900. Debussy was reluctant at first but he later recalled how impressed he was when he heard her sing: \"That was the gentle voice that I had heard", "Rehearsals for \"Pelléas et Mélisande\" began on 13 January 1902 and lasted for 15 weeks. Debussy was present for most of them. Mélisande was not the only role which caused casting problems: the child (Blondin) who was to play Yniold was not chosen until very later in the day and proved incapable of singing the part competently. Yniold's main scene (Act IV Scene 3) was cut and only reinstated in later performances, when the role was given to a woman. In the course of rehearsals it was discovered that the stage machinery of the Opéra-Comique was unable to cope with the scene changes and Debussy had rapidly", "\"Pelléas et Mélisande\" received its first performance at the Opéra-Comique in Paris on 30 April 1902 with André Messager conducting. The sets were designed in the Pre-Raphaelite style by Lucien Jusseaume and Eugène Ronsin. The premiere received a warmer reception than the dress rehearsal because a group of Debussy aficionados counterbalanced the Opéra-Comique's regular subscribers, who found the work so objectionable. Messager described the reaction: \"[It was] certainly not a triumph, but no longer the disaster of two days before...From the second performance onwards, the public remained calm and above all curious to hear this work everyone was talking about...The little group of admirers, Conservatoire pupils and students for the most part, grew day by day...\" Critical reaction was mixed. Some accused", "The initial run lasted for 14 performances, making a profit for the Opéra-Comique. It became a staple part in the repertory of the theatre, reaching its hundredth performance there on 25 January 1913. In 1908, Maggie Teyte took over the role of Mélisande from Mary Garden. She described Debussy's reaction on learning her nationality: \"\"Une autre anglaise—Mon Dieu\"\" (\"Another Englishwoman—my God\"). Teyte also wrote about the composer's perfectionist character and his relations with the cast:As a teacher he was pedantic—that's the only word. Really pedantic [...] There was a core of anger and bitterness in him—I often think he was rather like Golaud in \"Pelléas\" and yet he wasn't. He was—it's in all his music—a very sensual man. No one seemed to like him. Jean Périer, who played Pelléas to my Mélisande, went white with anger if you mentioned the name of Debussy...Debussy's perfectionism—plus his dislike of the attendant publicity—was one of the reasons why he rarely attended performances of \"Pelléas et Mélisande\". However, he did supervise the first foreign production of the opera, which appeared at the Théâtre de la Monnaie, Brussels on 9 January 1907. This was followed by foreign premieres in Frankfurt on 19 April of the same year, New York City at the Manhattan Opera House on 19 February 1908, and at La Scala, Milan with Arturo Toscanini conducting on 2 April 1908. It first appeared in the United Kingdom at the Royal", "The score", "", "\"Scene 1: A forest\" Prince Golaud, grandson of King Arkel of Allemonde, has become lost while hunting in the forest. He discovers a frightened, weeping girl sitting by a spring in which a crown is visible. She reveals her name is Mélisande but nothing else about her origins and refuses to let Golaud retrieve her crown from the water. Golaud persuades her to come with him before the forest gets dark. \"Scene 2: A room in the castle\" Six months have passed. Geneviève, the mother of the princes Golaud and Pelléas, reads a letter to the aged and nearly blind King Arkel. It was sent by Golaud to his brother Pelléas. In it Golaud reveals that he has married Mélisande, although he knows no more about her than on the day they first met. Golaud fears that Arkel will be angry with him and tells Pelléas to find how he reacts to the news.", "\"Scene 1: A well in the park\" It is a hot summer day. Pelléas has led Mélisande to one of his favourite spots, the \"Blind Men's Well\". People used to believe it possessed miraculous powers to cure blindness but since the old king's eyesight started to fail, they no longer come there. Mélisande lies down on the marble rim of the well and tries to see to the bottom. Her hair loosens and falls into the water. Pelléas notices how extraordinarily long it is. He remembers that Golaud first met Mélisande beside a spring and asks if he tried to kiss her at that time but she does not answer. Mélisande plays with the ring Golaud gave her, throwing it up into the air until it slips from her fingers into the well. Pelléas tells her not to be concerned but she is not reassured. He also notes that the clock was striking twelve as the ring dropped into the well. Mélisande asks him what she should tell Golaud. He replies, \"the truth.\" \"Scene 2: A room in the castle\" Golaud is lying in bed with", "\"Scene 1: One of the towers of the castle\" Mélisande is at the tower window, singing a song (\"Mes longs cheveux\") as she combs her hair. Pelléas appears and asks her to lean out so he can kiss her hand as he is going away the next day. He cannot reach her hand but her long hair tumbles down from the window and he kisses and caresses it instead. Pelléas playfully ties Mélisande's hair to a willow tree in spite of her protests that someone might see them. A flock of doves takes flight. Mélisande panics when she hears Golaud's footsteps approaching. Golaud dismisses Pelléas and Mélisande as nothing but a pair of children and leads Pelléas away. \"Scene 2: The vaults of the castle\" Golaud leads Pelléas down to the castle vaults, which contain the dungeons and a stagnant pool which has \"the scent of death\". He tells Pelléas to lean over and look into the chasm while he holds him safely. Pelléas finds the atmosphere stifling and", "\"Scene 1: A room in the castle\" Pelléas tells Mélisande that his father is getting better and has asked him to leave on his travels. He arranges a last meeting with Mélisande by the Blind Men's Well in the park. \"Scene 2: The same\" Arkel tells Mélisande how he felt sorry for her when she first came to the castle \"with the strange, bewildered look of someone constantly awaiting a calamity\". But now that is going to change", "\"A bedroom in the castle\" Mélisande sleeps in a sick bed after giving birth to her child. The doctor assures Golaud that despite her wound, her condition is not serious. Overcome with guilt, Golaud claims he has killed for no reason. Pelléas and Mélisande merely kissed \"like a brother and sister\". Mélisande wakes and asks for a window to be opened so she can see the sunset. Golaud asks the doctor and Arkel to leave the room so he can speak with Mélisande alone.", "", "Rather than engaging a librettist to adapt the original play for him (as was customary), Debussy chose to set the text directly, making only a number of cuts. Maeterlinck's play was in prose rather than verse. Russian composers, notably Mussorgsky (whom Debussy admired), had experimented with setting prose opera libretti in the 1860s, but this was highly unusual in France (or Italy or Germany). Debussy's example influenced many later composers who edited their own", "\"Pelléas\" reveals Debussy's deeply ambivalent attitude to the works of the German composer Richard Wagner. As Donald Grout writes: \"it is customary, and in the main correct, to regard \"Pelléas et Mélisande\" as a monument to French operatic reaction to Wagner\". Wagner had revolutionised 19th-century opera by his insistence on making his stage works more dramatic, by his increased use of the orchestra, his abolition of the traditional distinction between aria and recitative in favour of what he termed \"endless melody\", and by his use of leitmotifs, recurring musical themes associated with", "\"Pelléas\" was to be Debussy's only completed opera. For this reason it has sometimes been compared to Beethoven's \"Fidelio\". As Hugh Macdonald writes: \"Both operas were much-loved only children of doting creators who put so much into their making that there could be no second child to follow after.\" This was not for want of trying on Debussy's part, and he worked hard to create a successor. Details of several opera projects survive. The most substantial surviving musical sketches are for two works based on short stories by Edgar Allan Poe: \"Le diable dans le beffroi\" and \"La chute de la maison Usher\". Debussy also planned a version of Shakespeare's \"As You Like It\" with a libretto by Paul-Jean Toulet, but the poet's opium addiction", "The earliest recording of \"Pelléas et Mélisande\" is a 1904 Gramophone & Typewriter disc recording of Mary Garden singing the passage \"Mes longs cheveux\", with Debussy accompanying her on the piano. The first recording", "Notes Sources" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Spelling of name.", "Early life.", "Debut as a composer.", "Career advancements.", "Marriages.", "Musical rivals and admirers.", "Stage works.", "Death and legacy.", "Portrayals in the media." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Although the name Strauss can be found in reference books frequently with \"ß\" (Strauß), Strauss himself wrote his name with a long \"s\" and a round \"s\" (Strauss), which was a replacement form for the Fraktur-ß used in antique manuscripts. His family called him \"Schani\", derived from the Italian \"Gianni\", a diminutive of \"Giovanni\", the Italian equivalent of \"Johann\" (John).", "Strauss was born into a Catholic family in St Ulrich near Vienna (now a part of Neubau), Austria, on 25 October 1825, to the composer Johann Strauss I. His paternal great-grandfather was a Hungarian Jew – a fact which the Nazis, who lionised Strauss's music as \"so German\", later tried to conceal. His father did not want him to become a musician but rather a banker. Nevertheless, Strauss Junior studied the violin secretly as a child with the first violinist of his father's orchestra, Franz Amon. When his father discovered his son secretly practising on a violin one day, he gave him a severe whipping, saying that he was going to beat the music out of the boy. It seems that rather than trying to avoid a Strauss rivalry, the elder Strauss only wanted his son to escape the rigours of a musician's life. It was only when the father abandoned his family for a mistress,, that the son was able to concentrate fully on a career as a composer with the support of his mother. Strauss studied counterpoint and harmony with theorist Professor Joachim Hoffmann, who owned a private music school. His talents were also recognized by composer Joseph Drechsler, who taught him exercises in harmony. It was during that time that he composed his only sacred work, the graduale \"\" (1844). His other violin teacher, Anton Kollmann, who was the ballet répétiteur of the Vienna Court Opera, also wrote excellent testimonials for him. Armed with these, he approached the Viennese authorities to apply for a license to perform. He initially formed his small orchestra where he recruited his members at the \"Zur Stadt Belgrad\" tavern, where musicians seeking work could be hired easily.", "Johann Strauss I's influence over the local entertainment establishments meant that many of them were wary of offering the younger Strauss a contract for fear of angering the father. Strauss Jr. was able to persuade Dommayer's Casino in Hietzing, a suburb of Vienna, to allow him to perform. The elder Strauss, in anger at his son's disobedience, and at that of the proprietor, refused to ever play again at Dommayer's Casino, which had been the site of many of his earlier triumphs. Strauss made his debut at Dommayer's in October 1844, where he performed some of his first works, such as the waltzes \"Sinngedichte\", Op. 1 and \"Gunstwerber\", Op. 4 and the polka \"Herzenslust\", Op. 3. Critics and the press were unanimous in their praise for Strauss's music. A critic for \"Der Wanderer\" commented that \"Strauss’s name will be worthily continued in his son; children and children’s children can look forward to the future, and three-quarter time will find a strong footing in him.\" Despite the initial fanfare, Strauss found his early years as a composer difficult, but he soon won over audiences after accepting commissions to perform away from home. The first major appointment for the young composer was his award of the honorary position of \"Kapellmeister of the 2nd Vienna Citizen's Regiment\", which had been left vacant following Joseph Lanner's death two years before. Vienna was wracked by the revolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire and the intense rivalry between father and son became much more apparent. Johann Jr. decided to side with the revolutionaries. It was a decision that was professionally disadvantageous, as the Austrian royalty twice denied him the much coveted 'KK Hofballmusikdirektor' position, which was first designated especially for Johann I in recognition of his musical contributions. Further, the younger Strauss was also arrested by the Viennese authorities for publicly playing \"La Marseillaise\", but was later acquitted. The elder Strauss remained loyal to the monarchy, and composed his \"Radetzky March\", Op. 228 (dedicated to the Habsburg field marshal Joseph Radetzky von Radetz), which would become one of his best-known compositions. When the elder Strauss died from scarlet fever in Vienna in 1849, the younger Strauss merged both their orchestras and engaged in further tours. Later, he also composed a number of patriotic marches dedicated to the Habsburg Emperor Franz Josef I, such as the \"Kaiser Franz-Josef Marsch\" Op. 67 and the \"Kaiser Franz Josef Rettungs Jubel-Marsch\" Op. 126, probably to ingratiate himself in the eyes of the new monarch, who ascended to the Austrian throne after the 1848 revolution.", "Strauss Jr. eventually attained greater fame than his father and became one of the most popular waltz composers of the era, extensively touring Austria, Poland and Germany with his orchestra. He applied for the \"KK Hofballmusikdirektor\" (Music Director of the Royal Court Balls) position, which he finally attained in 1863, after being denied several times before for his frequent brushes with the local authorities. In 1853, due to constant mental and physical demands, Strauss suffered a nervous breakdown. He took a seven-week vacation in the countryside in the summer of that year on the advice of doctors. Johann's younger brother Josef was persuaded by his family to abandon his career as an engineer and take command of Johann's orchestra in the interim. In 1855, Strauss accepted commissions from the management of the Tsarskoye-Selo Railway Company of Saint Petersburg to play in Russia for the Vauxhall Pavilion at Pavlovsk in 1856. He would return to perform in Russia every year until 1865. In 1862, the 27-year-old Eduard Strauss officially joined the Strauss orchestra as another conductor, and he and his brother Josef would lead it until 1870. Later, in the 1870s, Strauss and his orchestra toured the United States, where he took part in the Boston Festival at the invitation of bandmaster Patrick Gilmore and was the lead conductor in a \"Monster Concert\" of over 1000 performers (see World's Peace Jubilee and International Musical Festival), performing his \"Blue Danube\" waltz, amongst other pieces, to great acclaim. As was customary at the time, requests for personal mementos from celebrities in the form of a lock of hair. In the case of Strauss during his visit to America, his valet obliged by clipping Strauss' black Newfoundland dog and providing \"authentic Strauss hair\" to adoring female fans. However, on account of the high volume of demand, there grew a fear that the dog may be trimmed bald.", "Strauss married the singer Henrietta Treffz in 1862, and they remained together until her death in 1878. Six weeks after her death, Strauss married the actress Angelika Dittrich. Dittrich was not a fervent supporter of his music, and their differences in status and opinion, and especially her indiscretion, led him to seek a divorce. Strauss was not granted a decree of nullity by the Roman Catholic Church, and therefore changed religion and nationality, and became a citizen of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha in January 1887. Strauss sought solace in his third wife Adele Deutsch, whom he married in August 1887. She encouraged his creative talent to flow once more in his later years, resulting in many famous compositions, such as the operettas \"Der Zigeunerbaron\" and \"Waldmeister\", and the waltzes \"Kaiser-Walzer\" Op. 437, \"Kaiser Jubiläum\" Op. 434, and \"Klug Gretelein\" Op. 462.", "Although Strauss was the most sought-after composer of dance music in the latter half of the 19th century, stiff competition was present in the form of Karl Michael Ziehrer and Émile Waldteufel; the latter held a commanding position in Paris. Phillip Fahrbach also denied the younger Strauss the commanding position of the \"KK Hofballmusikdirektor\" when the latter first applied for the post. The German operetta composer Jacques Offenbach, who made his name in Paris, also posed a challenge to Strauss in the operetta field. Strauss was admired by other prominent composers: Richard Wagner once admitted that he liked the waltz \"Wein, Weib und Gesang\" Op. 333. Richard Strauss (unrelated to the Strauss family), when writing his \"Rosenkavalier\" waltzes, said in reference to Johann Strauss, \"How could I forget the laughing genius of Vienna?\" Johannes Brahms was a personal friend of Strauss; the latter dedicated his waltz \"Seid umschlungen, Millionen!\" (\"Be Embraced, You Millions!\"), Op. 443, to him. A story is told in biographies of both men that Strauss's wife Adele approached Brahms with a customary request that he autograph her fan. It was usual for the composer to inscribe a few measures of his best-known music, and then sign his name. Brahms, however, inscribed a few measures from the \"Blue Danube\", and then wrote beneath it: \"Unfortunately, NOT by Johannes Brahms.\"", "The most famous of Strauss' operettas are \"Die Fledermaus\", \"Eine Nacht in Venedig\", and \"Der Zigeunerbaron\". There are many dance pieces drawn from themes of his operettas, such as \"Cagliostro-Walzer\" Op. 370 (from \"Cagliostro in Wien\"), \"O Schöner Mai\" Walzer Op. 375 (from \"Prinz Methusalem\"), \"Rosen aus dem Süden\" Walzer Op. 388 (from \"Das Spitzentuch der Königin\"), and \"Kuss-Walzer\" op. 400 (from \"Der lustige Krieg\"), that have survived obscurity and become well-known. Strauss also wrote an opera, \"Ritter Pázmán\", and was in the middle of composing a ballet, \"Aschenbrödel\", when he died in 1899.", "Strauss was diagnosed with pleuropneumonia, and on 3 June 1899 he died in Vienna, at the age of 73. He was buried in the Zentralfriedhof. At the time of his death, he was still composing his ballet \"Aschenbrödel\". As a result of the efforts by Clemens Krauss who performed a special all-Strauss programme in 1929 with the Vienna Philharmonic, Strauss's music is now regularly performed at the annual Vienna New Year's Concert. Distinguished Strauss interpreters include Willi Boskovsky, who carried on the \"\" tradition of conducting with violin in hand, as was the Strauss family custom, as well as Herbert von Karajan, Carlos Kleiber, Lorin Maazel, Zubin Mehta and Riccardo Muti. In addition, the Wiener Johann Strauss Orchester, which was formed in 1966, pays tribute to the touring orchestras which once made the Strauss family so famous. In 1987 Dutch violinist and conductor André Rieu also created a Johann Strauss Orchestra. Eduard Strauss had surprisingly wound up the Strauss Orchestra on 13 February 1901 after concerts in 840 cities around the globe, and had pawned the instruments. The orchestra's last violins were destroyed in the firestorm of the Second World War. Most of the Strauss works that are performed today may once have existed in a slightly different form, as Eduard Strauss destroyed much of the original Strauss orchestral archives in a furnace factory in Vienna's Mariahilf district in 1907. Eduard, then the only surviving brother of the three, took this drastic precaution after agreeing to a pact between himself and brother Josef that whoever outlived the other was to destroy their works. The measure was intended to prevent the Strauss family's works from being claimed by another composer. This may also have been fueled by Strauss's rivalry with another of Vienna's popular waltz and march composers, Karl Michael Ziehrer. Two museums in Vienna are dedicated to Johann Strauss II. His residence in the Praterstrasse where he lived in the 1860s is now part of the Vienna Museum. The Strauss Museum is about the whole family with a focus on Johann Strauss II.", "The lives of the Strauss dynasty members and their world-renowned craft of composing Viennese waltzes are also briefly documented in several television adaptations, such as \"The Strauss Family\" (1972), \"The Strauss Dynasty\" (1991) and \"Strauss, the King of 3/4 Time\" (1995). Many other films used his works and melodies, and several films have been based upon the life of the musician, the most famous of which is \"The Great Waltz\" (1938), remade in 1972. Alfred Hitchcock made a low-budget biographical film of Strauss in 1934 called \"Waltzes from Vienna\". After a trip to Vienna, Walt Disney was inspired to create four feature films. One of those was \"The Waltz King\", a loosely adapted biopic of Strauss, which aired as part of the Wonderful World of Disney in the U.S. in 1963. In Mikhail Bulgakov's 1940 (published 1967) novel, \"The Master and Margarita\", Strauss conducts the orchestra during Satan's Great Ball at the invitation of Behemoth. On screen Strauss has been portrayed by Horst Buchholz, Fernand Gravet, Esmond Knight, Kerwin Mathews, Stephen McGann, and Stuart Wilson. \"A Corny Concerto\" (1943), a Warner Bros cartoon, features music that was composed by Strauss, and is a parody of Walt Disney's 1940 \"Fantasia\". The 1950 animated short titled \"Tom and Jerry in the Hollywood Bowl\" from the series \"Tom and Jerry\" makes use of Strauss's overture of \"Die Fledermaus\". Another 1953 animated short \"Johann Mouse\" from the series \"Tom and Jerry\" features a mouse mesmerised by the playing of several Strauss waltzes by Johann Strauss himself, and later, by Tom. The 1968 film \"\" features \"The Blue Danube\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "German plan.", "Creation of Operation Spring Awakening.", "Soviet preparation.", "Interrupted Soviet offensive preparations.", "Soviet defensive preparations.", "Order of battle.", "Breakdown of the armored structure of the two forces.", "German offensive.", "Soviet counterattack." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "3", "2", "3", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "On January 12, Hitler received confirmation that the Soviet Red Army had begun a massive winter offensive through Poland named the Vistula-Oder Offensive. Hitler ordered OB West Field Marshal Gerd Von Rundstedt to withdraw the following units from active combat in the Battle of the Bulge: I SS Panzer Coprs with 1st SS Panzer Division Leibstandarte and 12th SS Panzer Division Hitlerjugend, along with II SS Panzer Corps with 2nd SS Panzer Division Das Reich and 9th SS Panzer Division Hohenstaufen. These units were to be refitted by January 30 and attached to the 6th Panzer Army under the command of Sepp Dietrich for the upcoming Operation Spring Awakening. Hitler wanted to secure the extremely vital Nagykanizsa oil fields of southern Hungary, as this was the most strategically valuable asset remaining on the Eastern Front. The deadline of January 30 proved impossible for refitting to be completed. As Operation Spring Awakening would be of great importance, lengthy preparation and strategic care was taken so as to not reveal the offensive. But while the 6th Panzer Army was refitting in Germany, Hitler ordered a preliminary offensive with a similar object to be conducted, resulting in Operation Konrad III", "", "During a Situation Conference on January 7, 1945 at which both Hermann Göring and OB West Field Marshal Gerd von Rundstedt were present, Hitler proposed his intention of pulling the 6th SS Panzer Army to form a reserve due to severe Allied air attacks. Von Rundstedt received the withdrawal orders on January 8, and the Panzer Army's divisions began preparations to withdraw from the Front. The slow withdrawal which was greatly hampered by Allied air superiority. On January 12, the Soviet 1st Ukrainian and 1st Belorussian Fronts began their Vistula-Oder Offensive with over 2 million men placing considerable new pressure on the Eastern Front. When this news reached Hitler, he immediately began to plan a major offensive on this Front. Meanwhile, during January 14 on the Western Front, the 2nd and 9th SS Panzer divisions had to be recommitted back from reserves due to successful allied fighting. On January 20, Hitler ordered Gerd Von Rundstedt to withdraw forces from the ongoing Battle of the Bulge; the 1st SS, 2nd SS and 12th SS Divisions managed to disengage and withdraw the same day. Almost all support units of the 6th SS Panzer Army were pulled from the Ardennes by January 22, while the 9th SS Panzer Division was the last to leave on January 23. On this same day, January 22, Hitler decided that the 6th SS Panzer Army should not be sent back to the Western Front, but rather to Hungary, a view Heinz Guderian (OKH) partially agreed on; Guderian wanted the 6th SS Panzer Army on the Eastern Front, but there to mainly protect Berlin. A glimpse of the ensuing verbal exchange during this argument was captured in Alfred Jodl's (OKW) post-war interrogation where he states Hitler said: \"\"You want to attack without oil- good, we'll see what happens when you attempt that\"\". However, main reason for sending the 6th SS Panzer Army south into Hungary can be understood through the list of main strategic points listed in a Situation in the East conference held on January 23: 1) The Hungarian oil region and Vienna oil region which made up 80% of reserves, without which the war effort could not be continued, 2) the Danzig estuary vital for U-boat operations and Upper Silesian industrial region for the war economy and coal production. These two quotes illustrate how seriously Hitler viewed his ruling: “\"Hitler considered the protection of Vienna and Austria as of vital importance and that he would rather see Berlin fall than lose the Hungarian oil area and Austria\"”, \"\"He\" [Hitler] \"accepted the risk of the Russian threat to the Oder east of Berlin\"\". On January 27, Heinz Guderian was tasked by Hitler to stop the 3rd Ukrainian Front in the vicinity on the Margit-Line in order to protect the vital oil fields. The following day, January 28, this operation received its preliminary name, Operation Süd (G:South). The main objectives of the operation were as follows: 1) the security of vital raw materials such as oil, bauxite, and manganese for iron, 2) arable land for food and crops, the Austrian military industrial complex, and the city of Vienna, 3) to stop the Soviet Advance. Interestingly, an additional side-objective was the hope that serious pressure on the Southern Soviet Fronts in Hungary would force the Soviet Command to divert some forces from its Northern Offensives headed to Berlin towards Hungary. Operation Süd was scheduled to start after a path to Budapest had been established. The operation was considered to be a success if 1) Operation Konrad III could pin the Soviets between the Vértes mountains and the Danube, 2) the 8th Army could secure its Front in Northern Hungary, 3) if the incoming panzer armies could be refitted during transit to create the advantage of surprise. Four plans for Operation Süd were produced by high-ranking officials from Army Group South, 6th SS Panzer Army, and the 6th Army. “Lösung A” by Fritz Krämer of 6th SS Panzer Army, “Lösung B” and “Lösung C2” by Helmuth Von Grolman of Army Group South, and “Lösung C1” by Heinrich Gaedcke of 6th Army with much fighting and bickering as to which plan should be implemented. Army Group South commander Otto Wöhler chose “Lösung B”. The four plans were sent to Heinz Guderian on February 22 for review, and Army Group South informed Army Group F commander Maximilian von Weichs on February 23 that the operation would commence on March 5, in anticipation that Operation Südwind (G:Southwind) will have successfully finished by February 24. If Operation Southwind was successful, Operation Süd's start could be deferred by 8–9 days. On February 25, Hitler ordered Otto Wöhler, Maximilian von Weichs, and Sepp Dietrich to personally present the plans for Operation Süd to him, along with Guderian (OKH) and Alfred Jodl (OKW), at the Reich Chancellery in Berlin, where he ultimately chose “Lösung C2”. Gudarian then ordered Otto Wöhler to increase the daily fuel allowance from 400 to 500 cubic meters (400k to 500k liters) of fuel on February 26, and by the February 28 the specifics of the now officially named “Operation Frühlingserwachen” (G:Spring Awakening) was completed. As per “Lösung C2” 3 offensive prongs were planned, with the main attack of the 6th Army and 6th SS Panzer Army “Frühlingserwachen” attacking towards the Danube", "", "On February 17 of 1945, the Soviet High Command (Stavka) instructed the 2nd and 3rd Ukrainian Fronts to prepare for an offensive towards Vienna which would begin on March 15. However, from February 17 to 18, the 2nd Ukrainian Front noticed the 1st SS Panzer division Leibstandarte and the 12th SS Panzer division Hitlerjugend fighting at the Garam River (S:Hron) during the German Operation Southwind. Knowing that German Panzer divisions were not created for defensive purposes, the Soviet Fronts in Hungary became suspicious of the enemy's intentions. Prisoners taken during Operation Southwind testified that the Germans were in fact preparing to gather a large offensive force. By February 20, the Soviet fronts in Hungary began to understand what the Germans planned to do. The security of the lands West of the River Danube, particularly in the south which held the Hungarian oil fields, was the Germans' main priority at this stage of the war.", "As the 2nd Ukrainian Front held the territory of Budapest and the lands north of the Hungarian capital, defensive preparations in this sector were not paid much attention due to the lower likelihood of attack, but this was not the same in the south. 3rd Ukrainian Front marshal Fyodor Tolbukhin ordered his armies to prepare for a German offensive on his entire Front, preparation of which would have to be completed no latter then March 3. To ensure sufficient supply of war materials and fuel, additional temporary bridges and gas pipelines were built on the Danube River. Tolbukhin's plan was to initially slow down the German advance to rob their offensive of momentum, then begin grinding down the attacking armies, then initiate the planned Soviet offensive to finish off the remaining German forces. This plan, along with the strategic deployment of the Soviet forces, was quite similar to that of the Battle of Kursk, although it utilized experiences learned in 1943. The 3rd Ukrainian Front worked on digging in, creating extensive trench networks ideal for anti-tank defenses, along with defensive earthworks for the artillery and infantry. The main differences between the Soviet defenses during the Battle of Kursk and the Balaton Defensive Operation (the Russian name for Operation Spring Awakening) was the relative short time frame allowed for defensive preparations (half a month), the smaller number of Soviet forces partaking in the defensive, and a reduced focus on perfecting the defensive lines as after all the 3rd Ukrainian Front would need to start its offensive from these lines. Other minor differences included the lack or limited use of barbed wire installations,", "", "The tables below illustrate ideal, full capacity, late war unit structures. These were subject to change as front line situations changed. The above table excludes units within the SS Panzer divisional structure which do not contain either tanks or self propelled guns. Each German SS Panzer division would consist of a Panzer regiment, holding 2 Panzer battalions with 4 companies. While the 8 companies lay-out was standard, this could sometimes rise up to 10 companies depending on the circumstance; a company would have 16 tanks. The total number of tanks per SS Panzer regiment would total 128+ tanks. The full combat strength of a SS Panzer division would include over 17,000 personnel and over 3,300 motorized vehicles. The above table excludes units within the Panzer divisional structure which do not contain either tanks or self propelled guns. Each German Panzer division would consist of a Panzer regiment, holding 2 Panzer battalions with 4 companies. While the 8 companies lay-out was standard, this", "On the 6 March 1945, the German 6th Army, joined by the 6th SS Panzer Army launched a pincer movement north and south of Lake Balaton. Ten armoured (Panzer) and five infantry divisions, including a large number of new heavy Tiger II tanks, struck 3rd Ukrainian Front, hoping to reach the Danube and link up with the German 2nd Panzer Army forces attacking south of Lake Balaton. The attack was spearheaded by the 6th SS Panzer Army and included elite units such as the LSSAH division. Dietrich's army made \"good progress\" at first, but as they drew near the Danube, the combination of the muddy terrain and strong Soviet resistance had ground the German advance to a halt. By the 14 March,", "On 16 March, the Soviets forces counterattacked in strength. The Germans were driven back to the positions they had held before Operation Spring Awakening began. The overwhelming numerical superiority of the Red Army made any defense impossible, but Hitler believed victory was attainable. On 22 March, the remnants of the 6th SS Panzer Army withdrew towards Vienna. By 30 March, the Soviet 3rd Ukrainian Front crossed from Hungary into Austria. By 4 April, the 6th SS Panzer Army was already in the Vienna area desperately setting up defensive lines against the anticipated Soviet Vienna Offensive. Approaching and encircling the Austrian capital were the Soviet 4th and 6th Guards Tank, 9th Guards, and 46th Armies. The Soviet's Vienna Offensive ended with the fall of the city on 13 April. By 15 April, the remnants of the 6th SS Panzer Army were north of Vienna, facing the Soviet 9th Guards and 46th Armies. By 15 April, the depleted German 6th Army was north of Graz, facing the Soviet 26th and 27th Armies. The remnants of the German 2nd Panzer Army were south of Graz in the Maribor area, facing the Soviet 57th Army and the Bulgarian First Army. Between 25 April and 4 May, the 2nd Panzer Army was attacked near Nagykanizsa during the Nagykanizsa–Körmend Offensive. Some Hungarian units survived the fall of Budapest and the destruction which followed when the Soviets counterattacked after Operation Spring Awakening. The Hungarian Szent László Infantry Division was still indicated to be attached to the German 2nd Panzer Army as late as 30 April. Between 16 and 25 March, the Hungarian Third Army had been destroyed about west of Budapest by the Soviet 46th Army which was driving towards Bratislava and the Vienna area. On 19 March, the Red Army recaptured the last territories lost during the 13‐day Axis offensive. Sepp Dietrich, commander of the Sixth SS Panzer Army tasked with defending the last sources of petroleum controlled by the Germans, joked that \"“6th Panzer Army is well named—we have just six tanks left.”\" The failure of the operation resulted in the \"armband order\" that was issued to Sepp Dietrich by Adolf Hitler, who claimed that the troops, and more importantly, the \"Leibstandarte\", \"did not fight as the situation demanded.\" As a mark of disgrace, the Waffen-SS units involved in the battle were ordered to remove their cuff titles. Dietrich did not relay the order to his troops." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Early years.", "Eventual success.", "Members.", "Dissolution and re-formation.", "After 2000." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The genesis of Berlin was the new wave rock band The Toys, formed in 1976 in Orange County, California, by John Crawford (bass guitar), Dan Van Patten (drums), Chris Ruiz-Velasco (guitar), and Ty Cobb (vocals). After a few shows, the band changed its name to Berlin, discharging Cobb as lead singer in the process. After a brief stint with Toni Childs as lead singer, Terri Nunn joined the band after answering an ad through the Musicians Contact Service in Hollywood in 1979. Despite its name, Berlin did not have any known major connections with the capital of Germany; the name was chosen to make them seem European and exotic. As lead singer, Nunn would eventually take the Berlin name as her alternate moniker. The band was inspired by the keyboard work of Kraftwerk, Devo, Sparks and The Screamers. The band's first single, \"A Matter of Time,\" was released in 1979 on Renegade Records and they appeared on television for the first time on the short-lived \"Hollywood Heartbeat\" hosted by former Fleetwood Mac guitarist, Bob Welch. Nunn left the group later that year to pursue an acting career forcing the band to replace her with Virginia Maccolino. The band released the 1980 album \"Information\", with Maccolino as lead vocalist, but the band struggled signing with a mainstream label without Nunn. As band manager, Perry Watts-Russell explained, \"Unfortunately, the record labels that had shown interest in December 1979, when Terri was the singer, were no longer keen to sign the band. So, by later that year, Berlin had effectively broken up, and John had formed and was the lead singer in another group, Fahrenheit, with Dan Van Patten. But he had some songs that he thought were better suited to Terri's voice and he asked me if I thought she might be interested in singing them. We asked and she was.\"", "Terri Nunn rejoined the band as singer in 1980, and they signed to independent label Enigma Records on which they released a double A-sided single, \"Tell Me Why\" / \"The Metro\". The single was intended as a one-off, since Crawford was by then focusing on his new band Fahrenheit and regarded Berlin as a \"just for fun\" side project. However, the single was a success, helping to finance the EP album, \"Pleasure Victim\", which was recorded on a $2,900 budget. The EP included their first significant hit: the controversial synth-driven \"Sex (I'm A...)\" (1982), which was banned by some radio stations due to its graphic lyrics. The song was intentionally written and composed to get airplay on Los Angeles radio station KROQ, which specialized in playing music that was not heard on other stations, and of which members of the group were fans. Due to the attention brought on by the single, wider release offers were made by larger record labels for \"Pleasure Victim\". Geffen Records' offer was accepted and the label re-released \"Pleasure Victim\" worldwide in early 1983. The label also re-released \"The Metro\", which then became another hit. The band appeared at the 1983 US Festival. In 1984, the band released their next album, \"Love Life\", and the single \"No More Words,\" whose subsequent video saw Terri Nunn and bandmates re-enact a Bonnie and Clyde-style car chase and shoot-out, became their first top-20 hit. \"Take My Breath Away\" (for the movie \"Top Gun soundtrack\"), co-written and produced by Giorgio Moroder, became their best-selling single in 1986 and a huge international hit, but also their last big hit.", "Aside from Nunn, members of the band were founding member John Crawford (primary songwriter, bass guitar and synthesizer), and David Diamond (synthesizer & guitar). Ric Olsen (lead guitar) was brought in during the final recording of \"Pleasure Victim\". Other members added were Matt Reid (synthesizer), Rob Brill (drums: 1983–1987) and Rod Learned (drums: 1979–1983). Berlin's breakout EP, 1982's \"Pleasure Victim\", featured Nunn, Crawford, and Diamond, as well as guitarist Olsen, drummer, synthesist and producer Dan Van Patten and guitarist Chris Ruiz-Velasco. (These last two were founding members, along with Crawford and original male vocalist Tyson Cobb.) Before \"Pleasure Victim\" was completed, Van Patten and Ruiz-Velasco parted ways with Nunn, Crawford, and Diamond. Ric Olsen was brought in to complete tracks on \"Pleasure Victim\".", "Berlin officially disbanded in 1987, partly due to the lack of success of their album \"Count Three & Pray\" and because of personal disagreements over the single \"Take My Breath Away.\" Nunn viewed it as a fresh new song that allowed the band to perform globally, while others disliked it as it had not been written or composed by any of them. Later, after the release of the 1991 solo album \"Moment of Truth\", Nunn retained the legal rights to usage of the band's name after legal wranglings with the founding member of the group, John Crawford. Nunn recreated Berlin, with a new lineup of musicians, in 1997. In 1999, Berlin opened for The Go-Go's on their West Coast reunion tour.", "In 2000–2001, Berlin contributed to several artist tribute albums. The only track to make it on to a full Berlin release is a cover of Marilyn Manson's \"The Dope Show,\" which is included on Berlin's \"4play\" album as well as the Marilyn Manson tribute album \"Anonymous Messiah\" (2001, Vitamin Records). Other tributes include material by Madonna, Blondie and Depeche Mode. Berlin was featured on the VH1 show, \"Bands Reunited\" where the roughly pre-\"Love Life\" era lineup of the band (John Crawford, Terri Nunn, David Diamond, Ric Olsen, Matt Reid and Rod Learned) agreed to reunite as a band and as friends. They played one show at The Roxy in California to a sold-out crowd. The band, featuring Nunn supported by other members who were not part of the classic line-up, toured with rock band INXS during the summer of 2011. Gerald Casale of Devo created a video for Berlin which was scheduled to debut at a late November 2011 performance. Nunn herself was scheduled both to debut a radio show on KCSN-FM, and to record a new album, in 2012. In July 2013, it was announced that a new album called \"Animal\" would be released on September 17, from which a single \"It's The Way\" would also be issued. In an August 9, 2016, interview with \"The Washington Times\", Nunn announced the original members (Crawford, Nunn and Diamond) had been writing new material, and planning a tour and new album for 2017. On the 80s Cruise 2018, Ric Olsen, David Diamond and John Crawford performed with the Nunn-fronted version of Berlin. Rather than replacing any of the existing members, Diamond and Crawford are merging with Nunn's current Berlin incarnation to form a six-person line-up. They performed two new songs from their forthcoming album. They jokingly announced the album's title would be \"Woke\", a suggestion from VJ Mark Goodman during a Q & A session on the cruise, and that the album would be released in July 2018. Although an official name has not been determined, the new album was scheduled for release later that year. In May 2019, Terri Nunn announced that she and co-founders John Crawford and David Diamond would be reuniting for a new album, \"Transcendance\", to be released on August 2, 2019. On June 25, 2019, \"The New York Times Magazine\" listed Berlin among hundreds of artists whose material was reportedly destroyed in the 2008 Universal fire. The accuracy of this report was disputed by Vinny Vero, a music producer who works for the reissue label Cherry Red. Vero observed that Berlin's album masters were “safe and sound” while working on reissues of another Geffen recording artist. Later the same year, Universal located two session reels containing 11 unique or early versions of songs recorded in 1983 between \"Pleasure Victim\" and \"Love Life\", as well as an unreleased outtake from \"Love Life\". On August 2, 2019, Berlin featuring Terri Nunn released their eighth album, \"Transcendance\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Distribution.", "Classification.", "Alphabet and pronunciation.", "Vowels.", "Digraphs and trigraphs.", "Grammar.", "Definite articles.", "Indefinite articles.", "Verbal conjugation.", "Doubled initial consonants." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The Neapolitan dialects are distributed throughout most of continental southern Italy, historically united during the Kingdom of Naples and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, specifically southern Lazio (Gaeta and Sora districts), southern Marche, Abruzzo, Molise, Basilicata, Campania (Naples), northern and central Apulia, and northernmost Calabria. The dialects are part of a varied dialect continuum, so the varieties in southern Lazio, Marche, Abruzzo, Molise, Apulia, Lucania and Calabria can typically be recognizable as regional groups of dialects. In western Abruzzo and Lazio the dialects give way to Central Italian dialects such as Romanesco. In central Calabria and southern Apulia, the dialects give way to the Sicilian language. Largely due to massive southern Italian migration in the late 19th century and early 20th century, there are also numbers of speakers in Italian diaspora communities in the United States, Canada, Australia, Brazil, Argentina and Venezuela. However, in the United States traditional Neapolitan has had considerable contact with English, and is significantly different from contemporary Neapolitan spoken in Naples. English words are often used in place of Neapolitan words, especially among second-generation speakers. On the other hand, the effect on Neapolitan in Italy has been similar due to displacement by Standard Italian. The following dialects constitute Neapolitan; numbers refer to the map: The southernmost regions of Italy—most of Calabria and southern Apulia, as well as Sicily—are home to Sicilian rather than Neapolitan.", "Neapolitan is a Romance language and is generally considered one of the Italo-Romance branch of the Italo-Dalmatian languages. There are notable differences among the various dialects, but they are all generally mutually intelligible. Italian and Neapolitan are of variable mutual comprehensibility, depending on factors that are both affective and linguistic. There are notable grammatical differences, such as Neapolitan having nouns in the neuter form and a unique plural formation as well as historical phonological developments, which often obscure the cognacy of lexical items. Its evolution has been similar to that of Italian and other Romance languages from their roots in Vulgar Latin. It may reflect a pre-Latin Oscan substratum, as in the pronunciation of the \"d\" sound as an \"r\" sound (rhotacism) at the beginning of a word or between two vowels: e.g. \"doje\" (feminine) or \"duje\" (masculine), meaning \"two\", is pronounced, and often spelled, as \"roje\"/\"ruje\"; \"vedé\" (\"to see\") as \"veré\", and often spelled so; also \"cadé\"/\"caré\" (\"to fall\") and \"Madonna\"/\"Maronna\"). Another purported Oscan influence is the historical assimilation of the consonant cluster as, pronounced (this is generally reflected in spelling more consistently: vs Italian \"world\"; vs Italian \"when\"), along with the development of as ~ ( vs Italian \"drum\"), also consistently reflected in spelling. Other effects of the Oscan substratum are postulated, but substratum claims are highly controversial. As in many other languages in the Italian Peninsula, Neapolitan has an adstratum greatly influenced by other Romance languages (Catalan, Spanish and Franco-Provençal above all), Germanic languages, Greek (both ancient and modern) and Arabic. The language had never been standardised, and the word for \"tree\" has three different spellings:, and. Neapolitan has enjoyed a rich literary, musical and theatrical history (notably Giambattista Basile, Eduardo De Filippo, Salvatore Di Giacomo and Totò). Thanks to this heritage and the musical work of Renato Carosone in the 1950s, Neapolitan is still in use in popular music, even gaining national popularity in the songs of Pino Daniele and the Nuova Compagnia di Canto Popolare. The language has no official status within Italy and is not taught in schools. The University of Naples Federico II offers (from 2003) courses in Campanian Dialectology at the faculty of Sociology, whose actual aim is not teaching students to speak the language, but studying its history, usage, literature and social role. There are also ongoing legislative attempts at the national level to have it recognized as an official minority language of Italy. It is however a recognized ISO 639 Joint Advisory Committee language with the language code of \"nap\". Here is the IPA pronunciation of the Neapolitan spoken in the city of Naples:", "Neapolitan orthography consists of 22 Latin letters. Much like Italian orthography, it does not contain \"k,\" \"w,\" \"x,\" or \"y\" even though these letters might be found in some foreign words; unlike Italian, it does contain the letter \"j\". The English pronunciation guidelines that follow are based on General American pronunciation and the values used may not be applicable to other dialects. (See also: International Phonetic Alphabet chart for English dialects.) All Romance languages are closely related. Although Neapolitan shares a high degree of its vocabulary with Italian, the official language of Italy, differences in pronunciation often make the connection unrecognizable to those without knowledge of Neapolitan. The most striking phonological difference is the Neapolitan weakening of unstressed vowels into schwa (\"schwa\" is pronounced like the \"a\" in \"about\" or the \"u\" in \"upon\"). However it is also possible (and quite common for some Neapolitans) to speak standard Italian with a \"Neapolitan accent\"; that is, by pronouncing un-stressed vowels as schwa or by pronouncing the letter s as (like the \"sh\" in \"ship\") instead of (like the \"s\" in \"sea\" or the \"ss\" in \"pass\") when the letter is in initial position followed by a consonant, but not when it is followed by a dental occlusive or (at least in the purest form of the language) but by otherwise using only entirely standard words and grammatical forms. This is not Neapolitan proper, but a mere difference in Italian pronunciation. Therefore, while pronunciation presents the strongest barrier to comprehension, the grammar of Neapolitan is what sets it apart from Italian. In Neapolitan, for example, the gender and number of a word is expressed by a change in the accented vowel, whereas in Italian it is expressed by a change in the final vowel (e.g. \"luongo\", \"longa\" ; Italian \"lungo, \"lunga; masc. \"long\", fem. \"long\"). These and other morpho-syntactic differences distinguish the Neapolitan language from the Italian language and the Neapolitan accent. Neapolitan has had a significant influence on the intonation of Rioplatense Spanish, of the Buenos Aires region of Argentina, and the whole of Uruguay.", "While there are only five graphic vowels in Neapolitan, phonemically, there are eight. Stressed vowels \"e\" and \"o\" can be either \"closed\" or \"open\" and the pronunciation is different for the two. The grave accent (\"à\", \"è\", \"ò\") is used to denote open vowels, and the acute accent (\"é\", \"í\", \"ó\", \"ú\") is used to denote closed vowels, with alternative \"ì\" and \"ù\". However, accent marks are not commonly used in the actual spelling of words except when they occur on the final syllable of a word, such as \"Totò\", \"arrivà\", or \"pecché\" and when they appear here in other positions it is only to demonstrate where the stress, or accent, falls in some words. Also, the circumflex is used to mark a long vowel where it wouldn't normally occur (e.g. \"sî\" \"you are\").", "The following clusters are always geminated if vowel-following.", "", "The Neapolitan classical definite articles (corresponding to the English word \"the\") are \"la\" (feminine singular), \"lo\" (masculine singular) and \"li\" (plural for both), but in reality these forms will probably only be found in older literature (along with \"lu\" and even \"el\"), of which there is much to be found. Modern Neapolitan uses, almost entirely, shortened forms of these articles which are: Before a word beginning with a consonant: These definite articles are always pronounced distinctly. Before a word beginning with a vowel, \"l’\" or \"ll’\" are used for both masculine and feminine, for both singular and plural. Although both forms can be found, the \"ll’\" form is by far the most common. It is well to note that in Neapolitan the gender of a noun is not easily determined by the article, so other means must be used. In the case of \"’o\" which can be either masculine singular or neuter singular (there is no neuter plural in Neapolitan), when it is neuter the initial consonant of the noun is doubled. As an example, the name of a language in Neapolitan is always neuter, so if we see \"’o nnapulitano\" we know it refers to the Neapolitan language, whereas \"’o napulitano\" would refer to a Neapolitan man. Likewise, since \"’e\" can be either masculine plural or feminine plural, when it is feminine plural, the initial consonant of the noun is doubled. As an example, consider \"’a lista\" which in Neapolitan is feminine singular for \"list.\" In the plural it becomes \"’e lliste\". There can also be problems with nouns whose singular form ends in \"e\". Since plural nouns usually end in \"e\" whether masculine or feminine, the masculine plural is often formed by orthographically changing the spelling. As an example, consider the word \"guaglione\" (which means \"boy\", or \"girl\" in the feminine form): More will be said about these orthographically changing nouns in the section on Neapolitan nouns. A couple of notes about consonant doubling:", "The Neapolitan indefinite articles, corresponding to the English \"a\" or \"an\", are presented in the following table:", "In Neapolitan there are four finite moods: indicative, subjunctive, conditional and imperative, and three non-finite modes: infinitive, gerund and participle. Each mood has an active and a passive form. The only auxiliary verbs used in the active form is (Eng. \"to have\", It. \"avere\"), which contrasts with Italian in which the intransitive and reflexive verbs take \"èssere\" for their auxiliary. For example, we have:", "In Neapolitan, many times the initial consonant of a word is doubled. This is called \"raddoppiamento sintattico\" in Italian as it also applies to the Italian phonology. However, when there is a pause after the \"trigger\" word, the phonological doubling does not occur (e.g. \"tu sî (g)guaglione\", [You are a boy], where \"sî\" is a \"trigger\" word causing doubling of the initial consonant in \"guaglione\" but in the phrase \"’e do sî, guaglió?\" [Where are you from, boy?] no doubling occurs). Neither does doubling occur when the initial consonant is followed by another consonant (e.g. \"’o ttaliano\" [the Italian language], but \"’o spagnuolo\" [the Spanish language], where \"’o\" is the neuter definite article). This is what happens phonologically and no orthographic change is required. The same thing happens in Italian, where multiple words trigger first-consonant doubling, e.g. \"la casa\" but \"a (c)casa\", \"io e (t)te\", etc." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Collection.", "Sculptures.", "Other works.", "Management." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The museum building was originally a railway station, Gare d'Orsay, constructed for the Chemin de Fer de Paris à Orléans and finished in time for the 1900 Exposition Universelle to the design of three architects: Lucien Magne, Émile Bénard and Victor Laloux. It was the terminus for the railways of southwestern France until 1939. By 1939 the station's short platforms had become unsuitable for the longer trains that had come to be used for mainline services. After 1939 it was used for suburban services and part of it became a mailing centre during World War II. It was then used as a set for several films, such as Kafka's \"The Trial\" adapted by Orson Welles, and as a haven for the Renaud–Barrault Theatre Company and for auctioneers, while the Hôtel Drouot was being rebuilt. In 1970, permission was granted to demolish the station but Jacques Duhamel, Minister for Cultural Affairs, ruled against plans to build a new hotel in its stead. The station was put on the supplementary list of Historic Monuments and finally listed in 1978. The suggestion to turn the station into a museum came from the Directorate of the Museum of France. The idea was to build a museum that would bridge the gap between the Louvre and the National Museum of Modern Art at the Georges Pompidou Centre. The plan was accepted by Georges Pompidou and a study was commissioned in 1974. In 1978, a competition was organized to design the new museum. ACT Architecture, a team of three young architects (Pierre Colboc, Renaud Bardon and Jean-Paul Philippon), were awarded the contract which involved creating of new floorspace on four floors. The construction work was carried out by Bouygues. In 1981, the Italian architect Gae Aulenti was chosen to design the interior including the internal arrangement, decoration, furniture and fittings of the museum. Finally in July 1986, the museum was ready to receive its exhibits. It took 6 months to install the 2000 or so paintings, 600 sculptures and other works. The museum officially opened in December 1986 by then-president François Mitterrand. From 2020 on, the Musée d’Orsay is scheduled to undergo a radical transformation over the next decade, funded in part by an anonymous US patron who donated €20 million to a building project known as \"Orsay Grand Ouvert\" (Orsay Wide Open). The gift was made via the American Friends of the Musées d’Orsay et de l’Orangerie. The square next to the museum displays six bronze allegorical sculptural groups in a row, originally produced for the Exposition Universelle:", "", "Major sculptors represented in the collection include Alfred Barye, François Rude, Jules Cavelier, Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux, Émile-Coriolan Guillemin, Auguste Rodin, Paul Gauguin, Camille Claudel, Sarah Bernhardt and Honoré Daumier.", "It also holds collections of:", "The Directors have been:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Phylogenetic relationships.", "Biology.", "General morphology.", "Pelage.", "Dentition.", "Behaviour.", "Sexual characteristics.", "Vocalization.", "Classification.", "Conservation.", "Island fox (\"Urocyon littoralis\").", "Darwin's fox (\"Pseudalopex fulvipes\").", "Relationships with humans.", "Fox hunting.", "Domestication.", "Attacks on humans.", "Urban foxes.", "In culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The word \"fox\" comes from Old English, which derived from Proto-Germanic *\"fuhsaz\". This in turn derives from Proto-Indo-European *\"puḱ-\", meaning ’thick-haired; tail’. Male foxes are known as dogs, tods or reynards, females as vixens, and young as cubs, pups, or kits, though the latter name is not to be confused with a distinct species called kit foxes. Vixen is one of very few words in modern English that retains the Middle English southern dialect \"v\" pronunciation instead of \"f\" (i.e. northern English \"fox\" versus southern English \"vox\"). A group of foxes is referred to as a skulk, leash, or earth.", "Within the Canidae, the results of DNA analysis shows several phylogenetic divisions:", "", "Foxes are generally smaller than some other members of the family Canidae such as wolves and jackals, while they may be larger than some within the family, such as Raccoon dogs. In the largest species, the red fox, males weigh on average between, while the smallest species, the fennec fox, weighs just. Foxy features typically include a triangular face, pointed ears, an elongated rostrum, and a bushy tail. Foxes are digitigrade; they walk on their toes. Unlike most members of the family Canidae, foxes have partially retractable claws. Fox vibrissae, or whiskers, are black. The whiskers on the muzzle, mystaciae vibrissae, average long, while the whiskers everywhere else on the head average to be shorter in length. Whiskers (carpal vibrissae) are also on the forelimbs and average long, pointing downward and backward. Other physical characteristics vary according to habitat and adaptive significance.", "Fox species differ in fur color, length, and density. Coat colors range from pearly white to black-and-white to black flecked with white or grey on the underside. Fennec foxes (and other species of fox adapted to life in the desert, such as kit foxes), for example, have large ears and short fur to aid in keeping the body cool. Arctic foxes, on the other hand, have tiny ears and short limbs as well as thick, insulating fur, which aid in keeping the body warm. Red foxes, by contrast, have a typical auburn pelt, the tail normally ending with a white marking. A fox's coat color and texture may vary due to the change in seasons; fox pelts are richer and denser in the colder months and lighter in the warmer months. To get rid of the dense winter coat, foxes moult once a year around April; the process begins from the feet, up the legs, and then along the back. Coat color may also change as the individual ages.", "A fox's dentition, like all other canids, is I 3/3, C 1/1, PM 4/4, M 3/2 = 42. (Bat-eared foxes have six extra molars, totalling in 48 teeth.) Foxes have pronounced carnassial pairs, which is characteristic of a carnivore. These pairs consist of the upper premolar and the lower first molar, and work together to shear tough material like flesh. Foxes' canines are pronounced, also characteristic of a carnivore, and are excellent in gripping prey.", "In the wild, the typical lifespan of a fox is one to three years, although individuals may live up to ten years. Unlike many canids, foxes are not always pack animals. Typically, they live in small family groups, but some (such as Arctic foxes) are known to be solitary. Foxes are omnivores. Their diet is made up primarily of invertebrates such as insects and small vertebrates such as reptiles and birds. They may also eat eggs and vegetation. Many species are generalist predators, but some (such as the crab-eating fox) have more specialized diets. Most species of fox consume around of food every day. Foxes cache excess food, burying it for later consumption, usually under leaves, snow, or soil. While hunting, foxes tend to use a particular pouncing technique, such that they crouch down to camouflage themselves in the terrain and then use their hind legs to leap up with great force and land on top of their chosen prey. Using their pronounced canine teeth, they can then grip the prey's neck and shake it until it is dead or can be readily disemboweled. The gray fox is one of only two canine species known to regularly climb trees; the other is the raccoon dog.", "The male fox's scrotum is held up close to the body with the testes inside even after they descend. Like other canines, the male fox has a baculum, or penile bone. The testes of red foxes are smaller than those of Arctic foxes. Sperm formation in red foxes begins in August–September, with the testicles attaining their greatest weight in December–February. Vixens are in heat for one to six days, making their reproductive cycle twelve months long. As with other canines, the ova are shed during estrus without the need for the stimulation of copulating. Once the egg is fertilized, the vixen enters a period of gestation that can last from 52 to 53 days. Foxes tend to have an average litter size of four to five with an 80 percent success rate in becoming pregnant. Litter sizes can vary greatly according to species and environmentthe Arctic fox, for example, can have up to eleven kits. The vixen usually has six or eight mammae. Each teat has 8 to 20 lactiferous ducts, which connect the mammary gland to the nipple, allowing for milk to be carried to the nipple.", "The fox's vocal repertoire is vast: In the case of domesticated foxes, the whining seems to remain in adult individuals as a sign of excitement and submission in the presence of their owners.", "Canids commonly known as foxes include the following genera and species:", "Several fox species are endangered in their native environments. Pressures placed on foxes include habitat loss and being hunted for pelts, other trade, or control. Due in part to their opportunistic hunting style and industriousness, foxes are commonly resented as nuisance animals. On the other hand, foxes, while often considered pests themselves, have been successfully employed to control pests on fruit farms while leaving the fruit intact.", "The island fox, though considered a near-threatened species throughout the world, is becoming increasingly endangered in its endemic environment of the California Channel Islands. A population on an island is smaller than those on the mainland because of limited resources like space, food and shelter. Island populations, therefore, are highly susceptible to external threats ranging from introduced predatory species and humans to extreme weather. On the California Channel Islands, it was found that the population of the island fox was so low due to an outbreak of canine distemper virus from 1999 to 2000 as well as predation by non-native golden eagles. Since 1993, the eagles have caused the population to decline by as much as 95%. Because of the low number of foxes, the population went through an Allee effect; this is where at low enough densities, an individual's fitness decreases. Conservationists, therefore, had to take healthy breeding pairs out of the wild population to breed them in captivity until they had enough foxes to release back into the wild. Nonnative grazers were also removed so that native plants would be able to grow back to their natural height, thereby providing adequate cover and protection for the foxes against golden eagles.", "Darwin's fox is considered critically endangered because of their small known population of 250 mature individuals as well as their restricted distribution. On the Chilean mainland, the population is limited to Nahuelbuta National Park and the surrounding Valdivian rainforest. Similarly on Chiloé Island, their population is limited to the forests that extend from the southernmost to the northwestern most part of the island. Though the Nahuelbuta National Park is protected, 90% of the species live on Chiloé Island. A major problem the species faces, therefore, is their dwindling, limited habitat due to the cutting and burning of the unprotected forests. Because of deforestation, the Darwin's fox habitat is shrinking, allowing for their competitor's (chilla fox) preferred habitat of open space, to increase; the Darwin's fox, subsequently, is being outcompeted. Another problem they face is their inability to fight off diseases transmitted by the increasing number of pet dogs. To conserve these animals, researchers suggest the need for the forests that link the Nahuelbuta National Park to the coast of Chile and in turn Chiloé Island and its forests, to be protected. They also suggest that other forests around Chile be examined to determine whether Darwin's foxes have previously existed there or can live there in the future, should the need to reintroduce the species to those areas arise. And finally, the researchers advise for the creation of a captive breeding program, in Chile, because of the limited number of mature individuals in the wild.", "Foxes are often considered pests or nuisance creatures for their opportunistic attacks on poultry and other small livestock. Fox attacks on humans are not common. Many foxes adapt well to human environments, with several species classified as \"resident urban carnivores\" for their ability to sustain populations entirely within urban boundaries. Foxes in urban areas can live longer and can have smaller litter sizes than foxes in non-urban areas. Urban foxes are ubiquitous in Europe, where they show altered behaviors compared to non-urban foxes, including increased population density, smaller territory, and pack foraging. Foxes have been introduced in numerous locations, with varying effects on indigenous flora and fauna. In some countries, foxes are major predators of rabbits and hens. Population oscillations of these two species were the first nonlinear oscillation studied, and led to the now-famous Lotka–Volterra equation.", "Fox hunting originated in the United Kingdom in the 16th century. Hunting with dogs is now banned in the United Kingdom, though hunting without dogs is still permitted. Red foxes were introduced into Australia in the early 19th century for sport, and have since become widespread through much of the country. They have caused population decline among many native species and prey on livestock, especially new lambs. Fox hunting is practiced as recreation in several other countries including Canada, France, Ireland, Italy, Russia, United States and Australia.", "There are many records of domesticated red foxes and others, but rarely of sustained domestication. A recent and notable exception is the Russian silver fox, which resulted in visible and behavioral changes, and is a case study of an animal population modeling according to human domestication needs. The current group of domesticated silver foxes are the result of nearly fifty years of experiments in the Soviet Union and Russia to domesticate the silver morph of the red fox. This selective breeding resulted in physical and behavioral traits appearing that are frequently seen in domestic cats, dogs, and other animals, such as pigmentation changes, floppy ears, and curly tails. Notably, the new foxes became more tame, allowing themselves to be petted, whimpering to get attention and sniffing and licking their caretakers.", "In the United Kingdom, a number of cases of non-fatal attacks on humans were reported. They often involved children, or if there were gaps in homes through which foxes could pass.", "Foxes are among the comparatively few mammals which have been able to adapt themselves to a certain degree to living in urban (mostly suburban) human environments. Their omnivorous diet allows them to survive on discarded food waste, and their skittish and often nocturnal nature means that they are often able to avoid detection, despite their larger size. Urban foxes, however, have been identified as threats to cats and small dogs, and for this reason there is often pressure to exclude them from these environments. The San Joaquin kit fox is a highly endangered species that has, ironically, become adapted to urban living in the San Joaquin Valley and Salinas Valley of southern California. Its diet includes mice, ground squirrels, rabbits, hares, bird eggs, and insects, and it has claimed habitats in open areas, golf courses, drainage basins, and school grounds.", "The fox appears in many cultures, usually in folklore. However, there are slight variations in their depictions in folklore. In Western folklore and also in Persian folklore, foxes are depicted as a symbol of cunning and trickery – a reputation derived especially from their reputed ability to evade hunters. This is usually represented as a character possessing these traits. These traits are used on a wide variety of characters, either making them a nuisance to the story, a misunderstood hero, or a devious villain. In Asian folklore, foxes are depicted as a familiar spirit possessed of magic powers. Similar to Western folklore, foxes are depicted as mischievous, usually tricking other people, with the ability to disguise as an attractive female human. However, there are other depictions of foxes as a mystical, sacred creature, that can either bring wonder or ruin. Nine-tailed foxes appear in Chinese folklore, literature, and mythology, in which, depending on the tale can be a good or a bad omen. The motif was eventually introduced from Chinese to Japanese and Korean cultures. The constellation Vulpecula represents a fox." ] }