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StivenLancheros

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{ "title": [ "Taxonomy.", "Description.", "Behaviour.", "Food and feeding.", "Tool use.", "Reproduction.", "General traits.", "Distribution and habitat.", "Conservation and threats.", "Causes of endangerment.", "Conservation steps taken to preserve the hyacinth macaw.", "Long-term prospects." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "English physician, ornithologist, and artist John Latham first described the hyacinth macaw in 1790 under the binomial name \"Psittacus hyacinthinus\" based on a taxidermic specimen sent to England. It is one of two extant and one probably extinct species of the South American macaw genus \"Anodorhynchus\".", "The largest parrot by length in the world, the hyacinth macaw is long from the tip of its tail to the top of its head and weighs. Each wing is long. The tail is long and pointed. Its feathers are entirely blue, lighter above. However, the neck feathers can sometimes be slightly grey. The ring around the parrots eyes and area just underneath the beak are a strong, vibrant yellow.", "", "The majority of the hyacinth macaw diet is Brazil nuts, from native palms, such as acuri and bocaiuva palms. They have very strong beaks for eating the kernels of hard nuts and seeds. Their strong beaks are even able to crack coconuts, the large brazil nut pods, and macadamia nuts. The birds also boast dry, smooth tongues with a bone inside them that makes them an effective tool for tapping into fruits. The acuri nut is so hard, the parrots cannot feed on it until it has passed through the digestive system of cattle. In addition, they eat fruits and other vegetable matter. The hyacinth macaw generally eats fruits, nuts, nectar, and various kinds of seeds. Also, they travel for the ripest of foods over a vast area. In the Pantanal, hyacinth macaws feed almost exclusively on the nuts of \"Acrocomia aculeata\" and \"Attalea phalerata\" palm trees. This behaviour was recorded by the English naturalist Henry Walter Bates in his 1863 book \"The Naturalist on the River Amazons\", where he wrote that Charles Darwin remarked on Bates's account of the species, calling it a \"splendid bird\" with its \"enormous beak\" able to feed on these palm nuts.", "Limited tool use has been observed in both wild and captive hyacinth macaws. Reported sightings of tool use in wild parrots go as far back as 1863. Examples of tool use that have been observed usually involve a chewed leaf or pieces of wood. Macaws often incorporate these items when feeding on harder nuts. Their use allows the nuts the macaws eat to remain in position (prevent slipping) while they gnaw into it. It is not known whether this is learned social behavior or an innate trait, but observation on captive macaws shows that hand-raised macaws exhibit this behavior, as well. Comparisons show that older macaws were able to open seeds more efficiently.", "Nesting takes place between July and December, with nests constructed in tree cavities or cliff faces depending on the habitat. In the Pantanal region, 90% of nests are constructed in the manduvi tree (\"Sterculia apetala\"). The hyacinth macaw depends on the toucan, for its livelihood. The toucan contributes largely to seed dispersal of the manduvi tree that the macaw needs for reproduction. However, the toucan is responsible for dispersing 83% of the seeds of \"Sterculia apetala\", but also consumes 53% of eggs preyed. Hollows of sufficient size are only found in trees around 60 years of age or older, and competition is fierce. Existing holes are enlarged and then partially filled with wood chips. The clutch size is one or two eggs, although usually only one fledgling survives as the second egg hatches several days after the first, and the smaller fledgling cannot compete with the firstborn for food. A possible explanation for this behavior is what is called the insurance hypothesis. The macaw lays more eggs than can be normally fledged to compensate for earlier eggs that failed to hatch or firstborn chicks that did not survive. The incubation period lasts about a month, and the male tends to his mate whilst she incubates the eggs. The chicks leave the nest, or fledge, around 110 days of age, and remain dependent on their parents until six months of age. They are mature and begin breeding at seven years of age.", "Hyacinth macaws are the largest psittacine. They are also very even-tempered and can be calmer than other macaws, being known as \"gentle giants\". An attending veterinarian must be aware of specific nutritional needs and pharmacologic sensitivities when dealing with them. Possibly due to genetic factors or captive rearing limitations, this species can become neurotic/phobic, which is problematic.", "The hyacinth macaw survives today in three main populations in South America: In the Pantanal region of Brazil, and adjacent eastern Bolivia and northeastern Paraguay, in the Cerrado region of the eastern interior of Brazil (Maranhão, Piauí, Bahia, Tocantins, Goiás, Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, and Minas Gerais), and in the relatively open areas associated with the Tocantins River, Xingu River, Tapajós River, and the Marajó island in the eastern Amazon Basin of Brazil. Smaller, fragmented populations may occur in other areas. It prefers palm swamps, woodlands, and other semiopen, wooded habitats. It usually avoids dense, humid forest, and in regions dominated by such habitats, it is generally restricted to the edge or relatively open sections (e.g. along major rivers). In different areas of their range, these parrots are found in savannah grasslands, in dry thorn forest known as caatinga, and in palm stands, particularly the Moriche Palm (\"Mauritia flexuosa\"). The hyacinth macaw has escaped or been deliberately released in to Florida, USA, but there is no evidence that the population is breeding and may only persist due to continuing releases or escapes.", "The hyacinth macaw is an endangered species due to the cage bird trade and habitat loss. In the 1980s, an estimated 10,000 birds were taken from the wild and at least 50% were destined for the Brazilian market. Throughout the macaw's range, habitat is being lost or altered due to the introduction of cattle ranching and mechanised agriculture, and the development of hydroelectric schemes. Annual grass fires set by farmers can destroy nest trees, and regions previously inhabited by this macaw are now unsuitable also due to agriculture and plantations. Locally, it has been hunted for food, and the Kayapo Indians of Gorotire in south-central Brazil use its feathers to make headdresses and other ornaments. While overall greatly reduced in numbers, it remains locally common in the Brazilian Pantanal, where many ranch-owners now protect the macaws on their land. The hyacinth macaw is protected by law in Brazil and Bolivia, and commercial export is banned by its listing on Appendix I of the CITES. A number of long-term studies and conservation initiatives are in place; the Hyacinth Macaw Project in the Brazilian state of Mato Grosso do Sul has carried out important research by ringing individual birds, and has created a number of artificial nests to compensate for the small number of sites available in the region. The Minnesota Zoo with BioBrasil and the World Wildlife Fund are involved in hyacinth macaw conservation.", "Parrots as a whole, being of the family Psittacidae, are some of the most threatened birds in the world. This family has the most endangered species of all bird families, especially in the neotropics, the natural home of the hyacinth macaw, where 46 of 145 species are at a serious risk of global extinction. This species qualifies as 'Vulnerable' on the IUCN Red List because the population has suffered rapid reductions with the remaining threats of illegal trapping for the cage bird trade and habitat loss A few serious threats to the survival of the species in the Pantanal include human activities, mainly those resulting in habitat loss, the burning of land for pasture maintenance, and illegal trapping The exceptionally noisy, fearless, curious, sedentary, and predictable nature of this species, along with its specialization to only one or two species of palm in each part of its range, makes them especially vulnerable to capture, shooting, and habitat destruction. Eggs are also regularly preyed on by corvids, opossums, and coatis. Adults have no known natural predators. The young are parasitized by larvae of flies of the genus \"Philornis\". Although the species has a low genetic variability, it does not necessarily pose a threat to their survival. This genetic structure accentuates the need for protection of hyacinth macaws from different regions to maintain their genetic diversity. Nevertheless, the most important factors negatively affecting the wild population prove to be habitat destruction and nest poaching. In the Pantanal, habitat loss is largely contributed to the creations of pastures for cattle, while in many other regions, it is the result of clearing land for colonization. Similarly, large areas of habitat in Amazonia have been lost for cattle ranching and hydroelectric power schemes on the Tocantins and Xingu Rivers. Many young manduvi trees are then being grazed on by cattle or burnt by fire, and the Gerias is speedily being converted to land for mechanized agriculture, cattle ranching, and exotic tree plantations. Annual grass fires set by farmers destroy a number of nest trees, and the rise of agriculture and plantations has made habitats formerly populated by the macaws unsuitable to maintain their livelihoods. Moreover, increase in commercial demand for feather art by the Kayapo Indians threatens the species, as up to 10 macaws are needed to make a single headdress. In the event of the macaws being taken from their natural environment, a variety of factors alter their health such as inadequate hygiene conditions, feeding, and overpopulation during the illegal practice of pet trade. Once birds are captured and brought into captivity, their mortality rates can become very high. Records reveal a Paraguayan dealer receiving 300 unfeathered young in 1972, with all but three not surviving. Due to the poor survival rates of the young, poachers concentrate more heavily on adult birds, which depletes the population at a rapid pace. According to Article 111 of Bolivian Environmental Law #1333, all persons involved in the trade, capture, and transportation without authorization of wild animals will suffer a two-year prison sentence, along with a fine equivalent to 100% of the value of the animal. While many trackers have been arrested, the illegal pet trade still largely continues in Santa Cruz, Bolivia. Unfortunately, animal trafficking is not necessarily viewed as a priority in the city, leaving national departmental and municipal governments unwilling to halt the trade in city centers, and local police reluctant to get involved. This ideology has in turn resulted in a lack of enforcement regarding trade in both CITES-restricted species and threatened species, with little to no restrictions regarding humane treatment of the animals, disease control, or proper hygiene. In the trade centers, the hyacinth macaw demanded the highest price of US$1,000, proving it to be a very desirable and valued bird in the pet trade industry.", "In 1989, the European Endangered Species Programme for the hyacinth macaw was founded as a result of concerns about the status of the wild population and the lack of successful breeding in captivity. Breeding in captivity still remains difficult, being that hand-reared hyacinth macaw offspring have demonstrated to have higher mortality rates, especially within the first month of life. Additionally, they have a higher incidence of acute crop stasis than other macaw species due, in part, to their specific dietary requirements. The hyacinth macaw is protected by law in Brazil and Bolivia, and international trade is prohibited by its listing on Appendix I of the CITES. Appendix I has banned exporting the bird in all countries of origin, and several studies and conservational initiatives have been taken. The Hyacinth Macaw Project in the Caiman Ecological Refuge, located in the Pantanal, has employed artificial nests and chick management techniques, along with effectively raising awareness among cattle ranchers. Many ranch owners in the Pantanal and Gerais, to protect the birds, no longer allow trappers on their properties. A number of conservation actions have been proposed, including the study of the current range, population status, and extent of trading in different parts of its range. Additionally, propositions have been made to assess the effectiveness of artificial nest boxes, enforce legal measures preventing trade, and experiment with ecotourism at one or two sites to encourage donors. Furthermore, the Hyacinth Macaw Project in Mato Grosso do Sul has carried out important research by ringing individual birds and has created a number of artificial nests to compensate for the small number of sites available in the region. Furthermore, proposals to list the species as Endangered under the U.S. Endangered Species Act have been made to further protective measures in the US and to create Bolivian and Paraguayan trade management authorities under presidential control.", "Each of the three main populations should be managed as a separate biological entity so as to avoid numbers dropping below 500. While the birds may be in decline in the wild, notably higher populations of captive macaws are being held in zoos and private collections. If success in managing and replanting the macaw's food trees and erecting nest boxes as an experiment in the Pantanals is seen, the species could survive. Survival rates could also be enhanced if ranch owners would leave all large and potential nest trees standing and eliminate all trapping on their properties. Ultimately, should these factors work in tandem with erection of nest boxes, fencing off of certain saplings, and the planting of others, the long-term prospects of the hyacinth macaw species would be greatly improved." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Companies.", "Characters.", "Costumes.", "Subjects.", "Influence in visual art.", "Influence in performance art." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Although Commedia dell'arte flourished in Italy during the Mannerist period, there has been a long-standing tradition of trying to establish historical antecedents in antiquity. While it is possible to detect formal similarities between the \"commedia dell'arte\" and earlier theatrical traditions, there is no way to establish certainty of origin. Some date the origins to the period of the Roman Republic (Plautine types) or the Empire (Atellan Farces). The Atellan Farces of the Roman Empire featured crude \"types\" wearing masks with grossly exaggerated features and an improvised plot. Some historians argue that Atellan stock characters, Pappus, Maccus+Buccus, and Manducus, are the primitive versions of the Commedia characters Pantalone, Pulcinella, and il Capitano. More recent accounts establish links to the medieval jongleurs, and prototypes from medieval moralities, such as Hellequin (as the source of Harlequin, for example). The first recorded \"commedia dell'arte\" performances came from Rome as early as 1551. \"Commedia dell'arte\" was performed outdoors in temporary venues by professional actors who were costumed and masked, as opposed to, which were written comedies, presented indoors by untrained and unmasked actors. This view may be somewhat romanticized since records describe the Gelosi performing Tasso's \"Aminta\", for example, and much was done at court rather than in the street. By the mid-16th century, specific troupes of \"commedia\" performers began to coalesce, and by 1568 the Gelosi became a distinct company. In keeping with the tradition of the Italian Academies, I Gelosi adopted as their impress (or coat of arms) the two-faced Roman god Janus. Janus symbolized both the comings and goings of this traveling troupe, and the dual nature of the actor who impersonates the \"other.\" The Gelosi performed in Northern Italy and France where they received protection and patronage from the King of France. Despite fluctuations the Gelosi maintained stability for performances with the \"usual ten\": \"two \"vecchi\" (old men), four \"innamorati\" (two male and two female lovers), two \"zanni\", a captain and a \"servetta\" (serving maid)\". \"Commedia\" often performed inside in court theatres or halls, and also as some fixed theatres such as Teatro Baldrucca in Florence. Flaminio Scala, who had been a minor performer in the Gelosi published the scenarios of the \"commedia dell'arte\" around the start of the 17th century, really in an effort to legitimize the form—and ensure its legacy. These scenari are highly structured and built around the symmetry of the various types in duet: two,, and, etc. In \"commedia dell'arte\", female roles were played by women, documented as early as the 1560s, making them the first known professional actresses in Europe since antiquity. Lucrezia Di Siena, whose name is on a contract of actors from 10 October 1564, has been referrd to as the first Italian actress known by name, with Vincenza Armani and Barbara Flaminia as the first primadonna's and the first well documented actresses in Italy (and Europe). In the 1570s, English theatre critics generally denigrated the troupes with their female actors (some decades later, Ben Jonson referred to one female performer of the \"commedia\" as a \"tumbling whore\"). By the end of the 1570s, Italian prelates attempted to ban female performers; however, by the end of the 16th century, actresses were standard on the Italian stage. The Italian scholar Ferdinando Taviani has collated a number of church documents opposing the advent of the actress as a kind of courtesan, whose scanty attire and promiscuous lifestyle corrupted young men, or at least infused them with carnal desires. Taviani's term \"negativa poetica\" describes this and other practices offensive to the church, while giving us an idea of the phenomenon of the \"commedia dell'arte\" performance. By the early 17th century, the \"zanni\" comedies were moving from pure improvisational street performances to specified and clearly delineated acts and characters. Three books written during the 17th century— \"Fruti della moderne commedia\" (1628), Niccolò Barbieri's \"La supplica\" (1634) and Perrucci's \"Dell'arte rapresentativa\" (1699—\"made firm recommendations concerning performing practice.\" Katritzky argues, that as a result, \"commedia\" was reduced to formulaic and stylized acting; as far as possible from the purity of the improvisational genesis a century earlier. In France, during the reign of Louis XIV, the Comédie-Italienne created a repertoire and delineated new masks and characters, while deleting some of the Italian precursors, such as Pantalone. French playwrights, particularly Molière, gleaned from the plots and masks in creating an indigenous treatment. Indeed, Molière shared the stage with the Comédie-Italienne at Petit-Bourbon, and some of his forms, e.g. the tirade, are derivative from the \"commedia\" (\"tirata\"). \"Commedia dell'arte\" moved outside the city limits to the, or fair theatres, in the early 17th century as it evolved toward a more pantomimed style. With the dispatch of the Italian comedians from France in 1697, the form transmogrified in the 18th century as genres such as \"comédie larmoyante\" gained in attraction in France, particularly through the plays of Marivaux. Marivaux softened the \"commedia\" considerably by bringing in true emotion to the stage. Harlequin achieved more prominence during this period. It is possible that this kind of improvised acting was passed down the Italian generations until the 17th century, when it was revived as a professional theatrical technique. However, as currently used the term \"commedia dell'arte\" was coined in the mid-18th century. Curiously, \"commedia dell'arte\" was equally if not more popular in France, where it continued its popularity throughout the 17th century (until 1697), and it was in France that \"commedia\" developed its established repertoire. \"Commedia\" evolved into various configurations across Europe, and each country acculturated the form to its liking. For example, pantomime, which flourished in the 18th century, owes its genesis to the character types of the \"commedia\", particularly Harlequin. The Punch and Judy puppet shows, popular to this day in England, owe their basis to the Pulcinella mask that emerged in Neapolitan versions of the form. In Italy, \"commedia\" masks and plots found their way into the \"opera buffa\", and the plots of Rossini, Verdi, and Puccini. During the Napoleonic occupation of Italy, instigators of reform and critics of French Imperial rule (such as Giacomo Casanova) used the carnival masks to hide their identities while fueling political agendas, challenging social rule and hurling blatant insults and criticisms at the regime. In 1797, in order to destroy the impromptu style of carnival as a partisan platform, Napoleon outlawed the commedia dell'arte. It was not reborn in Venice until 1979.", "\"Compagnie\", or companies, were troupes of actors, each of whom had a specific function or role. Actors were versed in a plethora of skills, with many having joined troupes without a theatre background. Some were doctors, others priests, others soldiers, enticed by the excitement and prevalence of theatre in Italian society. Actors were known to switch from troupe to troupe \"on loan,\" and companies would often collaborate if unified by a single patron or performing in the same general location. Members would also splinter off to form their own troupes, such was the case with the Ganassa and the Gelosi. These \"compagnie\" traveled throughout Europe from the early period, beginning with the \"Soldati\", then, the \"Ganassa\", who traveled to Spain, and were famous for playing the guitar and singing—never to be heard from again—and the famous troupes of the Golden Age (1580–1605): \"Gelosi\", \"Confidenti\", \"Accessi\". These names which signified daring and enterprise were appropriated from the names of the academies—in a sense, to lend legitimacy. However, each troupe had its \"impresse\" (like a coat of arms) which symbolized its nature. The Gelosi, for example, used the two-headed face of the Roman god Janus, to signify its comings and goings and relationship to the season of Carnival, which took place in January. Janus also signified the duality of the actor, who is playing a character or mask, while still remaining oneself. Magistrates and clergy were not always receptive to the traveling (companies), particularly during periods of plague, and because of their itinerant nature. Actors, both male and female, were known to strip nearly naked, and storylines typically descended into crude situations with overt sexuality, considered to teach nothing but \"lewdness and adultery...of both sexes\" by the French Parliament. The term was used in reference to the, and remains a derogatory term to this day (vagabond). This was in reference to the nomadic nature of the troupes, often instigated by persecution from the Church, civil authorities, and rival theatre organisations that forced the companies to move from place to place. A troupe often consisted of ten performers of familiar masked and unmasked types, and included women. The companies would employ carpenters, props masters, servants, nurses, and prompters, all of whom would travel with the company. They would travel in large carts laden with supplies necessary for their nomadic style of performance, enabling them to move from place to place without having to worry about the difficulties of relocation. This nomadic nature, though influenced by persecution, was also largely due in part to the troupes requiring new (and paying) audiences. They would take advantage of public fairs and celebrations, most often in wealthier towns where financial success was more probable. Companies would also find themselves summoned by high-ranking officials, who would offer patronage in return for performing in their land for a certain amount of time. Companies in fact preferred to not stay in any one place too long, mostly out of a fear of the act becoming \"stale.\" They would move on to the next location while their popularity was still active, ensuring the towns and people were sad to see them leave, and would be more likely to either invite them back or pay to watch performances again should the troupe ever return. Prices were dependent on the troupe's decision, which could vary depending on the wealth of the location, the length of stay, and the regulations governments had in place for dramatic performances.", "Generally, the actors playing were diverse in background in terms of class and religion, and performed anywhere they could. Castagno posits that the aesthetic of exaggeration, distortion, anti-humanism (as in the masked types), and excessive borrowing as opposed to originality was typical of all the arts in the late Italian Renaissance. Theatre historian Martin Green points to the extravagance of emotion during the period of \"commedia\"s emergence as the reason for representational moods, or characters, that define the art. In commedia each character embodies a mood: mockery, sadness, gaiety, confusion, and so forth. According to 18th-century London theatre critic Baretti, \"commedia dell'arte\" incorporates specific roles and characters that were \"originally intended as a kind of characteristic representative of some particular Italian district or town.\" (archetypes) The character's persona included the specific dialect of the region or town represented. Meaning that on stage, each character was performed in its own dialect. Characters would often be passed down from generation to generation, and characters married onstage were often married in real life as well, seen most famously with Francesco and Isabella Andreini. This was believed to make performances more natural, as well as strengthening the bonds within the troupe, who emphasized complete unity between every member. Additionally, each character has a singular costume and mask that is representative of the character's role. \"Commedia dell'arte\" has four stock character groups: the servants or \"Zanni\", these are characters such as Arlecchino, Brighella, Pulcinella and Pedrolino, all masked; the old men or \"vecchi\", characters such as Pantalone and il Dottore also masked; the lovers or \"innamorati\" who would have names such as Flavio and Isabella; and the captains or \"Capitani\" who can also be La Signora if a female. Masked characters are often referred to as \"masks\" (in Italian: \"maschere\"), which, according to John Rudlin, cannot be separated from the character. In other words, the characteristics of the character and the characteristics of the mask are the same. In time however, the word \"maschere\" came to refer to all of the characters of the \"commedia dell'arte\" whether masked or not. Female characters (including female servants) are most often not masked (female \"amorose\" are never masked). The female character in the masters group is called Prima Donna and can be one of the lovers. There is also a female character known as The Courtisane who can also have a servant. Female servants wore bonnets. Their character was played with a malicious wit or gossipy gaiety. The \"amorosi\" are often children of a male character in the masters group, but not of any female character in the masters group, which may represent younger women who have e.g. married an old man, or a high-class courtesan. Female characters in the masters group, while younger than their male counterparts, are nevertheless older than the \"amorosi\". The servants or the clowns are referred to as the \"zanni\" and include characters such as Arlecchino (also known as Harlequin), Brighella, Scapino, Pulcinella and Pedrolino. Some of the better known \"commedia dell'arte\" characters are Pierrot and Pierrette, Pantalone, Il Dottore, Brighella, Il Capitano, Colombina, the \"innamorati\", Pedrolino, Sandrone, Scaramuccia (also known as Scaramouche), La Signora, and Tartaglia. In the 17th century as \"commedia\" became popular in France, the characters of Pierrot, Columbine and Harlequin were refined and became essentially Parisian, according to Green.", "Each character in commedia dell'arte has a distinct costume that helps the audience understand who the character is. Arlecchino originally wore a tight fitting long jacket with matching trousers that both had numerous odd shaped patches, usually green, yellow, red, and brown. Usually, there was a bat and a wallet that would hang from his belt. His hat, which was a soft cap, was modeled after Charles IX or after Henri II, and almost always had a tail of a rabbit, hare or a fox with the occasional tuft of feathers. During the 17th century, the patches turned into blue, red, and green triangles arranged in a symmetrical pattern. The 18th century is when the iconic Arlecchino look with the diamond shaped lozenges took shape. The jacket became shorter and his hat changed from a soft cap to a double pointed hat. Il Dottore's costume was a play on the academic dress of the Bolognese scholars. Il Dottore is almost always clothed entirely in black. He wore a long black gown or jacket that went below the knees. Over the gown, he would have a long black robe that went down to his heels, and he would have on black shoes, stockings, and breeches. In 1653, his costume was changed by Augustin Lolli who was a very popular Il Dottore actor. He added an enormous black hat, changed the robe to a jacket cut similarly to Louis XIV, and added a flat ruff to the neck. Il Capitano's costume is similar to Il Dottore's in the fact that it is also a satire on military wear of the time. This costume would therefore change depending on where the Capitano character is from, and the period the Capitano is from. Pantalone has one of the most iconic costumes of Commedia dell'arte. Typically, he would wear a tightly fitting jacket with a matching pair of trousers. He usually pairs these two with a big black coat called a zimarra. Women, who usually played servants or lovers, wore less stylized costumes than the men in commedia. The lovers, Innamorati, would wear what was considered to be the fashion of the time period. They would only wear plain half-masks with no character distinction or street makeup.", "Conventional plot lines were written on themes of sex, jealousy, love and old age. Many of the basic plot elements can be traced back to the Roman comedies of Plautus and Terence, some of which were themselves translations of lost Greek comedies of the 4th century BC. However, it is more probable that the \"comici\" used contemporary novella, or, traditional sources as well, and drew from current events and local news of the day. Not all scenari were comic, there were some mixed forms and even tragedies. Shakespeare's \"The Tempest\" is drawn from a popular scenario in the Scala collection, his Polonius (\"Hamlet\") is drawn from Pantalone, and his clowns bear homage to the \"zanni\". \"Comici\" performed written comedies at court. Song and dance were widely used, and a number of \"innamorati\" were skilled madrigalists, a song form that uses chromatics and close harmonies. Audiences came to see the performers, with plot lines becoming secondary to the performance. Among the great \"innamorate\", Isabella Andreini was perhaps the most widely known, and a medallion dedicated to her reads \"eternal fame\". Tristano Martinelli achieved international fame as the first of the great Arlecchinos, and was honored by the Medici and the Queen of France. Performers made use of well-rehearsed jokes and stock physical gags, known as \"lazzi\" and \"concetti\", as well as on-the-spot improvised and interpolated episodes and routines, called (singular, Italian for joke), usually involving a practical joke. Since the productions were improvised, dialogue and action could easily be changed to satirize local scandals, current events, or regional tastes, while still using old jokes and punchlines. Characters were identified by costumes, masks, and props, such as a type of baton known as a slapstick. These characters included the forebears of the modern clown, namely Harlequin () and the zanni. Harlequin, in particular, was allowed to comment on current events in his entertainment. The classic, traditional plot is that the \"innamorati\" are in love and wish to be married, but one elder (\"vecchio\") or several elders (\"vecchi\") are preventing this from happening, leading the lovers to ask one or more \"zanni\" (eccentric servants) for help. Typically the story ends happily, with the marriage of the \"innamorati\" and forgiveness for any wrongdoings. There are countless variations on this story, as well as many that diverge wholly from the structure, such as a well-known story about Arlecchino becoming mysteriously pregnant, or the Punch and Judy scenario. While generally personally unscripted, the performances often were based on scenarios that gave some semblance of plot to the largely improvised format. The Flaminio Scala scenarios, published in the early 17th century, are the most widely known collection and representative of its most esteemed compagnia, I Gelosi.", "The iconography of the \"commedia dell'arte\" represents an entire field of study that has been examined by \"commedia\" scholars such as Erenstein, Castagno, Katritzky, Molinari, and others. In the early period, representative works by painters at Fontainebleau were notable for their erotic depictions of the thinly veiled \"innamorata\", or the bare-breasted courtesan/actress. The Flemish influence is widely documented as \"commedia\" figures entered the world of the \"vanitas\" genre, depicting the dangers of lust, drinking, and the hedonistic lifestyle. Castagno describes the Flemish \"pittore vago\" (wandering painters) who assimilated themselves within Italian workshops and even assumed Italian surnames: one of the most influential painters, Lodewyk Toeput, for example, became Ludovico Pozzoserrato and was a celebrated painter in the Veneto region of Italy. The \"pittore vago\" can be attributed with establishing \"commedia dell'arte\" as a genre of painting that would persist for centuries. While the iconography gives evidence of the performance style (see Fossard collection), it is important to note that many of the images and engravings were not depictions from real life, but concocted in the studio. The Callot etchings of the Balli di Sfessania (1611) are most widely considered \"capricci\" rather than actual depictions of a \"commedia\" dance form, or typical masks. While these are often reproduced in large formats, it is important to note that the actual prints measured about 2×3 inches. In the 18th century, Watteau's painting of \"commedia\" figures intermingling with the aristocracy were often set in sumptuous garden or pastoral settings and were representative of that genre. Pablo Picasso's 1921 painting \"Three Musicians\" is a colorful representation of \"commedia\"-inspired characters. Picasso also designed the original costumes for Stravinsky's \"Pulcinella\" (1920), a ballet depicting \"commedia\" characters and situations. \"Commedia\" iconography is evident in porcelain figurines many selling for thousands of dollars at auction.", "The expressive theatre influenced Molière's comedy and subsequently \"ballet d'action\", thus lending a fresh range of expression and choreographic means. An example of a \"commedia dell'arte\" character in literature is the Pied Piper of Hamelin who is dressed as Harlequin. Music and dance were central to \"commedia dell'arte\" performance. Brighella was often depicted with a guitar, and many images of the \"commedia\" feature singing \"innamorati\" or dancing figures. In fact, it was considered part of the \"innamorati\" function to be able to sing and have the popular repertoire under their belt. Accounts of the early \"commedia\", as far back as Calmo in the 1570s and the buffoni of Venice, note the ability of comici to sing madrigali precisely and beautifully. The danzatrice probably accompanied the troupes, and may have been in addition to the general cast of characters. For examples of strange instruments of various grotesque formations see articles by Tom Heck, who has documented this area. The works of a number of playwrights have featured characters influenced by the \"commedia dell'arte\" and sometimes directly drawn from it. Prominent examples include \"The Tempest\" by William Shakespeare, \"Les Fourberies de Scapin\" by Molière, \"Servant of Two Masters\" (1743) by Carlo Goldoni, the \"Figaro\" plays of Pierre Beaumarchais, and especially \"Love for Three Oranges\", \"Turandot\" and other \"fiabe\" by Carlo Gozzi. Influences appear in the lodgers in Steven Berkoff's adaptation of Franz Kafka's \"The Metamorphosis\". Through their association with spoken theatre and playwrights \"commedia\" figures have provided opera with many of its stock characters. Mozart's \"Don Giovanni\" sets a puppet show story and comic servants like Leporello and Figaro have \"commedia\" precedents. Soubrette characters like Susanna in \"Le nozze di Figaro\", Zerlina in \"Don Giovanni\" and Despina in \"Così fan tutte\" recall Columbina and related characters. The comic operas of Gaetano Donizetti, such as \"Elisir d'amore\", draw readily upon \"commedia\" stock types. Leoncavallo's tragic melodrama \"Pagliacci\" depicts a \"commedia dell'arte\" company in which the performers find their life situations reflecting events they depict on stage. \"Commedia\" characters also figure in Richard Strauss's opera \"Ariadne auf Naxos\". The piano piece Carnaval by Robert Schumann was conceived as a kind of masked ball that combined characters from \"Commedia dell'arte\" with real world characters, such as Chopin, Paganini, and Clara Schumann, as well as characters from the composer's inner world. Movements of the piece reflect the names of many characters of the \"Commedia\", including Pierrot, Harlequin, Pantalon and Columbine. Stock characters and situations also appear in ballet. Igor Stravinsky's \"Petrushka\" and \"Pulcinella\" allude directly to the tradition." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Members.", "Johannes Halbig.", "Fabian Halbig.", "Maximilian Schlichter.", "Discography.", "Track Listings." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Killerpilze was formed in October 2002 in Dillingen an der Donau. They came upon the name while they were eating pizza. In their early years, Killerpilze sang in both English and German, and toured their local area. The three band members have balanced their ongoing primary education and recording activities. On July 7, 2004, the group recorded its first album \"Von vorne durch die Punkalle\". They performed in small concert halls until Universal Music noticed them and received a record deal. In 2005, they recorded their first official album \" Invasion der Killerpilze\". In spring 2006, their debut single \"Richtig Scheiße\" (\"Really Shitty\") reached #17 in Germany. On July 27, 2007, the band released its second album \"Mit Pauken und Raketen\". This album peaked to 19 in the German charts. In July 2008, their song \"Verrockt\" is used in the German soundtrack of Camp Rock. In 2010, the band created its own label, KillerpilzeRecords. On February 12 of the same year, the first single \"Drei\" from their third album \"Lautonom\" was released. In the end of 2010, the group returned to the studio and recorded their fourth album \"Ein Bisschen Zeitgeist\". The band has contributed to campaigns such as Kein Bock auf Nazis (No Support for Nazis), and Punk Macht Schule, which helps to build schools in Ethiopia.", "", "Johannes Halbig, (better known as Jo) was born on the July 30, 1989. He had just completed his last year at the German high school 'St. Bonaventura Gymnasium' in Dillingen an der Donau, where he lives with his family. Jo plays a range of instruments, including piano, guitar, and bass guitar.", "Fabian Halbig was born on December 23, 1992. He is the youngest member of the band. He also plays trumpet, and has done so since the age of eight.", "Maximilian Schlichter, (known as Mäx) was born on July 3, 1988. Mäx is the oldest in the band.", "", "Von vorne durch die Punkallee (Straight Through Punk Avenue) Invasion der Killerpilze (Invasion of the Killerpilze) Mit Pauken und Raketen (With Kettledrums and Rockets) Lautonom Ein Bisschen Zeitgeist Grell" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Book.", "Setting.", "Plot summary.", "Illustrations.", "Publication.", "Reception.", "As children's literature.", "As fantasy.", "Accolades.", "Influence.", "Themes.", "Coming of age.", "Equilibrium and Taoist themes.", "True names.", "Style and structure.", "Language and mood.", "Myth and epic.", "Adaptations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Early concepts for the Earthsea setting were developed in two short stories, \"The Rule of Names\" (1964) and \"The Word of Unbinding\" (1964), both published in \"Fantastic\". The stories were later collected in Le Guin's anthology \"The Wind's Twelve Quarters\" (1975). Earthsea was also used as the setting for a story Le Guin wrote in 1965 or 1966, which was never published. In 1967, Herman Schein (the publisher of Parnassus Press and the husband of Ruth Robbins, the illustrator of the book) asked Le Guin to try writing a book \"for older kids\", giving her complete freedom over the subject and the approach. Le Guin had no previous experience specifically with the genre of young adult literature, which rose in prominence during the late 1960s. Drawing from her short stories, Le Guin began work on", "", "Earthsea itself is an archipelago or group of islands. In the fictional history of this world, the islands were raised from the ocean by Segoy, an ancient deity or hero. The world is inhabited by both humans and dragons, and several among the humans are sorcerers or wizards. The world is shown as being based on a delicate balance, which most of its inhabitants", "The novel follows a young boy called Duny, nicknamed \"Sparrowhawk\", born on the island of Gont. Discovering that the boy has great innate power, his aunt teaches him the little magic she knows. When his village is attacked by Kargish raiders, Duny summons a fog to conceal the village and its inhabitants, enabling the residents to drive off the Kargs. Hearing of this, the powerful mage Ogion takes him as an apprentice, giving him his \"true name\"—Ged. Ogion tries to teach Ged about the \"equilibrium\", the concept that magic can upset the natural order of the world if used improperly. In an", "The first edition of the book, published in 1968, was illustrated by Ruth Robbins. The cover illustration was in color, and the interior of the book contained a map of the archipelago of Earthsea. In addition, each chapter had a black-and-white illustration by Robbins, similar to a woodcut", "\"A Wizard of Earthsea\" was first published in 1968 by Parnassus Press in Berkeley, a year before \"The Left Hand of Darkness\", Le Guin's watershed work. It was a personal landmark for Le Guin, as it represented her first attempt at writing for children; she had written only a handful of other novels and short stories prior to its publication. The book was also her first attempt at writing fantasy, rather than science-fiction. \"A Wizard of Earthsea\" was the first of Le Guin's books to receive widespread critical attention, and has been described as her best known work, as part of the Earthsea series. The book has been released in numerous editions, including an illustrated Folio Society edition released in 2015. It was also translated into a number of other languages. An omnibus edition of all", "", "Initial recognition for the book was from children's-book critics, among whom it garnered acclaim. \"A Wizard of Earthsea\" received an even more positive response in the United Kingdom when it was released there in 1971, which, according to White, reflected the greater admiration of British critics for children's fantasy. In her 1975 annotated collection \"Fantasy for Children\", British critic Naomi Lewis described it in the following terms: \"[It is not] the easiest book for casual browsing, but readers who take the step will find themselves in one of the most important works of fantasy of our time.\" Similarly, literary scholar Margaret Esmonde wrote in 1981 that \"Le Guin has... enriched children's literature with what may be its finest high fantasy\", while", "Commentators have noted that the Earthsea novels in general received less critical attention because they were considered children's books. Le Guin herself took exception to this treatment of children's literature, describing it as \"adult chauvinist piggery\". In 1976, literary scholar George Slusser criticized the \"silly publication classification designating the original series as 'children's literature'\". Barbara Bucknall stated that \"Le Guin was not writing for young children when she wrote these fantasies, nor yet for adults. She was writing for 'older kids.' But in fact she can be read, like Tolkien, by ten-year-olds and by adults. These stories are ageless because they deal with problems that confront us at any age.\" Only in later years did \"A Wizard of Earthsea\" receive attention from a more general audience. Literary scholar T. A. Shippey was among the first to treat \"A Wizard of Earthsea\" as serious literature, assuming in his analysis of the volume that it belonged alongside works by C. S. Lewis", "\"A Wizard of Earthsea\" won or contributed to several notable awards for Le Guin. It won the Boston Globe–Horn Book Award in 1969, and was one of the last winners of the Lewis Carroll Shelf Award ten years later. In 1984 it won the or the \"Golden Sepulka\" in Poland. In", "The book has been seen as widely influential within the genre of fantasy. Margaret Atwood has called \"A Wizard of Earthsea\" one of the \"wellsprings\" of fantasy literature. The book has been compared to major works of high fantasy such as J. R. R. Tolkien's \"The Lord of the Rings\" and L. Frank Baum's \"The Wonderful Wizard of Oz\". The notion that names can exert power is also present in Hayao Miyazaki's 2001 film \"Spirited Away\"; critics have suggested that that idea originated with Le Guin's Earthsea series. Novelist David Mitchell, author of books such as \"Cloud Atlas\", described \"A Wizard of Earthsea\" as having a strong influence on him, and said that he felt a desire to \"wield words with", "", "\"A Wizard of Earthsea\" focuses on Ged's adolescence and coming of age, and along with the other two works of the original Earthsea trilogy forms a part of Le Guin's dynamic portrayal of the process of growing old. The three novels together follow Ged from youth to old age, and each of them also follow the coming of age of a different character. The novel is frequently described as a \"Bildungsroman\". Scholar Mike Cadden stated that the book is a convincing tale \"to a reader as young and possibly as headstrong as Ged, and therefore sympathetic", "The world of Earthsea is depicted as being based on a delicate balance, which most of its inhabitants are aware of, but which is disrupted by somebody in each of the original trilogy of novels. This includes an equilibrium between land and sea (implicit in the name Earthsea), and between people and their natural environment. In addition to physical equilibrium, there is a larger cosmic equilibrium, which everybody is aware of, and which wizards are tasked with maintaining. Describing this aspect of Earthsea, Elizabeth Cummins wrote, \"The principle of balanced powers, the recognition", "In Le Guin's fictional universe, to know the true name of an object or a person is to have power over it. Each child is given a true name when they reach puberty, a name which they share only with close friends. Several of the dragons in the later Earthsea novels, like Orm Embar and Kalessin, are shown as living openly with their names, which do not give anybody power over them. In \"A Wizard of Earthsea\", however, Ged is shown to have power over Yevaud. Cadden writes that this is because Yevaud still has attachment to riches and material possessions, and is thus bound by the power of his name. Wizards exert their influence over the equilibrium through the use of names, thus linking this theme to Le Guin's depiction of a", "", "\"A Wizard of Earthsea\" and other novels of the Earthsea cycle differ notably from Le Guin's early Hainish cycle works, although they were written at a similar time. George Slusser described the Earthsea works as providing a counterweight to the \"excessive pessimism\" of the Hainish novels. He saw the former as depicting individual action in a favorable light, in contrast to works such as \"Vaster than Empires and More Slow\". The \"Encyclopedia of Science Fiction\" said the book was pervaded by a \"grave joyfulness\". In discussing the style of her fantasy works, Le Guin herself said that in fantasy it was necessary to be", "\"A Wizard of Earthsea\" has strong elements of an epic; for instance, Ged's place in Earthsea history is described at the very beginning of the book in the following terms: \"some say the greatest, and surely the greatest voyager, was the man called Sparrowhawk, who in his day became both dragonlord and Archmage.\" The story also begins with words from the Earthsea song \"The Creation of Éa\", which forms a ritualistic beginning to the book. The teller of the story then goes on to say", "A condensed, illustrated version of the first chapter was printed by World Book in the third volume of \"Childcraft\" in 1989. Multiple audio versions of the book have been released. BBC Radio produced a radioplay version in 1996 narrated by Judi Dench, and a six-part series adapting the Earthsea novels in 2015, broadcast on Radio 4 Extra. In 2011, the work was produced as an unabridged recording performed by Robert Inglis. Two screen adaptations of the story have also been produced. An original mini-series titled \"Legend of Earthsea\" was broadcast in 2005 on the Sci Fi Channel. It is based very loosely on \"A Wizard of Earthsea\" and \"The Tombs of Atuan\". In an article published in \"Salon\", Le Guin expressed strong displeasure at the result. She stated that by casting a \"petulant white kid\" as Ged (who has red-brown skin in the book) the series \"whitewashed Earthsea\", and had ignored her choice to write the story of a non-white character, a choice she said was central to the book. This sentiment was shared by a review in \"The Ultimate Encyclopedia of Fantasy\", which said that \"Legend of Earthsea\" \"totally missed the point\" of Le Guin's novels, \"ripping out all the subtlety, nuance and beauty of the books and inserting boring cliches, painful stereotypes and a very unwelcome 'epic' war in their place\". Studio Ghibli released an adaptation of the series in 2006 titled \"Tales from Earthsea\". The film very loosely combines elements of the first, third, and fourth books into a new story. Le Guin commented with displeasure on the film-making process, saying that she had acquiesced to the adaptation believing Hayao Miyazaki would be producing the film himself, which was eventually not the case. Le Guin praised the imagery of the film, but disliked the use of violence. She also expressed dissatisfaction with the portrayal of morality, and in particular the use of a villain who could be slain as a means of resolving conflict, which she said was antithetical to the message of the book. The film received generally mixed responses." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "\"Winklhofer & Jaenicke\" was established in 1896 in Chemnitz. It built motorcycles from 1902 and automobiles from 1903. The \"Wanderer\" brand was chosen in 1911 for overseas exports and was soon adopted for domestic sales. The first two- or three-seater models used four-cylinder 1145 cc and 1220 cc engines. The 1220 cc model lasted until 1925. The first six-cylinder model appeared in 1928. By 1926, when Wanderer introduced a successful \"Typ 10\", the company was making 25 vehicles a day; parts were made at the old plant in Chemnitz and assembled at the 1927 built new site in Siegmar, delivered by rail right to the assembly line. Motorcycle production continued in Chemnitz alone. During the Great Depression, in 1929, the company owner, Dresdner Bank, sold the motorcycle business to František Janeček, and in 1932 divested the rest of Wanderer. The car division with its Siegmar factory became part of Auto Union together with Horch, Audi and DKW. In this quartet, Horch was positioned as the luxury brand, DKW built cheap two-stroke cars, Audi and Wanderer competed in different segments of mid-priced, technologically advanced small cars (heaviest, 6-cylinder Wanderers reached 1.5 tons dry weight). Wanderers of the Nazi period acquired a trademark radiator design, shaped as a heraldic shield. The next model W17 7/35 PS was propelled by a new 1692 cc OHV four-cylinder engine developed by Ferdinand Porsche. In 1933 the new Audi Front was equipped with the Wanderer W22 engine, a 1950 cc OHV six-cylinder, also a construction of F. Porsche. The top model from 1936 to 1939 was \"W50\", propelled by a 2257 cc six-cylinder engine. From 1937 on there were also sporting fours (\"W24\" and \"W25\") and another six-cylinder model of 2632 cc (\"W23\"), propelled by new Flathead engines constructed by Auto Union itself. Wanderer cars were always admired for their high quality and sporting character. During World War II all civilian production was replaced in 1941 with licence-built military vehicles, such as Steyr 1500A light truck. A subcamp of Flossenbürg concentration camp, KZ Siegmar-Schonau, was operated during the war to provide slave labour for the Wanderer vehicle plants. From 1943 on the Auto Union Siegmar plant produced Maybach HL230 V12 engines, used in many heavy tanks of the German Wehrmacht. The Wanderer Siegmar plant (now Chemnitz) of Auto Union were destroyed in early 1945, closing this chapter in the history of automobiles. Post-war efforts to restore East German auto industry concentrated on Auto Union facilities in Zwickau and Zschopau: Wanderer car production never recovered, with Auto Union relocating to Ingolstadt, West Germany, where the company was rebuilt based using the DKW and ultimately, the Audi brand." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Definition.", "Notes.", "Generalizations.", "Definition in a hyperreal setting.", "Examples.", "Exponential function.", "Applications.", "To continuity.", "To differentiability.", "To integrability.", "To analyticity.", "To series.", "Almost uniform convergence." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "In 1821 Augustin-Louis Cauchy published a proof that a convergent sum of continuous functions is always continuous, to which Niels Henrik Abel in 1826 found purported counterexamples in the context of Fourier series, arguing that Cauchy's proof had to be incorrect. Completely standard notions of convergence did not exist at the time, and Cauchy handled convergence using infinitesimal methods. When put into the modern language, what Cauchy proved is that a uniformly convergent sequence of continuous functions has a continuous limit. The failure of a merely pointwise-convergent limit of continuous functions to converge to a continuous function illustrates the importance of distinguishing between different types of convergence when handling sequences of functions. The term uniform convergence was probably first used by Christoph Gudermann, in an 1838 paper on elliptic functions, where he employed the phrase \"convergence in a uniform way\" when the \"mode of convergence\" of a series formula_26 is independent of the variables formula_27 and formula_28 While he thought it a \"remarkable fact\" when a series converged in this way, he did not give a formal definition, nor use the property in any of his proofs. Later Gudermann's pupil Karl Weierstrass, who attended his course on elliptic functions in 1839–1840, coined the term \"gleichmäßig konvergent\" () which he used in his 1841 paper \"Zur Theorie der Potenzreihen\", published in 1894. Independently, similar concepts were articulated by Philipp Ludwig von Seidel and George Gabriel Stokes. G. H. Hardy compares the three definitions in his paper \"Sir George Stokes and the concept of uniform convergence\" and remarks: \"Weierstrass's discovery was the earliest, and he alone fully realized its far-reaching importance as one of the fundamental ideas of analysis.\" Under the influence of Weierstrass and Bernhard Riemann this concept and related questions were intensely studied at the end of the 19th century by Hermann Hankel, Paul du Bois-Reymond, Ulisse Dini, Cesare Arzelà and others.", "We first define uniform convergence for real-valued functions, although the concept is readily generalized to functions mapping to metric spaces and, more generally, uniform spaces (see below). Suppose formula_3 is a set and formula_30 is a sequence of real-valued functions on it. We say the sequence formula_30 is uniformly convergent on formula_3 with limit formula_33 if for every formula_34 there exists a natural number formula_5 such that for all formula_36 and formula_37 The notation for uniform convergence of formula_11 to formula_2 is not quite standardized and different authors have used a variety of symbols, including (in roughly decreasing order of popularity): Frequently, no special symbol is used, and authors simply write to indicate that convergence is uniform. (In contrast, the expression formula_43 on formula_3 without an adverb is taken to mean pointwise convergence on formula_3: for all formula_46, formula_47 as formula_48.) Since formula_49 is a complete metric space, the Cauchy criterion can be used to give an equivalent alternative formulation for uniform convergence: formula_50 converges uniformly on formula_3 (in the previous sense) if and only if for every formula_52, there exists a natural number formula_5 such that In yet another equivalent formulation, if we define then formula_56 converges to formula_2 uniformly if and only if formula_58 as formula_48. Thus, we can characterize uniform convergence of formula_30 on formula_3 as (simple) convergence of formula_30 in the function space formula_63 with respect to the \"uniform metric\" (also called the supremum metric), defined by Symbolically, The sequence formula_30 is said to be locally uniformly convergent with limit formula_2 if formula_68 is a metric space and for every formula_19, there exists an formula_70 such that formula_1 converges uniformly on formula_72 It is clear that uniform convergence implies local uniform convergence, which implies pointwise convergence.", "Intuitively, a sequence of functions formula_11 converges uniformly to formula_2 if, given an arbitrarily small formula_75, we can find an formula_76 so that the functions formula_11 with formula_78 all fall within a \"tube\" of width formula_79 centered around formula_2 (i.e., between formula_81 and formula_82) for the \"entire domain\" of the function. Note that interchanging the order of quantifiers in the definition of uniform convergence by moving \"for all formula_19\" in front of \"there exists a natural number formula_5\" results in a definition of pointwise convergence of the sequence. To make this difference explicit, in the case of uniform convergence, formula_20 can only depend on formula_4, and the choice of formula_5 has to work for all formula_19, for a specific value of formula_4 that is given. In contrast, in the case of pointwise convergence, formula_90 may depend on both formula_4 and formula_9, and the choice of formula_5 only has to work for the specific values of formula_4 and formula_9 that are given. Thus uniform convergence implies pointwise convergence, however the converse is not true, as the example in the section below illustrates.", "One may straightforwardly extend the concept to functions \"E\" → \"M\", where (\"M\", \"d\") is a metric space, by replacing formula_96 with formula_97. The most general setting is the uniform convergence of nets of functions \"E\" → \"X\", where \"X\" is a uniform space. We say that the net formula_98 \"converges uniformly\" with limit \"f\" : \"E\" → \"X\" if and only if for every entourage \"V\" in \"X\", there exists an formula_99, such that for every \"x\" in \"E\" and every formula_100, formula_101 is in \"V\". In this situation, uniform limit of continuous functions remains continuous.", "Uniform convergence admits a simplified definition in a hyperreal setting. Thus, a sequence formula_11 converges to \"f\" uniformly if for all \"x\" in the domain of formula_103 and all infinite \"n\", formula_104 is infinitely close to formula_105 (see microcontinuity for a similar definition of uniform continuity).", "Given a topological space \"X\", we can equip the space of bounded real or complex-valued functions over \"X\" with the uniform norm topology, with the uniform metric defined by Then uniform convergence simply means convergence in the uniform norm topology: The sequence of functions formula_1 is a classic example of a sequence of functions that converges to a function formula_2 pointwise but not uniformly. To show this, we first observe that the pointwise limit of formula_1 as formula_48 is the function formula_2, given by \"Pointwise convergence:\" Convergence is trivial for formula_115 and formula_116, since formula_117 and formula_118, for all formula_15. For formula_120 and given formula_75, we can ensure that formula_122 whenever formula_123 by choosing formula_124 (here the upper square brackets indicate rounding up, see ceiling function). Hence, formula_43 pointwise for all formula_126. Note that the choice of formula_5 depends on the value of formula_4 and formula_9. Moreover, for a fixed choice of formula_4, formula_5 (which cannot be defined to be smaller) grows without bound as formula_9 approaches 1. These observations preclude the possibility of uniform convergence. \"Non-uniformity of convergence:\" The convergence is not uniform, because we can find an formula_75 so that no matter how large we choose formula_134 there will be values of formula_135 and formula_36 such that formula_137 To see this, first observe that regardless of how large formula_15 becomes, there is always an formula_139 such that formula_140 Thus, if we choose formula_141 we can never find an formula_5 such that formula_122 for all formula_126 and formula_123. Explicitly, whatever candidate we choose for formula_5, consider the value of formula_147 at formula_148. Since the candidate fails because we have found an example of an formula_126 that \"escaped\" our attempt to \"confine\" each formula_151 to within formula_4 of formula_153 for all formula_126. In fact, it is easy to see that contrary to the requirement that formula_156 if formula_157. In this example one can easily see that pointwise convergence does not preserve differentiability or continuity. While each function of the sequence is smooth, that is to say that for all \"n\", formula_158, the limit formula_159 is not even continuous.", "The series expansion of the exponential function can be shown to be uniformly convergent on any bounded subset formula_160 using the Weierstrass M-test. Theorem (Weierstrass M-test). \"Let formula_1 be a sequence of functions formula_162 and let formula_163 be a sequence of positive real numbers such that formula_164 for all formula_19 and formula_166 If formula_167 converges, then formula_168 converges uniformly on formula_3.\" The complex exponential function can be expressed as the series: Any bounded subset is a subset of some disc formula_171 of radius formula_172 centered on the origin in the complex plane. The Weierstrass M-test requires us to find an upper bound formula_173 on the terms of the series, with formula_173 independent of the position in the disc: To do this, we notice and take formula_177 If formula_178 is convergent, then the M-test asserts that the original series is uniformly convergent. The ratio test can be used here: which means the series over formula_173 is convergent. Thus the original series converges uniformly for all formula_181 and since formula_182, the series is also uniformly convergent on formula_183", "", "If formula_3 and formula_191 are topological spaces, then it makes sense to talk about the continuity of the functions formula_192. If we further assume that formula_191 is a metric space, then (uniform) convergence of the formula_11 to formula_2 is also well defined. The following result states that continuity is preserved by uniform convergence: This theorem is proved by the \" trick\", and is the archetypal example of this trick: to prove a given inequality (), one uses the definitions of continuity and uniform convergence to produce 3 inequalities (), and then combines them via the triangle inequality to produce the desired inequality. This theorem is an important one in the history of real and Fourier analysis, since many 18th century mathematicians had the intuitive understanding that a sequence of continuous functions always converges to a continuous function. The image above shows a counterexample, and many discontinuous functions could, in fact, be written as a Fourier series of continuous functions. The erroneous claim that the pointwise limit of a sequence of continuous functions is continuous (originally stated in terms of convergent series of continuous functions) is infamously known as \"Cauchy's wrong theorem\". The uniform limit theorem shows that a stronger form of convergence, uniform convergence, is needed to ensure the preservation of continuity in the limit function. More precisely, this theorem states that the uniform limit of \"uniformly continuous\" functions is uniformly continuous; for a locally compact space, continuity is equivalent to local uniform continuity, and thus the uniform limit of continuous functions is continuous.", "If formula_184 is an interval and all the functions formula_11 are differentiable and converge to a limit formula_2, it is often desirable to determine the derivative function formula_206 by taking the limit of the sequence formula_207. This is however in general not possible: even if the convergence is uniform, the limit function need not be differentiable (not even if the sequence consists of everywhere-analytic functions, see Weierstrass function), and even if it is differentiable, the derivative of the limit function need not be equal to the limit of the derivatives. Consider for instance formula_208 with uniform limit formula_209. Clearly, formula_206 is also identically zero. However, the derivatives of the sequence of functions are given by formula_211 and the sequence formula_207 does not converge to formula_213 or even to any function at all. In order to ensure a connection between the limit of a sequence of differentiable functions and the limit of the sequence of derivatives, the uniform convergence of the sequence of derivatives plus the convergence of the sequence of functions at at least one point is required:", "Similarly, one often wants to exchange integrals and limit processes. For the Riemann integral, this can be done if uniform convergence is assumed: In fact, for a uniformly convergent family of bounded functions on an interval, the upper and lower Riemann integrals converge to the upper and lower Riemann integrals of the limit function. This follows because, for \"n\" sufficiently large, the graph of formula_11 is within of the graph of \"f\", and so the upper sum and lower sum of formula_11 are each within formula_233 of the value of the upper and lower sums of formula_2, respectively. Much stronger theorems in this respect, which require not much more than pointwise convergence, can be obtained if one abandons the Riemann integral and uses the Lebesgue integral instead.", "If a sequence of analytic functions converges uniformly in a region S of the complex plane, then the limit is analytic in S. This example demonstrates that complex functions are more well-behaved than real functions, since the uniform limit of analytic functions on a real interval need not even be differentiable (see Weierstrass function).", "We say that formula_235 converges: i) pointwise on \"E\" if and only if the sequence of partial sums formula_236 converges for every formula_19. ii) uniformly on \"E\" if and only if \"s\" converges uniformly as formula_48. iii) absolutely on \"E\" if and only if formula_239 converges for every formula_19. With this definition comes the following result: \"Let x\" \"be contained in the set E and each f be continuous at x\"\". If formula_241 converges uniformly on E then f is continuous at x\" \"in E. Suppose that formula_242 and each f is integrable on E. If formula_243 converges uniformly on E then f is integrable on E and the series of integrals of f is equal to integral of the series of f.\"", "If the domain of the functions is a measure space \"E\" then the related notion of almost uniform convergence can be defined. We say a sequence of functions formula_1 converges almost uniformly on \"E\" if for every formula_245 there exists a measurable set formula_246 with measure less than formula_247 such that the sequence of functions formula_1 converges uniformly on formula_249. In other words, almost uniform convergence means there are sets of arbitrarily small measure for which the sequence of functions converges uniformly on their complement. Note that almost uniform convergence of a sequence does not mean that the sequence converges uniformly almost everywhere as might be inferred from the name. However, Egorov's theorem does guarantee that on a finite measure space, a sequence of functions that converges almost everywhere also converges almost uniformly on the same set. Almost uniform convergence implies almost everywhere convergence and convergence in measure." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Production.", "Anaglyph from stereo pairs.", "Stereo conversion (single 2D image to 3D).", "Mechanics.", "Types.", "Complementary color.", "Compensating focus diopter glasses for red-cyan method.", "(ACB) 3-D.", "ColorCode 3-D.", "Inficolor 3D.", "Anachrome red/cyan filters.", "Interference filter systems.", "Viewing.", "Red sharpened anaglyph glasses.", "Anachrome filters.", "Traditional anaglyph processing methods.", "Depth adjustment.", "Scene composition.", "Dual purpose, 2D or 3D \"compatible anaglyph\" technique.", "Anaglyphic color channels.", "Applications.", "Home entertainment.", "Comics.", "Science and mathematics." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The oldest known description of anaglyph images was written in August 1853 by W. Rollmann in Stargard about his \"Farbenstereoscope\" (color stereoscope). He had the best results viewing a yellow/blue drawing with red/blue glasses. Rollmann found that with a red/blue drawing the red lines were not as distinct as yellow lines through the blue glass. In 1858, in France, delivered a report to l'Académie des sciences describing how to project three-dimensional magic lantern slide shows using red and green filters to an audience wearing red and green goggles. Subsequently he was chronicled as being responsible for the first realisation of 3D images using anaglyphs. Louis Ducos du Hauron produced the first printed anaglyphs in 1891. This process consisted of printing the two negatives which form a stereoscopic photograph on to the same paper, one in blue (or green), one in red. The viewer", "", "A stereo pair is a pair of images from slightly different perspectives at the same time. Objects closer to the camera(s) have greater differences in appearance and position within the image frames than objects further from the camera. Historically cameras captured two color filtered images from the perspective of the left and right eyes which were projected or printed together as a single image, one side through a red filter and the other side through a contrasting color such as blue or green or mixed cyan. As outlined below, one may now, typically, use an image processing computer program to simulate the effect of using color", "There also exist methods for making anaglyphs using only one image, a process called stereo conversion. In one, individual elements of a picture are horizontally offset in one layer by differing amounts with elements offset further having greater apparent changes in depth (either forward or back depending on whether the offset is to the left or right). This produces images that tend to look like elements are flat standees arranged at various distances from the viewer similar to cartoon images in a View-Master. A more sophisticated method involves use of a depth map (a false color image where color indicates distance, for example, a grayscale depth map could have lighter indicate", "Viewing anaglyphs through spectrally opposed glasses or gel filters enables each eye to see independent left and right images from within a single anaglyphic image. Red-cyan filters can be employed because our vision processing systems use red and cyan comparisons, as well as blue and yellow, to determine the color and contours of objects. In a red-cyan anaglyph, the eye viewing through the", "", "Complementary color anaglyphs employ one of a pair of complementary color filters for each eye. The most common color filters used are red and cyan. Employing tristimulus theory, the eye is sensitive to three primary colors, red, green, and blue. The red filter admits only red, while the cyan filter blocks red, passing blue and green (the combination of blue and green is perceived as cyan). If a paper viewer containing red and cyan filters is folded so that light passes through both, the image will appear black. Another recently introduced form employs blue and yellow filters. (Yellow is the color perceived when both red and green light passes through the filter.) Anaglyph images have seen a recent resurgence because of the presentation of", "Simple sheet or uncorrected molded glasses do not compensate for the 250 nanometer difference in the wavelengths of the red-cyan filters. With simple glasses the red filter image can be blurry when viewing a close computer screen or printed image since the retinal focus differs from the cyan filtered image, which dominates the eyes' focusing. Better quality molded plastic glasses employ a compensating differential diopter power to equalize the red filter focus shift relative to the cyan.", "(ACB) 'Anaglyphic Contrast Balance' is a patented anaglyphic production method by Studio 555. Retinal Rivalry of color contrasts within the color channels of anaglyph images is addressed. Contrasts and details from the stereo pair are maintained and re-presented for view within the anaglyph image. The (ACB) method of balancing the color contrasts within the stereo pair enables a stable view of contrast details, thus eliminating retinal rivalry. The process is available for red/cyan color channels but may use any of the opposing color channel combinations. As with all stereoscopic anaglyphic systems, screen or print, the", "ColorCode 3-D was deployed in the 2000s and uses amber and blue filters. It is intended to provide the perception of nearly full color viewing (particularly within the RG color space) with existing television and paint mediums. One eye (left, amber filter) receives the cross-spectrum color information and one eye (right, blue filter) sees a monochrome image designed to give the depth effect. The human brain ties both images together. Images viewed without filters will tend to exhibit light-blue and yellow horizontal fringing. The backwards compatible 2D viewing experience for viewers not wearing glasses is improved, generally being better than previous red and green anaglyph imaging systems, and further improved by the use of digital post-processing", "Developed by TriOviz, Inficolor 3D is a patent pending stereoscopic system, first demonstrated at the International Broadcasting Convention in 2007 and deployed in 2010. It works with traditional 2D flat panels and HDTV sets and uses expensive glasses with complex color filters and dedicated image processing that allow natural color perception with a 3D experience. This is achieved through having the left image using the green channel only and the right using the red and blue channels with some added post processing, which the brain then combines the two images to produce a nearly full color experience. When observed without glasses, some slight doubling can be noticed in the background of the action which allows watching the movie or the video game in 2D without the glasses. This is not possible with traditional brute force anaglyphic systems. Inficolor 3D is a part of TriOviz for Games Technology, developed in partnership with", "A variation on the anaglyph technique from the early 2000s is called \"Anachrome method\". This approach is an attempt to provide images that look nearly normal, without glasses, for small images, either 2D or 3D, with most of the negative qualities being masked innately by the small display. Being \"compatible\" for small size posting in conventional websites or magazines. Usually a larger file can be selected that will fully present the 3D with the dramatic definition. The 3D,(Z axis) depth effect is generally more subtle than simple anaglyph images,", "This technique uses specific wavelengths of red, green, and blue for the right eye, and different wavelengths of red, green, and blue for the left eye. Eyeglasses which filter out the very specific wavelengths allow the wearer to see a full color 3D image. Special interference filters (dichromatic filters) in the glasses and in the projector form the main item of technology and have given the system this name. It is also known as spectral comb filtering or wavelength multiplex visualization. Sometimes this technique is described as a \"super-anaglyph\" because it is an advanced form of spectral-multiplexing which is at the heart of the conventional anaglyph technique. This technology eliminates the expensive silver screens required for polarized systems such as RealD, which is the most common 3D display system in theaters. It does, however, require much more expensive glasses than the polarized systems. Dolby 3D uses this principle. The filters divide the visible color spectrum into six narrow bands – two in the red region, two in the green region, and two in the blue region (called R1, R2, G1, G2, B1 and B2 for purposes", "A pair of glasses, with filters of opposing colors, is worn to view an anaglyphic photo image. A red filter lens over the left eye allows graduations of red to cyan from within the anaglyph to be perceived as graduations of bright to dark. The cyan (blue/green) filter over the right eye conversely allows graduations of cyan to red from within the anaglyph to be perceived as graduations of bright to dark. Red and cyan color fringes in the anaglyph display represent the red and cyan color channels of the parallax-displaced left and right images. The viewing filters each cancel out opposing colored areas, including graduations of less pure opposing colored areas, to each reveal an image from within its color channel. Thus the filters enable each eye to see only its intended view from color channels within the single anaglyphic image.", "Simple paper uncorrected gel glasses, cannot compensate for the 250 nanometer difference in the wavelengths of the red-cyan filters. With simple glasses, the red filtered image is somewhat blurry, when viewing a close computer screen or printed image. The (RED) retinal focus differs from the image through the (CYAN) filter, which dominates the eyes' focusing. Better-quality molded acrylic glasses frequently employ a compensating differential diopter power (a spherical correction) to balance the red filter focus shift relative to the cyan, which reduces the innate", "Plastic glasses, developed in recent years, provide both the diopter \"fix\" noted above, and a change in the cyan filter. The formula provides intentional \"leakage\" of a minimal (2%) percentage of red light with the conventional range of the filter. This assigns two-eyed \"redness cues\" to objects and details, such as lip color and red clothing, that are fused in the brain.", "One monochromatic method uses a stereo pair available as a digitized image, along with access to general-purpose image processing software. In this method, the images are run through a series of processes and saved in an appropriate transmission and viewing format such as JPEG. Several computer programs will create color anaglyphs without Adobe Photoshop, or a traditional, more complex compositing method can be used with Photoshop. Using color information, it is possible to obtain reasonable (but not accurate) blue sky, green vegetation, and appropriate skin tones. Color information appears disruptive when used for brightly colored and/or high-contrast objects such as signs, toys, and patterned clothing when these contain colors that are close to red or cyan. Only few color anaglyphic processes, e.g. interference filter systems used for Dolby 3D, can reconstruct full-color 3D images. However, other stereo display methods can easily reproduce full-color photos or movies, e.g. active shutter 3D or polarized 3D systems. Such processes allow better viewing comfort than most limited color anaglyphic methods. According to entertainment trade papers, 3D films had a revival in recent years and 3D is now also used in 3D Television.", "The adjustment suggested in this section is applicable to any type of stereogram but is particularly appropriate when anaglyphed images are to be viewed on a computer screen or on printed matter. Those portions of the left and right images that are coincident will appear to be at the surface of the screen. Depending upon the subject matter and the composition of the image it may be appropriate to make this align to something slightly behind the nearest point of the principal subject (as when imaging a portrait). This will cause the near points of the subject to \"pop out\" from the screen. For best effect, any portions of a figure to be imaged forward of the screen surface should not intercept", "In the toy images to the right, the shelf edge was selected as the point where images are to coincide and the toys were arranged so", "Since the advent of the Internet, a variant technique has developed where the images are specially processed to minimize visible mis-registration of the two layers. This technique is", "Anaglyph images may use any combination of color channels. However, if a stereoscopic image is to be pursued, the colors should be diametrically opposed. Impurities of color channel display, or of the viewing filters, allow some of the image meant for the other channel to be seen. This results in stereoscopic double imaging, also called ghosting. Color channels may be left-right reversed. Red/cyan is most common. magenta/green and blue/yellow are also popular. Red/green and red/blue enable monochromatic images especially red/green. Many anaglyph makers purposely integrate impure color channels and viewing filters to enable better color perception, but this results in a corresponding degree of double imaging. Color channel brightness % of white: red-30/cyan-70, magenta-41/green-59 or especially blue-11/yellow-89), the lighter display channel may be darkened or the brighter viewing filter may be darkened to allow both eyes a balanced view. However the Pulfrich effect can be", "On April 1, 2010, Google launched a feature in Google Street View that shows anaglyphs rather than regular images, allowing users to see the streets in 3D.", "Disney Studios released \"\" in August 2008, its first anaglyph 3D Blu-ray Disc. This was shown on the Disney Channel with red-cyan paper glasses in July 2008. However, on Blu-ray Disc anaglyph techniques have more recently been supplanted by the Blu-ray 3D format, which uses Multiview Video Coding", "These techniques have been used to produce 3-dimensional comic books, mostly during the early 1950s, using carefully constructed line drawings printed in colors appropriate to the filter glasses provided. The material presented were from a wide variety of genres, including war, horror,", "Three-dimensional display can also be used to display scientific data sets, or to illustrate mathematical functions. Anaglyph images are suitable both for paper presentation, and moving video display (see neuroimage related paper). They can easily be included in science books, and viewed with cheap anaglyph glasses. Anaglyphy (including, among others, aerial, telescopic, and microscopic images)" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Career.", "Death and legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Milena Hübschmannová was born on 10 July 1933 in Prague, Czechoslovakia. In her childhood, her parents were imprisoned by the Gestapo, during World War II. She attended the \"H. Fasta\" English Gymnasium, graduating in 1951 and went on to pursue the study of language at the Charles University. From childhood, she had been interested in the culture of India and took Hindi classes during her high school years at the Oriental Institute of the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences. When she entered the university Philology Department, Hübschmannová focused on Indic languages, studying Bengali, Hindi, and Urdu. In 1953, when the communist government sent her to participate in a working brigade in Ostrava in the Moravian-Silesian Region of the Republic, Hübschmannová encountered the Roma communities for the first time. She was surprised that she understood their language and recognized that it must have Indic roots. Unable to travel to India, because of restrictions placed by the communist regime, Hübschmannová changed her focus to the study of the Romani language. At that time, there was a strong push to force the Roma in heavily Czech areas to assimilate into the majority culture, forcing many communities to flee the region, going to Slovakia. There was very little understanding of their ethnicity, language, culture or traditions. Hübschmannová worked among the Roma for nearly a year learning as much as she could, before returning to Prague and graduating from Charles University in 1956.", "That same year, Hübschmannová began working at Czech Radio as a dramatic and literary editor, which allowed her to take field trips and record the folklore, fairy tales and folksongs of the Roma communities. Armed with a heavy, outdated tape recorder, which she kept in a bag slung over her shoulder, Hübschmannová wandered the countryside and recorded an extremely large collection of material, acumulating over 500 tapes. She continued her work on India, translating several important poets, including Mirza Ghalib and in 1959, Hübschmannová took her first research trip to India. During this period, she married the radio director, Josef Melč. Returning to Prague, she translated Indian poets for almost a decade and gave birth to her daughter Tereza in 1963. In 1967 she worked at the Oriental Institute beginning the preparatory work on a study of the Romani people, which was possible because of the loosening during the Prague Spring. She helped found the Union of Gypsies-Roma during the period and edited a Romani language journal. Through the Union, Hübschmannová helped to revive early school education using the Romani language as the primary language until students gained competency in Czech. But by August, 1968, events had changed and their work was brought to a halt, leading Hübschmannová to take work in a nursery school near the town of Rakúsy in a Romani settlement. She returned to India to study in 1969. Upon her return to Czechoslovakia, Hübschmannová worked at the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences in the Department of Philosophy and Sociology until 1974. She continued her analysis and gathering of information at the Academy, working with a multi-disciplinary team to develop not just the ethnographic and linguistic study of the Roma, but to include the demographic, historic and sociological profiles of the community. As a linguist, Hübschmannová was concerned that the language of the Roma was being lost, as the communities were forced to speak Czech, Hungarian, or Slovak in their interactions of daily living, though continued use of Romani language dialects prevailed when speaking with other Roma. The works that were published by the group included the first literature in the Romani language ever published in Czechoslovakia. In 1973, another government crackdown forced the Union to disband and suspend publication of their journal; however, some of the writers, having been inspired to have their Romani cultural record published, continued to publish in other venues. Between 1974 and 1975, Hübschmannová worked at Charles University in the Pedagogical Faculty, but her opposition to the government assimilation policies toward the Roma led to her dismissal. She had no permanent employment between 1976 and 1982, working on an as-needed basis for the Prague School of Languages teaching Hindi and Romani. The school hired her on a permanent basis in 1982 and she remained with them until 1991. At the time, the classes Hübschmannová taught on Romani language were the only formal coursework being offered to the Roma in their native tongue. The courses were also attended by non-Roma social workers to facilitate their communication with the Roma in the course of their work. In 1989, with the Velvet Revolution and the fall of communism, Roma culture was again allowed to flourish and Hübschmannová was both an advocate for preserving Romani heritage and an encouraging voice to the Roma communities. In 1991, Hübschmannová returned to Charles University and founded the Romani Studies Program as part of the Indological Institute. It was the first time that the field had garnered academic attention in Prague and the first program in the world to offer an undergraduate degree on the Roma. Hübschmannová chaired the department until her death and also taught Urdu between 1991 and 1997. Returning to the work that had been suspended in 1968, Hübschmannová published the first Romani-Czech/Czech-Romani Pocket Dictionary, with Hana Šebková and Anna Žigová in 1991. The dictionary, \"Romsko-český, česko-romský kapesní slovník\", was critically well-received as a standard work and was praised for its integration of standard phrases and terms across various Romani communities, including Czech, Hungarian, and Slovakian dialects. Other important works from the early 1970s found new printings, such as \"Šaj pes dovakeras: Můžeme se domluvit\" (We can communicate) published by Palacký University, Olomouc in 1993 and 1995; \"Základy romštiny\" (Romani Basics) and \"Romské pohádky\" (Romani Fairy Tales), which were locally printed in 1973 and 1974, but republished by Fortuna in 1999. Hübschmannová founded the journal \"Romano Džaniben\" (Romani Studies) in 1994, which became an important international publication of Romani scholarship. Hübschmannová worked with, the acting Commissioner for Human Rights, to develop a process for individual members of the Roma communities to seek justice. She also worked with museums in Brno and Vienna to establish archives for Romani materials. In 1995, Hübschmannová completed her doctoral work and was awarded the degree \"candidarus scientarum\" with her thesis of \"Romistické studie I\" (Romani Studies 1). Beginning in 1996, she worked with a consortium of linguists at the \"Centre des Études Tsiganes\" of the Paris Descartes University and the State Pedagogical Institute in Bratislava to develop curricula and train teachers to be able to teach Romani language and cultural studies. Hübschmannová received two cultural awards from the Roma Civic Initiative in 1998 for her efforts at promoting education and cultural preservation programs for the Roma communities. Continuing her publishing efforts, Hübschmannová authored, co-authored or edited more than 90 publications, in addition to editing some 400 articles which were published in \"Romano Džaniben\", for which she served as editor in chief. In 1999, Hübschmannová published an important work called \"A false dawn: my life as a Gypsy woman in Slovakia\". The book is the autobiography of Ilona Lacková covering the period from 1920 to 1970, which was told to Hübschmannová over an eight-year period in Romani. She then translated the story into Czech and later French and English. The book relates the story of how the Roma's true identities were hidden behind stereotypical imagery. At the same time, because it is told as a first person account, the narrative restores the storyteller's humanity. Addressing attempts by the government to \"reeducate\" the Roma, and force their assimilation, the book explores the ghettoization the Roma experienced under the socialist regime. The work became an important text, as it covered ground that scientists could not, by giving an insider's view of the issues facing the Romani community. It was subsequently published Bulgarian, Hungarian and Spanish, winning the International Humanitarian Hidalgo Prize in 2001 from Spain. Hübschmannová earned her Habilitation degree with a thesis of \"Romistické studie II\" (Romani Studies 2) in 2000 and that same year was honored with a plaque at the Fifth International Congress of the International Romani Union, held in Prague. In 2002, Czech President Vaclav Havel awarded her the Medal of Merit in the third degree and the following year she was awarded the Medal of Merit in the first degree by the Ministry of Education, Youth, and Physical Training.", "Hübschmannová died in a car accident on 8 September 2005 near the town of Kameeldrift, Gauteng Province, South Africa. The year after her death, the 7th International Conference on Romani Linguistics was dedicated to her memory. Her unexpected death was widely felt by the Romani community, who had lost an advocate as well as someone who had dedicated her career to preserving their cultural heritage. A book, entitled \"Milena Hübschmannová ve vzpomínkách\" (Milena Hübschmannová in Memorial) was published in 2007, giving biographical details of Hübschmannová's life and career. Romanis from around the world contributed to its creation, as did her siblings, friends and colleagues." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Characteristics.", "Diet.", "Behavior.", "Species." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "\"Nasua\" differs from \"Nasuella\" in being larger and having larger canine teeth, but preliminary genetic evidence (cytochrome b sequences) suggests that \"Nasuella\" should be merged into \"Nasua\". Other genetic studies have shown that the closest relatives of the coatis are the olingos (genus \"Bassaricyon\"), from which they diverged about 10.2 million years ago.", "Like other procyonids, coatis are omnivores. Their diet consists largely of insects (including their larvae), spiders and other invertebrates as well as the occasional small vertebrate discovered while energetically foraging, with their sensitive noses to the ground, in forest leaf litter. On Barro Colorado Island, Panama, where they have been studied in greatest detail, they supplement this diet with copious amounts of fruit as it becomes available seasonally from favored trees, such as figs (\"Ficus insipida\") and hog plums (\"Spondias mombin\").", "Their very active foraging behavior appears to be interrelated with their distinctive social organization. Exceptional among procyonids, coatis are diurnal and for much of the year gregarious. Though females nest, and bear and nurse their young in isolation, shortly after the altricial young become mobile the females aggregate into social groups known as bands. Bands consist of adult females (two or more years old), and sub-adults (1–2 years old) and juveniles (less than 1 year old) of both sexes. At maturity, at two years of age, males are excluded from bands and take up a solitary lifestyle. They are aggressively repelled from bands, except during the mating season when typically one male ingratiates himself to a band through submissive behavior, forages with it for a period of a few weeks, and mates with all of the adult females. During the nesting season, the sub-adults and juveniles remain together in bands while breeding adult females become solitary for parturition and nesting. Females begin breeding in their 3rd or 4th year, apparently depending on nutritional status. Occasionally, older females become postreproductive, and these remain with the bands while breeding females separate. Breeding is synchronous, as is parturition and nursing. Resumption of gregarious behavior takes place synchronously as well, over the course of several weeks, depending on the existence of previous social relationships, i.e. females with prior relationships reaggregate into bands more quickly than those forming new relationships. Nonetheless, persistent social bonds may form anew at this point in the reproductive cycle: while there may be a tendency to reaggregate with kin, prior relationships are not indispensable. Previously unfamiliar individuals may aggregate into bands with stable social relationships. A conspicuous means of bond formation is mutual grooming, on which an hour or more may be spent daily. Some of this appears to be ritualized as a form of social bond formation (Fig. 1), though it is clearly mutually beneficial as well: the burden of ticks on band members is lower than it is on solitary adult males, for instance. When juveniles descend from the nest, they are little better than helpless. One important benefit of aggregating for the adult females is sharing of vigilance in protection of juveniles from predation. Juvenile mortality is high, sources of peril including adult male coatis which have been observed to kill them. It is not entirely clear whether adult males are preying on them or killing potential rivals, and of course it may be both. The active foraging behavior of coatis is fairly conspicuous, and requires a considerable degree of attention. The proportion of time that adult females spend foraging increases, and the proportion of foraging time interrupted for stationary vigilance behavior decreases, when aggregation into bands is achieved. Bands forage in formation, with adults and sub-adults distributed around the periphery, and juveniles gathered towards the center. This shared vigilance appears to be an important contributor to the benefit of gregariousness for coatis.", "The two species within \"Nasua\" are: DNA sequence analysis indicates that the \"N. narica\" and \"N. nasua\" lineages split about 5.6 million years ago. The Cozumel Island coati had been recognized as a third species, but the vast majority of recent authorities treat it as a subspecies, \"N. narica nelsoni\", of the white-nosed coati." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Ingredients and preparation.", "Varieties.", "Serving.", "History.", "In culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Polish word'is probably of German origin, but its exact etymology is disputed. According to the Polish loanword dictionary edited by Elżbieta Sobol, it may derive from German ', meaning \"doused\" or \"basted\". Jerzy Bralczyk similarly derives the word from archaic German ', \"sauce\". Aleksander Brückner has proposed German ', \"piece of lead\", as a possible source, referring to a tradition of divining from strangely shaped flakes of molten lead dropped into water. Maria Dembińska rejects this etymology as \"doubtless erroneous\", suggesting instead either archaic German ', \"to chop\", or old German'(' in modern German), meaning \"mugwort\" (\"Artemisia vulgaris\"), a herb that was popular in medieval cuisine. Andrzej Bańkowski also points to Italian ', or \"pot for cooking soup\", as a possible derivation via German.", "The principal ingredients of'are assorted kinds of meat chopped into bite-sized chunks and a mixture of sauerkraut (pickled cabbage) and shredded fresh white cabbage. The meats may include pork (ham, shoulder, bacon, ribs, loin, etc.), beef and veal, poultry (chicken, duck, goose, turkey) and game, as well as charcuterie, especially various kinds of ', or Polish smoked sausage. The variety of meats is considered essential for good \"; its preparation may be a good occasion to clean out one's freezer and use up leftovers from other meat dishes. Some of the meats may be roasted before being diced together with other cuts of meat and braised in lard or vegetable oil. The sauerkraut is often rinsed and drained before being chopped and mixed with shredded fresh cabbage. The proportion depends on the sauerkraut's maturity – the longer it has cured, the more sour it tastes, calling for more fresh cabbage to balance the flavor. Traditionally, cabbage was pickled in fall, so \" made at that time could be made with only half-cured sauerkraut, but by early spring, the sauerkraut had to be combined in equal parts with fresh cabbage. The mixture is precooked in a small amount of water before being mixed with the braised meat and left to simmer for several hours. Ideally, the stew should thicken through evaporation alone, but flour, roux, crumbled rye bread or a grated raw potato may be added to it to take up excess moisture. Other ingredients often added to'include onions, diced and browned in lard together with the meat, and dried forest mushrooms that are precooked separately in boiling water. The stew is usually seasoned with salt, black peppercorns, allspice, juniper berries and bay leaves. Some recipes also call for caraway, cloves, garlic, marjoram, mustard seeds, nutmeg, paprika and thyme. The tart flavor of sauerkraut may be enhanced by adding some dry red wine or beet sour (fermented beetroot juice that is also a traditional ingredient of borscht), which may impart a reddish hue to the stew.'is often slightly sweetened with sugar, honey, raisins, prunes or plum butter known in Polish as \". Traditionally,'is stewed in a cauldron over an open fire or in a large pot on a stove, but it may also be prepared in an electric slow cooker. The contents should be stirred from time to time, to prevent scorching, which may impart a bitter taste to the entire batch.'is considered best after it has been repeatedly refrigerated and reheated to allow the flavors to fuse.", "The flexible and forgiving recipe for \" allows a great number of variants, often simply using what ingredients are at hand. It is often claimed that there are as many recipes as there are cooks in Poland. In the region of Greater Poland,'typically contains tomato paste and is seasoned with garlic and marjoram. Kuyavian'is often made from red cabbage as well as white. In Silesia, it is usually mixed with'or ', that is, small plain boiled dumplings made from unleavened dough that contains flour and mashed potatoes. A variant which contains julienned apples, preferably with a winey tart taste, such as Antonovka, is known as Lithuanian \" and is typical for the territory of the erstwhile Grand Duchy of Lithuania (now Belarus and Lithuania). In ', or \"hunter's '\", at least part of the meat comes from game, such as wild boar, venison or hare. It is usually seasoned with juniper berries, which help neutralize off-flavors that may be found in the meat of wild animals.", "As a dish that does not spoil quickly and only gets tastier with each reheating,'has been traditionally used as a provision for travellers and campers or consumed at outdoor events, such as a hunt or a carnival sleigh ride known in Polish as '. It may be also eaten indoor, for breakfast, supper or as a hot starter served before soup at a dinner party. It is commonly found on the menus of milk bars, pubs and bistros throughout Poland. \" is particularly associated with major Catholic holidays, such as Christmas and Easter, as it can be prepared in ample quantities beforehand and only reheated on the holiday itself and the following days. The stew is typically dished up with rye bread or boiled potatoes. In a fancier setting, it may be served in stoneware bowls, puff pastry shells or bread bowls. ', especially when enjoyed outdoor, is traditionally paired with shots of chilled vodka, either clear or flavored. Varieties of flavored vodka that match well with'include'(bison grass),'(juniper),'(wormwood),'(various herbs) and \" (oak-aged). If served at home or in a restaurant, the stew may be washed down with beer, red wine or Riesling.", "According to Polish food historian Maria Dembińska,'may derive from a medieval dish known in Latin as ', or \"mixture\". It was made from various vegetables, such as cabbage, chard and onions, that were chopped or shredded, layered inside an earthenware three-legged Dutch oven and braised or baked. A remnant of this old procedure may be found in a'recipe, in which bacon and cabbage are arranged in layers, from the 19th-century Russian cookbook, \"A Gift to Young Housewives\" by Elena Molokhovets. Similar, layered dishes of medieval origin exist in other European cuisines; they include the Italian'(known in 16th-century Poland under the Polonized name, ') and the Alsatian'(also known as '), made from cabbage, leftover meats and fruits. They are reminiscent of a rustic Polish casserole, known in various regions as ', etc. It is traditionally made from sliced or diced potatoes, onions, carrots, sausages and bacon arranged in layers inside a cast-iron cauldron greased with lard and lined with cabbage leaves, which is placed in bonfire embers for baking. The word \"'\" is not attested before the 17th century. At that time, it referred to any dish of finely chopped components, usually meat or fish – but no cabbage – doused generously with melted butter and heavily seasoned with sour, sweet and spicy ingredients., head chef to Prince, who consistently used the diminutive form ', included several recipes for it in his'(\"A Collection of Dishes\"), the first cookbook published originally in Polish, in 1682. They include'prepared with chopped capon, hazel grouse, carp, pike, and crawfish with beef marrow. Seasonings that appear in most of these recipes include onions, wine vinegar, lemon or lime juice, verjuice, sorrel, sugar, raisins, black pepper, cinnamon, nutmeg, cloves and cumin. A manuscript recipe collection from the family court, dating back to ca. 1686, contains instructions for cooking'of roast beef, fried fish and even chopped'(thin pancakes).'(\"The Perfect Cook\"), a cookbook published by Wojciech Wielądko in 1783, contains recipes for beef, veal, wether mutton, oyster, as well as root vegetable'(the latter was a mixture of carrots, parsnip, rutabaga and celeriac). 'made entirely of meat and exotic spices was affordable only to the affluent Polish nobility. The 18th century saw the development of a poor man's version of the dish, known as ', or \"rascal's '\", in which vinegar and lemon juice were replaced with cheaper sauerkraut as the source of tartness. Sauerkraut and cabbage also acted as a filler allowing to reduce the amount of meat in the dish. Rascal's'became common during the reign of King Augustus III of Poland (r. 1734–1763). Over the course of the 19th century, its rise in popularity continued as the proportion of meat decreased in favor of sauerkraut, eventually superseding all other kinds of \" and losing the disparaging epithet in the process.", "\" is considered a Polish national dish, which, according to American food historian William Woys Weaver, \"has been romanticized in poetry, discussed in its most minute details in all sorts of literary contexts, and never made in small quantities.\" The most famous literary monument to'can be found in ', a mock-heroic poem venerated as the Polish national epic, extolling the country life of Polish noblemen in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, written by Adam Mickiewicz in 1834. It describes a group of men out in the woods, enjoying the stew of \"wondrous taste, colour and marvellous smell\" after a successful bear hunt." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Distribution and habitat.", "Behavior.", "Reproduction.", "Taxonomy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The South American coati is widespread in tropical and subtropical South America. It occurs in the lowland forests east of the Andes as high as from Colombia and The Guianas south to Uruguay and northern Argentina. It has been recorded in west Ecuador, and north and west Colombia. In Argentina, it has been recorded in Santa Fe and Salta Provinces. The only documented records of white-nosed coati in South America are from far northwestern Colombia, in the Gulf of Urabá region, near Colombian border with Panama. The smaller mountain coati lives foremost at altitudes above the South American coati, but there is considerable overlap.", "South American coatis are diurnal animals, and live both on the ground and in trees. They are omnivorous, but primarily eat fruit, invertebrates, other small animals and bird eggs. They search for fruit in trees high in the canopy, and use their snouts to poke through crevices to find animal prey on the ground. They also search for animal prey by turning over rocks on the ground or ripping open logs with their claws. Females typically live in large groups, called bands, consisting of 15 to 30 animals. Males are usually solitary. Solitary males were originally considered a separate species due to the different social habits and were called \"coatimundis\", a term still sometimes used today. Neither bands of females nor solitary males defend a unique territory, and territories therefore overlap. Group members produce soft whining sounds, but alarm calls are different, consisting of loud woofs and clicks. Coatis typically sleep in the trees. When an alarm call is sounded, they climb trees, and then drop down to the ground and disperse. Predators of the South American coati include foxes, jaguars, jaguarundis, domestic dogs, and people.", "All females in a group come into heat simultaneously when fruit is in season and mate with several males. Gestation period is 74 to 77 days. Captive females give birth to 1–7 young at a time. In the wild, they leave the group for giving birth in a nest built in trees, and rejoin the group with their offspring 5–6 weeks later. They usually remain with their natal group. Males generally disperse from their natal group at the age of three years. South American coatis generally live for up to 7 years in the wild, but can live up to 14 years in captivity.", "\"Viverra nasua\" was the scientific name proposed by Carl Linnaeus in 1766 for a red coati specimen. It was subordinated to the genus \"Nasua\". As of 2005, 13 subspecies were recognized:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Contributions to psychiatry.", "Contributions to philosophy and theology.", "Political views.", "Influences." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Jaspers was born in Oldenburg in 1883 to a mother from a local farming community, and a jurist father. He showed an early interest in philosophy, but his father's experience with the legal system undoubtedly influenced his decision to study law at University of Heidelberg. It soon became clear that Jaspers did not particularly enjoy law, and he switched to studying medicine in 1902 with a thesis about criminology. In 1910 he married Gertrud Mayer (1879–1974), the sister of his close friends Gustav Mayer and Ernst Mayer. Jaspers earned his medical doctorate from University of Heidelberg medical school in 1908 and began work at a psychiatric hospital in Heidelberg under Franz Nissl, successor of Emil Kraepelin and Karl Bonhoeffer, and Karl Wilmans. Jaspers became dissatisfied with the way the medical community of the time approached the study of mental illness and gave himself the task of improving the psychiatric approach. In 1913 Jaspers habilitated at the philosophical faculty of the Heidelberg University and gained there in 1914 a post as a psychology teacher. The post later became a permanent philosophical one, and Jaspers never returned to clinical practice. During this time Jaspers was a close friend of the Weber family (Max Weber also having held a professorship at Heidelberg). In 1921, at the age of 38, Jaspers turned from psychology to philosophy, expanding on themes he had developed in his psychiatric works. He became a philosopher, in Germany and Europe. After the Nazi seizure of power in 1933, Jaspers was considered to have a \"Jewish taint\" (\"jüdische Versippung\", in the jargon of the time) due to his Jewish wife, and was forced to retire from teaching in 1937. In 1938 he fell under a publication ban as well. Many of his long-time friends stood by him, however, and he was able to continue his studies and research without being totally isolated. But he and his wife were under constant threat of removal to a concentration camp until 30 March 1945, when Heidelberg was liberated by American troops. In 1948 Jaspers moved to the University of Basel in Switzerland. In 1963 he was awarded the honorary citizenship of the city of Oldenburg in recognition of his outstanding scientific achievements and services to the occidental culture. He remained prominent in the philosophical community and became a naturalized citizen of Switzerland living in Basel until his death on his wife's 90th birthday in 1969.", "Jaspers' dissatisfaction with the popular understanding of mental illness led him to question both the diagnostic criteria and the methods of clinical psychiatry. He published a paper in 1910 in which he addressed the problem of whether paranoia was an aspect of personality or the result of biological changes. Although it did not broach new ideas, this article introduced a rather unusual method of study, at least according to the norms then prevalent. Not unlike Freud, Jaspers studied patients in detail, giving biographical information about the patients as well as notes on how the patients themselves felt about their symptoms. This has become known as the \"biographical method\" and now forms a mainstay of psychiatric and above all psychotherapeutic practice. Jaspers set down his views on mental illness in a book which he published in 1913, \"General Psychopathology\". This work has become a classic in the psychiatric literature and many modern diagnostic criteria stem from ideas found within it. One of Jaspers' central tenets was that psychiatrists should diagnose symptoms of mental illness (particularly of psychosis) by their \"form\" rather than by their \"content\". For example, in diagnosing a hallucination, it is more important to note that a person experiences visual phenomena when no sensory stimuli account for them, than to note what the patient sees. What the patient sees is the \"content\", but the discrepancy between visual perception and objective reality is the \"form\". Jaspers thought that psychiatrists could diagnose delusions in the same way. He argued that clinicians should not consider a belief delusional based on the content of the belief, but only based on the way in which a patient holds such a belief. (See delusion for further discussion.) Jaspers also distinguished between \"primary\" and \"secondary delusions\". He defined primary delusions as \"autochthonous\", meaning that they arise without apparent cause, appearing incomprehensible in terms of a normal mental process. (This is a slightly different use of the word \"autochthonous\" than the ordinary medical or sociological use as a synonym for indigenous.) Secondary delusions, on the other hand, he defined as those influenced by the person's background, current situation or mental state. Jaspers considered primary delusions to be ultimately \"un-understandable\", since he believed no coherent reasoning process existed behind their formation. This view has caused some controversy, and the likes of R. D. Laing and Richard Bentall (1999, p. 133–135) have criticised it, stressing that this stance can lead therapists into the complacency of assuming that because they do not understand a patient, the patient is deluded and further investigation on the part of the therapist will have no effect. For instance Huub Engels (2009) argues that schizophrenic disordered speech may be understandable, just as Emil Kraepelin's dream speech is understandable.", "Most commentators associate Jaspers with the philosophy of existentialism, in part because he draws largely upon the existentialist roots of Nietzsche and Kierkegaard, and in part because the theme of individual freedom permeates his work. In \"Philosophy\" (3 vols, 1932), Jaspers gave his view of the history of philosophy and introduced his major themes. Beginning with modern science and empiricism, Jaspers points out that as we question reality, we confront borders that an empirical (or scientific) method simply cannot transcend. At this point, the individual faces a choice: sink into despair and resignation, or take a leap of faith toward what Jaspers calls \"Transcendence\". In making this leap, individuals confront their own limitless freedom, which Jaspers calls \"Existenz\", and can finally experience authentic existence. Transcendence (paired with the term \"The Encompassing\" in later works) is, for Jaspers, that which exists beyond the world of time and space. Jaspers' formulation of Transcendence as ultimate non-objectivity (or no-thing-ness) has led many philosophers to argue that ultimately, Jaspers became a monist, though Jaspers himself continually stressed the necessity of recognizing the validity of the concepts both of subjectivity and of objectivity. Although he rejected explicit religious doctrines, including the notion of a personal God, Jaspers influenced contemporary theology through his philosophy of transcendence and the limits of human experience. Mystic Christian traditions influenced Jaspers himself tremendously, particularly those of Meister Eckhart and of Nicholas of Cusa. He also took an active interest in Eastern philosophies, particularly Buddhism, and developed the theory of an Axial Age, a period of substantial philosophical and religious development. Jaspers also entered public debates with Rudolf Bultmann, wherein Jaspers roundly criticized Bultmann's \"demythologizing\" of Christianity. (See \"Myth and Christianity: An Inquiry into the Possibility of Religion without Myth\" – a debate between Jaspers and Bultmann, The Noonday Press, New York, 1958) Jaspers wrote extensively on the threat to human freedom posed by modern science and modern economic and political institutions. During World War II, he had to abandon his teaching post because his wife was Jewish. After the war he resumed his teaching position, and in his work \"The Question of German Guilt\" he unabashedly examined the culpability of Germany as a whole in the atrocities of Hitler's Third Reich. The following quote about the Second World War and its atrocities was used at the end of the sixth episode of the BBC documentary series \"\": \"That which has happened is a warning. To forget it is guilt. It must be continually remembered. It was possible for this to happen, and it remains possible for it to happen again at any minute. Only in knowledge can it be prevented.\" Jaspers' major works, lengthy and detailed, can seem daunting in their complexity. His last great attempt at a systematic philosophy of Existenz – \"Von Der Wahrheit\" (On Truth) – has not yet appeared in English. However, he also wrote shorter works, most notably, \"Philosophy is for Everyman\". The two major proponents of phenomenological hermeneutics, namely Paul Ricoeur (a student of Jaspers) and Hans-Georg Gadamer (Jaspers' successor at Heidelberg), both display Jaspers' influence in their works.", "Jaspers identified with the liberal political philosophy of Max Weber, although he rejected Weber's nationalism. He valued humanism and cosmopolitanism and, influenced by Immanuel Kant, advocated an international federation of states with shared constitutions, laws, and international courts. He strongly opposed totalitarian despotism and warned about the increasing tendency towards technocracy, or a regime that regards humans as mere instruments of science or of ideological goals. He was also skeptical of majoritarian democracy. Thus, he supported a form of governance that guaranteed individual freedom and limited government, and shared Weber's belief that democracy needed to be guided by an intellectual elite.", "Jaspers held Kierkegaard and Nietzsche to be two of the most important figures in post-Kantian philosophy. In his compilation, \"The Great Philosophers\" (\"Die großen Philosophen\"), he wrote: \"I approach the presentation of Kierkegaard with some trepidation. Next to Nietzsche, or rather, prior to Nietzsche, I consider him to be the most important thinker of our post-Kantian age. With Goethe and Hegel, an epoch had reached its conclusion, and our prevalent way of thinking – that is, the positivistic, natural-scientific one – cannot really be considered as philosophy.\" Jaspers also questions whether the two philosophers could be taught. For Kierkegaard, at least, Jaspers felt that Kierkegaard's whole method of indirect communication precludes any attempts to properly expound his thought into any sort of systematic teaching. Though Jaspers was certainly indebted to Kierkegaard and Nietzsche, he also owes much to more traditional philosophers, especially Kant and Plato. Walter Kaufmann argues in \"From Shakespeare to Existentialism\" that, though Jaspers was certainly indebted to Kierkegaard and Nietzsche, he was closest to Kant's philosophy: Jaspers is too often seen as the heir of Nietzsche and Kierkegaard to whom he is in many ways less close than to Kant... the Kantian antinomies and Kant's concern with the realm of decision, freedom, and faith have become exemplary for Jaspers. And even as Kant \"had to do away with knowledge to make room for faith,\" Jaspers values Nietzsche in large measure because he thinks that Nietzsche did away with knowledge, thus making room for Jaspers' \"philosophic faith\"... In his essay \"On My Philosophy\", Jaspers states: \"While I was still at school Spinoza was the first. Kant then became the philosopher for me and has remained so...Nietzsche gained importance for me only late as the magnificent revelation of nihilism and the task of overcoming it.\" Jaspers is also indebted to his contemporaries, such as Heinrich Blücher from who he borrowed the term, \"the anti-political principle\" to describe totalitarianism's destruction of a space of resistance." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Earliest attestations of the languages.", "History of the Altaic family concept.", "Origins.", "Uralo-Altaic hypothesis.", "Korean and Japanese languages.", "The Ainu language.", "Early criticism and rejection.", "Modern controversy.", "List of supporters and critics of the Altaic hypothesis.", "Arguments.", "For the Altaic grouping.", "Phonological and grammatical features.", "Shared lexicon.", "Against the grouping.", "Weakness of lexical and typological data.", "The Sprachbund hypothesis.", "Hypothesis about the original homeland." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2" ], "content": [ "The earliest known texts in a Turkic language are the Orkhon inscriptions, 720–735 AD. They were deciphered in 1893 by the Danish linguist Vilhelm Thomsen in a scholarly race with his rival, the German–Russian linguist Wilhelm Radloff. However, Radloff was the first to publish the inscriptions. The first Tungusic language to be attested is Jurchen, the language of the ancestors of the Manchus. A writing system for it was devised in 1119 AD and an inscription using this system is known from 1185 (see List of Jurchen inscriptions). The earliest Mongolic language of which we have written evidence is known as Middle Mongol. It is first attested by an inscription dated to 1224 or 1225 AD, the Stele of Yisüngge, and by the \"Secret History of the Mongols\", written in 1228 (see Mongolic languages). The earliest Para-Mongolic text is the Memorial for Yelü Yanning, written in the Khitan large script and dated to 986 AD. However, the Inscription of Hüis Tolgoi, discovered in 1975 and analysed as being in an early form of Mongolic, has been dated to 604-620 AD. The Bugut inscription dates back to 584 AD. Japanese is first attested in the form of names contained in a few short inscriptions in Classical Chinese from the 5th century AD, such as found on the Inariyama Sword. The first substantial text in Japanese, however, is the Kojiki, which dates from 712 AD. It is followed by the Nihon shoki, completed in 720, and then by the Man'yōshū, which dates from c. 771–785, but includes material that is from about 400 years earlier. The most important text for the study of early Korean is the Hyangga, a collection of 25 poems, of which some go back to the Three Kingdoms period (57 BC–668 AD), but are preserved in an orthography that only goes back to the 9th century AD. Korean is copiously attested from the mid-15th century on in the phonetically precise Hangul system of writing.", "", "A proposed grouping of the Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic languages was published in 1730 by Philip Johan von Strahlenberg, a Swedish officer who traveled in the eastern Russian Empire while a prisoner of war after the Great Northern War. However, he may not have intended to imply a closer relationship among those languages.", "In 1844, the Finnish philologist Matthias Castrén proposed a broader grouping, that later came to be called the Ural–Altaic family, which included Turkic, Mongolian, and Manchu-Tungus (=Tungusic) as an \"Altaic\" branch, and also the Finno-Ugric and Samoyedic languages as the \"Uralic\" branch (though Castrén himself used the terms \"Tataric\" and \"Chudic\"). The name \"Altaic\" referred to the Altai Mountains in East-Central Asia, which are approximately the center of the geographic range of the three main families. The name \"Uralic\" referred to the Ural Mountains. While the Ural-Altaic family hypothesis can still be found in some encyclopedias, atlases, and similar general references, after the 1960s it has been heavily criticized. Even linguists who accept the basic Altaic family, like Sergei Starostin, completely discard the inclusion of the \"Uralic\" branch.", "In 1857, the Austrian scholar Anton Boller suggested adding Japanese to the Ural–Altaic family. In the 1920s, G.J. Ramstedt and E.D. Polivanov advocated the inclusion of Korean. Decades later, in his 1952 book, Ramstedt rejected the Ural–Altaic hypothesis but again included Korean in Altaic, an inclusion followed by most leading Altaicists (supporters of the theory) to date. His book contained the first comprehensive attempt to identify regular correspondences among the sound systems within the Altaic language families. In 1960, Nicholas Poppe published what was in effect a heavily revised version of Ramstedt's volume on phonology that has since set the standard in Altaic studies. Poppe considered the issue of the relationship of Korean to Turkic-Mongolic-Tungusic not settled. In his view, there were three possibilities: (1) Korean did not belong with the other three genealogically, but had been influenced by an Altaic substratum; (2) Korean was related to the other three at the same level they were related to each other; (3) Korean had split off from the other three before they underwent a series of characteristic changes. Roy Andrew Miller's 1971 book \"Japanese and the Other Altaic Languages\" convinced most Altaicists that Japanese also belonged to Altaic. Since then, the \"Macro-Altaic\" has been generally assumed to include Turkic, Mongolic, Tungusic, Korean, and Japanese. In 1990, Unger advocated a family consisting of Tungusic, Korean, and Japonic languages, but not Turkic or Mongolic. However, many linguists dispute the alleged affinities of Korean and Japanese to the other three groups. Some authors instead tried to connect Japanese to the Austronesian languages. In 2017 Martine Robbeets proposed that Japanese (and possibly Korean) originated as a hybrid language. She proposed that the ancestral home of the Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic languages was somewhere in northwestern Manchuria. A group of those proto-Altaic (\"Transeurasian\") speakers would have migrated south into the modern Liaoning province, where they would have been mostly assimilated by an agricultural community with an Austronesian-like language. The fusion of the two languages would have resulted in proto-Japanese and proto-Korean.", "In 1962 John C. Street proposed an alternative classification, with Turkic-Mongolic-Tungusic in one grouping and Korean-Japanese-Ainu in another, joined in what he designated as the \"North Asiatic\" family. The inclusion of Ainu was adopted also by James Patrie in 1982. The Turkic-Mongolic-Tungusic and Korean-Japanese-Ainu groupings were also posited in 2000–2002 by Joseph Greenberg. However, he treated them as independent members of a larger family, which he termed Eurasiatic. The inclusion of Ainu is not widely accepted by Altaicists. In fact, no convincing genealogical relationship between Ainu and any other language family has been demonstrated, and it is generally regarded as a language isolate.", "Starting in the late 1950s, some linguists became increasingly critical of even the minimal Altaic family hypothesis, disputing the alleged evidence of genetic connection between Turkic, Mongolic and Tungusic languages. Among the earlier critics were Gerard Clauson (1956), Gerhard Doerfer (1963), and Alexander Shcherbak. They claimed that the words and features shared by Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic languages were for the most part borrowings and that the rest could be attributed to chance resemblances. In 1988, Doerfer again rejected all the genetic claims over these major groups.", "A major continuing supporter of the Altaic hypothesis has been S. Starostin, who published a comparative lexical analysis of the Altaic languages in (1991). He concluded that the analysis supported the Altaic grouping, although it was \"older than most other language families in Eurasia, such as Indo-European or Finno-Ugric, and this is the reason why the modern Altaic languages preserve few common elements\". In 1991 and again in 1996, Roy Miller defended the Altaic hypothesis and claimed that the criticisms of Clauson and Doerfer apply exclusively to the lexical correspondences, whereas the most pressing evidence for the theory is the similarities in verbal morphology. In 2003, Claus Schönig published a critical overview of the history of the Altaic hypothesis up to that time, siding with the earlier criticisms of Clauson, Doerfer, and Shcherbak. In 2003, Starostin, Anna Dybo and Oleg Mudrak published the \"Etymological Dictionary of the Altaic Languages\", which expanded the 1991 lexical lists and added other phonological and grammatical arguments. Starostin's book was criticized by Stefan Georg in 2004 and 2005, and by Alexander Vovin in 2005. Other defenses of the theory, in response to the criticisms of Georg and Vovin, were published by Starostin in 2005, Blažek in 2006, Robbeets in 2007, and Dybo and G. Starostin in 2008 In 2010, Lars Johanson echoed Miller's 1996 rebuttal to the critics, and called for a muting of the polemic.", "The list below comprises linguists who have worked specifically on the Altaic problem since the publication of the first volume of Ramstedt's \"Einführung\" in 1952. The dates given are those of works concerning Altaic. For supporters of the theory, the version of Altaic they favor is given at the end of the entry, if other than the prevailing one of Turkic–Mongolic–Tungusic–Korean–Japanese.", "", "", "The original arguments for grouping the \"micro-Altaic\" languages within a Uralo-Altaic family were based on such shared features as vowel harmony and agglutination. According to Roy Miller, the most pressing evidence for the theory is the similarities in verbal morphology. The \"Etymological Dictionary\" by Starostin and others (2003) proposes a set of sound change laws that would explain the evolution from Proto-Altaic to the descendant languages. For example, although most of today's Altaic languages have vowel harmony, Proto-Altaic as reconstructed by them lacked it; instead, various vowel assimilations between the first and second syllables of words occurred in Turkic, Mongolic, Tungusic, Korean, and Japonic. They also included a number of grammatical correspondences between the languages.", "Starostin claimed in 1991 that the members of the proposed Altaic group shared about 15–20% of apparent cognates within a 110-word Swadesh-Yakhontov list; in particular, Turkic–Mongolic 20%, Turkic–Tungusic 18%, Turkic–Korean 17%, Mongolic–Tungusic 22%, Mongolic–Korean 16%, and Tungusic–Korean 21%. The 2003 \"Etymological Dictionary\" includes a list of 2,800 proposed cognate sets, as well as a few important changes to the reconstruction of Proto-Altaic. The authors tried hard to distinguish loans between Turkic and Mongolic and between Mongolic and Tungusic from cognates; and suggest words that occur in Turkic and Tungusic but not in Mongolic. All other combinations between the five branches also occur in the book. It lists 144 items of shared basic vocabulary, including words for such items as 'eye', 'ear', 'neck', 'bone', 'blood', 'water','stone','sun', and 'two'. Robbeets and Bouckaert (2018) use Bayesian phylolinguistic methods to argue for the coherence of the Altaic languages, which they refer to as the \"Transeurasian\" languages. Their results include the following phylogenetic tree:", "", "According to G. Clauson (1956), G. Doerfer (1963), and A. Shcherbak (1963), many of the typological features of the supposed Altaic languages, particularly agglutinative strongly suffixing morphology and subject–object–verb (SOV) word order, often occur together in languages. Those critics also argued that the words and features shared by Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic languages were for the most part borrowings and that the rest could be attributed to chance resemblances. They noted that there was little vocabulary shared by Turkic and Tungusic languages, though more shared with Mongolic languages. They reasoned that, if all three families had a common ancestor, we should expect losses to happen at random, and not only at the geographical margins of the family; and that the observed pattern is consistent with borrowing. According to C. Schönig (2003), after accounting for areal effects, the shared lexicon that could have a common genetic origin was reduced to a small number of monosyllabic lexical roots, including the personal pronouns and a few other deictic and auxiliary items, whose sharing could be explained in other ways; not the kind of sharing expected in cases of genetic relationship.", "Instead of a common genetic origin, Clauson, Doerfer, and Shcherbak proposed (in 1956-1966) that Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic languages form a \"Sprachbund\": a set of languages with similarities due to convergence through intensive borrowing and long contact, rather than common origin. Asya Pereltsvaig further observed in 2011 that, in general, genetically related languages and families tend to diverge over time: the earlier forms are more similar than modern forms. However, she claims that an analysis of the earliest written records of Mongolic and Turkic languages shows the opposite, suggesting that they do not share a common traceable ancestor, but rather have become more similar through language contact and areal effects.", "The prehistory of the peoples speaking the \"Altaic\" languages is largely unknown. Whereas for certain other language families, such as the speakers of Indo-European, Uralic, and Austronesian, it is possible to frame substantial hypotheses, in the case of the proposed Altaic family much remains to be done. Some scholars have conjectured a possible Uralic and Altaic homeland in the Central Asian steppes. According to Juha Janhunen, the ancestral languages of Turkic, Mongolic, Tungusic, Korean, and Japanese were spoken in a relatively small area comprising present-day North Korea, Southern Manchuria, and Southeastern Mongolia. However Janhunen is sceptical about an affiliation of Japanese to Altaic, while András Róna-Tas remarked that a relationship between Altaic and Japanese, if it ever existed, must be more remote than the relationship of any two of the Indo-European languages. Ramsey stated that \"the genetic relationship between Korean and Japanese, if it in fact exists, is probably more complex and distant than we can imagine on the basis of our present state of knowledge\". Supporters of the Altaic hypothesis formerly set the date of the Proto-Altaic language at around 4000 BC, but today at around 5000 BC or 6000 BC. This would make Altaic a language family about as old as Indo-European (4000 to 7,000 BC according to several hypotheses) but considerably younger than Afroasiatic (c. 10,000 BC or 11,000 to 16,000 BC according to different sources)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Purpose.", "History.", "Authors and sources.", "Online versions." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The encyclopedia was designed to serve the Roman Catholic Church, concentrating on information related to the Church and explaining matters from the Catholic point of view. It records the accomplishments of Catholics and others in nearly all intellectual and professional pursuits, including artists, educators, poets and scientists. While more limited in focus than other general encyclopedias, it was far broader in scope than previous efforts at comprehensive Catholic encyclopedias, which covered only internal Church affairs. It offers in-depth portrayals of historical and philosophical ideas, persons and events, from a Catholic perspective, including issues that divide Catholicism from Protestantism and other faith communities. Since the encyclopedia was first published starting in 1907 and has never been updated (versus the \"New Catholic Encyclopedia\"), many of its entries may be out of date either with respect to the wider culture or to the Catholic ecclesiastical world. In particular, it predates the creation of the Vatican City State (1929) and the Second Vatican Council (1962–1965), which introduced many significant changes in Catholic practice: For example, the online version of the entries on Judaism and Islam at newadvent.org states in an editorial note: \"To complement this article, which was taken from the 1910 Catholic Encyclopedia, New Advent recommends a prayerful reading of 'Nostra Aetate' from the Second Vatican Council.\"", "The writing of the encyclopedia began on January 11, 1905, under the supervision of five editors: The first edition was initially printed by Robert Appleton Company. The volumes came out sequentially, the first two in 1907 and the last three in 1912: The editors had their first editorial meeting at the office of \"The Messenger\", on West 16th Street, New York City. The text received a \"nihil obstat\" from an official censor, Remy Lafort, on November 1, 1908, and an imprimatur from John Murphy Farley, Archbishop of New York. This review process was presumably accelerated by the reuse of older authorized publications. In addition to frequent informal conferences and constant communication by letters, the editors subsequently held 134 formal meetings to consider the plan, scope and progress of the work, culminating in publication on April 19, 1913. A first supplement was published in 1922; a second supplement in nine loose-leaf sections was published by The Gilmary Society between 1950 and 1958. In 1912, a special completely illustrated, commemorative volume was awarded to those patrons who contributed to the start of the enterprise by buying multiple encyclopedia sets early on. There was controversy over the presence of the \"Catholic Encyclopedia\" in public libraries in the United States with nativist protests that this violated the separation of church and state, including a successful appeal in Belleville, New Jersey. The encyclopedia was later updated under the auspices of The Catholic University of America and a 17-volume \"New Catholic Encyclopedia\" was first published in 1967, and then in 2002.", "\"The Catholic Encyclopedia and its makers\" state that: The work is entirely new, and not merely a translation or a compilation from other encyclopedic sources. The editors have insisted that the articles should contain the latest and most accurate information to be obtained from the standard works on each subject. However, \"from standard works\" allows that some of the articles from European contributors such as Pierre Batiffol (French) and Johann Peter Kirsch (German) had previously been published in whole or in part in Europe and were translated and edited for the Encyclopedia. Those who wrote new articles in English include Anthony Maas and Herbert Thurston.", "Under copyright law of the United States, all works published in the United States before 1923 are in the public domain. In 1993, Kevin Knight, then a 26-year-old resident of Denver, Colorado, decided, during the visit of Pope John Paul II to that city for World Youth Day, to launch a project to publish the 1913 edition of the encyclopedia on the Internet. Knight founded the Web site New Advent to host the undertaking. Volunteers from the United States, Canada, France, and Brazil helped in the transcription of the original material. The site went online in 1995, and transcription work ended in 1997. In 2007, Catholic Answers published a watermarked version derived from page scans. This version has since been replaced with a transcription of the \"Encyclopedia\" similar to that found at the New Advent site. The Catholic Answers transcription, however, is an exact transcription of the original text, whereas the New Advent version at times modernizes certain words (e.g., using the names of Old Testament books found in modern Bibles, such as \"1 & 2 Chronicles\" and \"Obadiah\", in place of the Vulgate/Douay–Rheims titles, such as \"1 & 2 Paralipomenon\" and \"Abdias\") and Biblical citation formatting (i.e., the Catholic Answers version retains the original's usage of Roman numerals for chapter numbers [e.g., Genesis I,1], while the New Advent version uses Arabic numerals throughout [e.g., Genesis 1:1]). Other scanned copies of the 1913 Encyclopedia are available on Google Books, at the Internet Archive, and at Wikimedia Commons. Wikisource also hosts a transcription project backed by the scans hosted at Commons. The 1922 supplement to the Encyclopedia is also in the public domain and is available online. The \"New Catholic Encyclopedia\" also is available online at some libraries." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Before film.", "Early patents and tests.", "1909–1915: Alabastra and Kinoplastikon.", "Early systems of stereoscopic filmmaking (pre-1952).", "The \"golden era\" (1952–1954).", "Revival (1960–1984) in single strip format.", "Rebirth of 3D (1985–2003).", "Mainstream resurgence (2003–present).", "Techniques.", "Producing 3D films.", "Live action.", "Animation.", "2D to 3D conversion.", "Displaying 3D films.", "Anaglyph.", "Polarization systems.", "Active shutter.", "Interference filter technology.", "Autostereoscopy.", "Health effects.", "Criticism.", "Brightness concerns.", "Post-conversion." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The basic components of 3D film were introduced separately between 1833 to 1839. Stroboscopic animation was developed by Joseph Plateau in 1832 and published in 1833 in the form of a stroboscopic disc, which he later called the fantascope and became better known as the phénakisticope. Around the very same time (1832/1833), Charles Wheatstone developed the stereoscope, but he didn't really make it public before June 1838. The first practical forms of photography were introduced in January 1839 by Louis Daguerre and Henry Fox Talbot. A combination of these elements into animated stereoscopic photography may have been conceived early on, but for decades it wasn't yet possible to capture motion in real-time photographic recordings due to the long exposure times necessary for the light-sensitive emulsions that were used. Charles Wheatstone got inventor Henry Fox Talbot to produce some calotype pairs for the stereoscope and received the first results in October 1840. Only a few more experimental stereoscopic photographs were", "In the late 1890s, British film pioneer William Friese-Greene filed a patent for a 3D film process. In his patent, two films were projected side by side on screen. The viewer looked through a stereoscope to converge the two images. Because of the obtrusive mechanics behind this method, theatrical use was not practical. Frederic Eugene Ives patented his stereo camera rig in 1900. The camera had two lenses coupled together 1 inches (4.45 centimeters)", "By 1909 the German film market suffered much from overproduction and too much competition. German film tycoon Oskar Messter had initially gained much financial success with the Tonbild synchronized sound films of his Biophon system since 1903, but the films were losing money by the end of the decade and Messter would stop Tonbild production in 1913. Producers and exhibitors were looking into new film attractions and invested for instance in colorful imagery. The development of stereoscopic cinema seemed a logical step to lure visitors back into the movie theatres. In 1909, German civil engineer August Engelsmann patented a process that projected filmed", "The earliest confirmed 3D film shown to an out-of-house audience was \"The Power of Love\", which premiered at the Ambassador Hotel Theater in Los Angeles on 27 September 1922. The camera rig was a product of the film's producer, Harry K. Fairall, and cinematographer Robert F. Elder. It was filmed dual-strip in black and white, and single strip color anaglyphic release prints were produced using a color film invented and patented by Harry K. Fairall. A single projector could be used to display the movie but anaglyph glasses were used for viewing. The camera system and special color release print film all received U.S Patent No. 1,784,515 on Dec 9, 1930.After a preview for exhibitors and press in New York City, the film dropped out of sight, apparently not booked by exhibitors, and is now considered lost. Early in December 1922, William Van Doren Kelley, inventor of the Prizma color system, cashed in on the growing interest in 3D films started by Fairall's demonstration and shot footage with a camera system of his own design. Kelley then struck a deal with Samuel \"Roxy\" Rothafel to premiere the first in his series of \"Plasticon\" shorts entitled \"Movies of the Future\" at the Rivoli Theater in New York City. Also in December 1922, Laurens Hammond (later inventor of the Hammond organ) premiered his Teleview system, which had been shown to the trade and press in October. Teleview was the first alternating-frame 3D system seen by the public. Using left-eye and right-eye prints and two interlocked projectors, left and right frames were alternately projected, each pair being shown three times to suppress", "What aficionados consider the \"golden era\" of 3D began in late 1952 with the release of the first color stereoscopic feature, \"Bwana Devil\", produced, written and directed by Arch Oboler. The film was shot in \"Natural Vision\", a process that was co-created and controlled by M. L. Gunzberg. Gunzberg, who built the rig with his brother, Julian, and two other associates, shopped it without success to various studios before Oboler used it for this feature, which went into production with the title, \"The Lions of Gulu\". The critically panned film was nevertheless highly successful with audiences due to the novelty of 3D, which increased Hollywood interest in 3D during a period that had seen declining box-office admissions. As with practically all of the features made during this boom, \"Bwana Devil\" was projected dual-strip, with Polaroid filters. During the 1950s, the familiar disposable anaglyph glasses made of cardboard were mainly used for comic books, two shorts by exploitation specialist Dan Sonney, and three shorts produced by Lippert Productions. However, even the Lippert shorts were available in the dual-strip format alternatively. Because the features utilized two projectors, the capacity limit of film being loaded onto each projector (about, or an hour's worth of film) meant that an intermission was necessary for every feature-length film. Quite often, intermission points were written into the script at a major plot point. During Christmas of 1952, producer Sol Lesser quickly premiered the dual-strip showcase called \"Stereo Techniques\" in Chicago. Lesser acquired the rights to five dual-strip shorts. Two of them, \"Now is the Time (to Put On Your Glasses)\" and \"Around is Around\", were directed by Norman McLaren in 1951 for the National Film Board of Canada. The other three films", "Stereoscopic films largely remained dormant for the first part of the 1960s, with those that were released usually being anaglyph exploitation films. One film of notoriety was the Beaver-Champion/Warner Bros. production, \"The Mask\" (1961). The film was shot in 2-D, but to enhance the bizarre qualities of the dream-world that is induced when the main character puts on a cursed tribal mask, these scenes went to anaglyph 3D. These scenes were printed by Technicolor on their first run in red/green anaglyph. Although 3D films appeared sparsely during the early 1960s, the true second wave of 3D cinema was set into motion by Arch Oboler, the same producer who started the craze of the 1950s. Using a new technology called \"Space-Vision 3D\". The origin of \"Space-Vision 3D\" goes back to Colonel Robert Vincent Bernier, a forgotten innovator in the history of stereoscopic motion", "In the mid-1980s, IMAX began producing non-fiction films for its nascent 3D business, starting with \"We Are Born of Stars\" (Roman Kroitor, 1985). A key point was that this production, as with all subsequent IMAX productions, emphasized mathematical correctness of the 3D rendition and thus largely eliminated the eye fatigue and pain that resulted from the approximate geometries of previous 3D incarnations. In addition, and in contrast to previous 35mm based 3D presentations, the very large field of view provided by IMAX allowed a much broader 3D \"stage\", arguably as important in 3D film as it is theatre. The Walt Disney Company also began more prominent use of 3D films in special venues to impress audiences with Magic Journeys (1982) and \"Captain EO\" (Francis Ford Coppola, 1986,", "In 2003, \"Ghosts of the Abyss\" by James Cameron was released as the first full-length 3D IMAX feature filmed with the Reality Camera System. This camera system used the latest HD video cameras, not film, and was built for Cameron by Vince Pace, to his specifications. The same camera system was used to film \"\" (2003), \"Aliens of the Deep\" IMAX (2005), and \"The Adventures of Sharkboy and Lavagirl in 3-D\" (2005). In 2004, Las Vegas Hilton released which included two films. One of the films, \"Borg Invasion 4-D\" (Ty Granoroli), was in 3D. In August of the same year, rap group Insane Clown Posse released their ninth studio album \"Hell's Pit\". One of two versions of the album contained a DVD featuring a 3D short film for the track \"Bowling Balls\", shot in high-definition video. In November 2004, \"The Polar Express\" was released as IMAX's first full-length, animated 3D feature. It was released in 3,584 theaters in 2D, and only 66 IMAX locations. The return from those few 3D theaters was about 25% of the total. The 3D version earned about 14 times as much per screen as the 2D version. This pattern continued and prompted a greatly intensified interest in 3D and 3D presentation of animated films. In June 2005, the Mann's Chinese 6 theatre in Hollywood became the first commercial film theatre to be equipped with the Digital 3D format. Both \"Singin' in the Rain\" and \"The Polar Express\" were tested in the Digital 3D format over the course of several months. In November 2005, Walt Disney Studio Entertainment released \"Chicken Little\" in digital 3D format. \"The Butler's in Love\", a short film directed by David Arquette and starring Elizabeth Berkley and Thomas Jane was released on June 23, 2008. The film was shot at the former Industrial Light & Magic studios using KernerFX's prototype Kernercam stereoscopic camera rig. Ben Walters suggested in 2009 that both filmmakers and film exhibitors regain interest in 3D film. There was more 3D exhibition equipment, and more dramatic films being shot in 3D format. One incentive is that the technology is more mature. Shooting in 3D format is less limited, and the result is more stable. Another incentive was the fact that while 2D ticket sales were in an overall state of decline, revenues from 3D tickets", "Stereoscopic motion pictures can be produced through a variety of different methods. Over the years the popularity of systems being widely employed in film theaters has waxed and waned. Though anaglyph was sometimes used prior to 1948, during the early \"Golden Era\" of 3D cinematography of the 1950s the polarization system was used for every single feature-length film in the United States, and all but one short film. In the 21st century, polarization 3D systems have continued to dominate the scene, though during the 1960s and 1970s some classic films which were converted to anaglyph for theaters not equipped for polarization, and were even shown in 3D on television. In the years following the mid-1980s, some films were made with short segments in anaglyph 3D. The following are some of the technical details and methodologies employed in some of the more notable 3D film systems that have been developed.", "", "The standard for shooting live-action films in 3D involves using two cameras mounted so that their lenses are about as far apart from each other as the average pair of human eyes, recording two separate images for both the left eye and the right eye. In principle, two normal 2D cameras could be put side-to-side but this is problematic in many ways. The only real option is to invest in new stereoscopic cameras. Moreover, some cinematographic tricks that are simple with a 2D camera become impossible when filming in 3D. This means", "In the 1930s and 1940s Fleischer Studio made several cartoons with extensive stereoscopic 3D backgrounds, including several \"Popeye\", \"Betty Boop\", and \"Superman\" cartoons. In the early to mid-1950s, only half of the major Animation film studios operation experimented with creating traditional 3D animated short subjects. Walt Disney Studio produced two traditional animation short for stereoscopic 3D, for cinemas. \"\" (1952), and the Donald Duck cartoon \"Working for Peanuts\" (1953). Warner Brothers only produced a single cartoon in 3D: \"Lumber Jack-Rabbit\" (1953) starring Bugs Bunny. Famous Studio produced two cartoons in 3D, the Popeye cartoon \"Popeye, the Ace of Space\" (1953), and the Casper the Friendly Ghost cartoon \"Boo Moon\" (1954). Walter Lantz Studio produced the Woody Woodpecker cartoon \"Hypnotic Hick\" (1953), which was distributed by Universal. From the late 1950s until the", "In the case of 2D CGI animated films that were generated from 3D models, it is possible to return to the models to generate a 3D version. For all other 2D films, different techniques must be employed. For example, for the 3D re-release of the 1993 film \"The Nightmare Before Christmas\", Walt Disney Pictures scanned each original frame and manipulated them to produce left-eye and right-eye versions. Dozens of films have now been converted from 2D to 3D. There are several approaches used for 2D to 3D conversion, most notably depth-based methods. However, conversion to 3D has problems. Information is unavailable as 2D does not have information for a perspective view. Some TVs have a 3D engine to convert 2D content to 3D. Usually, on high frame rate content (and on some slower processors even normal frame rate) the processor is not fast enough and lag is possible. This can lead to strange visual effects.", "", "Anaglyph images were the earliest method of presenting theatrical 3D, and the one most commonly associated with stereoscopy by the public at large, mostly because of non-theatrical 3D media such as comic books and 3D television broadcasts, where polarization is not practical. They were made popular because of the ease of their production and exhibition. The first anaglyph film was invented in 1915 by Edwin S Porter. Though the earliest theatrical presentations were done with this system, most 3D films from the 1950s and 1980s were originally shown polarized. In an anaglyph, the two images are superimposed in an additive light setting through two filters, one red and one cyan. In a subtractive light setting, the two images are printed in the same complementary colors on white paper. Glasses with colored filters in each eye separate the appropriate images by canceling the filter color out and rendering the complementary color black. Anaglyph images are much easier to view than either parallel sighting or crossed eye stereograms, although the latter types offer", "To present a stereoscopic motion picture, two images are projected superimposed onto the same screen through different polarizing filters. The viewer wears low-cost glasses which also contain a pair of polarizing filters oriented differently (clockwise/counterclockwise with circular polarization or at 90 degree angles, usually 45 and 135 degrees, with linear polarization). As each filter passes only that light which is similarly polarized and blocks the light polarized differently, each eye sees a different image. This is used to produce a three-dimensional effect by projecting the same scene into both eyes, but depicted from slightly different perspectives. Since no head tracking is involved, the entire audience can view", "In this technology, a mechanism is used to block light from each appropriate eye when the converse eye's image is projected on the screen. The technology originated with the Eclipse Method, in which the projector alternates between left and right images, and opens and closes the shutters in the glasses or viewer in synchronization with the images on the screen. This was the basis of the Teleview system which was used briefly in 1922. A newer implementation of the Eclipse Method came with LCD shutter glasses. Glasses containing liquid crystal that will let light through in synchronization with the images on the cinema, television or computer screen,", "Dolby 3D uses specific wavelengths of red, green, and blue for the right eye, and different wavelengths of red, green, and blue for the left eye. Glasses which filter out the very specific wavelengths allow the wearer to see a 3D image. This technology eliminates the expensive silver screens required for polarized systems such as RealD, which is the most common 3D display system in theaters. It does, however, require much more expensive glasses than the polarized systems. It is also known as spectral comb filtering or wavelength multiplex visualization The recently introduced Omega 3D/Panavision 3D system also uses this technology, though with a wider spectrum and more \"teeth\" to the \"comb\" (5 for each eye in the Omega/Panavision system). The use of more spectral bands per", "In this method, glasses are not necessary to see the stereoscopic image. Lenticular lens and parallax barrier technologies involve imposing two (or more) images on the same sheet, in narrow, alternating strips, and using a screen that either blocks one of the two images' strips (in the case of parallax barriers) or uses equally narrow lenses to bend the strips of image and make it appear to fill the entire image (in the case of lenticular prints). To produce the stereoscopic effect, the person must be positioned so that one eye sees one of the two", "Some viewers have complained of headaches and eyestrain after watching 3D films. Motion sickness, in addition to other health concerns, are more easily induced by 3D presentations. One published study shows that of those who watch 3D films, nearly 55% experience varying levels of headaches, nausea and disorientation. There are two primary effects of 3D film that are unnatural for human vision: crosstalk between the eyes, caused by imperfect image separation, and the mismatch between convergence and accommodation, caused by the difference between an object's perceived position in front of or behind the screen and the real origin of that light on the screen. It is believed that approximately 12% of people are unable to properly", "Most of the cues required to provide humans with relative depth information are already present in traditional 2D films. For example, closer objects occlude further ones, distant objects are desaturated and hazy relative to near ones, and the brain subconsciously \"knows\" the distance of many objects when the height is known (e.g. a human figure subtending only a small amount of the screen is more likely to be 2 m tall and far away than 10 cm tall and close). In fact, only two of these depth cues are not already present in 2D films: stereopsis (or parallax) and the focus of the eyeball (accommodation). 3D film-making addresses accurate presentation of stereopsis but not of accommodation, and therefore is insufficient in providing a complete 3D illusion. However, promising results from research aimed at overcoming this shortcoming were presented at the 2010 Stereoscopic Displays and Applications conference in San Jose, U.S. Film critic Mark Kermode argued that 3D adds \"not that much\" value to a film, and said that, while he liked \"Avatar\", the many impressive things he saw in the film had nothing to do with 3D. Kermode has been an outspoken critic of 3D film describing the effect as a \"nonsense\" and recommends using two right or left lenses from the 3D glasses to cut out the \"pointy, pointy 3D stereoscopic vision\", although this technique still does not improve the huge brightness loss from a 3D film. Versions of these \"2-D glasses\" are being marketed. As pointed out in the article \"Virtual Space – the movies of the future\" in real life the 3D effect, or stereoscopic vision, depends on the distance between the eyes, which is only about 2 1/2 inches. The depth perception this affords is only noticeable near to the head – at about arms length. It is only useful for such tasks as threading a needle. It follows that in films portraying real life, where nothing is ever shown so close to the camera, the 3D effect is not noticeable and is soon forgotten as the film proceeds. Director Christopher Nolan has criticised the notion that traditional film does not allow depth perception, saying \"I think it's a misnomer to call it 3D versus 2D. The whole point of cinematic imagery is it's three dimensional... You know 95% of our depth cues come from occlusion, resolution, color and so forth, so the idea of calling a 2D movie a '2D movie' is a little misleading.\" Nolan also criticised that shooting on the required digital video does not offer a high enough quality image and that 3D cameras cannot be equipped with prime (non-zoom) lenses. Late film critic Roger Ebert repeatedly criticized 3D film as being \"too dim\", sometimes distracting or even nausea-inducing, and argued that it is an expensive technology that adds nothing of value to the film-going experience (since 2-D films already provide a sufficient illusion of 3D). While Ebert was \"not opposed to 3-D as an option\", he opposed it as a replacement for traditional film, and preferred 2-D technologies such as MaxiVision48 that improve image area/resolution and frames per second.", "Most 3D systems will cut down the brightness of the picture considerably – the light loss can be as high as 88%. Some of this loss may be compensated by running the projector's bulb at higher power or using more powerful bulbs. The 2D brightness cinema standard is 14 foot-lamberts (48 candela per square metre), as set by the SMPTE standard 196M., there is no official standard for 3D brightness. According to the industry de facto standard, however, the \"acceptable brightness range\"", "Another major criticism is that many of the films in the 21st century to date were not filmed in 3D, but converted into 3-D after filming. Filmmakers who have criticized the quality of this process include James Cameron (whose film \"Avatar\" was created mostly in 3D from the ground up, with some portions of the film created in 2D, and is largely" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Signetics.", "Apple.", "Book.", "Other members of the family." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The datasheet was created \"as a lark\" by Signetics engineer John G 'Jack' Curtis and was inspired by a fictitious and humorous vacuum tube datasheet from the 1940s. It was seen as \"an icebreaker\" and was deliberately included in the Signetics catalog. Roy L Twitty, a Signetics PR person, released a tongue-in-cheek press release touting the WOM on April 1, 1973. Instead of the more conventional characteristic curves, the 25120 \"fully encoded, 9046×N, Random Access, write-only-memory\" data sheet included meaningless diagrams of \"bit capacity vs. Temp.\", \"Iff vs. Vff\", \"Number of pins remaining vs. number of socket insertions\", and \"AQL vs. selling price\". The 25120 required a 6.3 VAC V (vacuum tube filament) supply, a +10 V (double the V of standard TTL logic of the day), and V of 0±2% volt (i.e. ground). It was specified to run between 0 and −70°C.", "In 1982, Apple published their official \"Apple IIe Reference Manual\" (part number A2L2005), which included two references to write-only memory: On page 233: On page 250:", "The 1995 \"Computer Contradictionary\" book discusses EWOM, or Erasable Write-Only Memory (an analogy of EPROM), a memory copyrighted by IBM (Irish Business Machines), which allows the data to be written to and then erased, for memory re-use. With the explosive growth of the amount of video data available both online and in private use, there emerged a common joke that video tapes and other video media are \"write only memory\", because without efficient means of search and retrieval for video data archives, very little is viewed after recording.", "The 25120 WOM joined a family of equally-useless parts made before and since. These include the dark bulb, dark-emitting diode, WAS gate, and Inoperational Amplifier. Grandparents were the Umac 606 Infernal Anode Phantasatron and the Electrovoice Rearaxial Softspeaker. Note that the Phantastron (not Phantasatron) is a real, if obsolete, circuit for generating precision sawtooth waves." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Characteristics.", "History.", "Pre-history.", "Early written records.", "Geographical expansion and development.", "Schema.", "Members.", "Vocabulary comparison.", "Other possible relations.", "Korean.", "Rejected or controversial theories.", "Uralic." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "3" ], "content": [ "Turkic languages are null-subject languages, have vowel harmony, extensive agglutination by means of suffixes and postpositions, and lack of grammatical articles, noun classes, and grammatical gender. Subject–object–verb word order is universal within the family. The root of a word is basically of one, two or three consonants.", "", "The homeland of the Turkic peoples and their language is suggested to be somewhere between the Transcaspian steppe and Northeastern Asia (Manchuria), with genetic evidence pointing to the region near South Siberia and Mongolia as the \"Inner Asian Homeland\" of the Turkic ethnicity. Similarly several linguists, including Juha Janhunen, Roger Blench and Matthew Spriggs, suggest that modern-day Mongolia is the homeland of the early Turkic language. Extensive contact took place between Proto-Turks and Proto-Mongols approximately during the first millennium BC; the shared cultural tradition between the two Eurasian nomadic groups is called the \"Turco-Mongol\" tradition. The two groups shared a similar religion-system, Tengrism, and there exists a multitude of evident loanwords between Turkic languages and Mongolic languages. Although the loans were bidirectional, today Turkic loanwords constitute the largest foreign component in Mongolian vocabulary. Some lexical and extensive typological similarities between Turkic and the nearby Tungusic and Mongolic families, as well as the Korean and Japonic families (all formerly widely considered to be part of the so-called Altaic language family) has in more recent years been instead attributed to prehistoric contact amongst the group, sometimes referred to as the Northeast Asian sprachbund. A more recent (circa first millennium BCE) contact between \"core Altaic\" (Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic) is distinguished from this, due to the existence of definitive common words that appear to have been mostly borrowed from Turkic into Mongolic, and later from Mongolic into Tungusic, as Turkic borrowings into Mongolic significantly outnumber Mongolic borrowings into Turkic, and Turkic and Tungusic do not share any words that do not also exist in Mongolic. Alexander Vovin (2004, 2010) notes that Old Turkic had borrowed some words from the Ruan-ruan language (the language of the Rouran Khaganate), which Vovin considers to be an extinct non-Altaic language that is possibly a Yeniseian language or not related to any modern-day language. Turkic languages also show some Chinese loanwords that point to early contact during the time of proto-Turkic. Robbeets (et al. 2015 and et al. 2017) suggest that the homeland of the Turkic languages was somewhere in Manchuria, close to the Mongolic, Tungusic and Koreanic homeland (including the ancestor of Japonic), and that these languages share a common \"Transeurasian\" origin. More evidence for the proposed ancestral \"Transeurasian\" origin was presented by Nelson et al. 2020 and Li et al. 2020.", "The first established records of the Turkic languages are the eighth century AD Orkhon inscriptions by the Göktürks, recording the Old Turkic language, which were discovered in 1889 in the Orkhon Valley in Mongolia. The \"Compendium of the Turkic Dialects\" (\"Divânü Lügati't-Türk\"), written during the 11th century AD by Kaşgarlı Mahmud of the Kara-Khanid Khanate, constitutes an early linguistic treatment of the family. The \"Compendium\" is the first comprehensive dictionary of the Turkic languages and also includes the first known map of the Turkic speakers' geographical distribution. It mainly pertains to the Southwestern branch of the family. The Codex Cumanicus (12th–13th centuries AD) concerning the Northwestern branch is another early linguistic manual, between the Kipchak language and Latin, used by the Catholic missionaries sent to the Western Cumans inhabiting a region corresponding to present-day Hungary and Romania. The earliest records of the language spoken by Volga Bulgars, the parent to today's Chuvash language, are dated to the 13th–14th centuries AD.", "With the Turkic expansion during the Early Middle Ages (c. 6th–11th centuries AD), Turkic languages, in the course of just a few centuries, spread across Central Asia, from Siberia to the Mediterranean. Various terminologies from the Turkic languages have passed into Persian, Hindustani, Russian, Chinese, and to a lesser extent, Arabic. The geographical distribution of Turkic-speaking peoples across Eurasia since the Ottoman era ranges from the North-East of Siberia to Turkey in the West. (See picture in the box on the right above.) For centuries, the Turkic-speaking peoples have migrated extensively and intermingled continuously, and their languages have been influenced mutually and through contact with the surrounding languages, especially the Iranian, Slavic, and Mongolic languages. This has obscured the historical developments within each language and/or language group, and as a result, there exist several systems to classify the Turkic languages. The modern genetic classification schemes for Turkic are still largely indebted to Samoilovich (1922). The Turkic languages may be divided into six branches: In this classification, Oghur Turkic is also referred to as Lir-Turkic, and the other branches are subsumed under the title of Shaz-Turkic or Common Turkic. It is not clear when these two major types of Turkic can be assumed to have actually diverged. With less certainty, the Southwestern, Northwestern, Southeastern and Oghur groups may further be summarized as West Turkic, the Northeastern, Kyrgyz-Kipchak and Arghu (Khalaj) groups as East Turkic. Geographically and linguistically, the languages of the Northwestern and Southeastern subgroups belong to the central Turkic languages, while the Northeastern and Khalaj languages are the so-called peripheral languages. Hruschka, et al. (2014) use computational phylogenetic methods to calculate a tree of Turkic based on phonological sound changes.", "The following isoglosses are traditionally used in the classification of the Turkic languages: Additional isoglosses include: <nowiki>*</nowiki>In the standard Istanbul dialect of Turkish, the \"ğ\" in \"dağ\" and \"dağlı\" is not realized as a consonant, but as a slight lengthening of the preceding vowel.", "The following table is based upon the classification scheme presented by Lars Johanson (1998)", "The following is a brief comparison of cognates among the basic vocabulary across the Turkic language family (about 60 words). Empty cells do not necessarily imply that a particular language is lacking a word to describe the concept, but rather that the word for the concept in that language may be formed from another stem and is not a cognate with the other words in the row or that a loanword is used in its place. Also, there may be shifts in the meaning from one language to another, and so the \"Common meaning\" given is only approximate. In some cases the form given is found only in some dialects of the language, or a loanword is much more common (e.g. in Turkish, the preferred word for \"fire\" is the Persian-derived \"ateş\", whereas the native \"od\" is dead). Forms are given in native Latin orthographies unless otherwise noted.", "The Turkic language family is currently regarded as one of the world's primary language families. Turkic is one of the main members of the controversial Altaic language family. There are some other theories about an external relationship but none of them are generally accepted.", "The possibility of a genetic relation between Turkic and Korean, independently from Altaic, is suggested by some linguists. The linguist Kabak (2004) of the University of Würzburg states that Turkic and Korean share similar phonology as well as morphology. Yong-Sŏng Li (2014) suggest that there are several cognates between Turkic and Old Korean. He states that these supposed cognates can be useful to reconstruct the early Turkic language. According to him, words related to nature, earth and ruling but especially to the sky and stars seem to be cognates. The linguist Choi suggested already in 1996 a close relationship between Turkic and Korean regardless of any Altaic connections: Many historians also point out a close non-linguistic relationship between Turkic peoples and Koreans. Especially close were the relations between the Göktürks and Goguryeo.", "", "Some linguists suggested a relation to Uralic languages, especially to the Ugric languages. This view is rejected and seen as obsolete by mainstream linguists. Similarities are because of language contact and borrowings mostly from Turkic into Ugric languages. Stachowski (2015) states that any relation between Turkic and Uralic must be a contact one." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Anecdote.", "Family.", "Honours." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Willstätter was born into a Jewish family in Karlsruhe. He was the son of Maxwell (Max) Willstätter, a textile merchant, and his wife, Sophie Ulmann. He went to school at the Karlsruhe Gymnasium and, when his family moved to Nuremberg, he attended the Technical School there. At age 18 he entered the University of Munich to study science and stayed for the next fifteen years. He was in the Department of Chemistry, first as a student of Alfred Einhorn—he received his doctorate in 1894 - then as a faculty member. His doctoral thesis was on the structure of cocaine. Willstätter continued his research into other alkaloids and synthesized several of them. In 1896 he was named Lecturer and in 1902 \"Professor extraordinarius\" (professor without a chair). In 1905 he left Munich to become professor at the ETH Zürich and there he worked on the plant pigment chlorophyll. He first determined its empirical formula. In 1912 he became professor of chemistry at the University of Berlin and director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry, studying the structure of pigments of flowers and fruits. It was here that Willstätter showed that chlorophyll was a mixture of two compounds, chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b. He lived in the Dahlem neighborhood near other scientists. In 1915 his friend Fritz Haber asked him to join in the development of poison gasses. Willstätter would not work on poisons but agreed to work on protection. He and his coworkers developed a three layer filter that absorbed all of the enemy's gasses. Thirty million were manufactured by 1917 and Willstätter was awarded the Iron Cross Second Class. In 1916 he returned to Munich as the successor to his mentor Baeyer. During the 1920s Willstätter investigated the mechanisms of enzyme reactions and did much to establish that enzymes are chemical substances, not biological organisms. In 1924 Willstätter's career came to \"a tragic end when, as a gesture against increasing antisemitism, he announced his retirement.\" According to his Nobel biography: \"Expressions of confidence by the Faculty, by his students and by the Minister failed to shake the fifty-three year old scientist in his decision to resign. He lived on in retirement in Munich...Dazzling offers both at home and abroad were alike rejected by him.\" His only research was with assistants who telephoned their results. Despite pleas for him to move to Jerusalem or to Switzerland earlier in the 1930s, Willstätter did not flee from Germany until 1939. In 1939 Willstätter emigrated to Switzerland. He spent the last three years of his life there in Muralto near Locarno writing his autobiography. He died of a heart attack in 1942. Willstätter's autobiography, \"Aus meinem Leben\", was not published in German until 1949. It was translated into English as \"From My Life\" in 1965.", "In 1911 the fledgling American chemist Michael Heidelberger went to work for a year with Willstätter in Zurich. Willstätter helped his somewhat impecunious American student by sharing the cost of laboratory supplies with him, arranging that when expensive materials, such as silver nitrate, were to be bought, it was his turn to pay, while Heidelberger took turns buying cheaper materials like sulfuric acid. \"Better training than that you couldn't have,\" Heidelberger summed up his experience with Willstätter. They remained friends for life.", "In 1903, he married Sophie Leser, who died in 1908. They had two children.", "In 1965, the school in Nuremberg he had attended named itself \"Willstätter-Gymnasium\", in his honour." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "Taxonomy.", "Species.", "History.", "Cultivation.", "Cultivars.", "Awards.", "Pests.", "Uses." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "3", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Daylilies are perennial plants, whose name alludes to its flowers, which typically last about a day. The flowers of most species open in early morning and wither during the following night, possibly replaced by another one on the same scape the next day. Some species are night-blooming. Daylilies are not commonly used as cut flowers for formal flower arranging, yet they make good cut flowers otherwise, as new flowers continue to open on cut stems over several days. \"Hemerocallis\" is native to Asia, primarily eastern Asia, including China, Korea, and Japan. This genus is popular worldwide because of the showy flowers and hardiness of many kinds. There are over 80,000 registered cultivars. Hundreds of cultivars have fragrant flowers, and more scented cultivars are appearing more frequently in northern hybridization programs. Some earlier blooming cultivars rebloom later in the season, particularly if their capsules, in which seeds are developing, are removed. Despite the name, daylilies are not true lilies, although the flower has a similar shape. Before 2009, the scientific classification of daylilies put them into the family Liliaceae. Unlike daylillies, which have a fibrous root system, Liliaceae species grow from bulbs and, if ingested, are harmful to humans and animals. It is a common misconception that daylilies share the toxic properties of true lilies. In 2009, under the APG III system, daylilies were removed from the family Liliaceae and assigned to the family Xanthorrhoeaceae, subfamily Hemerocallidoideae. Xanthorrhoeaceae was renamed Asphodelaceae in AGP IV. Most kinds of daylilies occur as clumps, each of which has leaves, a crown, scapes, flowers, and roots. The long, linear lanceolate leaves are grouped into opposite fans with arching leaves. The crown is the small white portion between the leaves and the roots. Along the scape of some kinds of daylilies, small leafy proliferations form at nodes or in bracts. A proliferation forms roots when planted and is an exact clone of its parent plant. Many kinds of daylilies have thickened roots in which they store food and water. A normal, single daylily flower has three petals and three sepals, collectively called tepals, each with a midrib in either the same basic color or a different color. The centermost part of the flower, called the throat, may be a different color than the more distal areas of the tepals. Each flower usually has six stamens, each with a two-lobed anther. After successful pollination, a flower forms a botanical capsule (often erroneously called a pod since botanical pods are found in Fabaceae, not \"Hemerocallis\"). The orange or tawny daylily (\"Hemerocallis fulva\"), common along roadsides in much of North America, is native to Asia. Along with the lemon lily (\"Hemerocallis flava\"), it is the foundational species for most modern cultivars. Although the buds and flowers are often used by humans in gourmet dishes, \"Hemerocallis\" species are toxic to cats and ingestion may be fatal. Treatment is usually successful if started before kidney failure has developed.", "", ", \"Plants of the World Online\" recognized 16 species: Two hybrids are recognized: A number of hybrid names appear in the horticultural literature but are not recognized as valid by the World Checklist of Selected Plant Families. These include:", "Daylilies have been found growing wild for millennia throughout China, Mongolia, Northern India, Korea, and Japan. There are thousand-year-old Chinese paintings showing orange daylilies that are remarkably similar to the flowers that grace modern gardens. It is theorized that daylilies were first brought to Europe by traders along the silk routes from Asia. However it was not until 1753 that daylilies were given their botanic name of \"Hemerocallis\" by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus. Daylilies were first brought to North America by early European immigrants, who packed the roots along with other treasured possessions for the journey to the New World. By the early 1800s, the plant had become naturalized, and a bright orange clump of flowers was a common site in many homestead gardens. As popular as daylilies were for many hundreds of years, it was not until the late 19th century that botanists and gardeners began to experiment with hybridizing the plants. Over the next hundred years, thousands of different hybrids were developed from only a few wild varieties. In fact, most modern hybrids are descended from two types of daylily. One is \"Hemerocallis flava\"—the yellow lemon lily. The other is \"Hemerocallis fulva\", the familiar tawny-orange daylily, also known affectionately as the \"ditch lily.\"", "The daylily has been nicknamed \"the perfect perennial\" by gardeners, due to its brilliant colors, ability to tolerate drought and frost and to thrive in many different climate zones, and for being generally low maintenance. It is a vigorous perennial that lasts for many years in a garden, with very little care and adapts to many different soil and light conditions. Daylilies have a relatively short blooming period, depending on the type. Some will bloom in early spring while others wait until the summer or even autumn. Most daylily plants bloom for 1 through 5 weeks, although some bloom twice in one season (\"rebloomers)\".", "There are more than 80,000 daylily cultivars. Depending on the species and cultivar, daylilies grow in USDA plant hardiness zones 1 through 11, making them some of the more adaptable landscape plants. Hybridizers have developed the vast majority of cultivars within the last 100 years. The large-flowered, bright yellow \"Hemerocallis\" 'Hyperion', introduced in the 1920s, heralded a return to gardens of the once-dismissed daylily, and is still widely available in the nursery trade. Daylily breeding has been a specialty in the United States, where daylily heat- and drought-resistance made them garden standbys since the 1950s. New cultivars have sold for thousands of dollars, but many sturdy and prolific cultivars sell at reasonable prices of US$20 or less. \"Hemerocallis\" is one of the very highly hybridized plant genera. Hybridizers register hundreds of new cultivars yearly. Hybridizers have extended the genus' color range from the yellow, orange, and pale pink of the species, through vibrant reds, purples, lavenders, greenish tones, near-black, near-white, and more. However, hybridizers have not yet been able to produce a daylily with primarily blue flowers. Flowers of some cultivars have small areas of cobalt blue. Other flower traits that hybridizers developed include height, scent, ruffled edges, contrasting \"eyes\" in the center of a bloom, and an illusion of glitter called \"diamond dust.\" Sought-after improvements include foliage color, variegation, plant disease resistance, and the ability to form large, neat clumps. Hybridizers also seek to make cultivars cold-hardier by crossing evergreen and semi-evergreen plants with dormant varieties. In recent decades, many hybridizers have focused on breeding tetraploid plants, which tend to have sturdier scapes and tepals than diploids, as well as some flower-color traits that are not found in diploids. Until this trend took root, nearly all daylilies were diploid. \"Tets,\" as they are called by aficionados, have 44 chromosomes, while triploids have 33 chromosomes and diploids have 22 chromosomes per individual plant. Diploid and tetraploid daylilies cannot be crossed to produce new cultivars \"Hemerocallis fulva\" 'Europa', \"H. fulva\" 'Kwanso', \"H. fulva\" 'Kwanso Variegata', \"H. fulva\" 'Kwanso Kaempfer', \"H. fulva\" var. \"maculata\", \"H. fulva\" var. \"angustifolia\", and \"H. fulva\" 'Flore Pleno' are all triplods that almost never produce seeds and reproduce almost solely by underground runners (stolons) and dividing groups by gardeners. A polymerous daylily flower is one with more than three sepals and more than three petals. Although some people synonymize \"polymerous\" with \"double,\" some polymerous flowers have over five times the normal number of petals. Formerly daylilies were only available in yellow, pink, fulvous (bronzed), and rosy-fulvous colors, now they come in an assortment of many more color shades and tints thanks to intensive hybridization. They can now be found in nearly every color except pure blue and pure white. Those with yellow, pink, and other pastel flowers may require full sun to bring out all of their colors; darker varieties, including many of those with red and purple flowers are not colorfast in bright sun.", "The highest award a cultivar can receive in the United States is the Stout Silver Medal, given in memory of Dr. Arlow Burdette Stout, who is considered to be the father of modern daylily breeding in North America. This annual award—as voted by American Hemerocallis Society Garden judges—can be given only to a cultivar that has first received the Award of Merit not less than two years previously. The 2014 winner of the Stout Silver Medal is 'Webster's Pink Wonder', hybridized by Richard Webster and introduced by R. Cobb. A complete list of Stout Silver Medal winners can be seen on the AHS website. In the UK the following cultivars have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:-", "\"Contarinia quinquenotata\", commonly known as the daylily gall midge, is a small gray insect infesting the flower buds of \"Hemerocallis\" species causing the flower to remain closed and rot. It is a pest within the horticultural trade in several parts of the world, including Southern and Eastern Europe, the United Kingdom, Canada, and the United States.", "The flowers of \"Hemerocallis citrina\" are edible and are used in Chinese cuisine. They are sold (fresh or dried) in Asian markets as gum jum (金针 in Chinese; pinyin: jīn zhēn) or yellow flower vegetables (黃花菜 in Chinese; pinyin: huáng huā cài). They are used in hot and sour soup, daylily soup (金針花湯), Buddha's delight, and moo shu pork." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot synopsis.", "Genre.", "Contents.", "Extract.", "Sources." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The work is an epic poem, comprising 6,575 verses of hexameter in Homeric Greek, with parallel translation into Czech hexameter. The postmodern science fiction story is inspired by the philosophical postulate of quantum physics, that for something to exist it must be observed. The Watcher over the Cosmos turns out to be a certain sheep. To kill the sheep would mean the end of everything. The \"Sheep that Watches the Cosmos\" is kidnapped by a villain called Mandys, and pursued by a rapid reaction commando force, whose captain is called Udeis (Οὐδείς, \"Nobody\"), following the example of Captain Nemo (Νήμω καπιτάνος), as well as the Odyssey's original hero, Ulysses, who went by the name Outis (Οὖτις, \"Noman, Nobody\"), in order to fool the Cyclops Polyphemus.", "Aside from the science fiction and epic poem aspects, the postmodern playfulness of the plot itself is underlined by the Czech language Prologue (see part translation) in Karel Čapek's mystification style. Jan Křesadlo purports to have come into the whole process not as the author, but as a translator of the Greek original \"by an unknown author.\" We are to believe this is a real travelogue, whose alleged author is a space-time travelling Captain Udeis / Nemo, (as confirmed by \"copyright Nemo\" for the Greek text edition.) Nemo's travelogue was dictated to his universal translator Franta (which is a creature resembling a skunk, but made entirely of brain tissue.) Franta, who lacked common sense, thought it wise to write it all down in Homeric Greek, so as to make it more famous. At least, that is the claim made to Křesadlo by the 'archivist Divíšek' (a reference to Čapek's character of the same name) who brings the Greek text to Křesadlo for translation. (Albeit Křesadlo supposes that Divíšek wrote it himself.) The text begins with a Latin summary for the erudite non-Czech reader. Greek neologisms are explained in a Greek-English glossary.", "The actual plot is divided according to the Greek alphabet into 24 stories, each a standalone tale on some planet, akin to the television series Star Trek. Followed by:", "From the Preamble/Prooimion.", "\" based on the Czech Wikipedia entry \"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Early years.", "Roadrunner Records years (2000–2007).", "Ferret Music years (2007–2014).", "\"Time and Trauma\" and \"Lanterns\" (2014–present).", "Musical style.", "Band members." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "36 Crazyfists formed in 1994 in Anchorage, Alaska. The original members were vocalist Brock Lindow, guitarists Steve Holt and Ryan Brownell, bassist JD Stuart, and drummer Thomas Noonan. Holt is from Kenai, and Lindow spent much of his childhood there. Lindow, Brownell, Stuart, and Noonan are all from Anchorage. 36CF originated from the remains of three local bands: Grin, Hessian, and Broke. JD Stuart played in Grin, Brock Lindow in Hessian, and Steve Holt and Ryan Brownell in Broke. One of the circumstances influencing the formation of 36CF was the murder of Broke's drummer Duane Monsen. On January 28, 1994, Broke played a set at the Underground bar in Anchorage. Later that night there was an altercation between Monsen and a drunken soldier who was stationed locally at Ft. Richardson. According to an article in the \"Anchorage Daily News\", Monsen tried to apologize and defuse the situation, but was fatally stabbed in the neck. He was 27 years old. In the wake of this tragedy, Monsen's friends organized a benefit concert to raise funds for his family. Monsen's protégé Thomas Noonan played the drums at this show and the musicians decided that they were an excellent match. In retrospect, it became the first 36CF performance. 36CF released their first EP, \"Boss Buckle\", in 1995 on cassette. At that time the band's local popularity was rising quickly and the tape became a rarity, with the entire printing sold or given away as promos. On May 13, 1996, 36CF opened for Primus at Egan Center in Anchorage. This concert was particularly interesting in a few ways. This was the one of the first times 36CF performed before an audience of thousands, though many locals were already familiar with the band's music. This was also the last show of Primus' Punchbowl tour and the last show for drummer Tim Alexander before his first hiatus from Primus. 36CF were planning to relocate to Tacoma, Washington, in search of professional recording contracts when another tragedy struck. On June 16, 1996, JD Stuart died in a car collision at age 23. This was a huge loss for the band because Stuart's musicianship and showmanship were a large part of the band's appeal. Nevertheless, the band persevered. At that time, Brownell retired from the band and the remaining members recruited bassist Mick Whitney, who is also from Anchorage. 36CF then relocated to the Seattle-Tacoma metropolitan area. In 1997, the band released their second EP, \"Suffer Tree\", on cassette. Later that year they released their full-length debut CD, \"In the Skin\". They next moved to Portland, Oregon. In 1999, they released a four-song demo that, through their friends in Skinlab, ended up in the hands of Monte Conner, A&R rep at Roadrunner Records. In an interview with \"AntiHero Magazine\", vocalist Brock Lindow states that the demo was produced by Steev Esquivel and Scott Sargeant of Skinlab.", "Signed by Roadrunner Records in 2000, the band recorded their major debut album \"Bitterness the Star\" which was released on April 4, 2002. In support of its release they toured with bands such as Candiria, God Forbid, Chimaira, Diecast, and Hotwire. After touring the United States, they headed off to Europe to begin the European Road Rage Tour with Killswitch Engage and Five Pointe O. The band re-emerged two years later, on March 16, 2004 with their second album \"A Snow Capped Romance\" which was produced by James Paul Wisner (who also produced albums for bands like Dashboard Confessional and As Friends Rust). They toured intensely behind the record (playing shows with acts like Killswitch Engage and Poison the Well) through December, taking two months off before beginning the work on their next album. 36 Crazyfists entered the studio with producer Sal Villanueva (who had worked with Thursday and Taking Back Sunday) in October 2005 to commence recording their third album \"Rest Inside the Flames\", which was released across Europe on June 12, 2006. Ultimately, Roadrunner decided not to release the album in North America. A deal with DRT Entertainment was later struck, and the album received a belated release on November 7, 2006. The album was a success in the UK, with \"Rest Inside the Flames\" debuting at No. 71 on the UK Albums Chart, and reaching No. 2 on the BBC's Rock Albums chart. However, the album only sold 1,858 copies in the US during its first week of release. The band started an extensive UK tour, supported by Twelve Tribes and Your Rigamortus on April 1, 2007, where they played at 26 venues across the country.", "In May 2008 the band released \"The Tide and Its Takers\" on Ferret Music. They continue to play annually at the Summer Meltdown Festival in Anchorage, Alaska, except for 2008, when they were on tour with the first Annual Rockstar Mayhem Festival. Shortly after the Mayhem tour, bassist Mick Whitney left the band and was replaced by Brett Makowski. 36 Crazyfists filmed their show of January 9, 2009 in Anchorage, Alaska for their first live DVD, \"Underneath a Northern Sky\", released in October 2009. The album \"Collisions and Castaways\" was released in the US by Ferret Music on July 27, 2010 and a day earlier in the rest of the world via Roadrunner Records. The album features guest appearances by Twelve Tribes frontman Adam Jackson (who also featured on their 2008 album \"The Tide and Its Takers\"), Raithon Clay of Plans to Make Perfect, and Brandon Davis from Across the Sun. Production duties for the album were handled by band guitarist Steve Holt and sport mixing from Andy Sneap. The band played a variety of European festivals in June, including the UK Download Festival. 36 Crazyfists returned to the US in July to tour with Fear Factory, After the Burial, Divine Heresy, and Baptized in Blood. In the UK the band resigned with Roadrunner Records. \"Collisions and Castaways\" was released a day earlier on July 26.", "In May 2011, 36 Crazyfists confirmed they would be touring the UK starting on October 1 in Oxford and finishing the nine date tour in Birmingham on October 22. The tour was subsequently canceled due to family matters. 36 Crazyfists did, however, confirm that they have begun writing their next album. In 2012 the band announced the addition of drummer Kyle Baltus to the group's ranks after the departure of long time drummer, Thomas Noonan. In addition, the band was rejoined by bassist Mick Whitney following the departure of Brett \"Buzzard\" Makowski. During the UK tour at the end of 2013, the band debuted the title track for their seventh studio album, \"Time and Trauma\". By mid-2014 the band had completed work on their new album for an early 2015 release. A listening party for the CD was held on July 24 at Pioneer Bar in Anchorage. Their seventh studio album \"Time and Trauma\" was released on February 17, 2015 via Spinefarm Records. Spinefarm Records also released the single \"Also Am I\" on their SoundCloud page. On September 29, 2017, the band released their eighth studio album \"Lanterns\" on Spinefarm Records.", "36 Crazyfists has been described as nu metal earlier in their musical career, metalcore, alternative metal, and post-hardcore. According to Adam Rees of \"Metal Hammer\", 36 Crazyfists occupies \"a territory between jarring metalcore, nu metal’s groove and the anthemic charge of post-hardcore\".", "Current members Former members Timeline" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Club career.", "International career.", "Death." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Born in Bratislava, Czechoslovakia, Dubovský made his professional debut with local ŠK Slovan Bratislava, for whom he signed at the age of 13. Only four years later he made his first Czechoslovak First League appearance, and went on to score 51 goals in only 59 appearances in his last two seasons combined (leading the scoring charts on both occasions), being an instrumental offensive figure as his hometown club won the national championship in 1992. After being named the \"Slovak Footballer of the Year\" in 1993, Dubovský moved to Spain and signed for La Liga giants Real Madrid. He appeared in 26 games in his first season but was completely ostracized by new manager Jorge Valdano in his second and last, his options being further diminished at the club following the emergence of 17-year-old Raúl. Dubovský remained in the country – and its top division – in the following five years, playing for Real Oviedo and scoring a career-best in Spain seven goals in 31 matches in the 1995–96 campaign, helping the Asturians to the 14th position.", "Dubovský made his debut for Czechoslovakia on 13 November 1991 at the age of 19, starting in a 1–2 away loss against Spain for the UEFA Euro 1992 qualifiers. He went on to appear in a further 13 internationals in the following two years, scoring six goals. After the independence of Slovakia, Dubovský represented its national team, eventually becoming the country's record goalscorer at 12 (until it was broken by Szilárd Németh).", "On 23 June 2000, Dubovský was on vacation in Thailand with his fiancée, in the southern resort of Ko Samui. While taking pictures of a waterfall, he tumbled and fell to his death, succumbing to \"heavy loss of blood and severe brain injuries\". He was only 28 years old." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Trotskyism.", "Political internationals.", "Decision to form the International.", "Founding Congress.", "World War II.", "Emergency conference.", "European Conference.", "International conference.", "Second World Congress.", "Third World Congress.", "Formation of the International Committee of the Fourth International.", "From the Fourth World Congress to reunification.", "Since reunification.", "Impact.", "See also." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Trotskyists regard themselves as working in opposition to both capitalism and Stalinism. Trotsky advocated proletarian revolution as set out in his theory of \"permanent revolution\", and believed that a workers' state would not be able to hold out against the pressures of a hostile capitalist world unless socialist revolutions quickly took hold in other countries as well. This theory was advanced in opposition to the view held by the Stalinists that \"socialism in one country\" could be built in the Soviet Union alone. Furthermore, Trotsky and his supporters harshly criticized the increasingly totalitarian nature of Joseph Stalin's rule. They argued that socialism without democracy is impossible. Thus, faced with the increasing lack of democracy in the Soviet Union, they concluded that it was no longer a socialist workers' state, but a degenerated workers' state. Trotsky and his supporters had been organised since 1923 as the Left Opposition. They opposed the bureaucratization of the Soviet Union, which they analysed as being partly caused by the poverty and isolation of the Soviet economy. Stalin's theory of socialism in one country was developed in 1924 as an opposition to Trotsky's Theory of Permanent Revolution, which argued that capitalism was a world system and required a world revolution in order to replace it with socialism. Prior to 1924, the Bolsheviks' international perspective had been guided by Trotsky's position. Trotsky argued that Stalin's theory represented the interests of bureaucratic elements in direct opposition to the working class. Eventually, Trotsky was sent into internal exile and his supporters were jailed. However, the Left Opposition continued to work in secret within the Soviet Union. Trotsky was exiled to Turkey in 1928. He moved from there to France, Norway and finally to Mexico. He was assassinated on Stalin's orders in Mexico in August 1940.", "A political international is an organisation of political parties or activists with the aim of co-ordinating their activity for a common purpose. There had been a long tradition of socialists organising on an international basis, and Karl Marx had led the International Workingmen's Association, which later became known as the \"first international\". After the International Workingmen's Association disbanded in 1876, several attempts were made to revive the organisation, culminating in the formation of the Socialist International (Second International) in 1889. This was disbanded in 1916 following disagreements over World War I. Although the organisation reformed in 1923 as the Labour and Socialist International, supporters of the October Revolution and the Bolsheviks had already set up the Communist International (Comintern), which they regarded as the Third International. This was organised on a democratic centralist basis, with component parties required to fight for policies adopted by the body as a whole. By declaring themselves the Fourth International, the \"World Party of Socialist Revolution\", the Trotskyists were publicly asserting their continuity with the Comintern, and with its predecessors. Their recognition of the importance of these earlier Internationals was coupled with a belief that they eventually degenerated. Although the Socialist International and Comintern were still in existence, the Trotskyists did not believe those organisations were capable of supporting revolutionary socialism and internationalism. The foundation of the Fourth International was therefore spurred in part by a desire to form a stronger political current, rather than being seen as the communist opposition to the Comintern and the Soviet Union. Trotsky believed that its formation was all the more urgent for the role he saw it playing in the impending World War.", "In the early 1930s, Trotsky and his supporters believed that Stalin's influence over the Third International could still be fought from within and slowly rolled back. They organised themselves into the International Left Opposition in 1930, which was intended to be a group of anti-Stalinist dissenters \"within\" the Third International. Stalin's supporters, who dominated the International, would no longer tolerate dissent. All Trotskyists, and those suspected of being influenced by Trotskyism, were expelled. Trotsky claimed that the Third Period policies of the Comintern had contributed to the rise of Adolf Hitler in Germany, and that its turn to a popular front policy (aiming to unite all ostensibly anti-fascist forces) sowed illusions in reformism and pacifism and \"clear[ed] the road for a fascist overturn\". By 1935 he claimed that the Comintern had fallen irredeemably into the hands of the Stalinist bureaucracy. He and his supporters, expelled from the Third International, participated in a conference of the London Bureau of socialist parties outside both the Socialist International and the Comintern. Three of those parties joined the Left Opposition in signing a document written by Trotsky calling for a Fourth International, which became known as the \"Declaration of Four\". Of those, two soon distanced themselves from the agreement, but the Dutch Revolutionary Socialist Party worked with the International Left Opposition to declare the International Communist League. This position was contested by Andrés Nin and some other members of the League who did not support the call for a new International. This group prioritised regroupment with other communist oppositions, principally the International Communist Opposition (ICO), linked to the Right Opposition in the Soviet Party, a regroupment which eventually led to the formation of the International Bureau for Revolutionary Socialist Unity. Trotsky considered those organisations to be centrist. Despite Trotsky, the Spanish section merged with the Spanish section of ICO, forming the Workers' Party of Marxist Unification (POUM). Trotsky claimed the merger was to be a capitulation to centrism. The Socialist Workers' Party of Germany, a left split from the Social Democratic Party of Germany founded in 1931, co-operated with the International Left Opposition briefly in 1933 but soon abandoned the call for a new International. In 1935, Trotsky wrote an \"Open Letter for the Fourth International\", reaffirming the \"Declaration of Four\", while documenting the recent course of the Comintern and the Socialist International. In the letter, he called for the urgent formation of a Fourth International. The \"First International Conference for the Fourth International\" was held in Paris in June 1936, reports giving its location as Geneva for security reasons. This meeting dissolved the International Communist League, founding in its place the Movement for the Fourth International on Trotsky's perspectives. The foundation of the Fourth International was seen as more than just the simple renaming of an international tendency that was already in existence. It was argued that the Third International had now degenerated completely and was therefore to be seen as a counter-revolutionary organisation that would in time of crisis defend capitalism. Trotsky believed that the coming World War would produce a revolutionary wave of class and national struggles, rather as World War I had done. Stalin reacted to the growing strength of Trotsky's supporters with a major political massacre of people within the Soviet Union, and the assassination of Trotsky's supporters and family abroad. He had agents go through historical documents and photos in order to attempt to erase Trotsky's memory from the history books. According to the historian Mario Kessler, Stalin's supporters turned to anti-semitism to whip up sentiment against Trotsky (as Trotsky was a Jew). Stalin's daughter later claimed that his fight with Trotsky laid the foundations for his later anti-semitic campaigns.", "The International's rationale was to construct new mass revolutionary parties able to lead successful workers' revolutions. It saw these arising from a revolutionary wave which would develop alongside and as a result of the coming World War. Thirty delegates attended a founding conference, held in September 1938, in the home of Alfred Rosmer just outside Paris. Present at the meeting were delegates from all the major countries of Europe, and from North America, although for reasons of cost and distance, few delegates attended from Asia or Latin America. An International Secretariat was established, with many of the day's leading Trotskyists and most countries in which Trotskyists were active represented. Among the resolutions adopted by the conference was the \"Transitional Programme\". The \"Transitional Programme\" was the central programmatic statement of the congress, summarising its strategic and tactical conceptions for the revolutionary period that it saw opening up as a result of the war which Trotsky had been predicting for some years. It is not, however, the definitive programme of the Fourth International as is often suggested but instead contains a summation of the conjunctural understanding of the movement at that date and a series of transitional policies designed to develop the struggle for workers' power.", "At the outbreak of World War II, in 1939, the International Secretariat was moved to New York City. The resident International Executive Committee failed to meet, largely because of a struggle in the U.S. Socialist Workers Party (SWP) between Trotsky's supporters and the tendency of Max Shachtman, Martin Abern and James Burnham. The secretariat was composed of those committee members who happened to be in the city, most of whom were co-thinkers of Shachtman. The disagreement centred on the Shachtmanites' disagreements with the SWP's internal policy, and over the FI's unconditional defence of the USSR. Trotsky opened a public debate with Shachtman and Burnham and developed his positions in a series of polemics written in 1939–1940 and later collected in \"In Defense of Marxism\". Shachtman and Burnham's tendency resigned from the International in early 1940, alongside almost 40% of the SWP's members, many of whom became founder members of the Workers Party.", "In May 1940 an emergency conference of the International met at a secret location \"somewhere in the Western Hemisphere\". It adopted a manifesto drafted by Trotsky shortly before his murder and a range of policies on the work of the International, including one calling for the reunification of the then-divided Fourth Internationalist groups in Britain. Secretariat members who had supported Shachtman were expelled by the emergency conference, with the support of Trotsky himself. While leader of the SWP James P. Cannon later said that he did not believe the split to be definitive and final, the two groups did not reunite. A new International Executive Committee was appointed, which came under the increasing influence of the Socialist Workers Party. The Fourth International was hit hard during World War II. Trotsky was assassinated, many of the FI's European affiliates were destroyed by the Nazis and several of its Asian affiliates were destroyed by the Empire of Japan. The survivors, in Europe, Asia and elsewhere, were largely cut off from each other and from the International Secretariat. The new secretary, Jean Van Heijenoort (also known as Gerland), was able to do little more than publish articles in the SWP's theoretical journal \"Fourth International\". Despite this dislocation, the various groups sought to maintain links and some connections were kept up throughout the early part of the war by sailors enlisted in the U.S. Navy who had cause to visit Marseilles. Contact was steady, if irregular, between the SWP and the British Trotskyists, with the result that the Americans exerted what influence they had to encourage the Workers' International League into the International through a fusion with the Revolutionary Socialist League, a union that had been requested by the Emergency Conference. In 1942, a debate on the national question in Europe opened up between the majority of the SWP and a movement led by Van Heijenoort, Albert Goldman and Felix Morrow. This minority anticipated that the Nazi dictatorship would be replaced with capitalism rather than by a socialist revolution, leading to the revival of Stalinism and social democracy. In December 1943, they criticised the SWP's view as underestimating the rising prestige of Stalinism and the opportunities for the capitalists to use democratic concessions. The SWP's central committee argued that democratic capitalism could not revive, resulting in either military dictatorship by the capitalists or a workers' revolution. It held that this would reinforce the need for building the Fourth International, and adhered rigidly to their interpretation of Trotsky's works.", "The wartime debate about post-war perspectives was accelerated by the resolution of the February 1944 European Conference of the Fourth International. The conference appointed a new European Secretariat and elected Michel Raptis, a Greek resident in France also known as Michel Pablo, the organisational secretary of its European Bureau. Raptis and other bureau members re-established contact between the Trotskyist parties. The European conference extended the lessons of a revolution then unfolding in Italy, and concluded that a revolutionary wave would cross Europe as the war ended. The SWP had a similar perspective. The British Revolutionary Communist Party (RCP) disagreed and held that capitalism was not about to plunge into massive crisis but rather that an upturn in the economy was already underway. A group of leaders of the French Internationalist Communist Party (PCI) around Yvan Craipeau argued a similar position until they were expelled from the PCI in 1948.", "In April 1946 delegates from the principal European sections and a number of others attended a \"Second International Congress\". This set about rebuilding the International Secretariat of the Fourth International with Michel Raptis appointed Secretary and Ernest Mandel, a Belgian, taking a leading role. Pablo and Mandel aimed to counter the opposition of the majorities inside the British Revolutionary Communist Party and French Internationalist Communist Party. Initially, they encouraged party members to vote out their leaderships. They supported Gerry Healy's opposition in the RCP. In France, they backed elements, including Pierre Frank and Marcel Bleibtreu, opposed to the new leadership of the PCI albeit for differing reasons. The Stalinist occupation of Eastern Europe was the issue of prime concern, and it raised many problems of interpretation. At first, the International held that, while the USSR was a degenerated workers' state, the post-World War II East European states were still bourgeois entities, because revolution from above was not possible, and capitalism persisted. Another issue that needed to be dealt with was the possibility that the economy would revive. This was initially denied by Mandel (who was quickly forced to revise his opinion, and later devoted his PhD dissertation to late capitalism, analysing the unexpected \"third age\" of capitalist development). Mandel's perspective mirrored uncertainty at that time about the future viability and prospects of capitalism, not just among \"all\" Trotskyist groups, but also among leading economists. Paul Samuelson had envisaged in 1943 the probability of a \"nightmarish combination of the worst features of inflation and deflation\", worrying that \"there would be ushered in the greatest period of unemployment and industrial dislocation which any economy has ever faced\". Joseph Schumpeter for his part claimed that \"[t]he general opinion seems to be that capitalist methods will be unequal to the task of reconstruction\". He regarded it as \"not open to doubt that the decay of capitalist society is very far advanced\".", "The Second World Congress in April 1948 was attended by delegates from 22 sections. It debated a range of resolutions on the Jewish Question, Stalinism, the colonial countries and the specific situations facing sections in certain countries. By this point the FI was united around the view that the Eastern European \"buffer states\" were still capitalist countries. The Congress was especially notable for bringing the International into much closer contact with Trotskyist groups from across the globe. These included such significant groups as the Revolutionary Workers' Party of Bolivia and the Lanka Sama Samaja Party in what was then Ceylon, but the previously large Vietnamese Trotskyist groups had mostly been eliminated or absorbed by the supporters of Ho Chi Minh. After the Second World Congress in 1948, the International Secretariat attempted to open communications with Josip Broz Tito's regime in Yugoslavia. In their analysis, it differed from the rest of the Eastern Bloc because it was established by the partisans of World War II who had fought against Nazi occupation, as opposed to by Stalin's invading armies. The British RCP, led by Jock Haston and supported by Ted Grant, were highly critical of this move.", "The Third World Congress in 1951 resolved that the economies of the East European states and their political regimes had come to resemble that of the USSR more and more. These states were then described as deformed workers states in an analogy with the degenerated workers state in Russia. The term \"deformed\" was used rather than \"degenerated\", because no workers' revolution had led to the foundation of these states. The Third World Congress envisaged the real possibility of an \"international civil war\" in the near future. It argued that the mass Communist parties \"may, under certain favourable conditions, go beyond the aims set for them by the Soviet bureaucracy and project a revolutionary orientation\". Given the supposed closeness of war, the FI thought that the Communist Parties and social democratic parties would be the only significant force that could defend the workers of the world against the imperialist camp in those countries where there were mass forces. In line with this geopolitical perspective, Pablo argued that the only way the Trotskyists could avoid isolation was for various sections of the Fourth International to undertake long-term entryism in the mass Communist or Social Democratic parties. This tactic was known as entrism \"sui generis\", to distinguish it from the short-term entry tactic employed before World War II. For example, it meant that the project of building an open and independent Trotskyist party was shelved in France, because it was regarded as not politically feasible alongside entry into the French Communist Party. This perspective was accepted within the Fourth International, yet sowed the seeds for the split in 1953. At the Third World Congress, the sections agreed with the perspective of an international civil war. The French section disagreed with the associated tactic of entryism sui generis, and held that Pablo was underestimating the independent role of the working class parties in the Fourth International. The leaders of the majority of the Trotskyist organisation in France, Marcel Bleibtreu and Pierre Lambert, refused to follow the line of the International. The International leadership had them replaced by a minority, leading to a permanent split in the French section. In the wake of the World Congress, the line of the International Leadership was generally accepted by groups around the world, including the U.S. SWP whose leader, James P. Cannon, corresponded with the French majority to support the tactic of entrism \"sui generis\". At the same time, however, Cannon, Healy and Mandel were deeply concerned by Pablo's political evolution. Cannon and Healy were also alarmed by Pablo's intervention into the French section, and by suggestions that Pablo might use the International's authority in this way in other sections of the Fourth International that felt entrism \"sui generis\" was not a suitable tactic in their own countries. In particular, minority tendencies, exemplified in Britain by John Lawrence and in the U.S. by Bert Cochran, to support entrism \"sui generis\" hinted that Pablo's support for their views indicated that the International might also demand Trotskyists in those countries adopt that tactic.", "In 1953, the SWP's national committee issued an \"Open Letter to Trotskyists Throughout the World\" and organised the International Committee of the Fourth International (ICFI). This was a public faction which initially included, in addition to the SWP, Gerry Healy's British section The Club, the Internationalist Communist Party in France (then led by Lambert who had expelled Bleibtreu and his grouping), Nahuel Moreno's party in Argentina and the Austrian and Chinese sections of the FI. The sections of the ICFI withdrew from the International Secretariat, which suspended their voting rights. Both sides claimed they constituted a majority of the former International. Sri Lanka's Lanka Sama Samaja Party, then the country's leading workers' party, took a middle position during this dispute. It continued to participate in the ISFI but argued for a joint congress, for reunification with the ICFI. An excerpt from the \"Open Letter\" explains the split as follows: To sum up: The lines of cleavage between Pablo's revisionism and orthodox Trotskyism are so deep that no compromise is possible either politically or organizationally. The Pablo faction has demonstrated that it will not permit democratic decisions truly reflecting majority opinion to be reached. They demand complete submission to their criminal policy. They are determined to drive all orthodox Trotskyists out of the Fourth International or to muzzle and handcuff them. Their scheme has been to inject their Stalinist conciliationism piecemeal and likewise in piecemeal fashion, get rid of those who come to see what is happening and raise objections.", "Over the following decade, the IC referred to the rest of the International as the \"International Secretariat of the Fourth International\", emphasising its view that the Secretariat did not speak for the International as a whole. The Secretariat continued to view itself as the leadership of the International. It held a Fourth World Congress in 1954 to regroup and to recognise reorganised sections in Britain, France and the U.S. Parts of the International Committee were divided over whether the split with \"Pabloism\" was permanent or temporary, and it was perhaps as a result of this that it did not declare itself to be \"the\" Fourth International. Those sections that considered the split permanent embarked on a discussion about the history of the split and its meanings. The sections of the International that recognised the leadership of the International Secretariat remained optimistic about the possibilities for increasing the International's political influence and extended the entrism into social democratic parties which was already underway in Britain, Austria and elsewhere. The 1954 congress emphasised entrism into communist parties and nationalist parties in the colonies, pressing for democratic reforms, ostensibly to encourage the left-wing they perceived to exist in the communist parties to join with them in a revolution. Tensions developed between those who subscribed to the mainstream views of Pablo and a minority that argued unsuccessfully against open work. A number of these delegates walked out of the World Congress, and would eventually leave the International, including the leader of the new British section, John Lawrence, George Clarke, Michele Mestre (a leader of the French section), and Murray Dowson (a leader of the Canadian group). The Secretariat organised a Fifth World Congress in October 1957. Mandel and Pierre Frank appraised the Algerian revolution and surmised that it was essential to reorient in the colonial states and neocolonies towards the emerging guerrilla-led revolutions. According to Robert Alexander, Ernest Mandel has written that an organisation in Indonesia, the Partai Acoma, was affiliate to the FI from 1959 until the 1965 coup in that country. The Sixth World Congress in 1961 marked a lessening of the political divisions between the majority of supporters of the International Secretariat and the leadership of the SWP in the United States. In particular, the congress stressed support for the Cuban revolution and a growing emphasis on building parties in the imperialist countries. The sixth congress also criticised the Lanka Sama Samaja Party, its Sri Lankan section, for seeming to support the Sri Lanka Freedom Party, which they saw as bourgeois nationalists; the U.S. SWP made similar criticisms. In 1962 the IC and IS formed a Parity Commission to organise a common World Congress. The supporters of Michel Pablo and Juan Posadas opposed the convergence. The supporters of Posadas left the International in 1962. At the 1963 reunification congress, the sections of the IC and IS reunified (with two exceptions: the British and French sections of the IC). This was largely a result of their mutual support for Ernest Mandel and Joseph Hansen's resolution \"Dynamics of World Revolution Today\" and for the Cuban Revolution. This document distinguished between different revolutionary tasks in the imperialist countries, the \"workers' states\", and the colonial and semi-colonial countries. In 1963, the reunified Fourth International elected a United Secretariat of the Fourth International (USFI), by which name the organisation as a whole is often still referred.", "Since the 1963 reunification, a number of approaches have developed within international Trotskyism towards the Fourth International.", "In uniting the large majority of Trotskyists in one organisation, the Fourth International created a tradition which has since been claimed by many Trotskyist organisations. Echoing Marx's \"Communist Manifesto\", the \"Transitional Programme\" ended with the declaration \"Workers men and women of all countries, place yourselves under the banner of the Fourth International. It is the banner of your approaching victory!\". It declared demands to be placed on capitalists, opposition to the bureaucracy in the Soviet Union, and support for workers' action against fascism. Most of the demands on capitalists remain unfulfilled. The collapse of the Soviet Union occurred, but through a social revolution leading to the restoration of capitalism, rather than the political revolution proposed by the Trotskyists. Many Trotskyist groups have been active in anti-fascist campaigns, but the Fourth International has never played a major role in the toppling of a regime. Those groups which follow traditions that left the Fourth International in its early years argue that, despite initially correct positions, it had little impact. Lutte Ouvriere claims that it \"did not survive the Second World War\". Workers Liberty, which follows in the third camp tradition established by the Workers Party, holds that \"Trotsky and everything he represented was defeated and as we have to recognise in retrospect defeated for a whole historical period.\" Other groups point to a positive impact. The ICFI claim that \"the [early] Fourth International consisted mainly of cadres who remained true to their aims\" and describes much of the Fourth International's early activity as \"correct and principled\". The reunified FI claim that \"the Fourth International refused to compromise with capitalism either in its fascist or democratic variants.\" In its view, \"many of the predictions made by Trotsky when he founded the Fourth International were proved wrong by history. But what was absolutely vindicated were his key political judgements.\"", "Internationals:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "History.", "Early Middle Ages.", "Late Medieval and Early Modern Period.", "18th century to World War I.", "World War II to the present.", "Climate.", "Demographics.", "Folklore.", "Culture.", "Sports.", "Economy.", "1812 mine accident.", "Transport.", "Air.", "Maritime.", "Rail.", "Road.", "International relations.", "Twin towns – Sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "The name is Germanic in origin and is reconstructible as *\"liudik-\", from the Germanic word *\"liudiz\" \"people\", which is found in for example Dutch \"lui(den)\", \"lieden\", German \"Leute\", Old English \"lēod\" (English \"lede\") and Icelandic \"lýður\" (\"people\"). It is found in Lithuanian as \"liaudis\" (\"people\"), in Ukrainian as \"liudy\" (\"people\"), in Russian as \"liudi\" (\"people\"), in Latin as \"Leodicum\" or \"Leodium\", in Middle Dutch as \"ludic\" or \"ludeke\". Until 17 September 1946, the city's name was written, with the acute accent instead of a grave accent. In French, Liège is associated with the epithet \"la cité ardente\" (\"the fervent city\"). This term, which emerged around 1905, originally referred to the city's history of rebellions against Burgundian rule, but was appropriated to refer to its economic dynamism during the Industrial Revolution.", "", "Although settlements already existed in Roman times, the first references to Liège are from 558, when it was known as Vicus Leudicus. Around 705, Saint Lambert of Maastricht is credited with completing the Christianization of the region, indicating that up to the early 8th century the religious practices of antiquity had survived in some form. Christian conversion may still not have been quite universal, since Lambert was murdered in Liège and thereafter regarded as a martyr for his faith. To enshrine St. Lambert's relics, his successor, Hubertus (later to become St. Hubert), built a basilica near the bishop's residence which became the true nucleus of the city. A few centuries later, the city became the capital of a prince-bishopric, which lasted from 985 till 1794. The first prince-bishop, Notger, transformed the city into a major intellectual and ecclesiastical centre, which maintained its cultural importance during the Middle Ages. Pope Clement VI recruited several musicians from Liège to perform in the Papal court at Avignon, thereby sanctioning the practice of polyphony in the religious realm. The city was renowned for its many churches, the oldest of which, St Martin's, dates from 682. Although nominally part of the Holy Roman Empire, in practice it possessed a large degree of independence.", "The strategic position of Liège has made it a frequent target of armies and insurgencies over the centuries. It was fortified early on with a castle on the steep hill that overlooks the city's western side. During this medieval period, three women from the Liège region made significant contributions to Christian spirituality: Elizabeth Spaakbeek, Christina the Astonishing, and Marie of Oignies. In 1345, the citizens of Liège rebelled against Prince-Bishop Engelbert III de la Marck, their ruler at the time, and defeated him in battle near the city. Shortly after, a unique political system formed in Liège, whereby the city's 32 guilds shared sole political control of the municipal government. Each person on the register of each guild was eligible to participate, and each guild's voice was equal, making it the most democratic system that the Low Countries had ever known. The system spread to Utrecht, and left a democratic spirit in Liège that survived the Middle Ages. At the end of the Liège Wars, a rebellion against rule from Burgundy that figured prominently in the plot of Sir Walter Scott's 1823 novel \"Quentin Durward\", Duke Charles the Bold of Burgundy, witnessed by King Louis XI of France, captured and largely destroyed the city in 1468, after a bitter siege which was ended with a successful surprise attack. The Prince-Bishopric of Liège was technically part of the Holy Roman Empire which, after 1477, came under the rule of the Habsburgs. The reign of prince-bishop Erard de la Marck (1506–1538) coincides with the dawn of the Renaissance. During the Counter-Reformation, the diocese of Liège was split and progressively lost its role as a regional power. In the 17th century, many prince-bishops came from the royal house of Wittelsbach. They ruled over Cologne and other bishoprics in the northwest of the Holy Roman Empire as well. In 1636, during the Thirty Years' War, the city was besieged by Imperial forces under Johann von Werth from April to July. The army, mainly consisting of mercenaries, extensively and viciously plundered the surrounding bishopric during the siege.", "The Duke of Marlborough captured the city from the Bavarian prince-bishop and his French allies in 1704 during the War of the Spanish Succession. In the middle of the eighteenth century the ideas of the French \"Encyclopédistes\" began to gain popularity in the region. Bishop de Velbruck (1772–84), encouraged their propagation, thus prepared the way for the Liège Revolution which started in the episcopal city on 18 August 1789 and led to the creation of the Republic of Liège before it was invaded by counter-revolutionary forces of the Habsburg Monarchy in 1791. In the course of the, the French army took the city and imposed strongly anticlerical regime, destroying St. Lambert's Cathedral. The overthrow of the prince-bishopric was confirmed in 1801 by the Concordat co-signed by Napoléon Bonaparte and Pope Pius VII. France lost the city in 1815 when the Congress of Vienna awarded it to the United Kingdom of the Netherlands. Dutch rule lasted only until 1830, when the Belgian Revolution led to the establishment of an independent, Catholic and neutral Belgium which incorporated Liège. After this, Liège developed rapidly into a major industrial city which became one of continental Europe's first large-scale steel making centres. The Walloon Jacquerie of 1886 saw a large-scale working class revolt. No less than 6,000 regular troops were called into the city to quell the unrest, while strike spread through the whole sillon industriel. Liège's fortifications were redesigned by Henri Alexis Brialmont in the 1880s and a chain of twelve forts was constructed around the city to provide defence in depth. This presented a major obstacle to Germany's army in 1914, whose Schlieffen Plan relied on being able to quickly pass through the Meuse valley and the Ardennes en route to France. The German invasion on 5 August 1914 soon reached Liège, which was defended by 30,000 troops under General Gérard Leman (see Battle of Liège). The forts initially held off an attacking force of about 100,000 men but were pulverised into submission by a five-day bombardment by heavy artillery, including thirty-two 21 cm mortars and two German 42 cm Big Bertha howitzers. Due to faulty planning of the protection of the underground defense tunnels beneath the main citadel, one direct artillery hit caused a huge explosion, which eventually led to the surrender of the Belgian forces. The Belgian resistance was shorter than had been intended, but the twelve days of delay caused by the siege nonetheless contributed to the eventual failure of the German invasion of France. The city was subsequently occupied by the Germans until the end of the war. Liège received the Légion d'Honneur for its resistance in 1914. As part of the Septemberprogramm, Berlin planned to annexe Liege under the name Lüttich to the German Empire in any post-war peace agreement.", "The Germans returned in 1940, this time taking the forts in only three days. Most Jews were saved, with the help of the sympathetic population, as many Jewish children and refugees were hidden in the numerous monasteries. Liege was liberated by the British military in September 1944. After the war ended, the Royal Question came to the fore, since many saw King Leopold III as collaborating with the Germans during the war. In July 1950, André Renard, leader of the Liégeois FGTB launched the General strike against Leopold III of Belgium and \"seized control over the city of Liège\". The strike ultimately led to Leopold's abdication. Liège began to suffer from a relative decline of its industry, particularly the coal industry, and later the steel industry, producing high levels of unemployment and stoking social tension. During the 1960-1961 Winter General Strike, disgruntled workers went on a rampage and severely damaged the central railway station Guillemins. The unrest was so intense that \"army troops had to wade through caltrops, trees, concrete blocks, car and crane wrecks to advance. Streets were dug up. Liège saw the worst fighting on 6 January 1961. In all, 75 people were injured during seven hours of street battles.\" On 6 December 1985, the city's courthouse was heavily damaged and one person was killed in a bomb attack by a lawyer. Liège is also known as a traditionally socialist city. In 1991, powerful Socialist André Cools, a former Deputy Prime Minister, was gunned down in front of his girlfriend's apartment. Many suspected that the assassination was related to a corruption scandal which swept the Socialist Party, and the national government in general, after Cools' death. Two men were sentenced to twenty years in jail in 2004, for involvement in Cools' murder. Liège has shown some signs of economic recovery in recent years with the opening up of borders within the European Union, surging steel prices, and improved administration. Several new shopping centres have been built, and numerous repairs carried out. On 13 December 2011, there was a grenade and gun attack at Place Saint-Lambert. An attacker, later identified as Nordine Amrani, aged 33, armed with grenades and an assault rifle, attacked people waiting at a bus stop. There were six fatalities, including the attacker (who shot himself), and 123 people were injured. On 29 May 2018, two female police officers and one civilian—a 22-year-old man—were shot dead by a gunman near a café on Boulevard d'Avroy in central Liège. The attacker then began firing at the officers in an attempt to escape, injuring a number of them \"around their legs\", before he was shot dead. Belgian broadcaster RTBF said the gunman was temporarily released from prison on 28 May where he had been serving time on drug offences. The incident is currently being treated as terrorism.", "In spite of its inland position Liège has a maritime climate influenced by the mildening sea winds originating from the Gulf Stream, travelling over Belgium's interior. As a result, Liège has very mild winters for its latitude and inland position, especially compared to areas in the Russian Far East and fellow Francophone province Quebec. Summers are also moderated by the maritime air, with average temperatures being similar to areas as far north as in Scandinavia. Being inland though, Liège has a relatively low seasonal lag compared to some other maritime climates.", "On 1 January 2013, the municipality of Liège had a total population of 197,013. The metropolitan area has about 750,000 inhabitants. Its inhabitants are predominantly French-speaking, with German and Dutch-speaking minorities. Like the rest of Belgium, the population of minorities has grown significantly since the 1990s. The city has become the home to large numbers of Italian, Algerian, Moroccan, Turkish, and Vietnamese immigrants. Liège also houses a significant Afro-Belgian community. The city is a major educational hub in Belgium. There are 42,000 pupils attending more than 24 schools. The University of Liège, founded in 1817, has 20,000 students.", "The \"Le Quinze Août\" celebration takes place annually on 15 August in Outremeuse and celebrates the Virgin Mary. It is one of the biggest folkloric displays in the city, with a religious procession, a flea market, dances, concerts, and a series of popular games. Nowadays these celebrations start a few days earlier and last until the 16th. Some citizens open their doors to party goers, and serve \"peket\", the traditional local alcohol. This tradition is linked to the important folkloric character \"Tchantchès\" (Walloon for \"François\"), a hard-headed but resourceful Walloon boy who lived during Charlemagne's times. \"Tchantchès\" is remembered with a statue, a museum, and a number of puppets found all over the city. Liège hosts one of the oldest and biggest Christmas Markets in Belgium, and the oldest kermesse, the Foire de Liège held each year from 28 October.", "The city is well known for its very crowded folk festivals. The 15 August festival (\"Le 15 août\") is maybe the best known. The population gathers in a quarter named \"Outre-Meuse\" with plenty of tiny pedestrian streets and old yards. Many people come to see the procession but also to drink alcohol (mostly peket) and beer, eat cooked pears, boûkètes or sausages or simply enjoy the atmosphere until the early hours. The Saint Nicholas festival around 6 December is organized by and for the students of the University; for a few days before the event, students (wearing very dirty lab-coats) beg for money, mostly for drinking. Liège is renowned for its significant nightlife. Within the pedestrian zone behind the Opera House, there is a square city block known locally as \"Le Carré\" (the Square) with many lively pubs which are reputed to remain open until the last customer leaves (typically around 6 am). Another active area is the Place du Marché. The \"Batte\" market is where most locals visit on Sundays. The outdoor market goes along the Meuse River and also attracts many visitors to Liège. The market typically runs from early morning to 2 o'clock in the afternoon every Sunday year long. Produce, clothing, and snack vendors are the main concentration of the market. Liège is home to the Opéra Royal de Wallonie () and the Orchestre Philharmonique Royal de Liège (OPRL) (). The city annually hosts a significant electro-rock festival \"Les Ardentes\" and jazz festival \"Jazz à Liège\". Liège has active alternative cinemas, Le Churchill, Le Parc and Le Sauvenière. There are also 2 mainstream cinemas, the Kinepolis multiplexes. Liège also has a particular Walloon dialect, sometimes said to be one of Belgium's most distinctive. There is a large Italian community, and Italian can be heard in many places.", "The city has a number of football teams, most notably Standard Liège, who have won several championships and which was previously owned by Roland Duchâtelet, and R.F.C. de Liège, one of the oldest football clubs in Belgium. It is also known for being the club who refused to release Jean-Marc Bosman, a case which led to the Bosman ruling. In spring, Liège hosts the start and finish of the annual Liège–Bastogne–Liège cycling race, one of the spring classics and the oldest of the five monuments of cycling. The race starts in the centre of Liège, before heading south to Bastogne and returning north to finish in the industrial suburb of Ans. Traveling through the hilly Ardennes, it is one of the longest and most arduous races of the season. Liège is the only city that has hosted stages of all three cycling Grand Tours. It staged the start of the 1973 and 2006 Giro d'Italia; as well as the \"Grand Départ\" of the 2004 and 2012 Tour de France, making it the first city outside France to host the \"Grand Départ\" twice. In 2009, the Vuelta a España visited Liège after four stages in the Netherlands, making Liège the first city that has hosted stages of all three cycling Grand Tours. It will also host the finish of stage 2 of the 2017 Tour de France. Liège is also home to boxer Ermano Fegatilli, the current European Boxing Union Super Featherweight champion.", "Liège is the most important city of the Wallon region from an economic perspective. In the past, Liège was one of the most important industrial centres in Europe, particularly in steel-making. Starting in 1817, John Cockerill extensively developed the iron and steel industry. The industrial complex of Seraing was the largest in the world. It once boasted numerous blast furnaces and mills. Liège has also been an important centre for gunsmithing since the Middle ages and the arms industry is still strong today, with the headquarters of FN Herstal and CMI Defence being located in Liège. Although from 1960 on the secondary sector is going down and now is a mere shadow of its former self, the manufacture of steel goods remain important. The economy of the region is now diversified; the most important centres are: Mechanical industries (Aircraft engine and Spacecraft propulsion), space technology, information technology, biotechnology and the production of water, beer or chocolate. Liège has an important group of headquarters dedicated to high-technology, such as Techspace Aero, which manufactures pieces for the Airbus A380 or the rocket Ariane 5. Other stand-out sectors include Amós which manufactures optical components for telescopes and Drytec, which produces compressed air dryers. Liège also has many other electronic companies such as SAP, EVS, Gillam, AnB, Balteau, IP Trade. Other prominent businesses are the global leader in light armament FN Herstal, the beer company Jupiler, the chocolate company Galler, and the water and soda companies Spa and Chaudfontaine. A science park south east of the city, near the University of Liège campus, houses spin-offs and high technology businesses.", "In 1812 there were three coal pits (\"Bure\") in close proximity just outside the city gates: Bure Triquenotte, Bure de Beaujone and Bure Mamonster. The first two shafts were joined underground, but the last one was a separate colliery. The shafts were deep. Water was led to a sump (\"serrement\") from which it could be pumped to the surface. At 11:00 on 28 February 1812 the sump in the Beaujone mine failed and flooded the entire colliery. Of the 127 men down the mine at the time 35 escaped by the main shaft, but 74 were trapped. [These numbers are taken from the report, the 18 miner discrepancy is unexplained.] The trapped men attempted to dig a passageway into Mamonster. After there was a firedamp explosion and they realised that they had penetrated some old workings belonging to an abandoned mine, Martin Wery. The overseer, Monsieur Goffin, led the men to the point in Martin Wery which he judged closest to Mamonster and they commence to dig. By the second day they had run out of candles and dug the remainder of a gallery in darkness. On the surface the only possible rescue was held to be via Mamonster. A heading was driven towards Beaujone with all possible speed, including blasting. The trapped miners heard the rescuers and vice versa. Five days after the accident communication was possible and the rescuers worked in darkness to avoid the risk of a firedamp explosion. By 7pm that evening an opening was made, of tunnel had been dug by hand in five days. All of the 74 miners in Goffin's part survived and were brought to the surface.", "", "Liège is served by Liège Airport, located in Bierset, a few kilometres west of the city. It is the principal axis for the delivery of freight and in 2011 was the world's 33rd busiest cargo airport.", "The Port of Liège, located on the River Meuse, is the 3rd largest river port in Europe. Liège also has direct links to Antwerp and Rotterdam via its canals.", "Liège is served by many direct rail links with the rest of Western Europe. Its three principal stations are Liège-Guillemins railway station, Liège-Carré, and Liège-Saint-Lambert. The InterCity Express and Thalys call at Liège-Guillemins, providing direct connections to Cologne and Frankfurt and Paris-Nord respectively. Liège was once home to a network of trams. However, they were removed by 1967 in favour of the construction of a new metro system. A prototype of the metro was built and a tunnel was dug underneath the city, but the metro was never built. The construction of a new modern tramway has been ordered and is currently scheduled to be open by 2017.", "Liège sits at the crossroads of a number of highways including the European route E25, the European Route E42, the European Route E40 and the European Route E313.", "", "Liège is twinned with:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Classification.", "Mixed languages.", "Pre-Proto-Mongolic.", "Relationship with Turkic.", "Proto-Mongolic." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The stages of Historical Mongolic are: Contemporary Mongolic languages are classified as follows. Alexander Vovin (2007) identifies the extinct Tabγač or Tuoba language as a Mongolic language. However, Chen (2005) argues that Tuoba (Tabγač) was a Turkic language. Vovin (2018) suggests that the Ruanruan language of the Rouran Khaganate was a Mongolic language, close but not identical to Middle Mongolian. The classification and numbers of speakers above follow Janhunen (2006) except for Southern Mongolic, which follows Nugteren (2011). In another classificational approach, there is a tendency to call Central Mongolian a language consisting of Mongolian proper, Oirat and Buryat, while Ordos (and implicitly also Khamnigan) is seen as a variety of Mongolian proper. Within Mongolian proper, they then draw a distinction between Khalkha on the one hand and Southern Mongolian (containing everything else) on the other hand. A less common subdivision of Central Mongolic is to divide it into a Central dialect (Khalkha, Chakhar, Ordos), an Eastern dialect (Kharchin, Khorchin), a Western dialect (Oirat, Kalmyk), and a Northern dialect (consisting of two Buryat varieties). The broader delimitation of Mongolian may be based on mutual intelligibility, but an analysis based on a tree diagram such as the one above faces other problems because of the close contacts between, for example, Buryat and Khalkha Mongols during history, thus creating or preserving a dialect continuum. Another problem lies in the sheer comparability of terminology, as Western linguists use \"language\" and \"dialect\", while Mongolian linguists use the Grimmian trichotomy \"language\" (kele), \"dialect\" (nutuγ-un ayalγu) and \"Mundart\" (aman ayalγu). Rybatzki (2003: 388-389) recognizes the following 6 areal subgroups of Mongolic.", "The following are mixed Sinitic–Mongolic languages.", "\"Pre-Proto-Mongolic\" is the name for the stage of Mongolic that precedes Proto-Mongolic. Proto-Mongolic can be clearly identified chronologically with the language spoken by the Mongols during Genghis Khan's early expansion in the 1200-1210s. \"Pre-Proto-Mongolic\", by contrast, is a continuum that stretches back indefinitely in time. It is divided into \"Early Pre-Proto-Mongolic\" and \"Late Pre-Proto-Mongolic\". Late Pre-Proto-Mongolic refers to the Mongolic spoken a few centuries before Proto-Mongolic by the Mongols and neighboring tribes like the Merkits and Keraits. Certain archaic words and features in Written Mongol go back past Proto-Mongolic to Late Pre-Proto-Mongolic (Janhunen 2006).", "Pre-Proto-Mongolic has borrowed various words from Turkic languages. In the case of Early Pre-Proto-Mongolic, certain loanwords in the Mongolic languages point to early contact with Oghur (Pre-Proto-Bulgaric) Turkic, also known as r-Turkic. These loanwords precede Common Turkic (z-Turkic) loanwords and include: The above words are thought to have been borrowed from Oghur Turkic during the time of the Xiongnu. Later Turkic peoples in Mongolia all spoke forms of Common Turkic (z-Turkic) as opposed to Oghur (Bulgharic) Turkic, which withdrew to the west in the 4th century. The Chuvash language, spoken by 1 million people in European Russia, is the only living representative of Oghur Turkic which split from Common Turkic around the 1st century AD. Words in Mongolic like \"dayir\" (brown, Common Turkic \"yagiz\") and \"nidurga\" (fist, Common Turkic \"yudruk\") with initial *d and *n versus Common Turkic *y are sufficiently archaic to indicate loans from an earlier stage of Oghur (Pre-Proto-Bulgaric). This is because Chuvash and Common Turkic do not differ in these features despite differing fundamentally in rhotacism-lambdacism (Janhunen 2006). Oghur tribes lived in the Mongolian borderlands before the 5th century, and provided Oghur loanwords to Early Pre-Proto-Mongolic before Common Turkic loanwords.", "\"Proto-Mongolic\", the ancestor language of the modern Mongolic languages, is very close to Middle Mongol, the language spoken at the time of Genghis Khan and the Mongol Empire. Most features of modern Mongolic languages can thus be reconstructed from Middle Mongol. An exception would be the voice suffix like -caga- 'do together', which can be reconstructed from the modern languages but is not attested in Middle Mongol. The languages of the historical Donghu, Wuhuan, and Xianbei peoples might have been related to Proto-Mongolic. For Tabghach, the language of the founders of the Northern Wei dynasty for which the surviving evidence is very sparse, and Khitan, for which evidence exists that is written in the two Khitan scripts which have as yet not been fully deciphered, a direct affiliation to Mongolic can now be taken to be most likely or even demonstrated. Juha Janhunen (2006) classified the Khitan language into the \"Para-Mongolic\" family, meaning that it is related to the Mongolic languages as a sister group, rather than as a direct descendant of Proto-Mongolic. Alexander Vovin (2017) has also identified several possible loanwords from Koreanic languages into the Khitan language. Vovin (2015) identified the extinct Tuyuhun language as yet another Para-Mongolic language." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Applications of Bessel functions.", "Definitions.", "Bessel functions of the first kind:.", "Bessel's integrals.", "Relation to hypergeometric series.", "Relation to Laguerre polynomials.", "Bessel functions of the second kind:.", "Hankel functions:,.", "Modified Bessel functions:,.", "Spherical Bessel functions:,.", "Generating function.", "Differential relations.", "Spherical Hankel functions:,.", "Riccati–Bessel functions:,,,.", "Asymptotic forms.", "Full domain approximations with elementary functions.", "Properties.", "Recurrence relations.", "Multiplication theorem.", "Zeros of the Bessel function.", "Bourget's hypothesis.", "Numerical approaches." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Bessel's equation arises when finding separable solutions to Laplace's equation and the Helmholtz equation in cylindrical or spherical coordinates. Bessel functions are therefore especially important for many problems of wave propagation and static potentials. In solving problems in cylindrical coordinate systems, one obtains Bessel functions of integer order (); in spherical problems, one obtains half-integer orders (). For example: Bessel functions also appear in other problems, such as signal processing (e.g., see FM synthesis, Kaiser window, or Bessel filter).", "Because this is a second-order linear differential equation, there must be two linearly independent solutions. Depending upon the circumstances, however, various formulations of these solutions are convenient. Different variations are summarized in the table below and described in the following sections. Bessel functions of the second kind and the spherical Bessel functions of the second kind are sometimes denoted by and respectively, rather than and.", "Bessel functions of the first kind, denoted as, are solutions of Bessel's differential equation that are finite at the origin () for integer or positive and diverge as approaches zero for negative non-integer. It is possible to define the function by its series expansion around, which can be found by applying the Frobenius method to Bessel's equation: where is the gamma function, a shifted generalization of the factorial function to non-integer values. The Bessel function of the first kind is an entire function if is an integer, otherwise it is a multivalued function with singularity at zero. The graphs of Bessel functions look roughly like oscillating sine or cosine functions that decay proportionally to formula_3 (see also their asymptotic forms below), although their roots are not generally periodic, except asymptotically for large. (The series indicates that is the derivative of, much like is the derivative of ; more generally, the derivative of can be expressed in terms of by the identities below.) For non-integer, the functions and are linearly independent, and are therefore the two solutions of the differential equation. On the other hand, for integer order, the following relationship is valid (the gamma function has simple poles at each of the non-positive integers): This means that the two solutions are no longer linearly independent. In this case, the second linearly independent solution is then found to be the Bessel function of the second kind, as discussed below.", "Another definition of the Bessel function, for integer values of, is possible using an integral representation: Another integral representation is: This was the approach that Bessel used, and from this definition he derived several properties of the function. The definition may be extended to non-integer orders by one of Schläfli's integrals, for :", "The Bessel functions can be expressed in terms of the generalized hypergeometric series as This expression is related to the development of Bessel functions in terms of the Bessel–Clifford function.", "In terms of the Laguerre polynomials and arbitrarily chosen parameter, the Bessel function can be expressed as", "The Bessel functions of the second kind, denoted by, occasionally denoted instead by, are solutions of the Bessel differential equation that have a singularity at the origin () and are multivalued. These are sometimes called Weber functions, as they were introduced by, and also Neumann functions after Carl Neumann. For non-integer, is related to by In the case of integer order, the function is defined by taking the limit as a non-integer tends to : If is a nonnegative integer, we have the series where formula_13 is the digamma function, the logarithmic derivative of the gamma function. There is also a corresponding integral formula (for ): When is an integer, moreover, as was similarly the case for the functions of the first kind, the following relationship is valid: Both and are holomorphic functions of on the complex plane cut along the negative real axis. When is an integer, the Bessel functions are entire functions of. If is held fixed at a non-zero value, then the Bessel functions are entire functions of. The Bessel functions of the second kind when is an integer is an example of the second kind of solution in Fuchs's theorem.", "Another important formulation of the two linearly independent solutions to Bessel's equation are the Hankel functions of the first and second kind, and, defined as where is the imaginary unit. These linear combinations are also known as Bessel functions of the third kind; they are two linearly independent solutions of Bessel's differential equation. They are named after Hermann Hankel. These forms of linear combination satisfy numerous simple-looking properties, like asymptotic formulae or integral representations. Here, \"simple\" means an appearance of the factor of the form. The Bessel function of the second kind then can be thought to naturally appear as the imaginary part of the Hankel functions. The Hankel functions are used to express outward- and inward-propagating cylindrical-wave solutions of the cylindrical wave equation, respectively (or vice versa, depending on the sign convention for the frequency). Using the previous relationships, they can be expressed as If is an integer, the limit has to be calculated. The following relationships are valid, whether is an integer or not: In particular, if with a nonnegative integer, the above relations imply directly that These are useful in developing the spherical Bessel functions (see below). The Hankel functions admit the following integral representations for : where the integration limits indicate integration along a contour that can be chosen as follows: from to 0 along the negative real axis, from 0 to along the imaginary axis, and from to along a contour parallel to the real axis.", "The Bessel functions are valid even for complex arguments, and an important special case is that of a purely imaginary argument. In this case, the solutions to the Bessel equation are called the modified Bessel functions (or occasionally the hyperbolic Bessel functions) of the first and second kind and are defined as when is not an integer; when is an integer, then the limit is used. These are chosen to be real-valued for real and positive arguments. The series expansion for is thus similar to that for, but without the alternating factor. formula_22 can be expressed in terms of Hankel functions: We can express the first and second Bessel functions in terms of the modified Bessel functions (these are valid if ): Unlike the ordinary Bessel functions, which are oscillating as functions of a real argument, and are exponentially growing and decaying functions respectively. Like the ordinary Bessel function, the function goes to zero at for and is finite at for. Analogously, diverges at with the singularity being of logarithmic type for, and otherwise. Two integral formulas for the modified Bessel functions are (for ): Bessel functions can be described as Fourier transforms of powers of quadratic functions. For example: It can be proven by showing equality to the above integral definition for. This is done by integrating a closed curve in the first quadrant of the complex plane. Modified Bessel functions and can be represented in terms of rapidly convergent integrals The modified Bessel function of the second kind has also been called by the following names (now rare):", "When solving the Helmholtz equation in spherical coordinates by separation of variables, the radial equation has the form The two linearly independent solutions to this equation are called the spherical Bessel functions and, and are related to the ordinary Bessel functions and by The spherical Bessel functions can also be written as (Rayleigh's formulas) The first spherical Bessel function is also known as the (unnormalized) sinc function. The first few spherical Bessel functions are: and", "The spherical Bessel functions have the generating functions", "In the following, is any of,,, for", "There are also spherical analogues of the Hankel functions: In fact, there are simple closed-form expressions for the Bessel functions of half-integer order in terms of the standard trigonometric functions, and therefore for the spherical Bessel functions. In particular, for non-negative integers : and is the complex-conjugate of this (for real ). It follows, for example, that and, and so on. The spherical Hankel functions appear in problems involving spherical wave propagation, for example in the multipole expansion of the electromagnetic field.", "Riccati–Bessel functions only slightly differ from spherical Bessel functions: They satisfy the differential equation For example, this kind of differential equation appears in quantum mechanics while solving the radial component of the Schrödinger's equation with hypothetical cylindrical infinite potential barrier. This differential equation, and the Riccati–Bessel solutions, also arises in the problem of scattering of electromagnetic waves by a sphere, known as Mie scattering after the first published solution by Mie (1908). See e.g., Du (2004) for recent developments and references. Following Debye (1909), the notation, is sometimes used instead of,.", "The Bessel functions have the following asymptotic forms. For small arguments, one obtains, when is not a negative integer: When is a negative integer, we have For the Bessel function of the second kind we have three cases: where is the Euler–Mascheroni constant (0.5772...). For large real arguments, one cannot write a true asymptotic form for Bessel functions of the first and second kind (unless is half-integer) because they have zeros all the way out to infinity, which would have to be matched exactly by any asymptotic expansion. However, for a given value of one can write an equation containing a term of order : (For the last terms in these formulas drop out completely; see the spherical Bessel functions above.) Even though these equations are true, better approximations may be available for complex. For example, when is near the negative real line is approximated better by than by The asymptotic forms for the Hankel functions are: These can be extended to other values of using equations relating and to and. It is interesting that although the Bessel function of the first kind is the average of the two Hankel functions, is not asymptotic to the average of these two asymptotic forms when is negative (because one or the other will not be correct there, depending on the used). But the asymptotic forms for the Hankel functions permit us to write asymptotic forms for the Bessel functions of first and second kinds for \"complex\" (non-real) so long as goes to infinity at a constant phase angle (using the square root having positive real part): For the modified Bessel functions, Hankel developed asymptotic (large argument) expansions as well: When, all the terms except the first vanish, and we have For small arguments, we have", "A very good approximation (error below formula_51 of the maximum value 1) of the Bessel function formula_52 for an arbitrary value of the argument may be obtained with the elementary functions by joining the trigonometric approximation working for smaller values of with the expression containing attenuated cosine function valid for large arguments with a usage of the smooth transition function formula_53 i.e.", "For integer order, is often defined via a Laurent series for a generating function: an approach used by P. A. Hansen in 1843. (This can be generalized to non-integer order by contour integration or other methods.) Another important relation for integer orders is the \"Jacobi–Anger expansion\": and which is used to expand a plane wave as a sum of cylindrical waves, or to find the Fourier series of a tone-modulated FM signal. More generally, a series is called Neumann expansion of. The coefficients for have the explicit form where is Neumann's polynomial. Selected functions admit the special representation with due to the orthogonality relation More generally, if has a branch-point near the origin of such a nature that then or where formula_66 is the Laplace transform of. Another way to define the Bessel functions is the Poisson representation formula and the Mehler-Sonine formula: where and. This formula is useful especially when working with Fourier transforms. Because Bessel's equation becomes Hermitian (self-adjoint) if it is divided by, the solutions must satisfy an orthogonality relationship for appropriate boundary conditions. In particular, it follows that: where, is the Kronecker delta, and is the th zero of. This orthogonality relation can then be used to extract the coefficients in the Fourier–Bessel series, where a function is expanded in the basis of the functions for fixed and varying. An analogous relationship for the spherical Bessel functions follows immediately: If one defines a boxcar function of that depends on a small parameter as: (where is the rectangle function) then the Hankel transform of it (of any given order ),, approaches as approaches zero, for any given. Conversely, the Hankel transform (of the same order) of is : which is zero everywhere except near 1. As approaches zero, the right-hand side approaches, where is the Dirac delta function. This admits the limit (in the distributional sense): A change of variables then yields the \"closure equation\": for. The Hankel transform can express a fairly arbitrary function as an integral of Bessel functions of different scales. For the spherical Bessel functions the orthogonality relation is: for. Another important property of Bessel's equations, which follows from Abel's identity, involves the Wronskian of the solutions: where and are any two solutions of Bessel's equation, and is a constant independent of (which depends on α and on the particular Bessel functions considered). In particular, and for. For, the even entire function of genus 1,, has only real zeros. Let be all its positive zeros, then", "The functions,,, and all satisfy the recurrence relations and where denotes,,, or. These two identities are often combined, e.g. added or subtracted, to yield various other relations. In this way, for example, one can compute Bessel functions of higher orders (or higher derivatives) given the values at lower orders (or lower derivatives). In particular, it follows that \"Modified\" Bessel functions follow similar relations: and and The recurrence relation reads where denotes or. These recurrence relations are useful for discrete diffusion problems.", "The Bessel functions obey a multiplication theorem where and may be taken as arbitrary complex numbers. For, the above expression also holds if is replaced by. The analogous identities for modified Bessel functions and are and", "", "Bessel himself originally proved that for nonnegative integers, the equation has an infinite number of solutions in. When the functions are plotted on the same graph, though, none of the zeros seem to coincide for different values of except for the zero at. This phenomenon is known as Bourget's hypothesis after the 19th-century French mathematician who studied Bessel functions. Specifically it states that for any integers and, the functions and have no common zeros other than the one at. The hypothesis was proved by Carl Ludwig Siegel in 1929.", "For numerical studies about the zeros of the Bessel function, see, and." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Technology.", "Parallax barrier.", "Integral photography and lenticular arrays.", "Compressive light field displays.", "Autostereoscopic content creation and conversion.", "Other.", "Movement parallax: single view vs. multi-view systems." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Many organizations have developed autostereoscopic 3D displays, ranging from experimental displays in university departments to commercial products, and using a range of different technologies. The method of creating autostereoscopic flat panel video displays using lenses was mainly developed in 1985 by Reinhard Boerner at the Heinrich Hertz Institute (HHI) in Berlin. Prototypes of single-viewer displays were already being presented in the 1990s, by Sega AM3 (Floating Image System) and the HHI. Nowadays, this technology has been developed further mainly by European and Japanese companies. One of the best-known 3D displays developed by HHI was the Free2C, a display with very high resolution and very good comfort achieved by an eye tracking system and a seamless mechanical adjustment of the lenses. Eye tracking has been used in a variety of systems in order to limit the number of displayed views to just two, or to enlarge the stereoscopic sweet spot. However, as this limits the display to a single viewer, it is not favored for consumer products. Currently, most flat-panel displays employ lenticular lenses or parallax barriers that redirect imagery to several viewing regions; however, this manipulation requires reduced image resolutions. When the viewer's head is in a certain position, a different image is seen with each eye, giving a convincing illusion of 3D. Such displays can have multiple viewing zones, thereby allowing multiple users to view the image at the same time, though they may also exhibit dead zones where only a non-stereoscopic or pseudoscopic image can be seen, if at all.", "A parallax barrier is a device placed in front of an image source, such as a liquid crystal display, to allow it to show a stereoscopic image or multiscopic image without the need for the viewer to wear 3D glasses. The principle of the parallax barrier was independently invented by Auguste Berthier, who published first but produced no practical results, and by Frederic E. Ives, who made and exhibited the first known functional autostereoscopic image in 1901. About two years later, Ives began selling specimen images as novelties, the first known commercial use. In the early 2000s, Sharp developed the electronic flat-panel application of this old technology to commercialization, briefly selling two laptops with the world's only 3D LCD screens. These displays are no longer available from Sharp but are still being manufactured and further developed from other companies. Similarly, Hitachi has released the first 3D mobile phone for the Japanese market under distribution by KDDI. In 2009, Fujifilm released the FinePix Real 3D W1 digital camera, which features a built-in autostereoscopic LCD measuring diagonal. The Nintendo 3DS video game console family uses a parallax barrier for 3D imagery; on a newer revision, the New Nintendo 3DS, this is combined with an eye tracking system.", "The principle of integral photography, which uses a two-dimensional (X-Y) array of many small lenses to capture a 3-D scene, was introduced by Gabriel Lippmann in 1908. Integral photography is capable of creating window-like autostereoscopic displays that reproduce objects and scenes life-size, with full parallax and perspective shift and even the depth cue of accommodation, but the full realization of this potential requires a very large number of very small high-quality optical systems and very high bandwidth. Only relatively crude photographic and video implementations have yet been produced. One-dimensional arrays of cylindrical lenses were patented by Walter Hess in 1912. By replacing the line and space pairs in a simple parallax barrier with tiny cylindrical lenses, Hess avoided the light loss that dimmed images viewed by transmitted light and that made prints on paper unacceptably dark. An additional benefit is that the position of the observer is less restricted, as the substitution of lenses is geometrically equivalent to narrowing the spaces in a line-and-space barrier. Philips solved a significant problem with electronic displays in the mid-1990s by slanting the cylindrical lenses with respect to the underlying pixel grid. Based on this idea, Philips produced its WOWvx line until 2009, running up to 2160p (a resolution of 3840×2160 pixels) with 46 viewing angles. Lenny Lipton's company, StereoGraphics, produced displays based on the same idea, citing a much earlier patent for the slanted lenticulars. Magnetic3d and Zero Creative have also been involved.", "With rapid advances in optical fabrication, digital processing power, and computational models for human perception, a new generation of display technology is emerging: compressive light field displays. These architectures explore the co-design of optical elements and compressive computation while taking particular characteristics of the human visual system into account. Compressive display designs include dual and multilayer devices that are driven by algorithms such as computed tomography and Non-negative matrix factorization and non-negative tensor factorization.", "Tools for the instant conversion of existing 3D movies to autostereoscopic were demonstrated by Dolby, Stereolabs and Viva3D.", "Dimension Technologies released a range of commercially available 2D/3D switchable LCDs in 2002 using a combination of parallax barriers and lenticular lenses. SeeReal Technologies has developed a holographic display based on eye tracking. CubicVue exhibited a color filter pattern autostereoscopic display at the Consumer Electronics Association's i-Stage competition in 2009. There are a variety of other autostereo systems as well, such as volumetric display, in which the reconstructed light field occupies a true volume of space, and integral imaging, which uses a fly's-eye lens array. The term \"automultiscopic display\" has recently been introduced as a shorter synonym for the lengthy \"multi-view autostereoscopic 3D display\", as well as for the earlier, more specific \"parallax panoramagram\". The latter term originally indicated a continuous sampling along a horizontal line of viewpoints, e.g., image capture using a very large lens or a moving camera and a shifting barrier screen, but it later came to include synthesis from a relatively large number of discrete views. Sunny Ocean Studios, located in Singapore, has been credited with developing an automultiscopic screen that can display autostereo 3D images from 64 different reference points. A fundamentally new approach to autostereoscopy called HR3D has been developed by researchers from MIT's Media Lab. It would consume half as much power, doubling the battery life if used with devices like the Nintendo 3DS, without compromising screen brightness or resolution; other advantages include a larger viewing angle and maintaining the 3D effect when the screen is rotated.", "Movement parallax refers to the fact that the view of a scene changes with movement of the head. Thus, different images of the scene are seen as the head is moved from left to right, and from up to down. Many autostereoscopic displays are single-view displays and are thus not capable of reproducing the sense of movement parallax, except for a single viewer in systems capable of eye tracking. Some autostereoscopic displays, however, are multi-view displays, and are thus capable of providing the perception of left-right movement parallax. Eight and sixteen views are typical for such displays. While it is theoretically possible to simulate the perception of up-down movement parallax, no current display systems are known to do so, and the up-down effect is widely seen as less important than left-right movement parallax. One consequence of not including parallax about both axes becomes more evident as objects increasingly distant from the plane of the display are presented: as the viewer moves closer to or farther away from the display, such objects will more obviously exhibit the effects of perspective shift about one axis but not the other, appearing variously stretched or squashed to a viewer not positioned at the optimum distance from the display." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Early years.", "Ideology.", "Political positions.", "Economic issues.", "Healthcare.", "Education.", "Green New Deal.", "Social issues.", "Criminal justice.", "Racial justice.", "LGBT+ rights.", "Foreign policy.", "Iran.", "Israel/Palestine.", "Structure and composition.", "Committees.", "Green National Committee.", "Caucuses.", "Geographic distribution.", "Office holders.", "List of national conventions and annual meetings.", "Fundraising and position on Super PACs.", "State and territorial parties." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The political movement that began in 1985 as the decentralized Committees of Correspondence evolved into a more centralized structure by 1990, opening a national clearinghouse and forming governing bodies, bylaws and a platform as the Green Committees of Correspondence (GCoC) and by 1990 simply The Greens. The organization conducted grassroots organizing efforts, educational activities and electoral campaigns. Internal divisions arose between members who saw electoral politics as ultimately corrupting and supported the notion of an \"anti-party party\" formed by Petra Kelly and other leaders of the Greens in Germany vs. those who saw electoral strategies as a crucial engine of social change. A struggle for the direction of the organization culminated a \"compromise agreement\", ratified in 1990 at the Greens National Congress in Elkins, West Virginia and in which both strategies would be accommodated within the same 527 political organization renamed the Greens/Green Party USA (G/GPUSA). It was recognized by the FEC as a national political party in 1991. The compromise agreement subsequently collapsed and two Green party organizations have co-existed in the United States since. The Green Politics Network was organized in 1990 and the National Association of Statewide Green Parties formed by 1994. Divisions between those pressing to break onto the national political stage and those aiming to grow roots at the local level continued to widen during the 1990s. The Association of State Green Parties (ASGP) encouraged and backed Nader's presidential runs in 1996 and 2000. By 2001, the push to separate electoral activity from the G/GPUSA issue-based organizing led to the Boston Proposal and subsequent rise of the Green Party of the United States. The G/GPUSA lost most of its affiliates in the following months and dropped its FEC national party status in 2005.", "The Green Party of the United States follows the ideals of green politics, which are based on the Four Pillars, namely: The Ten Key Values, which expand upon the Four Pillars, are as follows: Peter Camejo was quoted in 2002 as claiming that he was a watermelon—green on the outside, but red on the inside. In January 2004, he initiated the Avocado Declaration, which compares Greens to avocados. \"An avocado is Green on the outside and Green on the inside\". The Declaration goes on to explain that Greens have a vital role in bringing democracy to the otherwise undemocratic two party system of the United States; that the Greens have a unique and independent identity as a third party, which cannot be subsumed into the Republican or Democratic parties; and that they cannot be dismissed by Republican or Democratic critics by implying that they are merely socialists or communists. In 2016, the Green Party passed a motion in favor of rejecting both capitalism and state socialism, and instead supporting \"alternative economic system based on ecology and decentralization of power\". The motion states the change that the party says could be described as promoting \"'ecological socialism,' 'communalism,' or the 'cooperative commonwealth'\". The Green Party does not accept donations from corporations, political action committees (PACs), 527(c) organizations or soft money. The party's platforms and rhetoric harshly criticize corporate influence and control over government, media, and society at large.", "", "", "The Green Party supports the implementation of a single-payer healthcare system. They have also called for contraception and abortion procedures to be available on demand.", "The Green Party calls for providing tuition-free college at public universities and vocational schools, increasing funding for after-school and daycare programs, cancelling all student loan debt, and repealing the No Child Left Behind Act. They are strongly against the dissolution of public schools and the privatization of education.", "In 2006, the Green Party developed a Green New Deal that would serve as a transitional plan to a one-hundred-percent clean, renewable energy by 2030 utilizing a carbon tax, jobs guarantee, tuition-free college, single-payer healthcare and a focus on using public programs.", "", "The Green Party favors the abolition of the death penalty, repeal of Three-strikes laws, banning of private prisons, legalization of marijuana, and decriminalization of other drugs.", "The Green Party advocates for \"complete and full\" reparations to the African American community, as well the removal of the Confederate flag from all government buildings.", "The party supports same-sex marriage, the right of access to medical and surgical treatment for transgender and gender-nonconforming people, and withdrawing foreign aid to countries with poor LGBT+ rights records.", "The Green Party calls on the United States to join the International Criminal Court, and sign the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty and Non-Proliferation Treaty. Additionally, it supports cutting the defense budget in half, as well as prohibiting all arms sales to foreign countries.", "The Green Party supports the 2015 Iran nuclear deal to decrease sanctions while limiting Iran's capacity to make nuclear weapons.", "The Green Party advocates for the Palestinian right of return and cutting all U.S. aid to Israel. It has also expressed support for the international Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions (BDS) movement.", "", "The Green Party has two national committees recognized by the Federal Election Commission (FEC):", "The GNC is composed of delegates elected by affiliated state parties. The state parties also appoint delegates to serve on the various standing committees of the GNC. The National Committee elects a steering committee of seven co-chairs, a secretary and a treasurer to oversee daily operations. The National Committee performs most of its business online, but it also holds an annual national meeting to conduct business in person.", "Five Identity Caucuses have achieved representation on the GNC: Other caucuses have worked toward formal recognition by the GNC:", "The Green Party has its strongest popular support on the Pacific Coast, Upper Great Lakes, and Northeast, as reflected in the geographical distribution of Green candidates elected., Californians have elected 55 of the 226 office-holding Greens nationwide. Other states with high numbers of Green elected officials include Pennsylvania (31), Wisconsin (23), Massachusetts (18) and Maine (17). Maine has the highest per capita number of Green elected officials in the country and the largest Green registration percentage with more than 29,273 Greens comprising 2.95% of the electorate. Madison, Wisconsin is the city with the most Green elected officials (8), followed by Portland, Maine (7). The 2016 presidential campaign of Jill Stein got substantive support from counties and precincts with a high percentage of Native American population. For instance, in Sioux County (North Dakota, 84,1% Native American), Stein gained her best county-wide result: 10.4% of the votes. In Rolette County (also North Dakota, 77% Native American), she got 4.7% of the votes. Other majority Native American counties where Stein did above state average are Menominee (WI), Roosevelt (MT) and several precincts in Alaska. In 2005, the Green Party had 305,000 registered members in states allowing party registration and tens of thousands of members and contributors in the rest of the country. One challenge that the Green Party (as well as other third parties) faces is the difficulty of overcoming ballot access laws in many states, yet the Green Party has active state parties in all but a few states.", ", 143 officeholders in the United States were affiliated with the Green Party, the majority of them in California, several in Illinois, Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, Oregon, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin, with five or fewer in ten other states. These included one mayor and one deputy mayor and fourteen county or city commissioners (or equivalent). The remainder were members of school boards, clerks and other local administrative bodies and positions. Several Green Party members have been elected to state-level office, though not always as affiliates of the party. John Eder was elected to the Maine House of Representatives, re-elected in 2004, but defeated in 2006. Audie Bock was elected to the California State Assembly in 1999, but switched her registration to independent seven months later running as such in the 2000 election. Richard Carroll was elected to the Arkansas House of Representatives in 2008, but switched parties to become a Democrat five months after his election. Fred Smith was elected to the Arkansas House of Representatives in 2012, but re-registered as a Democrat in 2014. In 2010, former Green Party leader Ben Chipman was elected to the Maine House of Representatives as an unenrolled candidate and was re-elected in 2012 and 2014. He has since registered as a Democrat, and is serving in the Maine Senate. Gayle McLaughlin was twice elected mayor of Richmond, California, defeating two Democrats in 2006 and then reelected in 2010; and elected to City Council in 2014 after completing her second term as mayor. With a population of over 100,000 people, it was the largest American city with a Green mayor. Fairfax, California; Arcata, California; Sebastopol, California; and New Paltz, New York are the only towns in the United States to have had a Green Party majority in their town councils. Twin Ridges Elementary in Nevada County, California held the first Green Party majority school board in the United States. On September 21, 2017, Ralph Chapman, a member of the Maine House of Representatives, switched his party registration from unaffiliated to Green, providing the Green Party with their first state-level representative since 2014. Henry John Bear became a member of the Green Party in the same year as Chapman, giving the Maine Green Independent Party and GPUS its second currently-serving state representative, though Bear is a nonvoting tribal member of the Maine House of Representatives. Though several Green congressional candidates have topped 20%, no nominee of the Green Party has been elected to office in the federal government. In 2016, Mark Salazar set a new record for a Green Party nominee for Congress. Running in the Arizona 8th district against incumbent Republican Congressman Trent Franks, Salazar received 93,954 votes or 31.43%.", "The Green National Convention is scheduled in presidential election years and the Annual National Meeting is scheduled in other years. The Green National Committee conducts business online between these in-person meetings.", "In the early decades of Green organizing in the United States, the prevailing American system of money-dominated elections was universally rejected by Greens, so that some Greens were reluctant to have Greens participate in the election system at all because they deemed the campaign finance system inherently corrupt. Other Greens felt strongly that the Green Party should develop in the electoral arena and many of these Greens felt that adopting an alternative model of campaign finance, emphasizing self-imposed contribution limits, would present a wholesome and attractive contrast to the odious campaign finance practices of the money-dominated major parties. Over the years, some state Green parties have come to place less emphasis on the principle of self-imposed limits than they did in the past. Nevertheless, it is safe to say that Green Party fundraising (for candidates' campaigns and for the party itself) still tends to rely on relatively small contributions and that Greens generally decry not only the rise of the Super PACs, but also the big-money system, which some Greens criticize as plutocracy. Some Greens feel that the Green Party's position should be simply to follow the laws and regulations of campaign finance. Other Greens argue that it would injure the Green Party not to practice a principled stand against the anti-democratic influence of money in the political process. Candidates for office, like Jill Stein, the 2012 and 2016 Green Party nominee for the President of the United States, typically rely on smaller donations to fund their campaigns.", "The following is a list of accredited state parties which comprise the Green Party of the United States." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Affiliated organizations.", "Changes in affiliation.", "The Nebraska Party.", "North Carolina.", "Oregon.", "West Virginia.", "State disaffiliations.", "Platform.", "Current platform.", "Platform topics.", "Electoral College.", "Fiscal policy.", "Social Security phase-out.", "Trade and foreign policies.", "Immigration policy.", "Social policy.", "Environmental policy.", "Federalism.", "Notable members and allies.", "Candidates.", "Ballot access." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The party was founded as the U.S. Taxpayers' Party by Howard Phillips in 1991. Phillips was also the party's candidate in the 1992, 1996 and 2000 presidential elections. The party was renamed the Constitution Party in 1999, but some state-affiliated parties are known under different names. The California American Independent Party affiliated with the Constitution Party from 1992 - 2008. The American Independent party was founded for George Wallace's 1968 presidential campaign. The Constitution Party claims to be the \"philosophical home\" of the Tea Party. The Constitution Party candidate, former congressman Tom Tancredo, came in second place with 617,030 votes in the 2010 Colorado gubernatorial election with 36.4% of the vote, ahead of Republican Dan Maes with 11.1%. In 2006, Rick Jore, of the then recently disaffiliated Constitution Party of Montana, was elected to the Montana House of Representatives with 56.2% of the vote, defeating Democrat Jeanne Windham.", "The following table displays select Constitution Party state affiliate parties, chapters and organizations. All affiliates state in their platforms support for strict adherence to the Declaration of Independence and the U.S. Constitution. Many also specifically add their home state constitutions to the mix.", "The Constitution Party of Montana re-affiliated with the national party in 2011. According to the party website, since November 2012, the Alaskan Independence Party has not been an affiliate.", "The Nebraska state affiliate of the Constitution Party is called the Nebraska Party. The party had candidates for statewide offices placed on ballots from 2002 to 2008. The stated mission of the Nebraska Party is \"to restore economic prosperity to all Nebraskans, to restore the Christian Principles of our Forefathers, and to get the Government back in the hands of the people. The Nebraska Party is founded on the principles of the Democrat-Republican Party, which was established in the early 1800s by Thomas Jefferson. The Democrat-Republican Party, now the Nebraska Party, represents the people, the working people (labor), family farmers, small business and, of course, our senior citizens\".", "The Constitution Party branches in North Carolina and several other states adhere to what they proclaim as the \"Seven Essential Core Values\". These core values are defined as \"the Sanctity of Life, Religious Freedom, Traditional Family, Private Property Rights, Pro-Second Amendment, National Sovereignty, and Anti-Socialism\". The party claims to be the state's only truly 100% Anti-abortion political party.", "The state party was originally formed in 1952, and reincorporated in 2000 as an affiliate of the national Constitution Party. On May 20, 2006, a proposal to break with the national party was debated and ultimately adopted. Similar measures were taken by other state parties after the national party partially abandoned their anti-abortion position, supporting it in the cases of rape, incest, or the life of the mother. The amendment argued that \"...until the national Constitution Party resumes a principled, pro-life position – we, in Oregon, should separate ourselves and proceed as an independent state party.\" It has not re-affiliated to the national Constitution Party, but has since affiliate itself to National Alliance of Independent American Parties.", "The origins of the state party can be traced to October 2000, when founding member Brenda Donnellan and activists from Wood County served as plaintiffs in Phillips v Hechler, civ 6:00-894. This litigation resulted in a November 3, 2000, ruling against then Secretary of State Ken Hechler, forcing him to allow Constitution Party presidential nominee, Howard Phillips, to run as a declared write-in (WI) candidate without paying a filing fee. The 1964 Constitution Party presidential nominee, Joseph B. Lightburn, was a neighbor of Donnellan's in Jane Lew, where he owned a local general store. Lightburn served as National Committeeman for the Constitution Party of West Virginia, but the original party had long been defunct. There was no connection between the two. Because the Constitution Party is not a major party in the state, its voters are permitted to vote in the primary but must take the initiative to ask for either a Republican or Democratic party ballot in lieu of the standard non-partisan ballot.", "In early 2006, Christopher H. Hansen, the gubernatorial candidate of Independent American Party of Nevada (the former Constitution Party state affiliate in Nevada), and candidates in Colorado and Idaho, publicly expressed support for allowing abortions in the cases of rape, incest, and for those performed to save the life of the mother, a contrary view to the official Nevada platform. At the party's April 2008 national convention in Tampa, Florida, the assembly voted not to disaffiliate Nevada, citing that affiliate's official position on the issue and the national party's policy against dictating the internal affairs (such as electing leaders) of any affiliate. They also made it more difficult to introduce a disaffiliation resolution. The Oregon and Montana affiliates voluntarily disaffiliated from the party later that year. The Constitution Party of Nevada was created on October 15, 2013, in response to the controversies.", "", "The 2016–2020 Platform of the Constitution Party is available for download on the party's website. It has 31 planks.", "The 2016 preamble of the Constitution Party platform \"gratefully acknowledges the blessing of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ as Creator, Preserver and Ruler of the Universe and of these United States,\" and supports the constitutional provision in Article VI, Section 3 that \"no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under the United States\" and calls on all those who love liberty and value their inherent rights to join with them in the pursuit of their goals. The Constitution Party's website states that it \"is the philosophical home of the TEA Party, where candidates who are committed to the same constitutional principles as most TEA Party groups can run for office without opposition from within their own party\" and encourages \"Constitution Party leadership and candidates to work with local TEA Party and other like-minded groups to re-establish the American Constitutional Republic in their communities and states.\" The 2016–2020 platform contains no reference to the Tea Party.", "The Constitution Party, in the 2016 platform, supported retaining the Electoral College and was opposed to establishing a popular vote system to elect the president and vice president of the United States.", "The Constitution Party in 2012 supported reducing the role of the United States federal government through cutting bureaucratic regulation, reducing spending, and replacing the income tax with a tariff-based revenue system supplemented by excise taxes. The party also takes the position that the \"imposition [...] of Federal income, payroll, and estate taxes [...] is an unconstitutional Federal assumption of direct taxing authority\".", "The Constitution Party in 2012 called for phasing out social security. The 2016 platform states: \"Social Security is a form of individual welfare not authorized in the Constitution\".", "The Constitution Party in 2012 favored a non-interventionist foreign policy. It advocates reduction and eventual elimination of the role the United States plays in multinational and international organizations such as the United Nations and favors withdrawal of the United States from most treaties, such as NATO, North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and the World Trade Organization. The party takes mercantilist positions in supporting protectionist policies on international trade. The party also believes in exercising a tariff system to counteract the United States' increasingly negative balance of trade. The tariff system would levy additional import costs, the amount of which would vary proportionally with how much lower the exporting country's production costs are compared to that of U.S. companies.", "The party in 2012 opposed illegal immigration and sought stricter controls on legal immigration. It demanded that the federal government implement an immigration policy disqualifying potential immigrants on grounds of ill health, criminality, low morals, or financial dependence, claiming that they would impose an improper burden on the United States. The party favored a moratorium on future immigration, with exceptions only for extreme cases of necessity, until federal welfare programs have been phased out and a better vetting program is in place. The party opposes welfare subsidies and other benefits to undocumented immigrants. It rejects the practice of bestowing U.S. citizenship on children born to illegal immigrant parents while in this country (\"jus soli\"), and flatly rejects any extension of amnesty to undocumented immigrants. The Constitution Party calls for the use of the United States military to enforce the strict immigration policy.", "The party opposes euthanasia, suicide, and abortion, including in cases of rape and incest. The party supports the right of states to administer the death penalty: Our support of a State's option to impose the death penalty is limited to those who have been convicted of capital crimes. This is consistent with protecting innocent life because the death penalty would only be applied to those who have proven to be a threat to innocent life. The party opposes any government legislation to authorize or define marriage and states that \"The law of our Creator defines marriage as the union between one man and one woman\". The party also opposes pornography, believing that it is \"a destructive element of society resulting in significant and real emotional, physical, spiritual and financial costs to individuals, families and communities,\" and distinguishable from the US citizen's \"cherished First Amendment right to free speech.\" While expressing its belief in the individual responsibility of citizens and corporations, the party maintains that government plays a \"vital role\" in establishing and maintaining the highest level of decency in America's community standards. The party opposes all government sponsorship, involvement in, or promotion of gambling. Citing and Amendment 10, the party opposes federal anti-drug laws, while conceding that the federal government may have a role in limiting the import of drugs. The party supports the right to bear arms in accordance with the Second Amendment. The party believes that any attempt to make laws barring the second amendment is unconstitutional. It has taken a stand against the Patriot Act. The Constitution Party believes that charitable giving is most effective when conducted by private parties. Because the authority to administer charity has not been granted to the government in the Constitution, the party maintains that the government has no business being involved in such endeavors. The party opposes federal restrictions on, or subsidization of, medical treatments. The party supports English as the official language for all governmental business, opposes bilingual ballots, and insists that those who wish to take part in the electoral process and governance of the U.S. be required to read and comprehend basic English as a precondition for citizenship. The party also opposes the federal Voting Rights Act. In 2009, the Southern Poverty Law Center described the party as a \"Patriot Group\" a category of parties that \"advocate or adhere to extreme anti-government doctrines\".", "The party believes that \"it is our responsibility to be prudent, productive, and efficient stewards of God’s natural resources\". The party rejects the scientific consensus on climate change, saying that \"globalists are using the global warming threat to gain more control via worldwide sustainable development\". According to the party, eminent domain is unlawful because \"under no circumstances may the federal government take private property, by means of rules and regulations which preclude or substantially reduce the productive use of the property, even with just compensation\". In regards to energy, the party calls attention to \"the continuing need of the United States for a sufficient supply of energy for national security and for the immediate adoption of a policy of free market solutions to achieve energy independence for the United States,\" and calls for the abolition of the Department of Energy.", "The party supports the repeal of the Sixteenth Amendment, which allows Congress to tax income derived from interest, dividends, and capital gains, and the Seventeenth Amendment, which requires the direct (popular) election of Senators. The party holds that each state's membership in the Union is voluntary, a stance known as the compact theory.", "Pat Buchanan threatened in 1996 to run as the U.S. Taxpayers' Party candidate if Bob Dole chose a pro-abortion rights running mate. Dole chose anti-abortion Jack Kemp and received Buchanan's endorsement. Buchanan's 2000 Reform Party running mate Ezola B. Foster switched her membership to the Constitution Party in 2002. Buchanan stated on the edition of September 7, 2004 of \"Hardball with Chris Matthews\", \"There is a chance I would vote for [Michael] Peroutka.\" However, he later wrote an endorsement of President George W. Bush in the pages of \"The American Conservative\". U.S. Senator Bob Smith announced his switch from Republican to the U.S. Taxpayers Party in 1999 to seek its 2000 presidential nomination. Smith later charged that anti-New World Order ideologues within the party resisted his candidacy due to his Roman Catholicism. He left the party after one month and continued his campaign as a non-partisan independent but ceased the campaign soon thereafter and returned to the Republican Party to assume a Senate committee chairmanship. In 2008, he began writing editorials on the Constitution Party's web page, fueling speculation that he would seek its presidential nomination again, despite endorsing Rep. Duncan Hunter for the Republican nomination. He requested that his name be withheld from consideration in a March 2008 letter to Constitution Party supporters. Minuteman Project co-founder Jim Gilchrist ran for Congress with the American Independent Party in 2005, but has since rejoined the Republican Party. Former Reagan Administration official and devout Catholic activist Alan Keyes had actively sought the Constitution candidacy after ending a bid for the GOP nomination. The party has attracted notables in the anti-abortion movement such as Gregory Thompson, Lon Mabon, Paul deParrie, and Missionaries to the Preborn leader Pastor Matthew Trewhella. However, many such notables were involved in the below-mentioned disaffiliation efforts over abortion, and it remains unclear what effect the movement has upon the reorganized rump affiliates. A 2008 candidate for the Republican nomination, Representative Ron Paul (R-Texas), endorsed several third party candidates shortly after he bowed out of the race. He later endorsed 2008 Constitution Party presidential candidate Chuck Baldwin. The unaffiliated Constitution Party of Montana replaced Baldwin with Paul for president and Michael Peroutka for vice president. Paul requested that Montana remove his name from the ballot, but the Secretary of State of Montana denied his request, stating that the request was sent too late. In 2010, former Republican Congressman Tom Tancredo ran for governor of Colorado as a Constitutionist. He received 36.8% of the vote, finishing in second place. Despite losing the election, Tancredo managed to secure major party status for the Constitution Party in Colorado by surpassing the 10% of the gubernatorial election vote needed to qualify as a major party. In 2006, Rick Jore of Montana became the first Constitution Party candidate elected to a state-level office by winning election to the Montana House of Representatives. Ronnie Broughton, a past president and current member of the Webster Parish School Board in Minden, Louisiana, is the chairman of his state's Constitution Party and one of the few party members holding public office in Louisiana. Roy Moore, the former chief justice of the Alabama Supreme Court who was notably suspended twice in 2003 and 2016 for refusing to comply with court orders regarding the display of the Ten Commandments and the issuing of same-sex marriage licenses, had been courted by the Constitution Party to run as their candidate in the 2004, 2008, and 2012 presidential elections.", "Former Republican Representative Virgil Goode (VA-5) was nominated at the convention in Nashville, Tennessee on April 22, 2012. Goode received 203 votes; 202 were required for a majority. Darrell Castle of Tennessee, national vice chairman of the Constitution Party, came in second with 120 votes. Other candidates who received votes were Robby Wells from North Carolina, former football coach at Savannah State University; Dr. Laurie Roth of Washington state, a radio talk-show host; and Susan Ducey of Kansas, a Registered Nurse. On April 16, 2016, Darrell Castle secured the presidential nomination for the Constitution Party at a convention attended by delegates from 28 states. He has vowed, if elected, to get the United States out of the United Nations and NATO. \"Our borders are worth defending. If we can secure the borders of Korea and Germany, then we can secure the borders of the United States,\" said Castle. In his nomination acceptance speech, Castle made no reference to the unspecified health reasons that had earlier led him to withdraw his name from consideration. Since accepting the nomination, Castle has given several interviews to media, but his campaign website lists no public campaign appearances.", "The following is a table of ballot status for the Constitution Party presidential nominee in 2016. The Constitution Party's website criticizes the dominance of two parties in the US electoral system, saying:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot summary.", "Translations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Seventeen-year-old Des Grieux, studying philosophy at Amiens, comes from a noble and landed family, but forfeits his hereditary wealth and incurs the disappointment of his father by running away with Manon on her way to a convent. In Paris, the young lovers enjoy a blissful cohabitation, while Des Grieux struggles to satisfy Manon's taste for luxury. He scrounges together money by borrowing from his unwaveringly loyal friend Tiberge and by cheating gamblers. On several occasions, Des Grieux's wealth evaporates (by theft, in a house fire, etc.), prompting Manon to leave him for a richer man because she cannot stand the thought of living in penury. The two lovers finally end up in New Orleans, to which Manon has been deported as a prostitute, where they pretend to be married and live in idyllic peace for a while. But when Des Grieux reveals their unmarried state to the Governor and asks to be wed with Manon, the Governor's nephew sets his sights on winning Manon's hand. In despair, Des Grieux challenges the Governor's nephew to a duel and knocks him unconscious. Thinking he had killed the man and fearing retribution, the couple flee New Orleans and venture into the wilderness of Louisiana, hoping to reach an English settlement. Manon dies of exposure and exhaustion the following morning and, after burying his beloved, Des Grieux is eventually taken back to France by Tiberge.", "For the original 1731 version of the novel, Helen Waddell's (1931) is considered the best of the English translations. For the 1753 revision, the best are by L. W. Tancock (Penguin, 1949—though he divides the 2-part novel into a number of chapters), Donald M. Frame (Signet, 1961—which notes differences between the 1731 and 1753 editions), Angela Scholar (Oxford, 2004, with extensive notes and commentary), and Andrew Brown (Hesperus, 2004, with a foreword by Germaine Greer). Henri Valienne (1854–1908), a physician and author of the first novel in the constructed language Esperanto, translated \"Manon Lescaut\" into that language. His translation was published at Paris in 1908, and reissued by the British Esperanto Association in 1926." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Design history.", "19th century.", "1900–1930.", "1930s.", "Developing production standards.", "1940s.", "1950s–1960s.", "Structural integrity.", "1970s.", "Industry safety regulations.", "1980s–1990s.", "2000–present.", "Design overview.", "Types.", "Other formats.", "Features.", "Livery.", "Safety devices.", "Restraint systems.", "School bus manufacture.", "Production (North America).", "Operations.", "Licensing.", "Loading and unloading.", "Traffic priority.", "Warning lights and stop arms.", "School buses and the environment.", "Alternative fuels.", "Electric school buses.", "Walking and cycling 'buses'.", "Other uses.", "School bus derivatives.", "Church use.", "Community outreach.", "Law enforcement.", "Uses of retired school buses.", "School bus conversions.", "School bus export.", "Around the world." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "3", "2", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "In the second half of the 19th century, many rural areas of the United States and Canada were served by one-room schools. For those students who lived beyond practical walking distance from school, transportation was facilitated in the form of the kid hack; at the time, \"hack\" was a term referring to certain types of horse-drawn carriages. Essentially re-purposed farm wagons, kid hacks were open to the elements,", "Following the first decade of the 20th century, several developments would affect the design of the school bus and student transport. As vehicles evolved from horse-drawn to \"horseless\" propulsion on a wider basis, the wagon bodies of kid hacks and school cars were adapted to truck frames. While transitioning into purpose-built designs, a number of features from wagons were retained, including wood construction, perimeter bench seating, and rear entry doors. Weather protection remained", "During the 1930s, school buses saw advances in their design and production that remain in use to this day. To better adapt automotive chassis design, school bus entry doors were moved from the rear to the front curbside, becoming a door operated by the driver (to ease loading passengers and improve forward visibility). The rear entry door of the kid hacks were re-purposed (as an emergency exit). Following the introduction of the steel-paneled 1927 Luce bus, school bus manufacturing began to transition towards all-steel construction. In 1930,", "The custom-built nature of school buses created an inherent obstacle to their profitable mass production on a large scale. Although school bus design had moved away from the wagon-style kid hacks of the generation before, there was not yet an recognized set of industry-wide standards for school buses. In 1939, rural education expert Dr. Frank W. Cyr organized a week-long conference at Teachers College, Columbia University that forever changed the design and production of school buses. Funded by a $5,000 grant, Dr. Cyr invited transportation officials, representatives from body and chassis manufacturers, and paint companies. To reduce the complexity", "During World War II, school bus manufacturers converted to military production, manufacturing buses and license-built trucks for the military. Following the war, school bus operation would see a number of changes, following developments within education systems. Following World War II and the rise of suburban growth in North America, demand for school busing", "From 1950 to 1982, the baby boom generation was either in elementary or high school, leading to a significant increase in student populations across North America; this would be a factor that would directly influence school bus production for over three decades. During the 1950s, as student populations began to grow, larger school buses began to enter production. To increase seating capacity (extra rows of seats), manufacturers began to produce bodies on heavier-duty truck chassis; transit-style school buses also grew in size. In 1954, the first diesel-engined school bus was introduced, with the first tandem-axle school", "During the 1960s, as with standard passenger cars, concerns began to arise for passenger protection in catastrophic traffic collisions. At the time, the weak point of the body structure was the body joints; where panels and pieces were riveted together, joints could break apart in major accidents, with the bus body causing harm to passengers. After subjecting a bus to a rollover test in 1964, in 1969, Ward Body Works pointing that fasteners had a direct effect on joint quality (and that body manufacturers were using relatively few rivets and fasteners). In its own research, Wayne Corporation discovered that the body joints were the weak points themselves. In 1973, to reduce the risk of body panel separation, Wayne introduced the Wayne Lifeguard, a school bus body with single-piece body side and roof stampings. While single-piece stampings seen in the Lifeguard had their own manufacturing challenges, school buses of today use relatively few side panels to minimize body joints.", "During the 1970s, school buses would undergo a number of design upgrades related to safety. While many changes were related to protecting passengers, others were intended to minimizing the chances of traffic collisions. To decrease confusion over traffic priority (increasing safety around school bus stops), federal and state regulations were amended, requiring for many states/provinces to add amber warning lamps inboard of the red warning lamps. Similar to a yellow traffic light, the amber lights are activated before stopping (at distance), indicating to drivers that", "From 1939 to 1973, school bus production was largely self-regulated. In 1973, the first federal regulations governing school buses went into effect, as FMVSS 217 was required for school buses; the regulation governed specifications of rear emergency exit doors/windows. Following the focus on school bus structural integrity, NHTSA introduced the four \"Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards for School Buses,\" applied on April 1, 1977, bringing significant change to the design, engineering, and construction of school buses and a substantial improvement in safety performance. While many changes related to the 1977 safety standards were made under the body structure (to improve crashworthiness), the most", "For school bus manufacturers, the 1980s marked a period of struggle, following a combination of factors. As the decade began, the end of the baby-boom generation had finished high school; with a decrease in student population growth, school bus manufacturing was left with a degree of overcapacity. Coupled with the recession economy of the early 1980s, the decline in demand for school bus production left several manufacturers in financial ruin. To better secure their future, during the 1990s, school bus manufacturers underwent a period of transition, with several ownership changes leading to joint ventures and alignments between body manufacturers and chassis suppliers. In 1986, with the signing of the Commercial Motor Vehicle Safety Act, school bus drivers across the United States became required to acquire a commercial driver's license (CDL). While CDLs were issued by individual states, the federal CDL requirement ensured that drivers of all large vehicles (such as school buses) had a consistent training level. In contrast to the 1970s focus on structural integrity, design advances during the 1980s and 1990s focused around the driver. In 1979 and 1980, International Harvester and Ford each introduced a new-generation bus chassis, with General Motors following suit in 1984. To increase driver visibility, updates in line with chassis redesigns shifted the bus driver upward, outward, and forward. To decrease driver distraction, interior controls were redesigned with improved ergonomics; automatic transmissions came into wider use, preventing the", "The beginning of the 21st century would introduce extensive changes to the production of school buses. Though vehicle assembly saw few direct changes, manufacturer consolidation and industry contraction effectively ended the practice of customers selecting body and chassis manufacturers independently. While the aspect of customer choice was largely ended (as a result of corporate ownership and supply agreements), decreased complexity paved the way for new product innovations previously thought impossible. During the 2010s, while diesel engines have remained the primary source of power, manufacturers expanded the availability of alternative-fuel vehicles, including CNG, propane, gasoline, and electric-power buses. At the beginning of the 2000s, manufacturers introduced a new generation of conventional-style school buses, coinciding with the redesign of several medium-duty truck lines. While Ford and General Motors shifted bus production to cutaway chassis, Freightliner and International released new cowled chassis in 2004 and 2005, respectively. In 2003, Blue Bird introduced the Vision conventional; in line with its transit-style buses, the Vision utilized a proprietary chassis (rather than a design from a medium-duty truck). In 2004, Thomas introduced the Saf-T-Liner C2 (derived from the Freightliner M2), with the body designed alongside its chassis (allowing the use of the production Freightliner dashboard). A trait of both the Vision and C2 (over their predecessors) is improved loading-zone visibility; both vehicles adopted highly sloped hoods and extra glass around the entry", "According to the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) and the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB), school buses are the safest type of road vehicle. On average, five fatalities involve school-age children on a school bus each year; statistically, a school bus is over 70 times safer than riding to school by car. Many fatalities related to school buses are passengers of other vehicles and pedestrians (only 5% are bus occupants). Since the initial development of consistent school bus standards in 1939, many of the ensuing changes to school buses over the past eight decades have been safety related, particularly in response to more stringent regulations adopted by state and federal governments. Ever since the adoption of yellow as a standard color in 1939, school buses deliberately integrate the concept of conspicuity into their design. When making student dropoffs or pickups, traffic law gives school buses priority over other vehicles; in order to stop traffic, they are equipped with flashing lights and a stop sign. As a consequence of their size, school buses have a number of blind spots around the outside of the vehicle which can endanger passengers disembarking a bus or pedestrians standing or walking nearby. To address this safety challenge, a key point of school bus design is focused on exterior visibility, improving the design of bus windows, mirrors, and the windshield to optimize visibility for the driver. In the case of a collision, the body structure of a school bus is designed with an integral roll cage; as a school bus carries a large number of student passengers, a school bus is designed with several emergency exits to facilitate fast egress. In the United States and Canada, numerous federal and state regulations require school buses to be manufactured as a purpose-built vehicle distinct from other buses. In contrast to buses in use for public transit, dedicated school buses used for student transport are all single-deck, two-axle design (multi-axle designs are no longer in use). Outside of North America, buses utilized for student transport are derived from vehicles used elsewhere in transit systems, including coaches, minibuses, and transit buses.", "There are four types of school buses produced by manufacturers in North America. The smallest school buses are designated Type A (based on cutaway van chassis); a larger format (bodied on bare front-engine chassis) are designated Type B buses. Large school buses include Type C (bodied on cowled medium-duty truck chassis) and Type D (bodied on bare \"forward control\" or \"pusher\" chassis). Type C buses are the most common design, while Type D buses are the largest vehicles. All school buses are of single deck design with step entry. In the United States and Canada, bus bodies are restricted to a maximum width of and a maximum length of. Seating capacity is affected by both body length and operator specifications, with the largest designs seating up to 90 passengers.", "In both public and private education systems, other types of school buses are used for purposes of student transport outside of regular route service. Along with their usage, these buses are distinguished from regular yellow school buses by their exterior design. An \"activity bus\" is a school bus used for providing transportation for students. In place of home to school route service, an activity bus is primarily used for the purpose for transportation related to extracurricular activities. Depending on individual state/provincial regulations, the bus used for this purpose can either be a regular yellow school bus or a dedicated unit for this purpose. Dedicated", "", "To specifically identify them as such, purpose-built school buses are painted a specific shade of yellow, designed to optimize their visibility for other drivers. In addition to \"School Bus\" signage in the front and rear above the window line, school buses are labeled with the name of the operator (school district or bus contractor) and an identification number.", "To comply with federal and state requirements, school buses are equipped with a number of safety devices to prevent accidents and injuries and for the purposes of security.", "In contrast to cars and other light-duty passenger vehicles, school buses are not typically equipped with active restraint systems, such as seat belts; whether seat belts should be a requirement has been a topic of controversy. Since the 1970s, school buses have used the concept of compartmentalization as a passive restraint system; during the late 2000s and 2010s, seatbelt design transitioned, with 3-point restraints replacing lap belts. As of 2015, seatbelts are a requirement in at least five states: California, Florida, New Jersey, New York, and Texas; Canada does not require their installation (at the provincial level). Of the states that equip buses with two-point lap seat belts (Florida, Louisiana, New Jersey and New York), only New Jersey requires seat belt usage by riders. In other states, it is up to the district or operator whether to require riders to use them or not.", "In most cases, school buses are assembled by second stage manufacturers, mating a bus body with a second-party chassis. Some school buses (typically those of Type D configuration) are produced with both body and chassis from the same manufacturer. In 2018, 44,381 school buses were sold in North America (compared to 31,194 in 2010). Approximately 70% of production is of Type C configuration.", "In the United States and Canada, school buses are currently produced by nine different manufacturers. Four of them—Collins Industries, Starcraft Bus, Trans Tech, and Van Con — specialize exclusively in small buses. Thomas Built Buses and Blue Bird Corporation (the latter, through its Micro Bird joint venture with Girardin)—produce both small and large buses.", "Every year in the United States and Canada, school buses provide an estimated 8 billion student trips from home and school. Each school day in 2015, nearly 484,000 school buses transported 26.9 million children to and from school and school-related activities; over half of the United States K–12 student population is transported by school bus. Outside North America, purpose-built vehicles for student transport are less common. Depending on location, students ride to school on transit buses (on school-only routes), coaches, or a variety of other buses. While school bus operations vary widely by location, in the United States and Canada, school bus services operate independent of public transport, with their own bus stops and schedules, coordinated with school class times.", "School bus drivers in the United States are required to hold a commercial driver's license (CDL). Full-size school buses are generally considered Class B vehicles; most van-based school", "Coinciding with their seating configuration, school buses have a higher seating capacity than buses of a similar length; a typical full-size school bus can carry from 66 to 90 passengers. In contrast to a transit bus, school buses are equipped with a single entry door at the front of the bus. Several configurations of entry doors are used on school buses, including center-hinged (jack-knife) and outward-opening. Prior to the 2000s, doors operated manually by the driver were the most common, with air or electric-assist becoming nearly universal in current vehicles. School bus routes are designed with multiple bus stops, allowing for the loading (unloading) of several students at a time; the", "In contrast to transit and intercity buses, when loading and unloading students, school buses have the ability to stop traffic, using a system of warning lights and stop arms-a stop sign that is deployed from the bus to stop traffic. By the mid-1940s, most U.S. states introduced traffic laws requiring motorists to stop for school buses while children were loading", "Around 1946, the first system of traffic warning signal lights on school buses was used in Virginia, consisting of a pair of sealed beam lights. Instead of colorless glass lenses (similar to car headlamps), the warning lamps utilized red lenses. A motorized rotary switch applied power alternately to the red lights mounted at the left and right of the front and rear of the bus, creating a wig-wag effect. Activation was typically through a mechanical switch attached to the door control. However, on some buses (such as Gillig's Transit Coach models and the Kenworth-Pacific School Coach) activation of the roof warning lamp system was through the use of a pressure-sensitive switch on a manually controlled stop paddle lever located to the left of the driver's seat below the window. Whenever the pressure was relieved by extending the stop paddle, the electric current was activated to the relay. In the 1950s, plastic lenses were developed for the warning lenses, though the warning lights (with colorless glass lenses) used sealed-beam lamps into the mid-2000s, when light-emitting diodes (LEDs) came into use. The warning lamps initially used for school buses consisted of four red warning lights. With the adoption of FMVSS 108 in January 1968, four additional warning lights were gradually added to school buses; these were amber in color and mounted inboard of the red warning lights. Intended to signal an upcoming stop to drivers, as the entry door was opened at the stop, they were wired to be overridden by the red lights and the stop sign. Although 8-light systems were adopted by many states and provinces during the 1970s", "As the use of school buses transports students on a much larger scale than by car (on average, the same as 36 separate automobiles), their use reduces pollution in the same manner as carpooling. Through their usage of internal-combustion engines, school buses are not an emissions-free form of transportation (in comparison to biking or walking). As of 2017, over 95% of school buses in North America are powered by diesel-fueled engines. While diesel offers fuel efficiency and safety advantages over gasoline, diesel exhaust fumes have become a concern (related to health problems). Since the early to mid-2000s, emissions standards for diesel engines have been upgraded considerably; a school bus meeting 2017 emissions standards is 60 times cleaner than a school bus from 2002 (and approximately 3,600 times cleaner than a counterpart from 1990). To comply with upgraded standards and regulations, diesel engines have been redesigned to use ultra-low sulfur diesel fuel with selective catalytic reduction becoming a primary emissions control strategy.", "Although diesel fuel is most commonly used in large school buses (and even in many smaller ones), alternative fuel systems such as LPG/propane and CNG have been developed to counter the emissions drawbacks that diesel and gasoline-fueled school buses pose to the public health and environment. The use of propane as a fuel for school buses began in the 1970s, largely as a response to the 1970s energy crisis. Initially produced as conversions of gasoline engines (as both require spark ignition), propane fell out of favor in the 1980s as fuel prices stabilized, coupled with the expanded use of diesel engines. In the late 2000s, propane-fueled powertrains reentered production as emissions regulations began to negatively affect the", "In theory, urban and suburban routes prove advantageous for the use of an electric bus; charging can be achieved before and after the bus is transporting students (when the bus is parked). In the early 1990s, several prototype models of battery-powered buses were developed as conversions of existing school buses; these were built primarily for research purposes. During the 2000s, school bus electrification shifted towards the development of diesel-electric hybrid school buses. Intended as a means to minimize engine idling while loading/unloading passengers and increasing diesel fuel economy, hybrid school buses failed to gain widespread acceptance. A key factor in their market failure", "Walking buses and bike bus (known as \"riding school bus\" for students) take their", "Outside of student transport itself, the design of a school bus is adapted for use for a variety of applications. Along with newly produced vehicles, conversions of retired school buses see a large range of uses. Qualities desired from school buses involve sturdy construction (as school buses have an all-steel body and frame), a large seating capacity, and wheelchair lift capability, among others.", "", "Churches throughout the United States and Canada use buses to transport their congregants, both to church services and events. A wide variety of buses are owned by churches, depending on needs and affordability. Larger buses may often be derived from school buses (newly purchased or second-hand). Other churches often own minibuses, often equipped with wheelchair", "In terms of vehicles used for community outreach, school bus bodyshells (both new and second-hand) see use as bookmobiles and mobile blood donation centers (bloodmobiles), among other uses. Both types of vehicles spend", "Larger police agencies may own police buses derived from school bus bodies for a number of purposes. Along with buses with high-capacity seating serving as officer transports (in large-scale deployments), other vehicles derived from buses may have little seating, serving as temporary mobile command centers; these vehicles are built from school bus bodyshells and fitted with agency-specified equipment. Prisoner transport vehicles are high-security vehicles used to transport prisoners; a school bus bodyshell is fitted with a specially designed interior and exterior with secure windows and doors.", "As of 2016, the average age of a school bus in the United States is 9.3 years. School buses can be retired from service due to a number of factors, including vehicle age or mileage, mechanical condition, emissions compliance, or any combination of these factors. In some states and provinces, school bus retirement is called for at specific age or mileage intervals, regardless of mechanical condition. In recent years, budget concerns in many publicly funded school districts have necessitated that school buses be kept in service longer. When a school bus is retired from school use, it can see a", "In retirement, not all school buses live on as transport vehicles. In contrast, the purchasers of school buses use the large body and chassis to use as either a working vehicle, or as a basis to build a rolling home. To build a utility vehicle for farms, owners often remove much of the roof and sides, creating a large flatbed or open-bed truck for hauling hay. Other farms use unconverted, re-painted, school buses to transport their workforce. Skoolies are retired school buses converted into recreational vehicles (the term also applies to their owners and enthusiasts). Constructed and customized by their owners; while some examples have primitive accommodations, others rival the features of production RVs. Exteriors vary widely, including only the removal of school bus lettering, conservative designs, or the bus equivalent of an art car. An example of a Skoolie is Further, a 1939 (and later, 1947) school bus converted by Ken Kesey and the Merry Pranksters, intended for use on cross-country counterculture road trips. Both versions of Further are painted with a variety of psychedelic colors and designs.", "Retired school buses from Canada and the United States are sometimes exported to Africa, Central America, South America, or elsewhere. Used as public transportation between communities,", "Outside the United States and Canada, the usage and design of buses for student transport varies worldwide. In Europe, Asia, and Australia, buses utilized for student transport may be derived from standard transit buses. Alongside differences in body, chassis, and seating design, school buses outside North America differ primarily in their signage, livery, and traffic priority." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Old Norse.", "Old and Middle English.", "Old High German." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "This name occurs in Old Norse literature as. In Old Saxon \"Heliand\" it appears as and in Old High German poem \"Muspilli\" it appears as. The Gothic form is attested in the Gospel of Luke as a translation of the Greek word. The word is present in Old English epic and poetry as ; later transformed to or (\"Middle-earth\") in Middle English literature. All these forms are from a Common Germanic \"*midja-gardaz\" (\"*meddila-\", \"*medjan-\"), a compound of \"*midja-\" \"middle\" and \"*gardaz\" \"yard, enclosure\". In early Germanic cosmology, the term stands alongside \"world\" (Old English \"weorold\", Old Saxon \"werold\", Old High German \"weralt\", Old Frisian \"warld\" and Old Norse \"verǫld\"), from a Common Germanic compound \"*wira-alđiz\", the \"age of men\".", "Midgard is a realm in Norse mythology. It is one of the Nine Worlds and the only one that is completely visible to mankind (the others may intersect with this visible realm but are mostly invisible). Pictured as placed somewhere in the middle of Yggdrasil, Midgard is between the land of Niflheim—the land of ice—to the north and Muspelheim—the land of fire—to the south. Midgard is surrounded by a world of water, or ocean, that is impassable. The ocean is inhabited by the great sea serpent Jörmungandr (Miðgarðsormr), who is so huge that he encircles the world entirely, grasping his own tail. The concept is similar to that of the Ouroboros. Midgard was also connected to Asgard, the home of the gods, by the Bifröst, the rainbow bridge, guarded by Heimdallr. In Norse mythology, \"Miðgarðr\" became applied to the wall around the world that the gods constructed from the eyebrows of the giant Ymir as a defense against the Jotuns who lived in Jotunheim, east of \"Manheimr\", the \"home of men\", a word used to refer to the entire world. The gods slew the giant Ymir, the first created being, and put his body into the central void of the universe, creating the world out of his body: his flesh constituting the land, his blood the oceans, his bones the mountains, his teeth the cliffs, his hairs the trees, and his brains the clouds. Ymir's skull was held by four dwarfs, Nordri, Sudri, Austri, and Vestri, who represent the four points on the compass and became the dome of heaven. The sun, moon, and stars were said to be scattered sparks in the skull. According to the Eddas, Midgard will be destroyed at Ragnarök, the battle at the end of the world. Jörmungandr will arise from the ocean, poisoning the land and sea with his venom and causing the sea to rear up and lash against the land. The final battle will take place on the plane of Vígríðr, following which Midgard and almost all life on it will be destroyed, with the earth sinking into the sea only to rise again, fertile and green when the cycle repeats and the creation begins again. Although most surviving instances of the word Midgard refer to spiritual matters, it was also used in more mundane situations, as in the Viking Age runestone poem from the inscription Sö 56 from Fyrby: The Danish and Swedish form or, the Norwegian or, as well as the Icelandic and Faroese form, all derive from the Old Norse term.", "The name \"middangeard\" occurs six times in the Old English epic poem \"Beowulf\", and is the same word as Midgard in Old Norse. The term is equivalent in meaning to the Greek term Oikoumene, as referring to the known and inhabited world. The concept of Midgard occurs many times in Middle English. The association with \"earth\" (OE \"eorðe\") in Middle English \"middellærd\", \"middelerde\" is by popular etymology; the continuation of \"geard\" \"enclosure\" is \"yard\". An early example of this transformation is from the Ormulum: The usage of \"Middle-earth\" as a name for a setting was popularized by Old English scholar J. R. R. Tolkien in his \"The Lord of the Rings\" and other fantasy works; he was originally inspired by the references to \"middangeard\" and \"Éarendel\" in the Old English poem \"Crist\".", "\"Mittilagart\" is mentioned in the 9th-century Old High German \"Muspilli\" (v. 54) meaning \"the world\" as opposed to the sea and the heavens:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Mythology.", "Birth.", "Reign." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Erichthonius of uncertain etymology is possibly related to a pre-Greek form *\"Erekteu-\". The connection of Ἐριχθόνιος with ἐρέχθω, \"shake\" is a late folk-etymology; other folk-etymologies include ἔριον, \"erion\", \"wool\" or \"eris\", \"strife\"+ χθών \"chthôn or chthonos\", \"earth\".", "", "According to the \"Bibliotheca\", Athena visited the smith-god Hephaestus to request some weapons, but Hephaestus was so overcome by desire that he tried to seduce her in his workshop. Determined to maintain her virginity, Athena fled, pursued by Hephaestus. He caught Athena and tried to rape her, but she fought him off. During the struggle, his semen fell on her thigh, and Athena, in disgust, wiped it away with a scrap of wool (ἔριον, \"erion\") and flung it to the earth (χθών, \"chthôn\"). As she fled, Erichthonius was born from the semen that fell to the earth. Athena, wishing to raise the child in secret, placed him in a small box. And then made sure no one would ever find out by giving him away. Athena gave the box to the three daughters (Herse, Aglaurus and Pandrosus) of Cecrops, the king of Athens, and warned them never to look inside. Pandrosus obeyed, but Herse and Aglaurus were overcome with curiosity and opened the box, which contained the infant and future-king, Erichthonius (\"troubles born from the earth,\" following another etymology). (Sources are unclear regarding how many sisters participated.) The sisters were terrified by what they saw in the box: either a snake coiled around an infant, or an infant that was half-human and half-serpent. They went insane and threw themselves off the Acropolis. Other accounts state that they were killed by the snake. An alternative version of the story is that Athena left the box with the daughters of Cecrops while she went to fetch a limestone mountain from the Pallene peninsula to use in the Acropolis. While she was away, Aglaurus and Herse opened the box. A crow saw them open the box, and flew away to tell Athena, who fell into a rage and dropped the mountain she was carrying (now Mt. Lykabettos). As in the first version, Herse and Aglaurus went insane and threw themselves to their deaths off a cliff.", "When he grew up, Erichthonius drove out Amphictyon, who had usurped the throne from Cranaus twelve years earlier, and became king of Athens. He married Praxithea, a naiad, and had a son, Pandion I. During this time, Athena frequently protected him. He founded the Panathenaic Festival in the honor of Athena, and set up a wooden statue of her on the Acropolis. According to the Parian Chronicle, he taught his people to yoke horses and use them to pull chariots, to smelt silver, and to till the earth with a plough. It was said that Erichthonius was lame of his feet and that he consequently invented the quadriga, or four-horse chariot, to get around more easily. He is said to have competed often as a chariot driver in games. Zeus was said to have been so impressed with his skill that he raised him to the heavens to become the constellation of the Charioteer (Auriga) after his death. Erichthonius was succeeded by his son Pandion I. The snake is his symbol, and he is represented in the statue of Athena in the Parthenon as the snake hidden behind her shield. The most sacred building on the Acropolis of Athens, the Erechtheum, is dedicated to Erichthonius." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Types.", "Ecology.", "Diversity.", "Growth strategy.", "Variability of ocean blooms.", "Is global phytoplankton on the decline?", "Aquaculture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Phytoplankton are photosynthesizing microscopic biotic organisms that inhabit the upper sunlit layer of almost all oceans and bodies of fresh water on Earth. They are agents for primary production, the creation of organic compounds from carbon dioxide dissolved in the water, a process that sustains the aquatic food web. Phytoplankton are extremely diverse, varying from photosynthesising bacteria (cyanobacteria), to plant-like diatoms, to armour-plated coccolithophores.", "Phytoplankton obtain energy through the process of photosynthesis and must therefore live in the well-lit surface layer (termed the euphotic zone) of an ocean, sea, lake, or other body of water. Phytoplankton account for about half of all photosynthetic activity on Earth. Their cumulative energy fixation in carbon compounds (primary production) is the basis for the vast majority of oceanic and also many freshwater food webs (chemosynthesis is a notable exception). While almost all phytoplankton species are obligate photoautotrophs, there are some that are mixotrophic and other, non-pigmented species that are actually heterotrophic (the latter are often viewed as zooplankton). Of these, the best known are dinoflagellate genera such as \"Noctiluca\" and \"Dinophysis\", that obtain organic carbon by ingesting other organisms or detrital material. Phytoplankton are crucially dependent on minerals. These are primarily macronutrients such as nitrate, phosphate or silicic acid, whose availability is governed by the balance between the so-called biological pump and upwelling of deep, nutrient-rich waters. Phytoplankton nutrient composition drives and is driven by the Redfield ratio of macronutrients generally available throughout the surface oceans. However, across large regions of the World Ocean such as the Southern Ocean, phytoplankton are also limited by the lack of the micronutrient iron. This has led to some scientists advocating iron fertilization as a means to counteract the accumulation of human-produced carbon dioxide (CO) in the atmosphere. Large-scale experiments have added iron (usually as salts such as iron sulphate) to the oceans to promote phytoplankton growth and draw atmospheric CO into the ocean. However, controversy about manipulating the ecosystem and the efficiency of iron fertilization has slowed such experiments. Phytoplankton depend on B Vitamins for survival. Areas in the ocean have been identified as having a major lack of some B Vitamins, and correspondingly, phytoplankton. The effects of anthropogenic warming on the global population of phytoplankton is an area of active research. Changes in the vertical stratification of the water column, the rate of temperature-dependent biological reactions, and the atmospheric supply of nutrients are expected to have important effects on future phytoplankton productivity. The effects of anthropogenic ocean acidification on phytoplankton growth and community structure has also received considerable attention. Phytoplankton such as coccolithophores contain calcium carbonate cell walls that are sensitive to ocean acidification. Because of their short generation times, evidence suggests some phytoplankton can adapt to changes in pH induced by increased carbon dioxide on rapid time-scales (months to years). Phytoplankton serve as the base of the aquatic food web, providing an essential ecological function for all aquatic life. Under future conditions of anthropogenic warming and ocean acidification, changes in phytoplankton mortality may be significant. One of the many food chains in the ocean – remarkable due to the small number of links – is that of phytoplankton sustaining krill (a crustacean similar to a tiny shrimp), which in turn sustain baleen whales.", "The term phytoplankton encompasses all photoautotrophic microorganisms in aquatic food webs. However, unlike terrestrial communities, where most autotrophs are plants, phytoplankton are a diverse group, incorporating protistan eukaryotes and both eubacterial and archaebacterial prokaryotes. There are about 5,000 known species of marine phytoplankton. How such diversity evolved despite scarce resources (restricting niche differentiation) is unclear. In terms of numbers, the most important groups of phytoplankton include the diatoms, cyanobacteria and dinoflagellates, although many other groups of algae are represented. One group, the coccolithophorids, is responsible (in part) for the release of significant amounts of dimethyl sulfide (DMS) into the atmosphere. DMS is oxidized to form sulfate which, in areas where ambient aerosol particle concentrations are low, can contribute to the population of cloud condensation nuclei, mostly leading to increased cloud cover and cloud albedo according to the so-called CLAW Hypothesis. Different types of phytoplankton support different trophic levels within varying ecosystems. In oligotrophic oceanic regions such as the Sargasso Sea or the South Pacific Gyre, phytoplankton is dominated by the small sized cells, called picoplankton and nanoplankton (also referred to as picoflagellates and nanoflagellates), mostly composed of cyanobacteria (\"Prochlorococcus\", \"Synechococcus\") and picoeucaryotes such as \"Micromonas\". Within more productive ecosystems, dominated by upwelling or high terrestrial inputs, larger dinoflagellates are the more dominant phytoplankton and reflect a larger portion of the biomass.", "In the early twentieth century, Alfred C. Redfield found the similarity of the phytoplankton's elemental composition to the major dissolved nutrients in the deep ocean. Redfield proposed that the ratio of carbon to nitrogen to phosphorus (106:16:1) in the ocean was controlled by the phytoplankton's requirements, as phytoplankton subsequently release nitrogen and phosphorus as they are remineralized. This so-called “Redfield ratio” in describing stoichiometry of phytoplankton and seawater has become a fundamental principle to understand marine ecology, biogeochemistry and phytoplankton evolution. However, the Redfield ratio is not a universal value and it may diverge due to the changes in exogenous nutrient delivery and microbial metabolisms in the ocean, such as nitrogen fixation, denitrification and anammox. The dynamic stoichiometry shown in unicellular algae reflects their capability to store nutrients in an internal pool, shift between enzymes with various nutrient requirements and alter osmolyte composition. Different cellular components have their own unique stoichiometry characteristics, for instance, resource (light or nutrients) acquisition machinery such as proteins and chlorophyll contain a high concentration of nitrogen but low in phosphorus. Meanwhile, growth machinery such as ribosomal RNA contains high nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations. Based on allocation of resources, phytoplankton is classified into three different growth strategies, namely survivalist, bloomer and generalist. Survivalist phytoplankton has a high ratio of N:P (>30) and contains an abundance of resource-acquisition machinery to sustain growth under scarce resources. Bloomer phytoplankton has a low N:P ratio (<10), contains a high proportion of growth machinery, and is adapted to exponential growth. Generalist phytoplankton has similar N:P to the Redfield ratio and contain relatively equal resource-acquisition and growth machinery.", "The NAAMES study was a five-year scientific research program conducted between 2015 and 2019 by scientists from Oregon State University and NASA to investigated aspects of phytoplankton dynamics in ocean ecosystems, and how such dynamics influence atmospheric aerosols, clouds, and climate (NAAMES stands for the North Atlantic Aerosols and Marine Ecosystems Study). The study focused on the sub-arctic region of the North Atlantic Ocean, which is the site of one of Earth's largest recurring phytoplankton blooms. The long history of research in this location, as well as relative ease of accessibility, made the North Atlantic an ideal location to test prevailing scientific hypotheses in an effort to better understand the role of phytoplankton aerosol emissions on Earth's energy budget. NAAMES was designed to target specific phases of the annual phytoplankton cycle: minimum, climax and the intermediary decreasing and increasing biomass, in order to resolve debates on the timing of bloom formations and the patterns driving annual bloom re-creation. The NAAMES project also investigated the quantity, size, and composition of aerosols generated by primary production in order to understand how phytoplankton bloom cycles affect cloud formations and climate.", "A 2010 study published in \"Nature\" reported that marine phytoplankton had declined substantially in the world's oceans over the past century. Phytoplankton concentrations in surface waters were estimated to have decreased by about 40% since 1950, at a rate of around 1% per year, possibly in response to ocean warming. The study generated debate among scientists and led to several communications and criticisms, also published in \"Nature\". In a 2014 follow-up study, the authors used a larger database of measurements and revised their analysis methods to account for several of the published criticisms, but ultimately reached similar conclusions to the original \"Nature\" study. These studies and the need to understand the phytoplankon in the ocean led to the creation of the Secchi Disk Citizen Science study in 2013. The Secchi Disk study is a global study of phytoplankton conducted by seafarers (sailors, anglers, divers) involving a Secchi Disk and a smartphone app. Estimates of oceanic phytoplankton change are highly variable. One global ocean primary productivity study found a net increase in phytoplankton, as judged from measured chlorophyll, when comparing observations in 1998–2002 to those conducted during a prior mission in 1979–1986. Chlorophyll are photosynthetic pigments that are often used as an indicator of phytoplankton biomass. However, using the same database of measurements, other studies concluded that both chlorophyll and primary production had declined over this same time interval. The airborne fraction of CO from human emissions, the percentage neither sequestered by photosynthetic life on land and sea nor absorbed in the oceans abiotically, has been almost constant over the past century, and that suggests a moderate upper limit on how much a component of the carbon cycle as large as phytoplankton have declined. In the northeast Atlantic, where a relatively long chlorophyll data series is available, and the site of the Continuous Plankton Recorder (CPR) survey, a net increase was found from 1948 to 2002. During 1998–2005, global ocean net primary productivity rose in 1998, followed by a decline during the rest of that period, yielding a small net increase. Using six climate model simulations, a large multi-university study of ocean ecosystems predicted \"a global increase in primary production of 0.7% at the low end to 8.1% at the high end,\" by 2050 although with \"very large regional differences\" including \"a contraction of the highly productive marginal sea ice biome by 42% in the Northern Hemisphere and 17% in the Southern Hemisphere.\" A more recent multi-model study estimated that primary production would decline by 2-20% by 2100 A.D. Despite substantial variation in both the magnitude and spatial pattern of change, the majority of published studies predict that phytoplankton biomass and/or primary production will decline over the next century.", "Phytoplankton are a key food item in both aquaculture and mariculture. Both utilize phytoplankton as food for the animals being farmed. In mariculture, the phytoplankton is naturally occurring and is introduced into enclosures with the normal circulation of seawater. In aquaculture, phytoplankton must be obtained and introduced directly. The plankton can either be collected from a body of water or cultured, though the former method is seldom used. Phytoplankton is used as a foodstock for the production of rotifers, which are in turn used to feed other organisms. Phytoplankton is also used to feed many varieties of aquacultured molluscs, including pearl oysters and giant clams. A 2018 study estimated the nutritional value of natural phytoplankton in terms of carbohydrate, protein and lipid across the world ocean using ocean-colour data from satellites, and found the calorific value of phytoplankton to vary considerably across different oceanic regions and between different time of the year. The production of phytoplankton under artificial conditions is itself a form of aquaculture. Phytoplankton is cultured for a variety of purposes, including foodstock for other aquacultured organisms, a nutritional supplement for captive invertebrates in aquaria. Culture sizes range from small-scale laboratory cultures of less than 1L to several tens of thousands of liters for commercial aquaculture. Regardless of the size of the culture, certain conditions must be provided for efficient growth of plankton. The majority of cultured plankton is marine, and seawater of a specific gravity of 1.010 to 1.026 may be used as a culture medium. This water must be sterilized, usually by either high temperatures in an autoclave or by exposure to ultraviolet radiation, to prevent biological contamination of the culture. Various fertilizers are added to the culture medium to facilitate the growth of plankton. A culture must be aerated or agitated in some way to keep plankton suspended, as well as to provide dissolved carbon dioxide for photosynthesis. In addition to constant aeration, most cultures are manually mixed or stirred on a regular basis. Light must be provided for the growth of phytoplankton. The colour temperature of illumination should be approximately 6,500 K, but values from 4,000 K to upwards of 20,000 K have been used successfully. The duration of light exposure should be approximately 16 hours daily; this is the most efficient artificial day length." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot.", "Major themes.", "Composition and publication.", "The duel.", "Translations.", "Into English.", "Arndt and Nabokov.", "Other English translations.", "Into other languages.", "French.", "German.", "Italian.", "Japanese.", "Chinese.", "Film, TV, Radio or theatrical adaptations.", "Opera.", "Ballet.", "Incidental music.", "Play.", "Musical.", "Radio.", "Audiobook." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "In the 1820s, Eugene Onegin is a bored St. Petersburg dandy, whose life consists of balls, concerts, parties, and nothing more. Upon the death of a wealthy uncle, he inherits a substantial fortune and a landed estate. When he moves to the country, he strikes up a friendship with his neighbor, a starry-eyed young poet named Vladimir Lensky. Lensky takes Onegin to dine with the family of his fiancée, the sociable but rather thoughtless Olga Larina. At this meeting, he also catches a glimpse of Olga's sister Tatyana. A quiet, precocious romantic, and the exact opposite of Olga, Tatyana becomes intensely drawn to Onegin. Soon after, she bares her soul to Onegin in a letter professing her love. Contrary to her expectations, Onegin does not write back. When they meet in person, he rejects her advances politely but dismissively and condescendingly. This famous speech is often referred to as \"Onegin's Sermon\": he admits that the letter was touching, but says that he would quickly grow bored with marriage and can only offer Tatyana friendship; he coldly advises more emotional control in the future, lest another man take advantage of her innocence. Later, Lensky mischievously invites Onegin to Tatyana's name day celebration, promising a small gathering with just Tatyana, Olga, and their parents. When Onegin arrives, he finds instead a boisterous country ball, a rural parody of and contrast to the society balls of St. Petersburg of which he has grown tired. Onegin is irritated with the guests who gossip about him and Tatyana, and with Lensky for persuading him to come. He decides to avenge himself by dancing and flirting with Olga. Olga is insensitive to her fiancé and apparently attracted to Onegin. Earnest and inexperienced, Lensky is wounded to the core and challenges Onegin to fight a duel; Onegin reluctantly accepts, feeling compelled by social convention. During the duel, Onegin unwillingly kills Lensky. Afterwards, he quits his country estate, traveling abroad to deaden his feelings of remorse. Tatyana visits Onegin's mansion, where she looks through his books and his notes in the margins, and begins to question whether Onegin's character is merely a collage of different literary heroes, and if there is, in fact, no \"real Onegin\". Tatyana, still brokenhearted by the loss of Onegin, is convinced by her parents to live with her aunt in Moscow in order to find a suitor. Several years pass, and the scene shifts to St. Petersburg. Onegin has come to attend the most prominent balls and interact with the leaders of old Russian society. He sees the most beautiful woman, who captures the attention of all and is central to society's whirl, and he realizes that it is the same Tatyana whose love he had once spurned. Now she is married to an aged prince (a general). Upon seeing Tatyana again, he becomes obsessed with winning her affection, despite the fact that she is married. However, his attempts are rebuffed. He writes her several letters, but receives no reply. Eventually Onegin manages to see Tatyana and offers her the opportunity to finally elope after they have become reacquainted. She recalls the days when they might have been happy, but concludes that that time has passed. Onegin repeats his love for her. Faltering for a moment, she admits that she still loves him, but she will not allow him to ruin her and declares her determination to remain faithful to her husband. She leaves him regretting his bitter destiny.", "One of the main themes of \"Eugene Onegin\" is the relationship between fiction and real life. People are often shaped by art, and the work is packed with allusions to other major literary works. Another major element is Pushkin's creation of a woman of intelligence and depth in Tatyana, whose vulnerable sincerity and openness on the subject of love has made her the heroine of countless Russian women, despite her apparent naïveté. Pushkin, in the final chapter, fuses his Muse and Tatyana's new 'form' in society after a lengthy description of how she has guided him in his works. Perhaps the darkest theme – despite the light touch of the narration – is Pushkin's presentation of the deadly inhumanity of social convention. Onegin is its bearer in this work. His induction into selfishness, vanity, and indifference occupies the introduction, and he is unable to escape it when he moves to the country. His inability to relate to the feelings of others and his entire lack of empathy – the cruelty instilled in him by the \"world\" – is epitomized in the very first stanza of the first book by his stunningly self-centered thoughts about being with the dying uncle whose estate he is to inherit: However, the \"devil comes for Onegin\" when he both literally and figuratively kills innocence and sincerity in shooting Lensky in the duel and rejecting Tatyana. Tatyana learns her lesson: armored against feelings and steeped in convention, she crushes his later sincerity and remorse. (This epic reversal of roles, and the work's broad social perspectives, provide ample justification for its subtitle \"a novel in verse\".) Tatyana's nightmare illustrates the concealed aggression of the \"world\". In the dream, she is chased over a frozen winter landscape by a terrifying bear (representing the ferocity of Onegin's inhuman persona) and confronted by demons and goblins in a hut she hopes will provide shelter. This nightmare is contrasted to the open vitality of the \"real\" people at the country ball, giving dramatic emphasis to the war of warm human feelings against the chilling artificiality of society. Thus, Onegin has lost his love, killed his only friend, and found no satisfaction in his life. He is a victim of his own pride and selfishness. \"He is doomed to loneliness, and this is his tragedy\". The conflict between art and life was no mere fiction in Russia, but is in fact illustrated by Pushkin's own fate: he too was killed in a duel, falling victim to the social conventions of Russian high society.", "As with many other 19th-century novels, \"Onegin\" was written and published serially, with parts of each chapter often appearing in magazines before the first printing of each chapter. Many changes, some small and some large, were made from the first appearance to the final edition during Pushkin's lifetime. The following dates mostly come from Nabokov's study of the photographs of Pushkin's drafts that were available at the time, as well as other people's work on the subject. The first stanza of chapter 1 was started on May 9, 1823, and except for three stanzas (XXXIII, XVIII, and XIX), the chapter was finished on October 22. The remaining stanzas were completed and added to his notebook by the first week of October 1824. Chapter 1 was first published as a whole in a booklet on February 16, 1825, with a foreword which suggests that Pushkin had no clear plan on how (or even whether) he would continue the novel. Chapter 2 was started on October 22, 1823 (the date when most of chapter 1 had been finished), and finished by December 8, except for stanzas XL and XXXV, which were added sometime over the next three months. The first separate edition of chapter 2 appeared on October 20, 1826. Many events occurred which interrupted the writing of chapter 3. In January 1824, Pushkin stopped work on \"Onegin\" to work on \"The Gypsies\". Except for XXV, stanzas I–XXXI were added on September 25, 1824. Nabokov guesses that Tatyana's Letter was written in Odessa between February 8 and May 31, 1824. Pushkin incurred the displeasure of the Tsarist regime in Odessa and was restricted to his family estate Mikhaylovskoye in Pskov for two years. He left Odessa on July 21, 1824, and arrived on August 9. Writing resumed on September 5, and chapter 3 was finished (apart from stanza XXXVI) on October 2. The first separate publication of chapter 3 was on October 10, 1827. Chapter 4 was started in October 1824. By the end of the year, Pushkin had written 23 stanzas and had reached XXVII by January 5, 1825, at which point he started writing stanzas for Onegin's Journey and worked on other pieces of writing. He thought that it was finished on September 12, 1825, but later continued the process of rearranging, adding, and omitting stanzas until the first week of 1826. The first separate edition of chapter 4 appeared with chapter 5 in a publication produced between January 31 and February 2, 1828. The writing of chapter 5 began on January 4, 1826, and 24 stanzas were complete before the start of his trip to petition the Tsar for his freedom. He left for this trip on September 4 and returned on November 2, 1826. He completed the rest of the chapter in the week November 15 to 22, 1826. The first separate edition of chapter 5 appeared with chapter 4 in a publication produced between January 31 and February 2, 1828. When Nabokov carried out his study on the writing of Onegin, the manuscript of chapter 6 was lost, but it is known that Pushkin started chapter 6 before finishing chapter 5. Most of chapter 6 appears to have been written before the beginning of December 19, 1826 when Pushkin returned to Moscow after exile on his family estate. Many stanzas appeared to have been written between November 22 and 25, 1826. On March 23, 1828, the first separate edition of chapter 6 was published. Pushkin started writing chapter 7 in March 1827, but aborted his original plan for the plot of the chapter and started on a different tack, completing the chapter on November 4, 1828. The first separate edition of chapter 7 was first printed on March 18, 1836. Pushkin intended to write a chapter called \"Onegin's Journey\", which occurred between the events of chapters 7 and 8, and in fact was supposed to be the eighth chapter. Fragments of this incomplete chapter were published, in the same way that parts of each chapter had been published in magazines before each chapter was first published in a separate edition. When Pushkin completed chapter 8, he published it as the final chapter and included within its denouement the line \"nine cantos I have written\", still intending to complete this missing chapter. When Pushkin finally decided to abandon this chapter, he removed parts of the ending to fit with the change. Chapter 8 was begun before December 24, 1829, while Pushkin was in St. Petersburg. In August 1830, he went to Boldino (the Pushkin family estate) where, due to an epidemic of cholera, he was forced to stay for three months. During this time, he produced what Nabokov describes as an \"incredible number of masterpieces\" and finished copying out chapter 8 on September 25, 1830. During the summer of 1831, Pushkin revised and completed chapter 8 apart from \"Onegin's Letter\", which was completed on October 5, 1831. The first separate edition of chapter 8 appeared on January 10, 1832. Pushkin wrote at least 18 stanzas of a never-completed tenth chapter. It contained many satires and even direct criticism on contemporary Russian rulers, including the Emperor himself. Afraid of being prosecuted for dissidence, Pushkin burnt most of the tenth chapter. Very little of it survived in Pushkin's notebooks. The first complete edition of the book was published in 1833. Slight corrections were made by Pushkin for the 1837 edition. The standard accepted text is based on the 1837 edition with a few changes due to the Tsar's censorship restored.", "In Pushkin's time, the early 19th century, duels were very strictly regulated. A second's primary duty was to prevent the duel from actually happening, and only when both combatants were unwilling to stand down were they to make sure that the duel proceeded according to formalised rules. A challenger's second should therefore always ask the challenged party if he wants to apologise for the actions that have led to the challenge. In \"Eugene Onegin\", Lensky's second, Zaretsky, does not ask Onegin even once if he would like to apologise, and because Onegin is not allowed to apologise on his own initiative, the duel takes place, with fatal consequences. Zaretsky is described as \"classical and pedantic in duels\" (chapter 6, stanza XXVI), and this seems very out of character for a nobleman. In effect, he is enthusiastic at the prospect of a duel and callous about its deadly possibilities. Zaretsky's first chance to end the duel is when he delivers Lensky's written challenge to Onegin (chapter 6, stanza IX). Instead of asking Onegin if he would like to apologise, he apologises for having much to do at home and leaves as soon as Onegin (obligatorily) accepts the challenge. On the day of the duel, Zaretsky gets several more chances to prevent the duel from happening. Because dueling was forbidden in the Russian Empire, duels were always held at dawn. Zaretsky urges Lensky to get ready shortly after 6 o'clock in the morning (chapter 6, stanza XXIII), while the sun only rises at 20 past 8, because he expects Onegin to be on time. However, Onegin oversleeps (chapter 6, stanza XXIV), and arrives on the scene more than an hour late. According to the dueling codex, if a duelist arrives more than 15 minutes late, he automatically forfeits the duel. Lensky and Zaretsky have been waiting all that time (chapter 6, stanza XXVI), even though it was Zaretsky's duty to proclaim Lensky as winner and take him home. When Onegin finally arrives, Zaretsky is supposed to ask him a final time if he would like to apologise. Instead, Zaretsky is surprised by the apparent absence of Onegin's second. Onegin, against all rules, appoints his servant Guillot as his second (chapter 6, stanza XXVII), a blatant insult for the nobleman Zaretsky. Zaretsky angrily accepts Guillot as Onegin's second. By his actions, Zaretsky does not act as a nobleman should; in the end Onegin wins the duel. Onegin himself, however, tried as he could to prevent the fatal outcome, and killed Lensky unwillingly and almost by accident. As the first shooter, he couldn't show that he was deliberately trying to miss the opponent, because this was considered as a serious insult and could create a formal reason to appoint another duel. Instead, he tried to minimize his chances of hitting Lensky by shooting without precise aiming, from the maximal possible distance, not even trying to come closer and get a clear shot.", "Translators of \"Eugene Onegin\" have all had to adopt a trade-off between precision and preservation of poetic imperatives. This particular challenge and the importance of \"Eugene Onegin\" in Russian literature have resulted in an impressive number of competing translations.", "", "Walter W. Arndt's 1963 translation () was written keeping to the strict rhyme scheme of the Onegin stanza and won the Bollingen Prize for translation. It is still considered one of the best translations. Vladimir Nabokov severely criticised Arndt's translation, as he had criticised many previous (and later) translations. Nabokov's main criticism of Arndt's and other translations is that they sacrificed literalness and exactness for the sake of preserving the melody and rhyme. Accordingly, in 1964 he published his own translation, consisting of four volumes, which conformed scrupulously to the sense while completely eschewing melody and rhyme. The first volume contains an introduction by Nabokov and the text of the translation. The Introduction discusses the structure of the novel, the Onegin stanza in which it is written, and Pushkin's opinion of Onegin (using Pushkin's letters to his friends); it likewise gives a detailed account of both the time over which Pushkin wrote Onegin and of the various forms in which the various parts of it appeared in publication before Pushkin's death (after which there is a huge proliferation of the number of different editions). The second and third volumes consist of very detailed and rigorous notes to the text. The fourth volume contains a facsimile of the 1837 edition. The discussion of the Onegin stanza in the first volume contains the poem \"On Translating \"Eugene Onegin\"\", which first appeared in print in \"The New Yorker\" on January 8, 1955, and is written in two Onegin stanzas. Nabokov reproduces the poem both so that the reader of his translation would have some experience of this unique form, and also to act as a further defence of his decision to write his translation in prose. Nabokov's previously close friend Edmund Wilson reviewed Nabokov's translation in the \"New York Review of Books\", which sparked an exchange of letters and an enduring falling-out between them. John Bayley has described Nabokov's commentary as '\"by far the most erudite as well as the most fascinating commentary in English on Pushkin's poem\", and \"as scrupulously accurate, in terms of grammar, sense and phrasing, as it is idiosyncratic and Nabokovian in its vocabulary\". Some consider this \"Nabokovian vocabulary\" a failing, since it might require even educated speakers of English to reach for the dictionary on occasion. However, it is generally agreed that Nabokov's translation is extremely accurate.", "Babette Deutsch published a translation in 1935 that preserved the Onegin stanzas. The Pushkin Press published a translation in 1937 (reprinted 1943) by the Oxford scholar Oliver Elton, with illustrations by M. V. Dobujinsky. In 1977, Charles Johnston published another translation trying to preserve the Onegin stanza, which is generally considered to surpass Arndt's. Johnston's translation is influenced by Nabokov. Vikram Seth's novel \"The Golden Gate\" was in turn inspired by this translation. James E. Falen (the professor of Russian at the University of Tennessee) published a translation in 1995 which was also influenced by Nabokov's translation, but preserved the Onegin stanzas (). This translation is considered to be the most faithful to Pushkin's spirit according to Russian critics and translators. Douglas Hofstadter published a translation in 1999, again preserving the Onegin stanzas, after having summarised the controversy (and severely criticised Nabokov's attitude towards verse translation) in his book \"Le Ton beau de Marot\". Hofstadter's translation employs a unique lexicon of both high and low register words, as well as unexpected and almost reaching rhymes that give the work a comedic flair. Tom Beck published a translation in 2004 that also preserved the Onegin stanzas. () Wordsworths Classics in 2005 published an English prose translation by Roger Clarke, which sought to retain the lyricism of Pushkin's Russian. In September 2008, Stanley Mitchell, emeritus professor of aesthetics at the University of Derby, published, through Penguin Books, a complete translation, again preserving the Onegin stanzas in English. () There are a number of lesser known English translations, at least 45 through 2016.", "", "There are at least eight published French translations of \"Eugene Onegin\". The most recent appeared in 2005: the translator, André Markovicz, respects Pushkin's original stanzas. Other translations include those of Paul Béesau (1868), Gaston Pérot (1902, in verse), Nata Minor (who received the Prix Nelly Sachs, given to the best translation into French of poetry), Roger Legras, Maurice Colin, Michel Bayat, and Jean-Louis Backès (who does not preserve the stanzas). As a 20-year-old, former French President Jacques Chirac also wrote a translation, which was never published.", "There are at least a dozen published translations of \"Onegin\" in German.", "There are several Italian translations of \"Onegin\". One of the earliest was published by G. Cassone in 1906. Ettore Lo Gatto translated the novel twice, in 1922 in prose and in 1950 in hendecasyllables. More recent translations are those by Giovanni Giudici (a first version in 1975, a second one in 1990, in lines of unequal length) and by Pia Pera (1996).", "There are 6 or more Japanese translations of \"Eugene Onegin\". The first two versions were published in 1921, but the most popular version was a prose translation by Kentaro Ikeda in 1964. The latest translation was one by Masao Ozawa, published in 1996, in which Ozawa attempted to translate \"Onegin\" into the form of Japanese poetry.", "Since the first Chinese version translated by Su Fu in 1942 and the first translation from original Russian version in 1944 by Lu Yin, there have been more that 10 versions translated into Chinese. In the 21st century there are still new Chinese versions being published.", "", "The 1879 opera \"Eugene Onegin\", by Tchaikovsky, based on the story, is perhaps the version that most people are familiar with. There are many recordings of the score, and it is one of the most commonly performed operas in the world.", "John Cranko choreographed a three-act ballet using Tchaikovsky's music in an arrangement by Kurt-Heinz Stolze. However, Stolze did not use any music from Tchaikovsky's opera of the same name. Instead, he orchestrated some little-known piano works by Tchaikovsky such as \"The Seasons\", along with themes from the opera \"Cherevichki\" and the latter part of the symphonic fantasia \"Francesca da Rimini\". Choreographer Boris Eifman staged a modern rendition of \"Eugene Onegin\" as a ballet taking place in modern Moscow. The ballet was performed by Eifman Ballet of St. Petersburg, with music by Alexander Sitkovetsky and with excerpts from Tchaikovsky's opera \"Eugene Onegin\". Most recently Lera Auerbach created a ballet score titled \"Tatiana\", with a libretto written by John Neumeier for his choreographic interpretation and staging of Alexander Pushkin's \"Eugene Onegin\", for a co-production by the Hamburg State Opera and the Stanislavski and Nemirovich-Danchenko Moscow Academic Music Theatre in Moscow.", "A staged version was adapted by Sigizmund Krzhizhanovsky and slated for production in the Soviet Union in 1936, directed by Alexander Tairov and with incidental music by Sergei Prokofiev, as part of the centennial celebration of Pushkin's death. However, due to threats of Stalinist repercussions for artistic liberties taken during the production and artistic differences between Tairov and Krzhizhanovsky, rehearsals were abandoned and the production was never put on.", "Christopher Webber's play \"Tatyana\" was written for Nottingham Playhouse in 1989. It successfully combines spoken dialogue and narration from the novel, with music arranged from Tchaikovsky's operatic score, and incorporates some striking theatrical sequences inspired by Tatyana's dreams in the original. The title role was played by Josie Lawrence, and the director was Pip Broughton. In 2016, the legendary Vakhtangov State Academic Theatre of Russia put on a production of \"Onegin\" starring Sergei Makovetsky, described as \"exuberant, indelible, and arrestingly beautiful\" by the \"New York Times\".", "Opening in 2016 for its world premiere, the Arts Club Theatre Company in Vancouver, Canada, staged a musical version called \"Onegin\" by Amiel Gladstone and Veda Hille. Rather than being based solely on Pushkin's verse narrative, the musical takes equal inspiration from Tchaikovsky's opera, subtly incorporating musical motifs from the opera and even using its structure as a template. In fact, it was Gladstone's time as assistant director for Vancouver Opera’s last production of Tchaikovsky’s \"Eugene Onegin\" that opened his eyes to the story’s potential for musical adaptation. However, the overall musical style of Gladstone and Hille’s \"Onegin\" is distinctly non-operatic, being instead “an indie-rock musical with a modern flair” that carries over into the costumes and the interactive staging, as well as the ironic and self-referential humour and the titular character's “bored hipster persona”. After opening to general acclaim in 2016, \"Onegin\" took home a historic 10 Jessie Awards, winning all but one award in its category, including the awards for outstanding production, direction (Gladstone), original composition (Gladstone and Hille), lead actor (Alessandro Juliani as Onegin), lead actress (Meg Roe as Tatyana), and supporting actor (Josh Epstein as Lensky). Since then, throughout new productions and casting changes, \"Onegin\" has garnered generally favourable reviews; for example, Louis B. Hobson of \"The Calgary Herald\" writes, “\"Onegin\" is not just good, but totally enthralling and deserves all the hype and all the awards it received in Vancouver back in 2016 when it premiered and again in 2017 during its return visit”. Nevertheless, others have criticized the show for artificiality of characterization and “inconsistent dramaturgy”, claiming that \"Onegin\" fails to “come to life”. Furthermore, several critics have pointed out similarities to the smash hit \"Hamilton\" and especially to \"Natasha, Pierre & The Great Comet of 1812\", a sung-through musical likewise inspired by a classic of Russian literature (in this case, a sliver of Leo Tolstoy’s \"War and Peace\"), usually to \"Onegin\"’s disadvantage.", "In 2017, BBC Radio 4 broadcast a five-part adaptation by Duncan Macmillan, directed by Abigail le Fleming, as part of their \"15-Minute Drama\" series, with Geoffrey Streatfeild as Pushkin, David Dawson as Onegin, Zoë Tapper as Natalya, Alix Wilton Regan as Tatyana, Joshua McGuire as Lensky, and Sean Murray as Zaretsky.", "In 2012, Stephen Fry recorded an audiobook of the novel in the translation by James E. Falen." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Mechanisms.", "History.", "Discovery.", "Surface passivation.", "Specific materials.", "Silicon.", "Aluminium.", "Ferrous materials.", "Stainless steel.", "Nickel." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2" ], "content": [ "There has been much interest in determining the mechanisms that govern the increase of thickness of the oxide layer over time. Some of the important factors are the volume of oxide relative to the volume of the parent metal, the mechanism of oxygen diffusion through the metal oxide to the parent metal, and the relative chemical potential of the oxide. Boundaries between micro grains, if the oxide layer is crystalline, form an important pathway for oxygen to reach the unoxidized metal below. For this reason, vitreous oxide coatings – which lack grain boundaries – can retard oxidation. The conditions necessary, but not sufficient for passivation are recorded in Pourbaix diagrams. Some corrosion inhibitors help the formation of a passivation layer on the surface of the metals to which they are applied. Some compounds, dissolving in solutions (chromates, molybdates) form non-reactive and low solubility films on metal surfaces.", "", "In the mid 1800s, Christian Friedrich Schönbein discovered that when a piece of iron is placed in dilute nitric acid, it will dissolve and produce hydrogen, but if the iron is placed in concentrated nitric acid and then returned to the dilute nitric acid, little or no reaction will take place. Schönbein named the first state the active condition and the second the passive condition. If passive iron is touched by active iron, it becomes active again. In 1920, Ralph S. Lillie measured the effect of an active piece of iron touching a passive iron wire and found that \"a wave of activation sweeps rapidly (at some hundred centimeters a second) over its whole length\".", "The surface passivation process, also known as the Atalla passivation technique, was developed by Mohamed M. Atalla at Bell Telephone Laboratories (BTL) in the late 1950s. In 1955, Carl Frosch and Lincoln Derick at Bell Telephone Laboratories (BTL) accidentally discovered that silicon dioxide (SiO) could be grown on silicon. In the late 1950s, Atalla further discovered that the formation of a thermally grown SiO layer greatly reduced the concentration of electronic states at the silicon surface, and discovered the important quality of SiO films to preserve the electrical characteristics of p–n junctions and prevent these electrical characteristics from deteriorating by the gaseous ambient environment. He found that silicon oxide layers could be used to electrically stabilize silicon surfaces. He developed the surface passivation process, a new method of semiconductor device fabrication that involves coating a silicon wafer with an insulating layer of silicon oxide so that electricity could reliably penetrate to the conducting silicon below. By growing a layer of silicon dioxide on top of a silicon wafer, Atalla was able to overcome the surface states that prevented electricity from reaching the semiconducting layer. For the surface passivation process, he developed the method of thermal oxidation, which was a breakthrough in silicon semiconductor technology. Before the development of integrated circuit chips, discrete diodes and transistors exhibited relatively high reverse-bias junction leakages and low breakdown voltage, caused by the large density of traps at the surface of single crystal silicon. Atalla's surface passivation process became the solution to this problem. He discovered that when a thin layer of silicon dioxide was grown on the surface of silicon where a p–n junction intercepts the surface, the leakage current of the junction was reduced by a factor from 10 to 100. This showed that the oxide reduces and stabilizes many of the interface and oxide traps. Oxide-passivation of silicon surfaces allowed diodes and transistors to be fabricated with significantly improved device characteristics, while the leakage path along the surface of the silicon was also effectively shut off. This became one of the fundamental isolation capabilities necessary for planar technology and integrated circuit chips. Atalla first published his findings in BTL memos during 1957, before presenting his work at an Electrochemical Society meeting in 1958. The same year, he made further refinements to the process with his colleagues E. Tannenbaum and E.J. Scheibner, before they published their results in May 1959. According to Fairchild Semiconductor engineer Chih-Tang Sah, the surface passivation process developed by Atalla's team \"blazed the trail\" that led to the development of the silicon integrated circuit. Atalla's surface passivation method was the basis for several important inventions in 1959: the MOSFET (MOS transistor) by Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs, the planar process by Jean Hoerni at Fairchild Semiconductor, and the monolithic integrated circuit chip by Robert Noyce at Fairchild in 1959. By the mid-1960s, Atalla's process for oxidized silicon surfaces was used to fabricate virtually all integrated circuits and silicon devices. In solar cell technology, surface passivation is critical to solar cell efficiency. In carbon quantum dot (CQD) technology, CQDs are small carbon nanoparticles (less than 10 nm in size) with some form of surface passivation. The process of surface passivation by acid oxidation was one of the earliest processes used to introduce chemical functionality to the surface of carbon quantum dots.", "", "In the area of microelectronics and photovoltaics surface passivation is usually implemented by oxidation to a coating of silicon dioxide. The effect of passivation on the efficiency of solar cells ranges from 3-7%. Passivation is effected by thermal oxidation at 1000 °C. The surface resistivity is high, >100 Ωcm.", "Aluminium naturally forms a thin surface layer of aluminium oxide on contact with oxygen in the atmosphere through a process called oxidation, which creates a physical barrier to corrosion or further oxidation in many environments. Some aluminium alloys, however, do not form the oxide layer well, and thus are not protected against corrosion. There are methods to enhance the formation of the oxide layer for certain alloys. For example, prior to storing hydrogen peroxide in an aluminium container, the container can be passivated by rinsing it with a dilute solution of nitric acid and peroxide alternating with deionized water. The nitric acid and peroxide mixture oxidizes and dissolves any impurities on the inner surface of the container, and the deionized water rinses away the acid and oxidized impurities. Generally, there are two main ways to passivate aluminium alloys (not counting plating, painting, and other barrier coatings): chromate conversion coating and anodizing. Alclading, which metallurgically bonds thin layers of pure aluminium or alloy to different base aluminium alloy, is not strictly passivation of the \"base\" alloy. However, the aluminium layer clad on is designed to spontaneously develop the oxide layer and thus protect the base alloy. Chromate conversion coating converts the surface aluminium to an aluminium chromate coating in the range of in thickness. Aluminium chromate conversion coatings are amorphous in structure with a gel-like composition hydrated with water. Chromate conversion is a common way of passivating not only aluminium, but also zinc, cadmium, copper, silver, magnesium, and tin alloys. Anodizing is an electrolytic process that forms a thicker oxide layer. The anodic coating consists of hydrated aluminium oxide and is considered resistant to corrosion and abrasion. This finish is more robust than the other processes and also provides electrical insulation, which the other two processes may not.", "Ferrous materials, including steel, may be somewhat protected by promoting oxidation (\"rust\") and then converting the oxidation to a metalophosphate by using phosphoric acid and further protected by surface coating. As the uncoated surface is water-soluble, a preferred method is to form manganese or zinc compounds by a process commonly known as parkerizing or phosphate conversion. Older, less-effective but chemically-similar electrochemical conversion coatings included black oxidizing, historically known as bluing or browning. Ordinary steel forms a passivating layer in alkali environments, as reinforcing bar does in concrete.", "Stainless steels are corrosion-resistant, but they are not completely impervious to rusting. One common mode of corrosion in corrosion-resistant steels is when small spots on the surface begin to rust because grain boundaries or embedded bits of foreign matter (such as grinding swarf) allow water molecules to oxidize some of the iron in those spots despite the alloying chromium. This is called rouging. Some grades of stainless steel are especially resistant to rouging; parts made from them may therefore forgo any passivation step, depending on engineering decisions. Common among all of the different specifications and types are the following steps: Prior to passivation, the object must be cleaned of any contaminants and generally must undergo a validating test to prove that the surface is 'clean.' The object is then placed in an acidic passivating bath that meets the temperature and chemical requirements of the method and type specified between customer and vendor. (Temperatures can range from ambient to 60 degrees C, or 140 degrees F, while minimum passivation times are usually 20 to 30 minutes). The parts are neutralized using a bath of aqueous sodium hydroxide, then rinsed with clean water and dried. The passive surface is validated using humidity, elevated temperature, a rusting agent (salt spray), or some combination of the three. However, proprietary passivation processes exist for martensitic stainless steel, which is difficult to passivate, as microscopic discontinuities can form in the surface of a machined part during passivation in a typical nitric acid bath. The passivation process removes exogenous iron, creates/restores a passive oxide layer that prevents further oxidation (rust), and cleans the parts of dirt, scale, or other welding-generated compounds (e.g. oxides). Passivation processes are generally controlled by industry standards, the most prevalent among them today being ASTM A 967 and AMS 2700. These industry standards generally list several passivation processes that can be used, with the choice of specific method left to the customer and vendor. The \"method\" is either a nitric acid-based passivating bath, or a citric acid-based bath, these acids remove surface iron and rust, while sparing the chromium. The various 'types' listed under each method refer to differences in acid bath temperature and concentration. Sodium dichromate is often required as an additive to oxidise the chromium in certain 'types' of nitric-based acid baths, however this chemical is highly toxic. With citric acid, simply rinsing and drying the part and allowing the air to oxidise it, or in some cases the application of other chemicals, is used to perform the passivation of the surface. It is not uncommon for some aerospace manufacturers to have additional guidelines and regulations when passivating their products that exceed the national standard. Often, these requirements will be cascaded down using Nadcap or some other accreditation system. Various testing methods are available to determine the passivation (or passive state) of stainless steel. The most common methods for validating the passivity of a part is some combination of high humidity and heat for a period of time, intended to induce rusting. Electro-chemical testers can also be utilized to commercially verify passivation.", "Nickel can be used for handling elemental fluorine, owing to the formation of a passivation layer of nickel fluoride. This fact is useful in water treatment and sewage treatment applications." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Design and development.", "Operational history." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In response to a requirement for a high performance night and bad weather interceptor, Lavochkin (OKB-310), Sukhoi (OKB-134) and Mikoyan-Gurevich (OKB-155) design bureau developed the La-200, Su-15, and I-320 (where the I stands for \"Istrebitel\", or \"Fighter\") respectively. A key component of the three competing aircraft, was the \"Toriy\" (\"Thorium\") centimetre waveband NII-17 radar at Tikhomirnov NIIP - (NIIP for \"Nauchno-Issledovatel'skiy Institut Priborostroyeniya\", or \"Research Institute of Instrument Engineering\"), which was capable of detecting a Boeing B-29 Superfortress bomber at a range of. The La-200 was an all-metal, two seater, twin-engined jet aircraft, with a tricycle undercarriage and mid set wings with 40° sweep at 1/4 chord. The two Klimov RD-45F centrifugal flow turbojet engines were to be fitted in tandem inside the front and rear fuselage with the air intake at the extreme nose. The forward engine exhausted under the centre fuselage and the rear engine exhausted at the end of the rear fuselage. Access to the engines for maintenance and removal was gained by removing the forward fuselage forward of the nose undercarriage and the rear fuselage forward of the fin. The main and nose undercarriages were housed entirely within the fuselage. The nose undercarriage rotated 90° to lie flat under the forward engine, and the twin wheeled main undercarriage legs, with long travel levered suspension, retracted into the centre fuselage above the forward jet pipe and astride the fuel tank and intake trunking for the rear engine. The swept wings were of constant chord with 2/3 span flaps, 1/3 span ailerons, and wing fences at approximately 1/4 and 1/2 span. The tail unit comprised a sharply swept broad chord tapered fin with a sharply swept tapered tailplane at 2/3 fin length. The swept wings maximised the speed performance but imposed a higher wing loading than specified by the Soviet Air Force, thus the RD-45F engines were replaced with Klimov VK-1 engines, (up-rated RD-45F's). The \"Toriy\" radar was initially fitted in an ogival radome in the centre of the air intake.", "The La-200 incorporated many innovative systems, including powered flying controls, high capacity hydraulic and pneumatic systems, high voltage AC electrical power system and a comprehensive avionics suite. OKB-301 carried out extensive ground tests, allowing problems revealed in the tests to be addressed before the first flight. For initial tests the aircraft was fitted with dual controls in the side by side cockpit. Flight trials were relatively successful, but revealed a tendency to drop the starboard wing at high speeds (known colloquially as \"val'ozhka\"). Other problems included vibrations of the rear fuselage with the rear engine throttled back and the front engine at maximum power, the twin mainwheels proved troublesome as well as unreliable radio and very poor performance from the radar. To help cure the problems the starboard wing incidence was increased by 1° 30', and the twin mainwheels were replaced by single wheel units. Spill doors were fitted to the rear fuselage, arranged to open automatically when the rear engine was throttled back. The flaps and wings were stiffened, and separate aileron hydraulic actuators were installed in the wings rather than a single actuator behind the cockpit seats. Cooling air was provided for the radio which was located close to the front engine jetpipe. To address the failings of the radar, it was decided to replace it with the Korshun -(Kite) radar also developed by NII-17. The single antenna was moved to the top lip of a redesigned air intake. By the spring of 1951 Aircraft 200 was the only one of the three competitors to survive and pass State acceptance trials. Production was provisionally ordered as the La-17, but the production directive was not endorsed so production was abandoned. While other OKB's were designing the next generation of all-weather interceptors, OKB-301 was tasked with fitting the new Sokol (Falcon) radar into the La-200. The result was Aircraft 200B, with a new fuselage nose housing the radar behind a large radome with three air intakes surrounding the radome. By mid 1953 the radar was working adequately but Aircraft 200B's performance was no longer good enough and further work was abandoned." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology and form.", "Family.", "Mythology.", "Culture hero.", "Patronage of Athens.", "Multiple Cecrops." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The name of Cecrops was not of Greek origin according to Strabo, or it might mean 'tail-face' (cerc-ops): it was said that, born from the earth itself (an autochthon) and was accordingly called a γηγενής (\"gegenes\" \"native\"), and described as having his top half shaped like a man and the bottom half in serpent or fish-tail form. Hence he was called διφυής (diphues) or \"of two natures.\" Diodorus rationalized that his double form was because of his double citizenship, Greek and barbarian. Some ancients referred the epithet διφυής to marriage, of which tradition made him the founder.", "Apparently Cecrops married Aglaurus, the daughter of Actaeus, former king of the region of Attica, whom he succeeded to the throne. It is disputed that this woman was the mother of Cecrops's son Erysichthon. Erysichthon predeceased him, and he was succeeded by Cranaus, who is said to have been one of the wealthiest citizens of Athens at that time. Cecrops was the father of three daughters: Herse, Pandrosus and Aglaurus. To them was given a box or jar containing the infant Erichthonius to guard unseen. They looked, and terrified by the two serpents Athena had set within to guard the child, they fled in terror and leapt from the Acropolis to their deaths. Some accounts say one of the sisters was turned to stone instead.", "", "Cecrops was represented in the Attic legends as the author of the first elements of civilized life such as marriage, the political division of Attica into twelve communities, and also as the introducer of a new mode of worship. He was said to have been the first who deified Zeus, and ordained sacrifices to be offered to him as the supreme Deity. Cecrops was likewise affirmed to have been the first who built altars and statues of the gods, offered sacrifices, and instituted marriage among the Athenians, who, before his time, it seems, lived promiscuously. Pausanias tells us that he forbade the sacrificing of any living creatures to the gods, as well as any sort of other offering, only allowing cakes (πέλανοι) formed into the shape of an ox with horns, called by the Athenians Pelanous, which signifies an ox. He is likewise said to have taught his subjects the art of navigation; and, for the better administration of justice and intercourse among them, to have divided them into the four tribes called Cecropis, Autochthon, Actea, and Paralia. Some likewise make him the founder of the areopagus. The Acropolis was also known as the Cecropia in his honor. The Athenians are said to have called themselves Cecropidæ, during the reigns of the five following kings, in his honor.", "During his reign which lasted for 50 years, the gods resolved to take possession of cities in which each of them should receive his own peculiar worship. Athena became the patron goddess of the city of Athens in a competition with Poseidon as judged by Cecrops. The two raced ferociously towards the Acropolis and it was a very close race. Poseidon was the first that came to Attica and struck the acropolis with his trident and thereby created a salt sea which was known in later times by the name of the Erechthean well, from its being enclosed in the temple of Erechtheus. After him came Athena who having called on Cecrops to witness her act of taking possession, she planted an olive tree on the hill of the acropolis which continued to be shown in the Pandrosium down to the latest times. But when the two strove for possession of the country, Zeus parted them and appointed arbiters, not, as some have affirmed, Cecrops and Cranaus, nor yet Erysichthon, but the twelve gods. And in accordance with their verdict the country was adjudged to Athena, because Cecrops bore witness that she had been the first to plant the olive. Athena, therefore, called the city Athens after herself, and Poseidon in hot anger flooded the Thriasian plain and laid Attica under the sea. A rationalistic explanation of the fable was propounded by the eminent Roman antiquary Varro. According to him, the olive-tree suddenly appeared in Attica, and at the same time there was an eruption of water in another part of the country. So king Cecrops sent to inquire of Apollo at Delphi what these portents might signify. The oracle answered that the olive and the water were the symbols of Athena and Poseidon respectively, and that the people of Attica were free to choose which of these deities they would worship. Accordingly, the question was submitted to a general assembly of the citizens and citizenesses; for in these days women had the vote as well as men. All the men voted for the god, and all the women voted for the goddess; and as there was one more woman than there were men, the goddess appeared at the head of the poll. Chagrined at the loss of the election, the male candidate flooded the country with the water of the sea, and to appease his wrath it was decided to deprive women of the vote and to forbid children to bear their mother's names for the future. The Athenians said that the contest between Poseidon and Athena took place on the second of the month Boedromion, and hence they omitted that day from the calendar.", "The name of Cecrops occurs also in other parts of Greece, especially where there existed a town of the name of Athenae, such as in Boeotia, where he is said to have founded the ancient towns of Athenae and Eleusis on the river Triton, and where he had a heroum at Haliartus. Tradition there called him a son of Pandion. In Euboea, which had likewise a town Athenae, Cecrops was called a son of Erechtheus and Praxithea, and a grandson of Pandion. From these traditions it appears, that Cecrops must be regarded as a hero of the Pelasgian race; and Müller justly remarks, that the different mythical personages of this name connected with the towns in Boeotia and Euboea are only multiplications of the one original hero, whose name and story were transplanted from Attica to other places. The later Greek writers describe Cecrops as having immigrated into Greece with a band of colonists from Sais in Egypt. But this account is not only rejected by some of the ancients themselves, but by the ablest critics of modern times." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Purpose.", "Design.", "Operational history.", "Construction.", "Operational challenges.", "Cost.", "Initial lower magnet currents.", "Inaugural tests (2008).", "Quench incident.", "Run 1: first operational run (2009–2013).", "Long Shutdown 1 (2013–2015).", "Run 2: second operational run (2015–2018).", "Long Shutdown 2 (2018–2021) and beyond.", "Findings and discoveries.", "First run (data taken 2009–2013).", "Second run (2015-2018).", "Planned \"high-luminosity\" upgrade.", "Safety of particle collisions.", "Popular culture.", "Fiction." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "The term \"hadron\" refers to subatomic composite particles composed of quarks held together by the strong force (as atoms and molecules are held together by the electromagnetic force). The best-known hadrons are the baryons such as protons and neutrons; hadrons also include mesons such as the pion and kaon, which were discovered during cosmic ray experiments in the late 1940s and early 1950s.", "Many physicists hope that the Large Hadron Collider will help answer some of the fundamental open questions in physics, which concern the basic laws governing the interactions and forces among the elementary objects, the deep structure of space and time, and in particular the interrelation between", "The collider is contained in a circular tunnel, with a circumference of, at a depth ranging from underground. The wide concrete-lined tunnel, constructed between 1983 and 1988, was formerly used to house the Large Electron–Positron Collider. The tunnel crosses the border between Switzerland and France at four points, with most of it in France. Surface buildings hold ancillary equipment such as compressors, ventilation equipment, control electronics and refrigeration plants. The collider tunnel contains two adjacent parallel beamlines (or \"beam pipes\") each containing a beam, which travel in opposite directions around the ring. The beams intersect at four points around the ring, which is where the particle collisions take place. Some 1,232 dipole magnets keep the beams on their circular path (see image), while an additional 392 quadrupole magnets are used to keep the beams focused, with stronger quadrupole magnets close to the intersection points in order to maximize the chances of interaction where the two beams cross. Magnets of higher multipole orders are used to correct smaller imperfections in the field geometry. In total, about 10,000 superconducting magnets are installed, with the dipole magnets having a mass of over 27 tonnes. Approximately 96 tonnes of superfluid helium-4 is needed to keep the magnets, made of copper-clad niobium-titanium, at their operating temperature of, making the LHC the largest cryogenic facility in the world at liquid helium temperature. LHC uses 470 tonnes of Nb–Ti superconductor. During LHC operations, the CERN site draws roughly 200 MW of electrical power from the French electrical grid, which, for comparison, is about one-third the energy consumption of the city of Geneva; the LHC accelerator and detectors draw about 120 MW thereof. When running at the current energy record of 6.5 TeV per proton, once or twice a day, as the protons are accelerated from 450 GeV to 6.5 TeV, the field of the superconducting dipole magnets is increased from 0.54 to. The protons each have an energy of 6.5 TeV, giving a total collision energy of 13 TeV. At this energy the protons have a Lorentz factor of about 6,930 and move at about, or about slower than the speed of light (\"c\"). It takes less than for a proton to travel 26.7 km around the main ring. This results in per second for protons whether the particles are at low or high energy in the main ring, since the speed difference between these energies is beyond the fifth decimal. Rather than having continuous beams, the protons are bunched together, into up to, with in each bunch so that interactions between the two beams take place at discrete intervals, mainly apart, providing a bunch collision rate of 40 MHz. It was operated with fewer bunches in the first years. The design luminosity of the LHC is 10 cms, which was first reached in June 2016. By 2017 twice this value was achieved. Before being injected into the main accelerator, the particles are prepared by a series of systems that successively increase their energy. The first system is the linear particle accelerator LINAC 2 generating 50-MeV protons, which feeds the Proton Synchrotron Booster (PSB). There the protons are accelerated to 1.4 GeV and injected into the Proton Synchrotron (PS), where they are accelerated to 26 GeV. Finally the Super Proton Synchrotron (SPS) is used to increase their energy further to 450 GeV before they are at last injected (over a period of several minutes) into the main ring. Here the proton bunches are accumulated, accelerated (over a period of ) to their peak energy, and finally circulated for 5 to while collisions occur at the four intersection points. The LHC physics programme is mainly based on proton–proton collisions. However, shorter running periods, typically one month per year, with heavy-ion collisions are included in the programme. While lighter ions are considered as well, the baseline scheme deals with lead ions (see A Large Ion Collider Experiment). The lead ions are first accelerated by the linear accelerator LINAC 3, and the Low Energy Ion Ring (LEIR) is used as an ion storage and cooler unit. The ions are then further accelerated by the PS and SPS before being injected into LHC ring, where they reached an energy of 2.3 TeV per nucleon (or 522 TeV per ion), higher than the energies reached by the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider. The aim of the heavy-ion programme is to investigate quark–gluon plasma, which existed in the early universe.", "The LHC first went live on 10 September 2008, but initial testing was delayed for 14 months from 19 September 2008 to 20 November 2009, following a magnet quench incident that caused extensive damage to over 50 superconducting magnets, their mountings, and the vacuum pipe. During its first run (2010–2013) the LHC collided two opposing particle beams of either protons at up to 4 teraelectronvolts or, or lead nuclei (574 TeV per nucleus, or 2.76 TeV per nucleon). Its first run discoveries included the long-sought Higgs boson, several composite particles (hadrons) like the χ (3P) bottomonium state, the first creation of a quark–gluon plasma, and the first observations of the very rare decay of the B meson into two muons (B → μμ), which challenged the validity of existing models of supersymmetry.", "", "The size of the LHC constitutes an exceptional engineering challenge with unique operational issues on account of the amount of energy stored in the magnets and the beams. While operating, the total energy stored in the magnets is and the total energy carried by the two beams reaches.", "With a budget of €7.5 billion (approx. $9bn or £6.19bn ), the LHC is one of the most expensive scientific instruments ever built. The total cost of the project is expected to be of the order of 4.6bn Swiss francs (SFr) (approx. $4.4bn, €3.1bn, or £2.8bn ) for the accelerator and 1.16bn (SFr) (approx. $1.1bn, €0.8bn, or £0.7bn ) for the CERN contribution to the experiments. The construction of LHC was approved in 1995 with a budget of SFr 2.6bn, with another SFr 210M toward the experiments. However, cost overruns, estimated in a major review in 2001", "In both of its runs (2010 to 2012 and 2015), the LHC was initially run at energies below its planned operating energy, and ramped up to just 2 x 4 TeV energy on its first run and 2 x 6.5 TeV on its second run, below the design energy of 2 x 7 TeV. This is because massive superconducting magnets require considerable magnet training to handle the high currents involved without losing their superconducting ability, and the high currents are necessary to allow a high proton energy. The \"training\" process involves repeatedly running the magnets with lower currents to provoke any quenches or minute movements that may result. It also takes time to cool down magnets to their operating temperature of around 1.9 K (close to absolute zero). Over time the magnet \"beds in\" and ceases to quench at these lesser currents and can handle the full design current without quenching; CERN media describe the magnets as \"shaking out\" the unavoidable tiny manufacturing imperfections in their crystals and positions that had initially impaired their ability to handle their planned currents. The magnets, over time and with training, gradually become able to handle their full planned currents without quenching.", "The first beam was circulated through the collider on the morning of 10 September 2008. CERN successfully fired the protons around the tunnel in stages, three kilometres at a time. The particles were fired in a clockwise direction into the accelerator and successfully steered around it at 10:28 local time. The LHC successfully completed its major test: after a series of trial runs, two white dots flashed on a computer screen showing the protons travelled the full length of the collider. It took less than one hour to guide the stream of particles around its inaugural circuit. CERN next successfully sent a beam of protons in an anticlockwise direction, taking slightly longer at one and a half hours owing to a problem with the cryogenics, with the full circuit being completed at 14:59.", "On 19 September 2008, a magnet quench occurred in about 100 bending magnets in sectors 3 and 4, where an electrical fault led to a loss of approximately six tonnes of liquid helium (the magnets' cryogenic coolant), which was vented into the tunnel. The escaping vapour expanded with explosive force, damaging a total of 53 superconducting magnets and their mountings, and contaminating the vacuum pipe, which also lost vacuum conditions. Shortly after the incident CERN reported that the most likely cause of the problem was a faulty electrical connection between two magnets, and that – owing to the time needed to warm up the affected sectors and then cool them back down to operating temperature – it would take at least two months to fix. CERN released an interim technical report and preliminary analysis of the incident on 15 and 16 October 2008 respectively, and a more detailed report on 5 December 2008. The analysis of the incident by CERN confirmed that an electrical fault had indeed been the cause. The faulty electrical connection had led (correctly) to a failsafe power abort of the electrical systems powering the", "On 20 November 2009, low-energy beams circulated in the tunnel for the first time since the incident, and shortly after, on 30 November, the LHC achieved 1.18 TeV per beam to become the world's highest-energy particle accelerator, beating the Tevatron's previous record of 0.98 TeV per beam held for eight years. The early part of 2010 saw the continued ramp-up of beam in energies and early physics experiments towards 3.5 TeV per beam and on 30 March 2010, LHC set a new record for high-energy collisions by colliding proton beams at a combined energy level of 7 TeV. The attempt was the third that day, after two unsuccessful attempts in which the", "The LHC was shut down on 13 February 2013 for its 2-year upgrade called Long Shutdown 1 (LS1), which was to touch on many aspects of the LHC: enabling collisions at 14 TeV, enhancing its detectors and pre-accelerators (the Proton Synchrotron and Super Proton Synchrotron), as well as replacing its ventilation system and of cabling impaired by high-energy collisions from its first run. The upgraded collider began its long start-up and testing process in", "On 5 April 2015, the LHC restarted after a two-year break, during which the electrical connectors between the bending magnets were upgraded to safely handle the current required for 7 TeV per beam (14 TeV). However, the bending magnets were only trained to handle up to 6.5 TeV per beam (13 TeV total), which became the operating energy for 2015 to 2017. The energy was first reached on 10 April 2015. The upgrades culminated in colliding protons together with a combined energy of 13 TeV. On 3 June 2015 the LHC started delivering physics data after", "Long Shutdown 2 (LS2) started 10 December 2018. The LHC and the whole CERN accelerator complex is being maintained and upgraded. The goal of the upgrades is to implement the High Luminosity", "An initial focus of research was to investigate the possible existence of the Higgs boson, a key part of the Standard Model of physics which is predicted by theory but had not yet been observed before due to its high mass and elusive nature. CERN scientists estimated that, if the Standard Model were correct, the LHC would produce several Higgs bosons every minute, allowing physicists to finally confirm or disprove the Higgs boson's existence. In addition, the LHC allowed the search for supersymmetric particles and other hypothetical particles as possible unknown areas of physics. Some extensions of the Standard Model predict additional particles, such as the heavy W' and Z' gauge bosons, which are also estimated to be within reach of the LHC to discover.", "The first physics results from the LHC, involving 284 collisions which took place in the ALICE detector, were reported on 15 December 2009. The results of the first proton–proton collisions at energies higher than Fermilab's Tevatron proton–antiproton collisions were published by the CMS collaboration in early February 2010, yielding greater-than-predicted charged-hadron production. After the first year of data collection, the LHC experimental collaborations started to release their preliminary results concerning searches for new physics beyond the Standard Model in proton-proton collisions. No evidence of new particles was detected in the 2010 data. As a result, bounds were set on the allowed parameter space of various extensions of the Standard Model, such as models with large extra dimensions, constrained versions of the Minimal Supersymmetric Standard", "At the conference EPS-HEP 2015 in July, the collaborations presented first cross-section measurements of several particles at the higher collision energy. On 15 December 2015, the ATLAS and CMS experiments both reported a number of preliminary results for Higgs physics, supersymmetry (SUSY) searches and exotics searches using", "After some years of running, any particle physics experiment typically begins to suffer from diminishing returns: as the key results reachable by the device begin to be completed, later years of operation discover proportionately less than earlier years. A common response is to upgrade the devices involved, typically in collision energy, luminosity,", "The experiments at the Large Hadron Collider sparked fears that the particle collisions might produce doomsday phenomena, involving the production of stable microscopic black holes or the creation of hypothetical particles called strangelets. Two CERN-commissioned safety reviews examined these concerns and concluded that the experiments at", "The Large Hadron Collider gained a considerable amount of attention from outside the scientific community and its progress is followed by most popular science media. The LHC has also inspired works of fiction including novels, TV series, video games and films. CERN employee Katherine McAlpine's \"Large Hadron Rap\" surpassed 7 million YouTube views.<ref name=\"Telegraph02/09/2008\"></ref> The band Les Horribles Cernettes was founded by women from CERN. The name was chosen so to have the same initials as the LHC. National Geographic Channel's \"World's Toughest Fixes\", Season 2 (2010), Episode 6 \"Atom Smasher\" features the replacement of the last superconducting magnet section in the repair of the collider after the 2008 quench incident. The episode includes actual footage from the repair facility to the inside of the collider, and explanations of the function, engineering, and purpose of the LHC. The Large Hadron Collider was the focus of the 2012 student film \"Decay\", with the movie being filmed on location in CERN's maintenance tunnels. The feature documentary \"Particle Fever\" follows the experimental physicists at CERN who run the experiments, as well as the theoretical physicists who attempt to provide a conceptual framework for the LHC's results. It won the Sheffield International Doc/Fest in 2013.", "The novel \"Angels & Demons\", by Dan Brown, involves antimatter created at the LHC to be used in a weapon against the Vatican. In response, CERN published a \"Fact or Fiction?\" page discussing the accuracy of the book's portrayal of the LHC, CERN, and particle physics in general. The movie version of the book has footage filmed on-site at one of the experiments at the LHC; the director, Ron Howard, met with CERN experts in" ] }

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{ "title": [ "In mythology.", "Religious festival.", "Ceremony.", "Cultural events.", "The Panathenaic Stadium.", "Contests." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In the myth of the Minotaur, Minos' son Androgeus is killed during the Panathenaic Games. Some accounts, like Pseudo-Apollodorus's \"Bibliotheca\", state he won and his jealous competitors ambushed and murdered him. Others, such as \"Graeciae Descriptio\" by Pausanias, say he was trampled to death by a mad bull.", "The competitions for which this festival came to be known were only part of a much larger religious occasion; the Great Panathenaia itself. These ritual observances consisted of numerous sacrifices to Athena (the name-sake of the event and patron deity to the hosts of the event – Athens) as well as Poseidon and others. The Panathenaic festival was formed in order to honor the goddess Athena who had become the patron of Athens after having a competition with the god Poseidon where they were to win the favor of the Athenian people by offering the people gifts. The festival would also bring unity among the people of Athens. A sister-event to the Great Panathenaia was held every year - the Lesser Panathenaia, which was 3–4 days shorter in celebration. The competitions were the most prestigious games for the citizens of Athens, but not as important as the Olympic Games or the other Panhellenic Games.", "Award ceremonies included the giving of Panathenaic amphorae which were large ceramic vessels containing olive oil given as prizes. The winner of the chariot race received as a prize one-hundred and forty Panathenaic amphorae full of olive oil.", "The Panathenaia also included poetic and musical competitions. Prizes were awarded for rhapsodic recitation of Homeric poetry, for instrumental music on the aulus and cithara, and for singing to the accompaniment of the aulus and cithara (citharody). In addition, the Games included a reading of both the \"Odyssey\" and the \"Iliad\".", "The athletic events were staged at the Panathenaic Stadium, which is still in use today. In 1865, Evangelis Zappas left a vast fortune in his will with instructions to excavate and refurbish the ancient Panathenaic stadium so that modern Olympic Games could be held every four years \"in the manner of our ancestors\". The Panathenaic stadium has hosted Zappas Olympics in 1870, and 1875, as well as the modern Olympic Games in 1896 and 2004. The stadium also hosted the 1906 Intercalated Games.", "The Panathenaic Games held contests in a number of musical, athletic, and equestrian events. Due to the fact that there were so many contests held, the games usually lasted a little over a week. On a fourth century marble block, experts explain that on the block is written a program for the games, as well as individual events and their prizes. The inscription also says that there are two age categories for the music events but three age categories for the athletic events. According to scholars, the age groups are boys: 12–16; beardless youths: 16–20; men: over 20. One thing that was different about these games than normal funeral games is that prizes were given to runners-up, not just the lone victor. Using the inscription, experts put together a general program like so: Day 1: Musical and Rhapsodic Contest; Day 2: Athletic Contest for Boys and Youths; Day 3: Athletic Contest for Men; Day 4: Equestrian Contest; Day 5: Tribal Contest; Day 6: Torch Race and Sacrifice; Day 7: Boat Race; Day 8: Awarding of Prizes, Feasting and Celebrations. Experts reasonably came up with how the games went based on the order of prizes which were written on the marble block. Wrestling was also a part of the contest as well as discus. The musical events which took place were Kithara players, Flute players, and singers. The athletic events were the stadion, pentathlon, wrestling, boxing, and pankration. The equestrian events were two-horse chariot race, horse race, and javelin throw on horseback. Based on the inscription, we learn that the prizes given to the men and the youth were different. Men were rewarded a certain amount of drachmas and/or a valuable crown worth a certain amount of drachmas. Boys and youths were given a certain number of amphoras of olive oil." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Early life.", "Courtier and general.", "Favorite of Catherine II.", "Diplomat.", "Governor-General and city builder.", "Builder.", "\"Potemkin Village\".", "Commander-in-Chief.", "Death.", "Personality and reputation.", "Family.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "A distant relative of the Moscovite diplomat Pyotr Potemkin (1617–1700), Grigory was born in the village of Chizhovo near Smolensk into a family of middle-income noble landowners. The family was of Polish ancestry. His father, Alexander Potemkin, was a decorated war veteran; his mother Daria was \"good-looking, capable and intelligent\", though their marriage proved ultimately unhappy. Potemkin received his first name in honour of his father's cousin Grigory Matveevich Kizlovsky, a civil servant who became his godfather. It has been suggested that Kizlovsky fathered Potemkin, who became the centre of attention, heir to the village and the only son among six children. As the son of an (albeit petty) noble family, he grew up with the expectation that he would serve the Russian Empire. After Alexander died in 1746, Daria took charge of the family. In order to achieve a career for her son, and aided by Kizlovsky, the family moved to Moscow, where Potemkin enrolled at a gymnasium school attached to the University of Moscow. The young Potemkin became adept at languages and interested in the Russian Orthodox Church. He enlisted in the army in 1750 at age eleven,", "Although Catherine had not yet taken Potemkin as a lover, it seems likely that she passively—if not actively—encouraged his flirtatious behaviour, including his regular practice of kissing her hand and declaring his love for her: without encouragement, Potemkin could have expected trouble from the Orlovs (Catherine's lover Grigory and his four brothers) who dominated court. Potemkin entered Catherine's circle of advisers, and in 1762 took his only foreign assignment, to Sweden, bearing news of the coup. On his return, he was appointed Procurator, and won a reputation as a lover. Under unclear circumstances, Potemkin then lost his left eye and fell into a depression. His confidence shattered, he withdrew from court, becoming something of a religious hermit. Eighteen months later, Potemkin reappeared, probably summoned by Catherine. He became an army paymaster and oversaw uniform production. Shortly thereafter, he became a Guardian of Exotic Peoples at the new All-Russian Legislative Commission, a significant political post. In September 1768, Potemkin became \"Kammerherr\" (chamberlain); two months later Catherine had his military commission revoked, fully attaching him to court. In the interval, the Ottoman Empire had started the Russo-Turkish War of 1768 to 1774 and Potemkin was eager to prove himself, writing", "Potemkin returned to court in January 1774 expecting to walk into Catherine's arms. The political situation, however, had become complex. Yemelyan Pugachev had just arisen as a pretender to the throne, and commanded a rebel army thirty thousand strong. In addition, Catherine's son Paul turned eighteen and began to gain his own support. By late January Potemkin had tired of the impasse and effected (perhaps with encouragement from Catherine) a \"melodramatic retreat\" into the Alexander Nevsky Monastery. Catherine relented and had Potemkin brought back in early February 1774, when their relationship became intimate. Several weeks later he had usurped Vasilchikov as Catherine's favorite, and was given the title of Adjutant General. When Catherine's friend Friedrich Melchior, Baron von Grimm objected", "Potemkin's first task during this period was foreign policy. An anglophile, he helped negotiate with the English ambassador, Sir James Harris, during Catherine's initiative of Armed Neutrality, though the south remained his passion. His plan, known as the \"Greek Project\", aspired to build a new Byzantine Empire around the Turkish capital in Constantinople. Dismembering the Ottoman Empire would require détente with Austria (technically still the Habsburg Monarchy), and its ruler Joseph II. They met in May 1780 in the Russian town of Mogilev. The ensuing alliance represented the triumph of Potemkin's approach over courtiers such as Catherine's son Paul, who favored alliance with Prussia. The May 1781 defensive treaty remained secret for almost two years; the Ottomans were said to still have been unaware of it even when they declared war on Russia in 1787. Elsewhere,", "Potemkin returned to St. Petersburg in November 1783 and was promoted to Field Marshal when the Crimea was formally annexed the following February. He also became President of the College of War. The province of Taurida (the Crimea) was added to the state of Novorossiya (lit. \"New Russia\"). Potemkin moved south in mid-March, as the \"Prince of Taurida\". He had been the \"namestnik\" of Russia's southern provinces (including Novorossiya, Azov, Saratov, Astrakhan and the Caucasus) since 1774, repeatedly expanding the domain via military action. He kept his own court, which rivalled Catherine's: by the 1780s he operated a chancellery with fifty or more clerks and had his own minister, Vasili Popov, to oversee day-to-day affairs. Another favored associate was Mikhail Faleev. The \"criminal\" breaking of the Cossack hosts, particularly the Zaporozhian Cossacks in 1775, helped define his rule. However, Montefiore argues that given their location, and in the wake of the Pugachev rebellion, the Cossacks were likely doomed in any case. By the time of Potemkin's death, the Cossacks and their threat of anarchic revolt were well controlled. Among the Zaporizhian Cossacks he was known as \"Hrytsko Nechesa\".", "Potemkin then embarked on a period of city-founding. Construction started at his first effort, Kherson, in 1778, as a base for a new Black Sea Fleet he intended to build. Potemkin approved every plan himself, but construction was slow, and the city proved costly and vulnerable to plague. Next was the port of Akhtiar, annexed with the Crimea, which became Sevastopol. Then he built Simferopol as the Crimean capital. His biggest failure, however, was his effort to build the city of Ekaterinoslav (lit. \"The glory of Catherine\"), now Dnipro. The second most successful city of Potemkin's rule was Nikolayev (now better known as Mykolaiv), which he founded in 1789. Potemkin also initiated the redesign of Odessa after its capture from the Turks; it was to turn out to be his greatest city planning triumph. Potemkin's Black Sea Fleet was a massive undertaking for its time. By 1787, the British ambassador reported twenty-seven battleships. It put Russia on a naval footing with Spain, though far behind the British Navy. The period represented the peak of", "The notion of the Potemkin village (coined in German by critical biographer Georg von Helbig as \"\") arose from Catherine's visit to the south. Critics accused Potemkin of using painted façades to fool Catherine into thinking that the area was far richer than it was. Thousands of peasants were alleged to have been stage-managed for this purpose. Certainly, Potemkin had arranged for Catherine to see the best he had to offer (organising numerous exotic excursions) and at least two cities' officials did conceal poverty by building false houses. It seems unlikely, that the fraud approached the scale alleged. The Prince of Ligne, a member of the Austrian delegation, who had explored on his own during the trip, later proclaimed the allegations to be false.", "Potemkin remained in the south, gradually sinking into depression. His inactivity was problematic, given that he was now Russia's commander-in-chief and, in August 1787, another Russo-Turkish war broke out (the second of Potemkin's lifetime). His opponents were anxious to reclaim the lands they had lost in the last war, and they were under pressure from Prussia, Britain and Sweden to take a hostile attitude towards Russia. Potemkin's bluster had probably contributed to the hostility, either deliberately or accidentally; either way, his creation of the new fleet and Catherine's trip to the south had certainly not helped matters. In the center, Potemkin had his own Yekaterinoslav Army, while to the west lay the smaller Ukraine Army under the command of Field-Marshal Rumyantsev-Zadunaisky. On water he had the Black Sea Fleet, and Potemkin was also responsible for coordinating military actions with Russia's Austrian allies. Potemkin and Catherine agreed on a primarily defensive strategy until the spring. Though the Turks were repelled in early skirmishes (against the Russian fortress at Kinburn), news of the loss of Potemkin's beloved fleet during a storm sent him into a deep depression. A week later, and", "Potemkin fell ill in the fever-ridden city of Jassy, although he kept busy, overseeing peace talks, planning his assault on Poland, and preparing the army for renewed war in the south. He fasted briefly and recovered some strength, but refused medicine and began to feast once again, consuming a \"ham, a slated goose and three or four chickens\". On, he felt better and dictated a letter to Catherine before collapsing once more. Later, he awoke and dispatched his entourage to Nikolayev. On Potemkin died in the open steppe, 60 km from Jassy. Picking up on contemporary rumor, historians such as the Polish Jerzy Łojek have suggested that he was poisoned because his madness made him a liability, but this is rejected by Montefiore, who suggests he succumbed to bronchial pneumonia instead. Potemkin was embalmed, and a funeral was held for him in Jassy. Eight days after his death, he was buried. Catherine was distraught and", "Potemkin \"exuded both menace and welcome\"; he was arrogant, demanding of his courtiers, and very changeable in his moods, but also fascinating, warm, and kind. It was generally agreed among his female companions that he was \"amply endowed with'sex appeal'\". Louis Philippe, comte de Ségur described him as \"colossal like Russia\", \"an inconceivable mixture of grandeur and pettiness, laziness and activity, bravery and timidity, ambition and insouciance\". The internal contrast was evident throughout his life: he frequented both church and numerous orgies, for example. In Ségur's view, onlookers had a tendency to unjustly attribute to Catherine alone the successes of the period and to Potemkin the failures. An eccentric workaholic, Potemkin was vain and a great lover of jewelry (a taste he did not always remember to pay for), but he disliked sycophancy and was sensitive about his appearance, particularly his lost eye. He only agreed to have portraits made of him twice, in 1784 and again in 1791, both times by Johann Baptist von Lampi and from an angle which", "Potemkin had no legitimate descendants, though it is probable he had illegitimate issue. Four of his five sisters lived long enough to bear children, but only the daughters of his sister Marfa Elena (sometimes rendered as 'Helen') received Potemkin's special attention. The five unmarried Engelhardt sisters arrived in court in 1775 on the direction of their recently widowed father Vassily. Legend suggests Potemkin soon seduced many of the girls, one of whom was twelve or thirteen at the time. An", "Despite attempts by Paul I to play down Potemkin's role in Russian history, his name found its way into numerous items of common parlance:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "Habitat.", "Reproduction.", "Feeding habits.", "Vision.", "Hearing.", "Skeletal development.", "Dentition." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The European mole has a cylindrical body and is long, weighing. Females are typically smaller than males. The eyes are small and hidden behind fur, while the ears are just small ridges in the skin. The fur is usually dark grey, but the actual range of colors is larger, as due to the subterranean habits there is no disadvantage in having off-colored fur. European moles with white, light grey, tan, taupe, and black fur have all been reported.", "While moles are typically found in tunnel systems, the European mole is not exclusively an underground dweller. In the spring and early summer when the young moles leave their mothers' burrows they must find new territories. This forces them to leave their burrows and they can either make new tunnel systems or enter existing systems. In the summer time, however, they are likely to burrow much more superficially. The superficial burrowing could be due in part to the soil that is much harder, which makes burrowing a greater challenge. \"T. europaea\" have also been found to spend a lot of time at the sides of drainage lines and streams but do not inhabit flooded or dry soils. However, dry areas do become important when their normal habitats become flooded. Factors such as the type of soil, vegetation present, and altitude have no effect on the areas that moles choose to inhabit. The one factor that does greatly influence the mole population in a specific area is the abundance of earthworms. One would expect the earthworm population to decrease as the moles feed; however, no research has shown this to be true.", "The European mole has a relatively short breeding season, in the spring. Mating occurs over a span of a few weeks in March and April, followed by a gestation period of four to five weeks. Most births occur at the end of April or at the beginning of May. The litter size ranges from two to seven. The lactation period lasts for four to five weeks but at the end of June, the young are usually required to leave the tunnels. The lifespan is from three to five years.", "One common belief about European moles is that they typically consume their own weight in food every 24 hours, but this is an exaggeration. Studies have been performed that show European moles actually eat about half of their body weight in food each day. When in captivity, European moles will eat a wide variety of food items, including liver, mice, mealworms, shrews and maggots. However, they tend to prefer earthworms over all other options.", "Due to the subterranean nature of this mole, there is an anatomical regression of its eyes at several organizational levels. Its eye has a diameter of only, it is buried beneath fur and has a cellular lens. The organization of the retina is quite similar to that of a typical mammal. It has been determined that there are about 2000 ganglion cells and the optic nerve is roughly 50 μm with 3000 axons. Roughly 15% of these axons are myelinated. The photoreceptors are not the normal rod-like or cone-like shape that one would expect to see. Instead they all have one uniform shape with three distinct features: Studies have shown that \"T. europaea\" does have photopic vision, contrary to popular belief that all moles are blind. Two cone opsins have been found in the eyes of \"T. europaea\" but their function is still under investigation. In a study of the mole eyes it was found that \"Talpa\" withdraws when exposed to a flashlight and it can also perform light/dark discrimination tasks. The cone cells in the eye are unlikely to provide high-resolution vision but they could allow a detection of movement and some hue discrimination. It is suggested that in subterranean mammals vision is used to detect predators that have broken into the tunnels.", "In mammals, the cues for hearing are usually based on inter-aural intensity differences, which occur as a result of the diffraction of a progressive sound wave by the head and pinna. They could also be based on inter-aural time differences that are present because of the distance between their two ears. European moles have no pinnae, so they are thought to hear at low frequencies. In addition to this, their inner ear is unusual for that of a mammal, due to the large trabeculation of the posterior ventral skull between the ears. The tympana of the ear lies almost horizontally and the manubrial tips are separated by a distance of. The results of several studies confirm that there is good transmission through the European mole's head for a range of low frequencies. Because of this it is expected that there will be acoustic interaction at each tympanic membrane. There are also suggestions that the ears of this mole act as balanced pressure-difference receivers. This system has never been suggested for a mammal in the past, but reptiles, amphibia, birds, and crickets have been shown to have a direct air pathway between the tympana.", "In \"Talpa europaea\", there are several unique changes in ossification sequence in the postcranial elements. Many of the shifts are seen in the vertebral column, specifically the cervical and thoracic regions. The shifts allow the moles to have a more stabilized body axis and cervical region after they are born. After a European mole is born and begins to develop, it will begin to crawl around and dig. As a result of the constant digging action, elements of the forelimb that are associated with those movements will begin to ossify. Some elements in the hands of \"Talpa europaea\", formally described as distal phalanges, are actually the first to ossify. These elements build up a groove for the distal phalanges, but ultimately do not fuse with them. These bony elements develop directly, meaning they do not have any cartilaginous precursors. The extra-calcified elements are created from small, calcified particles that are found in the fibrous part of the flexor digitorum profundus. The particles then fuse later in life to form the solid element of the hand. Additionally, the sesamoid bone in the European mole \"sensu stricto\" is a bone that develops within a tendon. It does have a chondrified precursor and it assists the tendon in transmitting force.", "The variance of morphology between species is very important to paleontologists, as it can help define a fossil species. Unlike other characteristics that do not fossilize, like color and karyotype, dentition can be studied, as it fossilizes well and varies from species to species. Studying dentition can be very beneficial in recognizing the differences between fossils and subsequently being able to classify them. The Roman mole (\"Talpa romana\") was once considered a subspecies of the European mole, as they are of similar size. The only obvious difference between the two is that \"T. romana\" has skin-covered eyes and it also has a caecoid pelvis, whereas \"T. europaea\" has a europoid pelvis. Although similar in body, the dentition of \"T. romana\" is obviously larger in size than that \"T. europaea\". Both the length of the tooth row and the individual elements are larger. Moreover, the mesotyle of the upper molars is generally divided. The dentition of \"T. europaea\" is small and the length of M1-M3 is less than 19% of the length of the condyle base. This mole also has relatively small molars for its size." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Origin.", "Formula One.", "Pole position trophy.", "IndyCar.", "Indianapolis 500.", "Grand Prix motorcycle racing.", "NASCAR.", "Radio-controlled racing." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The term has its origins in horse racing, in which the fastest qualifying horse would be placed on the inside part of the course, next to the pole.", "Originally in Grand Prix racing, grid positions, including pole, were determined by lottery among the drivers. Prior to the inception of the Formula One World Championship, the first instance of grid positions being determined by qualifying times was at the 1933 Monaco Grand Prix. Since then, the FIA have introduced many different qualifying systems to Formula One. From the long-standing system of one session on each of Friday and Saturday, to the current knockout-style qualifying leaving 10 out of 20 drivers to battle for pole, there have been many changes to qualifying systems. Between 1996 and 2006, the FIA made 6 significant changes to the qualifying procedure, each with the intention of making the battle for pole more interesting to viewers at home. Traditionally, pole was always occupied by the fastest driver due to low-fuel qualifying. The race-fuel qualifying era between 2003 and 2009 briefly changed this. Despite the changing formats, drivers attempting pole were required between 2003 and 2009 to do qualifying laps with the fuel they would use to start the race the next day. An underfuelled slower car and driver would therefore be able to take pole ahead of a better but heavier-fueled car. In this situation, pole was not always advantageous to have in the race as the under-fueled driver would have to pit for more fuel before their rivals. With the race refueling ban introduced, low-fuel qualifying returned and these strategy decisions are no longer in play. Also, when Formula One enforced the 107% rule between 1996 and 2002, a driver's pole time might affect slower cars also posting times for qualifying, as cars that could not get within 107% of the pole time were not allowed start the race unless the stewards decided otherwise. Since the reintroduction of the rule in 2011, this only applies to the quickest time in the first session of qualifying (Q1) and not the pole time.", "From 2014, the FIA awarded a trophy to the driver who won the most pole positions in a season. In 2018, the FIA Pole Trophy was renamed to the Pirelli Pole Position Award, with the polesitter at each race winning a Pirelli wind tunnel tyre with the name of the polesitter and their time. The driver with the most pole positions at the end of the season wins a full-size engraved Formula 1 tyre. (WC) indicates that the driver won the World Championship in the same season.", "IndyCar uses four formats for qualifying: one for most oval tracks, one for Iowa Speedway, one for the Indianapolis 500, and another for road and street circuits. Oval qualifying is almost like the Indianapolis 500, with two laps, instead of four, averaged together with one attempt, although with just one session. At Iowa, each car takes one qualifying lap, and the top six cars advance to the feature race for the pole position. Positions from 7th onward are assigned to their races, based on time, with cars in the odd-numbered finishing order starting in one race, and cars in the even-numbered finishing order starting in the second race. The finishing order for the odd-numbered race starts on the inside, starting in Row 6 (11th), and even-numbered race on the outside based on finishing position, again from Row 6 (12th), except for the top two in each race, which start in the inside and outside, respectively (Row 4 and 5) of the race for the pole position. The result of the feature race determines positions 1–10. All three races are 50 laps. On road and street courses, cars are drawn randomly into two qualifying groups. After each group has one twenty-minute session, the top six cars from each group qualify for a second session. The cars that finished seventh or worse are lined up by their times, with the best of these times starting 13th. The twelve remaining cars run a 15-minute session, after which the top six cars move on to a final 10-minute session to determine positions one through six on the grid. The Iowa format was instituted in 2012 with major modifications (times set based on open qualifying session in second practice, positions 11th and back in odd positions raced in the inside heat, positions 12th and back in even positions raced in the outside heat, and positions 1–10 raced for the pole, each heat 30 laps), and non-Iowa oval format in August 2010, while the Indianapolis format was in 2010. The road course format was installed for 2008. In prior seasons, oval qualifying ran for four laps, Indianapolis-style, from 2008, and previously two laps with the best lap used for qualification. Street and road circuits used a two-phase format similar to oval qualifying except that cars took one qualifying lap, then the top six advanced to the ten-minute session for the pole.", "The pole position for the Indianapolis 500 is determined on the first day (or first full round) of time trials. Cars run four consecutive laps (10 miles), and the total elapsed time on the four laps determines the positioning. The fastest car on the first day of time trials wins the pole position. Times recorded in earlier days (rounds) start ahead of subsequent days (rounds). A driver could record a time faster than that of the pole winner on a subsequent day; however, he will be required to line up behind the previous day(s)' qualifiers. Starting in 2010, the first day is split into Q1 and Q2. At the end of Q1, positions 10–24 are set. The top nine cars will then have their times wiped out and advance to Q2 where cars will have 90 minutes to run for pole. If inclement weather causes officials to cancel Q2, positions 1–24 are set. If inclement weather in Q1 is early where Q2 is late (past 6 PM usually), drivers will have only one attempt in Q2.", "Since, there has been one hour-long session on Saturday where the riders have an unlimited number of laps to record a fast lap time. Simply, the rider with the fastest lap gains pole position for the race. In a new format was introduced whereby qualifying is conducted over two 15-minute sessions labelled Q1 and Q2. The fastest 10 riders over combined practice times advance automatically to Q2, while the rest of the field compete in Q1. At the conclusion of Q1 the fastest 2 riders progress to Q2 with a chance to further improve their grid position", "Before 2001, NASCAR used a two-day qualifying format in its national series. Before 2002 only one lap was run on oval tracks except short tracks and restrictor plate tracks. Until 2014, the pole position has been determined by a two-lap time trial (one lap on road courses) with the faster lap time used as the driver's qualifying speed. In 2014, NASCAR used a knockout qualifying format for all races except the Daytona 500, non-points races, and the Camping World Truck Series' Eldora Dirt Derby: after a 25-minute session (on tracks longer than ; tracks shorter than 1.25 miles have a 30-minute session), the 24 fastest cars advance to a ten-minute session, with the top 12 advancing to a final five-minute session. Starting in 2003, if a driver's team changed their car's engine after the qualifying segment was over, the car would be relegated to the rear of the 43-car field. In the case of multiple teams changing engines on the same weekend after a qualifying segment (although this is a rare occurrence), qualifying times from that segment are used to determine the starting order for those cars. In the Eldora Dirt Derby, practice runs are held, which determine the starting grids for five heat races of eight laps each. The top five fastest qualifiers started on pole for each heat, and the winner of the first heat is awarded the pole for the feature race.", "In radio-controlled car racing, the term Top Qualifier (TQ) is used to determine the fastest qualifying driver, usually over a two-day, five/six rounds qualifying sessions, depending on the overall duration of the event. The result is determined by the best half of the driver's performance. As the event bring in over 100 entrants, the fastest driver is guaranteed directly a place in front of the A-main final, the group that carries a chance of being the overall winner. The slower drivers are allocated a spot to compete in their groups to determine the overall positions." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Depictions.", "Origins.", "Classical tradition.", "Perseus and Medusa.", "Protective and healing powers.", "Cultural depictions of Gorgons." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The name derives from the ancient Greek word γοργός \"gorgós\", which means \"grim, dreadful\", and appears to come from the same root as the, \"\", which is defined as a guttural sound, similar to the growling of a beast, thus possibly originating as an onomatopoeia.", "Gorgons were a popular image in Greek mythology, appearing in the earliest of written records of Ancient Greek religious beliefs such as those of Homer, which may date to as early as 1194–1184 BC. Because of their legendary and powerful gaze that could turn one to stone, images of the Gorgons were put upon objects and buildings for protection. An image of a Gorgon holds the primary location at the pediment of the temple at Corfu, which is the oldest stone pediment in Greece, and is dated to 600 BC. A marble statue 1.35 m high of a Gorgon, dating from the 6th century BC, was found almost intact in 1993, in an ancient public building in Parikia, Paros capital, Greece (Archaeological Museum of Paros no. 1285, see pictures below). It is thought to have originally belonged to a temple. The concept of the Gorgon is at least as old in classical Greek mythology as Perseus and Zeus. The name is Greek, being derived from \"gorgos\" and translating as \"terrible\" or \"dreadful\". Gorgoneia (figures depicting a Gorgon head, see below) first appear in Greek art at the turn of the 8th century BC. One of the earliest representations is on an electrum stater discovered during excavations at Parium. Other early eighth-century examples were found at Tiryns. Going even further back into history, there is a similar image from the Knossos palace, datable to the 15th century BC. Marija Gimbutas even argues that \"the Gorgon extends back to at least 6000 BC, as a ceramic mask from the Sesklo culture...\". She also identifies the prototype of the \"Gorgoneion\" in Neolithic art motifs, especially in anthropomorphic vases and terracotta masks inlaid with gold. Pausanias (5.10.4, 8.47.5, many other places), a geographer of the 2nd century AD, supplies details of where and how gorgons were represented in Greek art and architecture. The large Gorgon eyes, as well as Athena's \"flashing\" eyes, are symbols termed \"the divine eyes\" by Gimbutas (who did not originate the perception); they appear also in Athena's sacred bird, the owl. They may be represented by spirals, wheels, concentric circles, swastikas, firewheels, and other images. The awkward stance of the gorgon, with arms and legs at angles is closely associated with these symbols as well. Some Gorgons are shown with broad, round heads, serpentine locks of hair, large staring eyes, wide mouths, tongues lolling, the tusks of swine, large projecting teeth, flared nostrils, and sometimes short, coarse beards. (In some cruder representations, stylized hair or blood flowing under the severed head of the Gorgon has been mistaken for a beard or wings.) Some reptilian attributes such as a belt made of snakes and snakes emanating from the head or entwined in the hair, as in the temple of Artemis in Corfu, are symbols likely derived from the guardians closely associated with early Greek religious concepts at the centers such as Delphi where the dragon Delphyne lived and the priestess Pythia delivered oracles. The skin of the dragon was said to be made of impenetrable scales.", "A number of early classics scholars interpreted the myth of the Medusa as a quasi-historical, or \"sublimated\", memory of an actual invasion. The legend of Perseus beheading Medusa means, specifically, that \"the Hellenes overran the goddess's chief shrines\" and \"stripped her priestesses of their Gorgon masks\", the latter being apotropaic faces worn to frighten away the profane. That is to say, there occurred in the early thirteenth century B.C. an actual historic rupture, a sort of sociological trauma, which has been registered in this myth, much as what Freud terms the latent content of a neurosis is registered in the manifest content of a dream: Registered yet hidden, registered in the unconscious yet unknown or misconstrued by the conscious mind. — J. Campbell (1968) While seeking origins others have suggested examination of some similarities to the Babylonian creature, Humbaba, in the Gilgamesh epic.", "Transitions in religious traditions over such long periods of time may make some strange turns. Gorgons are often depicted as having wings, brazen claws, the tusks of boars, and scaly skin. The oldest oracles were said to be protected by serpents and a Gorgon image was often associated with those temples. Lionesses or sphinxes are frequently associated with the Gorgon as well. The powerful image of the Gorgon was adopted for the classical images and myths of Athena and Zeus, perhaps being worn in continuation of a more ancient religious imagery. In late myths, the Gorgons were said to be the daughters of two sea deities: Keto, the sea monster, and Phorcys, her brother-husband. Homer, the author of the oldest known work of European literature, speaks only of one Gorgon, whose head is represented in the Iliad as fixed in the centre of the aegis of Athena: About her shoulders she flung the tasselled aegis, fraught with terror... and therein is the head of the dread monster, the Gorgon, dread and awful... Its earthly counterpart is a device on the shield of Agamemnon: ... and therein was set as a crown the Gorgon, grim of aspect, glaring terribly, and about her were Terror and Rout. In the \"Odyssey\", the Gorgon is a monster of the underworld into which the earliest Greek deities were cast: ... and pale fear seized me, lest august Persephone might send forth upon me from out of the house of Hades the head of the Gorgon, that awful monster... Around 700 BC, Hesiod, imagines the Gorgons as sea daemons and increases the number of them to three – Stheno (the mighty), Euryale (the far-springer, or of the wide sea), and Medusa (the queen), and makes them the daughters of the sea deities Keto and Phorcys. Their home is on the farthest side of the western ocean; according to later authorities, in Libya. Ancient Libya is identified as a possible source of the deity, Neith, who also was a creation deity in Ancient Egypt and, when the Greeks occupied Egypt, they said that Neith was called Athene in Greece. Of the three Gorgons in classical Greek mythology, only Medusa is mortal. The Attic tradition, reproduced in Euripides (Ion), regarded the Gorgon as a monster, produced by Gaia to aid her children, the Titans, against the new Olympian deities. Classical interpretations suggest that Gorgon was slain by Athena, who wore her skin thereafter. The \"Bibliotheca\" provides a good summary of the Gorgon myth. Much later stories claim that each of three Gorgon sisters, Stheno, Euryale, and Medusa, had snakes for hair, and that they had the power to turn anyone who looked at them to stone. According to Ovid, a Roman poet writing in 8 AD, who was noted for accuracy regarding the Greek myths, Medusa alone had serpents in her hair, and he explained that this was due to Athena (Roman Minerva) cursing her. Medusa had copulated with Poseidon (Roman Neptune) in a temple of Athena after he was aroused by the golden color of Medusa's hair. Athena therefore changed the enticing golden locks into serpents. Virgil mentions that the Gorgons lived in the entrance of the Underworld. Diodorus and Palaephatus mention that the Gorgons lived in the Gorgades, islands in the Aethiopian Sea. The main island was called Cerna. Henry T. Riley suggests these islands may correspond to Cape Verde. According to Pseudo-Hyginus the \"Gorgo Aix\" (Γοργώ Aιξ), daughter of Helios, was killed by Zeus during the Titanomachy. From her skin, a goat-like hide rimmed with serpents, he made his famous aegis, and placed her fearsome visage upon it. This he gave to Athena. Then Aix became the goat Capra (Greek: \"Aix\"), on the left shoulder of the constellation Auriga. A primeval Gorgon was sometimes said to be the father of Medusa and her sister Gorgons by the sea Goddess Ceto. This figure may have been the same as Gorgo Aix as the primal Gorgon was of an indeterminable gender.", "In late myths, Medusa was the only one of the three Gorgons who was not immortal. King Polydectes sent Perseus to kill Medusa in hopes of getting him out of the way, while he pursued Perseus's mother, Danae. Some of these myths relate that Perseus was armed with a scythe from Hermes and a mirror (or a shield) from Athena. Perseus could safely cut off Medusa's head without turning to stone by looking only at her reflection in the shield. From the blood that spurted from her neck and falling into the sea, sprang Pegasus and Chrysaor, her sons by Poseidon. Other sources say that each drop of blood became a snake. Perseus is said by some to have given the head, which retained the power of turning into stone all who looked upon it, to Athena. She then placed it on the mirrored shield called Aegis and she gave it to Zeus. Another source says that Perseus buried the head in the marketplace of Argos. According to other accounts, either he or Athena used the head to turn Atlas into stone, transforming him into the Atlas Mountains that held up both heaven and earth. He also used the Gorgon against Cetus (when saving Andrometa) and a competing suitor, Phineas, Andromeda's cousin. Ultimately, he used her against King Polydectes. When Perseus returned to the court of the king, Polydectes asked if he had the head of Medusa. Perseus replied \"here it is\" and held it aloft, turning the whole court to stone.", "In Ancient Greece a \"Gorgoneion\" (a stone head, engraving, or drawing of a Gorgon face, often with snakes protruding wildly and the tongue sticking out between her fangs) frequently was used as an apotropaic symbol and placed on doors, walls, floors, coins, shields, breastplates, and tombstones in the hopes of warding off evil. In this regard \"Gorgoneia\" are similar to the sometimes grotesque faces on Chinese soldiers’ shields, also used generally as an amulet, a protection against the evil eye. Likewise, in Hindu mythology, Kali is often shown with a protruding tongue and snakes around her head. In some Greek myths, blood taken from the right side of a Gorgon could bring the dead back to life, yet blood taken from the left side was an instantly fatal poison. Athena gave a vial of the healing blood to Asclepius, which ultimately brought about his demise. Heracles is said to have obtained a lock of Medusa’s hair (which possessed the same powers as the head) from Athena and to have given it to Sterope, the daughter of Cepheus, as a protection for the town of Tegea against attack. According to the later idea of Medusa as a beautiful maiden, whose hair had been changed into snakes by Athena, the head was represented in works of art with a wonderfully handsome face, wrapped in the calm repose of death.", "Gorgons, especially Medusa, have become a common image and symbol in Western culture since their origins in Greek mythology, appearing in art, literature, and elsewhere throughout history. In \"A Tale of Two Cities\", for example, Charles Dickens compares the exploitative French aristocracy to \"the Gorgon\" — he devotes an entire chapter to this extended metaphor." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Adopting the euro.", "Under the socialist governments between 2002 and 2010.", "Under the conservative government from 2010.", "The Maastricht criteria.", "Inflation.", "Budget deficit.", "Public debt.", "Interest rate.", "ERM-II membership.", "Coins of the future Hungarian euro." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Hungary originally planned to adopt the euro as its official currency in 2007 or 2008. Later 1 January 2010 became the target date, but that date was abandoned because of an excessively high budget deficit, inflation, and public debt. For years, Hungary could not meet any of the Maastricht criteria. After the 2006 election, Prime Minister Ferenc Gyurcsány introduced austerity measures, causing protests in late 2006 and an economic slowdown in 2007 and 2008. However, in 2007, the deficit had been reduced to less than 5% (from 9.2%) and approached the 3% threshold in 2008. In 2008 analysts claimed that Hungary could join ERM II in 2010 or 2011 and so might adopt the euro in 2013, but more feasibly in 2014, or later, depending on Eurozone crisis developments. On 8 July 2008, the then Finance Minister János Veres announced the first draft of a euro-adoption plan. After the 2008 global financial crisis, the likelihood of a fast adoption seemed greater. Hungary received aid from the International Monetary Fund, the European Union and the World Bank. In October 2008 the head of Hungary's largest bank called for a special application to join the eurozone. Ferenc Gyurcsány ran out of political capital in March 2009 to accept necessary measures. The exchange rate reached 317 forints to one euro on 6 March. Gyurcsány initiated a constructive motion of no confidence against himself on 21 March and nominated Minister for Development and economist Gordon Bajnai as his replacement. The socialist and liberal parties accepted him as the new prime minister with an interim government for one year from 14 April. Bajnai's premiership brought new austerity measures in Hungary. Thus, they may keep the deficit under 4% in 2009 and the 2010 Budget calculations assumed 3.8%. The inflation outturn was near 3% as a result of the crisis, but because of the increase in VAT, it averaged 5% in the second half of the year. Because of the IMF loan, the public debt rose to nearly 80%. The central bank interest rate fell to 6.25% from 10.5% in 2009. The Bajnai government could not lead Hungary into the ERM-II, and it stated that it had no plans to do so.", "The centre-right soft eurosceptic Fidesz won enough seats in the 2010 Hungarian parliamentary election to form a government on its own. Fidesz was not specific then about its economic priorities. Shortly after the formation of the new government, they announced their intention to keep the 2010 deficit at 3.8%. After more pressure, in September they also accepted a reduction to 3% in 2011. In 2010, Finance Minister György Matolcsy said they would discuss euro adoption in 2012. Mihály Varga, another member of the party, talked about possible euro adoption in 2014 or 2015. However, in February 2011, Prime Minister Viktor Orbán made clear that he does not expect the euro to be adopted in Hungary before 2020. Later, Matolcsy also confirmed this statement. Orbán said the country was not yet ready to adopt the currency and they would not discuss the possibility until the public debt reached a 50% threshold. The public debt-to-GDP ratio was 81.0% when Orban's 50% target was set in 2011, and it is currently forecast to decline to 73.5% in 2016. In 2011, experts said that the earliest date that Hungary could adopt the euro was 2015. When the countries of the eurozone adopted the Euro Plus Pact on 25 March 2011, Hungary decided to go along with the United Kingdom, Sweden and the Czech Republic and chose not to join the pact. Matolcsy said that they could agree with the most of its contents, but did not want to give up the country's independence regarding corporate tax matters. As the Euro Plus Pact does not feature any legal obligations - but only commitments to use various sets of voluntary tools to improve employment, competitiveness, fiscal responsibility and financial stability - joining this pact would not lead to a requirement for Hungary to abandon their current corporate tax method. In April 2013, Viktor Orbán proclaimed euro adoption would not happen until the Hungarian purchasing power parity weighted GDP per capita had reached 90% of the eurozone average. According to Eurostat, this relative percentage rose from 57.0% in 2004 to 63.4% in 2014. If the same pace of \"catching up\" progress was to be expected in the future as in the past ten years (6.4% per decade), Hungary would only reach Orban's 90% target and adopt the euro in 2056. Although, Hungary could potentially also reach Orban's 90% target and adopt the euro in 2033, if being able for the upcoming period to sustain the same 1.4% of annual improvements in the figure as achieved from 2013 to 2014. Shortly after Orbán had been re-elected as Prime Minister for another four-year term in April 2014, the Hungarian Central Bank announced that they planned to introduce a new series of forint bank notes in 2018. In June 2015, Orbán declared that his government would no longer entertain the idea of replacing the forint with the euro in 2020, as was previously suggested, and instead expected the forint to remain \"stable and strong for the next several decades\", although, on July 2016, National Economy Minister Mihály Varga suggested that country could adopt the euro by the \"end of the decade\", but only if economic trends continue to improve and the common currency becomes more stable. No official target date has been set for euro adoption.", "", "Inflation slowed down to 2.2% in 2006. However, after the austerity measures it was much higher than the criteria until the crisis. The crisis slowed it down to 2.9%, but in the end it was above the Maastricht criteria in 2009. The annual inflation was 0.9% in October 2013.", "The budget deficit was 9.2% in the election year of 2006. After the austerity measures, it neared the 3% threshold in 2008. The deficit was planned to be 3.9% in 2009, but was ultimately above 4%. The 2010 budget planned 3.8%, but it also went over 4%. Hungary's general government deficit, excluding the effect of one-off measures, was 2.43% of GDP in 2011, lower than the 2.94% target and under the 3% threshold for the first time since 2004. Hungary recorded a budget deficit of 1.9% in 2012, well below previous expectations. The budget deficit is expected to be under the 3% threshold in 2013 as well.", "Public debt accounted for 80.1% of GDP in 2010, above the 60% target. However, the EU might accept a Hungarian public debt which declines for at least 2 years.", "The central bank's interest rate was raised by 3% to 11.5% in October 2008, because of the crisis. However, then it was lowered consecutively 14 times until April 27, 2010 down to 5.25%. Then it was raised 5 times until December 21, 2011 up to 7%. Since then the rate has declined 35 times, the interest rate is 0.90%", "As the conservative government in 2013 does not plan to adopt the euro before 2020, there is no discussion about a possible ERM-II membership.", "Hungarian euro coins have not yet been designed. When asked about the production of the euro coins in a 2010 interview appearing in Coin News magazine in the UK, Ferenc Gaál, Mintmaster replied: \"Originally, we were supposed to have finished production of forint coinage in 2008. This project (the facilities of the new mint premises) was specifically planned to meet the requirements of the new euro currency which will be launched in Hungary in the future, this new facility will ensure a very smooth change-over which will also provide us with the latest technology for minting & production of euro coins. It will take us only six months to produce enough coins to change from forints to euros. All the conditions are in place for a hopefully smooth change-over. Now, we're just waiting for the 'go-ahead'!\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Formation and \"Leisure\", 1988–1991.", "Britpop years, 1992–1995.", "Reinvention after Britpop, 1996–2000.", "Coxon's departure, \"Think Tank\" and hiatus, 2001–2007.", "Reunion, \"The Magic Whip\", and second hiatus, 2008–present." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Childhood friends Damon Albarn and Graham Coxon from Essex met Alex James when they began studying at London's Goldsmiths College in 1988. Albarn was in a group named Circus, who were joined by drummer Dave Rowntree that October. Circus requested the services of Coxon after the departure of their guitarist. That December, Circus fired two members and James joined as the group's bassist. This new group named themselves Seymour in December 1988, inspired by J. D. Salinger's \"\". The group performed live for the first time in summer 1989. In November, Food Records' A&R representative Andy Ross attended a Seymour performance that convinced him to court the group for his label. The only concern held by Ross and Food was that they disliked the band's name. Food drew up a list of alternatives, from which the group decided on \"Blur\". Food Records finally signed the newly christened band in March 1990. From March to July 1990, Blur toured Britain, opening for the Cramps, and testing out new songs. In October 1990, after their tour was over, Blur released the \"She's So High\" single, which reached number 48 in the UK Singles Chart. The band had trouble creating a follow-up single, but they made progress when paired with producer Stephen Street. The resulting single release, \"There's No Other Way\", became a hit, peaking at number eight. As a result of the single's success, Blur became pop stars and were accepted into a clique of bands who frequented the Syndrome club in London dubbed \"The Scene That Celebrates Itself\". \"NME\" magazine wrote in 1991, \"[Blur] are [the] acceptable pretty face of a whole clump of bands that have emerged since the whole Manchester thing started to run out of steam.\" The band's third single, \"Bang\", performed relatively disappointingly, reaching only number 24. Andy Ross and Food owner David Balfe were convinced Blur's best course of action was to continue drawing influence from the Madchester genre. Blur attempted to expand their musical sound, but the recording of the group's debut album was hindered by Albarn having to write his lyrics in the studio. Although the resulting album \"Leisure\" (1991) peaked at number seven on the UK Albums Chart, it received mixed reviews, and according to journalist John Harris, \"could not shake off the odour of anti-climax\".", "After discovering they were £60,000 in debt, Blur toured the United States in 1992 in an attempt to recoup their financial losses. The group released the single \"Popscene\" to coincide with the start of the tour. Featuring \"a rush of punk guitars, '60s pop hooks, blaring British horns, controlled fury, and postmodern humor\", \"Popscene\" was a turning point for the band musically. However, upon its release it only charted at number 32. \"We felt 'Popscene' was a big departure; a very, very English record\", Albarn told the \"NME\" in 1993, \"But that annoyed a lot of people... We put ourselves out on a limb to pursue this English ideal and no-one was interested.\" As a result of the single's lacklustre performance, plans to release a single named \"Never Clever\" were scrapped and work on Blur's second album was pushed back. During the two-month American tour, the band became increasingly unhappy, often venting frustrations on each other, leading to several physical confrontations. The band members were homesick; Albarn said, \"I just started to miss really simple things... I missed everything about England so I started writing songs which created an English atmosphere.\" Upon the group's return to Britain, Blur (Albarn in particular) were upset by the success rival group Suede had achieved while they were gone. After a poor performance at a 1992 gig that featured a well-received set by Suede on the same bill, Blur were in danger of being dropped by Food. By that time, Blur had undergone an ideological and image shift intended to celebrate their English heritage in contrast to the popularity of American grunge bands like Nirvana. Although sceptical of Albarn's new manifesto for Blur, Balfe gave assent for the band's choice of Andy Partridge (of XTC) to produce their follow-up to \"Leisure\". The sessions with Partridge proved unsatisfactory, but a chance reunion with Stephen Street resulted in him returning to produce the group. Blur completed their second album \"Modern Life Is Rubbish\" in December 1992, but Food Records said the album required more potential hit singles and asked them to return to the studio for a second time. The band complied and Albarn wrote \"For Tomorrow\", which became the album's lead single. \"For Tomorrow\" was a minor success, reaching number 28 on the charts. \"Modern Life Is Rubbish\" was released in May 1993. The announcement of the album's release included a press photo which featured Blur, dressed in a mix of mod and skinhead attire, posing alongside a mastiff with the words \"British Image 1\" spraypainted behind them. At the time, such imagery was viewed as nationalistic and racially insensitive by the British music press; to quieten concerns, Blur released the \"British Image 2\" photo, which was \"a camp restaging of a pre-war aristocratic tea party\". \"Modern Life Is Rubbish\" peaked at number 15 on the British charts, but failed to break into the US \"Billboard\" 200, selling only 19,000 copies there. The success of \"Parklife\" (1994) revived Blur's commercial fortunes. The album's first single, the disco-influenced \"Girls & Boys\", found favour on BBC Radio 1 and peaked at number 5 on the UK Singles Chart, and number 59 in the US \"Billboard\" Hot 100 where it remains the band's highest-charting single. \"Parklife\" entered the British charts at number one and stayed on the album charts for 90 weeks. Enthusiastically greeted by the music press—the \"NME\" called it \"a Great Pop Record... bigger, bolder, narkier and funnier [than \"Modern Life is Rubbish\"]\"—\"Parklife\" is regarded as one of Britpop's defining records. Blur won four awards at the 1995 Brit Awards, including Best Band and Best Album for \"Parklife\". Coxon later pointed to \"Parklife\" as the moment when \"[Blur] went from being regarded as an alternative, left field arty band to this amazing new pop sensation\". Blur began working on their fourth album \"The Great Escape\" at the start of 1995. Building upon the band's previous two albums, Albarn's lyrics for the album consisted of several third-person narratives. James reflected, \"It was all more elaborate, more orchestral, more theatrical, and the lyrics were even more twisted... It was all dysfunctional, misfit characters fucking up.\" The release of the album's lead single \"Country House\" played a part in Blur's public rivalry with Manchester band Oasis termed the \"Battle of Britpop\". Partly due to increasing antagonisms between the groups, Blur and Oasis released their new singles on the same day, an event the \"NME\" called \"The British Heavyweight Championship\". The debate over which band would top the British singles chart became a media phenomenon, and Albarn appeared on the \"News at Ten\". At the end of the week, \"Country House\" ultimately outsold Oasis' \"Roll With It\" by 274,000 copies to 216,000, becoming Blur's first number one single. \"The Great Escape\", which Albarn told the public was the last instalment in the band's Life Trilogy, was released in September 1995 to ecstatic reviews. The \"NME\" hailed it as \"spectacularly accomplished, sumptuous, heart-stopping and inspirational\", while \"Mojo\" argued \"Blur are the very best that '95 Britpop has to offer and this is a most gong-worthy sound, complete with head-slicing guitars, catchy tunes and very funny words\". Entering the UK charts at number one, the album sold nearly half a million copies in its first month of sale. However, opinion quickly changed and Blur found themselves largely out of favour with the media once again. Following the worldwide success of Oasis' \"(What's the Story) Morning Glory?\" (which went quadruple platinum in America), the media quipped \"[Blur] wound up winning the battle but losing the war.\" Blur became perceived as an \"inauthentic middle class pop band\" in comparison to the \"working class heroes\" Oasis, which Albarn said made him feel \"stupid and confused\". Alex James later summarised, \"After being the People's Hero, Damon was the People's Prick for a short period... basically, he was a loser – very publicly.\"", "An early 1996 \"Q\" magazine interview revealed that relations between Blur members had become very strained; journalist Adrian Deevoy wrote that he found them \"on the verge of a nervous breakup\". Coxon, in particular, began to resent his bandmates: James for his playboy lifestyle, and Albarn for his control over Blur's musical direction and public image. The guitarist struggled with drinking problems and, in a rejection of the group's Britpop aesthetic, made a point of listening to noisy American alternative rock bands such as Pavement. In February 1996, when Coxon and James were absent for a lip-synced Blur performance broadcast on Italian television, they were replaced by a cardboard cutout and a roadie, respectively. Blur biographer Stuart Maconie later wrote that, at the time, \"Blur were sewn together very awkwardly\". Although he had previously dismissed it, Albarn grew to appreciate Coxon's tastes in lo-fi and underground music, and recognised the need to significantly change Blur's musical direction once again. \"I can sit at my piano and write brilliant observational pop songs all day long but you've got to move on\", he said. He subsequently approached Street, and argued for a more stripped-down sound on the band's next record. Coxon, recognising his own personal need to—as Rowntree put it—\"work this band\", wrote a letter to Albarn, describing his desire for their music \"to scare people again\". After initial sessions in London, the band left to record the rest of the album in Iceland, away from the Britpop scene. The result was \"Blur\", the band's fifth studio album, released in February 1997. Although the music press predicted that the lo-fi sonic experimentation would alienate Blur's teenage girl fan-base, they generally applauded the effort. Pointing out lyrics such as \"Look inside America/She's alright\", and noting Albarn's \"obligatory nod to Beck, [and promotion of] the new Pavement album as if paid to do so\", reviewers felt the band had come to accept American values during this time—an about-face of their attitude during the Britpop years. Despite cries of \"commercial suicide\", the album and its first single, \"Beetlebum\", debuted at number one in the UK. Although the album could not match the sales of its predecessors in Britain, internationally \"Blur\" was more successful. In the US, the album received strong reviews, reached number 61 on the \"Billboard\" 200 and was certified gold. The album's \"Song 2\" single was also popular on alternative radio, reaching number six on the Modern Rock chart. After it was licensed for use in various media—such as soundtracks, advertisements and television shows—\"Song 2\" became the most recognisable Blur song in the US. After the success of \"Blur\", the band embarked on a nine-month world tour. In February 1998, a few months after completing the tour, Blur released \"Bustin' + Dronin'\" for the Japanese market. The album is a collection of Blur songs remixed by artists such as Thurston Moore, William Orbit and Moby. Among the tracks, the band were most impressed by Orbit's effort and enlisted him to replace Street as producer for their next album, citing a need to approach the recording process from a fresh perspective. Released in March 1999, Blur's sixth studio album \"13\" saw them drift still further away from their Britpop-era attitude and sound. Orbit's production style allowed for more jamming, and incorporated a \"variety of emotions, atmospheres, words and sounds\" into the mix. \"13\" was creatively dominated by Coxon, who \"was simply allowed to do whatever he chose, unedited\", by Orbit. Albarn's lyrics—more heart-felt, personal and intimate than on previous occasions—were reflective of his break-up with Elastica frontwoman Justine Frischmann, his partner of eight years. The album received generally favourable reviews from the press. While \"Q\" called it \"a dense, fascinating, idiosyncratic and accomplished art rock album\", the \"NME\" felt it was inconsistent and \"(at least) a quarter-of-an-hour too long\". \"13\" debuted at the top of the UK charts, staying at that position for two weeks. The album's lead single, the gospel-based \"Tender\", opened at the second spot on the charts. After \"Coffee & TV\", the first Blur single to feature Coxon on lead vocals, only reached number 11 in the UK, manager Chris Morrison demanded a chart re-run because of what he deemed was a sales miscalculation. In July 1999, in celebration of their tenth anniversary, Blur released a 22-CD limited edition box-set of their singles. The accompanying tour saw Blur play the A-sides of the 22 singles in their chronological order of release. In October 2000, the group released the compilation \"\", which debuted at number three in the UK and received a Platinum certification for 300,000 copies shipped. Dismissed by the band as \"the first record we have seen as product\", the track listing and release dates of \"Blur: The Best Of\" were determined on the basis of market research and focus groups conducted by Blur's record label, EMI. By this time, the group had largely disowned the upbeat pop singles from the Britpop era, and favoured the more arty, experimental work on \"Blur\" and \"13\". In an otherwise highly enthusiastic review of the best-of for the \"NME\", Steve Sutherland criticised the band's \"sheer disregard\" for their earlier work; \"Just because these songs embarrassed them once they started listening to broadsheet critics and retreated wounded from the big-sales battle with Oasis doesn't mean that we're morons to love them.\"", "After \"13\" and the subsequent tours in 1999–2000, band members pursued other projects. Graham Coxon recorded a string of solo albums, while Damon Albarn dedicated his time to Gorillaz, the animated band he had created with Jamie Hewlett. Alex James worked with Fat Les and co-wrote several songs with Sophie Ellis-Bextor and Marianne Faithfull. Recording for Blur's next album began in London in November 2001, but concerted work started in June 2002, with the sessions moving to Marrakech, Morocco soon after, and then to Devon back in the UK. Not long after the sessions began, Coxon left the group. Coxon said \"there were no rows\" and \"[the band] just recognised the feeling that we needed some time apart\". Before the album was released, Blur released a new single, \"Don't Bomb When You Are the Bomb\" as a very limited white label release. The song is largely electronic, and was part of the band's protest against war in the Middle East. Albarn, however, attempted to assuage fans' fears that the album would be electronic by providing reassurances that the band's new album would be \"a rockin' record\", and also said that it has \"a lot of finely crafted pop songs\". Early in 2002, Blur recorded a song that would be played by European Space Agency's Beagle 2 lander once it touched down; however, attempts to locate the probe after it landed on Mars were fruitless. \"Think Tank\", released in May 2003, was filled with atmospheric, brooding electronic sounds, featuring simpler guitar lines played by Albarn, and largely relying on other instruments to replace Coxon. The guitarist's absence also meant that \"Think Tank\" was almost entirely written by Albarn. Its sound was seen as a testament to Albarn's increasing interest in African and Middle Eastern music, and to his complete control over the group's creative direction. \"Think Tank\" was yet another UK number one and managed Blur's highest US position of number 56. It was also nominated for best album at the 2004 Brit Awards. The band did a successful tour in 2003, with former Verve guitarist Simon Tong filling in for Coxon. In 2005, XFM News reported that Blur would record an EP, and denied that they would hire a replacement guitarist for Coxon. There were also some aborted recordings made in 2005. Overall the band kept a low profile and did no studio or touring work as a three-piece. After Coxon significantly thawed on the subject of rejoining Blur, in 2007 band members announced that they would reunite, and that they intended to record together first in August, with the date later being pushed back to September, then October. Though the band members finally met up in October, they posted on their website that they had only \"met up for an enjoyable lunch\" and that there were no \"other music plans for Blur\".", "In December 2008, Blur announced they would reunite for a concert at London's Hyde Park on 3 July 2009. Days later, the band added a second date, for 2 July. A series of June preview shows were also announced, ending at Manchester Evening News arena on the 26th. All the shows were well received; \"The Guardian\"s music critic Alexis Petridis gave their performance at Goldsmiths college a full five stars, and wrote \"Blur's music seems to have potentiated by the passing of years... they sound both more frenetic and punky and more nuanced and exploratory than they did at the height of their fame\". Blur headlined the Glastonbury Festival on 28 June, where they played for the first time since their headline slot in 1998. Reviews of the Glastonbury performance were enthusiastic; \"The Guardian\" called them \"the best Glastonbury headliners in an age\". The band released their second greatest hits album \"\" in June 2009. Blur also headlined at other summer festivals, including Oxegen 2009 in Ireland, and the Scottish outdoor show of T in the Park. Their T in the Park headline slot was put in jeopardy after Graham Coxon was admitted to hospital with food poisoning. Ultimately, the band did play, albeit an hour and a half after they were scheduled to appear. After the completion of the reunion dates, James said the group had not discussed further plans, and Albarn told \"Q\" soon after that Blur had no intention of recording or touring again. He said, \"I just can't do it anymore\", and explained that the main motivation for participating in the reunion was to repair his relationship with Coxon, which he succeeded at. Coxon also said that no further Blur activity was planned, telling NME.com in September, \"We're in touch and we say 'Wotcha' and all that but nothing has been mentioned about any more shows or anything else\". In January 2010, \"No Distance Left to Run\", a documentary about the band, was released in cinemas and a month later on DVD. In April 2010, Blur released their first new recording since 2003, \"Fool's Day\", for the Record Store Day event, as a vinyl record limited to 1000 copies; it was later made available as a free download on their website. \"No Distance Left to Run\" was nominated as Best Long Form Music Video for the 53rd Grammy Awards, Blur's first-ever Grammy nomination. In February 2012, Blur were awarded the Outstanding Contribution to Music award at the 2012 Brit Awards. Later that month, Albarn and Coxon premiered a new track together live, \"Under the Westway\". In April, the band announced that a box-set entitled \"Blur 21\"—containing all seven Blur studio albums, four discs of unreleased rarities and three DVDs—would be released in July. Blur had also entered the studio early that year to record material for a new album, but in May producer William Orbit told the \"NME\" that Albarn had halted recording. Blur's official Twitter and Facebook pages announced that the band would release two singles \"The Puritan\" and \"Under the Westway\" on 2 July. That August, Blur headlined a show at Hyde Park for the 2012 Summer Olympics closing ceremony. In 2013, the band performed at the Rock Werchter in Belgium, the Spanish and Portuguese dates of the Primavera Sound festival, and the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival in the United States. In April 2015, Blur released their first studio album in twelve years, \"The Magic Whip\". Conceived over five days in Hong Kong after a cancelled Japan tour in 2013, the album was inspired by the city as well. \"There's nothing pastoral about it\", Albarn said, \"it's very urban\". \"The Magic Whip\" also marks the return of Coxon, absent on all but one track on \"Think Tank\", and Stephen Street, Blur's producer during the Britpop era. Upon its release, the record was greeted with applause both by the music press and the mainstream media. Awarding the album a full five stars, \"The Daily Telegraph\" called \"The Magic Whip\" \"a triumphant comeback that retains the band's core identity while allowing ideas they'd fermented separately over the past decade to infuse their sound with mature and peculiar new flavour combinations\". The \"NME\" concurred, saying Blur were \"a reunited band making music to rival their very best\". It was also a commercial success, becoming the sixth consecutive Blur LP since \"Parklife\" (1994) to top the British charts. The \"Guardian\" also noted that at times during its first week of release, \"The Magic Whip\" sold \"more than the rest of the top five combined\". That December \"New World Towers\", a documentary on the recording process of \"The Magic Whip\", was released in select British theatres. Blur have been on hiatus once again since the 2015 tour promoting \"The Magic Whip\". In 2018, Albarn said that a Blur reunion is \"Never not a possibility\", and confessed \"I’d hate to think I’d never play with those musicians again.\" The band briefly reunited in March 2019 for a surprise performance at an Albarn-organized Africa Express event in London." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "War.", "Spanish Civil War.", "Korean War.", "1973 Chilean coup d'état.", "Turkish Invasion of Cyprus.", "1976 Argentine coup d'état.", "Vietnam War.", "Crime.", "Rwandan Genocide.", "Khmer Rouge Genocide.", "Holocaust.", "Religious conflict.", "Thirty Years' War.", "Famine.", "The Great Famine.", "Epidemic.", "Bubonic plague.", "Spanish flu.", "COVID-19.", "Natural disaster.", "Brunner Mine disaster.", "2010 Haitian earthquake.", "2013 Typhoon Haiyan.", "Health concerns." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Mass graves are a variation on common burial, still occasionally practiced today under normal circumstances. Mass or communal burial was a common practice before the development of a dependable crematory chamber by Ludovico Brunetti in 1873. In Paris, the practice of mass burial, and in particular, the condition of the Cimetière des Innocents, led Louis XVI to eliminate Parisian cemeteries. The remains were removed and placed in the Paris underground forming the early Catacombs. \"Le Cimetière des Innocents\" alone had 6,000,000 dead to remove. Burial commenced outside the city limits in what is now Père Lachaise Cemetery.", "", "There are over 2,000 known mass graves throughout Spain stemming from the Spanish Civil War wherein an estimated 500,000 people died between 1936 and 1939, and approximately 135,000 were killed after the war ended. Several exhumations are being conducted from information given in witnesses' and relatives' testimonies to the \"Asociación para la Recuperación de la Memoria Histórica\" (ARMH). These testimonies serve the purpose of helping geophysicists, archaeologists and forensic scientists to locate graves in order to identify bodies and allow families to rebury their relatives. In the summer of 2008, information from these testimonies was used to unearth a 4 meter long square grave containing five skeletons near the town of San Juan del Monte. These five remains are believed to be of people that were kidnapped and killed after the July 18, 1936 military coup. Another mass grave from the Spanish Civil War was found using Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR). Eyewitness accounts identified two potential locations for an unmarked grave in mountains of Lena in Northern Spain. Both sites were examined and an unmarked mass grave of approximately 1 meter by 5 meters was found.", "Approximately 100,000–200,000 civilians were killed at the start of the Korean War. These people were flagged by the government of South Korea for potentially collaborating with or sympathizing with North Korea. They were arrested and subsequently executed without trial. The sites where the massacres occurred were forbidden to the public. The bodies were considered to be traitors and the act of associating with them was considered treasonous. Despite this, families retrieved bodies from the shallow forbidden mass graves at the massacre sites. In 1956, bereaved families and villagers exhumed over 100 decomposed and unidentifiable bodies, ensuring that the complete human skeleton was intact. Each exhumed body was buried in its own \"nameless grave\" in a cemetery on Jeju Island. There is a granite memorial within the cemetery which bears the cemetery's local name, \"Graves of One Hundred Ancestors and One Descendant.\" This name functions to express the opposite of how the genealogy should be as typically many descendants derive from one ancestor.", "The Chilean military coup against President Salvador Allende occurred on September 11, 1973. The military surrounded the town of Santiago and searched for people hiding in potential guerilla insurgent locations. Civilians were detained for long periods of time and some disappeared. Following the coup, bodies were abundant in the streets and in the Mapocho River. It is estimated that 3,200 people were executed or disappeared between 1973 and 1990 in Chile. Higher estimates are up to 4,500 people. These bodies were taken to morgues to be identified and claimed. Unidentified bodies were buried in marked mass graves. From this conflict, several hidden mass graves have been identified. In December 1978, 15 bodies were discovered in an abandoned limestone mine in Lonquén. In October 1979, 19 bodies were exhumed after being secretly buried at the cemetery of Yumbel. Mass graves were also identified in Santiago's General Cemetery with multiple bodies being forced into a single coffin. This cemetery had an influx of over 300 bodies within a three-month time span. These mass graves were distinguished by a cross with the initials \"NN.\" \"NN\" is indicative of the phrase \"\"Nomen Nescio\"\" or \"\"no name\".\" Following extensive media coverage of these mass graves, the Chilean military decided to exhume the bodies from Lonquén, Yumbel, and Santiago's General Cemetery. The military airdropped the exhumed bodies over open water or remote mountain locations.", "Many mass graves of both Turkish and Greek Cypriots were found in Cyprus after Turkey invaded the island in 1974. In August 3, 14 Greek Cypriot civilians were executed and buried in a mass grave. In Eptakomi 12 Greek Cypriots were found in a mass grave executed with their hands tied. On the other hand, during the Maratha, Santalaris and Aloda massacre, 126 Turkish Cypriots including elderly people and children were murdered by EOKA B and the inhabitants of the three villages were buried in mass graves with a bulldozer. The villagers of Maratha and Santalaris, 84 to 89 people at total, were buried in the same grave. Mass graves were used to bury Turkish Cypriot victims of Tochni massacre too.", "On March 24, 1976 at 3:21 AM, the media told the people of Argentina that the country was now under the \"operational control of the Junta of General Commanders of the Armed Forces.\" This event and years following it became known as the 1976 Argentine coup d'état. The presiding president, President Isabel Martínez de Perón, had been taken captive two hours prior to the media announcement. The new dictatorship implemented travel bans, public gatherings, and a nighttime curfew. Additionally, the new dictatorship resulted in widespread violence, leading to executions and casualties. Abducted captives were disposed of in one of the five defense zones within Argentina where they were held. The bodies were typically buried in individual marked anonymous graves. Three mass graves are known to exist on Argentinian police and military premises although other bodies were disposed of through cremation or by being airdropped over the Atlantic Ocean. Approximately 15,000 people are estimated to have been assassinated. Argentina's largest mass grave's exhumation began in March 1984 at the San Vicente Cemetery in Cordoba.The grave was 3.5 meters deep and 25 by 2.5 meters across. It contained approximately 400 bodies. Of the recovered and exhumed bodies, 123 were of young people violently killed during the 1976–1983 dictatorship. The remaining bodies were identified as older and having died nonviolent deaths such as leprosy.", "Many mass graves were discovered after the Massacre at Huế during the Vietnam War. In the fall of 1969, the body count unearthed from these mass graves was around 2,800. The victims buried in these mass graves included government officials, innocent civilians, women and children. They were tortured, executed and in some cases, buried alive. In Quang Ngai, a mass grave of 10 soldiers was discovered on December 28, 2011. These soldiers were buried alongside their belongings including wallets, backpacks, guns, bullets, mirrors, and combs. Other larger mass graves of Vietnamese soldiers are believed to exist, with hundreds of soldiers in each grave.", "", "The Rwandan Genocide began after the unsolved death of the Rwandan president, Juvénal Habyarimana, on April 6, 1994. Extremist members of the Hutu government formed an interim wartime government. They called for an extermination of the Tutsi population, Hutu political opponents and Hutu whom resisted the violence. The genocide lasted 100 days and resulted in an estimated 800,000 killings. Rwandan people sought refuge in gathering places such as churches and stadiums. An estimated 4,000–6,000 people gathered in Kibuye Catholic Church. Around April 17, 1994, the church was surrounded by armed civilians, police and gendarmes. Those inside were attacked with a variety of weapons including grenades, guns, and machetes. Survivors of the attack were sought after and killed in the following days. Burial of these bodies took place in at least four mass graves. The first mass grave resulting from this attack was discovered behind the church where several bodies were left unburied and scattered. In December 1995, archaeologists surveyed the area and flagged any potential human remains. In January 1996, forensic anthropologists located and exhumed 53 skeletal assemblages. A second mass grave was found under a tree marked with wire, indicating a memorial. Below the tree was a trench filled with multiple bodies. The third and fourth mass graves were found using a probe to test for deteriorating remains. The third grave was marked by the local population, similar to the second grave. The fourth grave was identified by a priest. Throughout the Rwandan genocide, bodies were buried in mass graves, left exposed, or disposed of though rivers. At least 40,000 bodies have been discovered in Lake Victoria which connects to Akagera River.", "Mass grave mapping teams have located 125 Khmer Rouge prison facilities and corresponding gravesites to date in Cambodia while researching the Killing Fields. These mass graves are believed by villagers to possess tutelary spirits and signify the dead bodies becoming one with the earth. Buddhist rituals, which were taboo at the time, were performed in the 1980s which transformed the anonymous bodies into \"spirits of the departed.\" In the 1990s, religious ceremonies were re-established and the Festival of the Dead was celebrated annually.", "The Mittelbau camps held about 60,000 prisoners of The Holocaust between August 1943 and March 1945. Conservative estimates assume that at least 20,000 inmates perished at the Mittelbau-Dora concentration camp. In early April 1945, an unknown number of prisoners perished in death marches following the evacuation of prisoners from Mittelbau camps to Bergen-Belsen concentration camp in northern Germany. In April 1945, U.S. soldiers liberated the Mittelbau-Dora concentration camp. Only a few prisoners were still in the camp and the U.S. soldiers found the remains of approximately 1,300 prisoners in the Boelcke barracks. The names of these prisoners are unknown. Mass graves of the dead prisoners from the Mittelbau-Dora concentration camp were dug by German civilians under orders from U.S. soldiers.", "", "The Thirty Years' War was Europe's deadliest religious conflict. In the Battle of Lützen, 47 soldiers perished and were buried in a mass grave. Archaeological and osteological analyses found that the soldiers ranged in age from 15–50 years. Most corpses had evidence of blunt force trauma to the head while seven men had stabbing injuries.", "", "Ireland's Great Famine lasted from 1845 to 1849, a period wherein about one million people died. Because of the excessive number of deaths and extreme poverty, many families were unable to provide a wake or proper burial for loved ones and used mass graves instead. Archaeological excavations have taken place on Irish mass burial sites. One excavation revealed a mass grave of nearly 1,000 individuals. The skeletons within the grave were layered on top of each other in multiple sub-rectangular pits positioned less than a meter apart.", "", "The bubonic plague outbreak existed in three pandemic waves and is known as the Black Death. In the 1300s alone, an estimated 20–30 million people were killed in Europe and approximately 12 million people were killed in China. These deaths were at least 30 percent of the European population at that time. The last major outbreak of the bubonic plague occurred in London from 1665–1666 and is known as The Great Plague. In March 2013, a plague pit of 25 skeletons were found in a 5.5 meter-wide shaft during the construction of a new railroad in London. The skeletons were neatly lined up in two rows and were about 8 feet underground. Samples from 12 corpses were taken and forensic analysis confirmed traces of DNA from \"Yersinia pestis\".", "In several territories, the amount of death caused by the 1918 Spanish flu pandemic was beyond the capacities of funeral industry, requiring the use of mass graves. Several mass graves of Spanish flu victims were created in Australia, Canada, and the United States.", "Reports of mass graves having been dug for COVID-19 victims have been made about Iran, using satellite pictures of sites near Qom as evidence. In New York City, mass graves have been prepared in Hart Island for an afflux of dead; however, other reports said mass graves would be unlikely in the United States. University of Huddersfield experts said mass graves might be considered if local services end up overwhelmed. Following the rise of deaths and morgues being overwhelmed, New York City has temporarily allowed for mass graves on Hart Island for unclaimed bodies. In Brazil, the city of Manaus, in the state of Amazonas, used mass graves after a large spike in deaths attributed to the pandemic.", "", "The Brunner Mine disaster occurred at 9:30 a.m. on March 26, 1896. An underground explosion caused the death of 65 miners, making it New Zealand's deadliest mining disaster. Of the 53 victims buried in Stillwater cemetery, 33 victims were in one mass grave.", "Following the 2010 Haiti earthquake, thousands of bodies were left in the streets on Port-au-Prince, exposed to the sun and beginning to decompose and smell. The government of Haiti collected the bodies on the street, along with rubble through use of dump trucks and other heavy machinery. The bodies and rubble were then transported to empty rectangular holes, 20 feet deep, 20 feet wide and 100 feet long. No efforts were taken to identify the dead that were transported and buried. Within Haitian culture, burial rituals hold great significance and the sacred ceremonies can cost more than their own homes. There is a Haitian Vodou belief that the dead continue to live and are connected to their ancestors through these rituals. The burial of unidentified corpses in mass graves rather than familial plots severs this spiritual link between the living and dead.", "As the casualties of the Typhoon Haiyan were in the thousands, unidentified or unknown corpses were buried in several mass graves in Leyte (especially in Tacloban City where the most deaths happened), Samar and other areas, while identified corpses were given to their families for burial.", "The debate surrounding mass graves amongst epidemiologists includes whether or not, in a natural disaster, to leave corpses for traditional individual burials, or to bury corpses in mass graves. For example, if an epidemic occurs during winter, flies are less likely to infest corpses, reducing the risk of outbreaks of dysentery, diarrhea, diphtheria, or tetanus, which decreases the urgency to use mass graves. A research published in 2004 indicates that the health risks from dead bodies after natural disasters are relatively limited." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Family history.", "Early influences.", "Girlhood on Jackson Hill.", "The South of \"Gone with the Wind\".", "An avid reader.", "Young storyteller.", "School life.", "Marriage.", "Reporter for \"The Atlanta Journal\".", "Interest in erotica.", "Novelist.", "Early works.", "\"Lost Laysen\".", "\"The Big Four\".", "\"Ropa Carmagin\".", "Final work.", "Writing \"Gone with the Wind\".", "World War II.", "Death and legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Margaret Mitchell was a Southerner and a native and lifelong resident of Georgia. She was born in 1900 into a wealthy and politically prominent family. Her father, Eugene Muse Mitchell, was an attorney, and her mother, Mary Isabel \"May Belle\" (or \"Maybelle\") Stephens, was a suffragist. She had two brothers, Russell Stephens Mitchell, who died in infancy in 1894, and Alexander Stephens Mitchell, born in 1896. Mitchell's family on her father's side were descendants of Thomas Mitchell, originally of Aberdeenshire, Scotland, who settled in Wilkes County, Georgia in 1777, and served in the American Revolutionary War. Her grandfather, Russell Crawford Mitchell, of Atlanta, enlisted in the Confederate States Army on June 24, 1861, and served in Hood's Texas Brigade. He was severely wounded at the Battle of Sharpsburg, demoted for \"inefficiency,\" and detailed as a nurse in Atlanta. After the Civil War, he made a large fortune supplying lumber for the rapid rebuilding of Atlanta. Russell Mitchell had thirteen children from two wives; the eldest was Eugene, who graduated from the University of Georgia Law School.", "Margaret Mitchell spent her early childhood on Jackson Hill, east of downtown Atlanta. Her family lived near her maternal grandmother, Annie Stephens, in a Victorian house painted bright red with yellow trim. Mrs. Stephens had been a widow for several years prior to Margaret's birth; Captain John Stephens died in 1896. After his death, she inherited property on Jackson Street where Margaret's family lived. Grandmother Annie Stephens was quite a character, both vulgar and a tyrant. After gaining control of her father Philip Fitzgerald's money after he died, she splurged on her younger daughters, including Margaret's mother, and sent them to finishing school in the north. There they learned that Irish Americans were not treated as equal to other immigrants, and that it was shameful to be a daughter of an Irishman. Margaret's relationship with her grandmother would become quarrelsome in later years as she entered adulthood. However, for Margaret, her grandmother was a great source of \"eye-witness information\" about the Civil War and Reconstruction in Atlanta prior to her death in 1934.", "In an accident that was traumatic for her mother although she was unharmed, when Mitchell was about three years old, her dress caught fire on an iron grate. Fearing it would happen again, her mother began dressing her in boys' pants, and she was nicknamed \"Jimmy\", the name of a character in the comic strip, \"Little Jimmy\". Her brother insisted she would have to be a boy named Jimmy to play with him. Having no sisters to play with, Mitchell said she was a boy named Jimmy until she was fourteen. Stephens Mitchell said his sister was a tomboy who would happily play with dolls occasionally, and she liked to ride her Texas", "While \"the South\" exists as a geographical region of the United States, it is also said to exist as \"a place of the imagination\" of writers. An image of \"the South\" was fixed in Mitchell's imagination when at six years old her mother took her on a buggy tour through ruined plantations and \"Sherman's sentinels\", the brick and stone chimneys that remained after William Tecumseh Sherman's \"March and torch\" through Georgia. Mitchell would later recall what her mother had said to her: She talked about the world those people had lived in, such a secure world, and how it", "An avid reader, young Margaret read \"boys' stories\" by G.A. Henty, the Tom Swift series, and the Rover Boys series by Edward Stratemeyer. Her mother read Mary Johnston's novels to her before she could read. They both wept reading Johnston's \"The Long Roll\" (1911) and \"Cease Firing\" (1912). Between the \"scream of shells, the mighty onrush of charges, the grim and grisly aftermath of war\", \"Cease Firing\" is a romance novel involving the courtship of a Confederate soldier and a Louisiana plantation belle with Civil War illustrations by N. C. Wyeth. She also read the plays of William Shakespeare, and novels by Charles Dickens and Sir Walter Scott. Mitchell's two favorite children's books were by author Edith Nesbit: \"Five Children and It\" (1902) and \"The Phoenix and the", "An imaginative and precocious writer, Margaret Mitchell began with stories about animals, then progressed to fairy tales and adventure stories. She fashioned book covers for her stories, bound the tablet paper pages together and added her own artwork. At age eleven she gave a name to her publishing enterprise: \"Urchin Publishing Co.\" Later her stories were written in notebooks. Mary Belle Mitchell kept her daughter's stories in white enamel bread boxes and several boxes of her stories were stored in the house by the time Margaret went off to college. \"Margaret\" is a character riding a galloping pony in \"The Little Pioneers\", and plays", "While the Great War carried on in Europe (1914–1918), Margaret Mitchell attended Atlanta's Washington Seminary (now The Westminster Schools), a \"fashionable\" private girls' school with an enrollment of over 300 students. She was very active in the Drama Club. Mitchell played the male characters: Nick Bottom in Shakespeare's \"A Midsummer Night's Dream\" and Launcelot Gobbo in Shakespeare's \"The Merchant of Venice\", among others. She wrote a play about snobbish college girls that she acted in as well. She also joined the Literary Club and had two stories published in the yearbook: \"Little Sister\" and \"Sergeant Terry\". Ten-year-old \"Peggy\" is the heroine in \"Little Sister\". She hears her older sister being raped and shoots the rapist: Coldly, dispassionately she viewed him, the chill steel of the gun giving her confidence. She must not miss now—she would not miss—and she did not. Mitchell received encouragement from her English teacher, Mrs. Paisley, who recognized her writing talent. A demanding teacher, Paisley told her she had ability if she worked hard and would not be careless in constructing sentences. A sentence, she said, must be \"complete, concise and coherent\". Mitchell read the books of Thomas Dixon, Jr., and in 1916, when the silent film, \"The Birth of a Nation\", was showing in Atlanta, she dramatized Dixon's \"The Traitor: A Story of the Fall of the Invisible Empire\" (1907). As both playwright and actress, she took the role of Steve Hoyle. For the production, she made a Ku Klux Klan costume from a white crepe dress and wore a boy's wig. (Note: Dixon rewrote \"The Traitor\" as \"The Black Hood\" (1924) and Steve Hoyle was renamed George Wilkes.) During her years at Washington Seminary, Mitchell's brother, Stephens, was away studying at Harvard College (1915–1917), and he left in May 1917 to enlist in the army, about a month after the U.S. declared war on Germany. He set sail for France in April 1918, participated in engagements in the Lagny and Marbache sectors, then returned to Georgia in October as a training instructor. While Margaret and her mother were in New York in September 1918 preparing for Margaret to attend college, Stephens wired his father that he was safe after his ship had been torpedoed en route to New York from France. Stephens Mitchell thought college was the \"ruination of", "Margaret began using the name \"Peggy\" at Washington Seminary, and the abbreviated form \"Peg\" at Smith College when she found an icon for herself in the mythological winged horse, \"Pegasus\", that inspires poets. Peggy made her Atlanta society debut in the 1920 winter season. In the \"gin and jazz style\" of the times, she did her \"flapping\" in the 1920s. At a 1921 Atlanta debutante charity ball, she performed an Apache dance. The dance included a kiss with her male partner that shocked Atlanta \"high society\". The Apache and the Tango were scandalous dances for their elements of eroticism, the latter popularized in a 1921 silent film, \"The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse\", that made its lead actor, Rudolph Valentino, a sex symbol for his ability to Tango. Mitchell was, in her own words, an \"unscrupulous flirt\". She found herself engaged to five men, but maintained that she neither lied to or misled any of them. A local gossip columnist, who wrote under the name Polly Peachtree, described Mitchell's love life in a 1922 column: ...she has in her brief life, perhaps, had more men really, truly 'dead in love' with her, more honest-to-goodness suitors than almost any other girl", "While still legally married to Upshaw and needing income for herself, Mitchell got a job writing feature articles for \"The Atlanta Journal Sunday Magazine\". She received almost no encouragement from her family or \"society\" to pursue a career in journalism, and had no prior newspaper experience. Medora Field Perkerson, who hired Mitchell said: There had been some skepticism on the Atlanta Journal Magazine staff when Peggy came to work as a reporter. Debutantes slept late in those days and didn't go in for jobs. Her first story, \"Atlanta Girl Sees Italian Revolution\", by Margaret Mitchell Upshaw, appeared on December 31, 1922. She wrote on a wide range of topics, from fashions to Confederate generals and King Tut. In an article that appeared on July 1, 1923, \"Valentino Declares He Isn't a Sheik\", she interviewed celebrity actor Rudolph Valentino, referring to him as \"Sheik\" from his film role. Less thrilled by his looks than his \"chief charm\", his \"low, husky voice with a soft, sibilant accent\", she described his face as \"swarthy\": His face was swarthy, so brown that his white teeth flashed in startling contrast", "Mitchell began collecting erotica from book shops in New York City while in her twenties. The newlywed Marshes and their social group were interested in \"all forms of sexual expression\". Mitchell discussed her interest in \"dirty\" book shops and sexually explicit prose in letters to a friend, Harvey Smith. Smith noted", "", "", "Mitchell wrote a romance novella, \"Lost Laysen\", when she was fifteen years old (1916). She gave \"Lost Laysen\", which she had written in two notebooks, to a boyfriend, Henry Love Angel. He died in 1945 and the novella remained undiscovered among some letters she had written to him until 1994. The novella was published in 1996, eighty years after it was written, and became a \"New York Times\" Best Seller. In \"Lost Laysen\", Mitchell explores the dynamics of three male characters and their relationship to the only female character, Courtenay Ross, a strong-willed American missionary to the South Pacific island of Laysen. The narrator of the tale is Billy Duncan, \"a rough, hardened soldier of fortune\", who is frequently involved in fights that leave him near death. Courtenay quickly", "In Mitchell's teenage years, she is known to have written a 400-page novel about girls in a", "In the 1920s Mitchell completed a novelette, \"Ropa Carmagin\", about a Southern white girl who loves a biracial man. Mitchell submitted the manuscript to Macmillan Publishers in 1935 along with her manuscript for \"Gone with the Wind\". The novelette was rejected; Macmillan thought the story was too short for book form.", "", "In May 1926, after Mitchell had left her job at the \"Atlanta Journal\" and was recovering at home from her ankle injury, she wrote a society column for the \"Sunday Magazine\", \"Elizabeth Bennet's Gossip\", which she continued to write until August. Meanwhile, her husband was growing weary of lugging armloads of books home from the library to keep his wife's mind occupied while she hobbled around the house; he emphatically suggested that she write her own book instead: For God's sake, Peggy, can't you write a book instead of reading thousands of them? To aid her in her literary endeavors, John Marsh brought home a Remington Portable No. 3 typewriter (c. 1928). For the next three years Mitchell worked exclusively on writing a Civil War-era novel whose heroine was named Pansy O'Hara (prior to \"Gone with the Wind\"'s publication Pansy was changed to Scarlett). She used parts of the manuscript to prop up a wobbly couch.", "During World War II, Margaret Mitchell was a volunteer for the American Red Cross and she raised money for the war effort by selling war bonds. She was active in Home Defense, sewed hospital gowns and put patches on trousers. Her personal attention, however, was devoted to writing letters to men in uniform—soldiers, sailors, and marines, sending them humor, encouragement, and her sympathy. The USS \"Atlanta\" (CL-51) was a light cruiser used as an anti-aircraft ship of the United States Navy sponsored by Margaret Mitchell and used in the", "Margaret Mitchell was struck by a speeding automobile as she crossed Peachtree Street at 13th Street in Atlanta with her husband, John Marsh, while on her way to see the movie \"A Canterbury Tale\" on the evening of August 11, 1949. She died at age 48 at Grady Hospital five days later on August 16 without fully regaining consciousness. The driver, Hugh Gravitt, was an off-duty taxi driver who was driving his personal vehicle when he struck Mitchell. After the collision, Gravitt was arrested for drunken driving and released on a $5,450 bond until Mitchell's death. Gravitt was originally charged with drunken driving, speeding, and driving on the wrong side of the road. He was convicted of involuntary manslaughter in November 1949 and sentenced to 18 months in jail. He served almost 11 months. Gravitt died in 1994 at the age of 73. Margaret Mitchell was buried at Oakland Cemetery, Georgia. When her husband John died in 1952, he was buried next to his wife. In 1994, Mitchell was inducted into Georgia Women of Achievement, and into the Georgia Writers Hall of Fame in 2000." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Early years: 1978–1983.", "Independent days: 1984–1991.", "Commercial height: 1992–1996.", "Until break-up: 1997–2002.", "After break-up: 2003–2010.", "Reunion: 2011–2013.", "Awards and Nominations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Pulp were formed in 1978 at The City School in Sheffield by Jarvis Cocker, then 15 years old, and Peter Dalton, then 14. Cocker's original preference was to name the band after the film \"Pulp\" starring Michael Caine, though it was decided that this was too short. Instead, the two took inspiration from a copy of the \"Financial Times\" which listed the Arabicas coffee bean in its commodity index. Cocker and Dalton used this, with a slight spelling change, and the band became \"Arabicus\". Early rehearsals took place in Cocker's house and featured Cocker, Dalton and Dalton's younger brother Ian. After finally deciding on \"Arabicus Pulp\", a fixed line-up was then established: Cocker, Dalton and two friends of theirs, David Lockwood and Mark Swift. The band played their first public gig at Rotherham Arts Centre in July 1980. Later that year, Cocker met future member, Russell Senior who recognised Cocker from his charismatic sales techniques in his part-time job at the local fish market. Their musical style at this time was varied, approximately described as \"a cross between ABBA and The Fall\". A local fanzine also noted this eclecticism, describing them as sounding \"as if they listen to the John Peel show every night in an endless quest for influences\". Indeed, in October 1981, they gave a demo tape to Peel, who granted them a Peel Session. The session was a giant leap forward for the young band, who became well known on the local music scene as a result. The tracks recorded were in the typical Sheffield sound of the time (cf. The Human League and Comsat Angels): electronic new wave and post-punk. These tracks were released in 2006 on \"The Peel Sessions\" compilation. Despite their exposure on national radio, success was not forthcoming and, apart from Cocker, most of the core line-up left for university. Soon, a new set of musicians was gathered: Simon Hinkler (who later joined The Mission and produced All About Eve), David Hinkler, Wayne Furniss, Peter Boam, Gary Wilson, and Cocker's sister, Saskia. They managed to get enough local backing to record a mini-album in late 1982, entitled \"It\" (the title was a pun on pulp-it, as if the band were preaching to the audience), which was released in April 1983 by Red Rhino Records. This largely consisted of folkish, romantic pop songs influenced by Leonard Cohen and was a change of direction from the Peel Sessions two years earlier. The album was later released by Cherry Red Records. Though \"It\" failed commercially and fame was still elusive, the band continued to seek commercial success even to the point of recording a single, \"Everybody's Problem\"/\"There Was\". The single demonstrated a style shift advised by Red Rhino's Tony Perrin who had convinced Cocker that he \"could write commercial songs like Wham!\". This approach also failed and Cocker was becoming unhappy with his chosen musical direction. He was set to break up the band and go to university himself before a practice with Russell Senior (violin, guitar, vocals) and Magnus Doyle (drums) led to the establishment of a new, more experimental, artier and noisier direction for Pulp. They were subsequently augmented by Peter Mansell (bass) and Tim Allcard (keyboards, saxophone, poetry).", "The new incarnation of Pulp survived a number of ill-fated gigs (including one at a rugby club at Brunel University which ended in a riot) before Allcard left to be replaced on keyboards by Magnus Doyle's sister Candida. Following her first performance with the band, they were signed to Fire Records. Soon after signing to Fire, in November 1985, Cocker fell out of a window while trying to impress a girl with a Spider-Man impression and ended up in hospital, temporarily requiring the use of a wheelchair in which he appeared during concerts. Pulp's relationship with Fire Records was tempestuous and Cocker admitted later that the band only accepted the deal as it \"was the only offer on the table\". During this period, the singles \"Little Girl\" and \"Dogs Are Everywhere\" were released. Pulp's next major release was \"Freaks\" (1987), an album recorded in one week due to record label pressure. Cocker was irritated, and remarked that \"the songs could've been done a lot better if we'd have had a bit more time...\". The release of \"Freaks\" ended up being delayed for a year, and the record was not well received. The album's darker style may be considered the antithesis of the happy and optimistic \"It\". When \"Freaks\" failed to be a success, Pulp recorded tracks with Chakk's label FON in Sheffield. A single called \"Death Comes To Town\" was due to be released by FON in early 1988, but this relationship disintegrated and the release was cancelled. It was during this time that Cocker was taking a part-time foundation course at Sheffield Polytechnic. This led to him leaving for London to study film at Central Saint Martins College of Art and Design, effectively folding the band. The fold was short-lived however. Steve Mackey, a regular at their Sheffield and London gigs, was also studying in London and was asked to join the band as a bass player. The line-up now consisted of Cocker, Mackey, Senior, Candida Doyle, Nick Banks (drums). In mid-1989, they began recording another album for Fire, this time with a bigger budget and production from Alan Smyth, called \"Separations\". This was a progression of the style of \"Freaks\", with Leonard Cohen-esque ballads on side one and an acid house infused track-listing on side two. The disparate styles can be attributed to Cocker and Mackey's different and changing tastes; Mackey introduced Cocker to house music which led to them both going to raves, while Cocker introduced Mackey to \"Scott Walker and Serge Gainsbourg\". Like \"Freaks\", the release of \"Separations\" was delayed, to an extent lessening the potential impact. In the meantime, however, in 1991, a 12\" recording, \"My Legendary Girlfriend\", became music periodical \"NME\"s single of the week. Stuart Maconie described it in his review as \"a throbbing ferment of nightclub soul and teen opera\". Furthermore, \"Countdown\" began to be mentioned in the mainstream press,<ref name=\"Rock/gig guide\">Gallivan, Joseph. \"Rock/gig guide\". \"The Independent\". 29 August 1991.</ref> heralding a turning point in Pulp's quest for fame.", "Pulp's repertoire was growing rapidly. Tracks such as \"Babies\", \"Space\" and \"She's a Lady\" were being played live throughout 1991 and in October of that year, they played their first overseas gig, a concert organised by French magazine \"Les Inrockuptibles\". However, the band were still frustrated that \"Separations\" still had not seen a release and so Pulp left Fire and signed to Warp Records imprint Gift Records in 1992. Buoyed by a changing musical current, in June 1992 Pulp released \"O.U.\" on Gift while Fire finally released \"Separations\" in the same month. \"Melody Maker\" made \"O.U\" a single of the week alongside \"The Drowners\" by Suede, a prominent new band. Pulp then signed to Island Records, who jointly released (with Gift) the singles \"Babies\" and \"Razzmatazz\" to increasing chart success. Next were the singles \"Lipgloss\" and their first top 40 hit on the UK Singles Chart, \"Do You Remember the First Time?\", which were put out as full Island releases. These singles were followed by the Ed Buller-produced album, \"His 'n' Hers\" (1994), which reached number nine on the UK Albums Chart and was nominated for the Mercury Music Prize. This sudden increase in popularity was helped by the massive media interest in Britpop alongside acts such as Suede, Oasis and Blur, with Pulp supporting the latter in a 1994 tour of the United States. 1995 saw the peak of Pulp's fame, with the release of their number two single on the UK Singles Chart, \"Common People\", in May 1995 and their performance in June at the Glastonbury Festival (standing in for The Stone Roses at the last minute). A double A-side single, \"Sorted for E's & Wizz/Mis-Shapes\", was to precede the release of their next album, \"Different Class\" (1995). Upon the release of \"Sorted for E's and Wizz\", the \"Daily Mirror\" printed a front-page story headed \"BAN THIS SICK STUNT\" alongside a story by Kate Thornton which said the song was \"pro-drugs\" and called for the single to be banned. The single had an inlay which showed how to conceal amphetamines in a DIY 'wrap'. Cocker released a statement two days later saying: \"...'Sorted' is not a pro-drugs song. Nowhere on the sleeve does it say you are supposed to put drugs in here but I understand the confusion. I don't think anyone who listens to 'Sorted' would come away thinking it had a pro-drugs message.\" The single reached number two on the UK Single Charts. Released in October 1995, \"Different Class\" garnered significant critical praise and debuted at the top of the UK Album Chart. This was the first album featuring Pulp fan-club president Mark Webber, who became a permanent member of the band on guitar and keyboards. The album followed similar themes to their previous work with observations of life expressed through Cocker's sexualised, sometimes dark and witty lyrics. Other singles released from \"Different Class\" were \"Disco 2000\" and \"Something Changed\", which reached numbers seven and ten respectively in the UK. In September 1996, \"Different Class\" won the Mercury Music Prize. It was at this time that Cocker gained significant media exposure due to a notorious prank at the 1996 BRIT Awards, where he invaded the stage in protest during pop singer Michael Jackson's performance of \"Earth Song\" and \"wiggled his backside\" at the audience. After complaints by Jackson and his entourage, Cocker spent the night in Kensington Police Station charged with actual bodily harm and assaulting the child performers. However, with British comedian and former solicitor Bob Mortimer acting as legal representation, he was released without charge. This incident propelled Cocker into great controversy in the UK and elsewhere, and Pulp's record sales soared as a result. The event also coincided with the beginning of their first arena tour and the \"Daily Mirror\", who had attacked the band months earlier, set up a \"Justice for Jarvis\" campaign backing his actions and carried out a stunt at Pulp's Sheffield Arena gig on 29 February, handing out free T-shirts. The \"NME\" described Cocker's actions as a \"great publicity stunt\" which was \"creative, subversive and very, very funny\", while \"Melody Maker\" described Cocker as, \"arguably the Fifth Most Famous Man in Britain\" and suggested he should be knighted. In March 1996, a compilation of Pulp's early recordings on Fire Records entitled \"Countdown 1992–1983\" was released on the Nectar Masters label. It received largely negative reviews, but due to the band's popularity at the time it reached the top 10 of the UK charts. Cocker, whose permission was not sought before release, urged fans not to purchase the album, comparing it to \"a garish old family photograph album\". Later in 1996, Pulp gained minor international recognition on the back of the inclusion of the track \"Mile End\" on the \"Trainspotting\" soundtrack. In August, the band played their last public performance for almost two years as headliners of the 1996 V Festival.", "It was during this period of intense fame and tabloid scrutiny that longtime member and major innovator in the band's sound Russell Senior decided to leave the band, saying, \"it wasn't creatively rewarding to be in Pulp anymore\". The band were due to begin working on a new album in late 1996. However, Cocker was having difficulty with the celebrity lifestyle, battling cocaine addiction and a break-up of a long-term relationship. When the band came to begin work on the next album, they had only one song – \"Help the Aged\". This creative inertia meant the band took over a year to finish the next record. Indeed, it was Cocker's disillusionment with his long-desired wish for fame that made up much of the subject matter of \"This Is Hardcore\", which was released in March 1998. The album took a darker and more challenging tone than that of \"Different Class\" and lyrical topics – pornography (the title track), fame (\"Glory Days\") and the after effects of drugs (\"The Fear\") – were dealt with more earnestly than on previous records. Also in 1998, Pulp collaborated with Patrick Doyle on the song \"Like A Friend\" for the soundtrack to the film \"Great Expectations\". The song was also used in the Adult Swim cartoon \"The Venture Bros.\" season 4 finale \"\" Pulp then spent a few years \"in the wilderness\" before reappearing in 2001 with a new album, \"We Love Life\". The extended period between the release of \"This is Hardcore\" and \"We Love Life\" is partly attributed to having initially recorded the songs which comprise the album and being dissatisfied with the results. Subsequent interviews also suggested interpersonal and artistic differences, including managing the fallout of the Britpop/\"Different Class\" era. Singer/songwriter Scott Walker agreed to produce the record and this symbolised a new phase in Pulp's development. This new effort fell short of expectations and was to be Pulp's last. Pulp subsequently undertook a tour of the National Parks in the UK, even playing a show as far north as Elgin in Scotland. Richard Hawley, the Sheffield-based singer/songwriter, was also present on various dates on this tour. He later described it as \"very much pink feather boas and glamour which was great and brilliant. That was about trying to find glamour among all the shit and I loved all that\". In 2002 the band announced that they were leaving their label, Island. A greatest hits package was released: \"Hits\", with one new track. It is unclear whether this was the band's decision or released to satisfy contractual agreements. A music festival, Auto, was organised (held at Rotherham's Magna centre) where they played their last gig before embarking on a 9-year hiatus.", "Cocker was involved in a number of one-offs and side projects, including the group Relaxed Muscle with Jason Buckle and the film \"Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire\", where he fronted a group which included Steve Mackey and members of Radiohead. In 2006 he collaborated with Air, Neil Hannon and Charlotte Gainsbourg on her album entitled \"5:55\". In 2007 he appeared on Air's album \"Pocket Symphony\", co-writing and giving vocals to the tracks \"One Hell of a Party\" and \"The Duelist\". His first solo album, \"Jarvis\", with the participation of Mackey, was released to critical acclaim in November 2006. Candida Doyle has performed live with Cocker on his solo tours. Mackey produced tracks on the debut album by M.I.A., \"Arular\", and on \"Someone To Drive You Home\" by the Long Blondes, both of which were critically well received. He has also produced tracks for Bromheads Jacket and Florence + The Machine. On 11 September 2006 the band re-released three of their albums (\"His 'n' Hers\", \"Different Class\", and \"This Is Hardcore\"), each with a bonus disc of B-sides, demos and rarities. On 23 October 2006 a 2-CD set compiling all of Pulp's John Peel Sessions from 1982 to 2001 was released.", "In November 2010 it was announced that the \"Different Class\" line-up (Cocker, Banks, Doyle, Mackey, Senior and Webber) would be playing at the Wireless festival in London's Hyde Park and a Saturday slot at the Isle of Wight Festival in 2011. In a message sent to the band's official mailing list on 1 January 2011, Cocker said the large amount of interest in the band's reunion had been \"an inspiration,\" and that he was pleased with how rehearsals were going. The band announced 22 concerts between May and September 2011, taking place in Europe and Australia. Pulp were one of the surprise special guests at Glastonbury Festival 2011 in June where they played on The Park stage on Saturday evening. They performed at the Sziget Festival in Hungary on 10 August, Way Out West Festival in Sweden on 13 August, and played as co-headliners to The Strokes at the Reading Festival and the Leeds Festival during the final weekend of August 2011. They headlined the Electric Picnic on 4 September, their last festival of the year. On 9 January 2012, the Coachella festival line-up was released, with Pulp listed as part of the line-up. Further dates were announced, including a concert at the Royal Albert Hall in support of the Teenage Cancer Trust. Senior did not take part in the 2012 gigs. In February 2012, \"It\", \"Freaks\" and \"Separations\" (the albums released by Fire Records) were re-issued. These editions came with bonus tracks, including \"Death Goes to the Disco\", \"Dogs Are Everywhere\" and \"Sink or Swim\". In April 2012, in an interview with \"ShortList\" magazine, Cocker said that he was working on ideas for new Pulp songs. Pulp announced in July 2012 that they would be playing a one-off concert in their hometown of Sheffield in December that year, at the 13,500 capacity Motorpoint Arena. Cocker stated in an interview with \"Q\" in November 2012 that the band has no plans whatsoever to release new material, and would be \"cruising off into the sunset\" at the end of the year, signalling a possible end to the reunion. On 25 December 2012, Pulp made a previously unreleased track, \"After You\", available for download to individuals who had attended the Sheffield concert, and was subsequently released to the general public on 28 January 2013 via digital download. The song had previously only existed in demo form. Their last performance was to promote the song on \"The Jonathan Ross Show\" on 9 February 2013. The remixed version of \"After You\" by Soulwax later went on to be used in the 2013 video game \"Grand Theft Auto V\" as a track on the ingame radio station, Soulwax FM. In May 2015, a music heritage plaque was unveiled at the venue of the band's first gig, The Leadmill, Sheffield. Band members Jarvis Cocker, Nick Banks, Steve Mackey, Candida Doyle and Mark Webber were present at the ceremony.", "! scope=\"col\" | Award! scope=\"col\" | Year! scope=\"col\" | Category! scope=\"col\" | Nominee(s)! scope=\"col\" | Result! scope=\"col\" class=\"unsortable\"|! scope=\"row\" rowspan=3|Ivor Novello Awards! scope=\"row\" rowspan=3|MTV Europe Music Awards! scope=\"row\"|MVPA Awards! scope=\"row\" rowspan=14|NME Awards! scope=\"row\"|Smash Hits Poll Winners Party" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Definition and designations.", "United States definition and designations.", "Other designations.", "History.", "World War I.", "1919–1939.", "World War II.", "Post-World War II.", "Recent history." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Presently, U.S. attack aircraft are identified by the prefix A-, as in \"A-6 Intruder\" and \"A-10 Thunderbolt II\". However, until the end of World War II the \"A-\" designation was shared between attack planes and light bombers for USAAF aircraft (as opposed to \"B-\" prefix for medium or heavy bombers). The US Navy used a separate designation system and at the time preferred to call similar aircraft scout bombers (SB) or torpedo bombers (TB or BT). For example, Douglas SBD Dauntless scout bomber was designated A-24 when used by the USAAF. It was not until 1946, when the US Navy and US Marine Corps started using the \"attack\" (A) designation, when it renamed BT2D Skyraider and BTM Mauler to, respectively, AD Skyraider and AM Mauler. As with many aircraft classifications, the definition of \"attack aircraft\" is somewhat vague and has tended to change over time. Current U.S. military doctrine defines it as an aircraft which most likely performs an \"attack mission\", more than any other kind of mission. \"Attack mission\" means, in turn, specifically tactical air-to-ground action—in other words, neither air-to-air action nor strategic bombing is considered an \"attack mission\". In United States Navy vocabulary, the alternative designation for the same activity is a \"strike mission\". Attack missions are principally divided into two categories: air interdiction and close air support. In the last several decades, the rise of the ubiquitous multi-role fighter has created some confusion about the difference between attack and fighter aircraft. According to the current U.S. designation system, an attack aircraft (\"A\") is designed primarily for air-to-surface (Attack: Aircraft designed to find, attack, and destroy land or sea targets) missions (also known as \"attack missions\"), while a fighter category \"F\" incorporates not only aircraft designed primarily for air-to-air combat, but additionally multipurpose aircraft designed also for ground-attack missions. \"F - Fighter Aircraft were designed to intercept and destroy other aircraft or missiles. This includes multipurpose aircraft also designed for ground support missions such as interdiction and close air support. Just to mention one example amongst many, the F-111 \"Aardvark\" was designated \"F\" despite having only minimal air-to-air capabilities. Only a single aircraft in the USAF's current inventory bears a simple, unmixed \"A\" designation: the A-10 Thunderbolt II.", "British designations have included FB for fighter-bomber and more recently \"G\" for \"Ground-attack\" as in Harrier GR1 (meaning \"Ground-attack/Reconnaissance, Mark 1\"). The NATO reporting names for Soviet/Russian ground-attack aircraft at first started with \"B\" categorizing them as bombers, as in case of Il-10 'Beast'. But later they were usually classified as fighters (\"F\")—possibly because (since Sukhoi Su-7) they were similar in size and visual appearance to Soviet fighters, or were simply derivatives of such.", "", "The attack aircraft as a role was defined by its use during World War I, in support of ground forces on battlefields. Battlefield support is generally divided into close air support and battlefield air interdiction, the first requiring strict and the latter only general cooperation with friendly surface forces. though such aircraft also attacked targets in rear areas. Such missions required flying where light anti-aircraft fire was expected and operating at low altitudes to precisely identify targets. Other roles, including those of light bombers, medium bombers, dive bombers, reconnaissance, fighters, fighter-bombers, could and did perform air strikes on battlefields. All these types could significantly damage ground targets from a low level flight, either by bombing, machine guns, or both. Attack aircraft came to diverge from bombers and fighters. While bombers could be used on a battlefield, their slower speeds made them extremely vulnerable to ground fire, as did the lighter construction of fighters. The survivability of attack aircraft was guaranteed by their speed/power, protection (i.e. armour panels) and strength of construction; Germany was the first country to produce dedicated ground-attack aircraft (designated CL-class and J-class). They were put into use in autumn 1917, during World War I. Most notable was the Junkers J.I, which pioneered the idea of an armoured \"bathtub\", that was both fuselage structure and protection for engine and crew. The British experimented with the Sopwith TF series (termed \"trench fighters\"), although these did not see combat. The last battles of 1918 on the Western Front demonstrated that ground-attacking aircraft were a valuable component of all-arms tactics. Close support ground strafing (machine-gunning) and tactical bombing of infantry (especially when moving between trenches and along roads), machine gun posts, artillery, and supply formations was a part of the Allied armies' strength in holding German attacks and supporting Allied counter-attacks and offensives. Admittedly, the cost to the Allies was high, with the Royal Flying Corps sustaining a loss rate approaching 30% among ground-attack aircraft.", "After World War I, it was widely believed that using aircraft against tactical targets was of little use other than in harassing and undermining enemy morale; attacking combatants was generally much more dangerous to aircrews than their targets, a problem that was continually becoming more acute with the ongoing refinement of anti-aircraft weapons. Within the range of types serving attack roles, dive bombers were increasingly being seen as more effective than aircraft designed for strafing with machine guns or cannons. Nevertheless, during the 1920s, the US military, in particular, procured specialized \"Attack\" aircraft and formed dedicated units, that were trained primarily for that role. The US Army Engineering Division became involved in designing ground attack aircraft. The 1920 Boeing GA-1 was an armoured twin-engine triplane for ground strafing with eight machine guns and about a ton of armour plate, and the 1922 Aeromarine PG-1 was a combined pursuit (fighter) and ground attack design with a 37mm gun. The United States Marine Corps Aviation applied close air support tactics in the Banana Wars. While they did not pioneer dive bombing tactics, Marine aviators were the first to include it in their doctrine during the United States occupation of Haiti and Nicaragua. The United States Army Air Corps was notable for its creation of a separate \"A-\" designation for attack types, distinct from and alongside \"B-\" for bomber types and \"P-\" for pursuit (later replaced by \"F-\" for fighter) aircraft. The first designated attack type to be operational with the USAAC was the Curtiss A-2 Falcon. Nevertheless, such aircraft, including the A-2's replacement, the Curtiss A-12 Shrike, were unarmored and highly vulnerable to AA fire. The British Royal Air Force focused primarily on strategic bombing, rather than ground attack. However, like most air arms of the period it did operate attack aircraft, named Army Cooperation in RAF parlance, which included the Hawker Hector, Westland Lysander and others. During the 1930s, Nazi Germany had begun to field a class of \"Schlacht\" (\"battle\") aircraft, such as the Henschel Hs 123. Moreover, the experiences of German Condor Legion during the Spanish Civil War, against an enemy with few fighter aircraft, changed ideas about ground attack. Though equipped with generally unsuitable designs such as the Henschel Hs 123 and cannon-armed versions of the Heinkel He 112, their armament and pilots proved that aircraft were a very effective weapon, even without bombs. This led to some support within the Luftwaffe for the creation of an aircraft dedicated to this role, resulting in tenders for a new \"attack aircraft\". This led to the introduction (in 1942) of a unique single-seat, twin-engine attack aircraft, the slow-moving but heavily armored and formidably armed Henschel Hs 129 \"Panzerknacker\" (\"Safecracker\" /\"Tank Cracker\"). In Japan, the Imperial Japanese Navy had developed the Aichi D3A dive bomber (based on the Heinkel He 70) and the Mitsubishi B5M light attack bomber. Both, like their US counterparts, were lightly armored types, and were critically reliant on surprise attacks and the absence of significant fighter or AA opposition. During the Winter War, the Soviet Air Forces used the Polikapov R-5SSS, and Polikarpov R-ZSh, as attack aircraft. Perhaps the most notable attack type to emerge during the late 1930s was the Soviet Ilyushin Il-2 \"Sturmovik\", which became the most-produced military aircraft type in history. As World War II approached, the concept of an attack aircraft was not well defined, and various air services used many different names for widely differing types, all performing similar roles (sometimes in tandem with non-attack roles of bombers, fighters, reconnaissance and other roles. The British concept of a light aircraft mixing all the roles that required extensive communication with land forces: reconnaissance, liaison, artillery spotting, aerial supply, and, last but not least, occasional strikes on the battlefield. The concept was similar to front-line aircraft used in the World War I, which was called the CL class in the German Empire. Eventually the RAF's experience showed types such as Westland Lysander to be unacceptably vulnerable and it was replaced by faster fighter types for photoreconnaissance, and light aircraft for artillery spotting. During the inter-war period, the British considered that in a future war it would be France that would be the enemy. For the light day bomber they had the Fairey Battle which originated in a 1932 specification. Designs in 1938 for a replacement were adapted as a target tug. The last British specification issued for a light bomber was B.20/40 described as a \"Close Army Support Bomber\" capable of dive bombing and photoreconnaissance. However, the specification was dropped before an aircraft went into production. In some air services, dive bombers did not equip ground-attack units, but were treated as a separate class. In Nazi Germany, the Luftwaffe distinguished between the \"Stuka\" (\"Sturzkampf-\", \"dive bombing\") units, equipped with Junkers Ju 87 from \"Schlacht\" (\"battle\") units, using strafing/low-level bombing types such as the Henschel Hs 123). Although not a synonymous class with ground-attack aircraft, fighter-bombers were usually used for the role, and proved to excel at it, even when they were only lightly armored. The Royal Air Force and United States Army Air Forces relegated obsolescent fighters to this role, while cutting-edge fighters would serve as interceptors and establish air superiority. The United States Navy, in distinction to the USAAF, preferred the older term \"Scout-Bomber\", under a \"SB-\" designation, such as the Curtiss SB2C Helldiver.", "The Junkers Ju 87s of the German Luftwaffe became virtually synonymous with close air support during the early months of World War II. The British Commonwealth's Desert Air Force, led by Arthur Tedder, became the first Allied tactical formation to emphasise the attack role, usually in the form of single-engine Hawker Hurricane and Curtiss P-40 fighter-bombers or specialized \"tank-busters\", such as the Hurricane Mk IID, armed with two 40 mm Vickers S guns (notably No. 6 Squadron RAF). At around the same time, a massive invasion by Axis forces had forced the Soviet air forces to quickly expand their army support capacity, such as the Ilyushin Il-2 Sturmovik. The women pilots known as the \"Night Witches\" utilised an obsolescent, wooden light trainer biplane type, the Polikarpov Po-2 and small anti-personnel bombs in \"harassment bombing\" attacks that proved difficult to counter. Wartime experience showed that poorly armored and/or lightly built, pre-war types were unacceptably vulnerable, especially to fighters. Nevertheless, skilled crews could be highly successful in those types, such as the leading \"Stuka\" ace, Hans-Ulrich Rudel, who claimed 500 tanks,a battleship, a cruiser, and two destroyers in 2,300 combat missions. The Bristol Beaufighter, based on an obsolescent RAF bomber, became a versatile twin-engine attack aircraft and served in almost every theatre of the war, in the maritime strike and ground attack roles as well as that of night fighter. Conversely, some mid-war attack types emerged as adaptations of fighters, including several versions of the German Focke-Wulf Fw 190, the British Hawker Typhoon and the US Republic P-47 Thunderbolt. The Typhoon, which was disappointing as a fighter, due to poor high altitude performance, was very fast at low altitudes and thus became the RAF's premier ground attack fighter. It was armed with four 20mm cannon, augmented first with bombs, then rockets. Likewise the P-47 was designed and intended for use as a high altitude bomber escort, but gradually found that role filled by the North American P-51 Mustang (because of its much longer range and greater manoeuvrability). The P-47 was also heavier and more robust than the P-51 and regarded therefore, as an \"energy fighter\": ideal for high-speed dive-and-climb tactics, including strafing attacks. Its armament of eight 0.50 caliber machine guns was effective against Axis infantry and light vehicles in both Europe and the Pacific. While machine guns and cannon were initially sufficient, the evolution of well-armored tanks required heavier weapons. To augment bombs, high explosive rockets were introduced, although these unguided projectiles were still \"barely adequate\" because of their inaccuracy. For the British RP3, one hit per sortie was considered acceptable. However, even a near miss with rockets could cause damage or injuries to \"soft targets\" and patrols by Allied rocket-armed aircraft over Normandy disrupted or even completely paralyzed German road traffic. They also affected morale, because even the prospect of a rocket attack was unnerving. The ultimate development of the cannon-armed light attack aircraft was the small production run in 1944 of the Henschel Hs 129B-3, armed with a modified PAK 40 75 mm anti-tank gun. This weapon, the \"Bordkanone BK 7,5\", was the most powerful forward-firing weapon fitted to a production military aircraft during World War II. The only other aircraft to be factory-equipped with similar guns were the 1,420 maritime strike variants of the North American B-25 MitchellG/H, which mounted either a M4 cannon, or light-weight T13E1 or M5 versions of the same gun. These weapons, however, were hand-loaded, had shorter barrels and/or a lower muzzle velocity than the BK 7,5 and, therefore, poorer armor penetration, accuracy and rate of fire. (Except for versions of the Piaggio P.108 armed with a 102mm anti-ship cannon, The BK 7,5 was unsurpassed as an aircraft-fitted gun until 1971, when the four-engine Lockheed AC-130E Spectre; equipped with a 105 mm M102 howitzer – entered service with the US Air Force.)", "In the immediate post war era the piston-engined ground-attack aircraft remained useful since all of the early jets lacked endurance due to the fuel consumption rates of the jet engines. The higher powered piston engine types that had been too late for World War II were still capable of holding their own against the jets as they were able to both out accelerate and out manoeuver the jets. The Royal Navy Hawker Sea Fury fighters and the U.S. Vought F4U Corsair and Douglas A-1 Skyraider were operated during the Korean War while the latter continued to be used throughout the Vietnam War. Many post-World War II era air forces have been reluctant to adopt fixed-wing jet aircraft developed specifically for ground attack. Although close air support and interdiction remain crucial to the modern battlefield, attack aircraft are less glamorous than fighters, while air force pilots and military planners have a certain well-cultivated contempt for \"mud-movers\". More practically, the cost of operating a specialized ground-attack aircraft is harder to justify when compared with multirole combat aircraft. Jet attack aircraft were designed and employed during the Cold War era, such as the carrier-based nuclear strike Douglas A-3 Skywarrior and North American A-5 Vigilante, while the Grumman A-6 Intruder, F-105 Thunderchief, F-111, F-117 Nighthawk, LTV A-7 Corsair II, Sukhoi Su-25, A-10 Thunderbolt, Panavia Tornado, AMX, Dassault Étendard, Super Étendard and others were designed specifically for ground-attack, strike, close support and anti-armor work, with little or no air-to-air capability. Ground attack has increasingly become a task of converted trainers, like the BAE Systems Hawk or Aero L-39 Albatros, and many trainers are built with this task in mind, like the CASA C-101 or the Aermacchi MB-339. Such counter-insurgency aircraft are popular with air forces which cannot afford to purchase more expensive multirole aircraft, or don't wish to risk the few such aircraft they have on light ground attack missions. A proliferation of low intensity conflicts in the post-World War II era has also expanded need for these types of aircraft to conduct counter-insurgency and light ground attack operations. A primary distinction of post-World War II aviation between the U.S. Army and the U.S. Air Force was that latter had generally been allocated all fixed-wing aircraft, while helicopters were under control of the former; this was governed by the 1948 Key West Agreement. The Army, wishing to have its own resources to support its troops in combat and faced with a lack of Air Force enthusiasm for the ground-attack role, developed the dedicated attack helicopter.", "On 17 January 1991, Task Force Normandy began its attack on two Iraqi anti-aircraft missile sites. TF Normandy, under the command of LTC Richard A. \"Dick\" Cody, consisted of nine AH-64 Apaches, one UH-60 Black Hawk and four Air Force MH-53J Pave Low helicopters. The purpose of this mission was to create a safe corridor through the Iraqi air defense system. The attack was a huge success and cleared the way for the beginning of the Allied bombing campaign. One concern involving the Apache arose when a unit of these helicopters was very slow to deploy during U.S. military involvement in Kosovo. According to the \"Army Times\", the Army is shifting its doctrine to favour ground-attack aircraft over attack helicopters for deep strike attack missions because ground-attack helicopters have proved to be highly vulnerable to small-arms fire; the U.S. Marine Corps has noted similar problems. In the late 1960s the United States Air Force requested a dedicated close air support (CAS) plane that became the Fairchild Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II. The A-10 was originally conceived as an anti-armor weapon (the A-X program requirements specifically called for an aircraft mounting a large rotary cannon to destroy massed Warsaw Pact armored forces) with limited secondary capability in the interdiction and tactical bombing roles. Today it remains the only dedicated fixed-wing ground-attack aircraft in any U.S. military service. Overall U.S. experience in the Gulf War, Kosovo War, Afghanistan and Iraq War has resulted in renewed interest in such aircraft. The U.S. Air Force is currently researching a replacement for the A-10 and started the OA-X program to procure a light attack aircraft. The Soviets' similar Sukhoi Su-25 (\"Frogfoot\") found success in the \"flying artillery\" role with many air forces. The UK has completely retired the BAE Harrier II in 2011, expecting to obtain the F-35 in the near future; it retains its fleet of Panavia Tornado dedicated attack-reconnaissance aircraft and Eurofighter Typhoon multirole fighters." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biographical background and publication.", "Title.", "Plot summary.", "Part I.", "Part II.", "Part III.", "Part IV.", "Part V.", "Structure.", "Coming-of-age story.", "Genre.", "Plot discussion.", "Slavery.", "Caste system.", "Faithful and devoted slave.", "Southern belle.", "Historical background.", "Battles.", "Atlanta Campaign.", "March to the Sea.", "President Lincoln's murder.", "Beau ideal.", "Scallawag.", "Themes.", "Survival.", "Critical reception.", "Reviews.", "Scholarship: Racial, ethnicity and social issues.", "Awards and recognition.", "Adaptations.", "In popular culture.", "Collectibles.", "The Windies.", "Legacy.", "Publication history.", "Original manuscript.", "Publication and reprintings (1936-USA).", "Sequels and prequels.", "Copyright status." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Born in 1900 in Atlanta, Georgia, Margaret Mitchell was a Southerner and writer throughout her life. She grew up hearing stories about the American Civil War and the Reconstruction from her Irish-American grandmother, who had endured its suffering. Her forceful and intellectual mother was a suffragist who fought for the rights of women to vote. As a young woman, Mitchell found love with an army lieutenant. He was killed in World War I, and she would carry his memory for the remainder of her life. After studying at Smith College for a year, during which time her mother died from the 1918 pandemic flu, Mitchell returned to Atlanta. She married, but her husband was", "The author tentatively titled the novel \"Tomorrow is Another Day\", from its last line. Other proposed titles included \"Bugles Sang True\", \"Not in Our Stars\", and \"Tote the Weary Load\". The title Mitchell finally chose is from the first line of the third stanza of the poem \"Non Sum Qualis Eram Bonae sub Regno Cynarae\" by Ernest Dowson: Scarlett O'Hara uses the title phrase when she wonders to herself if her home on a plantation called \"Tara\" is still standing, or", "\"Gone with the Wind\" takes place in the southern United States in the state of Georgia during the American Civil War (1861–1865) and the Reconstruction Era (1865–1877). The novel unfolds against the backdrop of rebellion seven southern states initially, including Georgia, have declared their secession from the United States (the \"Union\") and formed the Confederate States of America (the \"Confederacy\"), after Abraham Lincoln was elected president. The Union refuses to accept secession and no compromise is found as war approaches.", "The novel opens April 15, 1861, at \"Tara,\" a plantation owned by Gerald O'Hara, an Irish immigrant who has become a successful planter, and his wife, Ellen Robillard O'Hara, from a coastal aristocratic family of French descent. Their 16-year-old daughter, Scarlett, is not beautiful, but men seldom realized it once they were caught up in her charm. All the talk is of the coming Civil War. There are brief but vivid descriptions of the South as it began and grew, with backgrounds of the main characters: the stylish and highbrow French, the gentlemanly English, and the forced-to-flee and looked-down-upon Irish. Scarlett learns that one of her many beaux, Ashley Wilkes, will soon be engaged to his cousin, Melanie Hamilton. She is heart-stricken. The next day at the Wilkeses' barbecue at Twelve", "Aunt Pittypat is living with Melanie in Atlanta and invites Scarlett to stay with them, as she was Charles' wife. In Atlanta, Scarlett's spirits revive, and she is busy with hospital work and sewing circles for the Confederate Army. Scarlett encounters Rhett Butler again at a benefit dance, where he is dressed like a dandy. Although Rhett believes the war is a lost cause, he is blockade running for", "The war is going badly for the Confederacy. By September 1864, Atlanta is besieged from three sides. The city becomes desperate and hundreds of wounded Confederate soldiers pour in. Melanie goes into labor with only the inexperienced Scarlett to assist, as all the doctors are attending the soldiers. Prissy, a young slave, cries out in despair and fear, \"De Yankees is comin!\" In the chaos, Scarlett, left to fend for herself, cries for the comfort and safety of her mother and Tara. The tattered Confederate States Army sets flame to Atlanta and abandons it to the Union Army. Melanie gives birth to a boy, Beau, with Scarlett's assistance. Scarlett then finds Rhett and begs him to take herself, Wade, Melanie, Beau, and Prissy to Tara. Rhett laughs at the idea but steals an emaciated horse and a small wagon, and they follow the retreating army out of Atlanta. Part way", "Life at Tara slowly begins to recover, but then new taxes are levied on the plantation. Scarlett knows only one man with enough money to help her: Rhett Butler. She looks for him in Atlanta only to learn that he is in jail. Rhett refuses to give money to Scarlett, and leaving the jailhouse in fury, she runs into Frank Kennedy, who runs a store in Atlanta and is betrothed to Scarlett's sister, Suellen. Realizing Frank also has money, Scarlett hatches a plot and tells Frank that Suellen will not marry him. Frank succumbs to Scarlett's", "Mr. and Mrs. Butler honeymoon in New Orleans, spending lavishly. Upon returning to Atlanta, they stay in the bridal suite at the National Hotel while their new home on Peachtree Street is being built. Scarlett chooses a modern Swiss chalet style home like the one she saw in \"Harper's Weekly\", with red wallpaper, thick red carpet, and black walnut furniture. Rhett describes it as an \"architectural horror\". Shortly after they move in to their new home, the sardonic jabs between them turn into full-blown quarrels. Scarlett wonders why Rhett married her. Then \"with real hate in her eyes\", she tells Rhett she will have a baby, which she does not want. Wade is seven years old in 1869 when his half-sister, Eugenie Victoria, named after two queens, is born. She has blue eyes like Gerald O'Hara, and Melanie nicknames her, \"Bonnie Blue,\" in reference to the Bonnie Blue Flag of the Confederacy. When Scarlett is feeling well again, she makes a trip to the mill and talks to Ashley, who is alone in the office. In their conversation, she comes away believing Ashley still loves her and is", "", "Margaret Mitchell arranged \"Gone with the Wind\" chronologically, basing it on the life and experiences of the main character, Scarlett O'Hara, as she grew from adolescence into adulthood. During the time span of the novel, from 1861 to 1873, Scarlett ages", "\"Gone with the Wind\" is often placed in the literary subgenre of the historical romance novel. Pamela Regis has argued that is more appropriately classified as a", "", "Slavery in the United States in \"Gone with the Wind\" is a backdrop to a story that is essentially about other things. Southern plantation fiction (also known as Anti-Tom literature, in reference to reactions to Harriet Beecher Stowe's anti-slavery novel, \"Uncle Tom's Cabin\" of 1852) from the mid-19th century, culminating in \"Gone with the Wind\", is written from the perspective and values of the slaveholder and tends to present slaves as docile and happy.", "The characters in the novel are organized into two basic groups along class lines: the white planter class, such as Scarlett and Ashley, and the black house servant class. The slaves depicted in \"Gone with the Wind\" are primarily loyal house servants, such as Mammy, Pork, Prissy, and Uncle Peter. House servants are the highest \"caste\" of slaves in Mitchell's caste system. They choose to stay with their masters after the Emancipation Proclamation of 1863 and subsequent Thirteenth Amendment of 1865 sets them free. Of the servants who stayed at Tara, Scarlett thinks, \"There were qualities of loyalty and tirelessness and love in them that no strain could break, no money could", "Although the novel is more than 1,000 pages long, the character of Mammy never considers what her life might be like away from Tara. She recognizes her freedom to come and go as she pleases, saying, \"Ah is free, Miss Scarlett. You kain sen' me nowhar Ah doan wanter go,\" but Mammy remains duty-bound to \"Miss Ellen's chile.\" (No other name for Mammy is given in the novel.) Eighteen years before the publication of \"Gone with the Wind\", an article titled, \"The Old Black Mammy,\" written in the \"Confederate Veteran\" in 1918, discussed the romanticized view of the mammy character persisting in Southern literature: ...", "The southern belle is an archetype for a young woman of the antebellum American South upper class. The southern belle was believed to be physically attractive but, more importantly, personally charming with sophisticated social skills. She is subject to the correct code of female behavior. The novel's heroine, Scarlett O'Hara, charming though not beautiful, is a classic southern belle. For young Scarlett, the ideal southern belle is represented by her mother, Ellen O'Hara. In \"A Study in Scarlett\", published in \"The New Yorker\", Claudia Roth Pierpont wrote: The Southern belle was bred to conform to a subspecies of the nineteenth-century \"lady\"... For Scarlett, the ideal is embodied in her adored mother, the saintly Ellen, whose back", "Marriage was supposed to be the goal of all southern belles, as women's status was largely determined by that of their husbands. All social and educational pursuits were directed towards it. Despite the Civil War and loss of a generation of eligible men, young ladies were still expected to marry. By law and Southern social convention, household heads were adult, white propertied males, and all white women and all African Americans were thought to require protection and guidance because they lacked the capacity for reason and self-control. The Atlanta Historical Society has produced a number of \"Gone with the Wind\" exhibits, among them a 1994 exhibit titled, \"Disputed Territories: \"Gone with the Wind\" and Southern Myths\". The exhibit asked, \"Was Scarlett a Lady?\", finding that historically most women of the period were", "The Civil War came to an end on April 26, 1865 when Confederate General Johnston surrendered his armies in the Carolinas Campaign to Union General Sherman. Several battles are mentioned or depicted in \"Gone with the Wind\".", "The Atlanta Campaign (May–September 1864) took place in northwest Georgia and the area around Atlanta. Confederate General Johnston fights and retreats from Dalton (May 7–13) to Resaca (May 13–15) to Kennesaw Mountain (June 27). Union General Sherman", "The Savannah Campaign was conducted", "Although Abraham Lincoln is mentioned in the novel fourteen times, no reference is made to his assassination on April 14, 1865.", "Ashley Wilkes is the beau ideal of Southern manhood. A planter by inheritance, Ashley knew the Confederate cause had died. Ashley's name signifies paleness. His \"pallid skin literalizes the idea of Confederate death.\" He contemplates leaving Georgia for New York City. Had he gone North, he would have joined numerous other ex-Confederate transplants there. Ashley, embittered by war, tells Scarlett he has been \"in a state of suspended animation\" since the surrender. He feels he is not \"shouldering a man's burden\" at Tara and believes he is \"much less than a man—much less, indeed, than a woman\". A \"young girl's dream of the Perfect Knight\", Ashley is", "The word \"scallawag\" is defined as a loafer, a vagabond, or a rogue. Scallawag had a special meaning after the Civil War as an epithet for a white Southerner who accepted and supported Republican reforms. Mitchell defines scallawags as \"Southerners who had turned Republican very profitably.\" Rhett Butler is accused of being a \"damned Scallawag.\" In addition to scallawags, Mitchell portrays other types of scoundrels in the novel: Yankees, carpetbaggers,", "", "If \"Gone with the Wind\" has a theme it is that of survival. What makes some people come through catastrophes and others, apparently just as able, strong, and brave, go under? It happens in every", "", "The sales of Margaret Mitchell's novel in the summer of 1936, as the nation was recovering from the Great Depression and at the virtually unprecedented high price of three dollars, reached about one million by the end of December. The book was a bestseller by the time reviews began to appear in national magazines. Herschel Brickell, a critic for the \"New York Evening Post\", lauded Mitchell for the way she \"tosses out the window all the thousands of technical tricks our novelists have been playing with for the past twenty years.\" Ralph Thompson, a book reviewer for \"The New York Times\", was critical", "\"Gone with the Wind\" has been criticized for its stereotypical and derogatory portrayal of African Americans in the 19th century South. Former field hands during the early days of Reconstruction are described behaving \"as creatures of small intelligence might naturally be expected to do. Like monkeys or small children turned loose among treasured objects whose value is beyond their comprehension, they ran wild—either from perverse pleasure in destruction or simply because of their ignorance.\" Commenting on this passage of the novel, Jabari Asim, author of \"The N Word: Who Can Say It, Who Shouldn't, and Why\", says", "In 1937, Margaret Mitchell received the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction for \"Gone with the Wind\" and the second annual National Book Award from the American Booksellers Association. It is ranked as the second favorite book by American readers, just behind the Bible, according to a 2008 Harris poll. The poll found the novel has its strongest following among women, those aged 44 or more, both Southerners and Midwesterners, both whites and Hispanics,", "\"Gone with the Wind\" has", "\"Gone with the Wind\" has appeared in many places and forms in popular culture:", "On June 30, 1986, the 50th anniversary of the day \"Gone with the Wind\" went on sale, the U.S. Post Office issued a 1-cent stamp showing an image of Margaret Mitchell. The stamp was designed by Ronald Adair and was part of the U.S. Postal Service's Great Americans series. On September 10, 1998,", "The Windies are ardent \"Gone with the Wind\" fans who follow all the latest news and", "One story of the legacy of \"Gone with the Wind\" is that people worldwide incorrectly think it was the \"true story\" of the Old South and how it was changed by the American Civil War and Reconstruction. The film adaptation of the novel \"amplified this effect.\" The plantation legend was \"burned\" into the mind of the public through Mitchell's vivid prose. Moreover, her fictional account of the war and its aftermath has influenced how the world has viewed the city of Atlanta for successive generations. Some readers of the novel have seen the film first and read the novel afterward. One difference between the film and the novel is the staircase scene, in which Rhett carries Scarlett up the stairs. In the film, Scarlett weakly struggles and does not scream as Rhett starts up the stairs. In the novel, \"he hurt her and she cried out, muffled, frightened.\" Earlier in the novel, in an intended rape at Shantytown (Chapter 44), Scarlett is attacked by a black man who rips open her dress while a white man grabs hold of the horse's bridle. She is rescued by another black man, Big Sam. In the film, she is attacked by", "", "Although some of Mitchell's papers and documents related to the writing of \"Gone with the Wind\" were burned", "The first printing of 10,000 copies contains the original publication date: \"Published May, 1936\". After the book was chosen as the Book-of-the-Month's selection for July, publication was delayed until June 30. The second printing", "Although Mitchell refused to write a sequel to \"Gone with the Wind\", Mitchell's estate authorized Alexandra Ripley to write a sequel, which was titled \"Scarlett\". The book was subsequently adapted into a television mini-series in 1994. A second sequel was authorized by Mitchell's estate titled \"Rhett Butler's People\", by Donald McCaig. The novel parallels \"Gone with the Wind\" from Rhett Butler's perspective. In 2010, Mitchell's estate authorized McCaig to write a prequel, which follows the life of the house servant Mammy, whom McCaig names \"Ruth\". The novel, \"Ruth's Journey\", was released in 2014. The copyright holders of \"Gone with the Wind\" attempted to suppress publication of \"The Wind Done Gone\" by Alice Randall, which retold the story from the perspective of the slaves. A federal appeals court denied the plaintiffs an injunction (\"Suntrust v. Houghton Mifflin\") against publication on the basis that the book was parody and", "\"Gone with the Wind\" has been in the public domain in Australia since 1999 (50 years after Margaret Mitchell's death). On 1 January 2020, the" ] }

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{ "title": [ "The first few polynomials.", "Recursive definition, closed form, and generating function.", "Generalized Laguerre polynomials.", "As a contour integral.", "Recurrence relations.", "Derivatives of generalized Laguerre polynomials.", "Orthogonality.", "Series expansions.", "Further examples of expansions.", "In quantum mechanics.", "Multiplication theorems.", "Relation to Hermite polynomials.", "Relation to hypergeometric functions.", "Hardy–Hille formula." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "These are the first few Laguerre polynomials:", "One can also define the Laguerre polynomials recursively, defining the first two polynomials as and then using the following recurrence relation for any \"k\" ≥ 1: In solution of some boundary value problems, the characteristic values can be useful: The closed form is The generating function for them likewise follows, Polynomials of negative index can be expressed using the ones with positive index:", "For arbitrary real α the polynomial solutions of the differential equation are called generalized Laguerre polynomials, or associated Laguerre polynomials. One can also define the generalized Laguerre polynomials recursively, defining the first two polynomials as and then using the following recurrence relation for any \"k\" ≥ 1: The simple Laguerre polynomials are the special case of the generalized Laguerre polynomials: The Rodrigues formula for them is The generating function for them is", "Given the generating function specified above, the polynomials may be expressed in terms of a contour integral where the contour circles the origin once in a counterclockwise direction without enclosing the essential singularity at 1", "The addition formula for Laguerre polynomials: Laguerre's polynomials satisfy the recurrence relations in particular and or moreover They can be used to derive the four 3-point-rules combined they give this additional, useful recurrence relations Since formula_41 is a monic polynomial of degree formula_42 in formula_43, there is the partial fraction decomposition The second equality follows by the following identity, valid for integer \"i\" and and immediate from the expression of formula_41 in terms of Charlier polynomials: For the third equality apply the fourth and fifth identities of this section.", "Differentiating the power series representation of a generalized Laguerre polynomial \"k\" times leads to This points to a special case () of the formula above: for integer the generalized polynomial may be written the shift by \"k\" sometimes causing confusion with the usual parenthesis notation for a derivative. Moreover, the following equation holds: which generalizes with Cauchy's formula to The derivative with respect to the second variable has the form, This is evident from the contour integral representation below. The generalized Laguerre polynomials obey the differential equation which may be compared with the equation obeyed by the \"k\"th derivative of the ordinary Laguerre polynomial, where formula_54 for this equation only. In Sturm–Liouville form the differential equation is which shows that is an eigenvector for the eigenvalue.", "The generalized Laguerre polynomials are orthogonal over with respect to the measure with weighting function : which follows from If formula_58 denotes the Gamma distribution then the orthogonality relation can be written as The associated, symmetric kernel polynomial has the representations (Christoffel–Darboux formula) recursively Moreover, Turán's inequalities can be derived here, which is The following integral is needed in the quantum mechanical treatment of the hydrogen atom,", "Let a function have the (formal) series expansion Then The series converges in the associated Hilbert space if and only if", "Monomials are represented as while binomials have the parametrization This leads directly to for the exponential function. The incomplete gamma function has the representation", "In quantum mechanics the Schrödinger equation for the hydrogen-like atom is exactly solvable by separation of variables in spherical coordinates. The radial part of the wave function is a (generalized) Laguerre polynomial.", "Erdélyi gives the following two multiplication theorems", "The generalized Laguerre polynomials are related to the Hermite polynomials: where the \"H\"(\"x\") are the Hermite polynomials based on the weighting function exp(−\"x\"), the so-called \"physicist's version.\" Because of this, the generalized Laguerre polynomials arise in the treatment of the quantum harmonic oscillator.", "The Laguerre polynomials may be defined in terms of hypergeometric functions, specifically the confluent hypergeometric functions, as where formula_75 is the Pochhammer symbol (which in this case represents the rising factorial).", "The generalized Laguerre polynomials satisfy the Hardy–Hille formula where the series on the left converges for formula_77 and formula_78. Using the identity (see generalized hypergeometric function), this can also be written as This formula is a generalization of the Mehler kernel for Hermite polynomials, which can be recovered from it by using the relations between Laguerre and Hermite polynomials given above." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Manufacture.", "Tendu leaf.", "Global popularity.", "North America.", "United Kingdom.", "Health warnings." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Beedies were invented after Indian tobacco cultivation began in the late 17th century. Tobacco workers were the first to create them by taking leftover tobacco and rolling it in leaves. The commercial Indian beedi industry saw rapid growth during the 1930s probably driven by an expansion of tobacco cultivation at the time but also helped by Gandhi's support of Indian industry and Indian products. Perhaps due to this, educated classes in India grew to prefer beedies to cigarettes although this is no longer the case. Muslim leaders, calling cigarettes foreign products, have also endorsed beedies at times. By the middle of the 20th century beedi manufacture had grown into a highly competitive industry. This stage of commercial production—at the height of the beedi's popularity—saw the creation of many new beedi brands as well as beedi factories employing upwards of one hundred, primarily male, beedi rollers. Factory-based beedi production declined as a result of increased regulation during the 1940s, '50s, and '60s, and beedi-making became a cottage industry with a home-based women workforce predominantly employed only in the beedi rolling. In contrast, males continue to be employed in other aspects of beedi production. Beedi smoking tends to be associated with a lower social standing, and these tobacco-filled leaves are inexpensive when compared to regular cigarettes. Those with a high social standing who do smoke beedies often do so out of the public eye; however, the cultural trend is changing.", "Over 8 million Indians are employed in the manufacture of beedies, a cottage industry that is typically done by women in their homes. Workers roll an average of 500–1000 beedies per day, handling of tobacco flake. Studies have shown that nicotine levels in the bodily fluids of beedi workers are elevated even among those who do not use tobacco. The production of beedies is also popular in Bangladesh. According to the 2014 \"List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or Forced Labor\" published by the Bureau of International Labor Affairs, the informal sector in these countries employs underage children in the production of beedies \"in response to consumer preferences\".", "Tendu (\"Diospyros melanoxylon\") leaves make excellent wrappers, and the success of the beedi is due, in part, to this leaf. The leaves are in abundance shortly after the tobacco crop is cured and so are ready to be used in beedi manufacture. Collected in the summer and made into bundles, the leaves are dried in the sun for three to six days before being used as wrappers.", "Beedies, unlike cigarettes, must be drawn frequently to keep them lit, and doing so requires effort.", "In the United States, beedies are treated like conventional cigarettes. They are taxed at the same rates, are required to have a tax stamp, and must carry the Surgeon General's warning. However, a study done in San Francisco showed that about four in ten packs of beedies did not contain the required warning label and seven in ten did not carry the tax stamp. 2006 statistics on beedi usage show that 2.9% of high school students in the United States take part in beedi smoking compared to 1.4% of those aged 18 to 24. Some beedies are flavoured. Both Canada and the US have banned flavoured cigarettes.", "Beedis are currently legal in the UK and are subject to the same taxation as cigarettes. One must be aged 18 or over to purchase them.", "Beedies deliver more nicotine, carbon monoxide, and tar and carry a greater risk of oral cancers. As with many other types of smoking, beedies increase the risk of certain kinds of cancers, heart disease, and lung disease. They may also be more harmful than other forms of tobacco consumption. Frequency of ventilatory abnormalities was highest in the cigarette smokers. A lower prevalence of chronic bronchitis and abnormal ventilatory measurements in beedi smokers, as compared with cigarette smokers, was thought to be primarily due to low total consumption of tobacco. Some added influence of smoke produced by burning of the wrapper leaf and type of tobacco used in beedies could not be ruled out." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Controversy.", "Honours and Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Calvin was born in St. Paul, Minnesota, the son of Elias Calvin and Rose Herwitz, immigrants from the Russian Empire. As a small child Calvin's family moved to Detroit; he graduated from Central High School in 1928. Melvin Calvin earned his Bachelor of Science from the Michigan College of Mining and Technology (now known as Michigan Technological University) in 1931 and his Ph.D. in chemistry from the University of Minnesota in 1935. He then spent the next four years doing postdoctoral work at the University of Manchester. He married Marie Genevieve Jemtegaard in 1942, and they had three children, two daughters and a son. Calvin joined the faculty at the University of California, Berkeley, in 1937 and was promoted to Professor of Chemistry in 1947. Using the carbon-14 isotope as a tracer, Calvin, Andrew Benson and James Bassham mapped the complete route that carbon travels through a plant during photosynthesis, starting from its absorption as atmospheric carbon dioxide to its conversion into carbohydrates and other organic compounds. In doing so, Calvin, Benson and Bassham showed that sunlight acts on the chlorophyll in a plant to fuel the manufacturing of organic compounds, rather than on carbon dioxide as was previously believed. Calvin was the sole recipient of the 1961 Nobel Prize for Chemistry for what is sometimes known as the Calvin–Benson–Bassham Cycle. Calvin wrote an autobiography three decades later titled \"Following the Trail of Light: A Scientific Odyssey\". During the 1950s he was among the first members of the Society for General Systems Research. In 1963 he was given the additional title of Professor of Molecular Biology. He was founder and Director of the Laboratory of Chemical Biodynamics and simultaneously Associate Director of Berkeley Radiation Laboratory, where he conducted much of his research until his retirement in 1980. In his final years of active research, he studied the use of oil-producing plants as renewable sources of energy. He also spent many years testing the chemical evolution of life and wrote a book on the subject that was published in 1969.", "In his 2011 television history of Botany for the BBC, Timothy Walker, Director of the University of Oxford Botanic Garden, criticised Calvin's treatment of Andrew Benson, claiming that Calvin had got the credit for Benson's work after firing him, and had failed to mention Benson's role when writing his autobiography decades later. Benson himself has also mentioned being fired by Calvin, and has complained about not being mentioned in his autobiography.", "Calvin was elected a foreign member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1958. In 1959 he was elected a Member of the German Academy of Sciences Leopoldina. In 1971, Calvin was awarded an honorary Doctor of Laws (LL.D.) degree from Whittier College. Calvin was featured on the 2011 volume of the \"American Scientists\" collection of US postage stamps, along with Asa Gray, Maria Goeppert-Mayer, and Severo Ochoa. This was the third volume in the series, the first two having been released in 2005 and 2008." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Analysis." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Ixion married Dia, a daughter of Deioneus (or Eioneus), and promised his father-in-law a valuable present. However, he did not pay the bride price, so Deioneus stole some of Ixion's horses in retaliation. Ixion concealed his resentment and invited his father-in-law to a feast at Larissa. When Deioneus arrived, Ixion pushed him into a bed of burning coals and wood. These circumstances are secondary to the fact of Ixion's primordial act of murder; it could be accounted for quite differently: in the Greek Anthology (iii.12), among a collection of inscriptions from a temple in Cyzicus, is an epigrammatic description of Ixion slaying Phorbas and Polymelos, who had slain his mother, Megara, the \"great one\". Ixion went mad, defiled by his act; the neighboring princes were so offended by this act of treachery and violation of \"xenia\" that they refused to perform the rituals that would cleanse Ixion of his guilt (see \"catharsis\"). Thereafter, Ixion lived as an outlaw and was shunned. By killing his father-in-law, Ixion was reckoned the first man guilty of kin-slaying in Greek mythology. This act alone would warrant Ixion a terrible punishment, however, Zeus had pity on Ixion and brought him to Olympus and introduced him at the table of the gods. Instead of being grateful, Ixion grew lustful for Hera, Zeus's wife, a further violation of guest–host relations. Zeus found out about his intentions and made a cloud in the shape of Hera, which became known as Nephele (from \"nephos\" \"cloud\") and tricked Ixion into coupling with it. From the union of Ixion and the false-Hera cloud came Imbros or Centauros, who mated with the Magnesian mares on Mount Pelion, Pindar told, engendering the race of Centaurs, who are called the Ixionidae from their descent. Ixion was expelled from Olympus and blasted with a thunderbolt. Zeus ordered Hermes to bind Ixion to a winged fiery wheel that was always spinning. Therefore, Ixion was bound to a burning solar wheel for all eternity, at first spinning across the heavens, but in later myth transferred to Tartarus. Only when Orpheus played his lyre during his trip to the Underworld to rescue Eurydice did it stop for a while.", "\"The details are very odd, the narrative motivation creaks at every juncture,\" observes Robert L. Fowler; \"the myth smacks of aetiology.\" He notes that Martin Nilsson suggested an origin in rain-making magic, with which he concurs: \"In Ixion's case the necessary warning about the conduct of magic has taken the form of blasphemous and dangerous conduct on the part of the first officiant.\" In the fifth century, Pindar's Second Pythian Ode (c. 476–68 BC) expands on the example of Ixion, applicable to Hiero I of Syracuse, the tyrant of whom the poet sings. Aeschylus, Euripides and Timasitheos each wrote a tragedy of Ixion though none of these accounts have survived. Ixion was a figure also known to the Etruscans, for he is depicted bound to the spoked wheel, engraved on the back of a bronze mirror, ca 460-450 BC, in the British Museum. Whether the Etruscans shared the Ixion figure with Hellenes from early times or whether Ixion figured among those Greek myths that were adapted at later dates to fit the Etruscan world-view is unknown. The figure on the mirror-back is shown as winged, a characteristic shared with Etruscan \"daimones\" and Underworld figures rather than human heroes." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Historical background.", "Imperialism.", "Leninist praxis.", "Vanguard party.", "Democratic centralism.", "Proletarian revolution.", "Dictatorship of the proletariat.", "Economics.", "National self-determination.", "Socialist culture.", "Leninism after 1924.", "Stalinism.", "Trotskyism.", "Legacy.", "Criticism." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In the 19th century, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels wrote the \"Manifesto of the Communist Party\" (1848) in which they called for the political unification of the European working classes in order to achieve communist revolution; and proposed that, because the socio-economic organization of Communism was of a higher form than that of capitalism, a workers' revolution first would occur in the industrialised countries. In Germany, Marxist social democracy was the political perspective of the Social Democratic Party of Germany, inspiring Russian Marxists, such as Lenin. In the early 20th century, the socio-economic backwardness of Imperial Russia (1721–1917) — combined and uneven economic development — facilitated rapid and intensive industrialisation, which produced a united, working-class proletariat in a predominantly agrarian society. Moreover, because the industrialisation was financed mostly with foreign capital, Imperial Russia did not possess a revolutionary bourgeoisie with political and economic influence upon the workers and the peasants, as had been the case in the French Revolution (1789–1799), in the 18th century. Although Russia's political economy was agrarian and semi-feudal, the task of democratic revolution fell to the urban, industrial working class as the only social class capable of effecting land reform and democratization, in view that the Russian bourgeoisie would suppress any revolution. In the \"April Theses\" (1917), the political strategy of the October Revolution (7–8 November 1917), Lenin proposed that the Russian revolution was not an isolated national event, but a fundamentally international event — the first socialist revolution in the world. Lenin's practical application of Marxism and proletarian revolution to the social, political, and economic conditions of agrarian Russia motivated and impelled the \"revolutionary nationalism of the poor\" to depose the absolute monarchy of the three-hundred-year dynasty of the House of Romanov (1613–1917), as tsars of Russia.", "In \"Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism\" (1916) Lenin’s economic analyses indicated that capitalism would transform into a global financial system, by which industrialised countries exported financial capital to their colonies and so realise the exploitation of labour of the natives and the exploitation of the natural resources of their countries. That such superexploitation allows wealthy countries to maintain a domestic labour aristocracy with a slightly higher standard of living than the majority of workers, and so ensure peaceful labour–capital relations in the capitalist homeland. Therefore, a proletarian revolution of workers and peasants could not occur in capitalist countries whilst the imperialist global-finance system remained in place. The first proletarian revolution would have to occur in an under-developed country, such as Imperial Russia, which was the politically weakest country in the capitalist global-finance system in the early 20th century. In the \"United States of Europe Slogan\" (1915), Lenin said: In \"\" (1920), Lenin said:", "", "In Chapter II: \"Proletarians and Communists\" of \"The Communist Manifesto\" (1848), Marx and Engels present the communist party as the political vanguard solely qualified to lead the proletariat in revolution: The revolutionary purpose of the Leninist vanguard party is to establish the dictatorship of the proletariat with the support of the working class. The Communist Party would lead the popular deposition of the Tsarist government and then transfer power of government to the working class; that change of ruling class — from the bourgeoisie to the proletariat — makes possible the establishment of socialism. In \"What Is To Be Done?\" (1902), Lenin said that a revolutionary vanguard party, recruited from the working class, should lead the political campaign, because only in that way would the proletariat successfully realise their revolution; unlike the economic campaign of trade-union-struggle advocated by other socialist political parties and the anarcho-syndicalists. Like Marx, Lenin distinguished between the aspects of a revolution, the \"economic campaign\" (labour strikes for increased wages and work concessions) that featured diffused plural leadership; and the \"political campaign\" (socialist changes to society), which required the decisive, revolutionary leadership of the Bolshevik vanguard party.", "Based upon the First International (IWA, International Workingmen's Association, 1864–1876), Lenin organised the Bolsheviks as a democratically centralised vanguard party, wherein free political-speech was recognised legitimate until policy consensus; afterwards, every member of the Party was expected to abide the agreed policy. Democratic debate was Bolshevik practice, even after Lenin banned factions among the Party in 1921. Despite being a guiding political influence, Lenin did not exercise absolute power, and continually debated to have his points of view accepted as a course of revolutionary action. In \"Freedom to Criticise and Unity of Action\" (1905), Lenin said:", "Before the October Revolution, despite supporting moderate political reform — including Bolsheviks elected to the Duma, when opportune — Lenin said that capitalism could only be overthrown with proletarian revolution, not with gradual reforms — from within (Fabianism) and from without (social democracy) — which would fail because the bourgeoisie's control of the means of production determined the nature of political power in Russia. As epitomised in the slogan \"For a Democratic Dictatorship of the Proletariat and Peasantry\", a proletarian revolution in underdeveloped Russia required a united proletariat (peasants and industrial workers) in order to successfully assume power of government in the cities. Moreover, owing to the middle-class aspirations of much of the peasantry, Leon Trotsky said that proletarian leadership of the revolution would ensure truly socialist and democratic socio-economic change.", "In Bolshevik Russia, government by direct democracy was realised and effected by the soviets (elected councils of workers) which Lenin said was the \"democratic dictatorship of the proletariat\" postulated in Orthodox Marxism. The soviets comprised representative committees from the factories and the trade unions, but excluded the capitalist social-class to ensure the establishment of a proletarian government, by and for the working class and the peasants. Concerning the political disenfranchisement of the capitalist social-class in Bolshevik Russia, Lenin said that \"depriving the exploiters of the franchise is a purely Russian question, and not a question of the dictatorship of the proletariat, in general. [...] In which countries [...] democracy for the exploiters will be, in one or another form, restricted [...] is a question of the specific national features of this or that capitalism\". In chapter five of \"The State and Revolution\" (1917), Lenin describes the dictatorship of the proletariat as: Concerning the disenfranchisement from democracy of the capitalist social class, Lenin said: \"Democracy for the vast majority of the people, and suppression by force, i.e. exclusion from democracy, of the exploiters and oppressors of the people — this is the change democracy undergoes during the transition from capitalism to communism\". The dictatorship of the proletariat was effected with soviet constitutionalism, a form of government opposite to the dictatorship of capital (privately-owned means of production) practised in bourgeois democracies. Under soviet constitutionalism, the Leninist vanguard party would be one of many political parties competing for election to government power. Nevertheless, because of the Russian Civil War (1917–1924) and the anti-Bolshevik terrorism of opposing political parties aiding the White Armies' counter-revolution, the Bolshevik government banned all other political parties, which left the Leninist vanguard party as the sole, political party in Russia. Lenin said that such political suppression was not philosophically inherent to the dictatorship of the proletariat.", "The Bolshevik government nationalised industry and established a foreign-trade monopoly to allow the productive co-ordination of the national economy, and so prevent Russian national industries from competing against each other. To feed the populaces of town and country, Lenin instituted War Communism (1918–1921) as a necessary condition — adequate supplies of food and weapons — for fighting the Russian Civil War. In March 1921, the New Economic Policy (NEP, 1921–1929) allowed limited, local capitalism (private commerce and internal free-trade) and replaced grain requisitions with an agricultural tax managed by state banks. The NEP meant to resolve food-shortage riots by the peasantry and allowed limited private enterprise; the profit motive that encouraged farmers to produce the crops required to feed town and country; and to economically re-establish the urban working class, who had lost many workers to fight the counter-revolutionary Civil War. The NEP nationalisation of the economy then would facilitate the industrialisation of Russia, politically strengthen the working class, and raise the standards of living for all Russians. Lenin said that the appearance of new socialist states was necessary to strengthening Russia's economy in the establishment of Russian socialism. Lenin's socio-economic perspective was supported by the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Italian insurrection and general strikes of 1920, and worker wage-riots in the UK, France, and the US.", "In recognising and accepting nationalism among oppressed peoples, Lenin advocated their national right to self-determination, and so opposed Russian chauvinism, because such ethnocentrism was a cultural obstacle to establishing the dictatorship of the proletariat in every territory of the deposed Russian Empire (1721–1917). In \"The Right of Nations to Self-determination\" (1914), Lenin said: The socialist internationalism of Marxism and Bolshevism is based upon class struggle and a peoples' transcending nationalism, ethnocentrism, and religion — the intellectual obstacles to progressive class consciousness — which are the cultural \"status quo\" that the capitalist ruling class manipulate in order to politically divide the working classes and the peasant classes. To overcome that barrier to establishing socialism, Lenin said that acknowledging nationalism, as a peoples' right of self-determination and right of secession, naturally would allow socialist states to transcend the political limitations of nationalism to form a federation. In \"The Question of Nationalities, or \"Autonomisation\"\" (1923), Lenin said:", "The role of the Leninist vanguard party was to politically educate the workers and peasants to dispel the societal false consciousness of religion and nationalism that constitute the cultural \"status quo\" taught by the bourgeoisie to the proletariat to facilitate their economic exploitation of peasant and worker. Influenced by Lenin, the Central Committee of the Bolshevik Party stated that the development of the socialist workers' culture should not be \"hamstrung from above\" and opposed the \"Proletkult\" (1917–1925) organisational control of the national culture.", "", "In post-Revolutionary Russia, Stalinism (socialism in one country) and Trotskyism (permanent world revolution) were the principal philosophies of communism that claimed legitimate ideological descent from Leninism, thus within the Communist Party, each ideological faction denied the political legitimacy of the opposing faction. Until shortly before his death, Lenin countered Stalin's disproportionate political influence in the Communist Party and in the bureaucracy of the Soviet government, partly because of abuses he had committed against the populace of Georgia and partly because the autocratic Stalin had accumulated administrative power disproportionate to his office of General Secretary of the Communist Party. The counter-action against Stalin aligned with Lenin's advocacy of the right of self-determination for the national and ethnic groups of the deposed Tsarist Empire. Lenin warned the Party that Stalin has \"unlimited authority concentrated in his hands, and I am not sure whether he will always be capable of using that authority with sufficient caution\", and formed a faction with Leon Trotsky to remove Stalin as the General Secretary of the Communist Party. To that end followed proposals reducing the administrative powers of party posts in order to reduce bureaucratic influence upon the policies of the Communist Party. Lenin advised Trotsky to emphasise Stalin's recent bureaucratic alignment in such matters (e.g. undermining the anti-bureaucratic workers' and peasants' Inspection) and argued to depose Stalin as General Secretary. Despite advice to refuse \"any rotten compromise\", Trotsky did not heed Lenin's advice and General Secretary Stalin retained power over the Communist Party and the bureaucracy of the soviet government.", "After Lenin's death (21 January 1924), Trotsky ideologically battled the influence of Stalin, who formed ruling blocs within the Russian Communist Party (with Grigory Zinoviev and Lev Kamenev, then with Nikolai Bukharin and then by himself) and so determined soviet government policy from 1924 onwards. The ruling blocs continually denied Stalin's opponents the right to organise as an opposition faction within the party—thus the re-instatement of democratic centralism and free speech within the Communist Party were key arguments of Trotsky's Left Opposition and the later Joint Opposition. In the course of instituting government policy, Stalin promoted the doctrine of socialism in one country (adopted 1925), wherein the Soviet Union would establish socialism upon Russia's economic foundations (and support socialist revolutions elsewhere). Conversely, Trotsky held that socialism in one country would economically constrain the industrial development of the Soviet Union and thus required assistance from the new socialist countries in the developed world—which was essential for maintaining soviet democracy—in 1924 much undermined by the Russian Civil War of White Army counter-revolution. Trotsky's theory of permanent revolution proposed that socialist revolutions in underdeveloped countries would go further towards dismantling feudal régimes and establish socialist democracies that would not pass through a capitalist stage of development and government. Hence, revolutionary workers should politically ally with peasant political organisations, but not with capitalist political parties. In contrast, Stalin and allies proposed that alliances with capitalist political parties were essential to realising a revolution where communists were too few. Said Stalinist practice failed, especially in the Northern Expedition portion of the Chinese Revolution (1926–1928), which resulted in the right-wing Kuomintang's massacre of the Communist Party of China. Despite the failure, Stalin's policy of mixed-ideology political alliances nonetheless became Comintern policy. Until exiled from Russia in 1929, Trotsky developed and led the Left Opposition (and the later Joint Opposition) with members of the Workers' Opposition, the Decembrists and (later) the Zinovievists. Trotskyism predominated the politics of the Left Opposition, which demanded the restoration of soviet democracy, the expansion of democratic centralism in the Communist Party, national industrialisation, international permanent revolution and socialist internationalism. The Trotskyist demands countered Stalin's political dominance of the Communist Party, which was officially characterised by the \"cult of Lenin\", the rejection of permanent revolution, and advocated the doctrine of socialism in one country. The Stalinist economic policy vacillated between appeasing the capitalist interests of the kulak in the countryside and destroying them as a social class. Initially, the Stalinists also rejected the national industrialisation of Russia, but then pursued it in full, sometimes brutally. In both cases, the Left Opposition denounced the regressive nature of Stalin's policy towards the wealthy kulak social class, and the brutality of forced industrialisation. Trotsky described Stailinist vacillation as a symptom of the undemocratic nature of a ruling bureaucracy. During the 1920s and the 1930s, Stalin fought and defeated the political influence of Trotsky and the Trotskyists in Russia, by means of slander, antisemitism, and censorship, expulsions, exile (internal and external), and imprisonment. The anti–Trotsky campaign culminated in the executions (official and unofficial) of the Moscow Trials (1936–1938), which were part of the Great Purge of Old Bolsheviks who had led the Revolution).", "The vanguard-party revolution of Leninism became the ideological basis of the communist parties comprised by the socialist political spectrum. In the People's Republic of China, the Communist Party of China organised themselves with Maoism (the Thought of Mao Zedong), socialism with Chinese characteristics. In Singapore, the People's Action Party (PAP) featured internal democracy, and initiated single-party dominance in the government and politics of Singapore. In the event, the practical application of Maoism to the socio-economic conditions of Third World countries produced revolutionary vanguard parties, such as the Communist Party of Peru – Red Fatherland.", "As a form of Marxism, revolutionary Leninism was much criticised as an undemocratic interpretation of socialism. In \"The Nationalities Question in the Russian Revolution\" (1918), Rosa Luxemburg criticised the Bolsheviks for the suppression of the All Russian Constituent Assembly (January 1918); the partitioning of the feudal estates to the peasant communes; and the right of self-determination of every national people of the Russias. That the strategic (geopolitical) mistakes of the Bolsheviks would create great dangers for the Russian Revolution, such as the bureaucratisation that would arise to administrate the oversized country that was Bolshevik Russia. In defence of expedient revolutionary practice, in \"\" (1920) Lenin dismissed the political and ideological complaints of the anti-Bolshevik critics, who claimed ideologically correct stances that were to the political left of Lenin. In Marxist philosophy, left communism is a range of political perspectives that are left-wing among communists. Left communism criticizes the ideology that the Bolshevik Party practised as the revolutionary vanguard. Ideologically, left communists present their perspectives and approaches as authentic Marxism and thus more oriented to the proletariat than the Leninism of the Communist International at their first (1919) and second (1920) congresses. Proponents of left-wing Communism include Amadeo Bordiga, Herman Gorter, and Antonie Pannekoek, Otto Rühle, Sylvia Pankhurst and Paul Mattick. Historically, the Dutch–German communist left has been most critical of Lenin and Leninism; yet, the Italian communist left remained Leninist; Bordiga said: \"All this work of demolishing opportunism and \"deviationism\" (Lenin: \"What Is To Be Done?\") is today the basis of party activity. The party follows revolutionary tradition and experiences in this work during these periods of revolutionary reflux and the proliferation of opportunist theories, which had as their violent and inflexible opponents Marx, Engels, Lenin and the Italian Left\". In \"The Lenin Legend\" (1935), Paul Mattick said that the council communist tradition, begun by the Dutch–German leftists, also is critical of Leninism. Contemporary left-communist organisations, such as the Internationalist Communist Tendency and the International Communist Current, view Lenin as an important and influential theorist, but remain critical of Leninism as political praxis for proletarian revolution. Nonetheless, the Bordigist ideology of the International Communist Party abide Bordiga's strict Leninism. Ideologically aligned with the Dutch–German left, among the ideologists of contemporary communisation, the theorist Gilles Dauvé criticised Leninism as a \"by-product of Kautskyism\". In \"The Soviet Union Versus Socialism\" (1986), Noam Chomsky said that totalitarian Stalinism was the logical development of Leninism, and not an ideological deviation from Lenin's policies, which resulted in collectivization enforced with a police state; and that in light of the tenets of socialism, Leninism was a right-wing deviation of Marxism." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Education and career.", "Web Standards.", "CTO of Opera Software.", "Political and civic activities.", "Personal life.", "Awards and recognition.", "Bibliography." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Håkon Wium Lie attended Østfold University College, West Georgia College, and MIT Media Lab, receiving an MS in Visual Studies in 1991. On February 17, 2006, he successfully defended his PhD thesis at the University of Oslo. His PhD thesis is background to the origins of CSS and a rationale to some of the design decisions behind it – particularly as to why some features were \"not\" included and why CSS avoids trying to become DSSSL. He has worked for, among others, the W3C, INRIA, CERN, MIT Media Lab, and Norwegian telecom research in Televerket.", "While working with Tim Berners-Lee and Robert Cailliau at CERN in 1994, he proposed the concept of Cascading Style Sheets (CSS). As a showcase and testbed, he integrated CSS into the Arena web browser, which became the first CSS implementation. After joining W3C in 1995, he worked on the CSS specifications, including CSS1, CSS2, and RFC 2318 (March 1998). Most of these specifications were developed with Bert Bos, who is considered co-creator of CSS. Over the next decade, CSS established itself as one of the fundamental web standards, with profound impact on typography, aesthetics, and accessibility on the web. Along with his work on the CSS specifications, Wium Lie has been an activist for standards in general. In 2005, he wrote an open letter to Bill Gates of Microsoft, asking why Microsoft's Internet Explorer did not support common web standards. A few day later, when Bill Gates announced that Internet Explorer 7 would be launched, Wium Lie responded by launching the Acid2 challenge to Microsoft. Although primarily targeted at Microsoft, the Acid2 test was also difficult for other browsers. Since then, Acid2 and the subsequent Acid3 have established themselves as benchmark tests which all browsers are measured against. In 2006, Wium Lie started campaigning for browsers to support downloadable web fonts using common font formats., all major browser vendors have implemented web fonts this way. In 2007, Wium Lie started campaigning for the video element to make it easier to publish video on the web. At Google I/O in 2011, Wium Lie presented the video element in combination with the WebM format which Google had open-sourced. In 2008, he was spokesperson for a group of technical committee members who resigned over the decision by Standards Norway to vote for the approval of OOXML. Wium Lie has also promoted the concept of printing from the web. The third edition of his book on CSS, co-authored with Bert Bos, was produced from HTML and CSS files. These files were then converted to PDF by the Prince XML + CSS formatter. In 2005, he joined the board of YesLogic, the company that makes the Prince formatter. Building on his experience with web printing, in 2011 Wium Lie proposed to extend CSS to support pagination on screens. He has argued against the use of formatting objects and CSS Regions on the web.", "In April 1999, Wium Lie joined Opera Software in Oslo, Norway as CTO. His move was motivated by seeing Opera programmers make more progress on implementing CSS in three months than what Netscape and Microsoft had achieved in three years. At Opera, he spearheaded the development of mobile browsers, in particular small-screen rendering of web pages. Small-screen rendering enabled Opera to show normal web pages on the small screens commonly found on feature phones running the Opera Mini browser. When Opera Software filed a complaint against Microsoft in the EU over Internet Explorer in 2007, Wium Lie was a spokesperson, stressing the need for Microsoft to fully support web standards in their browser. Opera's complaint led to a settlement where Microsoft started offering rival browsers from a browser choice screen to Windows users in Europe, and Wium Lie declared this a victory for the web. In 2013, Opera started a gradual transition from its own Presto web engine, to the WebKit engine also used by Safari and Google Chrome. Wium Lie said that it made most sense to work with the open-source communities than to continue developing its own engine.", "In 2005, when politicians declared defeat against advertising towers on public pavements in Oslo, Wium Lie started the Stans.no campaign. In 2009, Stans!no filed a suit against the city for allowing advertising towers to be built in public places, and the city subsequently bought the advertising towers and dismantled them. After the advertising towers were removed, Stans.no has continued working against other types of advertising in the public space. To encourage sponsors to support the OLPC project, in 2008 he ordered 100 laptops and turned his Oslo home into a temporary OLPC village. In 2012 he co-founded the Pirate Party of Norway, and he ran as their candidate in the 2013 election and the 2019 election. In 2014, he proposed to use the two unused Norwegian TLDs (.sj and.bv) to create privacy-enhanced zones. Wium Lie is a self-declared social democrat and he has contributed economically to cultural and political causes. In 2007 he gave a significant contribution to the new Oslo Opera House. In 2017, he was an initial investor in the Norwegian online newspaper Resett stating it was meaningful to help provide a platform for Helge Lurås, a critic of NATO campaigns in Afghanistan and Libya, and Bjørn Ihler, a survivor of the Utøya massacre. Wium Lie is against Norwegian membership in the EEA and when the party Alliansen was formed as an anti-EEA party in 2017 he was on the election list for parliament for Akershus. However, Wium Lie denounced the party before the election due to its shifting platform. In 2018, Wium Lie was sued by Lovdata for publishing Norwegian court decisions on rettspraksis.no, a volunteer web site. In less than 24 hours, the web site was closed by the Oslo court, and Wium Lie was sentenced to pay the legal bills of Lovdata. Under Norwegian law, court decisions are exempted from copyright but Wium Lie was not allowed to appear in court. In the wake of this decision, members of the Norwegian Parliament have asked for changes in how Lovdata is organized. The case has been appealed and will be decided by the Supreme Court of Norway.", "Wium Lie lives in Oslo, Norway. There, he has started web-based campaigns against high-rise buildings and advertising in the public space. Wium Lie also maintains a woodworking studio and runs an organic farm.", "In 1999, he was named to the MIT Technology Review TR100 as one of the top 100 innovators in the world under the age of 35. In 2001, he was a Technology Pioneer at the World Economic Forum in Davos. In 2017, Wium Lie held a keynote at the WeAreDevelopers Conference 2017, talking about his contributions to the web today with the creation of CSS, and how it has evolved together with the web itself up to its current state.", "Lie and Bert Bos wrote a book on CSS, now in its third edition." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Netiquette.", "Digital citizenship.", "Netiquette in South Korea.", "Cell phone etiquette.", "Cell phone etiquette in the education system.", "Cell phone etiquette in the public sphere.", "Cell phone etiquette within social relationships.", "Netiquette vs. cell phone etiquette.", "New technology and behaviors." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Netiquette, a colloquial portmanteau of \"network etiquette\" or \"Internet etiquette\", is a set of social conventions that facilitate interaction over networks, ranging from Usenet and mailing lists to blogs and forums. Like the network itself, these developing norms remain in a state of flux and vary from community to community. The points most strongly emphasized about Usenet netiquette often include using simple electronic signatures, and avoiding multiposting, cross-posting, off-topic posting, hijacking a discussion thread, and other techniques used to minimize the effort required to read a post or a thread. Similarly, some Usenet guidelines call for use of unabbreviated English while users of instant messaging protocols like SMS occasionally encourage just the opposite, bolstering use of SMS language. However, many online communities frown upon this practice. Common rules for e-mail and Usenet such as avoiding flamewars and spam are constant across most mediums and communities. Another rule is to avoid typing in all caps or grossly enlarging script for emphasis, which is considered to be the equivalent of shouting or yelling. Other commonly shared points, such as remembering that one's posts are (or can easily be made) public, are generally intuitively understood by publishers of Web pages and posters to Usenet, although this rule is somewhat flexible depending on the environment. On more private protocols, however, such as e-mail and SMS, some users take the privacy of their posts for granted. One-on-one communications, such as private messages on chat forums and direct SMS, may be considered more private than other such protocols, but infamous breaches surround even these relatively private media. For example, Paris Hilton's Sidekick PDA was cracked in 2005, resulting in the publication of her private photos, SMS history, address book, etc. A group e-mail sent by Cerner CEO Neal Patterson to managers of a facility in Kansas City concerning \"Cerner's declining work ethic\" read, in part, \"The parking lot is sparsely used at 8 A.M.; likewise at 5 P.M. As managers—you either do not know what your EMPLOYEES are doing, or YOU do not CARE... In either case, you have a problem and you will fix it or I will replace you.\" After the e-mail was forwarded to hundreds of other employees, it quickly leaked to the public. On the day that the e-mail was posted to Yahoo!, Cerner's stock price fell by over 22% from a high market capitalization of US$1.5 billion. Beyond matters of basic courtesy and privacy, e-mail syntax (defined by RFC 2822) allows for different types of recipients. The primary recipient, defined by the To: line, can reasonably be expected to respond, but recipients of carbon copies cannot be, although they still might. Likewise, misuse of the CC: functions in lieu of traditional mailing lists can result in serious technical issues. In late 2007, employees of the United States Department of Homeland Security used large CC: lists in place of a mailing list to broadcast messages to several hundred users. Misuse of the \"reply to all\" caused the number of responses to that message to quickly expand to some two million messages, bringing down their mail server. In cases like this, rules of netiquette have more to do with efficient sharing of resources—ensuring that the associated technology continues to function—rather than more basic etiquette. On Usenet, cross-posting, in which a single copy of a message is posted to multiple groups is intended to prevent this from happening, but many newsgroups frown on the practice, as it means users must sometimes read many copies of a message in multiple groups. When referring to a previous discussion or expertise, quote a few lines instead of entire paragraphs. Select quotes provides enough description without bogging down a discussion and detracting from our own points. Be brief, and don't write out dissertations for simple questions; if you post long to reply to simple questions for advice, many will be unlikely to read it. Due to the large variation between what is considered acceptable behavior in various professional environments and between professional and social networks, codified internal manuals of style can help clarify acceptable limits and boundaries for user behavior. For instance, failure to publish such a guide for e-mail style was cited among the reasons for an NZ$17,000 wrongful dismissal finding against a firm that fired a woman for misuse of all caps in company-wide e-mail traffic.", "\"Digital citizenship\" is how a person should act while using digital technology online and has also been defined as \"the ability to participate in society online\". The term is often mentioned in relation to Internet safety and netiquette. The term has been used as early as 1998 and has gone through several changes in description as newer technological advances have changed the method and frequency of how people interact with one another online. Classes on digital citizenship have been taught in some public education systems and some argue that the term can be \"measured in terms of economic and political activities online\".", "In South Korea, the Korea Internet Safety Commission declared the 'Netizen Ethics Code' on June 15, 2000, and the Ministry of Education prepared the 'Information Communication Ethics Education Guidelines' in early 2001. Therefore, some middle and high schools started to provide education on netiquette. The basic netiquette education contents of South Korea are as follows. The writing on a noticeboard should be written clearly and concisely, used by grammar and Korean spelling, and avoid excessive refutation of other people's writings. An e-mail should identify itself and send a letter. When chatting, you should introduce yourself first, engage in conversation, use the title \"Nim,\" and slander, abuse, or sarcastic remarks should be prudent. Furthermore, it is against etiquette to repeat the same words at once, and you must greeting when you come out of a chat. Besides, sexual harassment, stalking, and the use of expletive should not be allowed.", "The issue of mobile communication and etiquette has also become an issue of academic interest. The rapid adoption of the device has resulted in the intrusion of telephony into situations where it was previously not used. This has exposed the implicit rules of courtesy and opened them to reevaluation.", "Most schools in the United States, Europe and Canada have prohibited mobile phones in the classroom, citing class disruptions and the potential for cheating via text messaging. In the UK, possession of a mobile phone in an examination can result in immediate disqualification from that subject or from all that student's subjects. This still applies even if the mobile phone was not turned on at the time. In New York City, students are banned from taking cell phones to school. This has been a debate for several years, but finally passed legislature in 2008. \"Most schools allow students to have cell phones for safety purposes\"—a reaction to the Littleton, Colorado, high school shooting incident of 1999 (Lipscomb 2007: 50). Apart from emergency situations, most schools don't officially allow students to use cell phones during class time.", "Talking or texting on a cell phone in public may seem a distraction for many individuals. When in public there are two times when one uses a phone. The first is when the user is alone and the other is when the user is in a group. The main issue for most people is when they are in a group, and the cell phone becomes a distraction or a barrier for successful socialization among family and friends. In the past few years, society has become less tolerant of cell phone use in public areas; for example, public transportation, restaurants and much more. This is exemplified by the widespread recognition of campaigns such as Stop Phubbing, which prompted discussion as to how mobile phones should be used in the presence of others. \"Some have suggested that mobile phones 'affect every aspect of our personal and professional lives either directly or indirectly'\" (Humphrey). Every culture's tolerance of cell phone usage varies; for instance in Western society cell phones are permissible during free time at schools, whereas in the Eastern countries, cell phones are strictly prohibited on school property. Mobile phone use can be an important matter of social discourtesy, such as phones ringing during funerals or weddings, in toilets, cinemas and theatres. Some book shops, libraries, bathrooms, cinemas, doctors' offices and places of worship prohibit their use, so that other patrons will not be disturbed by conversations. Some facilities install signal-jamming equipment to prevent their use, although in many countries, including the US, such equipment is illegal. Some new auditoriums have installed wire mesh in the walls to make a Faraday cage, which prevents signal penetration without violating signal jamming laws. A working group made up of Finnish telephone companies, public transport operators and communications authorities has launched a campaign to remind mobile phone users of courtesy, especially when using mass transit—what to talk about on the phone, and how to. In particular, the campaign wants to impact loud mobile phone usage as well as calls regarding sensitive matters. Trains, particularly those involving long-distance services, often offer a \"quiet carriage\" where phone use is prohibited, much like the designated non-smoking carriage of the past. In the UK however many users tend to ignore this as it is rarely enforced, especially if the other carriages are crowded and they have no choice but to go in the \"quiet carriage\". In Japan, it is generally considered impolite to talk using a phone on any train; e-mailing is generally the mode of mobile communication. Mobile phone usage on local public transport is also increasingly seen as a nuisance; the Austrian city of Graz, for instance, has mandated a total ban of mobile phones on its tram and bus network in 2008 (though texting and emailing is still allowed). Nancy J. Friedman has spoken widely about landline and cell phone etiquette.", "When critically assessing the family structure, it is important to examine the parent/child negotiations which occur in the household, in relation to the increased use of cell phones. Teenagers use their cell phones as a way to negotiate spatial boundaries with their parents (Williams 2005:316). This includes extending curfews in the public space and allowing more freedom for the teenagers when they are outside of the home (Williams 2005:318). More importantly, cell phone etiquette relates to kinship groups and the family as an institution. This is because cell phones act as a threat due to the rapid disconnect within families. Children are often so closely affiliated with their technological gadgets, and they tend to interact with their friends constantly and this has a negative impact on their relationship with their parents (Williams 2005:326). Teenagers see themselves as gaining a sense of empowerment from the mobile phone. Cell phone etiquette in the household from an anthropological perspective has shown an evolution in the institution of family. The mobile phone has now been integrated into family practices and perpetuated a wider concern which is the fracture between parent and child relationships. We are able to see the traditional values disappearing; however, reflexive monitoring is occurring (Williams 2005:320). Through this, parents are becoming friendlier with their children and critics emphasize that this change is problematic because children should be subjected to social control. One way of social control is limiting the time spent interacting with friends, which is difficult to do in today's society because of the rapid use of cell phones.", "Cell phone etiquette is largely dependent on the cultural context and what is deemed to be socially acceptable. For instance, in certain cultures using your handheld devices while interacting in a group environment is considered bad manners, whereas, in other cultures around the world it may be viewed differently. In addition, cell phone etiquette also encompasses the various types of activities which are occurring and the nature of the messages which are being sent. More importantly, messages of an inappropriate nature can be sent to an individual and this could potentially orchestrate problems such as verbal/cyber abuse.", "Perhaps the biggest obstacle to communication in online settings is the lack of emotional cues. Facial cues dictate the mood and corresponding diction of two people in a conversation. During phone conversations, tone of voice communicates the emotions of the person on the other line. But with chat rooms, instant messaging apps and texting, any signals that would indicate the tone of a person's words or their state of emotion are absent. Because of this, there have been some interesting accommodations. Perhaps the two most prevalent compensating behaviors are the use of emoticons and abbreviations. Emoticons use punctuation marks to illustrate common symbols that pertain to facial cues. For example, one would combine a colon and parenthesis to recreate the symbol of the smiley face indicating the happiness or satisfaction of the other person. To symbolize laughter, the abbreviation \"LOL\" standing for \"laughing out loud\" developed. Along with these, countless other symbols and abbreviations have developed including, \"BRB\" (\"be right back\"), \"TTYL\" (talk to you later) and specific designs incorporated by apps of a laughing face, sad face, crying face, angry face etc. Now, as newer modes of communication are becoming more common, the rules of communication must adapt as fast as the technology. For example, one of the most popular new apps, Snapchat, is growing to have its own rules and etiquette. This app lets a user send pictures or videos that disappear after a couple seconds. Initially, the thought that occurs to people when confronted by this app is its implications for sexting. Although it is entirely possible to make use of Snapchat for that purpose, what the app has developed into is a form of communication that shares funny or interesting moments. Originally compared to Instagram by way of the app's ability to broadcast pictures to many people, it has now become standard to communicate through Snapchat by sending pictures back and forth and using the caption bar for messages. The reply option on Snapchat specifically promotes this behavior, but Snapchat etiquette is not set in stone. It is becoming clear that Snaps personalized for the receiver expect a reply, but where ends this obligation? Some people use Snapchat specifically for the purpose of communication, while some use it to simply provide a visual update of their day. The newest update of Snapchat, an instant messaging add-on, seems to be catered to those who use the app to send messages back and forth. This new messaging add-on, along with the video chat feature will warrant new forms of social construct and expectations of behavior in accordance with this application." ] }

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{ "title": [ "ECMAScript engines.", "Source code leak.", "Cultural notes." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "A succession of ECMAScript engines have been used with Opera. (For the origin of their names, see Cultural notes below). Pre-Presto versions of Opera used the Linear A engine. Opera versions based on the Core fork of Presto, Opera 7.0 through 9.27, used the Linear B engine. The Futhark engine is used in some versions on the Core 2 fork of Presto, namely Opera 9.5 to Opera 10.10. When released it was the fastest engine around, but in 2008 a new generation of ECMAScript engines from Google (V8), Mozilla (TraceMonkey), and Apple (SquirrelFish) took one more step, introducing native code generation. This opened up for potential heavy computations on the client side and Futhark, though still fast and efficient, was unable to keep up. In early 2009, Opera introduced the Carakan engine. It featured register-based bytecode, native code generation, automatic object classification, and overall performance improvements. Early access in the Opera 10.50 pre-alpha showed that it is as fast as the fastest competitors, being the winner in 2 out of the 3 most used benchmarks.", "The source code for version 12.15 was leaked to GitHub on February 11, 2016. It remained unnoticed until January 12, 2017 and was taken down two days later in response to a DMCA request. Opera Software has confirmed the authenticity of the source code.", "The ECMAScript engines used with Opera have been named after ancient and traditional writing scripts, including ancient Greek Linear A and Linear B, Runic Futhark, and Javanese Carakan." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Controversy.", "Discontinued products." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Opera Software was founded as an independent company in Norway in 1995 by Jon Stephenson von Tetzchner and Geir Ivarsøy. The company was created to continue what was originally a research project at Telenor, the largest Norwegian telecommunications company. Opera Software's first product, the Opera web browser version 2.10 for Windows, was publicly released in 1996. Opera Software had an IPO in February 2004, and first released on March 11, 2004. In an attempt to capitalize on the emerging market for Internet-connected handheld devices, a project to port the Opera browser to more platforms was started in 1998. Opera 4.0, released in 2000, included a new cross-platform core that facilitated creation of editions of Opera for multiple operating systems and platforms. Up to this point, the Opera browser was trialware and had to be purchased after the trial period ended, however, this ended with version 5.0, released in 2000. Instead, Opera became ad-sponsored, displaying advertisements to users without a license, which was commonly criticized as a barrier to gaining market share. In newer versions, the user was allowed a choice of generic graphical banners or text-based targeted advertisements provided by Google based upon the page being viewed. In 2004, Opera Software settled a lawsuit with an \"international corporation\" paying $12.75 million USD to Opera. It was speculated that the \"international corporation\" named in the statement announcing the settlement was Microsoft, which had previously blocked Opera users from correctly viewing MSN.com. On 12 January 2005, Opera Software announced that it would offer free licenses to higher education institutions — a change from the previous cost of US$1,000 for unlimited licenses. Schools that opted for the free license included Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Harvard University, University of Oxford, Georgia Institute of Technology, and Duke University. With version 8.5 (released in 2005) the advertisements were removed entirely and primary financial support came through revenue from Google (Opera's default search engine). In August 2005, the company introduced Opera Mini, a new Java ME based web browser for mobile phones originally marketed not to end users but to mobile network operators to pre-load on phones or offer for their subscribers. In 2007, Opera filed a complaint against Microsoft in the European Commission, alleging that bundling Internet Explorer with Microsoft Windows is harmful to both the consumer and to other web browser companies. The complaint resulted in the creation of BrowserChoice.eu. In 2012, Opera Software and Bharti Airtel signed an agreement to provide Opera Mini browsers to Airtel mobile customers. In 2013 Opera Software decided to not use their in-house rendering engine for the Desktop Browser anymore. From Version 15, the Opera browser for computers would be using the Blink rendering engine, a fork of Webkit developed together with Google. In March 2015 Mobile World Congress in Barcelona, Opera won Global Mobile Award of Best Mobile Product, Initiative or Service in Emerging Markets for Opera Web Pass and Sponsored Web Pass. In April Opera Software decided to centre development of the Opera Desktop browser in Poland. On April 12, Opera TV AS (now Vewd Software AS) was established to separate TV-related business from all other assets, which became part of Opera Software AS; both companies became wholly owned subsidiaries of Opera Software ASA (now Otello). In September, the company announced a rebrand with a new three-dimensional “O” logo and brand identity. In the process, the company logotype changed from \"Opera Software\" to “Opera”. On 10 February 2016, a group of Chinese investors offered US$1.2 billion ($8.31 per share) to buy Opera Software ASA, though the deal reportedly did not meet regulatory approval. On 18 July 2016, Opera Software ASA announced it had sold its browser, privacy and performance apps, and the Opera brand to Golden Brick Capital Private Equity Fund I Limited Partnership (a consortium of Chinese investors led by \"Beijing Kunlun Tech Co\" and Qihoo 360) for an amount of US$600 million. The transaction for sale of Opera's consumer business was approved on 31 October 2016 by the Committee on Foreign Investment in the United States. On 4 November 2016, Golden Brick Capital Private Equity Fund I L.P. completed the acquisition. After divesting itself off the Opera browser and brand, Opera Software ASA changed its name to Otello Corporation ASA. In January 2017, the company introduced Opera Neon, a new concept browser that is intended as an exploration of browser design alternatives. The browser is built on top of the Blink engine similar to the original Opera browser, and it is available for Windows and macOS. In January 2018, Opera launched \"Opera News\", an AI-driven news app dedicated to African users. It reached more than a million downloads in less than a month. In April 2018, the company released a new mobile browser called \"Opera Touch\". It includes an innovative user interface focused on ease of use and one-handed browsing.", "In September 2019, the company reported that nearly $56.4M of its revenue was made from their Fintech business area, which now comprises over 42% of its total revenue, after its combined browser market share fell around 30% since its IPO in mid-2018. In January 2020, Hindenburg Research, a forensic financial research organisation, revealed that this is mainly related to predatory short-term loan products in Kenya, India, and Nigeria. According to the report, \"most of Opera's lending business is operated through apps offered on Google's Play Store. In August [2019], Google tightened rules to curtail predatory lending and, as a result, Opera's apps are now in black and white violation of numerous Google rules,\" and that the company's \"entire line of business is at risk of disappearing or being severely curtailed when Google notices,\" as well as the fact that \"instead of disclosing to investors that its “high-growth” microfinance segment could be imperiled by these new rules, Opera instead immediately raised $82 million in a secondary offering without disclosing Google's changes to investors.\" Opera Software's CEO and Chairman, Zhou Yahui, was also recently affiliated with Qudian, a Chinese firm also involved in loans, which saw its US stock plummet after accusations of fraud and illegal lending practices.", "In February 2018, after previously announcing that the service and app would be shut down, the Opera Max app, a VPN based mobile data compression service, was sold to Samsung. It was rebranded as Samsung Max, but will only be compatible with eligible Samsung Galaxy smartphones going forward." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Education and research at Cornell.", "University of Missouri.", "Cold Spring Harbor.", "Discovery of controlling elements.", "The origins of maize.", "Rediscovery.", "Honors and recognition.", "Later years.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Barbara McClintock was born Eleanor McClintock on June 16, 1902 in Hartford, Connecticut, the third of four children born to homeopathic physician Thomas Henry McClintock and Sara Handy McClintock. Thomas McClintock was the child of British immigrants; Sara Ryder Handy was descended from an old American \"Mayflower\" family. Marjorie, the oldest child, was born in October 1898; Mignon, the second daughter, was born in November 1900. The youngest, Malcolm Rider (called Tom), was born 18 months after Barbara. When she was a young girl, her parents determined that Eleanor, a \"feminine\" and \"delicate\" name, was not appropriate for her, and chose Barbara instead. McClintock was an independent child beginning at a very young age, a trait she later identified as her \"capacity to be alone\". From the age of three until she began school, McClintock lived with an aunt and uncle in Brooklyn, New York in order to reduce the financial burden on her parents while her father established his medical practice. She was described as a solitary and independent child. She was close to her father, but had a difficult relationship with her mother, tension that began when she was young. The McClintock family moved to Brooklyn in 1908 and McClintock completed her secondary education there at Erasmus Hall High School; she graduated early in 1919. She discovered her love of science and reaffirmed her solitary personality during high school. She wanted to continue her studies at Cornell University's College of Agriculture. Her mother resisted sending McClintock to college, for fear that she would be unmarriageable, something that was common at the time. McClintock was almost prevented from starting college, but her father allowed her to just before registration began, and she matriculated at Cornell in 1919.", "McClintock began her studies at Cornell's College of Agriculture in 1919. There, she participated in student government and was invited to join a sorority, though she soon realized that she preferred not to join formal organizations. Instead, McClintock took up music, specifically jazz. She studied botany, receiving a B.Sc in 1923. Her interest in genetics began when she took her first course in that field in 1921. The course was based on a similar one offered at Harvard University, and was taught by C. B. Hutchison, a plant breeder and geneticist. Hutchison was impressed by McClintock's interest, and telephoned to invite her to participate in the graduate genetics course at Cornell in 1922. McClintock pointed to Hutchison's invitation as a catalyst for her interest in genetics: \"Obviously, this telephone call cast the die for my future. I remained with genetics thereafter.\" Although it has been reported that women could not major in genetics at Cornell, and therefore her MS and PhD—earned in 1925 and 1927, respectively—were officially awarded in botany, recent research has revealed that women were permitted to earn graduate degrees in Cornell's Plant Breeding Department during the time that McClintock was a student at Cornell. During her graduate studies and postgraduate appointment as a botany instructor, McClintock was instrumental in assembling a group that studied the new field of cytogenetics in maize. This group brought together plant breeders and cytologists, and included Marcus Rhoades, future Nobel laureate George Beadle, and Harriet Creighton. Rollins A. Emerson, head of the Plant Breeding Department, supported these efforts, although he was not a cytologist himself. She also worked as a research assistant for Lowell Fitz Randolph and then for Lester W. Sharp, both Cornell botanists. McClintock's cytogenetic research focused on developing ways to visualize and characterize maize chromosomes. This particular part of her work influenced a generation of students, as it was included in most textbooks. She also developed a technique using carmine staining to visualize maize chromosomes, and showed for the first time the morphology of the 10 maize chromosomes. This discovery was made because she observed cells from the microspore as opposed to the root tip. By studying the morphology of the chromosomes, McClintock was able to link specific chromosome groups of traits that were inherited together. Marcus Rhoades noted that McClintock's 1929 \"Genetics\" paper on the characterization of triploid maize chromosomes triggered scientific interest in maize cytogenetics, and attributed to her 10 of the 17 significant advances in the field that were made by Cornell scientists between 1929 and 1935. In 1930, McClintock was the first person to describe the cross-shaped interaction of homologous chromosomes during meiosis. The following year, McClintock and Creighton proved the link between chromosomal crossover during meiosis and the recombination of genetic traits. They observed how the recombination of chromosomes seen under a microscope correlated with new traits. Until this point, it had only been hypothesized that genetic recombination could occur during meiosis, although it had not been shown genetically. McClintock published the first genetic map for maize in 1931, showing the order of three genes on maize chromosome 9. This information provided necessary data for the crossing-over study she published with Creighton; they also showed that crossing-over occurs in sister chromatids as well as homologous chromosomes. In 1938, she produced a cytogenetic analysis of the centromere, describing the organization and function of the centromere, as well as the fact that it can divide. McClintock's breakthrough publications, and support from her colleagues, led to her being awarded several postdoctoral fellowships from the National Research Council. This funding allowed her to continue to study genetics at Cornell, the University of Missouri, and the California Institute of Technology, where she worked with E. G. Anderson. During the summers of 1931 and 1932, she worked at the University of Missouri with geneticist Lewis Stadler, who introduced her to the use of X-rays as a mutagen. Exposure to X-rays can increase the rate of mutation above the natural background level, making it a powerful research tool for genetics. Through her work with X-ray-mutagenized maize, she identified ring chromosomes, which form when the ends of a single chromosome fuse together after radiation damage. From this evidence, McClintock hypothesized that there must be a structure on the chromosome tip that would normally ensure stability. She showed that the loss of ring-chromosomes at meiosis caused variegation in maize foliage in generations subsequent to irradiation resulting from chromosomal deletion. During this period, she demonstrated the presence of the nucleolus organizer region on a region on maize chromosome 6, which is required for the assembly of the nucleolus. In 1933, she established that cells can be damaged when nonhomologous recombination occurs. During this same period, McClintock hypothesized that the tips of chromosomes are protected by telomeres. McClintock received a fellowship from the Guggenheim Foundation that made possible six months of training in Germany during 1933 and 1934. She had planned to work with Curt Stern, who had demonstrated crossing-over in \"Drosophila\" just weeks after McClintock and Creighton had done so; however, Stern emigrated to the United States. Instead, she worked with geneticist Richard B. Goldschmidt, who was a director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Biology in Berlin. She left Germany early amidst mounting political tension in Europe, and returned to Cornell, remaining there until 1936, when she accepted an Assistant Professorship offered to her by Lewis Stadler in the Department of Botany at the University of Missouri-Columbia. While still at Cornell, she was supported by a two-year Rockefeller Foundation grant obtained for her through Emerson's efforts.", "During her time at Missouri, McClintock expanded her research on the effect of X-rays on maize cytogenetics. McClintock observed the breakage and fusion of chromosomes in irradiated maize cells. She was also able to show that, in some plants, spontaneous chromosome breakage occurred in the cells of the endosperm. Over the course of mitosis, she observed that the ends of broken chromatids were rejoined after the chromosome replication. In the anaphase of mitosis, the broken chromosomes formed a chromatid bridge, which was broken when the chromatids moved towards the cell poles. The broken ends were rejoined in the interphase of the next mitosis, and the cycle was repeated, causing massive mutation, which she could detect as variegation in the endosperm. This breakage–rejoining–bridge cycle was a key cytogenetic discovery for several reasons. First, it showed that the rejoining of chromosomes was not a random event, and second, it demonstrated a source of large-scale mutation. For this reason, it remains an area of interest in cancer research today. Although her research was progressing at Missouri, McClintock was not satisfied with her position at the University. She recalled being excluded from faculty meetings, and was not made aware of positions available at other institutions. In 1940, she wrote to Charles Burnham, \"I have decided that I must look for another job. As far as I can make out, there is nothing more for me here. I am an assistant professor at $3,000 and I feel sure that that is the limit for me.\" Initially, McClintock's position was created especially for her by Stadler, and might have depended on his presence at the university. McClintock believed she would not gain tenure at Missouri, even though according to some accounts, she knew she would be offered a promotion from Missouri in the spring of 1942. Recent evidence reveals that McClintock more likely decided to leave Missouri because she had lost trust in her employer and in the University administration, after discovering that her job would be in jeopardy if Stadler were to leave for Caltech, as he had considered doing. The university's retaliation against Stadler amplified her sentiments. In early 1941, she took a leave of absence from Missouri in hopes of finding a position elsewhere. She accepted a visiting Professorship at Columbia University, where her former Cornell colleague Marcus Rhoades was a professor. Rhoades also offered to share his research field at Cold Spring Harbor on Long Island. In December 1941, she was offered a research position by Milislav Demerec, the newly appointed acting director of the Carnegie Institution of Washington's Department of Genetics Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory; McClintock accepted his invitation despite her qualms and became a permanent member of the faculty.", "After her year-long temporary appointment, McClintock accepted a full-time research position at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory. There, she was highly productive and continued her work with the breakage-fusion-bridge cycle, using it to substitute for X-rays as a tool for mapping new genes. In 1944, in recognition of her prominence in the field of genetics during this period, McClintock was elected to the National Academy of Sciences—only the third woman to be elected. The following year she became the first female president of the Genetics Society of America; she had been elected its vice-president in 1939. In 1944 she undertook a cytogenetic analysis of \"Neurospora crassa\" at the suggestion of George Beadle, who used the fungus to demonstrate the one gene–one enzyme relationship. He invited her to Stanford to undertake the study. She successfully described the number of chromosomes, or karyotype, of \"N. crassa\" and described the entire life cycle of the species. Beadle said, \"Barbara, in two months at Stanford, did more to clean up the cytology of \"Neurospora\" than all other cytological geneticists had done in all previous time on all forms of mold.\" \"N. crassa\" has since become a model species for classical genetic analysis.", "In the summer of 1944 at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, McClintock began systematic studies on the mechanisms of the mosaic color patterns of maize seed and the unstable inheritance of this mosaicism. She identified two new dominant and interacting genetic loci that she named \"Dissociation\" (\"Ds\") and \"Activator\" (\"Ac\"). She found that the \"Dissociation\" did not just dissociate or cause the chromosome to break, it also had a variety of effects on neighboring genes when the \"Activator\" was also present, which included making certain stable mutations unstable. In early 1948, she made the surprising discovery that both \"Dissociation\" and \"Activator\" could transpose, or change position, on the chromosome. She observed the effects of the transposition of \"Ac\" and \"Ds\" by the changing patterns of coloration in maize kernels over generations of controlled crosses, and described the relationship between the two loci through intricate microscopic analysis. She concluded that \"Ac\" controls the transposition of the \"Ds\" from chromosome 9, and that the movement of \"Ds\" is accompanied by the breakage of the chromosome. When \"Ds\" moves, the aleurone-color gene is released from the suppressing effect of the \"Ds\" and transformed into the active form, which initiates the pigment synthesis in cells. The transposition of \"Ds\" in different cells is random, it may move in some but not others, which causes color mosaicism. The size of the colored spot on the seed is determined by stage of the seed development during dissociation. McClintock also found that the transposition of \"Ds\" is determined by the number of \"Ac\" copies in the cell. Between 1948 and 1950, she developed a theory by which these mobile elements regulated the genes by inhibiting or modulating their action. She referred to \"Dissociation\" and \"Activator\" as \"controlling units\"—later, as \"controlling elements\"—to distinguish them from genes. She hypothesized that gene regulation could explain how complex multicellular organisms made of cells with identical genomes have cells of different function. McClintock's discovery challenged the concept of the genome as a static set of instructions passed between generations. In 1950, she reported her work on \"Ac/Ds\" and her ideas about gene regulation in a paper entitled \"The origin and behavior of mutable loci in maize\" published in the journal \"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences\". In summer 1951, she reported her work on the origin and behavior of mutable loci in maize at the annual symposium at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, presenting a paper of the same name. The paper delved into the instability caused by \"Ds\" and \"Ac\" or just \"Ac\" in four genes, along with the tendency of those genes to unpredictably revert to the wild phenotype. She also identified \"families\" of transposons, which did not interact with one another. Her work on controlling elements and gene regulation was conceptually difficult and was not immediately understood or accepted by her contemporaries; she described the reception of her research as \"puzzlement, even hostility\". Nevertheless, McClintock continued to develop her ideas on controlling elements. She published a paper in \"Genetics\" in 1953, where she presented all her statistical data, and undertook lecture tours to universities throughout the 1950s to speak about her work. She continued to investigate the problem and identified a new element that she called \"Suppressor-mutator\" (\"Spm\"), which, although similar to \"Ac/Ds\", acts in a more complex manner. Like \"Ac/Ds\", some versions could transpose on their own and some could not; unlike \"Ac/Ds\", when present, it fully suppressed the expression of mutant genes when they normally would not be entirely suppressed. Based on the reactions of other scientists to her work, McClintock felt she risked alienating the scientific mainstream, and from 1953 was forced to stop publishing accounts of her research on controlling elements.", "In 1957, McClintock received funding from the National Academy of Sciences to start research on indigenous strains of maize in Central America and South America. She was interested in studying the evolution of maize through chromosomal changes, and being in South America would allow her to work on a larger scale. McClintock explored the chromosomal, morphological, and evolutionary characteristics of various races of maize. After extensive work in the 1960s and 1970s, McClintock and her collaborators published the seminal study \"The Chromosomal Constitution of Races of Maize\", leaving their mark on paleobotany, ethnobotany, and evolutionary biology.", "McClintock officially retired from her position at the Carnegie Institution in 1967, and was made a Distinguished Service Member of the Carnegie Institution of Washington. This honor allowed her to continue working with graduate students and colleagues in the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory as \"scientist emerita\"; she lived in the town. In reference to her decision 20 years earlier to stop publishing detailed accounts of her work on controlling elements, she wrote in 1973: Over the years I have found that it is difficult if not impossible to bring to consciousness of another person the nature of his tacit assumptions when, by some special experiences, I have been made aware of them. This became painfully evident to me in my attempts during the 1950s to convince geneticists that the action of genes had to be and was controlled. It is now equally painful to recognize the fixity of assumptions that many persons hold on the nature of controlling elements in maize and the manners of their operation. One must await the right time for conceptual change. The importance of McClintock's contributions was revealed in the 1960s, when the work of French geneticists Francois Jacob and Jacques Monod described the genetic regulation of the \"lac\" operon, a concept she had demonstrated with \"Ac/Ds\" in 1951. Following Jacob and Monod's 1961 \"Journal of Molecular Biology\" paper \"Genetic regulatory mechanisms in the synthesis of proteins\", McClintock wrote an article for \"American Naturalist\" comparing the \"lac\" operon and her work on controlling elements in maize. Even late in the twentieth century, McClintock's contribution to biology was still not widely acknowledged as amounting to the discovery of genetic regulation. McClintock was widely credited with discovering transposition after other researchers finally discovered the process in bacteria, yeast, and bacteriophages in the late 1960s and early 1970s. During this period, molecular biology had developed significant new technology, and scientists were able to show the molecular basis for transposition. In the 1970s, \"Ac\" and \"Ds\" were cloned by other scientists and were shown to be class II transposons. \"Ac\" is a complete transposon that can produce a functional transposase, which is required for the element to move within the genome. \"Ds\" has a mutation in its transposase gene, which means that it cannot move without another source of transposase. Thus, as McClintock observed, \"Ds\" cannot move in the absence of \"Ac\". \"Spm\" has also been characterized as a transposon. Subsequent research has shown that transposons typically do not move unless the cell is placed under stress, such as by irradiation or the breakage-fusion-bridge cycle, and thus their activation during stress can serve as a source of genetic variation for evolution. McClintock understood the role of transposons in evolution and genome change well before other researchers grasped the concept. Nowadays, \"Ac/Ds\" is used as a tool in plant biology to generate mutant plants used for the characterization of gene function.", "In 1947, McClintock received the Achievement Award from the American Association of University Women. She was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1959. In 1967, McClintock was awarded the Kimber Genetics Award; three years later, she was given the National Medal of Science by Richard Nixon in 1970. She was the first woman to be awarded the National Medal of Science. Cold Spring Harbor named a building in her honor in 1973. She received the Louis and Bert Freedman Foundation Award and the Lewis S. Rosensteil Award in 1978. In 1981, she became the first recipient of the MacArthur Foundation Grant, and was awarded the Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research, the Wolf Prize in Medicine and the Thomas Hunt Morgan Medal by the Genetics Society of America. In 1982, she was awarded the Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize from Columbia University for her research in the \"evolution of genetic information and the control of its expression.\" Most notably, she received the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1983, the first woman to win that prize unshared, and the first American woman to win any unshared Nobel Prize. It was given to her by the Nobel Foundation for discovering \"mobile genetic elements\"; this was more than 30 years after she initially described the phenomenon of controlling elements. She was compared to Gregor Mendel in terms of her scientific career by the Swedish Academy of Sciences when she was awarded the Prize. She was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 1989. McClintock received the Benjamin Franklin Medal for Distinguished Achievement in the Sciences of the American Philosophical Society in 1993. She was awarded 14 Honorary Doctor of Science degrees and an Honorary Doctor of Humane Letters. In 1986 she was inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame. During her final years, McClintock led a more public life, especially after Evelyn Fox Keller's 1983 biography of her, \"A Feeling for the Organism,\" brought McClintock's story to the public. She remained a regular presence in the Cold Spring Harbor community, and gave talks on mobile genetic elements and the history of genetics research for the benefit of junior scientists. An anthology of her 43 publications \"The Discovery and Characterization of Transposable Elements: The Collected Papers of Barbara McClintock\" was published in 1987. The McClintock Prize is named in her honour. Laureates of the award include David Baulcombe, Detlef Weigel, Robert A. Martienssen, Jeffrey D. Palmer and Susan R. Wessler.", "McClintock spent her later years, post Nobel Prize, as a key leader and researcher in the field at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory on Long Island, New York. McClintock died of natural causes in Huntington, New York, on September 2, 1992 at the age of 90; she never married or had children.", "In 2001, McClintock was the subject of a biography by the science historian Nathaniel C. Comfort's \"The Tangled Field: Barbara McClintock's Search for the Patterns of Genetic Control\". Comfort's biography contests the claim that McClintock was marginalized by other scientists, which he calls the \"McClintock Myth\" and argues was perpetuated both by McClintock herself as well as in the earlier biography by Keller. Keller argued that because McClintock felt like an outsider within her field, (in part, because of her gender) she was able to look at her scientific subjects from a perspective different than the dominant one leading to several important insights. Keller shows how this led many of her colleagues to reject her ideas and undermine her abilities for many years. For example, when McClintock presented her findings that the genetics of maize did not conform to Mendelian distributions, geneticist Sewall Wright expressed the belief that she did not understand the underlying mathematics of her work, a belief he had also expressed towards other women at the time. In addition, geneticist Lotte Auerbach recounted that Joshua Lederberg returned from a visit to McClintock's lab with the remark: 'By God, that woman is either crazy or a genius.' \" As Auerbach recounts, McClintock had thrown Lederberg and his colleagues out after half an hour 'because of their arrogance. She was intolerant of arrogance... She felt she had crossed a desert alone and no one had followed her.'\" Comfort, however, asserts that McClintock was not discriminated against because of her gender, citing that she was well regarded by her professional peers, even in the early years of her career. Many recent biographical works on women in science feature accounts of McClintock's work and experience. She is held up as a role model for girls in such works of children's literature as Edith Hope Fine's \"Barbara McClintock, Nobel Prize Geneticist\", Deborah Heiligman's \"Barbara McClintock: Alone in Her Field\" and Mary Kittredge's \"Barbara McClintock\". A recent biography for young adults by Naomi Pasachoff, \"Barbara McClintock, Genius of Genetics\", provides a new perspective, based on the current literature. On May 4, 2005, the United States Postal Service issued the \"American Scientists\" commemorative postage stamp series, a set of four 37-cent self-adhesive stamps in several configurations. The scientists depicted were Barbara McClintock, John von Neumann, Josiah Willard Gibbs, and Richard Feynman. McClintock was also featured in a 1989 four-stamp issue from Sweden which illustrated the work of eight Nobel Prize-winning geneticists. A small building at Cornell University and a laboratory building at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory were named for her. A street has been named after her in the new \"Adlershof Development Society\" science park in Berlin. Some of McClintock's personality and scientific achievements were referred to in Jeffrey Eugenides's 2011 novel \"The Marriage Plot,\" which tells the story of a yeast geneticist named Leonard who suffers from bipolar disorder. He works at a laboratory loosely based on Cold Spring Harbor. The character reminiscent of McClintock is a reclusive geneticist at the fictional laboratory, who makes the same discoveries as her factual counterpart. Judith Pratt wrote a play about McClintock, called MAIZE, which was read at Artemesia Theatre in Chicago in 2015, and was produced in Ithaca NY, the home of Cornell University, in February–March 2018." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Service history.", "Collier.", "Aircraft carrier.", "Seaplane tender.", "World War II.", "Film appearance.", "Awards and decorations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "President William H. Taft attended the ceremony when \"Jupiter\"s keel was laid down on 18 October 1911 at the Mare Island Naval Shipyard in Vallejo, California. She was launched on 14 August 1912 sponsored by Mrs. Thomas F. Ruhm; and commissioned on 7 April 1913 under Commander Joseph M. Reeves. Her sister ships were, which disappeared without a trace in World War I,, and, which disappeared on the same route as \"Cyclops\" in World War II. After successfully passing her trials as the first turbo-electric-powered ship of the US Navy, \"Jupiter\" embarked a United States Marine Corps detachment at San Francisco, California, and reported to the Pacific Fleet at Mazatlán Mexico on 27 April 1914, bolstering US naval strength on the Mexican Pacific coast in the tense days of the Veracruz crisis. She remained on the Pacific coast until she departed for Philadelphia on 10 October. \"En route\", the collier steamed through the Panama Canal on Columbus Day, the first vessel to transit it from west to east. Prior to America's entry into World War I, she cruised the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico attached to the Atlantic Fleet Auxiliary Division. The ship arrived at Norfolk, Virginia on 6 April 1917, and, assigned to the Naval Overseas Transport Service, interrupted her coaling operations by two cargo voyages to France in June 1917 and November 1918. The first voyage transported a naval aviation detachment of 7 officers and 122 men to England. It was the first US aviation detachment to arrive in Europe and was commanded by Lieutenant Kenneth Whiting, who became \"Langley\" first executive officer five years later. \"Jupiter\" was back in Norfolk on 23 January 1919 whence she sailed for Brest, France on 8 March for coaling duty in European waters to expedite the return of victorious veterans to the United States. Upon reaching Norfolk on 17 August, the ship was transferred to the West Coast. Her conversion to an aircraft carrier was authorized on 11 July 1919, and she sailed to Hampton Roads, Virginia on 12 December, where she decommissioned on 24 March 1920.", "\"Jupiter\" was converted into the first US aircraft carrier at the Norfolk Naval Shipyard, Portsmouth, Virginia. On 11 April 1920, she was renamed \"Langley\" in honor of Samuel Pierpont Langley, an American astronomer, physicist, aeronautics pioneer and aircraft engineer, and she was given the hull number CV-1. By the spring of 1921, memories of World War I were swaying public opinion away from warship construction toward disarmament. Article VIII of the Washington Naval Treaty provided an exemption for experimental aircraft carriers in existence or building on 12 November 1921. The Washington Naval Treaty was signed on 6 February 1922; and \"Langley\" was recommissioned on 20 March 1922 for the purpose of conducting experiments in seaborne aviation. The commanding officer was Commander Kenneth Whiting who had first proposed conversion of a collier to the General Board of the United States Navy three years and twelve days earlier. As the first American aircraft carrier, \"Langley\" was the scene of several seminal events in US naval aviation. On 17 October 1922, Lt. Virgil C. Griffin piloted the first plane—a Vought VE-7—launched from her decks. Though this was not the first time an airplane had taken off from a ship, and though \"Langley\" was not the first ship with an installed flight deck, this one launching was of monumental importance to the modern US Navy. The era of the aircraft carrier was born introducing into the navy what was to become the vanguard of its forces in the future. With \"Langley\" underway nine days later, Lieutenant Commander Godfrey de Courcelles Chevalier made the first landing in an Aeromarine 39B. On 18 November, Commander Whiting was the first aviator to be catapulted from a carrier's deck. An unusual feature of \"Langley\" was provision for a carrier pigeon house on the stern between the 5” guns. Pigeons had been carried aboard seaplanes for message transport since World War I, and were to be carried on aircraft operated from \"Langley\". The pigeons were trained at the Norfolk Naval Shipyard while \"Langley\" was undergoing conversion. As long as the pigeons were released a few at a time for exercise, they returned to the ship; but when the whole flock was released while \"Langley\" was anchored off Tangier Island, the pigeons flew south and roosted in the cranes of the Norfolk shipyard. The pigeons never went to sea again and the former pigeon house became the executive officer's quarters; but the early plans for conversion of \"Lexington\" and \"Saratoga\" included a compartment for pigeons. By 15 January 1923, \"Langley\" had begun flight operations and tests in the Caribbean Sea for carrier landings. In June, she steamed to Washington, D.C., to give a demonstration at a flying exhibition before civil and military dignitaries. She arrived at Norfolk on 13 June, and commenced training along the Atlantic coast and Caribbean which carried her through the end of the year. This publicity cruise stopped at Bar Harbor, Maine, Portland, Maine, Portsmouth, New Hampshire, Gloucester, Massachusetts, Boston and New York City. After entering port and anchoring, \"Langley\" would publish a takeoff and landing schedule so interested civilians might watch. Although the aviators did some formation flying over the cities, people were more interested in watching the shipboard takeoffs and landings. The planes seldom attained flying speed on deck when taking off while the ship was at anchor with little or no wind, but the pilots were confident their Vought VE-7s could reach flying speed during the drop from the flight deck before reaching the water. In 1924, \"Langley\" participated in more maneuvers and exhibitions, and spent the summer at Norfolk for repairs and alterations, she departed for the west coast late in the year and arrived in San Diego, California on 29 November to join the Pacific Battle Fleet. In 1927, \"Langley\" was at the Guantanamo Bay Naval Base. For the next 12 years, she operated off the California coast and Hawaii engaged in training fleet units, experimentation, pilot training, and tactical-fleet problems. \"Langley\" was featured in the 1929 silent film about naval aviation \"The Flying Fleet.\"", "On 25 October 1936, she put into Mare Island Navy Yard, California for overhaul and conversion to a seaplane tender. Though her career as a carrier had ended, her well-trained pilots had proved invaluable to the next two carriers, \"Lexington\" and \"Saratoga\" (commissioned on 14 December and 16 November 1927, respectively). \"Langley\" completed conversion on 26 February 1937 and was assigned hull number AV-3 on 11 April. She was assigned to the Aircraft Scouting Force and commenced her tending operations out of Seattle, Washington, Sitka, Alaska, Pearl Harbor, and San Diego, California. She departed for a brief deployment with the Atlantic Fleet from 1 February-10 July 1939, and then steamed to assume duties with the Asiatic Fleet at Manila arriving on 24 September.", "On the entry of the US into World War II, \"Langley\" was anchored off Cavite, Philippines. On 8 December, following the invasion of the Philippines by Japan, she departed Cavite for Balikpapan in the Dutch East Indies. As the Japanese advance continued, \"Langley\" proceeded to Australia, arriving in Darwin on 1 January 1942. She then became part of the American-British-Dutch-Australian Command (ABDACOM) naval forces. Until 11 January, \"Langley\" assisted the Royal Australian Air Force in running anti-submarine patrols out of Darwin. \"Langley\" went to Fremantle to pick up a cargo of 32 P-40 fighters of the Far East Air Force's 13th Pursuit Squadron (Provisional), along with U.S. Army Air Force (USAAF) pilots and ground crews. At Fremantle, \"Langley\" and the cargo ship (loaded with an additional 27 unassembled and crated P-40s), joined Convoy MS.5 which had just arrived from Melbourne bound for Colombo, Ceylon with troops and supplies eventually destined for India and Burma. The convoy was composed of the United States Army Transport and the Australian troop transports and, escorted by the light cruiser USS. MS.5 departed Fremantle on 22 February. En route to Colombo, \"Langley\" and \"Sea Witch\" were directed by ABDACOM to leave the convoy and instead proceed individually to deliver the planes to Tjilatjap, Java. In the early hours of 27 February, \"Langley\" rendezvoused with the destroyers and, which had been sent from Tjilatjap to escort her. Later that morning, a Japanese reconnaissance aircraft located the formation. At 11:40, about south of Tjilatjap, the seaplane tender, along with \"Edsall\" and \"Whipple\" were attacked by sixteen (16) Mitsubishi G4M \"Betty\" bombers of the Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service's Takao Kōkūtai, led by Lieutenant Jiro Adachi, flying out of Denpasar airfield on Bali, and escorted by fifteen (15) A6M Reisen fighters. Rather than dropping all their bombs at once, the Japanese bombers attacked releasing partial salvos. Since they were level bombing from medium altitude, \"Langley\" was able to alter helm when the bombs were released and evade the first and second bombing passes, but the bombers changed their tactics on the third pass and bracketed all the directions \"Langley\" could turn. As a result, \"Langley\" took five hits from a mix of bombs as well as three near misses, with 16 crewmen killed. The topside burst into flames, steering was impaired, and the ship developed a 10° list to port. \"Langley\" went dead in the water as her engine room flooded. At 13:32, the order to abandon ship was passed. After taking off the surviving crew and passengers (\"Whipple\" rescued 308 men and \"Edsall\" 177 survivors) at 13:58, the escorting destroyers stood off and began firing nine shells and two torpedoes into \"Langley\" hull at 14:29 to prevent her from falling into enemy hands, scuttling her at approximately 8°51'04.2\"S 109°02'02.6\"E After being transferred to the oiler, many of \"Langley\"'s crew were lost when \"Pecos\" was sunk en route to Australia by Japanese carrier aircraft. Thirty-one of the thirty-three pilots assigned to the USAAF 13th Pursuit Squadron (Provisional) being transported by \"Langley\" remained on \"Edsall\" to be brought to Tjilatjap, but were lost when she was sunk on the same day by Japanese warships while responding to the distress calls of \"Pecos\".", "\"Langley\" appears in several scenes of \"The Flying Fleet\", a 1929 silent film about naval aviators.", "The USS \"Langley\" (as AV-3) earned two battle stars on its Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Streamer: One for the Philippine Islands Operation, 8 December 1941 – 6 May 1942; and one for Netherlands East Indies Engagements, 23 January – 27 February 1942." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Algorithm.", "Encoding.", "Decoding.", "Variable-width codes.", "Packing order.", "Example.", "Encoding.", "Decoding.", "Further coding.", "Uses.", "Patents." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The scenario described by Welch's 1984 paper encodes sequences of 8-bit data as fixed-length 12-bit codes. The codes from 0 to 255 represent 1-character sequences consisting of the corresponding 8-bit character, and the codes 256 through 4095 are created in a dictionary for sequences encountered in the data as it is encoded. At each stage in compression, input bytes are gathered into a sequence until the next character would make a sequence with no code yet in the dictionary. The code for the sequence (without that character) is added to the output, and a new code (for the sequence with that character) is added to the dictionary. The idea was quickly adapted to other situations. In an image based on a color table, for example, the natural character alphabet is the set of color table indexes, and in the 1980s, many images had small color tables (on the order of 16 colors). For such a reduced alphabet, the full 12-bit codes yielded poor compression unless the image was large, so the idea of a variable-width code was introduced: codes typically start one bit wider than the symbols being encoded, and as each code size is used up, the code width increases by 1 bit, up to some prescribed maximum (typically 12 bits). When the maximum code value is reached, encoding proceeds using the existing table, but new codes are not generated for addition to the table. Further refinements include reserving a code to indicate that the code table should be cleared and restored to its initial state (a \"clear code\", typically the first value immediately after the values for the individual alphabet characters), and a code to indicate the end of data (a \"stop code\", typically one greater than the clear code). The clear code lets the table be reinitialized after it fills up, which lets the encoding adapt to changing patterns in the input data. Smart encoders can monitor the compression efficiency and clear the table whenever the existing table no longer matches the input well. Since codes are added in a manner determined by the data, the decoder mimics building the table as it sees the resulting codes. It is critical that the encoder and decoder agree on the variety of LZW used: the size of the alphabet, the maximum table size (and code width), whether variable-width encoding is used, initial code size, and whether to use the clear and stop codes (and what values they have). Most formats that employ LZW build this information into the format specification or provide explicit fields for them in a compression header for the data.", "A high level view of the encoding algorithm is shown here: A dictionary is initialized to contain the single-character strings corresponding to all the possible input characters (and nothing else except the clear and stop codes if they're being used). The algorithm works by scanning through the input string for successively longer substrings until it finds one that is not in the dictionary. When such a string is found, the index for the string without the last character (i.e., the longest substring that \"is\" in the dictionary) is retrieved from the dictionary and sent to output, and the new string (including the last character) is added to the dictionary with the next available code. The last input character is then used as the next starting point to scan for substrings. In this way, successively longer strings are registered in the dictionary and available for subsequent encoding as single output values. The algorithm works best on data with repeated patterns, so the initial parts of a message see little compression. As the message grows, however, the compression ratio tends asymptotically to the maximum (i.e., the compression factor or ratio improves on an increasing curve, and not linearly, approaching a theoretical maximum inside a limited time period rather than over infinite time).", "The decoding algorithm works by reading a value from the encoded input and outputting the corresponding string from the initialized dictionary. To rebuild the dictionary in the same way as it was built during encoding, it also obtains the next value from the input and adds to the dictionary the concatenation of the current string and the first character of the string obtained by decoding the next input value, or the first character of the string just output if the next value can not be decoded (If the next value is unknown to the decoder, then it must be the value added to the dictionary this iteration, and so its first character must be the same as the first character of the current string being sent to decoded output). The decoder then proceeds to the next input value (which was already read in as the \"next value\" in the previous pass) and repeats the process until there is no more input, at which point the final input value is decoded without any more additions to the dictionary. In this way, the decoder builds a dictionary that is identical to that used by the encoder, and uses it to decode subsequent input values. Thus, the full dictionary does not need to be sent with the encoded data. Just the initial dictionary that contains the single-character strings is sufficient (and is typically defined beforehand within the encoder and decoder rather than explicitly sent with the encoded data.)", "If variable-width codes are being used, the encoder and decoder must be careful to change the width at the same points in the encoded data so they don't disagree on boundaries between individual codes in the stream. In the standard version, the encoder increases the width from \"p\" to \"p\" + 1 when a sequence ω + \"s\" is encountered that is not in the table (so that a code must be added for it) but the next available code in the table is 2 (the first code requiring \"p\" + 1 bits). The encoder emits the code for ω at width \"p\" (since that code does not require \"p\" + 1 bits), and then increases the code width so that the next code emitted is \"p\" + 1 bits wide. The decoder is always one code behind the encoder in building the table, so when it sees the code for ω, it generates an entry for code 2 − 1. Since this is the point where the encoder increases the code width, the decoder must increase the width here as well—at the point where it generates the largest code that fits in \"p\" bits. Unfortunately, some early implementations of the encoding algorithm increase the code width and \"then\" emit ω at the new width instead of the old width, so that to the decoder it looks like the width changes one code too early. This is called \"early change\"; it caused so much confusion that Adobe now allows both versions in PDF files, but includes an explicit flag in the header of each LZW-compressed stream to indicate whether early change is being used. Of the graphics file formats that support LZW compression, TIFF uses early change, while GIF and most others don't. When the table is cleared in response to a clear code, both encoder and decoder change the code width after the clear code back to the initial code width, starting with the code immediately following the clear code.", "Since the codes emitted typically do not fall on byte boundaries, the encoder and decoder must agree on how codes are packed into bytes. The two common methods are \"LSB-first\" (\"least significant bit first\") and \"MSB-first\" (\"most significant bit first\"). In LSB-first packing, the first code is aligned so that the least significant bit of the code falls in the least significant bit of the first stream byte, and if the code has more than 8 bits, the high-order bits left over are aligned with the least significant bits of the next byte; further codes are packed with LSB going into the least significant bit not yet used in the current stream byte, proceeding into further bytes as necessary. MSB-first packing aligns the first code so that its \"most\" significant bit falls in the MSB of the first stream byte, with overflow aligned with the MSB of the next byte; further codes are written with MSB going into the most significant bit not yet used in the current stream byte. GIF files use LSB-first packing order. TIFF files and PDF files use MSB-first packing order.", "The following example illustrates the LZW algorithm in action, showing the status of the output and the dictionary at every stage, both in encoding and decoding the data. This example has been constructed to give reasonable compression on a very short message. In real text data, repetition is generally less pronounced, so longer input streams are typically necessary before the compression builds up efficiency. The plaintext to be encoded (from an alphabet using only the capital letters) is: The # is a marker used to show that the end of the message has been reached. There are thus 26 symbols in the plaintext alphabet (the 26 capital letters \"A\" through \"Z\"), and the \"#\" character represents a stop code. We arbitrarily assign these the values 1 through 26 for the letters, and 0 for '#'. (Most flavors of LZW would put the stop code \"after\" the data alphabet, but nothing in the basic algorithm requires that. The encoder and decoder only have to agree what value it has.) A computer renders these as strings of bits. Five-bit codes are needed to give sufficient combinations to encompass this set of 27 values. The dictionary is initialized with these 27 values. As the dictionary grows, the codes must grow in width to accommodate the additional entries. A 5-bit code gives 2 = 32 possible combinations of bits, so when the 33rd dictionary word is created, the algorithm must switch at that point from 5-bit strings to 6-bit strings (for \"all\" code values, including those previously output with only five bits). Note that since the all-zero code 00000 is used, and is labeled \"0\", the 33rd dictionary entry is labeled 32. (Previously generated output is not affected by the code-width change, but once a 6-bit value is generated in the dictionary, it could conceivably be the next code emitted, so the width for subsequent output shifts to 6 bits to accommodate that.) The initial dictionary, then, consists of the following entries:", "Buffer input characters in a sequence ω until ω + next character is not in the dictionary. Emit the code for ω, and add ω + next character to the dictionary. Start buffering again with the next character. (The string to be encoded is \"TOBEORNOTTOBEORTOBEORNOT#\".) Using LZW has saved 29 bits out of 125, reducing the message by more than 23%. If the message were longer, then the dictionary words would begin to represent longer and longer sections of text, sending repeated words very compactly.", "To decode an LZW-compressed archive, one needs to know in advance the initial dictionary used, but additional entries can be reconstructed as they are always simply concatenations of previous entries. At each stage, the decoder receives a code X; it looks X up in the table and outputs the sequence χ it codes, and it conjectures χ +? as the entry the encoder just added – because the encoder emitted X for χ precisely because χ +? was not in the table, and the encoder goes ahead and adds it. But what is the missing letter? It is the first letter in the sequence coded by the \"next\" code Z that the decoder receives. So the decoder looks up Z, decodes it into the sequence ω and takes the first letter z and tacks it onto the end of χ as the next dictionary entry. This works as long as the codes received are in the decoder's dictionary, so that they can be decoded into sequences. What happens if the decoder receives a code Z that is not yet in its dictionary? Since the decoder is always just one code behind the encoder, Z can be in the encoder's dictionary only if the encoder \"just\" generated it, when emitting the previous code X for χ. Thus Z codes some ω that is χ +?, and the decoder can determine the unknown character as follows: This situation occurs whenever the encoder encounters input of the form \"cScSc\", where \"c\" is a single character, \"S\" is a string and \"cS\" is already in the dictionary, but \"cSc\" is not. The encoder emits the code for \"cS\", putting a new code for \"cSc\" into the dictionary. Next it sees \"cSc\" in the input (starting at the second \"c\" of \"cScSc\") and emits the new code it just inserted. The argument above shows that whenever the decoder receives a code not in its dictionary, the situation must look like this. Although input of form \"cScSc\" might seem unlikely, this pattern is fairly common when the input stream is characterized by significant repetition. In particular, long strings of a single character (which are common in the kinds of images LZW is often used to encode) repeatedly generate patterns of this sort.", "The simple scheme described above focuses on the LZW algorithm itself. Many applications apply further encoding to the sequence of output symbols. Some package the coded stream as printable characters using some form of binary-to-text encoding; this increases the encoded length and decreases the compression rate. Conversely, increased compression can often be achieved with an \"adaptive entropy encoder\". Such a coder estimates the probability distribution for the value of the next symbol, based on the observed frequencies of values so far. A standard entropy encoding such as Huffman coding or arithmetic coding then uses shorter codes for values with higher probabilities.", "LZW compression became the first widely used universal data compression method on computers. A large English text file can typically be compressed via LZW to about half its original size. LZW was used in the public-domain program compress, which became a more or less standard utility in Unix systems around 1986. It has since disappeared from many distributions, both because it infringed the LZW patent and because gzip produced better compression ratios using the LZ77-based DEFLATE algorithm, but as of 2008 at least FreeBSD includes both compress and uncompress as a part of the distribution. Several other popular compression utilities also used LZW or closely related methods. LZW became very widely used when it became part of the GIF image format in 1987. It may also (optionally) be used in TIFF and PDF files. (Although LZW is available in Adobe Acrobat software, Acrobat by default uses DEFLATE for most text and color-table-based image data in PDF files.)", "Various patents have been issued in the United States and other countries for LZW and similar algorithms. LZ78 was covered by by Lempel, Ziv, Cohn, and Eastman, assigned to Sperry Corporation, later Unisys Corporation, filed on August 10, 1981. Two US patents were issued for the LZW algorithm: by Victor S. Miller and Mark N. Wegman and assigned to IBM, originally filed on June 1, 1983, and by Welch, assigned to Sperry Corporation, later Unisys Corporation, filed on June 20, 1983. In addition to the above patents, Welch's 1983 patent also includes citations to several other patents that influenced it, including two 1980 Japanese patents (JP9343880A and JP17790880A) from NEC's Jun Kanatsu, (1974) from John S. Hoerning, (1977) from Klaus E. Holtz, and a 1981 German patent (DE19813118676) from Karl Eckhart Heinz. In 1993–94, and again in 1999, Unisys Corporation received widespread condemnation when it attempted to enforce licensing fees for LZW in GIF images. The 1993–1994 Unisys-Compuserve (Compuserve being the creator of the GIF format) controversy engendered a Usenet comp.graphics discussion \"Thoughts on a GIF-replacement file format\", which in turn fostered an email exchange that eventually culminated in the creation of the patent-unencumbered Portable Network Graphics (PNG) file format in 1995. Unisys's US patent on the LZW algorithm expired on June 20, 2003, 20 years after it had been filed. Patents that had been filed in the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Italy, Japan and Canada all expired in 2004, likewise 20 years after they had been filed." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Design and development.", "Operational history.", "Planned use.", "Survivors." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "In October 1916, Commodore Murray Sueter, the Air Department's Superintendent of Aircraft Construction, solicited Sopwith for a single-seat aircraft capable of carrying a 1,000 lb torpedo and sufficient fuel to provide an endurance of four hours. The resulting aircraft, designated T.1 by Sopwith, was a large, three-bay biplane. Because the T.1 was designed to operate from carrier decks, its wings were hinged to fold backwards. The T.1 could take off from a carrier deck in four seconds, but it was not capable of making a carrier landing and no arresting gear was fitted. A split-axle undercarriage allowed the aircraft to carry a 1,000 lb Mk. IX torpedo beneath the fuselage. The prototype T.1 first flew in June 1917, powered by a 200 hp Hispano-Suiza 8Ba engine. Official trials commenced in July 1917 and the Admiralty issued production orders for 100 aircraft in August. Contractors Fairfield Engineering and Pegler & Company had no experience as aircraft manufacturers, however, resulting in substantial production delays. Moreover, the S.E.5a had priority for the limited supplies of the Hispano-Suiza 8. Redesign of the T.1 airframe to accommodate the heavier Sunbeam Arab incurred further delays. In February 1918, the Admiralty issued a production order to Blackburn Aircraft, an experienced aircraft manufacturer. Blackburn delivered its first T.1 in May 1918. The aircraft immediately experienced undercarriage and tailskid failures, requiring redesign of those components. The T.1 also required an enlarged rudder and offset vertical stabilizer to combat its tendency to swing to the right. Fairfield and Pegler finally began production in August and October, respectively. A total of 300 T.1s were ordered, but only 90 aircraft had been delivered by the Armistice. A total of 232 aircraft had been completed by the time production ended in 1919. Blackburn Aircraft produced 162 aircraft, while Fairfield Engineering completed 50 and Pegler & Company completed another 20. After the Armistice, many T.1s were delivered directly to storage depots at Renfrew and Newcastle.", "After undergoing service trials at RAF East Fortune, the T.1 was recommended for squadron service. Deliveries to the Torpedo Aeroplane School at East Fortune commenced in early August 1918. Training took place in the Firth of Forth, where Cuckoos launched practice torpedoes at targets towed by destroyers. Cuckoos of No. 185 Squadron embarked on HMS \"Argus\" in November 1918, but hostilities ended before the aircraft could conduct any combat operations. In service, the aircraft was generally popular with pilots because the airframe was strong and water landings were safe. The T.1 was easy to control and was fully aerobatic without a torpedo payload. The Arab engine proved unsatisfactory, however, and approximately 20 T.1s were converted to use Wolseley Viper engines. These aircraft, later designated Cuckoo Mk. IIs, could be distinguished by the Viper's lower thrust line. The Arab-engined variant was designated Cuckoo Mk. I. The Cuckoo's operational career ended when the last unit to use the type, No. 210 Squadron, disbanded at Gosport on 1 April 1923. The Cuckoo was replaced in service by the Blackburn Dart.", "Throughout 1917, Commodore Sueter proposed plans for an aerial torpedo attack on the German High Seas Fleet at its base in Germany. The carriers,, and HMS \"Campania\", and the converted cruisers HMS \"Courageous\" and HMS \"Glorious\", we're to have launched 100 Cuckoos from the North Sea. In September 1917, Admiral Sir David Beatty, commander of the Grand Fleet, proposed a similar plan involving 120 Cuckoos launched from eight converted merchant vessels.", "Today, no complete Cuckoo airframe survives, but a set of Cuckoo Mk. I wings are preserved at the National Museum of Flight in Scotland." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Mission, vision, and functions.", "Missions.", "Core missions.", "Air superiority.", "Global integrated ISR.", "Rapid global mobility.", "Global strike.", "Command and control.", "History.", "Antecedents.", "21st century.", "Conflicts.", "Humanitarian operations.", "Organization.", "Administrative organization.", "Air Force structure and organization.", "Operational organization.", "Air Expeditionary Task Force.", "Commander, Air Force Forces.", "Air Operations Center.", "Air Expeditionary Wings/Groups/Squadrons.", "Personnel.", "Aircraft inventory.", "A – Attack.", "B – Bombers.", "C – Transport.", "E – Special Electronic.", "F – Fighter.", "H – Search and rescue.", "K – Tanker.", "M – Multi-mission.", "O – Observation.", "R – Reconnaissance.", "T – Trainer.", "TG – Trainer gliders.", "U – Utility.", "V – VIP staff transport.", "W – Weather reconnaissance.", "Culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "According to the National Security Act of 1947 (61 \"Stat\". 502), which", "The five core missions of the Air Force have not changed dramatically since the Air Force became independent in 1947, but they have evolved, and are now articulated as air superiority, global integrated intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance, rapid global mobility, global strike, and command and control. The purpose of all of these core missions is to provide, what the Air Force states as, global vigilance, global reach, and global power.", "Air superiority is \"that degree of dominance in the air battle of one force over another which permits the conduct of operations by the former and its related land, sea, air, and special operations forces at a given time and place without prohibitive interference by the opposing force\" (JP 1-02). Offensive Counterair (OCA) is defined as \"offensive operations to destroy, disrupt, or neutralize enemy aircraft, missiles, launch platforms, and their supporting structures and systems both before and after launch, but as close to their source as possible\" (JP 1-02). OCA is the preferred method of countering air and missile threats since it attempts to defeat the enemy closer to its source and typically enjoys the initiative. OCA comprises attack operations, sweep, escort, and suppression/destruction of enemy air defense. Defensive Counter air (DCA) is defined as \"all the defensive measures designed to detect,", "Global integrated intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance (ISR) is the synchronization and integration of the planning and operation of sensors, assets, and processing, exploitation, dissemination systems across the globe to conduct current and future operations. Planning and directing is \"the determination of intelligence requirements, development of appropriate intelligence architecture, preparation of a collection plan, and issuance of orders and requests to information collection agencies\" (JP 2-01, Joint and National Intelligence Support to Military Operations). These activities enable the synchronization and integration of collection, processing, exploitation, analysis, and dissemination activities/resources to meet information requirements of national and military decision makers. Collection is \"the acquisition of information and the provision of this information to processing elements\" (JP 2-01). It provides the ability to obtain", "Rapid global mobility is the timely deployment, employment, sustainment, augmentation, and redeployment of military forces and capabilities across the ROMO. It provides joint military forces the capability to move from place to place while retaining the ability to fulfill their primary mission. Rapid Global Mobility is essential to virtually every military operation, allowing forces to reach foreign or domestic destinations quickly, thus seizing the initiative through speed and surprise. Airlift is \"operations to transport and deliver forces and materiel through the air in support of strategic, operational, or tactical objectives\" (Annex 3–17, Air Mobility Operations). The rapid and flexible options afforded by airlift allow military forces and national leaders the ability to respond and operate in a variety of situations and", "Global precision attack is the ability to hold at risk or strike rapidly and persistently, with a wide range of munitions, any target and to create swift, decisive, and precise effects across multiple domains. Strategic attack is defined as \"offensive action specifically selected to achieve national strategic objectives. These attacks seek to weaken the adversary's ability or will to engage in conflict, and may achieve strategic objectives without necessarily having to achieve operational objectives as a precondition\" (Annex 3–70, Strategic Attack). Air Interdiction is defined as \"air operations conducted to divert, disrupt, delay, or destroy the enemy's military potential before it can be brought to bear effectively against friendly forces, or to otherwise achieve JFC objectives. Air Interdiction is conducted at such distance from", "Command and control is \"the exercise of authority and direction by a properly designated commander over assigned and attached forces in the accomplishment of the mission. Command and control functions are performed through an arrangement of personnel, equipment, communications, facilities, and procedures employed by a commander in planning, directing, coordinating, and controlling forces and operations in the accomplishment of the mission\" (JP 1-02). This core function includes all of the C2-related capabilities and activities associated with air, cyberspace, nuclear, and agile combat support operations to achieve strategic, operational, and tactical objectives. At the strategic level command and control, the US determines national", "The U.S. War Department created the first antecedent of the U.S. Air Force, as a part of the U.S. Army, on 1 August 1907, which through a succession of changes of organization, titles, and missions advanced toward eventual independence 40 years later. In World War II, almost 68,000 U.S. airmen died helping to win the war, with only the infantry suffering more casualties. In practice, the U.S. Army Air Forces (USAAF) was virtually independent of the Army during World War II, and in virtually all ways functioned as an independent service branch, but airmen still pressed for formal independence. The National Security Act of 1947 was signed on 26 July 1947 by President Harry S. Truman, which established the Department of the Air Force, but it was not until 18 September 1947, when the first secretary of the Air Force, W. Stuart Symington, was sworn into office that the Air Force was officially formed as an independent service branch. The act created the \"National Military Establishment\" (renamed Department of Defense in 1949), which was composed of three subordinate Military Departments, namely the Department of the Army, the Department of the Navy, and the newly created Department of the Air Force. Prior to 1947, the responsibility for military aviation was shared between the Army Air Forces and its predecessor organizations (for land-based operations), the Navy (for sea-based operations from aircraft carriers and amphibious aircraft), and the Marine Corps (for close air support of Marine Corps operations). The 1940s proved to be important for military aviation in other ways as well. In 1947, Air Force Captain Chuck Yeager broke the sound barrier in his X-1 rocket-powered aircraft, beginning a new era of aeronautics in America.", "The predecessor organizations in", "During the early 2000s, two USAF aircraft procurement projects took longer than expected, the KC-X and F-35 programs. As a result, the USAF was setting new records for average aircraft age. Since 2005, the USAF has placed a strong focus on the improvement of Basic Military Training (BMT) for enlisted personnel. While the intense training has become longer, it also has shifted to include a deployment phase. This deployment phase, now called the BEAST, places the trainees in a simulated combat", "The United States Air Force has been involved in many wars, conflicts and operations using military air operations. The USAF possesses the lineage and heritage of its predecessor organizations, which played a", "The USAF has also taken part in numerous", "", "The Department of the Air Force is one of three military departments within the Department of Defense, and is managed by the civilian Secretary of the Air Force, under the authority, direction, and control of the Secretary of Defense. The senior officials in the Office of the Secretary are the Under Secretary of the Air Force, four Assistant Secretaries of the Air Force and the General Counsel, all of whom are appointed by the President with the advice", "Headquarters, United States Air Force (HQ USAF): The major components of the U.S. Air Force, as of 28", "The organizational structure as shown above is responsible for the peacetime organization, equipping, and training of air units for operational missions. When required to support operational missions, the Secretary of Defense (SECDEF) directs the Secretary of the Air Force (SECAF) to execute a Change in Operational Control (CHOP) of these units from their administrative alignment to the operational command of a Regional Combatant commander (CCDR). In the case of AFSPC, AFSOC, PACAF, and USAFE units, forces are normally employed in-place under their existing CCDR. Likewise, AMC forces operating in support roles retain their componency to USTRANSCOM unless chopped to a Regional CCDR.", "\"Chopped\" units are referred to as \"forces\". The top-level structure of these forces is the Air Expeditionary Task Force (AETF). The AETF is the Air Force presentation of forces to a CCDR for the employment of Air Power. Each CCDR is supported by a standing Component Numbered Air Force (C-NAF) to provide planning and execution of", "The Commander, Air Force Forces (COMAFFOR) is the senior USAF officer responsible for the employment of air power in support", "The Air Operations Center (AOC) is the JFACC's Command and Control (C2) center. Several AOCs have", "The AETF generates air power to support CCMD objectives from Air Expeditionary Wings (AEW) or Air Expeditionary Groups (AEG). These units are responsible for receiving combat forces from Air Force MAJCOMs, preparing these forces for operational missions, launching and recovering these forces, and eventually returning forces to the MAJCOMs. Theater Air Control Systems control employment of forces during these missions.", "The classification of any USAF job for officers or enlisted airmen is the Air Force Specialty Code (AFSC). AFSCs range from officer specialties such as pilot, combat systems officer, special tactics, nuclear and missile operations, intelligence, cyberspace operations, judge advocate general (JAG), medical doctor, nurse or other fields, to various enlisted specialties. The latter range from flight combat operations such as loadmaster, to working in a dining facility to ensure that Airmen are properly fed. There are additional occupational fields such as computer specialties, mechanic specialties, enlisted aircrew, communication systems, cyberspace operations, avionics technicians, medical specialties, civil engineering, public affairs, hospitality, law, drug counseling, mail operations, security forces, and search and rescue specialties. Beyond combat flight crew personnel, other combat USAF AFSCs are Special Tactics Officer, Explosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD), Combat Rescue Officer, Pararescue, Security Forces, Combat Control, Combat Weather, Tactical Air Control Party, Special Operations Weather Technician, and AFOSI agents. Nearly all enlisted career fields are \"entry level\", meaning that the USAF provides all training. Some enlistees are able to choose a particular field, or at least a field before actually joining, while others are assigned an AFSC at Basic Military Training (BMT). After BMT, new enlisted airmen attend a technical training school where they learn their particular AFSC. Second Air Force, a part of Air Education and Training Command, is responsible for nearly all enlisted technical training. Training programs vary in length; for example, 3M0X1 (Services) has 31 days of tech school training, while 3E8X1 (Explosive Ordnance Disposal) is one year of training with a preliminary school and a main school consisting of over 10 separate divisions, sometimes taking students close to two years to complete. Officer technical training conducted by Second Air Force can also vary by AFSC, while flight training for aeronautically-rated officers conducted by AETC's Nineteenth Air Force can last well in excess of one year. USAF rank is divided between enlisted airmen, non-commissioned officers, and commissioned officers, and ranges from the enlisted Airman Basic (E-1) to the commissioned officer rank of General (O-10), however in times of war officers may be appointed to the higher grade of General of the Air Force. Enlisted promotions are granted based on a combination of test scores, years of experience, and selection board approval while officer promotions are based on time-in-grade and a promotion selection board. Promotions among enlisted personnel and non-commissioned officers are generally designated by increasing numbers of insignia chevrons. Commissioned officer rank is designated by bars, oak leaves, a silver eagle, and anywhere from one to five stars. General of the Air Force Henry \"Hap\" Arnold is the only individual in the history of the US Air Force to attain the rank of five-star general.", "The U.S. Air Force has over 5,638 aircraft in service as of September 2012. Until 1962, the Army and Air Force maintained one system of aircraft naming, while the U.S. Navy maintained a separate system. In 1962, these were unified into a single system heavily reflecting the Army/Air Force method. For more complete information on the workings of this system, refer to United States Department of Defense aerospace vehicle designation. The various aircraft of the Air Force include:", "The attack aircraft of the USAF are designed to attack targets on the ground and are often deployed as close air support for, and in proximity to, U.S. ground forces. The proximity to friendly forces require precision strikes from these aircraft that are not", "US Air Force bombers are strategic weapons, primarily used for long range strike missions with either conventional or nuclear ordnance. Traditionally used for attacking strategic targets, today many bombers are also used in the tactical mission, such as providing close air support for ground forces and tactical interdiction missions. All Air Force bombers are under Global Strike Command. The service's B-2A", "Transport aircraft are typically used to deliver troops, weapons and other military equipment by a variety of methods to any area of military operations around the world, usually outside of the commercial flight routes in uncontrolled airspace. The workhorses of the USAF airlift forces are the C-130 Hercules, C-17 Globemaster III, and C-5 Galaxy. The CV-22 is used by the Air Force for special operations. It", "The purpose of electronic warfare is to deny the opponent an advantage in the EMS and ensure friendly, unimpeded access to the EM spectrum portion of the information environment. Electronic warfare aircraft are used to keep airspaces friendly,", "The fighter aircraft of the USAF are small, fast, and maneuverable military aircraft primarily used for air-to-air combat. Many of these fighters have secondary ground-attack capabilities, and some are dual-roled as fighter-bombers (e.g., the F-16 Fighting Falcon); the term \"fighter\" is also sometimes used colloquially for dedicated ground-attack aircraft, such as the F-117 Nighthawk. Other missions include", "These aircraft are used for search and rescue and combat search and rescue on land or sea. The HC-130N/P aircraft are being replaced", "The USAF's KC-135 and KC-10 aerial refueling aircraft are based on civilian jets. The USAF aircraft are equipped primarily for providing the fuel via a tail-mounted refueling boom, and can be equipped with \"probe and drogue\" refueling systems.", "Specialized multi-mission aircraft provide support for global special operations missions. These aircraft conduct infiltration, exfiltration, resupply, and refueling for SOF teams from improvised or otherwise short runways. The MC-130J is currently being fielded to replace \"H\" and \"P\"", "These aircraft are modified to observe (through visual or other means) and report tactical information concerning composition and", "The reconnaissance aircraft of the USAF are used for monitoring enemy activity, originally carrying no armament. Although the U-2 is designated as a 'utility' aircraft, it is a reconnaissance platform. The roles of the aircraft vary greatly among the different", "The Air Force's trainer aircraft are used to", "Several gliders are used by the USAF,", "Utility aircraft are used basically for what they are needed for at the time. For example, a Huey", "These aircraft are used for the transportation of Very Important Persons (VIPs). Notable people", "These aircraft are used to", "The culture of the United States Air Force is primarily driven by pilots, at first those piloting bombers (driven originally by the Bomber Mafia), followed by fighters (Fighter Mafia). In response to a 2007 United States Air Force nuclear weapons incident, Secretary of Defense Robert Gates accepted in June 2009 the resignations of Secretary of the Air Force Michael Wynne and the Chief of Staff of the Air Force General T. Michael Moseley. Moseley's successor, General Norton A. Schwartz, a former airlift and special operations pilot was the first officer appointed to that position who did not have a background as a fighter or bomber pilot. The Washington Post reported in 2010 that General Schwartz began to dismantle the rigid class system of the USAF, particularly in the officer corps. In 2014, following morale and testing/cheating scandals in the Air Force's missile launch officer community, Secretary of the Air Force Deborah Lee James admitted that there remained a \"systemic problem\" in the USAF's management of the nuclear mission. Daniel L. Magruder, Jr. defines USAF culture as a combination of the rigorous application of advanced technology, individualism and progressive airpower theory. Major General Charles J. Dunlap, Jr. adds that the U.S. Air Force's culture also includes an egalitarianism bred from officers perceiving themselves as their service's principal \"warriors\" working with small groups of enlisted airmen either as the service crew or the onboard crew of their aircraft. Air Force officers have never felt they needed the formal social \"distance\" from their enlisted force that is common in the other U.S. armed services. Although the paradigm is changing, for most of its history, the Air Force, completely unlike its sister services, has been an organization in which mostly its officers fought, not its enlisted force, the latter being primarily a rear echelon support force. When the enlisted force did go into harm's way, such as crew members of multi-crewed aircraft, the close comradeship of shared risk in tight quarters created traditions that shaped a somewhat different kind of officer/enlisted relationship than exists elsewhere in the military. Cultural and career issues in the U.S. Air Force have been cited as one of the reasons for the shortfall in needed UAV operators. In spite of demand for UAVs or drones to provide round the clock coverage for American troops during the Iraq War, the USAF did not establish a new career field for piloting them until the last year of that war and in 2014 changed its RPA training syllabus again, in the face of large aircraft losses in training, and in response to a GAO report critical of handling of drone programs. Paul Scharre has reported that the cultural divide between the USAF and US Army has kept both services from adopting each other's drone handing innovations. Many of the U.S. Air Force's formal and informal traditions are an amalgamation of those taken from the Royal Air Force (e.g., dining-ins/mess nights) or the experiences of its predecessor organizations such as the U.S. Army Air Service, U.S. Army Air Corps and the U.S. Army Air Forces. Some of these traditions range from \"Friday Name Tags\" in flying units to an annual \"Mustache Month\". The use of \"challenge coins\" dates back to World War I when a member of one of the aero squadrons bought his entire unit medallions with their emblem, while another cultural tradition unique to the Air Force is the \"roof stomp\", practiced by Airmen to welcome a new commander or to commemorate another event, such as a retirement." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Standardization.", "Design.", "Advantages.", "Design examples.", "Synthesizable constructs and VHDL templates.", "MUX template.", "Latch template.", "D-type flip-flops.", "Example: a counter.", "Simulation-only constructs.", "VHDL simulators." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "In 1983, VHDL was originally developed at the behest of the U.S. Department of Defense in order to document the behavior of the ASICs that supplier companies were including in equipment. The standard MIL-STD-454N in Requirement 64 in section 4.5.1 \"ASIC documentation in VHDL\" explicitly requires documentation of \"Microelectronic Devices\" in VHDL. The idea of being able to simulate the ASICs from the information in this documentation was so obviously attractive that logic simulators were developed that could read the VHDL files. The next step was the development of logic synthesis tools that read the VHDL and output a definition of the physical implementation of the circuit. Due to the Department of Defense requiring as much of the syntax as possible to be based on Ada, in order to avoid re-inventing concepts that had already been thoroughly tested in the development of Ada, VHDL borrows heavily from the Ada programming language in both concepts and syntax. The initial version of VHDL, designed to IEEE standard IEEE 1076-1987, included a wide range of data types, including numerical (integer and real), logical (bit and boolean), character and time, plus arrays of codice_1 called codice_2 and of codice_3 called string. A problem not solved by this edition, however, was \"multi-valued logic\", where a signal's drive strength (none, weak or strong) and unknown values are also considered. This required IEEE standard 1164, which defined the 9-value logic types: scalar codice_4 and its vector version codice_5. Being a resolved subtype of its codice_6 parent type, codice_4-typed signals allow multiple driving for modeling bus structures, whereby the connected resolution function handles conflicting assignments adequately. The updated IEEE 1076, in 1993, made the syntax more consistent, allowed more flexibility in naming, extended the codice_3 type to allow ISO-8859-1 printable characters, added the codice_9 operator, etc. Minor changes in the standard (2000 and 2002) added the idea of protected types (similar to the concept of class in C++) and removed some restrictions from port mapping rules. In addition to IEEE standard 1164, several child standards were introduced to extend functionality of the language. IEEE standard 1076.2 added better handling of real and complex data types. IEEE standard 1076.3 introduced signed and unsigned types to facilitate arithmetical operations on vectors. IEEE standard 1076.1 (known as VHDL-AMS) provided analog and mixed-signal circuit design extensions. Some other standards support wider use of VHDL, notably VITAL (VHDL Initiative Towards ASIC Libraries) and microwave circuit design extensions. In June 2006, the VHDL Technical Committee of Accellera (delegated by IEEE to work on the next update of the standard) approved so-called Draft 3.0 of VHDL-2006. While maintaining full compatibility with older versions, this proposed standard provides numerous extensions that make writing and managing VHDL code easier. Key changes include incorporation of child standards (1164, 1076.2, 1076.3) into the main 1076 standard, an extended set of operators, more flexible syntax of \"case\" and \"generate\" statements, incorporation of VHPI (VHDL Procedural Interface) (interface to C/C++ languages) and a subset of PSL (Property Specification Language). These changes should improve quality of synthesizable VHDL code, make testbenches more flexible, and allow wider use of VHDL for system-level descriptions. In February 2008, Accellera approved VHDL 4.0, also informally known as VHDL 2008, which addressed more than 90 issues discovered during the trial period for version 3.0 and includes enhanced generic types. In 2008, Accellera released VHDL 4.0 to the IEEE for balloting for inclusion in IEEE 1076-2008. The VHDL standard IEEE 1076-2008 was published in January 2009.", "The IEEE Standard 1076 defines the VHSIC Hardware Description Language, or VHDL. It was originally developed under contract F33615-83-C-1003 from the United States Air Force awarded in 1983 to a team of Intermetrics, Inc. as language experts and prime contractor, Texas Instruments as chip design experts and IBM as computer-system design experts. The language has undergone numerous revisions and has a variety of sub-standards associated with it that augment or extend it in important ways. 1076 was and continues to be a milestone in the design of electronic systems.", "VHDL is generally used to write text models that describe a logic circuit. Such a model is processed by a synthesis program, only if it is part of the logic design. A simulation program is used to test the logic design using simulation models to represent the logic circuits that interface to the design. This collection of simulation models is commonly called a \"testbench\". A VHDL simulator is typically an event-driven simulator. This means that each transaction is added to an event queue for a specific scheduled time. E.g. if a signal assignment should occur after 1 nanosecond, the event is added to the queue for time +1ns. Zero delay is also allowed, but still needs to be scheduled: for these cases Delta delay is used, which represent an infinitely small time step. The simulation alters between two modes: statement execution, where triggered statements are evaluated, and event processing, where events in the queue are processed. VHDL has constructs to handle the parallelism inherent in hardware designs, but these constructs (\"processes\") differ in syntax from the parallel constructs in Ada (\"tasks\"). Like Ada, VHDL is strongly typed and is not case sensitive. In order to directly represent operations which are common in hardware, there are many features of VHDL which are not found in Ada, such as an extended set of Boolean operators including nand and nor. VHDL has file input and output capabilities, and can be used as a general-purpose language for text processing, but files are more commonly used by a simulation testbench for stimulus or verification data. There are some VHDL compilers which build executable binaries. In this case, it might be possible to use VHDL to write a \"testbench\" to verify the functionality of the design using files on the host computer to define stimuli, to interact with the user, and to compare results with those expected. However, most designers leave this job to the simulator. It is relatively easy for an inexperienced developer to produce code that simulates successfully but that cannot be synthesized into a real device, or is too large to be practical. One particular pitfall is the accidental production of transparent latches rather than D-type flip-flops as storage elements. One can design hardware in a VHDL IDE (for FPGA implementation such as Xilinx ISE, Altera Quartus, Synopsys Synplify or Mentor Graphics HDL Designer) to produce the RTL schematic of the desired circuit. After that, the generated schematic can be verified using simulation software which shows the waveforms of inputs and outputs of the circuit after generating the appropriate testbench. To generate an appropriate testbench for a particular circuit or VHDL code, the inputs have to be defined correctly. For example, for clock input, a loop process or an iterative statement is required. A final point is that when a VHDL model is translated into the \"gates and wires\" that are mapped onto a programmable logic device such as a CPLD or FPGA, then it is the actual hardware being configured, rather than the VHDL code being \"executed\" as if on some form of a processor chip.", "The key advantage of VHDL, when used for systems design, is that it allows the behavior of the required system to be described (modeled) and verified (simulated) before synthesis tools translate the design into real hardware (gates and wires). Another benefit is that VHDL allows the description of a concurrent system. VHDL is a dataflow language in which every statement is considered for execution simultaneously, unlike procedural computing languages such as BASIC, C, and assembly code, where a sequence of statements is run sequentially one instruction at a time. A VHDL project is multipurpose. Being created once, a calculation block can be used in many other projects. However, many formational and functional block parameters can be tuned (capacity parameters, memory size, element base, block composition and interconnection structure). A VHDL project is portable. Being created for one element base, a computing device project can be ported on another element base, for example VLSI with various technologies. A big advantage of VHDL compared to original Verilog is that VHDL has a full type system. Designers can use the type system to write much more structured code (especially by declaring record types).", "In VHDL, a design consists at a minimum of an \"entity\" which describes the interface and an \"architecture\" which contains the actual implementation. In addition, most designs import library modules. Some designs also contain multiple architectures and \"configurations\". A simple AND gate in VHDL would look something like -- (this is a VHDL comment) -- import std_logic from the IEEE library library IEEE; use IEEE.std_logic_1164.all; -- this is the entity entity ANDGATE is end entity ANDGATE; -- this is the architecture architecture RTL of ANDGATE is begin end architecture RTL; (Notice that codice_10 stands for \"Register transfer level\" design.) While the example above may seem verbose to HDL beginners, many parts are either optional or need to be written only once. Generally simple functions like this are part of a larger behavioral module, instead of having a separate module for something so simple. In addition, use of elements such as the codice_4 type might at first seem to be an overkill. One could easily use the built-in codice_1 type and avoid the library import in the beginning. However, using a form of many-valued logic, specifically 9-valued logic (codice_13,codice_14,codice_15,codice_16,codice_17,codice_18,codice_19,codice_20,codice_21), instead of simple bits (0,1) offers a very powerful simulation and debugging tool to the designer which currently does not exist in any other HDL. In the examples that follow, you will see that VHDL code can be written in a very compact form. However, more experienced designers usually avoid these compact forms and use a more verbose coding style for the sake of readability and maintainability. Another advantage to the verbose coding style is the smaller amount of resources used when programming to a Programmable Logic Device such as a CPLD.", "VHDL is frequently used for two different goals: simulation of electronic designs and synthesis of such designs. Synthesis is a process where a VHDL is compiled and mapped into an implementation technology such as an FPGA or an ASIC. Many FPGA vendors have free (or inexpensive) tools to synthesize VHDL for use with their chips, where ASIC tools are often very expensive. Not all constructs in VHDL are suitable for synthesis. For example, most constructs that explicitly deal with timing such as codice_22 are not synthesizable despite being valid for simulation. While different synthesis tools have different capabilities, there exists a common \"synthesizable subset\" of VHDL that defines what language constructs and idioms map into common hardware for many synthesis tools. IEEE 1076.6 defines a subset of the language that is considered the official synthesis subset. It is generally considered a \"best practice\" to write very idiomatic code for synthesis as results can be incorrect or suboptimal for non-standard constructs.", "The multiplexer, or 'MUX' as it is usually called, is a simple construct very common in hardware design. The example below demonstrates a simple two to one MUX, with inputs codice_23 and codice_24, selector codice_25 and output codice_14. Note that there are many other ways to express the same MUX in VHDL. X <= A when S = '1' else B;", "A transparent latch is basically one bit of memory which is updated when an enable signal is raised. Again, there are many other ways this can be expressed in VHDL. -- latch template 1: Q <= D when Enable = '1' else Q; -- latch template 2: process(D,Enable) begin end process;", "The D-type flip-flop samples an incoming signal at the rising (or falling) edge of a clock. This example has an asynchronous, active-high reset, and samples at the rising clock edge. DFF : process(RST, CLK) is begin end process DFF; Another common way to write edge-triggered behavior in VHDL is with the 'event' signal attribute. A single apostrophe has to be written between the signal name and the name of the attribute. DFF : process(RST, CLK) is begin end process DFF; VHDL also lends itself to \"one-liners\" such as DFF : Q <= '0' when RST = '1' else D when rising_edge(clk); or DFF : process(RST, CLK) is begin end process DFF; Which can be useful if not all signals (registers) driven by this process should be reset.", "The following example is an up-counter with asynchronous reset, parallel load and configurable width. It demonstrates the use of the 'unsigned' type, type conversions between 'unsigned' and'std_logic_vector' and VHDL \"generics\". The generics are very close to arguments or templates in other traditional programming languages like C++. library IEEE; use IEEE.std_logic_1164.all; use IEEE.numeric_std.all; -- for the unsigned type entity COUNTER is end entity COUNTER; architecture RTL of COUNTER is begin end architecture RTL; More complex counters may add if/then/else statements within the codice_27 to add other functions, such as count enables, stopping or rolling over at some count value, generating output signals like terminal count signals, etc. Care must be taken with the ordering and nesting of such controls if used together, in order to produce the desired priorities and minimize the number of logic levels needed.", "A large subset of VHDL cannot be translated into hardware. This subset is known as the non-synthesizable or the simulation-only subset of VHDL and can only be used for prototyping, simulation and debugging. For example, the following code will generate a clock with a frequency of 50 MHz. It can, for example, be used to drive a clock input in a design during simulation. It is, however, a simulation-only construct and cannot be implemented in hardware. In actual hardware, the clock is generated externally; it can be scaled down internally by user logic or dedicated hardware. process begin end process; The simulation-only constructs can be used to build complex waveforms in very short time. Such waveform can be used, for example, as test vectors for a complex design or as a prototype of some synthesizer logic that will be implemented in the future. process begin end process;", "Commercial: Other:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot summary.", "Historical background.", "Translation history.", "Contemporary reviews and criticism." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "\"Invasion of the Sea\" takes place in a future 1930s and follows the story of European engineers and their military escort who seek to revive an actual 19th century proposal to flood the Sahara desert with waters from the Mediterranean Sea to create an inland \"Sahara Sea\" for both commercial and military purposes. The French military escort, led by Captain Hardigan, meet with conflict from Tuareg Berber tribes who fear the new sea will threaten their nomadic way of life. The Berber tribes, led by the warlord Hadjar, begin an insurgency campaign against the Europeans in an effort to derail their plans for the inland sea. Captain Hardigan attempts to retaliate against the Berbers and bring Hadjar to justice. Ultimately, however, a disastrous earthquake strikes. This earthquake floods the Sahara to an extent beyond even limits which were proposed by the Europeans, and drowns the insurgent Tuaregs.", "The novel \"Invasion of the Sea\", as well the plans of the characters in the novel, are inspired by the real-life exploits of Captain François Élie Roudaire. Roudaire was a French military officer and geographer who surveyed parts of Tunisia in the late 1800s. He discovered that large areas of the Sahara Desert were below sea level and proposed that a canal be dug from the Mediterranean Sea to these Saharan basins, which would allow for the creation of an inland \"Sahara Sea\". Others had made similar proposals at the same time, and canal building generally was a popular geopolitical endeavor of the first decade of the 1900s, when \"Invasion of the Sea\" was written. Some have noted that the inclusion of the Berber raiders (who are opposed to the efforts of the European engineers and military officers) is a foreshadowing of the growth of Islamic terrorism in the 1900s and 2000s.", "Parts of the novel, under the title \"Captain Hardizan\", were serialized in \"The American Weekly\" (the Sunday Supplement to the Boston newspaper) on August 6 and August 13, 1905, by Oswald Mathew. The first complete English translation was published by Wesleyan University Press in 2001 by Edward Baxter. It was slated to be the first in a series of early science fiction reprints from Wesleyan University Press. It contained many illustrations from the original French edition. The history of \"Invasion of the Sea\" was unusual in this regard. For years before the Baxter translation, \"Invasion of the Sea\" was one of four late \"Voyages Extraordinaires\" novels left unpublished in their whole form (the others being \"The Mighty Orinoco\", \"The Kip Brothers\", and \"Traveling Scholarships\"). Early translators of Verne for British and American readers in the late 1800s and early 1900s were notorious for making major changes to Verne's novels in the translation and editing process. Translators would, for example, change names and even character motivations at times. Other changes were aimed at removing the anti-imperialist themes which Verne was known to espouse in his work, while others still were made by Verne's son. No contemporary translation was as notorious for its revisionism as the \"Captain Hardizan\" edition of \"Invasion of the Sea\", however. Mathew's translation changes were so dramatic that they changed the focus to a young European woman captured by an Arab raiding party. The Arabs themselves were described as being led by a different woman of supernatural abilities.", "Reviews have differed in their opinions between different editions of \"Invasion of the Sea\" and its various English translations. While early English translations have been criticized for their unfaithfulness to the original French text, particularly in removing the anti-colonialist themes for British and American audiences, modern translations have been praised for their much greater faithfulness to the source. The 2001 translation by Edward Baxter was viewed in a mostly positive light, and most criticisms were directed towards problems with the original work by Jules Verne. \"Publishers Weekly\" criticized the character development (with the exception of that of an affable dog named Ace-of-Hearts), while also describing the plot as both \"disjointed\" and \"predictable\", saying that the book is overwhelmed with a \"deluge of scientific facts\". Brian Taves of the North American Jules Verne Society praised the use of multiple perspectives in the narrative (both French and North African) and the novel's political sophistication. He criticized the novel, however, for a general lack of excitement. On the other hand, \"Harper's Magazine\" described the book as a \"ripping good yarn\". A common theme in reviews was the novel's seeming prescience about the growing significance of Islamic terrorism." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot.", "Awards." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The film tells the story of four friends who gather in a villa for the weekend, with the express purpose of eating themselves to death. \"Bouffer\" is French slang for \"eating\" (the Italian \"abbuffata\" means \"great eating\"). The first protagonist is Ugo, owner and chef of a restaurant, \"The Biscuit Soup\". The second is Philippe, a somewhat important magistrate who still lives with his childhood nanny, Nicole, who is overprotective of him to the point of trying to prevent him from having relationships with other women, and who fulfills her own sexual needs with him. The third character is Marcello, an Alitalia pilot and womaniser. The fourth and final main character is Michel, who is an effeminate television producer. The four come together by car to the beautifully furnished but unused villa owned by Philippe. There they find the old caretaker, Hector, who has innocently prepared everything for the great feast, and a Chinese visitor who is there to offer a job to the magistrate in faraway China, which Philippe politely rejects with the phrase \"Timeo Danaos et dona ferentes\" (\"Beware of Greeks bearing gifts\"), quoting Virgil. Once alone, the four begin their binge. In one scene, Marcello and Ugo race each other to see who can eat oysters faster. They discuss organizing a little \"feminine presence\" and decide to invite three prostitutes to come to the house the following evening (not four, because Philippe does not want to participate). Their breakfast next day is interrupted by the arrival of a school class who would like to visit the garden of the villa to see the famous \"lime-tree of Boileau\", under which the French poet used to sit while looking for inspiration. The four willingly invite the class not only into the garden, but also to view the old Bugatti in the garage and to a magnificent lunch in the kitchen. Above all, they get to know Andrea, the young and buxom teacher, whom they spontaneously invite to dinner that evening. Philippe is dismayed at the notion of the school teacher being in the same company as three prostitutes; he warns her, but she appears not to be perturbed. The prostitutes arrive in due course and the atmosphere becomes frivolous and sexually charged, with each of the men howling throughout the film when they are overjoyed. Andrea arrives and embraces the spirit of the party. She is attracted to Philippe, who proposes to marry her. The eating continues unabated. Ugo is responsible for the preparation of the food. Michel, who seems to have been brought up strictly not to break wind, suffers from indigestion. His friends encourage him to let out whatever wind is trapped. Frightened and disgusted by the turn of events, the prostitutes flee at dawn and leave only Andrea. She seems to sense the purpose of the protagonists and decides to help them in their efforts, establishing a tacit agreement and remaining with them until the death of all four. She indulges in sex with all the men after the departure of the prostitutes, while joining them in their binge as well. The first to die is Marcello, after being enraged with his own impotence; he goes to the toilet and causes the sanitary pipes to explode. The bathroom is flooded with sewage, which leaks through the ceiling below, and leaves a nauseas smell even after cleaned up. He becomes exasperated, and realizing the futility of the farce, decides to leave the house at night during a snow storm, in the old Bugatti that he had repaired earlier in the day with great delight. His friends find him the next morning, frozen to death in the driving seat. The first suggestion is to bury Marcello in the garden, but on the advice of Philippe (who, being a judge, warns that there is a severe penalty for the illegal burying of a corpse), they place the body in the villa's cold room, where it remains seated and clearly visible from the kitchen. After Marcello comes Michel, who finds a new dog in the yard sitting in the Bugatti. Already suffering from indigestion and crammed to capacity with food (he cannot even lift his legs practising dance, his favourite pastime), he suffers an attack of bowel movements while playing the piano. Amid flatulence and worse, he is finally able to let it all go, and collapses on the terrace. His friends place him in the cold room next to Marcello. Shortly afterwards, the backyard dogs cause a stir (including another new dog) and Ugo prepares an enormous dish made from three different types of liver pâté in the shape of the Dome of Les Invalides, which he serves to the remaining diners, Philippe and Andrea, in the kitchen in view of the two dead friends. It is decorated with eggs, since Jews see them as symbols of death. However, Philippe and Andrea cannot bring themselves to eat it. Philippe goes off to bed, leaving Andrea to keep Ugo company during his determined effort to eat the entire pâté. Some time later, she later calls Philippe back downstairs to help her stop his friend from stuffing himself to death. They cannot dissuade Ugo, and end up attending to him on the kitchen table, the one feeding him, the other masturbating him until he orgasms and dies at the same time. On the advice of Andrea, his body is left on the kitchen table, in his \"domain.\" The last to die is the diabetic Philippe, on the bench under the lime-tree of Boileau and into the arms of Andrea, after eating a cake she has made shaped like a pair of breasts. He dies on the bench with Andrea and yet another dog who he keeps calling Ugo, just as another delivery of meat arrives. The delivery men react with incomprehension when Andrea instructs them to leave the meat – whole animals, and sides of pork and beef – in the garden (the kitchen and the cold room now containing the bodies of Ugo, Marcello and Michel). The film ends bizarrely with a scene of the garden filled with dogs who begin chasing and dining on the poultry and meat carcasses.", "Marco Ferreri won the FIPRESCI Prize given by the International Federation of Film Critics at the 1973 Cannes Film Festival. It was later shown as part of the Cannes Classics section of the 2013 Cannes Film Festival." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Route.", "History.", "Old canal.", "New canal." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The canal begins in the west at, and passes through the towns of,,, and. This section is long, and has a relief of. The canal climbs by means of six locks. There are five locks with a relief of, and a final lock with a relief of at. The next section of the original canal route between and climbs over a distance of, which is too steep a climb for canal locks. Therefore, this section contains four hydraulic boat lifts, dating from 1888 to 1917, which are now on the UNESCO World Heritage list (\"see Boat Lifts on the\"). These lifts were designed by Edwin Clark of the British company Clark, Stansfield & Clark. For commercial traffic this stretch of the canal has, since 2002, been replaced by an enlarged parallel canal.", "", "For centuries, Belgian people have wanted an inland waterway to connect the and the. However, the height difference of about between the two rivers would require as many as 32 locks, which was not feasible. In 1879, the Ministry of Public Works adopted a proposal by Edwin Clark which used boat lifts instead of locks. The first lift () was built between 1885 and 1888. It was inaugurated on June 4, 1888 by King Leopold II. The three other boat lifts were finally finished in 1917 and put into service in 1919. There were several reasons for this delay. From 1894 to 1911, the economic need for the canal was repeatedly called into question. Then in 1914, when the three lifts were practically finished, World War I began.", "The old canal could accommodate boats with a displacement of up to 350 tons. In 1957 the Belgian parliament passed a law providing for a major expansion of the canal, increasing the maximum displacement of a boat that could use the canal to. In the event, it was decided to alter the course of the canal rather than to enlarge it along the full extent of its existing length. A defining feature of the enlarged canal was the Strépy-Thieu boat lift which replaced the four smaller boat lifts and one or two locks which had been part of the former canal. The was opened to boats with a displacement of 1,350 tonnes in September 2002. Between 2000 and 2004 the annual ship transits increased from 1,531 to 4,041 while the tonnage carried increased from 282,000 to 1,513,000. The lifts on the old parallel canal remain in position, having in 1998 been designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Founding.", "International expansion.", "Quixtar.", "Global markets.", "Amway China.", "Brands.", "Household cleaners.", "Health and beauty.", "Artistry.", "Nutrilite.", "eSpring.", "XS.", "Ditto Delivery.", "Business model.", "Commercial sponsorships.", "Politics and culture.", "Political contributions.", "Religion.", "Chamber of commerce.", "Accreditation program.", "Pyramid scheme accusations.", "FTC investigation.", "Amway India.", "U.S. class action settlement.", "Class action in Canada.", "Lobbying for deregulation.", "Other legal actions.", "Canadian tax fraud case.", "RIAA lawsuit.", "Amway UK.", "\"Welcome to Life\" (Poland).", "Dr. Phil and Shape Up.", "Procter & Gamble.", "Regulatory violations in Vietnam.", "Other issues.", "Cultism.", "\"Dateline NBC\"." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Jay Van Andel and Richard DeVos had been friends since school days and business partners in various endeavors, including a hamburger stand, an air charter service, and a sailing business. In 1949, they were introduced to the Nutrilite Products Corporation by Van Andel's second cousin Neil Maaskant. DeVos and Van Andel signed up to become distributors for Nutrilite food supplements in August. They sold their first box the next day for $19.50, but lost interest for the next two weeks. They traveled to Chicago to attend a Nutrilite seminar soon after, at the urging of Maaskant, who had become their sponsor. They watched promotional filmstrips and listened to talks by company representatives and successful distributors, then they decided to pursue the Nutrilite business. They sold their second box of supplements on their return trip to Michigan, and rapidly proceeded to develop the business further. Earlier in 1949, DeVos and Van Andel had formed the Ja-Ri Corporation (abbreviated from their", "Amway expanded to Australia in 1971, to parts of Europe in 1973, to parts of Asia in 1974, to Japan in 1979, to Latin America in 1985, to Thailand in 1987, to China in 1995, to Africa in 1997, to India and Scandinavia in", "In 1999 the founders of the Amway corporation established a new holding company, named Alticor, and launched three new companies: a sister (and separate) Internet-focused company named Quixtar, Access Business Group, and Pyxis Innovations. Pyxis, later replaced by Fulton Innovation, pursued research and development and Access Business Group handled manufacturing and logistics for Amway, Quixtar, and third-party clients. The main difference was that all \"Independent Business Owners\" (IBO) could order directly from", "According to the Amway website, the company operates in over 100 countries and territories, organized into regional markets: the Americas, Europe, greater China, Japan and Korea, and SE Asia/Australia. Amway's top ten markets are China, Korea, the United States, Japan, Thailand, Taiwan, India, Russia, Malaysia and Italy. In 2008, Alticor announced that two-thirds of the company's 58 markets reported sales increases, including strong growth in the China, Russia, Ukraine and India markets.", "Amway China launched in 1995. In 1998, after abuses of illegal pyramid schemes led to riots, the Chinese government enacted a ban on all direct selling companies, including Amway. After the negotiations, some companies like Amway, Avon, and Mary Kay continued to operate through a network of retail stores promoted by an independent sales force. China introduced new direct selling laws in December 2005, and in December 2006 Amway was one of the first companies to receive a license to resume direct sales. However, the", "Amway's product line grew from LOC, with the laundry detergent SA8 added in 1960, and later the hair care product Satinique (1965) and the cosmetics line Artistry (1968). Today Amway manufactures over 450 products, with manufacturing facilities in China, India and the US, as well as Nutrilite organic farms in Brazil, Mexico and the US (California and Washington State). Amway brands include Artistry, Atmosphere, Body Blends, Bodykey, Body Works, Clear Now, eSpring, Glister, iCook, Legacy of Clean, Nutrilite, Peter Island, Perfect Empowered Drinking Water, Personal Accents, Ribbon, Satinique, Artistry Men and XS. In 2018, nutrition and wellness products were 52% of total sales, and beauty and personal care products, 26%.", "Amway is best known in North America for its original multi-purpose cleaning product LOC, SA8 laundry detergent, and Dish Drops dishwashing liquid. In the January 2007 issue of \"Consumer Reports\", SA8 with Bioquest was rated the best-performing laundry detergent. \"Consumer Reports\" did, however, criticize SA8's", "Amway's health and beauty brands include Artistry, Satinique, Hymm, Body Series, Glister, Moiskin (South America), Nutrilite, Nutriway (Scandinavia and Australia/New Zealand), Attitude (India), eSpring, Atmosphere and iCook as well as XL and XS Energy drinks. Other Amway brands that were discontinued or replaced include Tolsom, Eddie Funkhouser New York, or beautycycle (Eastern Europe).", "Amway's Artistry products include skin care, cosmetics, and", "Amway's largest-selling brand is the Nutrilite range of health supplements (marketed as Nutriway in some countries), and in 2008 Nutrilite sales exceeded $3 billion globally. In 2001, NSF International issued its first five dietary supplement certifications to Nutrilite. In 2011, Nutrilite brand of vitamins and dietary supplements led Amway's sales, totaling almost $4.7 billion. According to Euromonitor International, in 2014, Nutrilite was the world's No. 1 selling vitamins and dietary supplements brand. In 2015, it was reported that according to Euromonitor International, Amway was the largest vitamin and dietary supplement vendor in China, with 11% of a market that generated 100 billion yuan ($15.6 billion) in annual sales. In", "Amway's eSpring water filter was introduced in 2000. According to Amway, it was the first system to combine a carbon block filter and ultraviolet light with electronic-monitoring technology in the filter cartridge and it became the first home system to achieve certification for ANSI/NSF Standards 42, 53, and 55. According to Amway, eSpring was the first water treatment system to receive certification for all fifteen NSF/ANSI 401 contaminants which include pharmaceuticals, pesticides and herbicides. The company also claims that, in addition to these 15 contaminants, eSpring is certified for more than 145 potential contaminants, including lead and mercury. eSpring was the first commercial product which employed Fulton Innovation's eCoupled wireless power induction technology. In December 2006, Amway sister", "On January 14, 2015, Amway announced that it had acquired XS Energy, a California-based brand of energy drinks and snacks. The XS Energy brand has been sold", "Ditto Delivery is Alticor's automatic, monthly replenishment program that fills orders based", "Amway combines direct selling with a multi-level marketing strategy. Amway distributors, referred to as \"independent business owners\" (IBOs), may market products directly to potential customers and may also sponsor and mentor other people to become IBOs. IBOs may earn income both from the retail markup on any products they sell personally, plus a performance bonus based on the", "In December 2006, Alticor secured the naming rights for the Orlando Magic's home basketball arena in Orlando, Florida. The Orlando Magic are owned by the DeVos family. The arena, formerly known as the TD Waterhouse Centre, was renamed the Amway Arena. Its successor, the Amway Center, was opened in 2010, and the older arena was demolished in 2012. In 2009, Amway Global", "", "In the 1990s, the Amway organization was a major contributor to the Republican Party (GOP) and to the election campaigns of various GOP candidates. Amway and its sales force contributed a substantial amount (up to half) of the total funds ($669,525) for the 1994 political campaign of Republican congresswoman and Amway distributor Sue Myrick (N.C.). According to two reports by \"Mother Jones\" magazine, Amway distributor Dexter Yager \"used the company's extensive voice-mail system to rally hundreds of Amway distributors into giving a total of $295,871\" to Myrick's campaign. According to a campaign staffer quoted by the magazine, Myrick had appeared regularly on the Amway circuit, speaking at", "Several sources have commented on the promotion of Christian conservative ideology within the Amway organization. \"Mother Jones\" magazine described the Amway distributor force as \"heavily influenced by the company's dual themes of Christian morality and free enterprise\" and operating \"like a private political army\". In \"The Cult of Free Enterprise\", Stephen Butterfield, who spent time in the Yager group within Amway, wrote \"[Amway] sells a marketing and motivational system, a cause, a way of life, in a fervid emotional atmosphere of rallies and political religious revivalism.\" \"Philadelphia City Paper\" correspondent Maryam Henein stated that \"The language used in motivational tools for Amway frequently echoes or directly quotes the Bible, with the unstated assumption of a shared Christian perspective.\" \"Businessweek\" correspondents Bill Vlasic and Beth Regan characterized the founding families of Amway as \"fervently conservative, fervently Christian, and hugely influential in the Republican Party\", noting that \"Rich DeVos charged up the troops with a message of Christian beliefs", "Amway co-founder Jay Van Andel (in 1980), and later his son Steve Van Andel (in 2001),", "In 2006 Amway (then Quixtar in North America) introduced its \"Professional Development Accreditation Program\" in response to concerns surrounding business support materials (BSM), including books, tapes", "Robert Carroll, of the \"Skeptic's Dictionary\", has described Amway as a \"legal pyramid scheme\", and has said that the quasi-religious devotion of its affiliates is used by the company to conceal poor performance rates by distributors.", "In a 1979 ruling, the Federal Trade Commission found that Amway did not fit the definition of a pyramid scheme because (a) distributors were not paid to recruit people, (b) it did not require distributors to buy a large stock of unmoving inventory, (c) distributors were required to maintain retail sales (at least 10 per month), and (d) the company and all distributors were required to accept returns of excess inventory from down-level distributors. The FTC did, however, find Amway \"guilty of price-fixing and making exaggerated income claims\"; the company was ordered to stop retail price", "In September 2006, following a public complaint, Andhra Pradesh and Telangana state police (CID) initiated raids and seizures against Amway distributors in the state, and submitted a petition against them, claiming the company violated the Prize Chits and Money Circulation Schemes (Banning) Act. They shut down all corporate offices associated with the Amway organization including the offices of some Amway distributors. The enforcement said that the business model of the company is illegal. The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) had notified the police that Amway in India may be violating certain laws regarding a \"money circulation scheme\" and the \"IB Times\" article writes that \"some say... Amway is really more about making money from recruiting people to become distributors, as opposed to selling products\". In 2008, the state government of Andhra Pradesh enacted a ban on Amway media advertisements. On August 6, 2011, Kerala Police sealed the offices of Amway at Kozhikode, Kannur, Kochi, Kottayam, Thrissur, Kollam and Thiruvananthapuram following complaints. In November 2012, the Economic Offences Wing of Kerala Police conducted searches at the offices of", "On November 3, 2010, Amway announced that it had agreed to pay $56 million—$34 million in cash and $22 million in products—to settle a class action that had been filed in Federal District Court in California in 2007. The class action, which had been brought against Quixtar and several of its top-level", "A 2009 class action case lodged in Canada was rejected by the Federal Court", "The DeVoses supported an amendment to the US House of Representatives' omnibus Financial Services and General Government Appropriations bill for fiscal year 2018 by US Representative John Moolenaar that would have limited the ability of the FTC to investigate whether MLMs are pyramid schemes. The amendment would have barred the Treasury Department, the Justice Department, the Small Business Administration, the Securities and Exchange Commission, the FTC, or any other agencies from using any monies to take enforcement actions against pyramid operations for the fiscal year. It also adopted provisions from", "", "In 1982, Amway co-founders, Richard M. DeVos and Jay Van Andel, along with Amway's executive vice president for corporate services, William J. Mr. Discher Jr., were indicted in Canada on several criminal charges, including allegations that they underreported the value of goods brought into the country and had defrauded the Canadian government of more than $28 million from 1965 to", "The Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), as part of its anti-piracy efforts, sued Amway and several distributors in 1996, alleging that copyrighted music was used on \"highly profitable\" training videotapes. Amway denied wrongdoing, blaming the", "In 2007, Amway's operations were halted in the United Kingdom and Ireland following a yearlong investigation by the UK Department of Trade and Industry, which moved to have Amway banned on the basis that the company had employed deceptive marketing, presented inflated earnings estimates, and lured distributors into buying", "In 1997, Amway Poland and Network TwentyOne separately sued the makers of a Polish film, \"Welcome to Life\" (), for defamation and copyright violations. Henryk Dederko (the director) and producer were later acquitted on the charge of disseminating false information. The film, banned for 12 years, was one of the highly anticipated movies of 2009's Warsaw Film Festival and was dubbed by the promoters as a \"scary movie about brainwashing\" It was said to depict hard-sell \"pep rallies\", and to include statements from distributors that meetings had a similar tone to meetings of the Communist Party before it lost power in Poland. Methods of recruitment that confusingly resembled those", "In March 2004, TV personality Phil McGraw (a.k.a. Dr. Phil) pulled his \"Shape Up\" line of supplements off the market in the face of an investigation by the U.S. Federal Trade Commission (FTC). The supplements were manufactured by CSA Nutraceuticals, a subsidiary of Alticor's Access Business Group.", "Some Amway distributors distributed an urban legend that the (old) Procter & Gamble service mark was in fact a Satanic symbol or that the CEO of P&G is himself a practicing Satanist. (In some variants of the story, it is also claimed that the CEO of Procter & Gamble donated \"satanic tithes\" to the Church of Satan.) Procter & Gamble alleged that several Amway distributors were behind a resurgence of the story in the 1990s and sued several independent Amway distributors and the company for defamation and slander. The distributors had used Amway's Amvox voice messaging service to", "In January 2017, the Vietnam Ministry of Industry and Trade", "", "Some Amway distributor groups have been accused of using \"cult-like\" tactics to attract new distributors and keep them involved and committed. Allegations include resemblance to a Big Brother organization with a paranoid", "In 2004, \"Dateline NBC\" featured a critical report based on a yearlong undercover investigation of business practices of Quixtar. The report noted that the average distributor makes only about $1,400 per year and that many of the \"high level distributors singing the praises of Quixtar\" are actually \"making most of their money by selling motivational books, tapes and seminars; not Quixtar's cosmetics, soaps, and electronics\". \"In fact, about twenty high level distributors are part of an exclusive club; one that those hundreds of thousands of other distributors don't get to join. For years only a privileged few, including Bill Britt, have run hugely profitable businesses selling all those books, tapes and seminars; things the rank and file" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Death." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Sillitoe was born in Nottingham to working-class parents, Christopher Sillitoe and Sabina (née Burton). Like Arthur Seaton, the anti-hero of his first novel, \"Saturday Night and Sunday Morning\", his father worked at the Raleigh Bicycle Company's factory in the town. His father was illiterate, violent, and unsteady with his jobs, and the family was often on the brink of starvation. Sillitoe left school at the age of 14, having failed the entrance examination to grammar school. He worked at the Raleigh factory for the next four years, spending his free time reading prodigiously and being a \"serial lover of local girls\". He joined the Air Training Corps in 1942, then the Royal Air Force, albeit too late to serve in the Second World War. He served as a wireless operator in Malaya during the Emergency. After returning to Britain he was planning to enlist in the Royal Canadian Air Force when it was discovered that he had tuberculosis. He spent 16 months in an RAF hospital. Pensioned off at the age of 21 on 45 shillings (£2.25) a week, he lived in France and Spain for seven years in an attempt to recover. In 1955, while living in Mallorca with the American poet Ruth Fainlight, whom he married in 1959, and in contact with the poet Robert Graves, Sillitoe started work on \"Saturday Night and Sunday Morning\", which was published in 1958. Influenced in part by the stripped-down prose of Ernest Hemingway, the book conveys the attitudes and situation of a young factory worker faced with the inevitable end of his youthful philandering. As with John Osborne's \"Look Back in Anger\" and John Braine's \"Room at the Top\", the novel's real subject was the disillusionment of post-war Britain and the lack of opportunities for the working class. It was adapted as a film by Karel Reisz in 1960, with Albert Finney as Arthur Seaton; the screenplay was written by Sillitoe. Sillitoe's story \"The Loneliness of the Long Distance Runner\", which concerns the rebellion of a borstal boy with a talent for running, won the Hawthornden Prize in 1959. It was also adapted into a film, in 1962, directed by Tony Richardson and starring Tom Courtenay. Sillitoe again wrote the screenplay. With Fainlight he had a child, David. They later adopted another, Susan. Sillitoe lived at various times in Kent, London and Montpellier. In London he was friendly with the bookseller Bernard Stone (who had been born in Nottingham a few years before Sillitoe) and became one of the bohemian crowd that congregated at Stone's Turret Bookshop on Kensington Church Walk. In the 1960s Sillitoe was celebrated in the Soviet Union as a spokesman for the \"oppressed worker\" in the West. Invited to tour the country, he visited several times in the 1960s and in 1968 he was asked to address the Congress of Soviet Writers' Unions, where he denounced Soviet human rights abuses, many of which he had witnessed. In 1990 Sillitoe was awarded an honorary degree by Nottingham Polytechnic, now Nottingham Trent University. The city's older Russell Group university, the University of Nottingham, also awarded him an honorary D.Litt. in 1994. In 2006 his best-known play was staged at the university's Lakeside Arts theatre in an in-house production. Sillitoe wrote many novels and several volumes of poems. His autobiography, \"Life Without Armour\", which was critically acclaimed on publication in 1995, offers a view of his squalid childhood. In an interview Sillitoe claimed that \"A writer, if he manages to earn a living at what he's doing, even if it's a very poor living, acquires some of the attributes of the old-fashioned gentleman (if I can be so silly).\" \"Gadfly in Russia\", an account of his travels in Russia spanning 40 years, was published in 2007. In 2008 London Books republished \"A Start in Life\" in its London Classics series to mark the author's 80th birthday. Sillitoe appeared on \"Desert Island Discs\" on BBC Radio 4 on 25 January 2009. Sillitoe's long-held desire for \"Saturday Night and Sunday Morning\" to be remade for a contemporary filmgoing audience was never achieved, despite strong efforts. Danny Brocklehurst was to adapt the book and Sillitoe gave his blessing to the project, but Tony Richardson's estate and Woodfall Films prevented it from going ahead. Sillitoe was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature in 1997.", "Sillitoe died of cancer on 25 April 2010 at Charing Cross Hospital in London. He was 82. He is buried in Highgate Cemetery." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and career.", "Personal life and death." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Storey was born on 13 July 1933 in Wakefield, West Riding of Yorkshire, the son of a coal miner, Frank Richmond Story, and Lily (née Cartwright) Story. He was educated at QEGS Wakefield. He continued his education at London's Slade School of Fine Art, and supported himself there by playing rugby league for Leeds RLFC as a for the \"A\" team, with occasional appearances in the first. His plays include \"The Restoration of Arnold Middleton\", \"The Changing Room\", \"Cromwell\", \"Home\", and \"Stages\". His novels include \"Flight into Camden\", which won the 1961 John Llewellyn Rhys Prize and the 1963 Somerset Maugham Award; and \"Saville\", which won the 1976 Booker Prize. He wrote the screenplay for \"This Sporting Life\" (1963), directed by Lindsay Anderson, adapted from his first novel of the same name, originally published in 1960, which won the 1960 Macmillan Fiction Award. The film was the beginning of a long professional association with Anderson, whose film version of Storey's play \"In Celebration\" was released as part of the American Film Theatre series in 1975. \"Home\" and \"Early Days\" (both starred Sir Ralph Richardson; \"Home\" starred Sir John Gielgud) were made into television films. Storey's novels \"Radcliffe\" and \"Pasmore\" were shortlisted for the Booker Prize. National Life Stories conducted an oral history interview (C464/67) with David Storey in 2008-2009 for its National Life Stories General collection held by the British Library.", "In 1956, Storey married Barbara Rudd Hamilton, with whom he had four children. Barbara Storey died in 2015. Storey died on 27 March 2017 in London at the age of 83. The cause was Parkinson's disease and dementia. Survivors include his two sons, Jake and Sean; two daughters, Helen and Kate; a brother, Anthony; and six grandchildren." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and education.", "Career.", "Awards.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Born Eva Unger in Berlin in 1932 to an affluent, secular Jewish family, she arrived in Britain as a refugee in 1939 with her mother Irma Unger, and her younger brother, Ernst. During Kristallnacht in November 1938, her father Emil was arrested and sent to Dachau concentration camp. He was later released after his wife offered the Nazis a large bribe and managed to escape to England to join his family in London. All of Figes's grandparents on both sides of the family died in concentration camps. Towards the end of the World War II, Figes recalled in \"The Observer\" in 1979, \"my mother gave me nine pence and sent me off to the local cinema... I sat alone in the dark and watched the newsreel of Belsen\". It gave her nightmares for many years. She graduated with a B.A. with honours from Queen Mary College in London in 1953.", "She married John George Figes on 10 July 1954. The couple had two children: the writer Kate Figes (1957–2019), and the historian Orlando Figes. The marriage was dissolved by divorce in 1962. She met the German author Günter Grass in London and the two had a short romantic affair that turned into a lifelong friendship. In the 1960s, she was associated with an informal group of experimental British writers influenced by Rayner Heppenstall that included Stefan Themerson, Ann Quin, Alan Burns, and its informal leader, B. S. Johnson. Unger worked in publishing until 1967, when she became a full-time writer. Figes's best known work is \"Patriarchal Attitudes\", a feminist polemic written in 1970, published one month before Germaine Greer's \"The Female Eunuch\". The book argued that nurture rather than nature has shaped all secondary sex characteristics and considered why prominent female figures of the nineteenth century were ambivalent or hostile towards the feminist movement. Figes' novel, \"Light\" (1983), is an impressionistic portrait of a single day in the life of Claude Monet from sunrise to sunset. In 2006, it was revealed that Grass had been a member of the Waffen-SS during the Nazi regime.", "Figes won the Guardian Fiction Prize for \"Winter Journey\" in 1967.", "Figes' archive was acquired by the British Library in 2009 consisting of 186 files of drafts and working papers relating to her literary works, as well as correspondence and personal papers." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Work.", "Philosophy.", "Fiction.", "Political views.", "Biographies and memoirs.", "Adaptations.", "Bibliography." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Murdoch was born in Phibsborough, Dublin, Ireland, the daughter of Irene Alice (née Richardson, 1899–1985) and Wills John Hughes Murdoch. Her father, a civil servant, came from a mainly Presbyterian sheep farming family from Hillhall, County Down. In 1915, he enlisted as a soldier in King Edward's Horse and served in France during the First World War before being commissioned as a Second lieutenant. Her mother had trained as a singer before Iris was born, and was from a middle-class Church of Ireland family in Dublin. Iris Murdoch's parents first met in Dublin when her father was on leave and were married in 1918. Iris was the couple's only child. When she was a few weeks old the family moved to London, where her father had joined the Ministry of Health as a second-class clerk. She is a cousin of the Irish mathematician Brian Murdoch. Murdoch was educated in progressive independent schools, entering the Froebel Demonstration School in 1925 and attending Badminton School in Bristol as a boarder from 1932 to 1938. In 1938 she went up to Somerville College, Oxford, with the intention of studying English, but switched to \"Greats\", a course of study combining classics, ancient history, and philosophy. At Oxford she studied philosophy with Donald M. MacKinnon and attended Eduard Fraenkel's seminars on \"Agamemnon\". She was awarded a first-class honours degree in 1942. After leaving Oxford she went to work in London for HM Treasury. In June 1944 she left the Treasury and went to work for the UNRRA. At first she was stationed in London at the agency's European Regional Office. In 1945 she was transferred first to Brussels, then to Innsbruck, and finally to Graz, Austria, where she worked in a refugee camp. She left the UNRRA in 1946. From 1947 to 1948 Iris Murdoch studied philosophy as a postgraduate at Newnham College, Cambridge. She met Wittgenstein at Cambridge but did not hear him lecture, as he had left his Trinity College professorship before she arrived. In 1948 she became a fellow of St Anne's College, Oxford, where she taught philosophy until 1963. From 1963 to 1967 she taught one day a week in the General Studies department at the Royal College of Art. In 1956 Murdoch married John Bayley, a literary critic, novelist, and from 1974 to 1992 Warton Professor of English at Oxford University, whom she had met in Oxford in 1954. The unusual romantic partnership lasted more than forty years until Murdoch's death. Bayley thought that sex was \"inescapably ridiculous.\" Murdoch in contrast had \"multiple affairs with both men and women which, on discomposing occasions, [Bayley] witnessed for himself\". Iris Murdoch's first novel, \"Under the Net\", was published in 1954. She had previously published essays on philosophy, and the first monograph about Jean-Paul Sartre published in English. She went on to produce 25 more novels and additional works of philosophy, as well as poetry and drama. In 1976 she was named a Commander of the Order of the British Empire and in 1987 was made a Dame Commander of Order of the British Empire. She was awarded honorary degrees by the University of Bath (DLitt,1983), University of Cambridge (1993) and Kingston University (1994), among others. She was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1982. Her last novel, \"Jackson's Dilemma\", was published in 1995. Iris Murdoch was diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease in 1997 and died in 1999 in Oxford. There is a bench dedicated to her in the grounds of Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford, where she used to enjoy walking.", "", "For some time, Murdoch's influence and achievements as a philosopher were eclipsed by her success as a novelist, but recent appraisals have increasingly accorded her a substantial role in postwar Anglo-American philosophy, particularly for her unfashionably prescient work in moral philosophy and her reinterpretation of Aristotle and Plato. Martha Nussbaum has argued for Murdoch's \"transformative impact on the discipline\" of moral philosophy because she directed her analysis not at the once-dominant matters of will and choice, but at those of attention (how people learn to see and conceive of one another) and phenomenal experience (how the sensory \"thinginess\" of life shapes moral sensibility). In a recent survey of Murdoch's philosophical work, Justin Broackes points to several distinctive features of Murdoch's moral philosophy, including a \"moral realism or 'naturalism', allowing into the world cases of such properties as humility or generosity; an anti‐scientism; a rejection of Humean moral psychology; a sort of 'particularism'; special attention to the virtues; and emphasis on the metaphor of moral perception or'seeing' moral facts.\" Broackes also notes that Murdoch's influence on the discipline of philosophy was sometimes indirect, since it impacted both her contemporaries and the following generation of philosophers, particularly Elizabeth Anscombe, Philippa Foot, John McDowell, and Bernard Williams. She sent copies of her earlier novels to Anscombe, but there is nothing in Anscombe's writing which reflects any of these. Her philosophical work was influenced by Simone Weil (from whom she borrows the concept of 'attention'), and by Plato, under whose banner she claimed to fight. In re-animating Plato, she gives force to the reality of the Good, and to a sense of the moral life as a pilgrimage from illusion to reality. From this perspective, Murdoch's work offers perceptive criticism of Kant, Sartre and Wittgenstein ('early' and 'late'). Her most central parable, which appears in \"The Sovereignty of Good\", asks us (in Nussbaum's succinct account), \"to imagine a mother-in-law, M, who has contempt for D, her daughter-in-law. M sees D as common, cheap, low. Since M is a self-controlled Englishwoman, she behaves (so Murdoch stipulates) with perfect graciousness all the while, and no hint of her real view surfaces in her acts. But she realizes, too, that her feelings and thoughts are unworthy, and likely to be generated by jealousy and an excessively keen desire to hang on to her son. So she sets herself a moral task: she will change her view of D, making it more accurate, less marred by selfishness. She gives herself exercises in vision: where she is inclined to say 'coarse,' she will say, and see,'spontaneous.' Where she is inclined to say 'common,' she will say, and see, 'fresh and naive.' As time goes on, the new images supplant the old. Eventually M does not have to make such an effort to control her actions: they flow naturally from the way she has come to see D.\" This is how M cultivates a pattern of behavior that leads her to view D \"justly or lovingly\". The parable is partly meant to show (against Oxford contemporaries including R. M. Hare and Stuart Hampshire) the importance of the 'inner' life to moral action. Seeing another correctly can depend on overcoming jealousy, and discoveries about the world involve inner work.", "Her novels, in their attention and generosity to the inner lives of individuals, follow the tradition of novelists like Dostoyevsky, Tolstoy, George Eliot, and Proust, besides showing an abiding love of Shakespeare. There is however great variety in her achievement, and the richly layered structure and compelling realistic comic imagination of \"The Black Prince\" (1973) is very different from the early comic work \"Under the Net\" (1954) or \"The Unicorn\" (1963). \"The Unicorn\" can be read as a sophisticated Gothic romance, or as a novel with Gothic trappings, or perhaps as a parody of the Gothic mode of writing. \"The Black Prince\", for which Murdoch won the James Tait Black Memorial Prize, is a study of erotic obsession, and the text becomes more complicated, suggesting multiple interpretations, when subordinate characters contradict the narrator and the mysterious \"editor\" of the book in a series of afterwords. Though her novels differ markedly, and her style developed, themes recur. Her novels often include upper-middle-class male intellectuals caught in moral dilemmas, gay characters, refugees, Anglo-Catholics with crises of faith, empathetic pets, curiously \"knowing\" children and sometimes a powerful and almost demonic male \"enchanter\" who imposes his will on the other characters—a type of man Murdoch is said to have modelled on her lover, the Nobel laureate Elias Canetti. Murdoch was awarded the Booker Prize in 1978 for \"The Sea, the Sea\", a finely detailed novel about the power of love and loss, featuring a retired stage director who is overwhelmed by jealousy when he meets his erstwhile lover after several decades apart. An authorised collection of her poetic writings, \"Poems by Iris Murdoch\", appeared in 1997, edited by Paul Hullah and Yozo Muroya. Several of her works have been adapted for the screen, including the British television series of her novels \"An Unofficial Rose\" and \"The Bell\". J. B. Priestley's dramatisation of her 1961 novel \"A Severed Head\" starred Ian Holm and Richard Attenborough. In 1997, she was awarded the Golden PEN Award by English PEN for \"a Lifetime's Distinguished Service to Literature\". Literary critics and theorists have given her mixed reviews. Harold Bloom wrote in his 1986 review of \"The Good Apprentice\" that no other contemporary British novelist seemed of her 'eminence', and that she would be remembered for years to come. A. S. Byatt called her 'unmatched in world literature since her death', and listed her as a source of inspiration. Yet James Wood, in his influential work \"How Fiction Works\" said: 'In her literary and philosophical criticism, she again and again stresses that the creation of free and independent characters is the mark of a great novelist; yet her own characters never have this freedom.' He stressed that some authors, 'like Tolstoy, Trollope, Balzac and Dickens', wrote about people different from themselves by choice, whereas others, such as 'James, Flaubert, Lawrence, Woolf', have more interest in the self. Wood called Murdoch 'poignant', because she spent her whole life in writing in the latter category, whilst she struggled to fit herself into the former. Similarly, Sam Jordison, creator of the poll \"Crap Towns\", declared that, though her works had merit, she engaged in'scenes of absurd melodrama', and moaned of her'mystical bollocks'. He did, however, praise Murdoch's comic set-pieces, and her portrayal of self-deceit.", "Murdoch won a scholarship to study at Vassar College in 1946, but was refused a visa to enter the United States because she had joined the Communist Party of Great Britain in 1938, while a student at Oxford. She left the party in 1942, when she went to work at the Treasury, but remained sympathetic to communism for several years. In later years she was allowed to visit the United States, but always had to obtain a waiver from the provisions of the McCarran Act, which barred Communist Party members and former members from entering the country. In a 1990 Paris Review interview she said that her membership of the Communist Party had made her see \"how strong and how awful it [Marxism] is, certainly in its organized form\". Aside from her Communist Party membership, her Irish heritage is the other sensitive aspect of Murdoch's political life that seems to attract interest. Part of the interest revolves around the fact that, although Irish by both birth and traced descent on both sides, Murdoch did not display the full set of political opinions that are sometimes assumed to go with this origin: \"No one ever agrees about who is entitled to lay claim to Irishness. Iris's Belfast cousins today call themselves British, not Irish... [but] with both parents brought up in Ireland, and an ancestry within Ireland both North and South going back three centuries, Iris has as valid a claim to call herself Irish as most North Americans have to call themselves American\". Conradi notes A.N. Wilson's record that Murdoch regretted the sympathetic portrayal of the Irish nationalist cause she had given earlier in \"The Red and the Green\", and a competing defence of the book at Caen in 1978. The novel, while broad of sympathy, is hardly an unambiguous celebration of the 1916 rising, dwelling upon bloodshed, unintended consequences and the evils of romanticism, besides celebrating selfless individuals on both sides. Later, of Ian Paisley, Iris Murdoch stated \"[he] sincerely condemns violence and did not intend to incite the Protestant terrorists. That he is emotional and angry is not surprising, after 12–15 years of murderous IRA activity. All this business is deep in my soul, I'm afraid.\" In private correspondence with her close friend and fellow philosopher Philippa Foot, she remarked in 1978 that she felt \"unsentimental about Ireland to the point of hatred\" and, of a Franco-Irish conference she had attended in Caen in 1982, said that \"the sounds of all those Irish voices made me feel privately sick\".", "Peter J. Conradi's 2001 biography was the fruit of long research and authorised access to journals and other papers. It is also a labour of love, and of a friendship with Murdoch that extended from a meeting at her Gifford Lectures to her death. The book was well received. John Updike commented: \"There would be no need to complain of literary biographies [...] if they were all as good\". The text addresses many popular questions about Murdoch, such as how Irish she was, what her politics were, etc. Though not a trained philosopher, Conradi's interest in Murdoch's achievement as a thinker is evident in the biography, and yet more so in his earlier work of literary criticism \"The Saint and the Artist: A Study of Iris Murdoch's Works\" (Macmillan 1986, HarperCollins 2001). He also recalled his personal encounters with Murdoch in \"Going Buddhist: Panic and Emptiness, the Buddha and Me\". (Short Books, 2005). Conradi's archive of material on Murdoch, together with Iris Murdoch's Oxford library, is held at Kingston University. An account of Murdoch's life with a different ambition is given by A. N. Wilson in his 2003 book \"Iris Murdoch as I Knew Her\". The work was described by Galen Strawson in \"The Guardian\" as \"mischievously revelatory\" and labelled by Wilson himself as an \"anti-biography\". Wilson eschews objectivity, but is careful to stress his affection for his subject. Wilson remarks that Murdoch \"had clearly been one of those delightful young women... who was prepared to go to bed with almost anyone\". While Murdoch's thought is an inspiration for Conradi, Wilson treats Murdoch's philosophical work as at best a distraction. David Morgan met Iris Murdoch in 1964, when he was a student at the Royal College of Art. His 2010 memoir \"With Love and Rage: A Friendship with Iris Murdoch\", describes their lifelong friendship. John Bayley wrote two memoirs of his life with Iris Murdoch. \"Iris: A Memoir\" was published in the United Kingdom in 1998, shortly before her death. The American edition, which was published in 1999, was called \"Elegy for Iris\". A sequel entitled \"Iris and the Friends\" was published in 1999, after her death. Murdoch was portrayed by Kate Winslet and Judi Dench in Richard Eyre's film \"Iris\" (2001), based on Bayley's memories of his wife as she developed Alzheimer's disease. In her centenary year, 2019, a collection of unpublished memories was published by Sabrestorm Press entitled 'Iris Murdoch: A Centenary Celebration', edited by Miles Leeson who directs the IRis Murdoch Research Centre at the University of Chichester, UK. https://www.sabrestormfiction.com/product/iris-murdoch-a-centenary-celebration/", "BBC Radio 4 broadcast in 2015 an \"Iris Murdoch season\" with several memoirs by people who knew her, and dramatizations of her novels.: In March 2019, it was announced that the London-based award-winning production company Rebel Republic Films, led by director Garo Berberian, has optioned the book and is currently developing a screenplay based on \"The Italian Girl\".", "Novels Short Stories Philosophy Plays Poetry collections Source: Centre for Iris Murdoch Studies, Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences Kingston University" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Rise in politics.", "International relations.", "Controversy.", "Presidential election 2006.", "2019 Sofia mayoral run.", "Personal life." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Siderov was born in 1956 in Yambol, Bulgaria. He received an undergraduate degree in Applied Photography in Sofia, and before the fall of Communism in 1989, worked at the National Literature Museum as a photographer. His brother, Dr. Plamen Siderov, is a mathematician and lectures at Sofia University. After the fall of Communism, Siderov became a member of the newly established Movement for Human Rights. During the fall of 1990, he became the editor-in-chief of \"Democracy\" (), the official newspaper of the Union of Democratic Forces (Siderov played a major role in establishing the paper as the official publication of the right-wing party). At one point he was appointed deputy editor-in-chief of \"Monitor\", a newspaper of a political orientation that could be described as nationalist and conservative. In 2000, Siderov was presented with the award of the Union of the Bulgarian Journalists. Later, he came to be the host of \"Attack\", a talk show on the Bulgarian cable TV channel \"SKAT\". In 2002 Siderov was invited to a controversial anti-globalisation conference in Moscow where he associated with people like Ahmed Rami and David Duke.", "During the 2003 local elections Siderov ran for mayor of Sofia on the ticket of the marginal National Association-BZNS Party. He received 1,728 votes, or 0.45%. That attempt passed largely unnoticed for the general public. During the June 2005 parliamentary elections, already a popular TV host, Siderov organised and led the party \"Attack\", named after his talk show. The party won 8.14% (296,848 votes) of the total vote, thus becoming the 4th largest party in parliament. In the 2009 elections Attack won 9.4% (395,000 votes) of the total vote.", "Siderov reportedly espouses anti-Masonic conspiracy theories, claiming that Masons control the world through puppet regimes, international organizations, and the press. According to Siderov, these forces seek to commit genocide against Bulgarian people. Attack opposes the membership of Bulgaria in NATO; Siderov has declared that the people were lied to, that Bulgaria would be the safest place by then Bulgarian Minister of Foreign Affairs—Solomon Pasi—but the result was reducing the Bulgarian army to 20,000 troops and in necessity Bulgaria would be defenseless as the Turkish government wants. He compared the accession of Bulgaria to NATO as a new signing of the Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine, considered as humiliating treaty for Bulgaria, signed after World War I. Although the party is ambivalent on Bulgaria's European Union membership, it has demanded a revision of some of the previous agreements (e.g. the resolution on shutting down the Kozloduy Nuclear Power Plant near the Danube), it claims that those who signed the EU membership, referring to Meglena Kuneva and others, are national traitors, not because of the EU membership itself, but because of the \"anti-Bulgarian\" agreements, on which it is signed. Siderov expressed respect to the Russian president Vladimir Putin, by visiting him on foot for his 60th birthday on 7 October 2012. On 8 March 2013 Siderov paid tribute to the deceased president of Venezuela Hugo Chavez at the Bolivarian republic's embassy in Sofia, where he called the revolutionary an 'example for the Bulgarian patriots as a statesman'. Attack insists on the cancellation of Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine and the returning of the Western Outlands to Bulgaria, annexed by Yugoslavia after the First World War, which consists of the regions of Dimitrovgrad and Bosilegrad in Serbia, whose population according to the Serbian national census is predominantly ethnic Bulgarian, and of the region of Strumica in Republic of Macedonia. Siderov said that the treaty is invalid, because it was signed with Yugoslavia in 1919, a vanished state, and does not refer to the present-day Serbia or to the Republic of Macedonia and should be cancelled. The first statement ever of Volen Siderov from the parliamentary tribune, for a plan for a giant genocide of the Bulgarian nation, coming from abroad: In September 2018, Siderov met with Israeli MK Oren Hazan, a member of the Likud party, during the latter's visit to Bulgaria. Hazan defended the meeting by noting that Siderov \"said he apologized for what he had said\" about the Holocaust in the past, and Hazan then \"told him he needed to do it publicly\".", "Siderov has generated increasing controversy as Attack has improved at the polls. He has been labeled xenophobic, and his persona has been called \"a studied imitation of Hitler\". He has criticised the \"symbiotic relationship\" between established political parties and organised criminal groups. He has also spoken against the purportedly \"widespread discrimination\" against majority ethnic Bulgarians by their own state, particularly in relation to the alleged non-prosecution by the state of crimes committed by ethnic minorities and the supposed free provision to certain ethnic groups of social services that have been denied to ordinary Bulgarians. Siderov and his party \"Attack\" were among the few Bulgarian political forces that opposed the closing of the four units of the Kozloduy Nuclear Power Plant. Units 1 and 2 were taken shut down in the end of 2003 and units 3 and 4 were taken out of operation in the final hours of 2006, immediately prior to the country's accession to the European Union. In February 2007, the newspaper \"168 Hours\" published claims that the Movement for Rights and Freedoms has paid BGN 1.6 million to \"Attack\". On 23 February 2007 Volen Siderov appeared in the offices of \"168 Hours\", and asked for an explanation, which was not provided. Attack is suing the newspaper for libel. From time to time Siderov is involved in scandals that include hooliganism. During a televised debate in the show \"Referendum\" on Bulgarian National Television (BNT), after arriving late, Siderov questioned the sexual orientation of IMRO leader Angel Dzhambazki, as well as Krasimir Karakachanov's property deals and alluded to what he alleged was underhanded support by the Movement for Rights and Freedoms for the nationalist IMRO party. He continued to speak even after being told to stop by moderators and even after his microphone was turned off. Gendarmerie officers arrived on scene to escort Siderov out of the studio and he was subsequently banned from appearing on the BNT by the channel's management. Bulgaria's council for electronic media referred the case to the country's Central Electoral Commission in an attempt to revoke Siderov's right to access free media packages, which are given to parties in the run-up to elections. Siderov reacted to these actions by accusing the network of censorship.", "Siderov ran for President in the 2006 presidential election. In the first round on 22 October he received 21% of the vote and qualified for the runoff on 29 October against incumbent Georgi Parvanov, who had 65%. Parvanov was not declared the winner after the first round because, in accordance with Bulgarian electoral law, at least 50% of all registered voters had to take part in the first round for that. Mainstream right-wing parties in Bulgaria (the UDF and the DSB) refused to back any of the candidates, despite appeals by many observers, notably by fellow conservative and European People's Party chairman Hans-Gert Pöttering, to support Parvanov (the situation was commonly compared with the way French left voters supported mainstream right-wing candidate Jacques Chirac against far-right Jean-Marie Le Pen in 2002). The centrist National Movement for Simeon II ultimately decided to back Parvanov. Meanwhile, some far left formations called their sympathizers to support Siderov. In the second round he lost, receiving about 24% of the vote.", "In September 2019, Siderov announced his resignation from Bulgaria's National Assembly, in order to run for the post of mayor of Sofia, Bulgaria's capital and largest city, in the 2019 Bulgarian local elections. During his election campaign he promised that, if elected, he would stop the use of municipal tow trucks for forcefully moving incorrectly parked cars, as well as ban any gay parades, such as Sofia Pride, from being held in the city. Siderov claimed that homosexuality itself \"did not interest\" him and that homosexuals could have a private party instead, as he deemed the gay parade was only costing the Sofia Municipality excess money, as the local police is charged with guarding the event. He also stated that he would attempt to save money by creating a local, municipal-run construction company, which would handle public works, instead of auctioning them off to private companies. Siderov believes that with these measures, he could fund free bus passes for all retirees and schoolkids in Sofia. He further pledged to \"crush\" street gangs and organized crime in Sofia in only 3 months, stating that voters were free to \"have his head\" if he did not fulfill this promise in time. Adding that he thought Sofia needed its own Viktor Orbán, he further stated that he believed candidates for mayor should resign their previous posts before standing for election, as he had done with his position in the national assembly. For this reason, he praised Maya Manolova, who resigned from her position as National Ombudsman to run for Mayor of Sofia, but criticised Angel Dzhambazki, another candidate for the position, who refused to give up his seat in the European Parliament. During the vote counting process, he arrived at Arena Armeec, where the votes were being tallied, and insisted he be allowed in to monitor the process. He was denied entry by the policemen guarding the arena and left after a long argument with the authorities, which told him that Bulgarian electoral law makes no provision for political candidates to monitor the counting process. He finished seventh with 1.44% of the vote.", "Siderov's hobby is collecting books and various map types related to Bulgaria." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early career.", "Professional career.", "Formula One (1999–2012).", "Arrows (1999–2000).", "Jaguar (2001–2002).", "McLaren (2003–2009).", "Sauber (2010–2011).", "McLaren (2011).", "HRT (2012).", "Ferrari (2013–2014).", "After Formula 1 (2015- ).", "Racing record.", "Complete R/C Racing summary." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "De la Rosa was born in Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain, and unlike most drivers, he started his career in radio-controlled cars, specialising in 1:8 off-road. He not just won three consecutive domestic championship titles between 1983 and 1985, he became the first multiple European radio controlled off-road championship twice in 1983 and 1984 and was runner up in the inaugural in 1986. It was only after that when he started karting in a local Spanish championship in 1988 when he was 17. He then joined the Spanish Formula Fiat Uno and became champion in 1989.", "In 1990, De la Rosa raced in Spanish Formula Ford 1600 and became champion. He later drove in British Formula Ford 1600 and got two podiums out of six races. In 1991, De la Rosa achieved fourth place in the Spanish Formula Renault Championship with three podium finishes. In 1992 he was both European and British Formula Renault champion. He slipped down the order in the next two years. In 1995, he was champion of the Japanese Formula Three series and third in the Macau Grand Prix. In 1996, he finished 8th in both the Formula Nippon and All Japan GT Championship. The next year he was champion in Formula Nippon. He was also the All Japan GT Champion with Michael Krumm.", "", "In, De la Rosa was a test driver for Jordan. The next year, he joined Arrows and scored one world championship point by finishing sixth in his debut race, the. He regularly out-paced his more experienced teammate Toranosuke Takagi. In 2000 he remained at Arrows alongside Dutchman Jos Verstappen. He scored two points, finishing sixth in the German Grand Prix and the European Grand Prix. Verstappen commented mid-season that he and De la Rosa 'work well together and we have a good partnership'. During the 2000 season, the Arrows team took part in a 13-part TV series named 'Racing Arrows' which followed the team and drivers throughout the year. It was shown on British TV channel ITV in 2001.", "He raced for two years with Jaguar Racing alongside Eddie Irvine, scoring 3 points in 2001 and none in 2002. At the end of the 2002 season Jaguar paid off his contract which was set to expire at the conclusion of 2003.", "He became a test driver for McLaren but raced at the 2005 Bahrain Grand Prix when Juan Pablo Montoya injured his shoulder. He finished fifth and set the fastest lap in the race. On 11 July 2006 it was announced that De la Rosa would take over the second McLaren race seat with immediate effect following Juan Pablo Montoya's departure to NASCAR. It was initially unclear whether he would remain in the seat until the end of the season, but some successful results led to him being retained. At the 2006 Hungarian Grand Prix De la Rosa scored his first and only Formula One podium, finishing in second place behind Jenson Button. After a long period of speculation as to who would be Fernando Alonso's teammate in, Lewis Hamilton secured the seat. De la Rosa would carry on as the team's test driver. For the season he combined his testing duties with providing race commentary for Spanish broadcaster Telecinco. After his absence in 2006 he returned to the microphone in 2007. Reports in 2007 consistently linked De la Rosa to a return to F1 racing with the new Prodrive team, which was set to make its debut in the season. Speculation suggested that Prodrive would run with support from the McLaren team, and that De la Rosa, along with fellow tester Gary Paffett would race for them in their maiden season. However, the team failed to make the grid for the new season, and for 2008, De la Rosa remained as a test driver for McLaren. De la Rosa was also involved in the espionage controversy surrounding his team and rivals Ferrari. With evidence provided by him and teammate Fernando Alonso, the FIA excluded the team from the 2007 Constructors' Championship, and issued a record fine of $100 million. He was understood to have sent e-mails to Mike Coughlan and Fernando Alonso regarding the Ferrari cars' setup. Before the Australian Grand Prix of 2008, De la Rosa was elected as the new chairman of the Grand Prix Drivers' Association after a unanimous vote. De la Rosa was the preferred candidate for GPDA directors Mark Webber and Fernando Alonso. He replaced the retired Ralf Schumacher in the role. He remained at McLaren in 2009, and as of January 2010 was the fifth most experienced test driver in history, in terms of test days. He stated that he wished to step down from the role of GPDA chairman, following the completion of his deal to drive for Sauber in 2010, and was duly replaced in the role by Nick Heidfeld at the Australian Grand Prix.", "In 2010 De la Rosa drove for the newly resurrected Sauber team. His teammate at Sauber was Japanese driver Kamui Kobayashi who impressed at Toyota during the last two races of the 2009 Formula One season. De la Rosa finished seven of the thirteen races he started in the season, and picked up six points from a single points-scoring finish, a seventh-place finish at the. These points would be the last of his Formula One career. De la Rosa qualified in the top ten on two occasions, at Silverstone and in Hungary as both he and teammate Kobayashi struggled with reliability problems for the majority of the season. He was dropped from his race seat by Sauber in favour of Nick Heidfeld after the Italian Grand Prix. De la Rosa replaced Heidfeld as test driver for Pirelli, in anticipation for their return to Formula One for the season. After Sergio Pérez's accident in Monaco, De la Rosa replaced him for Sauber at the, after Pérez decided after the first free practice session on Friday, to sit out the rest of the weekend. De la Rosa managed to stay out of trouble throughout the first part of the race, affected by heavy rain, running as high as ninth before a red flag suspended the race. He eventually finished 12th after having some contact soon after the restart which required a new wing.", "On 9 March 2011, McLaren announced that De la Rosa had returned to the team as their test and reserve driver.", "On 21 November 2011, it was announced that De la Rosa had signed for HRT F1 on a two-year contract. His teammate was Indian driver Narain Karthikeyan. Both drivers failed to qualify for the first race of the season in Australia, as De la Rosa was only able to complete seven timed laps during the race weekend. At the next race weekend in Malaysia, he was able to qualify and finish 22nd in the race after receiving a drive through penalty after the race was restarted, and he was later promoted to 21st place due to Karthikeyan's 20-second penalty for an incident with Sebastian Vettel. De la Rosa qualified ahead of Karthikeyan once again in China, and finished 21st, one lap down from the race winner. In Bahrain, he finished 20th after qualifying 22nd, although after the race he admitted that the team still needed \"to gain some speed per lap\" to fight their rivals on a consistent basis. Following on from this, De la Rosa finished his home race for the first time since 1999 in 19th place, the last of all classified drivers. However, he was unable to complete the Monaco Grand Prix due to a collision with Pastor Maldonado at the beginning of the race.", "On 16 January, Ferrari announced that De la Rosa had been signed in a developmental role for the team, aiding with its simulator resources. On 24 January Ferrari announced that De la Rosa would share testing duties of their 2013 challenger, the F138, with Felipe Massa at the first test of the season, beginning on 5 February in Jerez.", "He is now the technical and sporting advisor to the Techeetah Formula E team. De la Rosa also runs a driving school and racing team called Drivex.", "", "Bold on results indicates top qualifier" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "University studies.", "Family and early career (1959–1967).", "Later career (1967–present).", "Works.", "Overview.", "Influences and allusions.", "Dissemination and reception.", "International publication.", "Narrative techniques.", "Television.", "Theatre." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "David Lodge was born in Brockley in south-east London. His family home from 1936 to 1959 was at 81 Millmark Grove, a residential street of 1930s terraced houses running from Brockley Cross to Barriedale, Brockley. His father, a violinist, worked in the orchestra pit of south London cinemas accompanying silent films. Lodge's first published novel \"The Picturegoers\" (1960) draws on his early experiences in \"Brickley\" (based on Brockley), and his childhood home in Millmark Grove, Brockley, which he revisits again in his later novels, \"Therapy\" (1995), \"Deaf Sentence\" (2008) and \"\" (2015). World War II forced Lodge and his mother to evacuate to Surrey and Cornwall. He attended school at the Catholic St Joseph's Academy, Blackheath.", "In 1952, he entered University College, London, where he gained a Bachelor of Arts degree with first-class honours in 1955. There he met his future wife, Mary Frances Jacob, as a fellow student, when they were 18. Meanwhile he wrote a first, unpublished novel (1953): \"The Devil, the World and the Flesh\". After graduating, he spent two years in the Royal Armoured Corps on national service, which provided a basis for his novel \"Ginger You're Barmy\". He then returned to London University, earning a Master of Arts in 1959, for a thesis on \"The Catholic Novel from the Oxford Movement to the Present Day\".", "In 1959, Lodge and Jacob married at the age of 24. Lodge later said of this: \"It seems extraordinary now. I had no prospects, no job, little money but it never bothered me. We didn't really want children at the point they came along, but we got on with it.\" They had two children in the years 1960 to 1963, a son and a daughter; a second son, Christopher, was born in 1966 with Down Syndrome. From 1959 to 1960, Lodge worked in London as an English teacher for the British Council. In 1960, he obtained a job as a lecturer at the University of Birmingham, where he was preparing his PhD thesis on the Oxford Movement. At Birmingham, Lodge met the novelist Malcolm Bradbury, who was to become his \"closest writer friend\"; the example of Bradbury's comic writing was, according to Lodge, a major influence on the development of this aspect of his own work. In 1963, he collaborated with Malcolm Bradbury and another student, James Duckett, in the development of a satirical revue for the Birmingham Repertory Theatre, entitled \"Between These Four Walls\" and performed in the autumn of 1963. The cast included Julie Christie. It was during the performance of a certain skit that involved a radio being played on stage, that Lodge (and the audience) heard the news of the assassination of John F. Kennedy: \"Some members of the audience had caught the words and tittered uneasily, taking it as a joke in poor taste. In the interval everybody discovered the awful truth, and the second half of the show fell very flat.\" In August 1964, Lodge and his family went to the United States. He had received a scholarship from the Harkness Commonwealth Fellowship, which requires the recipient to travel at least three months out of twelve in the United States, with a car provided by the company. The family first lived in Providence, Rhode Island, where David Lodge followed the American literature course at Brown University. During this period, free of teaching obligations, Lodge was able to complete his third novel, \"The British Museum Is Falling Down\". Lodge's original title for this novel was \"The British Museum Has Lost Its Charm\", a line from a George and Ira Gershwin song but he was refused permission to use it by the Gershwin Publishing Corporation. In March 1965 the family went on a trip across America, eventually moving to San Francisco. In 1966, Lodge published his first book of academic criticism, \"Language of Fiction\", and in 1967 successfully defended his doctoral thesis. He was awarded his PhD in English in 1967 by Birmingham University.", "From 1967 to 1987, he continued his academic career at the University of Birmingham, becoming Professor of English Literature in 1976, while writing several more novels and essays. In 1969, he was an associate professor at the University of California, Berkeley, a second American experience important for the development of his work, both theoretical and fictional. Lodge retired from his post at Birmingham in 1987 to become a full-time writer: \"It was the right time to leave. All my former colleagues say: 'You are well out of it.' There's a weary disillusion to university life now and that's a shame because, when I was there, there was excitement, a joie de vivre. Now it has become like a machine, servicing large numbers of students, and much less attractive and interesting.\" He retains the title of Honorary Professor of Modern English Literature at the University and continues to live in Birmingham. Some of his papers are housed in the University Library's Special Collections. In 1997 David Lodge was made a \"Chevalier de l'Ordre des Arts et Lettres\" by the French Ministry of Culture. In the 1998 New Years Honours list, he was appointed CBE for his services to literature.", "", "Lodge's first published novels, evoke the atmosphere of post-war England (for example, \"The Picturegoers\" (1960)). The theme occurs in later novels, through the childhood memories of certain characters (\"Paradise News\", 1992; \"Therapy\", 1995). The war is covered in \"Out of the Shelter\" (1970), while \"Ginger, You're Barmy\" (1962) draws on Lodge's experience of military service in the 1950s. The \"Guardian\" review of the 2011 reissue of \"Ginger, You're Barmy\", called the novel \"an impressively humane and feelingly political indictment of a tawdry postwar compromise\" and \"a moving glimpse of a world on the cusp of change\". Lodge was brought up a Catholic and has described himself as an \"agnostic Catholic\". Many of his characters are Catholic and their Catholicism, particularly the relationship between Catholicism and sexuality, is a major theme. \"The British Museum Is Falling Down\" (1965) and \"How Far Can You Go?\" (1980; published in the US as \"Souls and Bodies\"), examine the difficulties faced by orthodox Catholics due to the prohibition of artificial contraception. Other novels where Catholicism plays an important part include \"\" (in respect to the character of Persse), \"Paradise News\" (1991) and \"Therapy\" (1995). In \"Therapy\", the protagonist Laurence Passmore, known as Tubby, suffers a breakdown after the failure of his marriage. He reminisces about his adolescent courtship with his first girlfriend at a Catholic youth club and seeks her out, on her pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela. Lodge has said that if read chronologically, his novels depict an orthodox Roman Catholic becoming \"less and less so as time went on\". Several of Lodge's novels are satirical depictions of the academic world. The Campus Trilogy (\"Changing Places\", \"Small World\" and \"Nice Work\") are set at a fictional university in the English Midlands town of \"Rummidge\", modelled on Birmingham. The novels share characters, notably the Rummidge English literature lecturer Philip Swallow and his American counterpart, Professor Morris Zapp, who aspires to be \"the highest paid teacher of Humanities in the world\". Swallow and Zapp first cross paths in \"Changing Places\", where they swap jobs for an exchange scheme (and later, swap wives). Lodge has called the plot of the novel \"a narrative transformation of the thematic material and the socio-cultural similarities and differences I had perceived between Birmingham and Berkeley,\" during his visiting professorship at the University of California, Berkeley). Other fictional universities appear in Lodge's novels. Persse McGarrigle in \"Small World\" is a doctoral student at a fictional University College Limerick, the book having been written before the foundation of a real University of Limerick. Another campus novel, \"Thinks...\", was set in a fictional University of Gloucester, before the foundation of the University of Gloucestershire. Lodge's novels cover the world of business in \"Nice Work\", that of television in \"Therapy\", and deafness and Alzheimer's disease in \"Deaf Sentence\". The last draws on Lodge's own hearing problems: \"I hate my deafness; it's a comic infirmity as opposed to blindness which is a tragic infirmity\". Lodge has said of his own work, \"Each of my novels corresponds to a particular phase or aspect of my own life [but] this does not mean they are autobiographical in any simple, straightforward sense.\" Two of Lodge's recent novels follow the lives of authors: \"Author, Author\" (2004) about Henry James and \"A Man of Parts\" (2011) about H. G. Wells. \"Author, Author\" suffered from comparison with Colm Tóibín's novel about Henry James, \"The Master\", published six months earlier and then shortlisted for the Booker Prize. Most reviews of Lodge's novel dwelt on its unfortunate timing. Lodge wrote about the experience in \"The Year of Henry James\" (2006). In 2015, \"Quite a Good Time to Be Born\" was published, as an autobiography covering Lodge's life from 1935 to 1975.", "Lodge's major influences include English Catholic novelists (the subject of his MA dissertation), notably Graham Greene. Of his contemporaries, he has been compared most often to his friend Malcolm Bradbury, also an exponent of the campus novel. Lodge has acknowledged this debt: \"\"The British Museum Is Falling Down\" was the first of my novels that could be described as in any way experimental. Comedy, it seemed, offered a way of reconciling a contradiction, of which I had long been aware, between my critical admiration for the great modernist writers, and my creative practice, formed by the neo-realist, anti-modernist writing of the 1950s. My association with Malcolm Bradbury, and the example of his own work in comedy, was therefore a crucial factor in this development in my writing.\" Lodge says he \"was once rung up by a man to settle a bet by declaring whether I was the same person as Malcolm Bradbury.\" As an academic, Lodge was an early UK proponent of the work of Mikhail Bakhtin. Lodge also makes frequent allusions to other literary works in his novels. \"The British Museum Is Falling Down\" is influenced by \"Mrs Dalloway\" and \"Ulysses\" in that all of the action takes place in one day. The novel is mostly seen from the point of view of Adam Appleby, but the last chapter contains a long stream-of-consciousness section from the point of view of Adam's wife Barbara, modelled on Molly Bloom's famous soliloquy at the end of \"Ulysses\". The novel contains a number of other passages which parody well-known writers, a fact not recognised by most reviewers when it was first published. \"Small World\" makes constant reference to Arthurian legend, in the plot, character names and allusions made by the characters (all academics). Lodge says of the novel's genesis, \"It gradually grew on me that there was an analogy between my story and the Arthurian story, particularly the Grail quest in which a group of knights wander around the world, having adventures, pursuing ladies, love, and glory, jousting with each other, meeting rather coincidentally or unexpectedly, facing constant challenges and crises, and so on... This all corresponded to the modern world with its Round Table of professors: the elite group who get invited to conferences, who go around the world in pursuit of glory. Sometimes they take the opportunity to indulge in amorous intrigue, or to joust with each other in debate, pursuing glory in the sense of wanting to be at the top of their profession.\"", "Lodge's work first came to wider notice in Britain in 1975, when he won the Hawthornden prize for \"Changing Places\". He went on to win the Whitbread Book of the Year Award in 1980 for \"How Far Can You Go?\" and the Sunday Express Book of the Year in 1988 for \"Nice Work\". Two of his early novels were reissued during this period (\"Ginger, You're Barmy\", 1962/1982, and \"The British Museum is Falling Down\", 1965/1981). His novels appeared in paperback in the 1960s with Pan and Panther Books, with Penguin Books from 1980 and with Vintage Publishing (Random House Group) since 2011. Vintage has reissued most of his earlier work. Lodge has been shortlisted for the Booker Prize twice, for \"Small World\" and \"Nice Work\", and in 1989, Lodge he chaired the Booker Prize judges. His 1970 novel \"Out of the Shelter\" was long-listed for the Lost Man Booker Prize in 2010. Anthony Burgess called Lodge \"one of the best novelists of his generation\".", "Lodge's work first received recognition in France in the early 1990s, after the publication by Rivages of two of his novels, \"Nice Work\" and \"Changing Places\". These were followed in 1991 by \"\" and \"The British Museum Is Falling Down\". Since then almost all his works of fiction have been translated – his new works fairly quickly. His present publisher in France is Payot et Rivages. Publication of his theoretical works in France began later, beginning in 2003 with \"Consciousness and the Novel\". The earlier works of this area remained unpublished in France, except \"The Art of Fiction\". His books are routinely translated into other languages, including German, Spanish, Italian, Japanese, Portuguese, Russian, Czech, Polish and Turkish.", "In \"The Art of Fiction (1992)\", David Lodge studied, through examination of extracts from novels, various stylistic devices (repetition, variation in levels of language, etc.) and narrative techniques (varying viewpoints, defamiliarisation, etc.). Lodge self-consciously uses many of these techniques in his own novels. For example, in \"Paradise News\" (1991) the narration is mostly third-person point of view, but there are also first-person narratives (diary and autobiography, letters, postcards, emails) and various other documents, such as theoretical writings on tourism. In \"Therapy\" (1995) the bulk of the novel is told through the protagonist's diary, but there are other texts, presented as written by minor characters about the main character. It is eventually revealed that these were all written by the main character, as part of a therapy exercise.", "Two of Lodge's novels have been adapted into television serials: \"Small World\" (1988), and \"Nice Work\" (1989). \"Nice Work\" was adapted by Lodge himself and filmed at the University of Birmingham, where Lodge was Professor of English. He also adapted his play \"The Writing Game\" for television (1995). In 1994 Lodge adapted Dickens's \"Martin Chuzzlewit\" for a BBC series.", "Lodge has written three plays: \"The Writing Game\", \"Home Truths\" (which he later turned into a novella), and \"Secret Thoughts\" (based on his novel \"Thinks...\"). In his autobiography \"Quite a Good Time To Be Born: a Memoir, 1935–75\" (2015), Lodge notes that The Old Rep was one of his favourite theatres, with a long distinguished history and the likes of Laurence Olivier, Edith Evans, Ralph Richardson, Albert Finney and Derek Jacobi performing there. He referred to the theatre as \"a gem\", but noted that shabby as it was then, he could not have had a better venue for his first attempt at writing for the professional stage. \"The Writing Game\" is about the staff, teachers and students at a residential course for writers. The action of the play is interspersed with readings by the characters of their own works in progress. According to Lodge, the play \"originated in the experience of teaching such a course myself – not because its plot bears any resemblance to what happened on that course, but because it struck me that the bare situation possessed the classic dramatic unities of time, place and action. Indeed it would be true to say that I invented the plot of my play to fulfil the dramatic possibilities inherent in the situation.\" The play opened at the Birmingham Repertory Theatre on 13 May 1990, and ran for three weeks. An American production was staged at the American Repertory Theatre in Cambridge, Massachusetts in March 1991. Lodge subsequently adapted the play for television. It was broadcast on Channel 4 on Sunday 18 February 1996, attracting 1.2 million viewers. \"Home Truths\" was performed at the Birmingham Rep in 1998. The story mainly focuses on Adrian Ludlow, a semi-retired writer interviewed by Fanny Tarrant, a journalist famous for sarcastic portrayals. Lodge later rewrote it as a novella of the same name. Lodge adapted his novel \"Thinks...\" into a two-character play, \"Secret Thoughts\", which opened at the Octagon Theatre, Bolton on 12 May 2011. The Stage called it \"an intriguing, intensely witty, brainy play... one of the most compelling two-handers imaginable.\" The \"Guardian\" review said that \"Lodge's novel boils down neatly into an intellectually and erotically charged dialogue on the nature of the mind,\" yet felt that \"Lodge cannot quite eradicate the sense that some of the cerebral jousting has a more natural home in a novel than on stage.\" \"Secret Thoughts\" won Best New Play at the Manchester Theatre Awards, hailed as a \"bracing and ambitious production that wowed everyone who saw it.\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Life and early career as a judge.", "Ebadi as a lawyer.", "Political views.", "Nobel Peace Prize.", "Post-Nobel prize.", "Threats.", "Seizure.", "Lawsuits.", "Lawsuit against the United States.", "Lawsuit over non-publication." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "She was the first Iranian and the first Muslim woman to receive the prize, and thousands greeted her at the airport when she returned from Paris after receiving the news that she had won the prize. The response to the Award in Iran was mixed—enthusiastic supporters greeted her at the airport upon her return, the conservative media underplayed it, and then-Iranian President Mohammad Khatami criticized it as political. In 2009, Norway's Foreign Minister Jonas Gahr Støre, published a statement reporting that Ebadi's Nobel Peace Prize had been confiscated by Iranian authorities and that \"This [was] the first time a Nobel Peace Prize ha[d] been confiscated by national authorities.\" Iran denied the charges. Ebadi lived in Tehran, but she has been in exile in the UK since June 2009 due to the increase in persecution of Iranian citizens who are critical of the current regime. In 2004, she was listed by \"Forbes\" magazine as one of the \"100 most powerful women in the world\". She is also included in a published list of the \"100 most influential women of all time.\" Shirin Ebadi is also one of the 25 leading figures on the Information and Democracy Commission launched by Reporters Without Borders.", "Ebadi was born in Hamadan, Iran. Her father, Mohammad Ali Ebadi, was the city's chief notary public and a professor of commercial law. Her family moved to Tehran in 1948. She was admitted to the law department of the University of Tehran in 1965 and in 1969, upon graduation, passed the qualification exams to become a judge. After a six-month internship period, she officially became a judge in March 1969. She continued her studies in University of Tehran in the meantime to pursue a doctorate's degree in law in 1971. In 1975, she became the first woman president of the Tehran city court and served until the 1979 Iranian revolution. She was also the first ever woman judge in Iran. As her applications were repeatedly rejected, Ebadi was not able to practice as a lawyer until 1993, while she already had a law office permit. She used this free time to write books and many articles in Iranian periodicals.", "By 2004 Ebadi was lecturing law at the University of Tehran while practicing law in Iran. She is a campaigner for strengthening the legal status of children and women, the latter of which played a key role in the May 1997 landslide presidential election of the reformist Mohammad Khatami. As a lawyer, she is known for taking up \"pro bono\" cases of dissident figures who have fallen foul of the judiciary. She has represented the family of Dariush Forouhar, a dissident intellectual and politician who was found stabbed to death at his home. His wife, Parvaneh Eskandari, was also killed at the same time. The couple were among several dissidents who died in a spate of grisly murders that terrorized Iran's intellectual community. Suspicion fell on extremist hard-liners determined to put a stop to the more liberal climate fostered by President Khatami, who championed freedom of speech. The murders were found to be committed by a team of the employees of the Iranian Ministry of Intelligence, whose head, Saeed Emami, allegedly committed suicide in jail before being brought to court. Ebadi also represented the family of Ezzat Ebrahim-Nejad, who was killed in the Iranian student protests in July 1999. In 2000 Ebadi was accused of manipulating the videotaped confession of Amir Farshad Ebrahimi, a former member of the Ansar-e Hezbollah. Ebrahimi confessed his involvement in attacks made by the organization on the orders of high-level conservative authorities, which have included the killing of Ezzat Ebrahim-Nejad and attacks against members of President Khatami's cabinet. Ebadi claimed that she had only videotaped Amir Farshad Ebrahimi's confessions in order to present them to the court. This case was named \"Tape makers\" by hardliners who questioned the credibility of his videotaped deposition as well as his motives. Ebadi and Rohami were sentenced to five years in jail and suspension of their law licenses for sending Ebrahimi's videotaped deposition to President Khatami and the head of the Islamic judiciary. The sentences were later vacated by the Islamic judiciary's supreme court, but they did not forgive Ebarahimi's videotaped confession and sentenced him to 48 months jail, including 16 months in solitary confinement. This case brought increased focus on Iran from human rights groups abroad. Ebadi has also defended various child abuse cases, including the case of Arian Golshani, a child who was abused for years and then beaten to death by her father and stepbrother. This case gained international attention and caused controversy in Iran. Ebadi used this case to highlight Iran's problematic child custody laws, whereby custody of children in divorce is usually given to the father, even in the case of Arian, where her mother had told the court that the father was abusive and had begged for custody of her daughter. Ebadi also handled the case of Leila, a teenage girl who was gang-raped and murdered. Leila's family became homeless trying to cover the costs of the execution of the perpetrators owed to the government, because in the Islamic Republic of Iran, it is the victim's family's responsibility to pay to restore their honor when a girl is raped by paying the government to execute the perpetrator. Ebadi was not able to achieve a victory in this case, but she brought international attention to this problematic law. Ebadi also handled a few cases dealing with bans of periodicals (including the cases of Habibollah Peyman, Abbas Marufi, and Faraj Sarkouhi). She has also established two non-governmental organizations in Iran with western funding, the \"Society for Protecting the Rights of the Child\" (SPRC) (1994) and the Defenders of Human Rights Center (DHRC) in 2001. She also helped in the drafting of the original text of a law against physical abuse of children, which was passed by the Iranian parliament in 2002. Female members of Parliament also asked Ebadi to draft a law explaining how a woman's right to divorce her husband is in line with Sharia (Islamic Law). Ebadi presented the bill before the government, but the male members made her leave without considering the bill, according to Ebadi's memoir.", "In her book \"Iran Awakening\", Ebadi explains her political/religious views on Islam, democracy and gender equality: In the last 23 years, from the day I was stripped of my judgeship to the years of doing battle in the revolutionary courts of Tehran, I had repeated one refrain: an interpretation of Islam that is in harmony with equality and democracy is an authentic expression of faith. It is not religion that binds women, but the selective dictates of those who wish them cloistered. That belief, along with the conviction that change in Iran must come peacefully and from within, has underpinned my work.\" At the same time, Ebadi expresses a nationalist love of Iran and a critical view of the Western world. She opposed the pro-Western Shah, initially supported the Islamic Revolution, and remembers the CIA's 1953 overthrow of prime minister Mohammad Mosaddeq with rage. At a press conference shortly after the Peace Prize announcement, Ebadi herself explicitly rejected foreign interference in the country's affairs: \"The fight for human rights is conducted in Iran by the Iranian people, and we are against any foreign intervention in Iran.\" Subsequently, Ebadi has openly defended the Islamic regime's nuclear development programme: Aside from being economically justified, it has become a cause of national pride for an old nation with a glorious history. No Iranian government, regardless of its ideology or democratic credentials, would dare to stop the program. However, in a 2012 interview, Ebadi has stated: The [Iranian] people want to stop enrichment but the government doesn't listen. Iran is situated on a fault line and people are scared of a Fukushima type of situation happening. We want peace, security, and economic welfare, and we cannot forgo all of our other rights for nuclear energy. The government claims it is not making a bomb. But I am not a member of the government, so I cannot speak to this directly. The fear is that if they do, Israel will be wiped out. If the Iranian people are able to topple the government, this could improve the situation. [In 2009] the people of Iran rose up and were badly suppressed. Right now, Iran is the country with the most journalists in prison. This is the price people are paying. Ebadi also indirectly expressed her views on the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. In April 2010, Associated Students of the University of California passed a bill calling for the University to Divest itself from what it saw as Israeli war crimes, by breaking ties with companies providing technology to the Israel Defense Forces. Shirin Ebadi, together with three other Peace Prize laureates, supported the bill. Regarding her views on the Shia religion in Iran, she has said, after the Arabs came, and Iran converted to Islam, \"Eventually we turned to the Shiite sect, which was different from the Arabs, who are Sunni\" noting Persians were still Muslims but \"We were Iranian.\" Since the victory of Hassan Rouhani in the 2013 Iranian presidential election, Shirin Ebadi in various occasions has expressed her worry about the growing human rights violations in her homeland. Ebadi in her Dec. 2013 speech at Human Rights Day seminar at Leiden University angrily said: \"I will shut up but the problems of Iran will not be solved\". In light of the increased power of ISIL, Ebadi communicated in April 2015 that she believes the Western world should spend money funding education and an end to corruption rather than fighting with guns and bombs. She reasons that because the Islamic State stems from an ideology based on a \"wrong interpretation of Islam,\" physical force will not end ISIS because it will not end its beliefs. In 2018, in an interview with Bloomberg, Ebadi stated her belief that the Islamic Republic has reached a point of which it is now un-reformable. Ebadi called for a referendum on the Islamic Republic.", "On 10 October 2003, Ebadi was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for her efforts for democracy and human rights, especially for the rights of women and children. The selection committee praised her as a \"courageous person\" who \"has never heeded the threat to her own safety\". Now she travels abroad lecturing in the West. She is against a policy of forced regime change. The decision of the Nobel committee surprised some observers worldwide. Pope John Paul II had been predicted to win the Peace Prize amid speculation that he was nearing death. Some observers viewed Ebadi's selection as a calculated and political one along the lines of the selection of Lech Wałęsa and Mikhail Gorbachev, among others, for the award. Furthermore, they suggested that Ebadi's activities were not directly related to the goals of the prize as originally expressed by Alfred Nobel. She presented a book entitled \"Democracy, human rights, and Islam in modern Iran: Psychological, social and cultural perspectives\" to the Nobel Committee. The volume documents the historical and cultural basis of democracy and human rights from Cyrus and Darius, 2,500 years ago to Mohammad Mossadeq, the Prime Minister of modern Iran who nationalized the oil industry. In Iran, officials of the Islamic Republic were either silent or critical of the selection of Ebadi, calling it a political act by a pro-Western institution and were also critical when Ebadi did not cover her hair at the Nobel award ceremony. IRNA reported it in few lines that the evening newspapers and the Iranian state media waited hours to report the Nobel committee's decision—and then only as the last item on the radio news update. Reformist officials are said to have \"generally welcomed the award\", but \"come under attack for doing so.\" Reformist president Mohammad Khatami did not officially congratulate Ms. Ebadi and stated that although the scientific Nobels are important, the Peace Prize is \"not very important\" and was awarded to Ebadi on the basis of \"totally political criteria\". Vice President Mohammad Ali Abtahi, the only official to initially congratulate Ebadi, defended the president saying \"abusing the President's words about Ms. Ebadi is tantamount to abusing the prize bestowed on her for political considerations\".", "Since receiving the Nobel Prize Ebadi has lectured, taught and received awards in different countries, issued statements and defended people accused of political crimes in Iran. She has traveled to and spoken to audiences in India, the United States, and other countries; released her autobiography in an English translation. With five other Nobel laureates, she created the Nobel Women's Initiative to promote peace, justice and equality for women.", "In April 2008 she told Reuters news agency that Iran's human rights record had regressed in the past two years and agreed to defend Baha’is arrested in Iran in May 2008. In April 2008 Ebadi released a statement saying: \"Threats against my life and security and those of my family, which began some time ago, have intensified,\" and that the threats warned her against making speeches abroad, and defending Iran's minority Baha'i community. In August 2008, the IRNA news agency published an article attacking Ebadi's links to the Bahá'í Faith and accused her of seeking support from the West. It also criticized Ebadi for defending homosexuals, appearing without the Islamic headscarf abroad, questioning Islamic punishments, and \"defending CIA agents.\" It accused her daughter, Nargess Tavassolian, of conversion to the Bahá'í faith, a capital offense in the Islamic Republic. Her daughter believes \"the government wanted to scare my mother with this scenario.\" Ebadi believes the attacks are in retaliation for her agreeing to defend the families of the seven Baha’is arrested in May. In December 2008, Iranian police shut down the office of a human rights group led by her. Another human rights group, Human Rights Watch, has said it was \"extremely worried\" about Ebadi's safety.", "Ebadi said while in London in late November 2009 that her Nobel Peace Prize medal and diploma had been taken from their bank box alongside her Légion d'honneur and a ring she had received from Germany's association of journalists. She said they had been taken by the Revolutionary Court approximately three weeks previously. Ebadi also said her bank account was frozen by authorities. Norwegian Minister of Foreign Affairs Jonas Gahr Støre expressed his \"shock and disbelief\" at the incident. The Iranian foreign ministry subsequently denied the confiscation, and also criticized Norway for interfering in Iran's affairs.", "", "In 2004, Ebadi filed a lawsuit against the U.S. Department of Treasury because of restrictions she faced over publishing her memoir in the United States. American trade laws include prohibitions on writers from embargoed countries. The law also banned American literary agent Wendy Strothman from working with Ebadi. Azar Nafisi wrote a letter in support of Ebadi. Nafisi said that the law infringes on the First Amendment. After a long legal battle, Ebadi won and was able to publish her memoir in the United States.", "According to the Associated Press, on 27 August 2007, Ebadi was sued by a Canadian author and political analyst, Shahir Shahidsaless—who writes and publishes in Persian—in U.S. District Court in Manhattan saying she reneged on getting a publisher for a book she had requested him to write under her supervision, titled \"A Useful Enemy\". The initial suit was dismissed due to lack of jurisdiction of the court, and not the substance of the case, which was never tried. The case is currently being considered at the New York State Court." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology and roots.", "Humour.", "Social and psychological functions.", "Classifications.", "Horatian, Juvenalian, Menippean.", "Horatian.", "Juvenalian.", "Menippean.", "Satire versus teasing.", "Classifications by topics.", "Development.", "Ancient Egypt.", "Ancient Greece.", "Roman world.", "Medieval Islamic world.", "Medieval Europe.", "Early modern western satire.", "Ancient and modern India.", "Age of Enlightenment.", "Satire in Victorian England.", "20th-century satire.", "Contemporary satire.", "Techniques.", "Legal status.", "Australia.", "Censorship and criticism.", "Typical arguments.", "Bad taste.", "Targeting the victim.", "Romantic prejudice.", "History of opposition toward notable satires.", "1599 book ban.", "21st-century polemics.", "Satirical prophecy.", "Satire celebration." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The word \"satire\" comes from the Latin word \"satur\" and the subsequent phrase \"lanx satura.\" \"Satur\" meant \"full\" but the juxtaposition with \"lanx\" shifted the meaning to \"miscellany or medley\": the expression \"lanx satura\" literally means \"a full dish of various kinds of fruits\". The word \"satura\" as used by Quintilian, however, was used to denote only Roman verse satire, a strict genre that imposed hexameter form, a narrower genre than what would be later intended as \"satire\". Quintilian famously said that \"satura,\" that is a satire", "Laughter is not an essential component of satire; in fact there are types of satire that are not meant to be \"funny\" at all. Conversely, not all humour, even on such topics", "Satire and irony in some cases have been regarded as the most effective source to understand a society, the oldest form of social study. They provide the keenest insights into a group's collective psyche, reveal its deepest values and tastes, and the society's structures of power. Some authors have regarded satire as superior to non-comic and non-artistic disciplines like history or anthropology. In a prominent example from ancient Greece, philosopher Plato, when asked by a friend for a book to understand Athenian society, referred him to the plays of Aristophanes. Historically, satire has satisfied the popular need to debunk and ridicule the leading figures in politics, economy, religion and other prominent realms of power. Satire confronts public discourse and the collective imaginary, playing as a public opinion counterweight to power (be it political, economic, religious, symbolic, or otherwise), by challenging leaders and authorities. For instance, it forces", "Satire is a diverse genre which is complex to classify and define, with a wide range of satiric \"modes\".", "Satirical literature can commonly be categorized as either Horatian, Juvenalian, or Menippean.", "Horatian satire, named for the Roman satirist Horace (65–8 BCE), playfully criticizes some social vice through gentle, mild, and light-hearted humour. Horace (Quintus Horatius Flaccus) wrote Satires to gently ridicule the dominant opinions and \"philosophical beliefs of ancient Rome and Greece\" (Rankin). Rather than writing in harsh or accusing tones, he addressed issues with humor and clever mockery. Horatian satire follows this same pattern of \"gently [ridiculing] the absurdities and follies of human beings\" (Drury). It directs wit, exaggeration, and self-deprecating humour toward what it", "Juvenalian satire, named for the writings of the Roman satirist Juvenal (late first century – early second century AD), is more contemptuous and abrasive than the Horatian. Juvenal disagreed with the opinions of the public figures and institutions of the Republic and actively attacked them through his literature. \"He utilized the satirical tools of exaggeration and parody to make his targets appear monstrous and incompetent\" (Podzemny). Juvenal's satire follows this same pattern of abrasively ridiculing societal structures. Juvenal also, unlike Horace, attacked public officials and governmental organizations through his satires, regarding their", "See Menippean satire.", "In the history of theatre there has always been a conflict between engagement and disengagement on politics and relevant issue, between satire and grotesque on one side, and jest with teasing on the other. Max Eastman defined the spectrum of satire in terms of \"degrees of biting\", as ranging from satire proper at the hot-end, and \"kidding\" at the violet-end; Eastman adopted the term kidding to denote what is just satirical in form, but is not really firing at the target. Nobel laureate satirical playwright Dario Fo pointed out the difference between satire and teasing (\"sfottò\"). Teasing is the reactionary side of the comic; it limits itself to a shallow parody of physical appearance. The side-effect of teasing is that it humanizes and draws sympathy for the powerful individual towards which it is directed. Satire instead uses the comic to go against power and its oppressions,", "Types of satire can also be classified according to the topics it deals with. From the earliest times, at least since the plays of Aristophanes, the primary topics of literary satire have been politics, religion and sex. This is partly because these are the most pressing problems that affect anybody living in a society, and partly because these topics are usually taboo. Among these, politics in the broader sense is considered the pre-eminent topic of satire. Satire which targets the clergy is", "", "One of the earliest examples of what we might call satire, The Satire of the Trades, is in Egyptian writing from the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. The text's apparent readers are students, tired of studying. It argues that", "The Greeks had no word for what later would be called \"satire\", although the terms cynicism and parody were used. Modern critics call the Greek playwright Aristophanes one of the best known early satirists: his plays are known for their critical political and societal commentary, particularly for the political satire by which he criticized the powerful Cleon (as in \"The Knights\"). He is", "The first Roman to discuss satire critically was Quintilian, who invented the term to describe the writings of Gaius Lucilius. The two most prominent and influential ancient Roman satirists are Horace and Juvenal, who wrote during the early days of the Roman Empire. Other important satirists in ancient Latin are Gaius Lucilius and Persius. \"Satire\" in their work is much wider than in the modern sense of the word, including fantastic and highly coloured humorous writing with little or no real mocking intent. When Horace criticized Augustus,", "Medieval Arabic poetry included the satiric genre \"hija\". Satire was introduced into Arabic prose literature by the author Al-Jahiz in the 9th century. While dealing with serious topics in what are now known as anthropology, sociology and psychology, he introduced a satirical approach, \"based on the premise that, however serious the subject under review, it could be made more interesting and thus achieve greater effect, if only one leavened the lump of solemnity by the insertion of a few amusing anecdotes or by the throwing out of some witty or paradoxical observations. He was well aware that, in treating of new themes in his prose works, he would have to employ a vocabulary of a nature more familiar in \"hija\", satirical poetry.\" For example, in one of his zoological works, he satirized the preference for longer human penis size, writing: \"If the length of the penis were a sign of honor, then the mule would belong to the (honorable tribe of) Quraysh\". Another satirical story based on this preference was an \"Arabian Nights\" tale called \"Ali with the Large Member\". In the 10th century, the writer Tha'alibi recorded satirical poetry written", "In the Early Middle Ages, examples of satire were the songs by Goliards or vagants now best known as an anthology called Carmina Burana and made famous as texts of a composition by the 20th-century composer Carl Orff. Satirical poetry is believed to have been popular, although little has survived. With the", "Direct social commentary via satire returned with a vengeance in the 16th century, when farcical texts such as the works of François Rabelais tackled more serious issues (and incurred the wrath of the crown as a result). Two major satirists of Europe in the Renaissance were Giovanni Boccaccio and François Rabelais. Other examples of Renaissance satire include \"Till Eulenspiegel\", \"Reynard the Fox\", Sebastian Brant's \"Narrenschiff\" (1494), Erasmus's \"Moriae Encomium\" (1509), Thomas More's \"Utopia\" (1516), and \"Carajicomedia\" (1519). The Elizabethan (i.e. 16th-century English) writers thought of satire as related to the notoriously rude, coarse and sharp satyr play. Elizabethan \"satire\" (typically in pamphlet form) therefore contains more straightforward abuse", "Satire (\"Kataksh\" or \"Vyang\") has played a prominent role in Indian and Hindi literature, and is counted as one of the \"ras\" of literature in ancient books. With the commencement of printing of books in local language in the nineteenth century and especially after India's freedom, this grew. Many of the works of Tulsi Das, Kabir,", "The Age of Enlightenment, an intellectual movement in the 17th and 18th centuries advocating rationality, produced a great revival of satire in Britain. This was fuelled by the rise of partisan politics, with the formalisation of the Tory and Whig parties—and also, in 1714, by the formation of the Scriblerus Club, which included Alexander Pope, Jonathan Swift, John Gay, John Arbuthnot, Robert Harley, Thomas Parnell, and Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke. This club included several of the notable satirists of early-18th-century Britain. They focused their attention on Martinus Scriblerus, \"an invented learned fool... whose work they attributed all that", "Several satiric papers competed for the public's attention in the Victorian era (1837–1901) and Edwardian period, such as \"Punch\" (1841) and \"Fun\" (1861). Perhaps the most enduring examples of Victorian satire, however, are to be found in the Savoy Operas of Gilbert and Sullivan. In fact, in \"The Yeomen of the Guard\", a jester is given lines that paint a very neat picture of the method and purpose of the satirist, and might almost be taken as a statement of Gilbert's own intent: Novelists such as Charles Dickens (1812-1870) often used passages of satiric writing in their treatment of social issues. Continuing the tradition of Swiftian journalistic satire, Sidney Godolphin Osborne (1808-1889) was the most prominent writer of scathing \"Letters to the Editor\" of the London Times. Famous in his day, he is now all but forgotten. His maternal grandfather William Eden, 1st Baron Auckland was considered to be a possible candidate for the authorship of the Junius letters. If this were true, we can read Osborne as following", "Karl Kraus is considered the first major European satirist since Jonathan Swift. In 20th-century literature, satire was used by English authors such as Aldous Huxley (1930s) and George Orwell (1940s), which under the inspiration of Zamyatin's Russian 1921 novel \"We\", made serious and even frightening commentaries on the dangers of the sweeping social changes taking place throughout Europe. Anatoly Lunacharsky wrote ‘Satire attains its greatest significance when a newly evolving class creates an ideology considerably more advanced than that of the ruling class, but has not yet developed to the point where", "Contemporary popular usage of the term \"satire\" is often very imprecise. While satire often uses caricature and parody, by no means all uses of these or other humorous devices are satiric. Refer to the careful definition of satire that heads this article. Satire is used on many UK television programmes, particularly popular panel shows and quiz shows such as \"Mock the Week\" (2005–ongoing) and \"Have I Got News for You\" (1990–ongoing). It is found on radio quiz shows such as \"The News Quiz\" (1977–ongoing) and \"The Now Show\" (1998–ongoing). One of the most watched UK television shows of the 1980s and early 1990s, the puppet show \"Spitting Image\" was a satire of the royal family, politics, entertainment, sport and British culture of the era. Court Flunkey from \"Spitting Image\" is a caricature of James Gillray, intended as a homage to the father of political cartooning. Created by DMA Design in 1997, satire features prominently in the British video game series \"Grand Theft Auto\". Trey Parker and Matt Stone's \"South Park\" (1997–ongoing) relies almost exclusively on satire", "Literary satire is usually written out of earlier satiric works, reprising previous conventions, commonplaces,", "For its nature and social role, satire has enjoyed in many societies a special freedom license to mock prominent individuals and institutions. In Germany and Italy satire is protected by the constitution. Since satire belongs to the realm of art and artistic expression, it benefits from broader lawfulness limits than mere freedom of information of journalistic kind. In some countries a specific \"right to satire\" is recognized and its limits go beyond the \"right to report\" of journalism and even the \"right to criticize\". Satire benefits not only of the protection to freedom of speech, but also to that to culture, and that to scientific and artistic production.", "In September 2017 The Juice Media received an e-mail from the Australian National Symbols Officer requesting that the use of a satirical logo, called the \"Coat of Harms\" based on the Australian Coat of Arms, no longer be used as they had received complaints from", "Descriptions of satire's biting effect on its target include'venomous', 'cutting','stinging', vitriol. Because satire often combines anger and humor, as well as the fact that it addresses and calls into question many controversial issues, it can be profoundly disturbing.", "Because it is essentially ironic or sarcastic, satire is often misunderstood. A typical misunderstanding is to confuse the satirist with his persona.", "Common uncomprehending responses to satire include revulsion (accusations of poor taste, or that \"it's just not funny\" for instance) and the idea that the satirist actually", "Some critics of Mark Twain see \"Huckleberry Finn\" as racist and offensive, missing the point that its author clearly intended it to be satire (racism being in fact only one of a number of Mark Twain's known concerns attacked in \"Huckleberry Finn\"). This same misconception was suffered by the main character of the 1960s British television comedy satire \"Till Death Us Do Part\". The character of Alf Garnett (played by Warren Mitchell) was created to poke fun at the kind of narrow-minded, racist, little Englander that Garnett represented. Instead, his character became a sort of anti-hero to people who actually agreed with his views. (The same situation occurred", "The romantic prejudice against satire is the belief spread by the romantic movement that satire is something unworthy of serious attention; this prejudice has held considerable influence to this day. Such prejudice extends to humour and everything that arouses laughter, which are often underestimated as frivolous and unworthy of serious study. For instance, humor is generally neglected as a topic of anthropological research and teaching.", "Because satire criticises in an ironic, essentially indirect way, it frequently escapes censorship in a way more direct criticism might not. Periodically, however, it runs into serious opposition, and people in power who perceive themselves as attacked attempt to censor it or prosecute its practitioners. In a classic example, Aristophanes was persecuted by the demagogue Cleon.", "In 1599, the Archbishop of Canterbury John Whitgift and the Bishop of London Richard Bancroft, whose offices had the function of licensing books for publication in England, issued a decree banning verse satire. The decree, now known as the Bishops' Ban of 1599, ordered the burning of certain volumes of satire by John Marston, Thomas Middleton, Joseph Hall, and others; it also required histories and plays to be specially approved by a member of", "In 2005, the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy caused global protests by offended Muslims and violent attacks with many fatalities in the Near East. It was not the first case of Muslim protests against criticism in the form of satire, but the Western world was surprised by the hostility of the reaction: Any country's flag in which a newspaper chose to publish the parodies was being burnt in a Near East country, then embassies were attacked, killing 139 people in mainly four countries; politicians throughout Europe agreed that satire was an aspect of the freedom of speech, and therefore to be a protected means of dialogue. Iran threatened to start an International Holocaust Cartoon Competition, which was immediately responded to by Jews with an Israeli Anti-Semitic Cartoons Contest. In 2006 British comedian Sacha Baron Cohen released \"Borat: Cultural Learnings of America for Make Benefit Glorious Nation of Kazakhstan\", a \"mockumentary\" that satirized everyone, from high society to frat boys. The film was criticized by many. Although Baron Cohen is Jewish, some complained that it was antisemitic, and the government of Kazakhstan boycotted the film. The film itself had been a reaction to a longer", "Satire is occasionally prophetic: the jokes", "In June 2019, Punocracy, \"Nigeria\"'s foremost satire platform organised a nationwide writing competition for youth in the country with the objective to make satire a widely accepted and understood tool of socio-political commentary. Some of the entries addressed issues like \"gender violence\", \"political corruption\", religious hypocrisy, \"internet fraud\", educational decay and so on. The group also declared November 9 as World Satire Day with the idea of \"trying to fight against the ills in the society not by ammunition but by humour, sarcasm etcetera\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Heinkel Flugzeugwerke.", "Death of Walter.", "Postwar.", "Soviet Union.", "East Germany.", "West Germany.", "Death of Siegfried." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Siegfried and Walter Günter were born on 8 December 1899 in Thuringia. Avid flight enthusiasts, at 16 they had developed their own propeller theories. Both served in the First World War, where they were captured by the British Army and each became a prisoner of war. The brothers would be educated in mechancial engineering at the Institute of Technology Hannover, specializing in aircraft design and aerodynamics. It was there that Siegfried designed his first aircraft with fellow students Walter Mertens and Werner Meyer-Cassel, the glider H 6. Their talents were first recognised by Paul Bäumer who was impressed by the performance of the H 6 when he saw it being flown at Wasserkuppe. Bäumer offered the brothers, Mertens, and Meyer-Cassel jobs with his company Bäumer Aero in Berlin. There they began designing motor gliders and then increasingly fast sports planes, including one in which Bäumer himself was killed in a crash in 1928. By 1925 Siegfried had designed first \"Buzzing Wind\" airplane for the Deutscher Rundflug 1925 competition, which featured the first elliptic design based on Prandtl's 1918 theory.", "On 16 January 1931, Ernst Heinkel recruited Siegfried Günter to work for his Heinkel company in Rostock, and Walter joined the company on 31 July 1931, where he was in charge of developing low and high-speed wind tunnels. There they were to design some of the most important and famous designs associated with the company, including the Heinkel He 51, He 70, He 112, He 100, and the He 111. Walter designed the first ever retractable landing gear in Germany for the He 70, an aircraft mainly designed by Siegfried. Through their introduction of the elliptical wing-planform, their designs set officially recognized speed records. Lufthansa purchased the He 70, nicknaming it the Heinkel-Blitz (\"blitz\" means \"lightning\"), and instituted \"blitz\" air-routes between Berlin, Cologne, Hamburg, and Frankfurt comparable to today's travel time for the same routes. During this time Walter submitted airframe designs for what would become the He 178, an experimental turbojet aircraft, and the experimental He 176 rocket plane, in coordination with Hans von Ohain. As chief project designer by 1937, Siegfried and his team introduced the He 100D-1 on 25 May 1937. Siegfried would later contribute to the design of the He 219, as well as other prototypes, including the He 177 and He 162.", "Walter was killed in a car accident on 21 September 1937.", "", "After the Second World War Siegfried worked in Berlin in the car shop of his father-in-law. He approached the Allies offering his expertise, which was refused along with his request for asylum, forcing him to return to the Soviet sector. In 1948 he was taken to the Soviet Union by USSR agents where he worked on Soviet aircraft designs.", "In July 1954 Siegfried returned to East Germany.", "In 1957 Siegfried went to West Germany, where he again joined the Heinkel works. He was involved in the construction of the EWR VJ 101, the world's first supersonic V/STOL aircraft, and the V/STOL transport aircraft. Both were experimental designs and never saw serial production.", "Siegfried died in Berlin on 20 June 1969." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Music career.", "1953–1961: The Famous Flames.", "1962–1966: Mr. Dynamite.", "1967–1970: Soul Brother No. 1.", "1970–1975: Godfather of Soul.", "1975–1991: Decline and resurgence.", "1991–2006: Final years.", "Later life and death.", "Illness.", "Death.", "Memorial services.", "Last will and testament.", "Artistry and band.", "Concert introduction.", "Concert repertoire and format.", "Cape routine.", "As band leader.", "Social activism.", "Education advocacy and humanitarianism.", "Civil rights and self-reliance.", "The Boston Garden concert.", "Political views.", "Personal life.", "Marriages and children.", "Drug abuse.", "Theft and assault convictions.", "Domestic violence arrests.", "Rape accusation.", "Legacy.", "Tributes.", "In other media.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Brown was born on May 3, 1933, in Barnwell, South Carolina, to 16-year-old Susie (née Behling; 1917–2003), and 22-year-old Joseph Gardner Brown (1911–1993), in a small wooden shack. Brown's name was supposed to have been Joseph James Brown Jr., but his first and middle names were mistakenly reversed on his birth certificate. He later legally changed his name to remove \"Jr.\" In his autobiography, Brown stated that he also had Chinese and Native American ancestry, and that his father was of mixed African-American and Native American descent, whilst his mother was of mixed African-American and Asian descent. The Brown family lived in extreme poverty in Elko, South Carolina, which was an impoverished town at the time. They later moved to Augusta, Georgia, when James was four or five. His family first settled at one of his aunts' brothels. They later moved into a house shared with another aunt. Brown's mother eventually left the family after a contentious and abusive marriage and moved to New York. Brown spent long stretches of time on his own, hanging out in the streets and hustling to get by. He managed to stay in school until the sixth", "", "Brown eventually joined Byrd's group in 1954. The group had evolved from the Gospel Starlighters, an a cappella gospel group, to an R&B group with the name the Avons. He reputedly joined the band after one of its members, Troy Collins, died in a car crash. Along with Brown and Byrd, the group consisted of Sylvester Keels, Doyle Oglesby, Fred Pulliam, Nash Knox and Nafloyd Scott. Influenced by R&B groups such as Hank Ballard and the Midnighters, the Orioles and Billy Ward and his Dominoes, the group changed its name, first to the Toccoa Band and then to the Flames.", "In 1962, Brown and his band scored a hit with their cover of the instrumental \"Night Train\", becoming a top five R&B single. That same year, the ballads \"Lost Someone\" and \"Baby You're Right\", the latter a Joe Tex composition, added to his repertoire and increased his reputation with R&B audiences. On October 24, 1962, Brown financed a live recording of a performance at the Apollo and convinced Syd Nathan to release the album, despite Nathan's belief that no one would buy a live album due to the fact that Brown's singles had already been bought and that live albums were usually bad sellers. \"Live at the Apollo\" was released the following June and became an immediate hit, eventually reaching number two on the Top LPs chart and selling over a million copies, staying on the charts for 14 months. In 1963, Brown scored his first top 20 pop hit with his rendition of the standard \"Prisoner of Love\". He also launched his first label, Try Me Records, which included recordings by the likes of Tammy Montgomery (later to be famous as Tammi Terrell), Johnny & Bill (Famous Flames associates Johnny", "By 1967, Brown's emerging sound had begun to be defined as funk music. That year he released what some critics cited as the first true funk song, \"Cold Sweat\", which hit number-one on the R&B chart (Top 10 Pop) and became one of his first recordings to contain a drum break and also the first that featured a harmony that was reduced to a single chord. The instrumental arrangements on tracks such as \"Give It Up Or Turnit A Loose\" and \"Licking Stick-Licking Stick\" (both recorded in 1968) and \"Funky Drummer\" (recorded in 1969) featured a more developed version of Brown's mid-1960s style, with the horn section, guitars, bass and drums meshed together in intricate rhythmic patterns based on multiple interlocking riffs. Changes in Brown's style that started with \"Cold Sweat\" also established the musical foundation for Brown's later hits, such as \"I Got the Feelin'\" (1968) and \"Mother Popcorn\" (1969).", "In March 1970, most of Brown's mid-to-late 1960s road band walked out on him due to money disputes, a development augured by the prior disbandment of The Famous Flames singing group for the same reason in 1968. Brown and erstwhile Famous Flames singer Bobby Byrd (who chose to remain in the band during this tumultuous period) subsequently recruited several members of the Cincinnati-based The Pacemakers, which included Bootsy Collins and his brother Phelps \"Catfish\" Collins; augmented by the remaining members of the 1960s road band (including Fred Wesley, who rejoined Brown's outfit in December 1970) and other newer musicians, they would form the nucleus of The J.B.'s, Brown's new backing ensemble. Shortly following their first performance together, the band entered the studio to record the Brown-Byrd composition, \"Get Up (I Feel Like Being a) Sex Machine\"; the song", "Although his records were mainstays of the vanguard New York underground disco scene exemplified by DJs such as David Mancuso and Francis Grasso from 1969 onwards, Brown did not consciously yield to the trend until 1975's \"Sex Machine Today\". By 1977, he was no longer a dominant force in R&B. After \"Get Up Offa That Thing\", thirteen of Brown's late 1970s recordings for Polydor failed to reach the Top 10 of the R&B chart, with only \"Bodyheat\" in 1976 and the disco-oriented \"It's Too Funky in Here\" in 1979 reaching the", "After his stint in prison during the late 1980s, Brown met Larry Fridie and Thomas Hart who produced the first James Brown biopic, entitled \"James Brown: The Man, the Message, the Music\", released in 1992. He returned to music with the album \"Love Over-Due\" in 1991. It included the single \"(So Tired of Standing Still We Got to) Move On\", which peaked at No. 48 on the R&B chart. His former record label Polydor also released the four-CD box set \"Star Time\", spanning Brown's career to date. Brown's release from prison also prompted his former record labels to reissue his albums on CD, featuring additional tracks and commentary by music critics and historians. That same year, Brown appeared on rapper MC Hammer's video for \"Too Legit to Quit\". Hammer had been noted, alongside Big Daddy Kane, for bringing Brown's unique stage shows and their own energetic dance moves to the hip-hop generation; both listed Brown as their idol. Both musicians also sampled his work, with Hammer", "", "On December 23, 2006, Brown became very ill and arrived at his dentist's office in Atlanta, Georgia, several hours late. His appointment was for dental implant work. During that visit, Brown's dentist observed that he looked \"very bad... weak and dazed\". Instead of performing the work, the dentist advised Brown to see a doctor right away about his medical condition. Brown went to the Emory Crawford Long Memorial Hospital the next day for medical evaluation and was admitted for observation and treatment.", "On Christmas Day 2006, Brown died at approximately 1:45 a.m. EST (06:45 UTC), at age 73, from congestive heart failure, resulting from complications of pneumonia. Bobbit was at", "After Brown's death, his relatives, a host of celebrities, and thousands of fans gathered, on December 28, 2006, for a public memorial service at the Apollo Theater in New York City and, on December 30, 2006, at the James Brown Arena in Augusta, Georgia. A separate, private ceremony was held in North Augusta, South Carolina, on December 29, 2006, with Brown's family in attendance. Celebrities at these various memorial events included Michael Jackson, Jimmy Cliff, Joe Frazier, Buddy Guy, Ice Cube, Ludacris, Dr. Dre, Little Richard, Dick Gregory, MC Hammer, Prince, Jesse Jackson, Ice-T, Jerry Lee Lewis, Bootsy Collins, LL Cool J, Lil Wayne, Lenny Kravitz, 50 Cent, Stevie Wonder, and", "Brown signed his last will and testament on August 1, 2000, before J. Strom Thurmond Jr., an attorney for the estate. The irrevocable trust, separate and apart from Brown's will, was created on his behalf, that same year, by his attorney, Albert \"Buddy\" Dallas, one of three personal representatives of Brown's estate. His will covered the disposition of his personal assets, such as clothing, cars, and jewelry, while the irrevocable trust covered the disposition of the music rights, business assets of James Brown Enterprises, and his Beech Island, South Carolina estate. During the reading of the will on January 11, 2007, Thurmond revealed that Brown's six adult living children (Terry Brown, Larry Brown, Daryl Brown, Yamma Brown Lumar, Deanna Brown Thomas and Venisha Brown) were named in the document, while Hynie and James II were not mentioned as heirs. Brown's will had been signed 10 months before James II was born", "For many years, Brown's touring show was one of the most extravagant productions in American popular music. At the time of Brown's death, his band included three guitarists, two bass guitar players, two drummers, three horns and a percussionist. The bands that he maintained during the late 1960s and 1970s were of comparable size, and the bands also included a three-piece amplified string section that played during the ballads. Brown employed between 40 and 50 people for the James Brown Revue, and members of the revue traveled with him in a bus to cities and towns all over the country, performing upwards of 330 shows a year with almost all of the shows as one-nighters.", "Before James Brown appeared on stage, his personal MC gave him an elaborate introduction accompanied by drumrolls, as the MC worked", "James Brown's performances were famous for their intensity and length. His own stated goal was to \"give people more than what they came for — make them tired, 'cause \"that's\" what they came for.'\" Brown's concert repertoire consisted mostly of his own hits and recent songs, with a few R&B covers mixed in. Brown danced vigorously as he sang, working popular dance steps such as the Mashed Potato into his routine", "A trademark feature of Brown's stage shows, usually during the song \"Please, Please, Please\", involved Brown dropping to his knees while clutching the microphone stand in his hands, prompting the show's longtime MC, Danny Ray, to come out, drape a cape over Brown's shoulders and escort him off the stage after he had worked himself to exhaustion during his performance. As Brown was escorted off the stage by the MC, Brown's vocal group, the Famous Flames, (Bobby Byrd, Lloyd Stallworth, and Bobby Bennett ), continued singing the background vocals \"Please, please don't go-oh\". Brown would then shake off the", "Brown demanded extreme discipline, perfection and precision from his musicians and dancers – performers in his Revue showed up for rehearsals and members wore the right \"uniform\" or \"costume\" for concert performances. During an interview conducted by Terri Gross during the NPR segment \"Fresh Air\" with Maceo Parker, a former saxophonist in Brown's band for most of the 1960s and part of the 1970s and 1980s, Parker offered his experience with the discipline that Brown demanded of the band: Brown also had a practice of directing, correcting and assessing fines on members of his band who broke his rules, such as wearing unshined shoes, dancing out of sync or showing up late on stage. During", "", "Brown's main social activism was in preserving the need for education among youths, influenced by his own troubled childhood and his being forced to drop out of the seventh grade for wearing \"insufficient clothes\". Due to heavy dropout rates in the 1960s, Brown released the pro-education song, \"Don't Be a Drop-Out\". Royalties of the song were donated to dropout-prevention charity programs. The success of this led to Brown meeting with President Lyndon B. Johnson at the White House. Johnson cited Brown for being a positive role model to the youth. A lifelong Republican, Brown gained", "Though Brown performed at benefit rallies for civil rights organizations in the mid-1960s, Brown often shied away from discussing civil rights in his songs in fear of alienating his crossover audience. In 1968, in response to a growing urge of anti-war advocacy during the Vietnam War, Brown recorded the song, \"America Is My Home\". In the song, Brown performed a rap, advocating patriotism and exhorting listeners to \"stop pitying yoursel[ves] and get up and fight\". At the time of the song's release, Brown had been participating in performing for troops stationed in Vietnam.", "On April 5, 1968, a day after the assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr. in Memphis, Tennessee, Brown provided a free citywide televised concert at the Boston Garden to maintain public order and calm concerned Boston relatives (over the objections of the police chief, who wanted to call off the concert, which he thought would incite violence). The show was later released on DVD as \"\". According to the documentary, \"The Night James Brown Saved Boston\", then-mayor Kevin White had strongly restrained the Boston police from cracking down on minor violence and protests after the assassination, while religious and community leaders worked to keep tempers from flaring. White arranged to have Brown's performance broadcast multiple times on Boston's public television station, WGBH, thus keeping potential rioters off the streets, watching the concert for free. Angered by not being told of this, Brown demanded $60,000 for \"gate\" fees (money he thought would be lost from ticket sales on account of the concert being broadcast for free) and then threatened to go public about the secret arrangement when the city balked at paying up afterwards, news of which would have been a political death blow to White and spark riots of its own. White eventually lobbied the behind-the-scenes power-brokering group known as \"The Vault\" to come up with money for Brown's gate fee and other social programs, contributing $100,000. Brown received $15,000 from them via the city. White also persuaded management at the Garden to give up their share of receipts to make up the differences. Following this successful performance, Brown was cautioned by President Johnson to visit cities ravaged from riots following King's assassination to not resort to violence,", "During the 1968 presidential campaign, Brown endorsed Democratic presidential candidate Hubert Humphrey and appeared with Humphrey at political rallies. Brown began supporting Republican president Richard Nixon after being invited to perform at Nixon's inaugural ball in January 1969. Brown's endorsement of Nixon during the 1972 presidential election negatively impacted his career during that period with several national Black organizations boycotting his records and protesting at his concert shows. Brown stated he was neither Democratic nor Republican despite his support of Republican presidents such as Nixon and Ronald Reagan. In 1999, when being interviewed by \"Rolling Stone\", the magazine asked him to name a hero in the", "At the end of his life, James Brown lived in Beech Island, South Carolina, directly across the Savannah River from Augusta, Georgia. Brown had diabetes that went undiagnosed for years, according to his longtime manager Charles Bobbit. In 2004, Brown was successfully treated for prostate cancer. Regardless of his health, Brown maintained his reputation as the \"hardest working man in show business\" by keeping up with his grueling performance schedule. In 1962, Tammi Terrell joined the James Brown Revue. Even though she was only 17, Brown became sexually involved with Terrell in a relationship that continued until she escaped his abuse. Bobby Bennett, former member of the Famous Flames told Rolling Stone about the abuse he witnessed, \"He beat Tammi Terrell terrible,\" said Bennett. \"She was bleeding, shedding blood.\" Terrell, who died in 1970, was Brown's girlfriend before she became famous as Marvin Gaye's singing partner in the mid-Sixties. \"Tammi left him because she didn't want her butt whipped,\" said Bennett, who also claimed he saw Brown kick one pregnant girlfriend down a flight of stairs.", "Brown was married four times. His first marriage was to Velma Warren in 1953, and they had three sons together. Over a decade later, the couple had separated and the final divorce decree was issued 1969. They maintained a close friendship that lasted until Brown's death. Brown's second marriage was to Deidre \"Deedee\" Jenkins, on October 22, 1970. They had two daughters together. The couple were separated by 1979, after what his daughter describes as years of domestic abuse, and the final divorce decree was issued on January 10, 1981. His third marriage was", "For most of his career, Brown had a strict drug- and alcohol-free policy for any member in his entourage, including band members, and would fire people who disobeyed orders, particularly those who used or abused drugs and alcohol. Some early members of Brown's vocal group the Famous Flames were fired due to alcohol use. Despite the policy, some of the original members of Brown's 1970s band, the J.B.'s, including Catfish and Bootsy Collins, intentionally took LSD during a concert gig in 1971, causing Brown to fire them after the show because he had suspected them of being on drugs all along. However, by the mid-1980s it was alleged that Brown himself was using drugs. After he met and later married Adrienne Rodriguez in 1984, she and Brown began", "Brown's personal life was marred by several brushes with the law. At the age of 16, he was convicted of theft and served three years in juvenile prison. During a concert held at Club 15 in Macon, Georgia in 1963, while Otis Redding was performing alongside his former band Johnny Jenkins and the Pinetoppers, Brown reportedly tried to shoot his musical rival Joe Tex. The incident led to multiple people being shot and stabbed. Since Brown was still on parole at the time, he relied on his agent Clint Brantley \"and", "Brown was repeatedly arrested for domestic violence. Adrienne Rodriguez, his third wife, had him arrested four times between 1987 and 1995 on charges of assault. In one incident, Rodriguez reported to authorities that Brown beat her with an iron pipe and shot at her car. Rodriguez was hospitalized after the last assault in October 1995, but", "In January 2005, a woman named Jacque Hollander filed a lawsuit against James Brown, which stemmed from an alleged 1988 rape. When the case was initially heard before a judge in 2002, Hollander's claims against Brown were dismissed by the court as the limitations period for filing the suit had expired. Hollander claimed that stress from the alleged assault later caused her to contract Graves'", "Brown received awards and honors throughout his lifetime and after his death. In 1993 the City Council of Steamboat Springs, Colorado, conducted a poll of residents to choose a new name for the bridge that crossed the Yampa River on Shield Drive. The winning name, with 7,717 votes, was \"James Brown Soul Center of the Universe Bridge\". The bridge was officially dedicated in September 1993, and Brown appeared at the ribbon-cutting ceremony for the event. A petition was started by local ranchers to return the name to \"Stockbridge\" for historical reasons, but they backed off after citizens defeated their efforts because of the popularity of Brown's name. Brown returned to Steamboat Springs, Colorado, on July 4, 2002, for an outdoor festival, performing with bands such as The String Cheese Incident. During his long career, Brown received many prestigious music industry awards and honors. In 1983 he was inducted into the Georgia Music Hall of Fame. Brown was one of the first inductees into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame at its inaugural induction dinner in New York on January 23, 1986. At that time, the members of his original vocal group, The Famous Flames (Bobby Byrd, Johnny Terry, Bobby Bennett, and Lloyd Stallworth) were not inducted. However, on April 14, 2012, The Famous Flames were automatically and retroactively inducted into the Hall of Fame alongside Brown, without the need for nomination and voting, on the basis that they should have been inducted with him in 1986. On February 25, 1992, Brown was awarded a Lifetime Achievement Award at the 34th annual Grammy Awards. Exactly a year later, he received a Lifetime Achievement Award at the 4th annual Rhythm & Blues Foundation Pioneer Awards. A ceremony was held for Brown on January 10, 1997, to honor him with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. On June 15, 2000, Brown was honored as an inductee to the New York Songwriters Hall of Fame. On August 6, 2002, he was honored as the first BMI Urban Icon at the BMI Urban Awards. His BMI accolades include an impressive ten R&B Awards and six Pop Awards. On November 14, 2006, Brown was inducted into the UK Music Hall of Fame, and he was one of several inductees to perform at", "As a tribute to James Brown, the Rolling Stones covered the song, \"I'll Go Crazy\" from Brown's \"Live at the Apollo\" album, during their 2007 European tour. Jimmy Page has remarked, \"He [James Brown] was almost a musical genre in his own right and he changed and moved forward the whole time so people were able to learn from him.\" On December 22, 2007, the first annual", "Games", "Footnotes Other references" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Physiology.", "Function in cells.", "Membranes.", "Gates.", "Substrate presentation.", "Signaling.", "Chemical precursor.", "Metabolism.", "Biosynthesis and regulation.", "Biosynthesis.", "Regulation of cholesterol synthesis.", "Plasma transport and regulation of absorption.", "Metabolism, recycling and excretion.", "Dietary sources.", "Medical guidelines and recommendations.", "Clinical significance.", "Hypercholesterolemia.", "Hypocholesterolemia.", "Cholesterol testing.", "Cholesteric liquid crystals.", "Stereoisomers." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Cholesterol is essential for all animal life, with each cell capable of synthesizing it by way of a complex 37-step process. This begins with the mevalonate or HMG-CoA reductase pathway, the target of statin drugs, which encompasses the first 18 steps. This is followed by 19 additional steps to convert the resulting lanosterol into cholesterol. A human male weighing 68 kg (150 lb) normally synthesizes about 1 gram (1,000 mg) of cholesterol per day, and his body contains about 35 g, mostly contained within the cell membranes. Typical daily cholesterol dietary intake for a man in the United States is 307 mg. Most ingested cholesterol is esterified, which causes it to be poorly absorbed by the gut. The body also compensates for absorption of ingested cholesterol by reducing its own cholesterol synthesis. For these reasons, cholesterol in food, seven to ten hours after ingestion, has little, if any effect on concentrations of cholesterol in the blood. However, during the first seven hours after ingestion of cholesterol, as absorbed fats are being distributed around the body within extracellular water by the various lipoproteins (which transport all fats in the water outside cells), the concentrations increase. Plants do not make cholesterol but manufacture phytosterols, chemically similar substances which can compete with cholesterol for reabsorption in the intestinal tract, thus potentially reducing cholesterol reabsorption. When intestinal lining cells absorb phytosterols, in place of cholesterol, they usually excrete the phytosterol molecules back into the GI tract, an important protective mechanism. The intake of naturally occurring phytosterols, which encompass plant sterols and stanols, ranges between ≈200–300 mg/day depending on eating habits. Specially designed vegetarian experimental diets have been produced yielding upwards of 700 mg/day.", "", "Cholesterol, given that it composes about 30% of all animal cell membranes, is required to build and maintain membranes and modulates membrane fluidity over the range of physiological temperatures. The hydroxyl group of each cholesterol molecule interacts with water molecules surrounding the membrane, as do the polar heads of the membrane phospholipids and sphingolipids, while the bulky steroid and the hydrocarbon chain are embedded in the membrane, alongside the nonpolar fatty-acid chain of the other lipids. Through the interaction with the phospholipid fatty-acid chains, cholesterol increases membrane packing, which both alters membrane fluidity and maintains membrane integrity so that animal cells do not need to build cell walls (like plants and most bacteria). The membrane remains stable and durable without being rigid, allowing animal cells to change shape and animals to move. The structure of the tetracyclic ring of cholesterol contributes to the fluidity of the cell membrane, as the molecule is in a \"trans\" conformation making all but the side chain of cholesterol rigid and planar. In this structural role, cholesterol also reduces the permeability of the plasma membrane to neutral solutes, hydrogen ions, and sodium ions.", "Within the cell membrane, cholesterol also functions in intracellular transport, cell signaling and nerve conduction. Cholesterol is essential for the structure and function of invaginated caveolae and clathrin-coated pits, including caveola-dependent and clathrin-dependent endocytosis. The role of cholesterol in endocytosis of these types can be investigated by using methyl beta cyclodextrin (MβCD) to remove cholesterol from the plasma membrane.", "Cholesterol regulates the biological process of substrate presentation and the enzymes that use substrate presentation as a mechanism of their activation. (PLD2) is a well-defined example of an enzyme activated by substrate presentation. The enzyme is palmitoylated causing the enzyme to traffic to cholesterol dependent lipid domains sometimes called \"lipid rafts\". The substrate of phospholipase D is phosphatidylcholine (PC) which is unsaturated and is of low abundance in lipid rafts. PC localizes to the disordered region of the cell along with the polyunsaturated lipid phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2). PLD2 has a PIP2 binding domain. When PIP2 concentration in the membrane increases, PLD2 leaves the cholesterol dependent domains and binds to PIP2 where it then gains access to its substrate PC and commences catalysis based on substrate presentation.", "Cholesterol is also implicated in cell signaling processes, assisting in the formation of lipid rafts in the plasma membrane, which brings receptor proteins in close proximity with high concentrations of second messenger molecules. In multiple layers, cholesterol and phospholipids, both electrical insulators, can facilitate speed of transmission of electrical impulses along nerve tissue. For many neuron fibers, a myelin sheath, rich in cholesterol since it is derived from compacted layers of Schwann cell membrane, provides insulation for more efficient conduction of impulses. Demyelination (loss of some of these Schwann cells) is believed to be part of the basis for multiple sclerosis. Cholesterol binds to and affects the gating of a number of ion channels such as the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor, GABA receptor, and the inward-rectifier potassium channel. Cholesterol also activates the estrogen-related receptor alpha (ERRα), and may be the endogenous ligand for the receptor. The constitutively active nature of the receptor may be explained by the fact that cholesterol is ubiquitous in the body. Inhibition of ERRα signaling by reduction of cholesterol production has been identified as a key mediator of the effects of statins and bisphosphonates on bone, muscle, and macrophages. On the basis of these findings, it has been suggested that the ERRα should be de-orphanized and classified as a receptor for cholesterol.", "Within cells, cholesterol is also a precursor molecule for several biochemical pathways. For example, it is the precursor molecule for the synthesis of vitamin D in the calcium metabolism and all steroid hormones, including the adrenal gland hormones cortisol and aldosterone, as well as the sex hormones progesterone, estrogens, and testosterone, and their derivatives.", "Cholesterol is recycled in the body. The liver excretes cholesterol into biliary fluids, which is then stored in the gallbladder, which then excretes it in a non-esterified form (via bile) into the digestive tract. Typically, about 50% of the excreted cholesterol is reabsorbed by the small intestine back into the bloodstream.", "", "All animal cells manufacture cholesterol, for both membrane structure and other uses, with relative production rates varying by cell type and organ function. About 80% of total daily cholesterol production occurs in the liver and the intestines; other sites of higher synthesis rates include adrenal glands, and reproductive organs. Synthesis within the body starts with the mevalonate pathway where two molecules of acetyl CoA condense to form acetoacetyl-CoA. This is followed by a second condensation between acetyl CoA and acetoacetyl-CoA to form 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl CoA (HMG-CoA). This molecule is then reduced to mevalonate by the enzyme HMG-CoA reductase. Production of mevalonate is the rate-limiting and irreversible step in cholesterol synthesis and is the site of action for statins (a class of cholesterol-lowering drugs). Mevalonate is finally converted to isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP) through two phosphorylation steps and one decarboxylation step that requires ATP. Three molecules of isopentenyl pyrophosphate condense to form farnesyl pyrophosphate through the action of geranyl transferase. Two molecules of farnesyl pyrophosphate then condense to form squalene by the action of squalene synthase in the endoplasmic reticulum. Oxidosqualene cyclase then cyclizes squalene to form lanosterol. Finally, lanosterol is converted to cholesterol through a 19-step process. The final 19 steps to cholesterol contain NADPH and oxygen to help oxidize methyl groups for removal of carbons, mutases to move alkene groups, and NADH to help reduce ketones. Konrad Bloch and Feodor Lynen shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1964 for their discoveries concerning some of the mechanisms and methods of regulation of cholesterol and fatty acid metabolism.", "Biosynthesis of cholesterol is directly regulated by the cholesterol levels present, though the homeostatic mechanisms involved are only partly understood. A higher intake from food leads to a net decrease in endogenous production, whereas lower intake from food has the opposite effect. The main regulatory mechanism is the sensing of intracellular cholesterol in the endoplasmic reticulum by the protein SREBP (sterol regulatory element-binding protein 1 and 2). In the presence of cholesterol, SREBP is bound to two other proteins: SCAP (SREBP cleavage-activating protein) and INSIG-1. When cholesterol levels fall, INSIG-1 dissociates from the SREBP-SCAP complex, which allows the complex to migrate to the Golgi apparatus. Here SREBP is cleaved by S1P and S2P (site-1 protease and site-2 protease), two enzymes that are activated by SCAP when cholesterol levels are low. The cleaved SREBP then migrates to the nucleus, and acts as a transcription factor to bind to the sterol regulatory element (SRE), which stimulates the transcription of many genes. Among these are the low-density lipoprotein (LDL) receptor and HMG-CoA reductase. The LDL receptor scavenges circulating LDL from the bloodstream, whereas HMG-CoA reductase leads to an increase of endogenous production of cholesterol. A large part of this signaling pathway was clarified by Dr. Michael S. Brown and Dr. Joseph L. Goldstein in the 1970s. In 1985, they received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their work. Their subsequent work shows how the SREBP pathway regulates expression of many genes that control lipid formation and metabolism and body fuel allocation. Cholesterol synthesis can also be turned off when cholesterol levels are high. HMG-CoA reductase contains both a cytosolic domain (responsible for its catalytic function) and a membrane domain. The membrane domain senses signals for its degradation. Increasing concentrations of cholesterol (and other sterols) cause a change in this domain's oligomerization state, which makes it more susceptible to destruction by the proteosome. This enzyme's activity can also be reduced by phosphorylation by an AMP-activated protein kinase. Because this kinase is activated by AMP, which is produced when ATP is hydrolyzed, it follows that cholesterol synthesis is halted when ATP levels are low.", "As an isolated molecule, cholesterol is only minimally soluble in water, or hydrophilic. Because of this, it dissolves in blood at exceedingly small concentrations. To be transported effectively, cholesterol is instead packaged within lipoproteins, complex discoidal particles with exterior amphiphilic proteins and lipids, whose outward-facing surfaces are water-soluble and inward-facing surfaces are lipid-soluble. This allows it to travel through the blood via emulsification. Unbound cholesterol, being amphipathic, is transported in the monolayer surface of the lipoprotein particle along with phospholipids and proteins. Cholesterol esters bound to fatty acid, on the other hand, are transported within the fatty hydrophilic core of the lipoprotein, along with triglyceride. There are several types of lipoproteins in the blood. In order of increasing density, they are chylomicrons, very-low-density lipoprotein (VLDL), intermediate-density lipoprotein (IDL), low-density lipoprotein (LDL), and high-density lipoprotein (HDL). Lower protein/lipid ratios make for less dense lipoproteins. Cholesterol within different lipoproteins is identical, although some is carried as its native \"free\" alcohol form (the cholesterol-OH group facing the water surrounding the particles), while others as fatty acyl esters, known also as cholesterol esters, within the particles. Lipoprotein particles are organized by complex apolipoproteins, typically 80–100 different proteins per particle, which can be recognized and bound by specific receptors on cell membranes, directing their lipid payload into specific cells and tissues currently ingesting these fat transport particles. These surface receptors serve as unique molecular signatures, which then help determine fat distribution delivery throughout the body. Chylomicrons, the least dense cholesterol transport molecules, contain apolipoprotein B-48, apolipoprotein C, and apolipoprotein E (the principal cholesterol carrier in the brain) in their shells. Chylomicrons carry fats from the intestine to muscle and other tissues in need of fatty acids for energy or fat production. Unused cholesterol remains in more cholesterol-rich chylomicron remnants, and taken up from here to the bloodstream by the liver. VLDL molecules are produced by the liver from triacylglycerol and cholesterol which was not used in the synthesis of bile acids. These molecules contain apolipoprotein B100 and apolipoprotein E in their shells, and can be degraded by lipoprotein lipase on the artery wall to IDL. This arterial wall cleavage allows absorption of triacylglycerol and increases concentration of circulating cholesterol. IDL molecules are then consumed in two processes: half is metabolized by HTGL and taken up by the LDL receptor on the liver cell surfaces, while the other half continues to lose triacylglycerols in the bloodstream until they become cholesterol laden LDL particles. LDL particles are the major blood cholesterol carriers. Each one contains approximately 1,500 molecules of cholesterol ester. LDL molecule shells contain just one molecule of apolipoprotein B100, recognized by LDL receptors in peripheral tissues. Upon binding of apolipoprotein B100, many LDL receptors concentrate in clathrin-coated pits. Both LDL and its receptor form vesicles within a cell via endocytosis. These vesicles then fuse with a lysosome, where the lysosomal acid lipase enzyme hydrolyzes the cholesterol esters. The cholesterol can then be used for membrane biosynthesis or esterified and stored within the cell, so as to not interfere with the cell membranes. LDL receptors are used up during cholesterol absorption, and its synthesis is regulated by SREBP, the same protein that controls the synthesis of cholesterol \"de novo\", according to its presence inside the cell. A cell with abundant cholesterol will have its LDL receptor synthesis blocked, to prevent new cholesterol in LDL molecules from being taken up. Conversely, LDL receptor synthesis proceeds when a cell is deficient in cholesterol. When this process becomes unregulated, LDL molecules without receptors begin to appear in the blood. These LDL molecules are oxidized and taken up by macrophages, which become engorged and form foam cells. These foam cells often become trapped in the walls of blood vessels and contribute to atherosclerotic plaque formation. Differences in cholesterol homeostasis affect the development of early atherosclerosis (carotid intima-media thickness). These plaques are the main causes of heart attacks, strokes, and other serious medical problems, leading to the association of so-called LDL cholesterol (actually a lipoprotein) with \"bad\" cholesterol. HDL particles are thought to transport cholesterol back to the liver, either for excretion or for other tissues that synthesize hormones, in a process known as reverse cholesterol transport (RCT). Large numbers of HDL particles correlates with better health outcomes, whereas low numbers of HDL particles is associated with atheromatous disease progression in the arteries.", "Cholesterol is susceptible to oxidation and easily forms oxygenated derivatives called oxysterols. Three different mechanisms can form these: autoxidation, secondary oxidation to lipid peroxidation, and cholesterol-metabolizing enzyme oxidation. A great interest in oxysterols arose when they were shown to exert inhibitory actions on cholesterol biosynthesis. This finding became known as the “oxysterol hypothesis”. Additional roles for oxysterols in human physiology include their participation in bile acid biosynthesis, function as transport forms of cholesterol, and regulation of gene transcription. In biochemical experiments radiolabelled forms of cholesterol, such as tritiated-cholesterol are used. These derivatives undergo degradation upon storage and it is essential to purify cholesterol prior to use. Cholesterol can be purified using small Sephadex LH-20 columns. Cholesterol is oxidized by the liver into a variety of bile acids. These, in turn, are conjugated with glycine, taurine, glucuronic acid, or sulfate. A mixture of conjugated and nonconjugated bile acids, along with cholesterol itself, is excreted from the liver into the bile. Approximately 95% of the bile acids are reabsorbed from the intestines, and the remainder are lost in the feces. The excretion and reabsorption of bile acids forms the basis of the enterohepatic circulation, which is essential for the digestion and absorption of dietary fats. Under certain circumstances, when more concentrated, as in the gallbladder, cholesterol crystallises and is the major constituent of most gallstones (lecithin and bilirubin gallstones also occur, but less frequently). Every day, up to 1 g of cholesterol enters the colon. This cholesterol originates from the diet, bile, and desquamated intestinal cells, and can be metabolized by the colonic bacteria. Cholesterol is converted mainly into coprostanol, a nonabsorbable sterol that is excreted in the feces. Although cholesterol is a steroid generally associated with mammals, the human pathogen \"Mycobacterium tuberculosis\" is able to completely degrade this molecule and contains a large number of genes that are regulated by its presence. Many of these cholesterol-regulated genes are homologues of fatty acid β-oxidation genes, but have evolved in such a way as to bind large steroid substrates like cholesterol.", "Animal fats are complex mixtures of triglycerides, with lesser amounts of both the phospholipids and cholesterol molecules from which all animal (and human) cell membranes are constructed. Since all animal cells manufacture cholesterol, all animal-based foods contain cholesterol in varying amounts. Major dietary sources of cholesterol include red meat, egg yolks and whole eggs, liver, kidney, giblets, fish oil, and butter. Human breast milk also contains significant quantities of cholesterol. Plant cells synthesize cholesterol as a precursor for other compounds, such as phytosterols and steroidal glycoalkaloids, with cholesterol remaining in plant foods only in minor amounts or absent. Some plant foods, such as avocado, flax seeds and peanuts, contain phytosterols, which compete with cholesterol for absorption in the intestines, reduce the absorption of both dietary and bile cholesterol. A typical diet contributes on the order of 0.2 gram of phytosterols, which is not enough to have a significant impact on blocking cholesterol absorption. Phytosterols intake can be supplemented through the use of phytosterol-containing functional foods or dietary supplements that are recognized as having potential to reduce levels of LDL-cholesterol.", "Some supplemental guidelines have recommended doses of phytosterols in the 1.6–3.0 grams per day range (Health Canada, EFSA, ATP III, FDA). A recent meta-analysis demonstrating a 12% reduction in LDL-cholesterol at a mean dose of 2.1 grams per day. However, the benefits of a diet supplemented with phytosterols have been questioned. In 2016, the United States Department of Agriculture Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee recommended that Americans eat as little dietary cholesterol as possible. Increased dietary intake of industrial trans fats is associated with an increased risk in all-cause mortality and cardiovascular diseases. Trans fats have been shown to correlate with reduced levels of HDL and increased levels of LDL. Based on this evidence, along with other claims implicating low HDL and high LDL levels in cardiovascular disease, many health authorities advocate reducing LDL-cholesterol through changes in diet in addition to other lifestyle modifications. The related studies which correlate trans fats, as well as saturated fats, with unhealthy serum cholesterol levels, have since been contested on numerous points. The most notable challenge to these standards comes from a NCBI published meta analysis of the data used in the development of these guidelines, in which the correlation between serum cholesterol and saturated fat intake, was similarly or less significant than the correlation to visceral fat. As well as others, one of which concluded that current evidence \"does not clearly support cardiovascular guidelines that encourage high consumption of polyunsaturated fatty acids and low consumption of total saturated fats.\" Other evidences such as metabolic ward and lab studies, including a study where rats subjected to high-fat or fructose diets became dyslipidemic are similarly questionable, given indications of an increase of produced visceral fat, which occurs as a result of metabolic differences in the processing of fructose. A general inconsistency of conclusions regarding the impact of simple carbohydrates on visceral fat, and a lack of data regarding the causal relationship between serum cholesterol and either saturated fat and visceral fat, makes drawing a definitive conclusion unreasonable, especially given the presence of numerous correlations. As such, given that well designed, adequately powered randomized controlled trials investigating patient-relevant outcomes of low-fat diets for otherwise healthy people with hypercholesterolaemia are lacking; large, parallel, randomized controlled trials are still needed to investigate the effectiveness of a cholesterol-lowering diet and the addition of omega-3 fatty acids, soya protein, plant sterols or stanols, especially in the case of familial hypercholesterolemia.", "", "According to the lipid hypothesis, elevated levels of cholesterol in the blood lead to atherosclerosis which may increase the risk of heart attack, stroke, and peripheral artery disease. Since higher blood LDL – especially higher LDL concentrations and smaller LDL particle size – contributes to this process more than the cholesterol content of the HDL particles, LDL particles are often termed \"bad cholesterol\". High concentrations of functional HDL, which can remove cholesterol from cells and atheromas, offer protection and are commonly referred to as \"good cholesterol\". These balances are mostly genetically determined, but can be changed by body composition, medications, diet, and other factors. A 2007 study demonstrated that blood total cholesterol levels have an exponential effect on cardiovascular and total mortality, with the association more pronounced in younger subjects. Because cardiovascular disease is relatively rare in the younger population, the impact of high cholesterol on health is larger in older people. Elevated levels of the lipoprotein fractions, LDL, IDL and VLDL, rather than the total cholesterol level, correlate with the extent and progress of atherosclerosis. Conversely, the total cholesterol can be within normal limits, yet be made up primarily of small LDL and small HDL particles, under which conditions atheroma growth rates are high. A \"post hoc\" analysis of the IDEAL and the EPIC prospective studies found an association between high levels of HDL cholesterol (adjusted for apolipoprotein A-I and apolipoprotein B) and increased risk of cardiovascular disease, casting doubt on the cardioprotective role of \"good cholesterol\". One in 250 adults can have a genetic mutation for the LDL cholesterol receptor that causes them to have familial hypercholerolemia. Inherited high cholesterol can also include genetic mutations in the PCSK9 gene and the gene for apolipoprotein B. Elevated cholesterol levels are treated with a strict diet consisting of low saturated fat, trans fat-free, low cholesterol foods, often followed by one of various hypolipidemic agents, such as statins, fibrates, cholesterol absorption inhibitors, nicotinic acid derivatives or bile acid sequestrants. There are several international guidelines on the treatment of hypercholesterolaemia. Human trials using HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors, known as statins, have repeatedly confirmed that changing lipoprotein transport patterns from unhealthy to healthier patterns significantly lowers cardiovascular disease event rates, even for people with cholesterol values currently considered low for adults. Studies have shown that reducing LDL cholesterol levels by about 38.7mg/dL with the use of statins can reduce cardiovascular disease and stroke risk by about 21%.Studies have also found that statins reduce atheroma progression. As a result, people with a history of cardiovascular disease may derive benefit from statins irrespective of their cholesterol levels (total cholesterol below 5.0 mmol/L [193 mg/dL]), and in men without cardiovascular disease, there is benefit from lowering abnormally high cholesterol levels (\"primary prevention\"). Primary prevention in women was originally practiced only by extension of the findings in studies on men, since, in women, none of the large statin trials conducted prior to 2007 demonstrated a significant reduction in overall mortality or in cardiovascular endpoints. Meta-analyses have demonstrated significant reductions in all-cause and cardiovascular mortality, without significant heterogeneity by sex. The 1987 report of National Cholesterol Education Program, Adult Treatment Panels suggests the total blood cholesterol level should be: < 200 mg/dL normal blood cholesterol, 200–239 mg/dL borderline-high, > 240 mg/dL high cholesterol. The American Heart Association provides a similar set of guidelines for total (fasting) blood cholesterol levels and risk for heart disease: Statins are effective in lowering LDL cholesterol and widely used for primary prevention in people at high risk of cardiovascular disease, as well as in secondary prevention for those who have developed cardiovascular disease. More current testing methods determine LDL (\"bad\") and HDL (\"good\") cholesterol separately, allowing cholesterol analysis to be more nuanced. The desirable LDL level is considered to be less than 130 mg/dL (2.6 mmol/L), although a newer upper limit of 70 mg/dL (1.8 mmol/L) can be considered in higher-risk individuals based on some of the above-mentioned trials. A ratio of total cholesterol to HDL—another useful measure—of far less than 5:1 is thought to be healthier. Total cholesterol is defined as the sum of HDL, LDL, and VLDL. Usually, only the total, HDL, and triglycerides are measured. For cost reasons, the VLDL is usually estimated as one-fifth of the triglycerides and the LDL is estimated using the Friedewald formula (or a variant): estimated LDL = [total cholesterol] − [total HDL] − [estimated VLDL]. VLDL can be calculated by dividing total triglycerides by five. Direct LDL measures are used when triglycerides exceed 400 mg/dL. The estimated VLDL and LDL have more error when triglycerides are above 400 mg/dL. In the Framingham Heart Study, in subjects over 50 years of age, they found an 11% increase overall and 14% increase in cardiovascular disease mortality per 1 mg/dL per year drop in total cholesterol levels. The researchers attributed this phenomenon to the fact that people with severe chronic diseases or cancer tend to have below-normal cholesterol levels. This explanation is not supported by the Vorarlberg Health Monitoring and Promotion Programme, in which men of all ages and women over 50 with very low cholesterol were likely to die of cancer, liver diseases, and mental diseases. This result indicates the low-cholesterol effect occurs even among younger respondents, contradicting the previous assessment among cohorts of older people that this is a proxy or marker for frailty occurring with age. Although there is a link between cholesterol and atherosclerosis as discussed above, a 2014 meta-analysis concluded there is insufficient evidence to support the recommendation of high consumption of polyunsaturated fatty acids and low consumption of total saturated fats for cardiovascular health. A 2016 review concluded there was either no link between LDL and mortality or that lower LDL was linked to a higher mortality risk, especially in older adults.", "Abnormally low levels of cholesterol are termed \"hypocholesterolemia\". Research into the causes of this state is relatively limited, but some studies suggest a link with depression, cancer, and cerebral hemorrhage. In general, the low cholesterol levels seem to be a consequence, rather than a cause, of an underlying illness. A genetic defect in cholesterol synthesis causes Smith–Lemli–Opitz syndrome, which is often associated with low plasma cholesterol levels. Hyperthyroidism, or any other endocrine disturbance which causes upregulation of the LDL receptor, may result in hypocholesterolemia.", "The American Heart Association recommends testing cholesterol every 4–6 years for people aged 20 years or older. A separate set of American Heart Association guidelines issued in 2013 indicates that patients taking statin medications should have their cholesterol tested 4–12 weeks after their first dose and then every 3–12 months thereafter. A blood sample after 12-hour fasting is taken by a doctor, or a home cholesterol-monitoring device is used to measure a lipid profile, an approach used to estimate a person's lipoproteins, the vastly more important issue because lipoproteins have always been concordant with outcomes though the lipid profile is commonly discordant LDL Particle Number and Risk of Future Cardiovascular Disease in the Framingham Offspring Study. The lipid profile measures: (a) total cholesterol, (b) cholesterol associated with HDL (i.e. Higher Density {than water} Lipids-transported-within-proteins) particles (\"which can regress arterial disease\"), (c) triglycerides and (d) (by a calculation and assumptions) cholesterol carried by LDL (i.e. Lower Density {than water} Lipids-transported-within-proteins) particles (\"which drive arterial disease\"). It is recommended to test cholesterol at least every five years if a person has total cholesterol of 5.2 mmol/L or more (200+ mg/dL), or if a man over age 45 or a woman over age 50 has HDL-C values less than 1 mmol/L (40 mg/dL), or there are other drivers heart disease and stroke. Additional drivers of heart disease include diabetes mellitus, hypertension (or use of anti-hypertensive medication), low HDL level, family history of coronary artery disease (CAD) and hypercholesterolemia, and cigarette smoking.", "Some cholesterol derivatives (among other simple cholesteric lipids) are known to generate the liquid crystalline \"cholesteric phase\". The cholesteric phase is, in fact, a chiral nematic phase, and it changes colour when its temperature changes. This makes cholesterol derivatives useful for indicating temperature in liquid-crystal display thermometers and in temperature-sensitive paints.", "Cholesterol has 256 stereoisomers that arise from its 8 stereocenters, although only two of the stereoisomers are of biochemical significance (\"nat\"-cholesterol and \"ent\"-cholesterol, for \"natural\" and \"enantiomer\", respectively), and only one occurs naturally (\"nat\"-cholesterol)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot.", "Production.", "Development.", "Editing.", "Lost footage.", "Music.", "Release.", "Reception.", "Television series." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In 2047, a distress signal is received from the \"Event Horizon\", a starship that disappeared during its maiden voyage to Proxima Centauri seven years previously that has mysteriously reappeared in a decaying orbit around Neptune. The rescue vessel \"Lewis and Clark\" is dispatched. Its crew – Captain Miller, second-in-command Lieutenant Starck, pilot Smith, medical technician Peters, engineer Ensign Justin, Doctor D.J. and rescue technician Cooper – is joined by Dr. William Weir, who designed the \"Event Horizon\". He briefs the crew on the ship's experimental gravity drive, which generates an artificial black hole and uses it to bridge two points in spacetime, reducing travel time over astronomical distances. The distress signal seems to consist of a series of screams and howls but D.J. believes he can discern the Latin phrase \"\"Liberate me\"\" (\"Save me\") being spoken. Upon boarding the \"Event Horizon\", the crew finds evidence of a massacre. As they search for survivors, the ship's gravity drive activates, briefly pulling Justin into the resulting portal and causing a shock wave that damages the \"Lewis and Clark\", forcing the entire crew to board the \"Event Horizon\". Justin emerges in a catatonic state, terrified by what he saw on the other side. He attempts suicide by decompression, but is saved by Miller, forcing the crew to place him in stasis. The team begins to experience apparitions of individuals from their past that only they can see, hallucinations corresponding to their fears and regrets: Miller sees Corrick, a subordinate he was forced to abandon to his death, Peters sees her son with his legs covered in bloody lesions and Weir sees an eyeless vision of his late wife, who committed suicide, urging him to join her. The crew soon discover a video log of the \"Event Horizon\"s crew fornicating and mutilating each other shortly after first engaging the gravity drive. The video log ends with a shot of the \"Event Horizon\"s captain speaking the complete Latin phrase from the earlier distress call, which D.J. translates \"\"Liberate tutemet ex inferis\"\" (\"Save \"yourself\" from hell\"). Deducing that the ship's gravity drive opened a gateway to a hellish dimension outside the known universe, and that the \"Event Horizon\" has somehow attained sentience, Miller decides to destroy the \"Event Horizon\" and orders an evacuation. Peters is lured to her death by a hallucination of her son. Weir, who has gouged his own eyes out and is now possessed by the evil presence, uses an explosive device to destroy the \"Lewis and Clark\". The explosion kills Smith and blasts Cooper off into space. Weir kills D.J. by vivisecting him and corners Starck on the bridge. Miller confronts Weir, who overpowers him and initiates a 10-minute countdown until the \"Event Horizon\" will return to the other dimension. Cooper, having used his space suit's oxygen supply to propel himself back to the ship, appears at the bridge window. Weir shoots at him and is blown into space by the ensuing decompression. Miller, Starck, and Cooper survive and manage to seal off the ship's bridge. With their own ship destroyed, Miller plans to split the \"Event Horizon\" in two and use the forward section of the ship as a lifeboat. He is attacked by manifestations of Corrick and a resurrected Weir. Miller fights them off and detonates the explosives, sacrificing himself. The gravity drive activates, pulling the ship's stern section into a black hole. Starck and Cooper enter stasis beside a comatose Justin, and wait to be rescued. Seventy-two days later, the wreckage of the \"Event Horizon\" is boarded by a rescue party, who discover the remaining crew still in stasis. Starck sees Weir posing as one of the rescuers and screams in terror; this is revealed to be a nightmare with Starck waking up moments later. Cooper and the rescue team comfort the newly-awakened and terrified Starck as the bulkheads close.", "", "After \"Mortal Kombat\" (1995) had become a commercial success in the United States, English director Paul W. S. Anderson was inundated with screenplay offers, as well as the opportunity to direct the \"Mortal Kombat\" sequel \"\" (1997), and the upcoming \"X-Men\" (2000). Anderson turned the offers down in favor of making an R-rated horror film, hoping to shift away from making another PG-13 film. Paramount Pictures then sent Philip Eisner's original script for \"Event Horizon\", which they had been trying to develop with producers Lawrence Gordon and Lloyd Levin. According to Eisner, he first pitched its concept to Gordon as a \"haunted house story in space\", which the producer thought had the potential to become a motion picture: \"Luckily\", said Eisner, \"he liked the idea enough to trust me to do it.\" Anderson's initial reaction to the script, which involved the cruise ship \"Event Horizon\" experiencing a series of hauntings by \"tentacular\" aliens having crossed the threshold of their planet or \"dimension\", was that it bore striking resemblance to \"Alien\" (1979), while producer and longtime collaborator Jeremy Bolt felt it was a \"terrific concept\" but was \"very dense\" in terms of length and the storyline was \"a bit lost.\" Anderson disliked directing a mimicry of \"Alien\" so he gave the script a major rewrite. Anderson had in mind a \"classic haunted house movie\", incorporating significant influences to moderately successful horror films such as Robert Wise's \"The Haunting\" (1963) and Kubrick's \"The Shining\" (1980) because they enforce suspense from the unknown, meaning the ghost or creature was hidden from the viewer, and their endings induced ambiguities of perception in the audience. Anderson, too, said he was interested in the concept of Hell, as well as the idea of \"the ship itself being possessed rather than going 'Oh, it's an alien consciousness that is doing this,'\" and added these in the script. Screenwriter Philip Eisner acknowledged \"Warhammer 40,000\" as a major inspiration for the plot. In the fictional setting of \"Warhammer 40,000\", starships travel the galaxy by passing through \"the Warp\", which is a parallel dimension where faster-than-light travel is possible, similar to \"hyperspace\" in the \"Star Wars\" setting, but also infested with daemons that are liable to infiltrate the ship and possess the crew. Many fans of \"Warhammer 40,000\" consider \"Event Horizon\" to be an unofficial prequel to the former, when humankind discovers the Warp and learns of its dangers the hard way.", "As Anderson explains, directors usually have a standard 10-week editing period to produce the first cut of a film, as guaranteed by the Directors Guild of America. However, due to the short production schedule of the film, the rapidly approaching release date, and the fact that principal photography had not yet finished, Anderson agreed with the Paramount studio to an editing period of six weeks and promised to deliver the film by August 1997, as Paramount wanted to have a hit film before \"Titanic's\" planned September release date. When the main unit wrapped, Anderson was supposed to start editing the film, but he still had to shoot two weeks with the second unit, effectively shortening the time he could spend in post-production to just four weeks. In that short amount of time, only a rough cut of the film could be assembled. Anderson notes that at two hours and 10 minutes, it was overly long, with weak directing and acting that could have used another editing pass, unfinished special effects, and a poor sound mix. In test screenings, the cut was poorly received. There were complaints about the extreme amount of gore, and Anderson and producer Jeremy Bolt claim members of the test audience fainted during the screening. Paramount, which had stopped watching the dailies before any of the gore was shot and were seeing the completed film for the first time along with the audience, were similarly shocked by how gruesome it was and demanded a shorter runtime with less gore. Anderson believes that while his first cut was justifiably considered too long, Paramount forced him to make a cut that was instead too short, and that the film would benefit by the restoration of around 10 minutes of footage, including some of the deleted gore.", "After the initial DVD release became a surprise hit, the studio and Anderson became interested in assembling a director's cut, but they quickly discovered that the excised footage had not been carefully stored and much of it had gone missing. The plan to assemble a director's cut was abandoned and instead a special-edition two-DVD set was released, featuring one deleted scene, two extended scenes, and a few shots of deleted material in the included making-of featurette. The footage is of \"video\" quality. Known deleted scenes include a meeting scene between Weir and people in charge of the mission in which they discuss \"Event Horizon\", some dialogue of which remained present in the theatrical trailer; more backstory for Cooper and Justin, including a stronger explanation for Justin entering the black hole; a deleted backstory of the relationship between Starck and Miller; additional scenes explaining what the gateway to hell/black hole is; Miller finding a tooth floating in \"Event Horizon\"; a longer version of the scene in which Peters hallucinates that her son's mangled legs are covered in maggots; a scene in which Weir hallucinates that Justin turns into his wife Claire; a bloodier version of Weir's wife Claire's suicide; a longer version of the scene where Miller finds D.J.'s dead body with his guts on the table; and a longer version of the \"Visions From Hell\" scene during Miller's final fight with Weir with more shots of \"Event Horizon\" crew being tortured. The \"bloody orgy\" video was also longer. As Anderson was sometimes too busy filming other scenes, second-unit director Vadim Jean filmed some parts of this scene. Real-life amputees were used for special effects scenes in which \"Event Horizon\" crew members were mutilated, and pornographic film actors were hired to make the sex and rape scenes more realistic and graphic. The film's final ending was a combination of two unused alternate endings that were filmed. One did not have a jump scare at the end when the last two survivors are found by another rescue crew and Starck hallucinates that she sees Weir, although there was a similar version of the scene included in this ending where she hears screams of \"Event Horizon\" crew and screams in fear before Cooper wakes her up. This was the original ending of the film included in the shooting script. The second ending had Miller fighting with the burned man from his visions at the core instead of with Weir, but this was changed due to the negative test screening. In an \"Event Horizon\" Q&A in 2011, Anderson was asked when extra footage will be made available. He responded \"never\", explaining that much of it is gone forever. However, in a 2012 interview, he announced that producer Lloyd Levin had found a VHS tape with his original rough cut. Anderson said that after finishing \"\", he planned to watch it for the first time since assembling the film. In a January 2017 interview, Anderson reiterated a director's cut will never be released as the footage doesn't exist anymore. Asked about the VHS tape, he said neither he, nor Levin, had watched it yet, as Levin moved to Spain; however, he was still excited about watching it at some point.", "Michael Kamen was hired to compose the score for the film. Director Paul W. S. Anderson, a fan of hybrid genre music, invited the electronic dance music duo Orbital to collaborate with Kamen and to provide synthesizing sounds for the film's unsettling atmosphere. A soundtrack album was released which edited various cues from the score into four tracks of approximately ten minutes.", "The film was released on August 15, 1997 and was a box office failure. \"Event Horizon\" cost $60 million and only grossed $26,616,590 in the United States. The film did well on home DVD video release.", "The review-aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a rating of 27%, with an average rating of 4.75 out of 10, based on 74 reviews from critics. The website's \"Critics Consensus\" reads, \"Despite a strong opening that promises sci-fi thrills, \"Event Horizon\" quickly devolves into an exercise of style over substance whose flashy effects and gratuitous gore fail to mask its overreliance on horror clichés.\" On Metacritic, the film holds a weighted average score of 35 out of 100, based on 20 critics, indicating \"generally unfavorable reviews\". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of \"D+\" on an A+ to F scale. Roger Ebert gave the film 2 stars out of 4, stating, \"The script creates a sense of foreboding and afterboding, but no actual boding.\" \"The Washington Post\" critic Stephen Hunter wrote, \"If you want to have that \"Event Horizon\" experience without spending the seven bucks, try this instead: Put a bucket on your head. Have a loved one beat on it vigorously with a wrench for 100 minutes. Same difference, and think of the gas you'll save\". The film had some early supporters, with \"Empire\" magazine awarding \"Event Horizon\" a 3 out of 5 stars rating, reporting: \"That the film never fulfils its promise is down to its over reliance on horror vagaries in a precision-built sci-fi milieu, ultimately leaving too many unanswered queries. A sharper script and a more credible solution could have turned this impressive hokum into a force to be reckoned with\". Additionally, \"Total Film\" also gave it a score of 3 out of 5 stars, stating that \"Excellent special effects and an \"Alien\"-esque feel make this supernatural horror film (\"'The Shining\" in space,' as most critics have called it, pretty accurately) well worth a look. There are certainly plenty of jumps on offer as a possessed ship torments and tortures any humans it can find. Well worth a look.\" \"Entertainment Weekly\" gave it a B-, stating, \"Just when you've written off this deep-space nightmare as a late-summer melange of \"Alien\", \"Fantastic Voyage\", \"The Shining\", and a dozen more forgettable otherworldly thrillers, it unleashes some of the most unsettling horror imagery in years\", whereas the \"Time Out\" magazine mentioned that \"despite its shortcomings, this is never dull. The movie avoids Alien space monster clichés brilliantly and the soundtrack contains more of the 'Boo!' effects than I've heard since \"Halloween\".\"", "In August 2019, it was reported that Paramount Television and Amazon Studios were developing a television series based on \"Event Horizon\". Horror filmmaker Adam Wingard is set to executive produce and possibly direct the series. Lawrence Gordon and Lloyd Levin, who produced the original film, are also involved." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Ascent to the throne.", "Henry VII.", "Henry VIII.", "Edward VI: Protestant zeal.", "Duke of Somerset's England.", "Problematic succession.", "Mary I: A troubled queen's reign.", "Elizabeth I: Age of intrigues and plots.", "Early years.", "Imposing the Church of England.", "Pressure to marry.", "Last hopes of a Tudor heir.", "Before and after comparisons.", "Rebellions against the Tudors.", "Tudor monarchs of England and Ireland.", "Armorial.", "Coat of arms as sovereigns.", "Tudor Badges.", "Tudor Monograms.", "Lineage and the Tudor name.", "The Tudor Name.", "Royal lineage.", "In popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The Tudors descended on Henry VII's mother's side from John Beaufort, 1st Earl of Somerset, one of the illegitimate children of the 14th century English prince John of Gaunt (the third surviving son of Edward III) by Gaunt's long-term mistress Katherine Swynford. The descendants of an illegitimate child of English royalty would normally have no claim on the throne, but the situation became complicated when Gaunt and Swynford eventually married in 1396, when John Beaufort was 25. The church retroactively declared the Beauforts legitimate by way of a papal bull the same year, confirmed by an Act of Parliament in 1397. A subsequent proclamation by John of Gaunt's legitimate son, Henry IV, also recognised the Beauforts' legitimacy but declared them ineligible ever to inherit the throne. Nevertheless, the Beauforts remained closely allied with Gaunt's legitimate descendants from his first marriage, the House of Lancaster. However the descent from the Beauforts, despite the above, did not render Henry of Richmond a legitimate heir to the throne, nor did the fact that his father's mother, Catherine of Valois, had been a Queen of England, make him an heir. The legitimate heiress was Margaret Pole, Countess of Salisbury, who was descended from the second son of Edward III, Lionel, Duke of Clarence, and also his fourth son, the Duke of York. Henry Tudor had, however, one thing that the others did not. He had an army which had defeated and killed the last Yorkist King, Richard III, and therefore the support of powerful nobles. His son Henry VIII made sure there were no other claimants to the Throne when he wiped out all the remaining Plantagenet heirs including the Margaret Pole and her family. Only Reginald Pole survived, but he was a", "Upon becoming king in 1485, Henry VII moved rapidly to secure his hold on the throne. On 18 January 1486 at Westminster, he honoured a pledge made three years earlier and married Elizabeth of York (daughter of King Edward IV). They were third cousins, as both were great-great-grandchildren of John of Gaunt. The marriage unified the warring houses of Lancaster and York and gave the couple's children a strong claim to the throne. The unification of the two houses through this marriage is symbolized by the heraldic emblem of the Tudor rose, a combination of the white rose of York and the red rose of Lancaster. Henry VII and Elizabeth of York had several children, four of whom survived infancy: Henry VII's foreign policy had an objective of dynastic security: witness the alliance forged with the marriage in 1503 of his daughter Margaret to James IV of Scotland and through the marriage of his eldest son. In 1501 Henry VII married his son Arthur to Catherine of Aragon, cementing an alliance with the Spanish", "The new King Henry VIII married Catherine of Aragon on 11 June 1509; they were crowned at Westminster Abbey on 24 June the same year. Catherine was Henry's older brother's wife, making the path for their marriage a rocky one from the start. A papal dispensation had to be granted for Henry to be able to marry Catherine, and the negotiations took some time. Despite the fact that Henry's father died before he was married to Catherine, he was determined to marry her anyway and make sure that everyone knew he intended on being his own master. When Henry first came to the throne, he had very little interest in actually ruling; rather, he preferred to indulge in luxuries and to partake in sports. He let others control the kingdom for the first two years of his reign, and then when he became more interested in military strategy, he took more interest in ruling his own throne. In his younger years, Henry was described as a man of gentle friendliness, gentle in debate, and who acted as more of a companion than a king. He was generous in his gifts and affection and was said to be easy to get along with. The Henry that many people picture when they hear his name is the Henry of his later years, when he became obese, volatile, and was known for his great cruelty. Catherine did not bear Henry the sons he was desperate for; her first child, a daughter, was stillborn, and her second child, a son named Henry, Duke of Cornwall, died 52 days after birth. A further set of stillborn children were conceived, until a daughter Mary was born in 1516. When it became clear to Henry that the Tudor line was at risk, he consulted his chief minister Cardinal Thomas Wolsey about the possibility of annulling his marriage to Catherine. Along with Henry's concern that he would not have an heir, it was also obvious to his court that he was becoming tired of his aging wife, who was six years older than he was. Wolsey visited Rome, where he hoped to get the Pope's consent for an annulment. However, the church was reluctant to rescind the earlier papal dispensation and felt heavy pressure from Catherine's nephew, Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, in support of his aunt. Catherine contested the proceedings, and a protracted legal battle followed. Wolsey fell from favour as a result of his failure to procure the annulment, and Henry appointed Thomas Cromwell in his place. Despite his failure to produce the results that Henry wanted, Wolsey actively pursued the annulment – divorce was synonymous with annulment at that time. However, he never planned that Henry would marry Anne Boleyn, with whom the king had become enamoured while she was lady-in-waiting in Queen Catherine's household. It is unclear how far Wolsey was actually responsible for the Reformation, but it is very clear that Henry's desire to marry Anne Boleyn precipitated the schism with the Church. Henry's concern about having an heir to secure his family line and increase his security while alive would have prompted him to ask for a divorce sooner or later, whether Anne had precipitated it or not. Only Wolsey's sudden death at Leicester on his journey to the Tower of London saved him from the public humiliation and inevitable execution he would have suffered upon his arrival at the Tower.", "Henry died on 28 January 1547. His will had reinstated his daughters by his annulled marriages to Catherine of Aragon and Anne Boleyn to the line of succession. Edward, his nine-year-old son by Jane Seymour, succeeded as Edward VI of England. Unfortunately, the young King's kingdom was usually in turmoil between nobles who were trying to strengthen their own positions in the kingdom by using the Regency in their favour.", "Although Henry had specified a group of men to act as regents during Edward's minority, Edward Seymour, Edward's uncle, quickly seized complete control and created himself Duke of Somerset on 15 February 1547. His domination of the Privy Council, the king's most senior body of advisers, was unchallenged. Somerset aimed to unite England and Scotland by marrying Edward to the young Mary, Queen of Scots, and aimed to forcibly impose the English Reformation on the Church of Scotland. Somerset led a large and well equipped army to Scotland, where he and the Scottish regent James Hamilton, 2nd Earl of Arran, commanded their armies at the Battle of Pinkie Cleugh on 10 September 1547. The English won the battle, and after this Queen Mary of Scotland was smuggled to France, where she was betrothed to the Dauphin, the future King Francis II of France. Despite Somerset's disappointment that no Scottish marriage would take place, his victory at Pinkie Cleugh made his position appear unassailable. Edward VI was taught that", "Lord Protector Somerset was also losing favour. After forcibly removing Edward VI to Windsor Castle, with the intention of keeping him hostage, Somerset was removed from power by members of the council, led by his chief rival, John Dudley, the first Earl of Warwick, who created himself Duke of Northumberland shortly after his rise. Northumberland effectively became Lord Protector, but he did not use this title, learning from the mistakes his predecessor made. Northumberland was furiously ambitious, and aimed to secure Protestant uniformity while making himself rich with land and money in the process. He ordered churches to be stripped of all traditional Catholic symbolism, resulting in the simplicity often seen in Church of England churches today. A revision of the Book of Common Prayer was published in 1552. When Edward VI became ill in 1553, his advisers looked to the possible imminent accession of", "Mary soon announced her intention to marry the Spanish prince Philip, son of her mother's nephew Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor. The prospect of a marriage alliance with Spain proved unpopular with the English people, who were worried that Spain would use England as a satellite, involving England in wars without the popular support of the people. Popular discontent grew; a Protestant courtier, Thomas Wyatt the younger, led a rebellion against Mary aiming to depose and replace her with her half-sister Elizabeth. The plot was discovered, and Wyatt's supporters were hunted down and killed. Wyatt himself was tortured, in the hope that he would give evidence that Elizabeth was involved so that Mary could have her executed for treason. Wyatt never implicated Elizabeth, and he was beheaded. Elizabeth spent her time between different prisons, including the Tower of London. Mary married Philip at Winchester Cathedral, on 25 July 1554. Philip found her unattractive, and only spent a minimal amount of time with her. Despite Mary believing she was pregnant numerous times during her five-year reign, she never reproduced. Devastated that she rarely saw her husband, and anxious", "Elizabeth I, who was staying at Hatfield House at the time of her accession, rode to London to the cheers of both the ruling class and the common people. When Elizabeth came to the throne, there was much apprehension among members of the council appointed by Mary, because many of them (as noted by the Spanish ambassador) had participated in several plots against Elizabeth, such as her imprisonment in the Tower, trying to force her to marry a foreign prince and thereby sending her out of the realm, and even pushing for her death. In response to their fear, she chose as her chief minister Sir William Cecil, a Protestant, and former secretary to Lord Protector the Duke of Somerset and then to the Duke of Northumberland. Under Mary, he had been spared, and often visited Elizabeth, ostensibly to review her accounts and expenditure. Elizabeth also appointed her personal favourite, the son of the Duke of Northumberland Lord Robert Dudley, her Master of the Horse, giving him constant personal access to the queen.", "Elizabeth had a long, turbulent path to the throne. She had a number of problems during her childhood, one of the main ones being after the execution of her mother, Anne Boleyn. When Anne was beheaded, Henry declared Elizabeth an illegitimate child and she would, therefore, not be able to inherit the throne. After the death of her father, she was raised by his widow, Catherine Parr and her husband Thomas Seymour, 1st", "Elizabeth was a moderate Protestant; she was the daughter of Anne Boleyn, who played a key role in the English Reformation in the 1520s. She had been brought up by Blanche Herbert Lady Troy. At her coronation in January 1559, many of the bishops – Catholic, appointed by Mary, who had expelled many of the Protestant clergymen when she became queen in 1553 – refused to perform the service in English. Eventually, the relatively minor Bishop of Carlisle, Owen Oglethorpe, performed the ceremony; but when Oglethorpe attempted to perform traditional Catholic parts of the Coronation, Elizabeth", "Even though Elizabeth was only twenty-five when she came to the throne, she was absolutely sure of her God-given place to be the queen and of her responsibilities as the 'handmaiden of the Lord'. She never let anyone challenge her authority as queen, even though many people, who felt she was weak and should be married, tried to do so. The popularity of Elizabeth was extremely high, but her Privy Council, her Parliament and her subjects thought that the unmarried queen should take a husband; it was generally accepted that, once a queen regnant was married, the husband would relieve the woman of the burdens of", "Despite the uncertainty of Elizabeth's – and therefore the Tudors' – hold on England, she never married. The closest she came to marriage was between 1579 and 1581, when she was courted by Francis, Duke of Anjou, the son of Henry II of France and Catherine de' Medici. Despite Elizabeth's government constantly begging her to marry in the early years of her reign, it was now persuading Elizabeth not to marry the French prince, for his mother, Catherine de' Medici, was suspected of ordering the St Bartholomew's Day massacre of tens of", "Public interference regarding the Roses dynasties was always a threat until the 17th century Stuart/Bourbon re-alignment occasioned by a series of events such as the execution of Lady Jane Grey, despite her brother-in-law, Leicester's reputation in Holland, the Rising of the North (in which the old Percy-Neville feud and even anti-Scottish sentiment was discarded on account of religion; Northern England shared the same Avignonese bias as the Scottish court, on par with Valois France and Castile, which became the backbone of the Counter-Reformation, with Protestants being solidly anti-Avignonese) and death of Elizabeth I of England without children. The Tudors made no substantial changes in their foreign policy from either Lancaster or York, whether the alliance was with Aragon or Cleves, the chief foreign enemies continuing as the Auld Alliance, but the Tudors resurrected old ecclesiastic arguments once pursued by Henry II of England and his son John of England. Yorkists were tied so much to the old order that Catholic rebellions (such as the Pilgrimage of Grace) and aspirations (exemplified by William Allen) were seen as continuing in their reactionary footsteps, when in opposition to the Tudors' reformation policies, although the Tudors were not uniformly Protestant according to Continental definition—instead", "The following English rebellions", "The six Tudor", "", "As Prince of Wales, Arthur,", "The Welsh Dragon supporter honoured the Tudor's Welsh origins. The most popular symbol of the house of Tudor was the Tudor rose (see top of page). When Henry Tudor took the crown of England from Richard III in battle, he brought about the end of the Wars of the Roses between the House of Lancaster (whose", "The Tudors also", "", "As noted above Tewdur or Tudor is derived from the words tud \"territory\" and rhi \"king\". Owen Tudor took it as a surname on being knighted. It is doubtful whether the Tudor kings used the name on the throne. Kings and princes were not seen as needing a name, and a \" 'Tudor' name for the royal family was hardly known in the sixteenth century. The royal surname was never used in official publications, and hardly in 'histories' of various sorts before 1584....", "The Tudors' claim to the throne combined the Lancastrian claim in their descent", "Numerous feature films are based on Tudor history. Queen Elizabeth has been in special favorite for filmmakers for generations. According to Elizabeth A. Ford and Deborah C. Mitchell, images of Elizabeth I move:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Development.", "Origins.", "Prototypes.", "Production.", "Improvements.", "Design.", "Overview.", "Accommodation and armament.", "Operational service.", "Civilian operation.", "Surviving aircraft.", "Halifax 57 Rescue." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "In the 1930s, the Royal Air Force (RAF) was primarily interested in twin-engine bombers. These designs put significant demands on engine production and maintenance, both of which were already stretched with the introduction of many new types of aircraft into service. Power limitations were so serious that the British invested heavily in the development of huge engines in the 2,000 horsepower (1,500 kW) class in an effort to improve performance. However, during the late 1930s, none of these engines was ready for production. Meanwhile, both the United States and the Soviet Union were developing bombers powered by arrangements of four smaller engines with favorable results, including excellent range and fair lifting capacity. Accordingly, in 1936, the RAF decided to investigate the feasibility of a four-engined bomber. During the mid 1930s, the British Air Ministry released Specification P.13/36, seeking a twin-engine heavy-medium bomber suitable for \"world-wide use\". Further requirements of the specification included the use of a mid-mounted cantilever monoplane wing and all-metal construction, and encouraged use of the Rolls-Royce Vulture engine then in development. In response, Handley Page produced the twin-engine \"HP56\" design to meet Specification P.13/36. Handley Page aircraft designer George Volkert had responsibility for the design. Other candidates were submitted for the same specification, including the Avro 679, and designs from Fairey, Boulton Paul and Shorts; all submissions were designed around two-engine configurations, using the Rolls-Royce Vulture, Napier Sabre, Fairey P.24 or Bristol Hercules engines. The majority of these engines were under development at this point; while four-engined bomber designs were considered for specification B.12/36 for a heavy bomber, wings mounting two pairs of engines were still in the experimental stage and required additional testing at the Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE). Adopting a stronger wing also required additional strengthening of the overall aircraft structure, resulting in an increase in overall weight. In February 1937, following consideration of the designs, the Air Ministry selected Avro's submission, with Handley Page's bid chosen as \"second string\". Accordingly, during April 1937, the Air Ministry ordered two prototypes of each design. The introduction of the successful P.13/36 candidates was delayed by the necessity of ordering additional Armstrong-Whitworth Whitley and Vickers Wellington bombers first. In mid-1937, it was decided to order both the Avro 679 and HP56 designs \"off the drawing board\" in order to speed up delivery timetables. During July 1937, Handley Page was instructed to redesign the HP56 to use a four-engine arrangement, instead of the original twin-engine configuration; by this point, the Vulture had already been suffering from reliability and performance problems. The rival Avro 679 proceeded into service as the Avro Manchester powered by a pair of Vulture engines, but was only built in limited quantities after suffering substantially from engine-related difficulties. The four-engine redesign increased its wingspan from to and added of weight. In September 1937, the Ministry specified the use of four Rolls-Royce Merlin engines; according to aviation author Phillip J. R. Moyes, this redesign to four Merlin engines had been done \"much against the company's wishes\". Towards the end of the year, a full mock-up of the design was assessed; production of a pair of \"HP57\" prototypes commenced in March 1938. Further design modifications resulted in the definitive aircraft, now considerably enlarged and powered by four Rolls-Royce Merlin X engines. Such was the promise of the new model that, in January 1938, the RAF chose to place their first production order for the type, ordering 100 Mk.I Halifaxes \"off the drawing board\", at which point the serials which had already been assigned to HP56 were switched to HP57.", "The first prototype was built at Handley Page's facility in Cricklewood, London, It was then dismantled and transported by road to RAF Bicester (the nearest non-operational RAF airfield with suitable facilities) for reassembly. On 25 October 1939, the maiden flight of the first prototype Halifax, serial number \"L7244\", was performed by chief test pilot Jim Cordes with E A 'Ginger' Wright as flight test observer; during this flight, the undercarriage remained locked down as an extra safety precaution. On 17 August 1940, the first flight of the second prototype, \"L7245\", now complete with full armament and operationally-representative equipment, was performed by Cordes from Radlett Aerodrome. The HP57 was given the service name \"Halifax\" upon its acceptance. This name followed the practice of naming heavy bombers after major towns – in this case, Halifax in the West Riding of Yorkshire. In September 1941, a production Halifax Mk.I participated in an official naming ceremony of the type, officiated by Lord Halifax and Lady Halifax.", "Series production of the Halifax began at Handley Page's factory at Cricklewood and at English Electric's site in Samlesbury, Lancashire. In order to speed up production, Handley Page implemented several new manufacturing techniques, including two pioneering approaches: photo-lofting and split construction. In the latter capacity, each Halifax was built from various sub-assemblies. Surface panels were flush-riveted, although the application of the matt black night bomber camouflage probably negated its benefit. Handley Page built the assemblies and components at Cricklewood and the aircraft were assembled and flown from Radlett Aerodrome; the first production aircraft flew from Radlett on 11 October 1940. The sizeable production run envisioned required the involvement of several external parties in addition to Handley Page. The resulting \"Halifax Group\" was established to oversee the manufacturing programme, comprising English Electric (who had previously been a valued contributor in the production of the Handley Page Hampden), various firms within the London Aircraft Production Group, Fairey Aviation, and Rootes Motors. Because of this scheme and other initiatives, the Halifax was manufactured by a variety of aviation companies at sites across the British isles. The Halifax was produced in large numbers during the war: of the 10,018 heavy bombers produced in Britain between 1940 and 1944, 4,046 were various models of the Halifax – in excess of 40%. In all, 6,178 Halifaxes were built, the last delivered in April 1945. At the peak, 41 separate factories and dispersed units were involved in production, along with 600 subcontractors and 51,000 employees, with one Halifax completed every hour. The first English Electric-built aircraft was flown from Samlesbury on 15 August 1941. The first production standard Halifax, the Mk.I, had a 22 ft (6.7 m) long bomb bay as well as six bomb cells in the wings, providing a bomb capacity of 13,000 lb (5,900 kg). Defensive armament consisted of two.303 in (7.7 mm) Browning machine guns in a Boulton Paul Type C nose turret, with an additional four in a Boulton Paul Type E tail turret. Some aircraft included two additional.303 in (7.7 mm) Vickers K machine guns in beam (side, or \"waist\") positions. Subtle modifications distinguished the Mk I aircraft. Aircraft of the first batch of fifty Mk I Halifaxes were designated Mk I Series I.", "The Halifax Mk.I was quickly followed by 25 of the Mk I Series II; these featured an increased gross weight (from 58,000 lb/26,310 kg to 60,000 lb/27,220 kg) but with maximum landing weight unchanged at. The Halifax Mk I Series III featured increased fuel capacity (1,882 gal/8,556 L), and larger oil coolers, the latter of which having been adopted in order to accommodate the Merlin XX engine. A dorsally-mounted two-gun Boulton Paul Type C turret replaced the beam guns. Introduction of Merlin XX engines and a twin.303 in (7.7 mm) dorsal turret instead of waist guns resulted in the Halifax B Mk II Series I. The Mk II Series I (Special) achieved improved performance via the removal of the nose and dorsal turrets. The Halifax Mk II Series IA was fitted with a moulded Perspex nose (this nose became standard upon future Halifax variants), a four-gun Defiant-type dorsal turret, Merlin 22 engines and larger, trapezoidal-shaped vertical tail surfaces which solved control deficiencies from fin-stall produced by the roughly triangular-shape original surfaces, leading to rudder overbalance in the early marks. Halifax IIs were built by both English Electric and Handley Page; 200 and 100 aircraft respectively. Owing to a shortage of Messier-built landing gear and hydraulics, Dowty-built landing gear were used on some aircraft instead. As it was incompatible with the Messier equipment, this led to these Halifax bombers being given new designations: a Mark II built with Dowty gear was the Mark V. The use of castings rather than forgings in the Dowty undercarriage had resulted in an increased production rate but had also led to a reduced landing weight of. The Halifax Mark V were manufactured by Rootes Group at Speke and Fairey at Stockport; operationally, these were generally used by Coastal Command and for training purposes. Some 904 had been built when Mark V production ended at the start of 1944, compared to 1,966 Halifax Mk IIs. The most numerous Halifax variant was the B Mk III of which 2,091 were built. First appearing in 1943, the Mk III featured the Perspex nose and modified tail of the Mk II Series IA but replaced the Merlin with the more powerful Bristol Hercules XVI radial engine. Other changes included the adoption of de Havilland Hydromatic propellers and rounded wing tips. The Halifax Mk IV was a non-production design using a turbocharged Hercules powerplant. The definitive version of the Halifax was the B Mk VI, powered by the Hercules 100. The final bomber version, the Mk VII, reverted to the less powerful Hercules XVI. However, these variants were produced in relatively small quantities. The remaining variants were the Halifax C Mk VIII, an unarmed transport that was fitted with an 8,000 lb/3,630 kg cargo pannier instead of a bomb bay, which could accommodate a maximum of 11 passengers and the Mk A IX paratroop transport, which had space for up to 16 paratroopers and their equipment. A transport/cargo version of the Halifax was also produced, known as the \"Handley Page Halton\".", "", "The Handley Page Halifax was a mostly orthodox design, a mid-wing monoplane with a tail unit featuring twin fins and rudders. The Halifax featured all-metal construction with a smooth, stressed skin covering the majority of the exterior surfaces; the flight control surfaces were an exception, being fabric-covered instead. The slab-sided fuselage contained a 22-foot bomb bay, which contained the majority of the Halifax's payload, while the cockpit was flush with the upper fuselage. The Halifax was powered by four engines, two spaced evenly on each wing. Early production Halifax bombers were powered by models of the Rolls-Royce Merlin engine; later aircraft were commonly powered by the larger Bristol Hercules radial engine. To contain and attach the engines to the airframe, Handley Page developed their own design for the power egg instead of using the typical, slimmer Rolls-Royce counterpart; despite generating increased drag, this in-house design was readily adaptable to the alternative Hercules engine on later aircraft. Each engine drove a Rotol-built compressed wood constant-speed propeller, enabling the Halifax B.I to attain a maximum speed of 265 mph at 17,500 feet. With a typical payload of 5,800 lbs of bombs and 2,242 imp. gal. of fuel, it had a range of 1,860 miles. The defensive armaments included power-assisted gun turrets in various positions located across the aircraft. Different models of the Halifax used different numbers and combinations of turrets, effectively trading speed for firepower and vice versa.", "The bomb aimer's position was in the extreme nose with the navigator's table located behind it, both roles fulfilled by the same crew member. Above the navigator's position was the forward gun turret. The wireless (radio) operator was behind the navigator's position, separated by a half-width partition. The pilot (left side) and co-pilot (right side) occupied the cockpit, above the wireless operator. (The flight engineer filled in as a co-pilot, seated on a folding seat, during crucial manoeuvres such as take-off.) Aft of the pilots and on the same level as the navigator and wireless operator was the flight engineer's compartment. Another compartment aft of the flight engineer contained two bunks originally intended for resting crew members, but almost always used for treating and berthing injured crew. This area led to the two-gun dorsal turret. The tail gunner occupied a four-gun turret at the extreme aft end of the aircraft. Starting with the Halifax \"Mk II Series IA\" and from the \"Mk III\" onwards, the nose turret was deleted; instead the bomb-aimer occupied a streamlined perspex nose containing a single hand-held machine gun. On later-built aircraft, the two-gun dorsal turret was replaced by a four-gun Boulton Paul turret. The maximum bomb load was, which was primarily carried in a bomb bay housed within the fuselage, divided into six separate bomb compartments, with three bomb compartments in the inboard sections of each wing; this division of the payload between multiple compartments limited the maximum size of the individual bombs which could be carried to.", "In November 1940, the Handley Page Halifax entered service with No. 35 Squadron at RAF Linton-on-Ouse. Its operational debut occurred on the night of 10–11 March 1941, when six Halifax bombers flew a bombing raid against Le Havre, targeting the area around the docks and any shipping that might be present. The existence of the Halifax was not officially acknowledged until July 1941, after it was used in a daylight attack on La Pallice, France, against the German battleship Scharnhorst. At the end of 1941, the Halifax was withdrawn from daylight bombing operations after intensifying fighter opposition had increased the casualty rates to unsustainable levels. In the second half of 1942, No. 35 Squadron and four other squadrons were selected to form the Pathfinder Force, later expanded to become No. 8 Group. Pathfinder crews flying the Halifax would mark routes and identify and mark targets for the Main Force. Effective marking greatly increased the accuracy and destructive power of Bomber Command. As a Pathfinder and Main Force aircraft, the Halifax was a core part of the bombing offensive against Germany and its Axis allies. By the end of 1943, No. 4 Group had been entirely equipped with the Halifax, and would continue to operate the aircraft until the end of the war. The No. 6 Group of the Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) also adopted the Halifax around the same time, and would go on to operate it in each of its 14 squadrons, although it was never solely equipped with the type. At its peak strength, Bomber Command operated a total of 76 Halifax-equipped squadrons. While the early-built models of the Halifax were heavily used by Bomber Command and made valuable contributions to operations, the aircraft's performance was considered unsatisfactory for the most part, mainly due to the underpowered Merlin engine, which meant that it could not fly at the higher altitudes needed to avoid enemy fighters, which were becoming increasingly effective throughout 1943. This was answered by the Halifax Mk III, which was powered by Bristol Hercules radial engines in place of the Merlins. Introduced into service in November 1943, the Mk III was first delivered to No. 433 Squadron and No. 466 Squadron. By January 1944, the Hercules-powered Halifax was available in quantity and quickly proved to have superior performance in the face of German fighter defences. Early on, Air Chief Marshal Arthur Harris, head of Bomber Command, was scathing in his criticism of the Halifax's performance in comparison to the new Avro Lancaster, primarily of its bomb-carrying capability: an average Halifax was calculated to drop 100 tons of bombs in its lifetime, compared to a Lancaster's 154. Harris continued to have a poor opinion of the Halifax, despite the fact that later Hercules-engined machines had lower loss rates and higher crew survival rates after abandoning the aircraft than Lancasters, and came very close to the Lancaster's speed and altitude performance. Unlike the Lancaster, the Halifax's bomb bay could not be adapted to carry the 4,000 pound \"Cookie\" blast bomb, which was an integral part of Harris's fire-bombing tactics. The Halifax was progressively outnumbered in front-line service over occupied Europe as more Lancasters became available from 1943 onwards; many squadrons converted to the Lancaster. Production of the Halifax continued, supposedly because it was more efficient to keep building it than to stop its production and convert to building another aircraft. But any new facilities were devoted to the Lancaster. Harris's view of the Halifax changed sometime after spring 1942. On 2 June 1942, in a response to a telegram sent by Frederick Handley Page, congratulating Harris on the success of the first 1000 bomber Cologne raid, he stated: \"My Dear Handley Page. We much appreciate your telegram of congratulation on Saturday night's work, the success of which was very largely due to your support in giving us such a powerful weapon to wield. Between us we will make a job of it.\" Following the invasion of Europe in 1944, the Halifax resumed daylight bombing operations, performing semi-tactical strikes upon enemy troop concentrations, gun emplacements, and strongpoints along the French coastline with a reportedly high degree of accuracy. Other common targets were enemy communications and the launch sites for V-1 flying bombs. Bombing activity became increasingly brazen throughout late 1944 as the \"Luftwaffe\" became incapable of putting up effective opposition against them. The Halifax also found itself being increasingly tasked with transport duties around this time; in one instance, around half a million gallons of petrol was delivered to Brussels in support of the advancing Second Army, then engaged in heavy fighting at Arnhem. During the latter half of 1944, the bombing of German-held oil facilities became a major priority of the offensive. On 27 August, a force of 216 Halifax bombers, alongside smaller numbers of de Havilland Mosquitos and Lancasters and a sizable escort of Supermarine Spitfires, conducted the first major daylight operation by Bomber Command against a target inside Germany that year, attacking the oil refinery at Homberg on the Ruhr. In spite of heavy fire from anti-aircraft defenses, no bombers were downed and the refinery was severely damaged in places. Attacks upon oil production facilities throughout Germany would become commonplace within the remaining months of the war. The only Victoria Cross to be awarded to any Halifax pilot went to Cyril J. Barton of No. 578 Squadron for displaying great gallantry in bringing his heavily damaged aircraft back after a raid on Nuremberg on the night of 30/31 March 1944. Barton continued to fly the Halifax while other crew members bailed out, he was killed in the aircraft's crash-landing, but the remaining crew survived due to his actions. Large numbers of Halifax bombers were also operated by Coastal Command, which used it to conduct anti submarine warfare, reconnaissance and meteorological operations. The Halifax was heavily used to deploy mines in the vicinity of enemy-held ports. It served increasingly in other support capacities as the war progressed, being used as a glider tug, an electronic warfare aircraft for No. 100 Group and to conduct special operations, such as parachuting agents and arms into occupied Europe, for the Special Operations Executive (SOE). Throughout early 1945, the Halifax was frequently dispatched against cities within the German homeland, including Hannover, Magdeburg, Stuttgart, Cologne, Münster, Osnabrück and others. During these months, infrastructure such as oil facilities and railways were given a high priority; these targets were attacked right up until the end of the war. According to Moyes, within the final few months, bomber losses had fallen to all-time lows while raids were frequently regarded as having been highly successful. During the final months of the war the improved Halifax Mk VI and Mk VII were introduced. In particular, these models had been 'tropicalised' with an eye towards their potential use in the Pacific War against the Empire of Japan. While some of these Mk VI and Mk VII machines were deployed to the theatre, they played little meaningful role as the war ended before larger numbers could be brought to bear against Japanese forces. On 25 April 1945, the Halifax performed its last major operation against the enemy during an attack upon coastal gun batteries on Wangerooge in the Frisian Islands of the North Sea. While the type continued to fly operations after this, these were primarily diversions to other operations and sporadic, uncoordinated attacks against targets of opportunity. Upon the end of the conflict, Bomber Command quickly disbanded the majority of its Halifax-equipped squadrons; the aircraft themselves were transferred to Transport Command. During the type's service with Bomber Command, Halifaxes flew 82,773 operations and dropped 224,207 tons of bombs. 1,833 aircraft were lost. By 1947, the majority of Halifax bombers were deemed to be surplus and scrapped. The Halifax remained in widespread service with Coastal Command and RAF Transport Command, Royal Egyptian Air Force and the \"Armée de l'Air\" until early 1952. The Pakistan Air Force, which had inherited a number of Halifax bombers from the RAF, also continued to operate them and become the last military user of the type, retiring the last aircraft in 1961. In September 1997 Halifax 57 Rescue of Canada excavated Halifax LW682 from a bog near the River Dender in Belgium. The plane was part of RCAF 426 Squadron, and had been shot down near Geraardsbergen during a raid on Leuven, Belgium on 12 May 1944. During the excavation, the bodies of three crew members were recovered and later given proper burial. Several items from the plane were used in restoration of NA337, while other items were transferred to museums. The airframe was melted down and used to construct the ceiling of the RAF Bomber Command Memorial in London, which was unveiled in 2012.", "A number of former RAF Halifax C.8s were sold from 1945 and used as freighters by a number of mostly British airlines. In 1948, 41 civil Halifax freighters were used during the Berlin Air Lift, operating a total of 4,653 sorties carrying freight and 3,509 carrying bulk diesel fuel. Nine aircraft were lost during the airlift. The Low-cost airline business pioneer Freddie Laker bought and serviced war-surplus Halifaxes for Bond Air Services operations in the Berlin airlift. With the airfreight market in decline, most of the civilian Halifaxes were scrapped on their return to England. The last civilian-operated Halifaxes were withdrawn from service in late 1952.", "Of the 6,176 Halifaxes built, only three complete planes remain.", "Halifax 57 Rescue is a Canadian organization dedicated to the recovery and restoration of Handley Page Halifaxes. Since its inception in 1994 the organization has recovered two aircraft, including Halifax NA337, one of only three complete examples in the world. The organization was founded in 1994 by Karl Kjarsgaard, a Canadian former Air Canada pilot, and Ian Foster of Scotland. In 1995 they participated in their first recovery project, that of Halifax NA337 from 750 feet underwater in Lake Mjøsa, Norway. The aircraft was moved to the National Air Force Museum of Canada in Trenton, Ontario where it was unveiled in 2005 after a full restoration. Their second project was the 1997 recovery of Halifax LW682 from a bog near Geraardsbergen, Belgium. During the recovery, the bodies of three crew members were removed and given a proper burial. Several parts of the aircraft were used in the restoration of NA337, and the airframe was melted down and later used to construct the RAF Bomber Command Memorial in London, which was unveiled in 2012. At present, Halifax 57 Rescue is working to recover two aircraft. The first is HR871, located off the coast of Sweden. Preparations are currently underway for underwater excavation. Once the aircraft has been raised, it will be moved to the Bomber Command Museum of Canada in Nanton, Alberta for restoration. The second aircraft the organization is seeking to recover is LW170 off the coast of Scotland. This aircraft has yet to be located, although its general position is known." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Physiology.", "Principles of operation.", "Projection elements.", "Light source.", "Reflector and condenser lens.", "Douser.", "Film gate and frame advance.", "Shutter.", "Imaging lens and aperture plate.", "Viewing screen.", "Film transport elements.", "Film supply and takeup.", "Feed and extraction sprockets.", "Film loop.", "Film gate pressure plate.", "Intermittent mechanism.", "Types.", "8 mm.", "Super 8.", "9.5 mm.", "16 mm.", "35 mm.", "70 mm.", "Sound.", "Analog optical sound.", "Magnetic sound.", "Digital.", "Cinema Digital Sound (CDS).", "Sony Dynamic Digital Sound (SDDS).", "Dolby Digital.", "Digital Theater Systems (DTS).", "Leaders.", "Types of lenses and screens.", "Spherical.", "Anamorphic.", "Fish eye with dome.", "Wide and deep flat screen.", "Multiple cameras and projectors.", "Three-dimensional." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The main precursor to the movie projector was the magic lantern. In its most common setup it had a concave mirror behind a light source to help direct as much light as possible through a painted glass picture slide and a lens, out of the lantern onto a screen. Simple mechanics to have the painted images moving were probably implemented since Christiaan Huygens introduced the apparatus around 1659. Initially candles and oil lamps were used, but other light sources, such as the argand lamp and limelight were usually adopted soon after their introduction. Magic lantern presentations may often have had relatively small audiences, but the very popular phantasmagoria and dissolving views shows were usually performed in proper theatres, large tents or especially converted spaces with plenty seats. Both Joseph Plateau and Simon Stampfer thought of lantern projection when they independently introduced stroboscopic animation in 1833 with a stroboscopic disc (which became known as the phenakistiscope), but neither of them intended to work on projection themselves. The oldest known successful screenings of stroboscopic animation were performed by Ludwig Döbler in 1847 in Vienna and taken on a tour to several large European cities for over a year. His Phantaskop had a front with separate lenses for each of the 12 pictures on a disc and two separate lenses were cranked around to direct light through the pictures. Wordsworth Donisthorpe patented ideas for a cinematographic film camera and a film presentation system in 1876. In reply to the introduction of the phonograph and a magazine's suggestion that it could be combined with projection of stereoscopic photography, Donisthorpe stated that he could do even better and announce that he would present such images in motion. His original Kinesigraph camera gave unsatisfactory results. He had better results with a new camera in 1889 but never seems to have been successful in projecting his movies. Eadweard Muybridge developed his Zoopraxiscope in 1879 and gave many lectures with the machine from 1880 to 1894. It projected images from rotating glass disks. The images were initially painted onto the glass, as silhouettes. A second series of discs, made in 1892–94, used outline drawings printed onto the discs photographically, then colored by hand. Ottomar Anschütz developed his first Electrotachyscope in 1886. For each scene, 24 glass plates with chronophotographic images were attached to the edge of a large rotating wheel and thrown on a small opal-glass screen by very short synchronized flashes from a Geissler tube. He demonstrated his photographic motion from March 1887 until at least January 1890 to circa 4 or 5 people at a time, in Berlin, other large German cities, Brussels (at the 1888 Exposition Universelle), Florence, Saint Petersburg, New York, Boston and Philadelphia. Between 1890 and 1894 he concentrated on the exploitation of an automatic coin-operated version that was an inspiration for Edison Company's Kinetoscope. From 28 November 1894 to at least May 1895 he projected his recordings from two intermittently rotating discs, mostly in 300-seat halls, in several German cities. During circa 5 weeks of screenings at the old Berlin Reichstag in February and March 1895, circa 7.000 paying visitors came to see the show. In 1886 Louis Le Prince applied for a US patent for a 16-lens device that combined a motion picture camera with a projector. In 1888, he used an updated version of his camera to film the motion picture \"Roundhay Garden Scene\" and other scenes. The pictures were privately exhibited in Hunslet. After investing much time, effort and means in a slow and troublesome development of a definitive system, Le Prince eventually seemed satisfied with the result and had a demonstration screening scheduled in New York in 1890. However, he went missing after boarding a train in France and was declared dead in 1897. His widow and son managed to draw attention to Le Prince's work and eventually he came to be regarded as the true inventor of film (a claim also made for many others). After years of development, Edison eventually introduced the coin-operated peep-box Kinetoscope movie viewer in 1893, mostly in dedicated parlours. He believed this was a commercially much more viable system than projection in theatres. Many other film pioneers found chances to study the technology of the kinetoscope and further developed it for their own movie projection systems. The Eidoloscope, devised by Eugene Augustin Lauste for the Latham family, was demonstrated for members of the press on 21 April 1895 and opened to the paying public on May 20, in a lower Broadway store with films of the Griffo-Barnett prize boxing fight, taken from Madison Square Garden's roof on 4 May. It was the first commercial projection. Max and Emil Skladanowsky projected motion pictures with their Bioscop, a flickerfree duplex construction, from 1 to 31 November 1895. They started to tour with their motion pictures, but after catching the second presentation of the Cinématographe Lumière in Paris on 28 December 1895, they seemed to choose not to compete. They still presented their motion pictures in several European cities until March 1897, but eventually the Bioscop had to be retired as a commercial failure. In Lyon, Louis and Auguste Lumière perfected the Cinématographe, a system that took, printed, and projected film. In late 1895 in Paris, father Antoine Lumière began exhibitions of projected films before the paying public, beginning the general conversion of the medium to projection. They quickly became Europe's main producers with their \"actualités\" like \"Workers Leaving the Lumière Factory\" and comic vignettes like \"The Sprinkler Sprinkled\" (both 1895). Even Edison, joined the trend with the Vitascope, a modified Jenkins' Phantoscope, within less than six months.", "In 1912 Max Wertheimer discovered beta movement and the phi phenomenon. In each the brain constitutes an experience of apparent movement when presented with a sequence of near-identical still images. This theory is said to account for the illusion of motion which results when a series of film images is displayed in quick succession, rather than the perception of the individual frames in the series. Persistence of vision should be compared with the related phenomena of beta movement and phi movement. A critical part of understanding these visual perception phenomena is that the eye \"is not a camera\", i.e.: there is no frame rate for the human eye or brain. Instead, the eye/brain system has a combination of motion detectors, detail detectors and pattern detectors, the outputs of all of which are combined to create the visual experience. The frequency at which flicker becomes invisible is called the flicker fusion threshold, and is dependent on the level of illumination. Generally, the frame rate of 16 frames per second (frame/s) is regarded as the lowest frequency at which continuous motion is perceived by humans. This threshold varies across different species; a higher proportion of rod cells in the retina will create a higher threshold level. Because the eye and brain have no fixed capture rate, this is an elastic limit, so different viewers can be more or less sensitive in perceiving frame rates. It is possible to view the black space between frames and the passing of the shutter by rapidly blinking ones eyes at a certain rate. If done fast", "", "As in a slide projector there are essential optical elements:", "Incandescent lighting and even limelight were the first light sources used in film projection. In the early 1900s up until the late 1960s, carbon arc lamps were the source of light in almost all theaters in the world. The Xenon arc lamp was introduced in Germany in 1957 and in the US in 1963. After film platters became commonplace in the 1970s, Xenon lamps became", "A curved reflector redirects light that would otherwise be wasted toward the", "A metal or asbestos blade which cuts off light before it can get to the film. The douser is usually part of the lamphouse, and may be manually or automatically operated. Some projectors have a second, electrically controlled douser that is used for changeovers (sometimes called a \"changeover douser\" or \"changeover shutter\"). Some", "If a roll of film is continuously passed between the light source and the lens of the projector, only a continuous blurred series of images sliding from one edge to the other would be visible on the screen. In order to see an apparently moving clear picture, the moving film must be stopped and held still briefly while the shutter opens and closes. The gate is where the film is held still prior to the opening", "It is the gate and shutter that gives the illusion of one full frame being replaced exactly on top of another full frame. The gate holds the film still while the shutter is open. A rotating petal or gated cylindrical shutter interrupts the emitted light during the time the film is advanced to the", "A projection objective with multiple optical elements directs the image of the film to a viewing screen. Projector lenses differ in aperture and focal length to suit different needs. Different lenses are used for different aspect ratios. One way that aspect ratios are set is with the appropriate aperture plate, a piece of metal with a precisely cut rectangular hole in the middle of equivalent aspect ratio. The aperture plate is placed just behind the gate, and masks off any light from hitting the image outside of the area intended to be shown. All films, even those in the standard Academy ratio, have extra image on the", "In most cases this is a reflective surface which may be either aluminized (for high contrast in moderate ambient light) or a white surface with small glass beads (for high brilliance under dark conditions). A switchable projection screen can be switched between opaque and clear by a safe voltage under 36V AC and is viewable from both sides. In a commercial theater, the screen also has millions of very small, evenly spaced holes in order to allow the passage of sound from the speakers and subwoofer which often are directly behind it.", "", "", "Smooth wheels with triangular pins called sprockets engage perforations punched into one or both edges", "As with motion picture cameras, the intermittent motion of the gate requires that there be loops above and below the gate in order to serve as a buffer between the constant speed enforced by the sprockets above and", "A spring-loaded pressure plate functions to align the film in a consistent image plane, both flat and perpendicular to the optical axis. It also provides sufficient", "The intermittent mechanism can be constructed in different ways. For smaller gauge projectors (8 mm and 16 mm), a pawl mechanism engages the film's sprocket hole one side, or holes on each side. This pawl advances only when the film is to be moved to the next image. As the pawl retreats for the next cycle it is drawn back and does not engage the film. This is similar to the claw mechanism in a motion picture camera. In 35 mm and 70 mm projectors, there usually is a special", "Projectors are classified by the size of the film used, i.e. the film format. Typical film sizes:", "Long used for home movies before the video camera, this uses double sprocketed 16 mm film, which is run through the camera, exposing one side, then removed from the camera, the", "Developed by Kodak, this film stock uses very small sprocket holes close to the edge that allow more of the film stock to be used for the images. This increases the quality of the", "Film format introduced by Pathé Frères in 1922 as part of the Pathé Baby amateur film system. It was conceived initially as an inexpensive format to provide copies of commercially made films to home users. The format uses a single, central perforation (sprocket hole) between each pair of frames, as opposed to 8 mm film which has perforations along one edge, and most", "This was a popular format for audio-visual use in schools and as a high-end home entertainment system before the advent of broadcast television. In broadcast television news, 16mm film was used before the advent of electronic news-gathering. The most popular home content were", "The most common film size for theatrical productions during the 20th century. In fact, the common 35 mm camera, developed by Leica, was designed to use this film stock and was originally intended to be used for test shots by movie directors and cinematographers. 35 mm film is typically run vertically through the camera and projector.", "High-end movie productions were often produced in this film gauge in the 1950s and 1960s and many very large screen theaters are still capable of projecting it in the 21st century. It is often referred to as 65/70, as the camera uses film 65 mm wide, but the projection prints are 70 mm wide. The extra five millimeters of film accommodated the soundtrack, usually a six track magnetic stripe. The most common", "Regardless of the sound format, any sound represented on the film image itself will not be the sound for the particular frame it occupies. In the gate of the projector head, there is no space for a reader, and the film is not travelling smoothly at the gate position. Consequently, all optical sound formats must be offset from the image because the sound reader is usually located above (for magnetic readers and most digital optical readers) or below (for analog optical readers and a few digital optical) the projector head.", "Optical sound constitutes the recording and reading of amplitude based on the amount of light that is projected through a soundtrack area on a film using an illuminating light or laser and a photocell or photodiode. As the photocell picks up the light in varying intensities, the electricity produced is intensified by an amplifier, which in turn powers a loudspeaker, where the electrical impulses are turned into air vibrations and thus, sound waves. In 16 mm, this optical soundtrack is a single mono track placed on the right side of the projected image, and the sound head is 26 frames after the gate. In 35 mm, this can be mono or stereo, on the left side of the projected image, with the sound head 21 frames after the gate. The first form of optical sound was represented by horizontal bands of", "Magnetic sound is no longer used in commercial cinema, but between 1952 and the early 1990s (when optical digital movie sound rendered it obsolete) it provided the highest fidelity sound from film because of its wider frequency range and superior signal to noise ratio compared to optical sound. There are two forms of magnetic sound in conjunction with projection: double-head and striped. The first form of magnetic sound was the double-head system, in which the movie projector was interlocked with a dubber playing a 35 mm reel of a full-coat, or film completely coated with magnetic iron-oxide.", "Modern theatrical systems use optical representations of digitally encoded multi-channel sound. An advantage of digital systems is that the offset between the sound and picture heads can be varied and then set with the digital processors. Digital sound heads are usually above the gate. All digital sound systems currently in use have the ability to instantly and gracefully fall back to the analog optical sound system should the digital data be corrupt or the whole system fail.", "Created by Kodak and ORC (Optical Radiation Corporation), Cinema Digital Sound was the first attempt to bring multi-channel digital sound to first-run theaters. CDS was available on both 35 mm and 70 mm films. Film prints equipped with CDS did not have the conventional analog optical or magnetic soundtracks to serve as a back-up in case the digital sound was unreadable. Another disadvantage of not having an analog back-up track is that", "SDDS runs on the outside of 35 mm film, between the perforations and the edges, on both edges of the film. It was the first digital system that could handle up to eight channels of sound. The additional two tracks are for an extra pair of screen channels (Left Center and Right Center) located between the 3 regular screen channels (Left, Center and Right). A pair of CCDs located in a unit above", "Dolby Digital data is printed in the spaces between the perforations on the soundtrack side of the film, 26 frames before the picture. Release prints with Dolby Digital always include an analog Dolby Stereo soundtrack with Dolby SR noise reduction, thus these prints are known as Dolby SR-D prints. Dolby Digital produces 6 discrete channels. In a variant called SR-D EX, the left and right surround channels can be dematrixed into left, right, and back surround, using a matrix system similar to Dolby Pro Logic. The audio data in a Dolby Digital track is compressed in the 16-bit AC-3 compression scheme at a ratio of about 12:1. The images between each perforation are read by a CCD located either above the projector or in the regular analog sound head below the", "DTS actually stores the sound information on separate CD-ROMs supplied with the film. The CDs are fed into a special, modified computer which syncs up with the film through the use of DTS time code, decompresses the sound, and passes it through to a standard cinema processor. The time code is placed between the optical sound tracks and the actual picture, and is read by an optical LED ahead of the gate. The time code is actually the only sound system which is not offset within the film from the picture, but still needs to be physically set offset ahead of the gate in order to maintain continuous motion. Each disc can", "Academy leader is placed at the head of film release prints containing information for the projectionist and featuring numbers which are black on a clear background, counting from 11 to 3 at 16-frame intervals (16 frames in 35 mm film = 1 ft). At −12 feet there is a START frame. The numbers appear as a single frame in opaque black leader. SMPTE leader is placed at the head of film release prints or video masters containing information for the projectionist or video playback tech. The numbers count down in seconds from 8 to 2 at 24-frame intervals ending at the first frame of the \"2\" followed by 47", "", "Most motion picture lenses are of the spherical variety. Spherical lenses do not distort the image intentionally. Used alone for", "Anamorphic filming uses only special lenses, and requires no other modifications to the camera, projector and intermediate gear. The intended wide screen image is compressed optically, using additional cylindrical elements within the lens so that when the compressed image strikes the film, it matches the standard frame size of the camera. At the projector a corresponding lens restores the wide aspect ratio to be seen on the screen. The", "The IMAX dome projection method (called \"OMNIMAX\") uses 70 mm film running sideways through the projector to maximize the image area and extreme wide angle lenses to obtain an almost hemispherical image. The field of view is tilted, as is the projection hemisphere, so one may view a portion of the ground", "The IMAX flat screen system uses large format film, a wide and deep screen, and close and quite steep \"stadium\" seating. The effect is to fill the visual field to a greater degree than is possible with conventional wide", "One wide screen development during the 1950s used non-anamorphic projection, but used three side by side synchronised projectors. Called Cinerama, the images were projected onto an extremely wide, curved screen. Some seams were said to be visible between the images but the almost complete filling of the visual field made up", "For techniques used to display pictures with a three-dimensional appearance (3D), see the 3-D film article for some movie history and the stereoscopy article for technical information." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Early career.", "Post-Revolution career.", "Later life." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Charlotte Vanhove was born in 1771 in The Hague, Dutch Republic. She was the daughter of actor Charles-Joseph Vanhove and actress Adnree Coche.", "Being the daughter of two stage actors, Charlotte was destined for the theater. At the age of fourteen, she began studying and working at the acting house called The Comedie-Francaise in 1785, the rules of this establishment allowing for female actors to be a part of the acting troupe. In that same year, she took her first role in a play called \"Iphigenia \", which was created by Jean Racine, the role being that of title character Iphigenia. A few years later, Charlotte married a violinist, but shortly after the wedding, Charlotte asked for and was granted a divorce. At this time in history, the French Revolution was just starting, which caused panic among French citizens. On the night of 2 September 1793, Charlotte was arrested along with twelve other actors of the French Theater, all of which were loyal to the French monarch. She, along with the twelve other actors, were arrested on charges of suspicion shortly after their performance of \"Pamela\" on 1 August, which officials believed was seditious towards the Crown. Charlotte and the twelve other actors were kept at the Prison Saints-Pelagie until they were released five months later.", "After her release, Charlotte continued to perform comedy. In 1798, she and her father began purchasing a large estates starting with the Malgouverne in Bruony, France. Next, the pair bought the Governance and its Park which was put up for sale by previous owner Ribbing Frederick. Soon after, Charlotte met Joseph Talma, one of the most famous stage actors of her time. At the time, Talma was married to dancer Julie Carreau. Even though Talma was famous, he had amassed a significant amount of debt which his wife, Julie, took on. After their meeting, Charlotte and Talma started to grow close until they official began a life together. Julie, who was alone, half-ruined, and disgraced, accepted a divorce. Talma and Charlotte officially married in 1802. During their marriage, Talma began expensive renovations to the two estates which Charlotte had just bought with her father, renovations which he initially paid for. Not long afte the wedding, Talma took on a mistress with whom he had three children. She died soon after the last child was born and Talma took a new mistress. Despite the financial assistance of Talma's close friend, Napoleon Bonaparte, his debts began to pile up. Charlotte then began to take charge of the households and soon asks for a divorce. When her request is denied, she leaves the theater and is able to recover a sizable portion of her money that Talma spent. Charlotte, with her recouped funds, moved into a small hotel where she was surrounded by gardens and friends.", "Shortly after moving into the small hotel, Charlotte began to devoted her life to the arts once again. She started to paint and draw, but most of all she wrote. She is known for writing \"Edmonton and Juliette\" in 1820, \"The Castle of Valmire\" in 1821, \"The Venetian\" in 1822, \"The Guilty Bride\" in 1824 and \"The Theatrical Act\" in 1835. Still married by law, Charlotte and Talma had little contact even though she took care of his three children. She paid their expenses and when they were sent to the Fontenay-sous Bois, she paid for that too. When Talma died in 1826, she married the Conte de Chalot and became Countess Vanhove. The Count, who was a lifelong close friend with whom she enjoyed long walks and conversation with, died soon after their marriage. Countess Vanhove spent the rest of her days going down the Champs-Élysées in her carriage and attending the theater often. On 11 April 1860, Charlotte died at the age of 90 in a Parisian hotel in Saint-Germain-des-Pres." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Origins.", "Racing history: Formula One.", "Early days (1966–1967).", "Ford-Cosworth DFV engines (1968–1982).", "TAG-Porsche and Honda engines (1983–1992).", "Ford, Lamborghini and Peugeot engines (1993–1994).", "Mercedes partnership (1995–2014).", "Honda engines (2015–2017).", "Renault engines (2018–2020).", "Return to Mercedes engines (2021–).", "Racing history: other series.", "Can-Am.", "Indianapolis 500.", "IndyCar.", "Customer cars.", "Characteristics.", "Ownership and management.", "Politics.", "Sponsorship, naming, and livery.", "McLaren Young Driver Programme.", "Racing results.", "Formula One World Championship results.", "Drivers' champions." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "3" ], "content": [ "Bruce McLaren Motor Racing was founded in 1963 by New Zealander Bruce McLaren. Bruce was a works driver for the British Formula One team Cooper with whom he had won three Grands Prix and come second in the World Championship. Wanting to compete in the Australasian Tasman Series, Bruce approached his employers, but when team owner Charles Cooper insisted on using 1.5-litre Formula One-specification engines instead of the 2.5-litre motors permitted by the Tasman rules, Bruce decided to set up his own team to run him and his prospective Formula One teammate Timmy Mayer with custom-built Cooper cars. Bruce won the 1964 series, but Mayer was killed in practice for the final race at the Longford Circuit in Tasmania. When", "", "Bruce McLaren made the team's Grand Prix debut at the 1966 Monaco race (of the current Formula One teams only Ferrari is older). His race ended after nine laps due to a terminal oil leak. The car was the M2B designed by Robin Herd, but the programme was hampered by a poor choice of engines: a 3.0-litre version of Ford's", "For, after driving McLaren's sole entry for the previous two years, Bruce was joined by 1967 champion and fellow New Zealander Denny Hulme, who was already racing for McLaren in Can-Am. That year's new M7A car, Herd's final design for the team, was powered by Cosworth's new and soon to be ubiquitous DFV engine (the DFV would go on to be used by McLaren until 1983) and with it a major upturn in form proceeded. Bruce won the Race of Champions at the Brands Hatch circuit and Hulme won the International Trophy at Silverstone, both non-championship races, before Bruce took the team's first championship win at the Belgian Grand Prix. Hulme also won the Italian and Canadian Grands Prix later in the year, helping the team to second in the Constructors' Championship. Using an updated 'C' version on the M7, a further three podium finishes followed for Bruce in, but the team's fifth win had to wait until the last race of the 1969 championship when Hulme won the Mexican Grand Prix. That year,", "In the early 1980s, teams like Renault, Ferrari and Brabham were using 1.5-litre turbocharged engines in favour of the 3.0-litre naturally aspirated engines that had been standard since 1966. Having seen in 1982 the need for a turbo engine of their own, Dennis had convinced Williams backer Techniques d'Avant Garde (TAG) to fund Porsche-built, TAG-branded turbo engines made to Barnard's specifications; TAG's founder Mansour Ojjeh would later become a McLaren shareholder. In the meantime, they continued with Cosworth engines as old rival Lauda came out of retirement in 1982 to drive alongside Watson in that year's 1B development of the MP4. They each won two races, Watson notably from 17th place on the grid in Detroit, and at one stage of the season", "As Honda withdrew from the sport at end of 1992 due to their entrance into CART PPG Indy Car World Series in 1993, McLaren sought a new engine supplier. A deal to secure Renault engines fell through, subsequently McLaren switched to customer Ford engines for the season. Senna—who initially agreed only to a race-by-race contract before later signing for the whole year—won five races, including a record-breaking sixth victory at Monaco and a win at the European Grand Prix, where he went from fifth to first on the opening lap. His teammate, 1991 IndyCar champion", "The alliance with Mercedes started slowly:'s MP4/10 car was not a front-runner and Brundle's replacement, former champion Nigel Mansell, was unable to fit into the car at first and departed after just two races, with Mark Blundell taking his place. While Williams dominated in, McLaren, now with David Coulthard alongside Häkkinen, went a third successive season without a win. In, however, Coulthard broke this run by winning the season-opening Australian Grand Prix; Häkkinen and he would each win another race before the end of the season, and highly rated designer Adrian Newey joined the team from Williams in August that year. Despite the car's improved pace, unreliability proved costly throughout the season, with retirements at the British and Luxembourg Grands Prix occurring whilst Häkkinen was in the lead. With Newey able to take advantage of new technical regulations for, and with Williams losing their works Renault engines, McLaren were once again able to challenge for the championship; \"F1 Racing\" magazine stated that the only way to increase their championship hopes was to hire Ferrari's double champion Michael Schumacher. Häkkinen and Coulthard won five of the first six races despite the banning of the team's \"brake steer\" system, which allowed the rear brakes to be operated individually to reduce understeer, after a protest by Ferrari at the second race in Brazil. Schumacher and Ferrari provided the greatest competition, the former levelled on points with Häkkinen with two races to go, but wins for Häkkinen at the Luxembourg and Japanese Grands Prix gave both him the Drivers' Championship and McLaren the", "For, McLaren ended their engine deal with Mercedes which included buying back the 40% stake that Mercedes held in the team and reforged their historical partnership with Honda. After a prolonged period, the team announced Fernando Alonso and Jenson Button as their race drivers, with Kevin Magnussen demoted to test driver. During pre-season testing at the Circuit de Barcelona-Catalunya in February, Alonso suffered a concussion and, as a result, Kevin Magnussen replaced him for the season opening in March. At that inaugural race of the season, Jenson Button finished 11th, but was lapped twice and finished last of the finishing cars. Following considerable unreliability and initial suggestions that the Honda engine", "McLaren announced during the 2017 Singapore Grand Prix weekend that they would split from engine supplier Honda at the end of the 2017 season, and had agreed a three-year deal to be supplied by Renault. was the first season in McLaren's history when their cars were powered by Renault engines. McLaren also announced that Fernando Alonso and Stoffel Vandoorne would remain with the team for the 2018 season. On 6 November 2017, the team announced that Lando Norris would be the team's test and reserve driver. At the season opening Australian Grand Prix, Fernando Alonso scored the team's best finish since the 2016 Monaco Grand Prix with fifth, Alonso said that the team's target would be Red Bull Racing. McLaren had a relatively good start to the season with points finishes in the next four races, but in the next 16 races after Spain, McLaren only scored 22 points, 8 points less than in the same period in 2017. On 14 August 2018, Fernando Alonso announced he would not compete in", "McLaren are due to return to using Mercedes engines in after their deal with Renault ends. McLaren had previously collaborated with Mercedes from 1995", "", "McLaren's first sports-racing car was the Group 7 M1 – with a small-block Chevrolet engine in a modified Elva chassis. The car was raced in North America and Europe in 1963 and 1964 in various G7 and United States Road Racing Championship events. For the Can-Am Series, which started in 1966, McLaren created the M3 which Bruce and Chris Amon drove – customer cars also appeared in a number of races in the 1966 season. With the M3, they led two races, but scored no wins, and the inaugural title was taken by John Surtees in a Lola T70. The following year, Robin Herd purpose-designed the Chevrolet V8-powered M6A, delays with the Formula One programme allowing the team to spend extra resources on developing the Can-Am car which was the first to be painted in McLaren orange. With Denny Hulme now partnering Bruce, they won five of six races and Bruce won the championship, setting the pattern for the next four years. In 1968, they used a new car, the M8, to win four races; non-works", "McLaren first contested the United States Auto Club's (USAC) Indianapolis 500 race in 1970, encouraged by their tyre supplier Goodyear, which wanted to break competitor Firestone's stranglehold on the event. With the M15 car, Bruce, Chris Amon, and Denny Hulme entered, but after Amon withdrew and Hulme was severely burned on the hands in an incident in practice, Peter Revson and Carl Williams took their places in the race to retire and finish seventh, respectively. The team also contested some of the more prestigious races in the USAC championship that year, as they would do in subsequent years. For 1971 they had a new car, the M16, which driver Mark Donohue said \"...obsoleted every other car on track...\" At that year's Indianapolis 500, Revson qualified on pole and finished second, whilst in 1972, Donohue won in privateer Team Penske's M16B. The 1973 event had Johnny Rutherford join the team; he qualified on pole, but finished ninth, Revson crashed out.", "In August 2019, it was announced McLaren would", "Besides the cars raced by the works team, a variety of McLaren racing cars have also been used by customer teams. In their formative years, McLaren built Formula Two, hillclimbing, Formula 5000 and sports racing cars that were sold to customers. Lacking the capacity to build the desired numbers, Trojan was subcontracted to construct some of them. In Can-Am, Trojan built customer versions of the M6 and M8 cars and ex-works cars were sold to privateers when new models arrived; half of", "McLaren Racing is part of the McLaren Group which includes five other associated companies; in 2009 the Group was said to have \"more than 1300\" employees. Since 2004 the team has been based at the McLaren Technology Centre in Woking, United Kingdom. Facilities there include a wind tunnel and a driving simulator which is said to be the most sophisticated in the sport. The Mercedes engines were built by the car-maker's Mercedes AMG High Performance Powertrains subsidiary (formerly Mercedes-Ilmor) in Brixworth, Northamptonshire. Honda replaced Mercedes as McLaren's engine supplier from the 2015 season.", "Founded in 1963 by New Zealander Bruce McLaren. After Bruce McLaren died in a testing accident in 1970, Teddy Mayer took over the team. In 1981, McLaren merged with Ron Dennis' Project Four Racing; Dennis took over as team principal and shortly after organised a buyout of the original McLaren shareholders to take full control of the team. Ron Dennis was the chairman of the Group—a role from which he resigned in 2009 before retaking it a year later. He also was team principal from 1980 to 2009. Martin Whitmarsh held the role of team principal from 2009 to 2013. Dennis later removed the position of team principal; Éric Boullier was named racing director in January 2014, becoming responsible for the F1 team. On 4 July 2018, Boullier resigned and Gil de Ferran was appointed to the new position of sporting director and Andrea Stella as Performance Director.", "McLaren has had an uneasy relationship with the Formula One's governing body, the FIA, and its predecessor FISA, as well as with the commercial rights holder of the sport. In the early 1980s, McLaren were involved, along with the other teams of the Formula One Constructors Association, in a dispute over control of the sport with FISA and the teams of car manufacturers Alfa Romeo, Renault, and Ferrari. This was known as the FISA–FOCA war and had a breakaway series threatened, FISA refusing to sanction one race, and another race boycotted by FOCA. It was eventually", "McLaren's Formula One team was originally called Bruce McLaren Motor Racing, and for their first season ran white-and-green coloured cars, which came about as a result of a deal with the makers of the film \"Grand Prix\". Between and, the team used an orange design, which was also applied to cars competing in the Indianapolis 500 and Can-Am series, and was used as an interim testing livery in later years. In, the Royal Automobile Club and the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile relaxed the rules regarding commercial sponsorship of Formula One cars, and in, the Yardley of London cosmetics company became McLaren's first title sponsor, and the livery was changed to a predominantly white one to reflect the sponsor's colours. This changed in, when Philip Morris joined as title sponsor through their Marlboro cigarette brand, whilst one car continued to run—ostensibly by a separate team—with Yardley livery for the year. Marlboro's red-and-white branding lasted until, during which time the team went by various names incorporating the word \"Marlboro\", making it the then longest-running Formula One sponsorship (and still the longest title sponsorship, which has since been surpassed by Hugo Boss' sponsorship of the team, which ran from to ). In, Philip Morris parted ways with McLaren, moving to Ferrari, instead. The Marlboro sponsorship was replaced by Reemtsma's West cigarette branding, with the team entering under the name West McLaren Mercedes, and adopting a silver and black livery. By mid-2005, a European Union directive banned tobacco advertising in sport, which forced McLaren to end its association with West. In, the team competed without a title sponsor, entering under the", ", there are no drivers", "", "", "Seven drivers have won a total of twelve Drivers' Championships with McLaren:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Early career.", "1990s: id Software and Ion Storm.", "2000s.", "2010 to present.", "Personal life." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Romero was born in Colorado Springs, Colorado in the United States. He is of Mexican, Yaqui and Cherokee heritage. His mother Ginny met Alfonso Antonio Romero when they were teenagers in Tucson, Arizona. Alfonso, a first-generation Mexican American, was a maintenance man at an air force base, spending his days fixing air conditioners and heating systems. After Alfonso and Ginny got married, they headed in a 1948 Chrysler with three hundred dollars to Colorado, hoping their interracial relationship would thrive in more tolerant surroundings. Among his early influences, the arcade game \"Space Invaders\" (1978), with its \"shoot the alien\" gameplay, introduced him to video games. Namco's maze chase arcade game \"Pac-Man\" (1980) had the biggest influence on his career, as it was the first game that got him \"thinking about game design.\" Nasir Gebelli (Sirius Software, Squaresoft) was his favorite programmer and a major inspiration, with his fast 3D programming work for Apple II games, such as the shooters \"Horizon V\" (1981) and \"Zenith\" (1982), influencing his later work at id Software. Other influences include programmer Bill Budge, Shigeru Miyamoto's \"Super Mario\" games, and the fighting games \"Street Fighter II\", \"Fatal Fury\", \"Art of Fighting\" and \"Virtua Fighter\".", "John Romero started programming games on an Apple II he got in 1980. His first developed game was a \"Crazy Climber\" clone, but it wasn't published. His first published game, \"Scout Search\", appeared in the June 1984 issue of \"inCider magazine\", a popular Apple II magazine during the 1980s. Romero's first company, Capitol Ideas Software, was listed as the developer for at least 12 of his earliest published games. Romero captured the December cover of the Apple II magazine \"Nibble\" for three years in a row starting in 1987. He entered a programming contest in A+ magazine during its first year of publishing with his game \"Cavern Crusader\". The first game Romero created that was eventually published was \"Jumpster\" in \"UpTime\". Jumpster was created in 1983 and published in 1987, making Jumpster his earliest created, then published, game. Romero's first industry job was at Origin Systems in 1987 after programming games for 8 years. He worked on the Apple II to Commodore 64 port of \"2400 A.D.\", which was eventually scrapped due to slow sales of the Apple II version. Romero then moved onto \"Space Rogue\", a game by Paul Neurath. During this time, Romero was asked if he would be interested in joining Paul's soon-to-start company Blue Sky Productions, eventually renamed Looking Glass Technologies. Instead, Romero left Origin Systems to co-found a game company named Inside Out Software, where he ported \"\" from the Apple II to the Commodore 64. He had almost finished the Commodore 64 to Apple II port of \"Tower Toppler\", but Epyx unexpectedly cancelled all its ports industrywide due to their tremendous investment in the first round of games for the upcoming Atari Lynx. During this short time, Romero did the artwork for the Apple IIGS version of \"Dark Castle\", a port from the Macintosh. During this time, John and his friend Lane Roathe co-founded a company named Ideas from the Deep and wrote versions of a game named \"Zappa Roidz\" for the Apple II, PC and Apple IIGS. Their last collaboration was an Apple II disk operating system (InfoDOS) for Infocom's games \"Zork Zero\", \"\", \"Shogun\" and \"Journey\".", "Romero moved to Shreveport, Louisiana in March 1989 and joined Softdisk as a programmer in its Special Projects division. After several months of helping the PC monthly disk magazine \"Big Blue Disk\", he officially moved into the department until he started a PC games division in July 1990 named 'Gamer's Edge' (originally titled PCRcade). Romero hired John D. Carmack into the department from his freelancing in Kansas City, moved Adrian Carmack into the division from Softdisk's art department, and persuaded Tom Hall to come in at night and help with game design. Romero and the others then left Softdisk in February 1991 to form id Software. Romero worked at id Software from its inception in 1991 until 1996. He was involved in the creation of several milestone games, including \"Commander Keen\", \"Wolfenstein 3D\", \"Doom\", \"\" and \"Quake\". He served as executive producer (and game designer) on \"Heretic\" and \"\". He designed most of the first episode of \"Doom\", a fourth of the levels in \"Quake\", and half the levels in the \"Commander Keen\" and \"Wolfenstein 3D: Spear of Destiny\". He wrote many of the tools used at id Software to create their games, including DoomEd (level editor), QuakeEd (level editor), DM (for deathmatch launching), DWANGO client (to connect the game to DWANGO's servers), TED5 (level editor for the \"Commander Keen\" series, \"Wolfenstein 3D: Spear of Destiny\"), IGRAB (for grabbing assets and putting them in WAD files), the installers for all the games up to and including \"Quake\", the SETUP program used to configure the games, and several others. In his keynote speech at WeAreDevelopers Conference 2017, Romero named this period Turbo Mode, in which he emphasizes having created 28 games, in 5.5 years with a team consisting of fewer than 10 developers. In level 30 of \"Doom II\", \"Icon of Sin\", the boss is supposed to be a giant demon head with a fragment missing from its forehead. When first viewing the demon, a distorted and demonic message is played, which is actually John Romero saying \"To win the game, you must kill me, John Romero!\", reversed and distorted to sound like a demonic chant. One can use the \"noclip\" cheat to enter the boss and see Romero's severed head which is skewered on a post. The player defeats the boss (without the noclip cheat) by shooting rockets into its exposed brain after activating a lift and riding it. Romero's head functions as its hit detection point; when he \"dies\", the boss is killed and the game is finished. In the 2013 IGN \"Doom\" playthrough to celebrate \"Doom\"'s 20th anniversary, Romero shared the backstory behind the inclusion of his head as the final boss and the reversed sound effect - they were both a result of in-joke pranking between development team members. During the production of \"Quake,\" Romero clashed with John Carmack over the future direction of id. Romero wanted the game to follow his demanding vision without compromise, but Carmack insisted that the project had to make steady progress toward completion and accused Romero of not working as much as the other developers. Although Romero relented on his vision and joined a months-long death march effort to finish the game, this did not resolve the tensions within the company, and Romero was forced to resign. In a 1997 interview Romero reflected, \"Leaving after finishing \"Quake\" was the right choice - leaving after finishing a hit game. I keep on good terms with the id guys and it was pretty easy because we've been friends for years.\" Romero later co-founded Ion Storm in Dallas, Texas with id co-worker Tom Hall, where he designed and produced \"Daikatana\". This ambitious first-person shooter was announced in 1997 with a release date for the Christmas shopping season of that year. However, this release date slipped repeatedly in the coming months, and the game began to accrue negative press. In Spring 2010, \"Gamesauce\" featured Romero on its cover and contained an in-depth interview with Romero written by Brenda Brathwaite. In the interview, Romero publicly apologized for the infamous \"Daikatana\" advertisement. In particular, a 1997 advertisement boasting \"John Romero's About To Make You His Bitch...Suck it down\" caused controversy amongst gamers and the gaming press. The massive pre-hype for the game and the subsequent delays (it was not released until April 2000) were compounded by the poor reviews the game received when it was finally complete. Upon release, \"Daikatana\" was critically panned and appeared on numerous \"top 10 worst games\" listings. During this time, Romero was rumored to have been killed and a photograph of his corpse with a bullet wound was also spread through the Internet; Romero himself later stated that the picture was taken for the magazine \"Texas Monthly\", and that \"maybe he shouldn't have taken it\". Romero departed with Tom Hall immediately after the release of Hall's \"Anachronox\" game and the subsequent closing of the Dallas Ion office.", "In July 2001, Romero and Hall founded Monkeystone Games in order to develop and publish games for mobile devices, and Monkeystone released 15 games (approximately) during its short lifespan of three and a half years. Some highlights of their developments included \"Hyperspace Delivery Boy!\" (Pocket PC, Windows, Linux), \"Congo Cube\" (Pocket PC, PC, BREW, Java ME), and a version of \"Red Faction\" for the Nokia N-Gage. He and his girlfriend, Stevie Case, broke up in 2003, and she left the company in May while \"Red Faction\" development continued until October. John then left Monkeystone Games' day-to-day operations to Lucas Davis while Romero and Hall left for Midway in San Diego. In mid-October 2003, Romero joined Midway Games as project lead on \"\". While he continued to maintain his working relationship with Monkeystone, Lucas Davis took over running the office. The Monkeystone team moved to Austin, Texas to work on Midway's \"Area 51\" title until its release. Monkeystone Games closed down in January 2005. Romero moved from project lead to creative director of internal studio during this time. At the end of June 2005, Romero left Midway Games mere months before the completion of \"Gauntlet: Seven Sorrows\". On August 31, 2005, Romero confirmed that he was working on a yet-to-be-announced MMOG at his newly opened development studio, Slipgate Ironworks. It was reported that the name was temporary. \"For the record,\" Romero wrote, \"I'm co-founder of a new game company in the Bay Area and am much better off in many ways than I was at Midway\". He said that he would not reveal anything about the company or the game until 2007. On March 17, 2009 it was announced that Slipgate Ironworks was part of Gazillion Entertainment. Along with venture capitalist Rob Hutter and investor Bhavin Shah, Romero was a co-founder of Gazillion. On July 22, 2006, John Romero and former co-worker Tom Hall guest hosted episode 53 of the podcast \"The Widget\". Romero departed Gazillion Entertainment in November 2010 to form a social game company called Loot Drop alongside Brenda Brathwaite. His longtime co-worker, Tom Hall joined the company on January 1, 2011. John Romero was the CPL's Chairman of the Board for ten years. On December 20, 2006, John Romero announced a new FPS project for the Cyberathlete Professional League titled \"Severity\" for both consoles and PC. It was announced that Tom Mustaine (ex-Studio Director at Ritual Entertainment) would act as Director of Game Development at CPL's new studio. It was stated that \"Severity\" would be a multiplayer first person shooter, and that the game would be built on technology licensed from id Software. On October 2009, Angel Munoz, founder of the Cyberathlete Professional League (CPL) stated that \"Severity\" was no longer being produced because they were not able \"to convince game publishers of its value\".", "In March 2010, John Romero collaborated with the gaming magazine \"Retro Gamer\", taking on the role of a guest editor, taking charge of the magazine's editorial and contributing to a number of articles on different subjects throughout the magazine. The issue contains an interview by Romero with industry luminaries offering their thoughts on Romero. In August 2014, in a Super Joystiq Podcast at \"Gamescom 2014\" Romero announced that he was about to make a new shooter, stating that he was working with a concept artist and he had some cool imagery for the main character. In April 2016, Romero announced a partnership with Adrian Carmack to create a new FPS entitled \"Blackroom\", describing their vision as a visceral, varied and violent shooter that harkens back to classic FPS play with a mixture of exploration, speed, and intense, weaponized combat. They were seeking $700,000 via Kickstarter to see the project to completion and anticipated a launch in late 2018. The Kickstarter campaign was cancelled four days after its launch. On 2017, Romero won the Bizkaia Award at the Fun & Serious Game Festival, which takes place in the Spanish city of Bilbao. In January 2019, John Romero appeared on the hbomberguy \"Donkey Kong 64\" stream, raising money for the trans charity Mermaids in response to comments made by Graham Linehan about the charity.", "In January 2004, Romero married Raluca Alexandra Pleșca, originally from Bucharest, Romania. They divorced in 2011. Romero and game developer Brenda Brathwaite became engaged on March 24, 2012 and married on October 27, 2012. Together, they worked on \"Ravenwood Fair\", with Romero as Lead Designer and Brathwaite as Creative Director and Game Designer. They also founded social game development company Loot Drop in November 2010, and worked on \"Cloudforest Expedition\" and \"Ghost Recon Commander\" together. Romero has three children from two previous marriages: Michael, born in 1988, Steven born in 1989, and Lillia Antoinette, born in 1998. Romero's long hair has been a source of both admiration and derision for his fans. John guest-answered \"Planet Quake\"s \"Dear Mynx\" column, in which a female fan asked for hair care tips. Romero cut his hair short in 2002 and donated it to \"Locks of Love\". Discussion boards such as \"Doomworld\" and \"BeyondUnreal\" had threads discussing his new look at the time, although he began to grow it back to its original length in 2003. During the development of \"Daikatana\", Romero gave an interview listing his five favorite video games at the time, including \"\", \"Super Mario Bros. 3\", \"Age of Empires\", \"Duke Nukem 3D\" and \"Chrono Trigger\", which he specified as his favorite game of all time." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Design and development.", "Operational history.", "Austro-Hungarian variants.", "Postwar.", "Modern reproductions." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Development of the prototype D.III started in late July or early August 1916. The date of the maiden flight is unknown, but is believed to have occurred in late August or early September. Following the successful Albatros D.I and D.II series, the D.III utilized the same semi-monocoque, plywood-skinned fuselage. However, at the request of the \"Idflieg\" (Inspectorate of Flying Troops), the D.III adopted a sesquiplane wing arrangement broadly similar to the French Nieuport 11. The upper wingspan was extended, while the lower wing was redesigned with reduced chord and a single main spar. \"V\" shaped interplane struts replaced the previous parallel struts. For this reason, British aircrews commonly referred to the D.III as the \"V-strutter.\" After a \"Typenprüfung\" (official type test) on 26 September 1916, Albatros received an order for 400 D.III aircraft, the largest German production contract to date. \"Idflieg\" placed additional orders for 50 aircraft in February and March 1917.", "The D.III entered squadron service in December 1916, and was immediately acclaimed by German aircrews for its maneuverability and rate of climb. Two faults with the new aircraft were soon identified. Like the D.II, early D.IIIs featured a Teves und Braun airfoil-shaped radiator in the center of the upper wing, where it tended to scald the pilot if punctured. From the 290th D.III onward, the radiator was offset to the right on production machines while others were soon moved to the right as a field modification. Aircraft deployed in Palestine used two wing radiators, to cope with the warmer climate. More seriously, the new aircraft immediately began experiencing failures of the lower wing ribs and leading edge, a defect shared with the Nieuport 17. On 23 January 1917, a \"Jasta\" 6 pilot suffered a failure of the lower right wing spar. On the following day, Manfred von Richthofen suffered a crack in the lower wing of his new D.III. On 27 January, the \"Kogenluft\" (\"Kommandierender General der Luftstreitkräfte\") issued an order grounding all D.IIIs pending resolution of the wing failure problem. On 19 February, after Albatros introduced a reinforced lower wing, the \"Kogenluft\" rescinded the grounding order. New production D.IIIs were completed with the strengthened wing while operational D.IIIs were withdrawn to \"Armee-Flugparks\" for modifications, forcing \"Jastas\" to use the Albatros D.II and Halberstadt D.II during the interim. At the time, the continued wing failures were attributed to poor workmanship and materials at the Johannisthal factory. In fact, the cause of the wing failures lay in the sesquiplane arrangement taken from the Nieuport. While the lower wing had sufficient strength in static tests, it was subsequently determined that the main spar was located too far aft, causing the wing to twist under aerodynamic loads. Pilots were therefore advised not to perform steep or prolonged dives in the D.III. This design flaw persisted despite attempts to rectify the problem in the D.III and succeeding D.V. Apart from its structural deficiencies, the D.III was considered pleasant and easy to fly, if somewhat heavy on the controls. The sesquiplane arrangement offered improved climb, maneuverability, and downward visibility compared to the preceding D.II. Like most contemporary aircraft, the D.III was prone to spinning, but recovery was straightforward. Albatros built approximately 500 D.III aircraft at its Johannisthal factory. In the spring of 1917, D.III production shifted to Albatros' subsidiary, Ostdeutsche Albatros Werke (OAW), to permit Albatros to concentrate on development and production of the D.V. Between April and August 1917, \"Idflieg\" issued five separate orders for a total of 840 D.IIIs. The OAW variant underwent its \"Typenprüfung\" in June 1917. Production commenced at the Schneidemühl factory in June and continued through December 1917. OAW aircraft were distinguishable by their larger, rounded rudders. Peak service was in November 1917, with 446 aircraft on the Western Front. The D.III did not disappear with the end of production, however. It remained in frontline service well into 1918. As of 31 August 1918, 54 D.III aircraft remained on the Western Front.", "In the autumn of 1916, Oesterreichische Flugzeugfabrik AG (Oeffag) obtained a licence to build the D.III at Wiener-Neustadt. Deliveries commenced in May 1917. The aircraft were officially designated as Albatros D.III (Oeffag), but were known as Oeffag Albatros D.III in Austro-Hungary, and just Oeffag D.III in Poland. The Oeffag aircraft were built in three main versions (series 53.2, 153, 253) using the 138, 149, or 168 kW (185, 200, or 225 hp) Austro-Daimler engines respectively. The Austro-Daimlers provided improved performance over the Mercedes D.IIIa engine. For cold weather operations, Oeffag aircraft featured a winter cowling which fully enclosed the cylinder heads. Austrian pilots often removed the propeller spinner from early production aircraft, since it was prone to falling off in flight. Beginning with aircraft 112 of the series 153 production run, Oeffag introduced a new rounded nose that eliminated the spinner. Remarkably, German wind-tunnel tests showed that the simple rounded nose improved propeller efficiency and raised the top speed by 14 km/h (9 mph). All Oeffag variants were armed with two 8 mm (.315 in) Schwarzlose machine guns. In most aircraft, the guns were buried in the fuselage, where they were inaccessible to the pilot. In service, the Schwarzlose proved to be somewhat less reliable than the 7.92 mm (.312 in) LMG 08/15, mainly due to problems with the synchronization gear. The Schwarzlose also had a poor rate of fire until the 1916 model was provided with a modification developed by Ludwig Kral. At the request of pilots, the guns were relocated to the upper fuselage decking late in the series 253 production run. It helped to warm up the guns on high altitude. This created a new problem; the Schwarzlose operated via blowback and the weapon contained a cartridge oiler to prevent cases from sticking in the chamber while the extractor ripped their rims off. With guns mounted directly in front of the pilot, oil released during firing interfered with aim. Oeffag engineers noted the wing failures of the D.III and modified the lower wing to use thicker ribs and spar flanges. These changes, as well as other detail improvements, largely resolved the structural problems that had plagued German versions of the D.III. In service, the Oeffag aircraft proved to be popular, robust, and effective. Oeffag built approximately 526 D.III aircraft between May 1917 and the Armistice (586 in total according to other publications).", "After the Armistice, in early 1919 Poland bought 38 series 253 aircraft from the factory, ten more were rebuilt from wartime leftovers. Poland operated them in the Polish-Soviet War of 1919-20 in two fighter escadrilles (Nos. 7 and 13). Due to rare air encounters, they were primarily employed in ground-attack duties. The Poles thought so highly of the D.III that they sent a letter of commendation to the Oeffag factory. They remained in service until 1923. Poland also had 26 original Albatros D.III, mostly captured from former occupants, but they were withdrawn from use in December 1919 due to structural weaknesses. The newly formed Czechoslovak Air Force also obtained and operated several Oeffag machines after the war.", "An Austrian aviation enthusiast, Koloman Mayrhofer, has completed a pair of Albatros D.III (Oeffag) series 253 reproductions. Both are equipped with vintage Austro-Daimler engines. One aircraft will be flown and operated by a non-profit organization. The second aircraft is slated for static display at the \"Flugmuseum AVIATICUM\", near Wiener-Neustadt, Austria." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Name.", "Possible antecedents.", "Popularity.", "International use.", "Beaters.", "Playing.", "New techniques.", "Common modifications." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "According to musician Ronan Nolan, former editor of \"Irish Music\" magazine, the bodhrán evolved in the mid-19th century from the tambourine, which can be heard on some Irish music recordings dating back to the 1920s and viewed in a pre-Famine painting. However, in remote parts of the south-west, the \"poor man's tambourine\" – made from farm implements and without the cymbals – was in popular use among mummers, or wren boys. A large oil painting on canvas by Daniel Maclise (1806–1870) depicts a large Halloween house party in which a bodhrán features clearly. That painting, produced c. 1842, shows a flautist accompanied by a tambourine player who, in an Arabic style in contrast to standard bodhrán technique, used his fingers rather than a tipper. It is known that by the early 20th century, home-made frame drums were constructed using willow branches as frames, leather as drumheads, and pennies as jingles. In photographs from the 1940s and videos from the 1950s, jingles remained part of the bodhrán construction like a tambourine, yet were played with \"cipín\", also known in English as \"tipper\". Seán Ó Riada declared the bodhrán to be the native drum of the Celts as did Paraic McNeela (The Bodhrán Maker) possibly used originally for winnowing or the dying of wool, with a musical history that predated Christianity, native to southwest Ireland.", "The Irish word (, plural ), indicating a drum, is first mentioned in a translated English document in the 17th century. It appears in Jacob Pool's list of words from the Baronies of Forth and Bargy in county Wexford (collected in the late 18th century), meaning \"A drum, tambourine...also a sieve used in winnowing corn\". Third-generation bodhrán maker Caramel Tobin suggests that the name means \"skin tray\". He also suggests a link with the Irish word, meaning, among other things, a drum or a dull sound (it also means deaf). A relatively new introduction to Irish music, the bodhrán has largely replaced the role of the tambourine.", "The bodhrán is one of the most basic of drums and as such it is similar to the frame drums distributed widely across northern Africa from the Middle East, and has cognates in instruments used for Arabic music and the musical traditions of the Mediterranean region (see Music of North Africa, Music of Greece etc.). A larger form is found in the Iranian \"daf\", which is played with the fingers in an upright position, without a stick. Traditional skin drums made by some Native Americans are very close in design to the bodhrán as well. It has also been suggested that the origin of the instrument may be the skin trays used in Ireland for carrying peat; the earliest bodhrán may have simply been a skin stretched across a wood frame without any means of attachment. The Cornish frame drum crowdy-crawn, which was also used for harvesting grain, was known as early as 1880. Peter Kennedy observed a similar instrument in Dorset and Wiltshire in the 1950s, where it was known as a \"riddle drum\", a riddle being a large sieve for separating soil particles from stones etc. Dorothea Hast has stated that until the mid-twentieth century the bodhrán was mainly used as a tray for separating chaff, in baking, as a food server, and for storing food or tools. She argues that its use as musical instrument was restricted to ritual use in rural areas. She claims that while the earliest evidence of its use beyond ritual occurs in 1842, its use as a general instrument did not become widespread until the 1960s, when Seán Ó Riada used it.", "There are no known references to this particular name for a drum prior to the 17th century. Although various drums (played with either hands or sticks) have been used in Ireland since ancient times, the bodhrán itself did not gain wide recognition as a legitimate musical instrument until the Irish traditional music resurgence in the 1960s in which it became known through the music of Seán Ó Riada and others. The second wave roots revival of Irish Traditional music in the 1960s and 1970s brought virtuoso bodhrán playing to the forefront, when it was further popularized by bands such as Ceoltóirí Chualann and The Chieftains. Growing interest led to internationally available LP recordings, at which time the bodhrán became a globally recognized instrument. In the 1970s, virtuoso players such as The Boys of the Lough's Robin Morton, The Chieftains' Peadar Mercier, Planxty's Christy Moore, and De Dannan's Johnny \"Ringo\" McDonagh further developed playing techniques.", "Although most common in Ireland, the bodhrán has gained popularity throughout the Celtic music world, especially in Scotland, Cape Breton, North mainland Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, and Prince Edward Island. In Southern England tambourines were a popular accompaniment to traditional dance music. In the South West of England a similar instrument made from the frame of a garden sieve was once popular and known as a Riddle Drum. In Cornish traditional music they are called a crowdy-crawn; the use of this instrument to store odds and ends led to the name also being used to mean \"miscellaneous\". The bodhran has also found application within the Celtic music of Galicia, often accompanying the \"gaita gallega\" (Galician bagpipes).", "The drum is struck either with the bare hand or with a lathe-turned piece of wood called a \"bone\", \"tipper\", \"beater\", or. Tippers were originally fashioned from a double-ended knuckle bone, but are now commonly made from ash, holly, or hickory wood. Brush-ended beaters, and a \"rim shot\" (striking the rim) technique for contrast, were introduced by Johnny McDonagh.", "The drum is usually played in a seated position, held vertically on the player's thigh and supported by his or her upper body and arm (usually on the left side, for a right-handed player), with the hand placed on the inside of the skin where it is able to control the tension (and therefore the pitch and timbre) by applying varying amounts of pressure and also the amount of surface area being played, with the back of the hand against the crossbar, if present. The drum is struck with the other arm (usually the right) and is played either with the bare hand or with a tipper. There are numerous playing styles, mostly named after the region of Ireland in which they originated. The most common is Kerry style, which uses a two-headed tipper; the West Limerick style uses only one end of the tipper. Later players such as Robbie Breathnach, Tommy Hayes, Aidan \"Scobie\" McDonnell, Abe Doron, and Damien Quinn developed sophisticated pitch-varying techniques which allow players to follow the tune being played. This was the birth of the \"top-end\" style. Their breakthrough in this style has achieved local and international acclaim with many beginners now being educated in this manner. This \"top-end\" style is often played on a smaller (14–15 inch) and deeper (4–6 inch) drum with a thinner resonant skin, prepared like the skin of a Lambeg drum. The tipper in this style is usually straight and most of the expressive action is focused on the top end of the drum. The concept involves allowing a greater vs. lesser amount of the skin to resonate, with the \"skin hand\" acting as a moving bearing edge. Top-end players move the skin hand from the bottom and towards the top of the drum to generate increasingly high pitches. By making a \"C\" shape with the skin hand, the player can help enhance and even amplify the sound. The same concept can be employed while playing at the front of the drum (the skin hand moving towards and away from the player) or in a \"bottom end\" style, which is essentially top end, but upside down, with the majority of tipper strikes at the bottom of the head. In any of these styles, crossbars are most often absent, allowing a more unrestricted access for the left hand to modify the tone. This enables a more melodic approach to this rhythm instrument, with a wide range of tones being employed. When playing the bodhrán as an accompaniment to Irish music, different beats may be used. For example, reels have a 4/4 time. The bodhrán player must stick to this rhythm but is free to improvise within the structure: most simply, s/he may enunciate the first beat of four, making a sound like ONE two three four ONE two three four; but s/he can syncopate, put in double pulses, according to the rhythmic characteristics of the tunes being played. This is the difference between sensitive and insensitive playing, a matter of much concern to other traditional musicians. Because the bodhrán typically plays 16th notes (Kerry style), a great deal of variety can be introduced by these syncopations and the use of rests. Combined with manual pitch changes and naturally occurring tonal variations in an animal skin drumhead, the bodhrán can almost sound as melodically expressive as other non-percussive instruments.", "Playing styles have all been affected by the introduction of the internal tone ring, driven against the skin to tension/loosen it by screws. This was invented by Seamus O'Kane, from Dungiven, County Londonderry, Northern Ireland, to combat the damp conditions of Donegal in 1976. This system was copied from banjo design but adapted for bodhráns. For a few years only about six drums of this type were made, so it was not until the idea was taken and refined by makers that it caught on. This system is now being used by makers from many diverse cultures worldwide. It has revolutionized the making and playing of bodhráns by removing the threat of atmospheric conditions to the tension of the drumhead. The accepted philosophy of thick skins was challenged also at this time by O'Kane's introduction of thin Lambeg skins. This allowed the bodhrán to achieve both higher and lower crisp notes and allowed the players to become more musical and delicate in their playing.", "It is currently not unusual for the rim of a bodhran to be covered with electrical tape, either by the drum-maker or the owner. This both reduces \"edge-loading\" (where the vibrations in the skin hit the rim and bounce back toward the center of the drum), and dampens unwanted overtones, allowing for greater control of the drum's sound. Electrical tape is preferred because the adhesive is rubber-based and will stretch with the skin even after bonding to it, lessening the likelihood of bubbles and other changes in the tape occurring when the skin tension is changed by tuning or atmospheric conditions. Owners of lower quality drums, with thick and rough skins, may also choose to sand the skin very lightly to reduce the rasp when the tipper strikes the face of the drum. Many effects of these and other modifications to the drum-skin, especially high quality skins, can also be achieved through regular use of the drum over time. As world music in general has become more popular, techniques once associated with other ethnic drumming traditions have become widespread in bodhrán playing. The World Bodhrán Championships are held in Milltown, County Kerry, Ireland each year." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Grignard reaction.", "Military service." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Grignard was the son of a sail maker. His character was described as having humble and friendly attitude. After attempting to major in mathematics, Grignard failed his entrance exams before being enlisted into the army in 1892. After one year of service, he went back to pursue mathematics at the University of Lyon and finally obtained his degree Licencié ès Sciences Mathématiques in 1894. In December of the same year, he transferred to chemistry and began working with Professors Philippe Barbier (1848–1922) and Louis Bouveault (1864–1909). After working with stereochemistry and enines, Grignard was not impressed with the subject matter and asked Barbier about a new direction for his doctoral research. Barbier advised that Grignard research how a failed Saytzeff reaction, using zinc, was successful, in low yields, after using magnesium. They sought to synthesize alcohols from alkyl halides, aldehydes, ketones, and alkenes. Grignard hypothesized that the aldehyde/ketone prevented the magnesium from reacting with the alkyl halide which resulted in the low yields. He tested his hypothesis by first adding the alkyl halide and magnesium filings to a solution of anhydrous ether and then adding the aldehyde/ketone. This resulted in a drastic increase in the yield of the reaction. A couple of years later, Grignard was able to isolate the intermediate. He had heated a mixture of magnesium turnings, isobutyl iodide, and added dry ethyl ether to the mixture and a reaction was observed. The product is known as a Grignard Reagent. Named after him, this organo-magnesium compound (R-MgX) (R = alkyl ; X = Halogen) readily reacts with ketones, aldehydes, and alkenes to produce their respective alcohols in impressive yields. Grignard had discovered the synthetic reaction which now bears his name (the Grignard reaction) in 1900. In 1901, Grignard published his doctoral thesis titled \"Thèses sur les combinaisons organomagnesiennes mixtes et leur application à des synthèses d‘acides, d‘alcools et d‘hydrocarbures\". He became a professor at the University of Nancy in 1910. That same year, he and Paul Sabatier (1854-1941) were awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1912. During World War I he studied chemical warfare agents with Georges Urbain at Sorbonne University, particularly the manufacture of phosgene and the detection of mustard gas.In 1918, Grignard discovered that sodium iodide could be used as a battlefield test for mustard gas. Sodium iodide converts mustard gas to diiododiethyl sulfide, which crystallizes more easily than mustard gas. This test could detect as little as 0.01 gram of mustard gas in one cubic meter of air and was successfully used on the battlefield. His counterpart on the German side was another Nobel Prize–winning chemist, Fritz Haber.", "Grignard is most noted for devising a new method for generating carbon-carbon bonds using magnesium to couple ketones and alkyl halides. This reaction is valuable in organic synthesis. It occurs in two steps:", "Grignard was drafted into the French military as part of obligatory military service in 1892. Within the two years of his first session of service he rose to the rank of corporal. He was demobilized in 1894 and returned to Lyon to pursue his education. He was awarded a medal of the Legion of Honour and made a Chevalier in 1912 after winning the Nobel Prize. When World War I broke out, Grignard was drafted back into the military, keeping his rank of corporal. He was placed on sentry duty, and served there for several months until he was brought to the attention of the General Staff. Grignard had been wearing his Medal of the Legion of Honour, despite being ordered to take it off by a superior. After looking more into Grignard, the General Staff decided that he would be better suited for research than sentry duty, so they assigned him to the explosives division. Grignard's research shifted to antidotes to chemical weapons when production of TNT was no longer sustainable, and eventually Grignard was assigned to research new chemical weapons for the French army." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and education.", "Career development.", "Work on yellow fever.", "Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus.", "Private life.", "Publications." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Theiler was born in Pretoria, then the capital of the South African Republic (now South Africa); his father Arnold Theiler was a veterinary bacteriologist. He attended Pretoria Boys High School, Rhodes University College, and University of Cape Town Medical School, graduating in 1918. He left South Africa for London to study at St Thomas's Hospital Medical School, King's College London, and at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine. In 1922, he was awarded a diploma in tropical medicine and hygiene; he became a licentiate of the Royal College of Physicians of London and a member of the Royal College of Surgeons of England.", "Theiler wanted to pursue a career in research, so in 1922, he took a position at the Harvard University School of Tropical Medicine in Cambridge, Massachusetts. He spent several years investigating amoebic dysentery and trying to develop a vaccine for rat-bite fever. After becoming assistant to Andrew Sellards, he started working on yellow fever. In 1926, they disproved Hideyo Noguchi's hypothesis that yellow fever was caused by the bacterium \"Leptospira icteroides.\" In 1928, the year after the disease was identified conclusively as being caused by a virus, they showed that the African and South American viruses are immunologically identical. (This followed Adrian Stokes' inducing yellow fever in rhesus macaques from India). In the course of this research, Theiler contracted yellow fever, but survived and developed immunity. In 1930, Theiler moved to the Rockefeller Foundation in New York, where he later became director of the Virus Laboratory. He was professor of epidemiology and public health at the Yale School of Medicine and the School of Public Health from 1964 to 1967.", "After passing the yellow fever virus through laboratory mice, Theiler found that the weakened virus conferred immunity on rhesus macaques. The stage was set for Theiler to develop a vaccine against the disease. Theiler first devised a test for the efficacy of experimental vaccines. In his test, sera from vaccinated human subjects were injected into mice to see if they protected the mice against yellow fever virus. This \"mouse protection test\" was used with variations as a measure of immunity until after World War II. Subculturing the particularly virulent Asibi strain from West Africa in chicken embryos, a technique pioneered by Ernest Goodpasture, the Rockefeller team sought to obtain an attenuated strain of the virus that would not kill mice when injected into their brains. It took until 1937, and more than 100 subcultures in chicken embryos, for Theiler and his colleague Hugh Smith to obtain an attenuated strain, which they named \"17D\". Animal tests showed the attenuated 17D mutant was safe and immunizing. Theiler's team rapidly completed the development of a 17D vaccine, and the Rockefeller Foundation began human trials in South America. Between 1940 and 1947, the Rockefeller Foundation produced more than 28 million doses of the vaccine and finally ended yellow fever as a major disease. For this work, Theiler received the 1951 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Theiler also was awarded the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene's Chalmers Medal in 1939, Harvard University's Flattery Medal in 1945, and the American Public Health Association's Lasker Award in 1949.", "In 1937, Max Theiler discovered a filterable agent that was a known cause for paralysis in mice. He found the virus was not transmittable to rhesus macaques, and that only some mice developed symptoms. The virus is now referred to as Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus. The virus has been well characterized, and now serves as a standard model for studying multiple sclerosis.", "He married Lillian Graham in 1928, and they had one daughter. He died on August 11, 1972 in New Haven, Connecticut.", "Max Theiler contributed to three books: Theiler wrote numerous papers, published in \"The American Journal of Tropical Medicine\" and \"Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Academic life and work." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Otto Jespersen was born in Randers in Jutland. He was inspired by the work of Danish philologist Rasmus Rask as a boy, and with the help of Rask's grammars taught himself some Icelandic, Italian, and Spanish. He entered the University of Copenhagen in 1877 when he was 17, initially studying law but not forgetting his language studies. In 1881 he shifted his focus completely to languages, and in 1887 earned his master's degree in French, with English and Latin as his secondary languages. He supported himself during his studies through part-time work as a schoolteacher and as a shorthand reporter in the Danish parliament. In 1887–1888, he traveled to England, Germany and France, meeting linguists like Henry Sweet and Paul Passy and attending lectures at institutions like Oxford University. Following the advice of his mentor Vilhelm Thomsen, he returned to Copenhagen in August 1888 and began work on his doctoral dissertation on the English case system. He successfully defended his dissertation in 1891.", "Jespersen was a professor of English at the University of Copenhagen from 1893 to 1925, and served as Rector of the university in 1920–21. His early work focused primarily on language teaching reform and on phonetics, but he is best known for his later work on syntax and on language development. He advanced the theories of \"Rank\" and \"Nexus\" in Danish in two papers: \"Sprogets logik\" (1913) and \"De to hovedarter af grammatiske forbindelser\" (1921). Jespersen in this theory of ranks removes the parts of speech from the syntax, and differentiates between primaries, secondaries, and tertiaries; e.g. in \"\"well honed phrase\",\" \"phrase\" is a primary, this being defined by a secondary, \"honed\", which again is defined by a tertiary \"well\". The term \"Nexus\" is applied to sentences, structures similar to sentences and sentences in formation, in which two concepts are expressed in one unit; e.g., \"it rained, he ran indoors\". This term is qualified by a further concept called a \"junction\" which represents one idea, expressed by means of two or more elements, whereas a nexus combines two ideas. Junction and nexus proved valuable in bringing the concept of context to the forefront of the attention of the world of linguistics. He was most widely recognized for some of his books. \"Language: Its Nature, Development and Origin\" (1922) is considered by many to be his masterpiece. \"Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles\" (1909–1949), concentrated on morphology and syntax, and \"Growth and Structure of the English Language\" (1905) is a comprehensive view of English by someone with another native language, and still in print, over 70 years after his death and more than 100 years after publication. Late in his life he published \"Analytic Syntax\" (1937), in which he presents his views on syntactic structure using an idiosyncratic shorthand notation. In \"The Philosophy of Grammar\" (1924) he challenged the accepted views of common concepts in Grammar and proposed corrections to the basic definitions of grammatical case, pronoun, object, voice etc., and developed further his notions of \"Rank\" and \"Nexus\". In the 21st century this book is still used as one of the basic texts in modern Structural linguistics. \"Mankind, Nation and Individual: from a linguistic point of view\" (1925) is one of the pioneering works on Sociolinguistics. Jespersen visited the United States twice: he lectured at the Congress of Arts and Sciences in St. Louis in 1904, and in 1909–1910 he visited both the University of California and Columbia University. While in the U.S., he took occasion to study the country's educational system. His autobiography (see below) was published in English translation as recently as 1995. After his retirement in 1925, Jespersen remained active in the international linguistic community. In addition to continuing to write, he convened and chaired the first International Meeting on Linguistic Research in Geneva in 1930, and acted as president of the Fourth International Congress of Linguists in Copenhagen in 1936. Jespersen was an important figure in the international language movement. He was an early supporter of the Esperanto offshoot Ido and in 1928 published his own project Novial. He also worked with the International Auxiliary Language Association. Jespersen received honorary degrees from Columbia University in New York (1910), St. Andrews University in Scotland (1925), and the Sorbonne in Paris (1927). He was one of the first six international scholars to be elected as honorary members of the Linguistic Society of America." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Variability.", "Spectrum.", "Distance.", "Properties." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The fact that VV Cephei is an eclipsing binary system was discovered by American astronomer Dean McLaughlin in 1936. VV Cephei experiences both primary and secondary eclipses during a 20.3 year orbit. The primary eclipses totally obscure the hot secondary star and last for nearly 18 months. Secondary eclipses are so shallow that they have not been detected photometrically since the secondary obscures such a small proportion of the large cool primary star. The timing and duration of the eclipses is variable, although the exact onset is difficult to measure because it is gradual. Only Epsilon Aurigae has a longer period among eclipsing binaries. VV Cephei also shows semiregular variations of a few tenths of a magnitude. Visual and infrared variations appear unrelated to variations at ultraviolet wavelengths. A period of 58 days has been reported in UV, while the dominant period for longer wavelengths is 118.5 days. The short wavelength variations are thought to be caused by the disc around the hot secondary, while pulsation of the red supergiant primary caused the other variations. It has been predicted that the disc surrounding the secondary would produce such brightness variability.", "The spectrum of VV Cep can be resolved into two main components, originating from a cool supergiant and a hot small star surrounded by a disk. The material surrounding the hot secondary produces emission lines, including [Fe] forbidden lines, the B[e] phenomenon known from other stars surrounded by circumstellar disks. The hydrogen emission lines are double-peaked, caused by a narrow central absorption component. This is caused by seeing the disk almost edge on where it intercepts continuum radiation from the star. This is characteristic of shell stars. Forbidden lines, mainly of Fe but also of Cu and Ni, are mostly constant in radial velocity and during eclipses, so they are thought to originate in distant circumbinary material. The spectrum varies dramatically during the primary eclipses, particularly at the ultraviolet wavelengths produced most strongly by the hot companion and its disc. The typical B spectrum with some emission is replaced by a spectrum dominated by thousands of emission lines as portions of the disc are seen with the continuum from the star blocked. During ingress and egress, the emission line profiles change as one side or the other of the disc close to the star becomes visible while the other is still eclipsed. The colour of the system as a whole is also changed during eclipse, with much of the blue light from the companion blocked. Out of eclipses, certain spectral lines vary strongly and erratically in both strength and shape, as well as the continuum. Rapid random variations in the short wavelength (i.e. hot) continuum appear to arise from the disc around the B component. Shell absorption lines show variable radial velocities, possibly due to variations in accretion from the disk. Emission from Fe and Mg strengthens around periastron or secondary eclipses, which occur at about the same time, but the emission lines also vary randomly throughout the orbit. In the optical spectrum, the H is the only clear emission feature. Its strength varies randomly and rapidly out of eclipse, but it becomes much weaker and relatively constant during the primary eclipses.", "The distance has been estimated by a variety of techniques to be around 1.5 kpc, which places it within the Cepheus OB2 association. Although some older studies found a larger distance and consequently very high luminosity and radius, it now seems that the distance is likely to be around 1.5 kpc. The Hipparcos parallax measurement produces a distance considerably below 1 kpc. From the distance, with the extinction measured at 1.24 magnitudes, the absolute magnitude of the VV Cephei system is fairly well defined.", "It should be possible to calculate the masses of eclipsing binary stars with some accuracy, but in this case mass loss, changes in the orbital parameters, a disk obscuring the hot secondary, and doubt about the distance of the system have led to wildly varying estimates. The traditional model, from the spectroscopically derived orbit, has the masses of both stars around, which is typical for a luminous red supergiant and an early A main sequence star. An alternative model has been proposed based on the unexpected timing of the 1997 eclipse. Assuming that the change is due to mass transfer altering the orbit, dramatically lower mass values are required. In this model, the primary is a AGB star and the secondary is an B star. The spectroscopic radial velocities showing the secondary with equal mass to the primary is explained as being of a portion of the disc rather than the star itself. The angular diameter of VV Cephei A can be estimated using photometric methods and has been calculated at 0.00638 arcseconds. This allows a direct calculation of the actual diameter, which is in good agreement with the derived from a complete orbital solution and eclipse timings. Analysis of earlier eclipses had given radius values between and and an upper limit of. The diagrams of the roche lobe of VV Cephei A are contradictory, for example, the roche lobe is calculated to be about, thus the radius cannot be larger than this, although in another diagram, the roche lobe is calculated to be much larger at. The size of the secondary is even more uncertain, since it is physically and photometrically obscured by a much larger disc across. The secondary is certainly much smaller than either the primary or the disc, and has been calculated at to from the orbital solution. The temperature of the VV Cephei stars is again uncertain, partly because there simply isn't a single temperature that can be assigned to a significantly non-spherical diffuse star orbiting a hot companion. The effective temperature generally quoted for stars is the temperature of a spherical blackbody that approximates the electromagnetic radiation output of the actual star, accounting for emission and absorption in the spectrum. VV Cephei A is fairly clearly identified as an M2 supergiant, and as such, it is given a temperature around 3,800 K. The secondary star is heavily obscured by a disk of material from the primary, and its spectrum is almost undetectable against the disc emission. Detection of some ultraviolet absorption lines narrow down the spectral type to early B and it is apparently a main-sequence star, but likely to be abnormal in several respects due to mass transfer from the supergiant. Although VV Cephei A is an extremely large star showing high mass loss and having some emissions lines, it is not generally considered to be a hypergiant. The emission lines are produced from the accretion disc around the hot secondary and the absolute magnitude is typical for a red supergiant." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Origins.", "Usage." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The word was coined as a nonsensical term with religious undertones in the Discordian parody of religious texts, \"Principia Discordia\" (1965) by Kerry Thornley and Greg Hill, but was popularized by \"The Illuminatus! Trilogy\" (1975) of satirical conspiracy fiction novels by Robert Shea and Robert Anton Wilson. \"Illuminatus!\" was produced, in the United Kingdom, as a cycle of plays by anarchic theatre director Ken Campbell and his Jungian Science Fiction Theatre of Liverpool. The plays further popularized the term. In the novel trilogy (and the plays), the interjection \"fnord\" is given hypnotic power over the unenlightened. Under the Illuminati program, children in grade school are taught to be unable to consciously see the word \"fnord\". For the rest of their lives, every appearance of the word subconsciously generates a feeling of unease and confusion, preventing rational consideration of the text it appears in. The uneasiness and confusion create a perpetual low-level state of fear in the populace. The government acts on the premise that a fearful populace keeps them in power. In the Shea/Wilson construct, fnords—occurrences of the word \"fnord\"—are scattered liberally in the text of newspapers and magazines, causing fear and anxiety in those following current events. However, there are no fnords in the advertisements, encouraging a consumerist society. The exclusion of the text from rational consciousness also enables the Illuminati to publish messages to each other in newspapers, etc., without fear that other people will be aware of them. It is implied in the books that \"fnord\" is not the actual word used for this task, but merely a substitute, since most readers would be unable to see the actual word. To \"see the fnords\" means to be unaffected by the supposed hypnotic power of the word or, more loosely, of other fighting words. The term may also be used to refer to the experience of becoming aware of a phenomenon's ubiquity after first observing it. The phrase \"I have seen the fnords\" was graffitied on a British railway bridge throughout the 1980s and 1990s, until the bridge was upgraded. The bridge, located between Earlsdon and Coventry city centre, is known locally as \"Anarchy Bridge\". The bridge and the phrase were mentioned in the novel \"A Touch of Love\" by Jonathan Coe. You can see an image of the \"I HAVE SEEN THE FNORDS\" graffiti captured on October 26th, 1982 by Walwyn here.", "The lack of a clear definition of the word, and its popularity among certain groups on the internet, allowed it to be appropriated as a placeholder word (a metasyntactic variable) in computer programming, particularly by those with ties to Discordianism or the Church of the SubGenius. It has also been found useful as the name for a \"techno cultural\" conference, computer programs, and as a general placeholder word in computing literature. Fnord! is the name of a (now defunct) freeware NT web server created by Brian Morin in 1995 and transferred to the care of Stephen Kazmierczak in 1997 when Brian was initiated into the summer Internet Server group at Microsoft. In his final transmission, Brian cites imaginary legal backlash from the established tech giant as the reason for abandoning development of the free Fnord! server solution. Paulo Goode, a typeface designer from West Cork, Ireland, created a humanist serif font named Fnord in 2016 which contains 23 fonts in five weights. The geometry of the upper case ‘O’ is drawn on an axis of 23 degrees while the lower case ‘o’ falls on a 17-degree axis. The 23 / 17 numerology is reflective of similar numerical themes from The Illuminatus! Trilogy." ] }

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{ "title": [ "1914.", "War plans – Battle of the Frontiers.", "First Battle of the Marne.", "First Battle of Ypres.", "Trench warfare.", "1915.", "Gas warfare.", "Air warfare.", "Spring offensive.", "Autumn offensive.", "1916.", "Battle of Verdun.", "Battle of the Somme.", "Hindenburg line.", "1917.", "1918.", "German spring offensives.", "Allied counter-offensives.", "Aftermath.", "Casualties.", "Economic costs." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "At the outbreak of the First World War, the German Army, with seven field armies in the west and one in the east, executed a modified version of the Schlieffen Plan, moving quickly through neutral Belgium to attack France, and then turning southwards to encircle the French Army and trap it on the German border. The Western Front was the place where the most powerful military forces in Europe, the German and French armies, met and where the war was decided. Belgian neutrality had", "The German Army came within of Paris but at the First Battle of the Marne (6–12 September), French and British troops were able to force a German retreat by exploiting a gap which appeared between the 1st and 2nd Armies, ending the German advance into France. The German Army retreated north of the Aisne River and dug in there, establishing the beginnings of a static western front that was to last for the next three years. Following this German retirement, the opposing forces made reciprocal outflanking manoeuvres, known as the Race for the Sea and quickly extended", "From 19 October until 22 November, the German forces made their final breakthrough attempt of 1914 during the First Battle of Ypres, which ended in a mutually-costly stalemate. After the battle, Erich von Falkenhayn judged that it was no longer possible for Germany to win the war by purely military means and on 18 November 1914 he called for a diplomatic solution. The Chancellor, Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg; \"Generalfeldmarschall\" Paul von Hindenburg, commanding \"Ober Ost\" (Eastern Front high command); and his deputy, Erich Ludendorff, continued to believe", "Trench warfare in 1914, while not new, quickly became much", "Between the coast and the Vosges was a westward bulge in the trench line, named the Noyon salient for the captured French town at the maximum point of advance near Compiègne. Joffre's plan for 1915 was to attack the salient on both flanks to cut it off. The Fourth Army had attacked in Champagne from 20 December 1914 – 17 March 1915 but the French were not able to attack in Artois at the same time. The Tenth Army formed the northern attack force and was to attack eastwards into the Douai plain across a front between Loos and Arras. On 10 March, as part of the larger offensive in the Artois region, the British Army fought the Battle of Neuve Chapelle to capture Aubers Ridge. The assault was made by four divisions along a front. Preceded by a surprise bombardment lasting only 35 minutes, the initial assault made rapid progress and the village was captured within four hours. The advance then slowed because of supply and communication difficulties. The Germans brought up reserves and counter-attacked, forestalling the attempt to capture the ridge. Since the British had used about one-third of their supply of artillery ammunition, General Sir John French blamed the failure on the shortage of ammunition, despite the early success.", "All sides had signed the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907, which prohibited the use of chemical weapons in warfare. In 1914, there had been small-scale attempts by both the French and Germans to use various tear gases, which were not strictly prohibited by the early treaties but which were also ineffective. The first use of more lethal chemical weapons on the Western Front was against the French near the Belgian town of Ypres.The Germans had already deployed gas against the Russians in the east at the Battle of Bolimów. Despite the German plans to maintain the stalemate with the French and British, Albrecht, Duke of Württemberg, commander of the 4th Army planned an offensive at Ypres, site of the First Battle of Ypres in November 1914. The Second Battle of Ypres, April 1915, was intended to divert attention from offensives in the Eastern Front and disrupt Franco-British planning. After a two-day bombardment, the Germans released of of chlorine gas onto the battlefield. Though primarily", "Specialised aeroplanes for aerial combat were introduced in 1915. Aircraft were already in use for scouting and on 1 April, the French pilot Roland Garros became the first to shoot down an enemy aircraft by using a machine-gun that shot forward through the propeller blades. This was achieved by crudely reinforcing the blades to deflect bullets. Several weeks later Garros force-landed behind German lines. His aeroplane was captured and sent to Dutch engineer Anthony Fokker, who soon produced a significant improvement,", "The final Entente offensive of the spring was the Second Battle of Artois, an offensive to capture Vimy Ridge and advance into the Douai plain. The French Tenth Army attacked on 9 May after a six-day bombardment and advanced to capture Vimy Ridge. German reinforcements counter-attacked and pushed the French back towards their starting points because French reserves had been held back and the success of the attack had come as a surprise. By 15 May the advance had been stopped, although the fighting continued until 18 June. In May the German Army captured a French document at La Ville-aux-Bois describing a new system of defence. Rather than relying on a heavily fortified", "In September 1915 the Entente allies launched another offensive, with the French Third Battle of Artois, Second Battle of Champagne and the British at Loos. The French had spent the summer preparing for this action, with the British assuming control of more of the front to release French troops for the attack. The bombardment, which had been carefully targeted by means of aerial photography, began on 22 September. The main French assault was launched on 25 September and, at first, made good progress in spite of surviving wire entanglements and machine gun posts. Rather", "Falkenhayn believed that a breakthrough might no longer be possible and instead focused on forcing a French defeat by inflicting massive casualties. His new goal was to \"bleed France white.\" As such, he adopted two new strategies. The first was the use of unrestricted submarine warfare to cut off Allied supplies arriving from overseas. The second would be attacks against the French army intended to inflict maximum casualties; Falkenhayn planned to attack a position from which the French could not retreat, for reasons of strategy and national pride and thus trap the French. The town of Verdun was chosen for this because it was an important stronghold, surrounded by a ring of forts, that lay near the German lines and because it guarded the direct route to Paris. Falkenhayn limited the size of the front to to concentrate artillery firepower and to prevent a breakthrough from a counter-offensive. He also kept tight control of the main reserve, feeding in just enough troops to keep the battle going. In preparation for their attack, the Germans had amassed a concentration of aircraft near the fortress. In the opening phase, they swept the air space of French aircraft, which allowed German artillery-observation aircraft and bombers to operate without interference. In May, the French countered by deploying \"escadrilles de chasse\" with superior Nieuport fighters and the air over Verdun turned into a battlefield as both sides fought for air superiority.", "The Battle of Verdun began on 21 February 1916 after a nine-day delay due to snow and blizzards. After a massive eight-hour artillery bombardment, the Germans did not expect much resistance as they slowly advanced on Verdun and its forts. Sporadic French resistance was encountered. The Germans took Fort Douaumont and then reinforcements halted the German advance by 28 February. The Germans turned their focus to Le Mort Homme on the west bank of the Meuse which blocked the route to French artillery emplacements, from which the French fired across the river. After some of", "In the spring, Allied commanders had been concerned about the ability of the French Army to withstand the enormous losses at Verdun. The original plans for an attack around the River Somme were modified to let the British make the main effort. This would serve to relieve pressure on the French, as well as the Russians who had also suffered great losses. On 1 July, after a week of heavy rain, British divisions in Picardy began the Battle of the Somme", "In August 1916 the German leadership along the western front had changed as Falkenhayn resigned and was replaced by Hindenburg and Ludendorff. The new leaders soon recognised that the battles of Verdun and the Somme had depleted the offensive capabilities of the German Army. They decided that the German Army in the west would go over to the strategic defensive for most of 1917,", "The Hindenburg Line was built between 2 and behind the German front line. On 25 February German forces began retreating to the line and the withdrawal was completed on 5 April, leaving behind a devastated territory to be occupied by the Allies. This withdrawal negated the French strategy of attacking both flanks of the Noyon salient, as it no longer existed. However, offensive advances by the British continued as the High Command claimed, with some justice, that this withdrawal resulted from the casualties the Germans received during the Battles of the Somme and Verdun, despite the Allies suffering greater losses. Meanwhile, on 6 April the United States declared war on Germany. In early 1915, following the sinking of the, Germany had stopped its unrestricted submarine warfare in the Atlantic because of concerns of drawing the United States into the conflict. With the growing discontent of the German public due to the food shortages, however, the government resumed unrestricted submarine warfare in February 1917. They had calculated that a successful submarine and warship siege of Britain would force that country out of the war within six months, while American forces would take a year to become a serious factor on the Western Front. The submarine and surface ships had a long period of success before Britain resorted to the convoy system, bringing a large reduction in shipping losses. By 1917, the size of the British Army on the Western Front had grown to two-thirds the total numbers in the French forces. In April 1917 the BEF began the Battle of Arras. The Canadian Corps and the 5th Division, attacked German lines at Vimy Ridge, capturing the heights and the First Army to the south achieved the deepest advance since trench warfare began. Later attacks were confronted by German reinforcements defending the area using the lessons learned on the Somme in 1916. British attacks were contained and, according to Gary Sheffield, a greater rate of daily loss was inflicted on the British than in \"any other major battle.\" During the winter of 1916–1917, German air tactics had been improved, a fighter training school was opened at Valenciennes and better aircraft with twin guns were introduced. The result was near disastrous losses for Allied air power, particularly for the British, Portuguese, Belgians and Australians who were struggling with outmoded aircraft, poor training and weak tactics. As a result, the Allied air successes over the Somme would not be repeated and heavy losses were inflicted by the Germans. During their attack at Arras, the British lost 316 air crews and the Canadians lost 114 compared to 44 lost by the Germans. This became known to the Royal Flying Corps as Bloody April.", "Following the successful Allied attack and penetration of the German defences at Cambrai, Ludendorff and Hindenburg determined that the only opportunity for German victory lay in a decisive attack along the Western front during the spring, before American manpower became overwhelming. On 3 March 1918, the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was signed and Russia withdrew from the war. This would now have a dramatic effect on the conflict as 33 divisions were released from the Eastern Front for deployment to the west. The Germans occupied almost as much Russian territory under the provisions of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk as they did in the Second World War but this considerably restricted their troop redeployment. The Germans achieved an advantage of 192 divisions in the west to the 178 Allied divisions, which allowed Germany to pull veteran units from the line and retrain them as \"Stosstruppen\" (40 infantry and 3 cavalry divisions were retained for German occupation duties in the east). The Allies lacked unity of command and suffered from morale and manpower problems, the British and French armies were severely depleted and not in a position to attack in the first half of the year, while the majority of the newly arrived American troops were still training, with just six complete divisions in the line. Ludendorff decided on an offensive strategy beginning with a big attack against the British on the Somme, to separate them from the French and drive them back to the channel ports. The attack would combine the new storm troop tactics with over 700 aircraft, tanks and a carefully planned artillery barrage that would include gas attacks.", "Operation Michael, the first of the German Spring Offensives, very nearly succeeded in driving the Allied armies apart, advancing to within shelling distance of Paris for the first time since 1914. As a result of the battle, the Allies agreed on unity of command. General Ferdinand Foch was appointed commander of all Allied forces in France. The unified Allies were", "In July, Foch began the Second Battle of the Marne, a counter-offensive against the Marne salient which was eliminated by August. The Battle of Amiens began two days later, with Franco-British forces spearheaded by Australian and Canadian troops, along with 600 tanks and 800 aircraft. Hindenburg named 8 August as the \"Black Day of the German army.\" The Italian 2nd Corps, commanded by General Alberico Albricci, also participated in the operations around Reims. German manpower had been severely depleted after four years of war and its economy and society were", "The war along the Western Front led the German government and its allies to sue for peace in spite of German success elsewhere. As a result, the terms of the peace were dictated by France, Britain and the United States, during the 1919 Paris Peace Conference. The result was the Treaty of Versailles, signed in June 1919 by a delegation of the new German government. The terms of the treaty constrained Germany as an economic and military power. The Versailles treaty returned the border provinces of Alsace-Lorraine to France, thus limiting the coal required by German industry. The Saar, which formed the west bank of the Rhine, would be demilitarised and controlled by Britain and France, while the Kiel Canal opened to international traffic. The treaty also drastically reshaped Eastern Europe. It severely limited the German armed forces by restricting the size of the army to 100,000 and disallowing a navy or air force. The navy was sailed to Scapa Flow under the terms of surrender but was later scuttled as a reaction to the treaty.", "The war in the trenches of the Western Front left tens of thousands of maimed soldiers and war widows. The unprecedented loss of life had a lasting effect on popular attitudes toward war, resulting later in an Allied", "Germany in 1919 was bankrupt, the people living in a state of semi-starvation and having no commerce with the remainder of the world. The Allies occupied the Rhine cities of Cologne, Koblenz and Mainz, with restoration dependent on payment of reparations. In Germany a Stab-in-the-back myth (\"Dolchstoßlegende\") was propagated by Hindenburg, Ludendorff and other defeated generals, that the defeat was not the fault of the 'good core' of the army but due to certain left-wing groups within Germany who signed a disastrous armistice; this would later be exploited" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and education.", "Career.", "Indo-European linguistics.", "Sanskrit studies.", "Austronesian linguistics.", "Algonquian linguistics." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Bloomfield was born in Chicago, Illinois, on April 1, 1887, to Jewish parents (Sigmund Bloomfield and Carola Buber Bloomfield). His father immigrated to the United States as a child in 1868; the original family name \"Blumenfeld\" was changed to Bloomfield after their arrival. In 1896 his family moved to Elkhart Lake, Wisconsin, where he attended elementary school, but returned to Chicago for secondary school. His uncle Maurice Bloomfield was a prominent linguist at Johns Hopkins University, and his aunt Fannie Bloomfield Zeisler was a well-known concert pianist. Bloomfield attended Harvard College from 1903 to 1906, graduating with the A.B. degree. He subsequently began graduate work at the University of Wisconsin, taking courses in German and Germanic philology, in addition to courses in other Indo-European languages. A meeting with Indo-Europeanist Eduard Prokosch, a faculty member at the University of Wisconsin, convinced Bloomfield to pursue a career in linguistics. In 1908 Bloomfield moved to the University of Chicago where he took courses in German and Indo-European philology with Frances A. Wood and Carl Darling Buck. His doctoral dissertation in Germanic historical linguistics, \"A semasiologic differentiation in Germanic secondary ablaut\", was supervised by Wood, and he graduated in 1909. He undertook further studies at the University of Leipzig and the University of Göttingen in 1913 and 1914 with leading Indo-Europeanists August Leskien, Karl Brugmann, as well as Hermann Oldenberg, a specialist in Vedic Sanskrit. Bloomfield also studied at Göttingen with Sanskrit specialist Jacob Wackernagel, and considered both Wackernagel and the Sanskrit grammatical tradition of rigorous grammatical analysis associated with Pāṇini as important influences on both his historical and descriptive work. Further training in Europe was a condition for promotion at the University of Illinois from Instructor to the rank of Assistant Professor.", "Bloomfield was instructor in German at the University of Cincinnati, 1909–1910; Instructor in German at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, 1910–1913; Assistant Professor of Comparative Philology and German, also University of Illinois, 1913–1921; Professor of German and Linguistics at the Ohio State University, 1921–1927; Professor of Germanic Philology at the University of Chicago, 1927–1940; Sterling Professor of Linguistics at Yale University, 1940–1949. During the summer of 1925 Bloomfield worked as Assistant Ethnologist with the Geological Survey of Canada in the Canadian Department of Mines, undertaking linguistic field work on Plains Cree; this position was arranged by Edward Sapir, who was then Chief of the Division of Anthropology, Victoria Museum, Geological Survey of Canada, Canadian Department of Mines. Bloomfield was one of the founding members of the Linguistic Society of America. In 1924, along with George M. Bolling (Ohio State University) and Edgar Sturtevant (Yale University) he formed a committee to organize the creation of the Society, and drafted the call for the Society's foundation. He contributed the lead article to the inaugural issue of the Society's journal \"Language\", and was President of the Society in 1935. He taught in the Society's summer Linguistic Institute in 1938–1941, with the 1938–1940 Institutes being held in Ann Arbor, Michigan, and the 1941 Institute in Chapel Hill, North Carolina.", "Bloomfield's earliest work was in historical Germanic studies, beginning with his dissertation, and continuing with a number of papers on Indo-European and Germanic phonology and morphology. His post-doctoral studies in Germany further strengthened his expertise in the Neogrammarian tradition, which still dominated Indo-European historical studies. Bloomfield throughout his career, but particularly during his early career, emphasized the Neogrammarian principle of regular sound change as a foundational concept in historical linguistics. Bloomfield's work in Indo-European beyond his dissertation was limited to an article on palatal consonants in Sanskrit and one article on the Sanskrit grammatical tradition associated with Pāṇini, in addition to a number of book reviews. Bloomfield made extensive use of Indo-European materials to explain historical and comparative principles in both of his textbooks, \"An introduction to language\" (1914), and his seminal \"Language\" (1933). In his textbooks he selected Indo-European examples that supported the key Neogrammarian hypothesis of the regularity of sound change, and emphasized a sequence of steps essential to success in comparative work: (a) appropriate data in the form of texts which must be studied intensively and analysed; (b) application of the comparative method; (c) reconstruction of proto-forms. He further emphasized the importance of dialect studies where appropriate, and noted the significance of sociological factors such as prestige, and the impact of meaning. In addition to regular linguistic change, Bloomfield also allowed for borrowing and analogy. It is argued that Bloomfield's Indo-European work had two broad implications: \"He stated clearly the theoretical bases for Indo-European linguistics\" and \"he established the study of Indo-European languages firmly within general linguistics.\"", "As part of his training with leading Indo-Europeanists in Germany in 1913 and 1914 Bloomfield studied the Sanskrit grammatical tradition originating with Pāṇini, who lived in northwestern India during the fifth or fourth century BC. Pāṇini's grammar is characterized by its extreme thoroughness and explicitness in accounting for Sanskrit linguistic forms, and by its complex context-sensitive, rule-based generative structure. Bloomfield noted that \"Pāṇini gives the formation of every inflected, compounded, or derived word, with an exact statement of the sound-variations (including accent) and of the meaning\". In a letter to Algonquianist Truman Michelson, Bloomfield noted \"My models are Pāṇini and the kind of work done in Indo-European by my teacher, Professor Wackernagel of Basle.\" Pāṇini's systematic approach to analysis includes components for: (a) forming grammatical rules, (b) an inventory of sounds, (c) a list of verbal roots organized into sublists, and (d) a list of classes of morphs. Bloomfield's approach to key linguistic ideas in his textbook \"Language\" reflect the influence of Pāṇini in his treatment of basic concepts such as \"linguistic form\", \"free form\", and others. Similarly, Pāṇini is the source for Bloomfield's use of the terms \"exocentric\" and \"endocentric\" used to describe compound words. Concepts from Pāṇini are found in \"Eastern Ojibwa\", published posthumously in 1958, in particular his use of the concept of a morphological zero, a morpheme that has no overt realization. Pāṇini's influence is also present in Bloomfield's approach to determining parts of speech (Bloomfield uses the term \"form-classes\") in both \"Eastern Ojibwa\" and in the later \"Menomini language\", published posthumously in 1962.", "While at the University of Illinois Bloomfield undertook research on Tagalog, an Austronesian language spoken in the Philippines. He carried out linguistic field work with Alfredo Viola Santiago, who was an engineering student at the university from 1914 to 1917. The results were published as \"Tagalog texts with grammatical analysis\", which includes a series of texts dictated by Santiago in addition to an extensive grammatical description and analysis of every word in the texts. Bloomfield's work on Tagalog, from the beginning of field research to publication, took no more than two years. His study of Tagalog has been described as \"the best treatment of any Austronesian language... The result is a description of Tagalog which has never been surpassed for completeness, accuracy, and wealth of exemplification.\" Bloomfield's only other publication on an Austronesian language was an article on the syntax of Ilocano, based upon research undertaken with a native speaker of Ilocano who was a student at Yale University. This article has been described as a \"tour de force, for it covers in less than seven pages the entire taxonomic syntax of Ilocano\".", "Bloomfield's work on Algonquian languages had both descriptive and comparative components. He published extensively on four Algonquian languages: Fox, Cree, Menominee, and Ojibwe, publishing grammars, lexicons, and text collections. Bloomfield used the materials collected in his descriptive work to undertake comparative studies leading to the reconstruction of Proto-Algonquian, with an early study reconstructing the sound system of Proto-Algonquian, and a subsequent more extensive paper refining his phonological analysis and adding extensive historical information on general features of Algonquian grammar. Bloomfield undertook field research on Cree, Menominee, and Ojibwe, and analysed the material in previously published Fox text collections. His first Algonquian research, beginning around 1919, involved study of text collections in the Fox language that had been published by William Jones and Truman Michelson. Working through the texts in these collections, Bloomfield excerpted grammatical information to create a grammatical sketch of Fox. A lexicon of Fox based on his excerpted material was published posthumously. Bloomfield undertook field research on Menominee in the summers of 1920 and 1921, with further brief field research in September 1939 and intermittent visits from Menominee speakers in Chicago in the late 1930s, in addition to correspondence with speakers during the same period. Material collected by Morris Swadesh in 1937 and 1938, often in response to specific queries from Bloomfield, supplemented his information. Significant publications include a collection of texts, a grammar and a lexicon (both published posthumously), in addition to a theoretically significant article on Menomini phonological alternations. Bloomfield undertook field research in 1925 among Plains Cree speakers in Saskatchewan at the Sweet Grass reserve, and also at the Star Blanket reserve, resulting in two volumes of texts and a posthumous lexicon. He also undertook brief field work on Swampy Cree at The Pas, Manitoba. Bloomfield's work on Swampy Cree provided data to support the predictive power of the hypothesis of exceptionless phonological change. Bloomfield's initial research on Ojibwe was through study of texts collected by William Jones, in addition to nineteenth century grammars and dictionaries. During the 1938 Linguistic Society of America Linguistic Institute held at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor, Michigan, he taught a field methods class with Andrew Medler, a speaker of the Ottawa dialect who was born in Saginaw, Michigan, but spent most of his life on Walpole Island, Ontario. The resulting grammatical description, transcribed sentences, texts, and lexicon were published posthumously in a single volume. In 1941 Bloomfield worked with Ottawa dialect speaker Angeline Williams at the 1941 Linguistic Institute held at the University of North Carolina in Chapel Hill, North Carolina, resulting in a posthumously published volume of texts." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life and early work.", "The Town Houses and the beginning of Art Nouveau.", "Hôtel Tassel (1892–1893).", "Hôtel Solvay (1898–1900).", "Hôtel Van Eetvelde (1898–1900).", "Horta House and Studio (1898–1901).", "Hôtel Aubecq (1899–1902).", "Maison du Peuple (1895–1899).", "Magasins Waucquez (1905).", "Brugmann University Hospital (1906).", "The First World War – travel to the United States.", "Later Projects – debut of modernism (1919–1939).", "Centre for Fine Arts (1923–1929).", "Brussels Central Station (1913–1952).", "Furniture.", "Later work and personal life.", "Heritage.", "Honours." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Victor Horta was born in Ghent, Belgium, on 6 January 1861. His father was a master shoemaker, who, as Horta recalled, considered craftsmanship a high form of art. The young Horta began by studying music at the Ghent Conservatory. He was expelled for misbehaviour and went instead to study at the Royal Academy of Fine Arts in Ghent. At the Ghent Conservatory an aula is named after him now. When he was seventeen he moved to Paris and found work with architect and designer Jules Debuysson. Horta's father died in 1880, and Horta returned to Belgium. He moved to Brussels and married his first wife, with whom he later fathered two daughters. He began to study architecture at the Académie Royale des Beaux-Arts. He became friends with Paul Hankar, another early pioneer of Art Nouveau architecture. Horta did well in his studies and was taken on as an assistant by his professor Alphonse Balat, architect to Leopold II of Belgium. Horta worked with Balet on the construction of the Greenhouses of Laeken, Horta's first work to utilise glass and iron. In 1884, Horta won the first Prix Godecharle to be awarded for Architecture for a proposed new building for the Belgian Parliament. On his graduation from the Royal Academy, he was awarded the Grand Prize in architecture. In the years that followed joined the Central Society of Belgian Architecture, and designed and completed three houses in a traditional style and took part in several competitions. In 1892, he was named head of the department of graphic design for Architecture at the Free University of Brussels, and promoted to Professor in 1893. At this time, through lectures and exhibitions organised by the artists' association Les Vingt, Horta became familiar with the British Arts and Crafts Movement, and the developments in book design, and especially textiles and wallpaper, which influenced his own later work. In 1893, he built a town house, the Autrique House for his friend Eugène Autrique. The interior had a traditional floor plan, due to a limited budget, but the facade previewed some of the elements he developed into the full Art Nouveau style, including iron columns, and ceramic floral designs. In 1894, Horta was elected President of the Central Society of Belgian Architecture, although he resigned the following year following a dispute caused when he was awarded the commission for a kindergarten on / without a public competition.", "", "The major breakthrough for Horta came in 1892, when he was commissioned to design a home for the Belgian Professor and scientist Emile Tassel. The Hôtel Tassel was completed in 1893. The stone facade, designed to harmonize with the neighboring buildings, was fairly traditional, but the interior was strikingly new. Horta used the technologies of glass and iron, which he had practiced on the royal greenhouses at Laeken, to create an interior filled with light and space. The house was built around an open central stairway. The decoration of the interior featured curling lines, modeled after vines and flowers, which were repeated in the ironwork railings of the stairway, in the tiles of the floor, in the glass of the doors and skylights, and painted on the walls. The building is widely recognized as the first appearance of Art Nouveau in architecture. In 2000, it was designated, along with three other townhouses designed soon afterwards, as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. In designating these cites, UNESCO explained: \"The stylistic revolution represented by these works is characterised by their open plan, the diffusion of light, and the brilliant joining of the curved lines of decoration with the structure of the building.\"", "The Hôtel Solvay, on Avenue Louise/Louizalaan in Brussels, was constructed for Armand Solvay, the son of the Belgian chemist and industrialist Ernest Solvay. Horta had a virtually unlimited budget, and used the most exotic materials in unusual combinations, such as marble, bronze and rare tropical woods in the stairway decoration. The stairway walls were decorated by the Belgian pointillist painter Théo van Rysselberghe. Horta designed every detail including the bronze doorbell and the house number, to match the overall style:", "The Hôtel van Eetvelde is considered one of Horta's most accomplished and innovative buildings, because of highly original Winter Garden interior and the imaginative details throughout. The open floor plan of the Hôtel Van Eetvelde was particularly original, and offered an abundance of light, both horizontally and vertically, and a great sensation of space. A central court went up the height of the building, bringing light from the skylight above. On the main floor, the oval-shaped salons were open to the courtyard, and also received light from large bay windows. It was possible to look from one side of the building to other from any of the salons on the main floor.", "The Horta House and Studio, now the Horta Museum, was Horta's residence and office, and was certainly more modest than the other houses, but it had its own original features and equally fine craftsmanship and mastery of details. He made unusual combinations of materials, such as wood, iron and marble in the staircase decoration. The novel element in Horta's houses and then his larger buildings was his search for maximum transparency and light, something often difficult to achieve with the narrow building sites in Brussels. He achieved this by use of large windows, skylights, mirrors, and especially by his open floor plans, which brought in light from all sides and from above.", "The Hôtel Aubecq in Brussels was one of his late houses, made for the industrialist Octave Aubecq. As with his other houses, it featured a skylight over the central staircase, filling the house with light. Its peculiarity was the octagonal shape of the rooms, and the three facades with windows, designed to give maximum light. The owner originally wished to keep his original family furniture, but because of the odd shape of the rooms, Horta was commissioned to create new furniture. By 1948, Art Nouveau was out of style, the house was sold to a new owner, who wished to demolish it. A movement began to preserve the house, but in the end only the facade and the furnishings were saved by the City of Brussels. The facade was disassembled and put into storage, and many proposals were made for its reconstruction, but none were carried out. Some of the furnishings are now on display at the Musée d'Orsay in Paris.", "While Horta was building luxurious town houses for the wealthy, he also applied his ideas to more functional buildings. From 1895 to 1899, he designed and built the \"Maison du Peuple\"/\"Volkshuis\" (\"House of the People\"), the headquarters for the Belgian Workers' Party. This was a large structure including offices, meeting rooms, a café and a conference and concert hall seating over 2,000 people. It was a purely functional building, constructed of steel columns with curtain walls. Unlike his houses, there was virtually no decoration. The only recognizable Art Nouveau feature was a slight curving of the steel pillars supporting the roof. As with his houses, the building was designed to make a maximum use of light, with large skylights over the main meeting room. It was demolished in 1965, despite an international petition of protest by over 700 architects. The materials of the building were saved for possible reconstruction, but were eventually scattered around Brussels. Some parts were used for the construction of the Brussels Metro system. Beginning in about 1900, Horta's buildings gradually became more simplified in form, but always made with great attention to functionality and to craftsmanship. Beginning in 1903, he constructed the Grand Bazar Anspach, a large department store, with his characteristic use of large windows, open floors, and wrought iron decoration. In 1907, a Horta designed the Museum for Fine Arts in Tournai, although it did not open until 1928 due to the war.", "The \"Magasins Waucquez\" (now the Belgian Comic Strip Center) was originally a department store specializing in textiles. In its design, Horta used all his skill with steel and glass to create dramatic open spaces and to give them an abundance of light from above. The steel and glass skylight is combined with decorative touches, such as neoclassical columns. The store closed in 1970, and, because of its connection to Horta, was declared a protected historical site. Now a museum of a particular Belgian speciality, the comic strip, it also has a room devoted to Horta.", "In 1906, Horta accepted the commission for the new Brugmann University Hospital (now the Victor Horta Site of the Brugmann University Hospital). Developed to take into account the views of the clinicians and hospital managers, Horta's design separated the functions of the hospital into a number of low-rise pavilions spread over the park based campus, and work began in 1911. Although used during World War I, the official opening was delayed until 1923. Its unusual design and layout attracted great interest from the European medical community, and his buildings continue in use to this day.", "In February 1915, as World War I was underway and Belgium was occupied, Horta moved to London and attended the Town Planning Conference on the Reconstruction of Belgium, organised by the International Garden Cities and Town Planning Association. Unable to return to Belgium, at the end of 1915, he traveled to the United States, where he gave a series of lectures at American universities, including Cornell, Harvard, MIT, Smith College, Wellesley College and Yale. In 1917, he was named Charles Eliot Norton Memorial Lecturer and Professor of Architecture at George Washington University.", "On Horta's return to Brussels in January 1919, he sold his home and workshop on /, and also became a full member of the Belgian Royal Academy. The post-war austerity meant that Art Nouveau was no longer affordable or fashionable. From this point on Horta, who had gradually been simplifying his style over the previous decade, no longer used organic forms, and instead based his designs on the geometrical. He continued to use rational floor plans, and to apply the latest developments in building technology and building services engineering. The Centre for Fine Arts in Brussels, a multi-purpose cultural centre designed in a more geometric style similar to Art Deco.", "Horta developed the plans for the Centre for Fine Arts in Brussels beginning in 1919, with construction starting in 1923. It was completed in 1929. It was originally intended to be built of stone, but Horta made a new plan of reinforced concrete with a steel frame. He had intended the concrete to be left exposed in the interior, but the final appearance did not meet his expectations, and he had it covered. The concert hall itself is in an unusual ovoid, or egg shape, and is accompanied by art galleries, meeting rooms, and other functional rooms. The building is placed on a complex hillside site, and occupies eight levels, much of it underground. It also had to be designed to avoid blocking the view from the Royal Palace, on the hill just above it. In 1927, Horta became the Director of the \"Académie Royale des Beaux-Arts\" in Brussels, a post he held for four years until 1931. In recognition of his work, Horta was awarded the title of Baron by Albert I of Belgium in 1932.", "In 1910, Horta began working on drawings on his most ambitious and longest running project: Brussels-Central railway station. He was formally commissioned as the architect in 1913, but work did not actually begin until after World War II, in 1952. It was originally planned that the station would just part of a much larger redevelopment project, which Horta had conceived in the 1920s, but this was never realized. The start of construction was seriously delayed due to the lengthy process of purchasing and demolishing over thousand buildings along the route of the new railway between the main Brussels stations, and then the First World War. Construction finally began in 1937 as part of the plans to boost the economy during the Great Depression, before being delayed again by the outbreak of World War II. Horta was still working on the station when he died in 1947. The building the station was finally completed, to his plans, by his colleagues led by Maxime Brunfaut. It opened on 4 October 1952.", "Horta typically designed not only the building, but also the furniture, to match his particular style. His furniture became as well known as his houses; a displays of his furniture were shown at the 1900 Universal Exposition, in Paris, and the 1902 Turin Exposition of Modern Decorative Arts. It was typically hand-made, and the furniture for each house was different. In many cases the furniture lasted longer than the house. Its drawback was that, since it matched the house, it could not be changed to any other style, without disrupting the harmony of the room.", "In 1925, he was an architect of honor for the Belgian Pavilion at the International Exhibition of Modern Decorative and Industrial Arts in Paris, the exposition which gave its name to Art Deco. In the same year, he became director of the section of fine arts of the Belgian Royal Academy of Fine Arts. Horta and his first wife divorced in 1906. He married his second wife, Julia Carlsson, in 1908. In 1937, he completed the design of his final work, Brussels Central Station. In 1939, he began editing his memoirs. Victor Horta died on 8 September 1947 and was interred in the Ixelles Cemetery in Brussels.", "After Art Nouveau lost favor, many of Horta's buildings were destroyed, most notably the \"Maison du Peuple\"/\"Volkshuis\", demolished in 1965, as mentioned above. However, several of Horta's buildings are still standing in Brussels up to this day and some are available to tour. Most notable are the \"Magasins Waucquez\", formerly a department store, now the Belgian Comic Strip Center and four of his private houses (\"hôtels\"), which were designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site:", "On 6 January 2015, Google Doodle commemorated his 154th birthday" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Early employment.", "Johns Hopkins University.", "Poverty.", "Slavery, the American Civil War, and racism.", "Reception.", "Works.", "Mathematics.", "Philosophy.", "Theory of categories.", "Aesthetics and ethics.", "Philosophy: logic, or semiotic.", "Logic as philosophical.", "Presuppositions of logic.", "Four incapacities.", "Logic as formal semiotic.", "Signs.", "Sign relation.", "Semiotic elements.", "Classes of signs.", "Modes of inference.", "Pragmatism.", "Philosophy: metaphysics.", "Science of review." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Peirce was born at 3 Phillips Place in Cambridge, Massachusetts. He was the son of Sarah Hunt Mills and Benjamin Peirce, himself a professor of astronomy and mathematics at Harvard University and perhaps the first serious research mathematician in America. At age 12, Charles read his older brother's copy of Richard Whately's \"Elements of Logic\", then the leading English-language text on the subject. So began his lifelong fascination with logic and reasoning. He went on to earn a Bachelor of Arts degree and a Master of Arts degree (1862) from Harvard. In 1863 the Lawrence Scientific School awarded him a Bachelor of Science degree, Harvard's first \"summa cum laude\" chemistry degree. His academic record was otherwise undistinguished. At Harvard, he began lifelong friendships with Francis Ellingwood Abbot, Chauncey Wright, and William James. One of his Harvard instructors, Charles William Eliot, formed an unfavorable opinion of Peirce. This proved fateful, because Eliot, while President of Harvard (1869–1909—a period encompassing nearly all of Peirce's working life), repeatedly vetoed Peirce's employment at the university. Peirce suffered from his late-teens onward from a nervous condition then known as \"facial neuralgia\", which would today be diagnosed as trigeminal neuralgia. His biographer, Joseph Brent, says that when in the throes of its pain \"he was, at first, almost stupefied, and then aloof, cold, depressed, extremely suspicious, impatient of the slightest crossing, and subject to violent outbursts of temper\". Its consequences may have led to the social isolation of his later life.", "Between 1859 and 1891, Peirce was intermittently employed in various scientific capacities by the United States Coast Survey and its successor, the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, where he enjoyed his highly influential father's protection until the latter's death in 1880. That employment exempted Peirce from having to take part in the American Civil War; it would have been very awkward for him to do so, as the Boston Brahmin Peirces sympathized with the Confederacy. At the Survey, he worked mainly in geodesy and gravimetry, refining the use of pendulums to determine small local variations in the Earth's gravity. He was elected a resident fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in January 1867. The Survey sent him to Europe five times, first in 1871 as part of a", "In 1879, Peirce was appointed lecturer in logic at Johns Hopkins University, which had strong departments in a number of areas that interested him, such as philosophy (Royce and Dewey completed their PhDs at Hopkins), psychology (taught by G. Stanley Hall and studied by Joseph Jastrow, who coauthored a landmark empirical study with Peirce), and mathematics (taught by J. J. Sylvester, who came to admire Peirce's work on mathematics and logic). His \"Studies in Logic by Members of the Johns Hopkins University\" (1883) contained works by himself and Allan Marquand, Christine Ladd, Benjamin Ives Gilman, and Oscar Howard Mitchell, several of whom were his graduate students. Peirce's nontenured position at Hopkins was the only academic appointment he ever held. Brent documents something Peirce never suspected, namely that his efforts", "In 1887 Peirce spent part of his inheritance from his parents to buy of rural land near Milford, Pennsylvania, which never yielded an economic return. There he had an 1854 farmhouse remodeled to his design. The Peirces named the property \"Arisbe\". There they lived with few interruptions for the rest of their lives, Charles writing prolifically, much of it unpublished to this day (see Works). Living beyond their means soon led to grave financial and legal difficulties. He spent much of his last two decades unable to afford", "Peirce grew up in a home where white supremacy was taken for granted, and Southern slavery was considered natural. Until the outbreak of the Civil War his father described himself as a secessionist, but after the outbreak of the war, this stopped and he became", "Bertrand Russell (1959) wrote \"Beyond doubt [...] he was one of the most original minds of the later nineteenth century and certainly the greatest American thinker ever\". Russell and Whitehead's \"Principia Mathematica\", published from 1910 to 1913, does not mention Peirce (Peirce's work was not widely known until later). A. N. Whitehead, while reading some of Peirce's unpublished manuscripts soon after arriving at Harvard in 1924, was struck by how Peirce had anticipated his own \"process\" thinking. (On Peirce and process metaphysics, see Lowe 1964). Karl Popper viewed Peirce as \"one of the greatest philosophers of all times\". Yet Peirce's achievements were not immediately recognized. His imposing contemporaries William James and Josiah Royce admired him and Cassius Jackson Keyser, at Columbia and C. K. Ogden, wrote about Peirce with respect but to no immediate effect. The first scholar to give Peirce his considered professional attention was Royce's student Morris Raphael Cohen, the editor of an anthology of Peirce's writings entitled \"Chance, Love, and Logic\" (1923), and the author of the first bibliography of Peirce's scattered writings. John Dewey, studied under Peirce at Johns Hopkins. From 1916 onward, Dewey's writings repeatedly mention Peirce with deference. His 1938 \"Logic: The Theory of Inquiry\" is much influenced by Peirce. The publication of the first six volumes of \"Collected Papers\" (1931–1935), the most important event to date in Peirce studies and one that", "Peirce's reputation rests largely on a number of academic papers published in American scientific and scholarly journals such as \"Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences\", the \"Journal of Speculative Philosophy\", \"The Monist\", \"Popular Science Monthly\", the \"American Journal of Mathematics\", \"Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences\", \"The Nation\", and others. See Articles by Peirce, published in his lifetime for an extensive list with links to them online. The only full-length book (neither extract nor pamphlet) that Peirce authored and saw published in his lifetime was \"Photometric Researches\" (1878), a 181-page monograph on the applications of spectrographic methods to astronomy. While at Johns Hopkins, he edited \"Studies in Logic\" (1883), containing chapters by himself and his graduate students. Besides lectures during his years (1879–1884) as lecturer in Logic at Johns Hopkins, he gave at least nine series of lectures, many now published; see Lectures by Peirce. After Peirce's death, Harvard University obtained from Peirce's widow the papers found in his study, but did not microfilm them until 1964. Only after Richard Robin (1967) catalogued this \"Nachlass\" did it become clear that Peirce had left approximately 1,650 unpublished manuscripts, totaling over 100,000 pages, mostly still unpublished except on microfilm. On the vicissitudes of Peirce's papers, see Houser (1989). Reportedly the papers remain in unsatisfactory condition. The first published anthology of Peirce's articles was the one-volume \"Chance, Love and Logic: Philosophical Essays\", edited by Morris Raphael Cohen, 1923, still in print. Other one-volume anthologies were published in 1940, 1957, 1958, 1972, 1994, and 2009, most still in print. The main posthumous editions of Peirce's works in their long trek to light, often multi-volume, and some still in print, have included: 1931–1958: \"Collected Papers of Charles Sanders Peirce\" (CP), 8 volumes, includes many published works, along with a selection of previously unpublished work and a smattering of his correspondence. This long-time standard edition drawn from Peirce's work from the 1860s to 1913 remains the most comprehensive survey of his prolific output from 1893 to 1913. It is", "Peirce's most important work in pure mathematics was in logical and foundational areas. He also worked on linear algebra, matrices, various geometries, topology and Listing numbers, Bell numbers, graphs, the four-color problem, and the nature of continuity. He worked on applied mathematics in economics, engineering, and map projections (such as the Peirce quincuncial projection), and was especially active in probability and statistics. Peirce made a number of striking discoveries in formal logic and foundational mathematics, nearly all of which came to be appreciated only long after he died: In 1860 he suggested a cardinal arithmetic for infinite numbers, years before any work by Georg Cantor (who completed his dissertation in 1867) and without access to Bernard Bolzano's 1851 (posthumous) \"Paradoxien des Unendlichen\". In 1880–1881 he showed how Boolean algebra could be done via a repeated sufficient single binary operation (logical NOR), anticipating Henry M. Sheffer by 33 years. (See also De Morgan's Laws.) In 1881 he set out the axiomatization of natural number arithmetic, a few years before Richard Dedekind and Giuseppe Peano. In the same paper Peirce gave, years before Dedekind, the first purely cardinal definition of a finite set in the sense now known as \"Dedekind-finite\", and implied by the same stroke an important formal definition of an infinite set (Dedekind-infinite), as a set that can be put into a one-to-one correspondence with one of its proper subsets. In 1885 he distinguished between first-order and second-order quantification. In the same paper he set out what can be read as the first (primitive) axiomatic set theory, anticipating Zermelo by about two decades (Brady 2000, pp. 132–33). In 1886, he saw that Boolean calculations could be carried out via electrical switches, anticipating Claude Shannon by more than 50 years. By the later 1890s he was devising existential graphs, a diagrammatic notation for the predicate calculus. Based on them are John F. Sowa's conceptual graphs and Sun-Joo Shin's diagrammatic reasoning. Peirce wrote drafts for an introductory textbook, with the working title \"The New Elements of Mathematics\", that presented mathematics from an original standpoint. Those drafts and many other of his previously unpublished mathematical manuscripts finally appeared in \"The New Elements of Mathematics by Charles S. Peirce\" (1976), edited by mathematician Carolyn Eisele. Peirce agreed with Auguste Comte in regarding mathematics as more basic than philosophy and the special sciences (of nature and mind). Peirce classified mathematics into three subareas: (1) mathematics of logic, (2) discrete series, and (3) pseudo-continua (as he called them, including the real numbers) and continua. Influenced by his father Benjamin, Peirce argued that mathematics studies purely hypothetical objects and is not just the science of quantity but is more broadly the science which draws necessary conclusions; that mathematics aids logic, not vice versa; and that logic itself is part of philosophy and is the science \"about\" drawing conclusions necessary and otherwise.", "Peirce was a working scientist for 30 years, and arguably was a professional philosopher only during the five years he lectured at Johns Hopkins. He learned philosophy mainly by reading, each day, a few pages of Immanuel Kant's \"Critique of Pure Reason\", in the original German, while a Harvard undergraduate. His writings bear on a wide array of disciplines, including mathematics, logic, philosophy, statistics, astronomy, metrology, geodesy, experimental psychology, economics, linguistics, and the history and philosophy of science. This work has enjoyed renewed interest and approval, a revival inspired not only by his anticipations of recent scientific developments but also by his demonstration of how philosophy can be applied effectively to human problems. Peirce's philosophy includes (see below in related sections) a pervasive three-category system, belief that truth is immutable and is both independent from actual opinion (fallibilism) and discoverable (no radical skepticism), logic as formal semiotic on signs, on arguments, and on inquiry's ways—including philosophical pragmatism (which he founded), critical common-sensism, and scientific method—and, in metaphysics: Scholastic realism, e.g. John Duns Scotus, belief in God, freedom, and at least an attenuated immortality, objective idealism, and belief in the reality of continuity and of absolute chance, mechanical necessity, and creative love. In his work, fallibilism and pragmatism may seem to work somewhat like skepticism and positivism, respectively, in others' work. However, for Peirce, fallibilism is balanced by an anti-skepticism and is a basis for belief in the reality of absolute chance and of continuity, and pragmatism commits one to anti-nominalist belief in the reality of the general (CP 5.453–57). For Peirce, First Philosophy, which he also called cenoscopy, is less basic than mathematics and more basic than the special sciences (of nature and mind). It studies positive phenomena in general, phenomena available to any person at any waking moment, and does not settle questions by resorting to special experiences. He divided such philosophy into (1) phenomenology (which he also called phaneroscopy or categorics), (2) normative sciences (esthetics, ethics, and logic), and (3) metaphysics; his views on them are discussed in order below.", "On May 14, 1867, the 27-year-old Peirce presented a paper entitled \"On a New List of Categories\" to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, which published it the following year. The paper outlined a theory of predication, involving three universal categories that Peirce developed in response to reading Aristotle, Immanuel Kant, and G. W. F. Hegel, categories that Peirce applied throughout his work for the rest of", "Peirce did not write extensively in aesthetics and ethics, but came by 1902 to hold that aesthetics, ethics, and logic,", "", "Peirce regarded logic \"per se\" as a division of philosophy, as a normative science based on esthetics and ethics, as more basic than metaphysics, and as \"the art of devising methods of research\". More generally, as inference, \"logic is rooted in the social principle\", since inference depends on a standpoint that, in a sense, is unlimited. Peirce called (with no sense of deprecation) \"mathematics of logic\" much of the kind of thing which, in current research and applications, is called simply \"logic\". He was productive in both (philosophical) logic and logic's mathematics, which were connected deeply in his work", "In his \"F.R.L.\" [First Rule of Logic] (1899), Peirce states that the first, and \"in one sense, the sole\", rule of reason is that, \"to learn, one needs to desire to learn\" and desire it without resting satisfied with that which one is inclined to think. So, the first rule is, \"to wonder\". Peirce proceeds to a critical theme in research practices and the shaping of theories: Do not block the way of inquiry. Peirce adds, that method and economy are best in research but no outright sin inheres in trying any theory in the sense that the investigation via its trial adoption can proceed unimpeded and undiscouraged, and that \"the one unpardonable offence\" is a philosophical barricade against truth's advance, an offense to which \"metaphysicians in", "In three articles in 1868–1869, Peirce rejected mere verbal or hyperbolic doubt and first or ultimate principles, and argued that we have (as he numbered them): (The above sense of the term \"intuition\" is almost Kant's, said Peirce. It differs from the current", "Peirce sought, through his wide-ranging studies through the decades, formal philosophical ways to articulate thought's processes, and also to explain the workings of science. These inextricably entangled questions of a dynamics of inquiry rooted in nature and nurture led him to develop his semiotic with very broadened conceptions of signs and inference, and, as its culmination, a theory of inquiry for the task of saying 'how science works' and devising research methods. This would be logic by the medieval definition taught for centuries: art of arts, science of sciences, having the way to the principles of all methods. Influences radiate from points on parallel lines of inquiry in Aristotle's work, in such \"loci\" as: the basic terminology of psychology in \"On the Soul\"; the founding description of sign relations in \"On Interpretation\"; and the differentiation of inference into three modes that are commonly translated into English as \"abduction\", \"deduction\", and \"induction\", in the \"Prior Analytics\", as well as inference by analogy (called \"paradeigma\" by Aristotle), which Peirce regarded as involving the other three modes. Peirce began writing on semiotic in the 1860s,", "", "Peirce's theory of signs is known to be one of the most complex semiotic theories due to its generalistic claim. Anything is a sign—not absolutely as itself, but instead in some relation or other. The \"sign relation\" is the key. It defines three roles encompassing (1) the sign, (2) the sign's subject matter, called its \"object\", and (3) the sign's meaning or ramification as formed into a kind of effect called its \"interpretant\" (a further sign, for example a translation). It is an irreducible \"triadic relation\", according to Peirce. The roles are distinct even when the things that fill those roles are not. The roles are but three; a sign of an object leads to one or more interpretants, and, as signs, they lead to further interpretants. \"Extension × intension = information.\" Two traditional approaches to sign relation, necessary though insufficient, are the way of \"extension\" (a sign's objects, also called breadth, denotation, or application) and the way of \"intension\" (the objects' characteristics, qualities, attributes referenced by the sign, also called depth, comprehension, significance, or connotation). Peirce adds a third, the way of \"information\", including change of information, to integrate the other two approaches", "Peirce held there are exactly three basic elements in semiosis (sign action): Some of the understanding needed by the mind depends on familiarity with the object. To know", "Among Peirce's many sign typologies, three stand out, interlocked. The first typology depends on the sign itself, the second on how the sign stands for its denoted object, and the third on how the sign stands for its object to its interpretant. Also, each of the three typologies is a three-way division, a trichotomy, via Peirce's three phenomenological categories: (1) quality of feeling, (2) reaction, resistance, and (3) representation, mediation. I. \"Qualisign, sinsign, legisign\" (also called\" tone, token, type,\" and also called \"potisign, actisign, famisign\"): This typology classifies every sign according to the sign's own phenomenological category—the qualisign is a quality, a possibility, a \"First\"; the sinsign is a reaction or resistance, a singular object, an actual event or fact, a \"Second\"; and the legisign is a habit, a rule, a representational relation, a \"Third\". II. \"Icon, index, symbol\": This typology, the best known one, classifies every sign according to the category of the sign's way", "Borrowing a brace of concepts from Aristotle, Peirce examined three basic modes of inference—\"abduction\", \"deduction\", and \"induction\"—in his \"critique of arguments\" or \"logic proper\". Peirce also called abduction \"retroduction\", \"presumption\", and, earliest of all, \"hypothesis\". He characterized it as guessing and as inference to an explanatory hypothesis. He sometimes expounded the modes of inference by transformations of the categorical syllogism Barbara (AAA), for example in \"Deduction, Induction, and Hypothesis\" (1878). He does this by rearranging the \"rule\" (Barbara's major premise), the \"case\" (Barbara's minor premise), and the \"result\" (Barbara's conclusion): Deduction. \"Rule:\" All the beans from this bag are white. <br> \"Case:\" These beans are beans from this bag. <br> formula_1 \"Result:\" These beans are white. Induction. \"Case:\" These beans are [randomly selected] from this bag. <br> \"Result:\" These beans are white. <br> formula_1 \"Rule:\" All the beans from this bag are", "Peirce's recipe for pragmatic thinking, which he called \"pragmatism\" and, later, \"pragmaticism\", is recapitulated in several versions of the so-called \"pragmatic maxim\". Here is one of his more emphatic reiterations of it: As a movement, pragmatism began in the early 1870s in discussions among Peirce, William James, and others in the Metaphysical Club. James among others regarded some articles by Peirce such as \"\" (1877) and especially \"\" (1878) as foundational to pragmatism. Peirce (CP 5.11–12), like James (\"\", 1907), saw pragmatism as embodying familiar attitudes, in philosophy and elsewhere, elaborated into a new deliberate method for fruitful thinking about problems. Peirce differed from James and the early John Dewey, in some of their tangential enthusiasms, in being decidedly more rationalistic and realistic, in several senses of those terms, throughout the preponderance of his own philosophical moods. In 1905 Peirce coined the new name pragmaticism \"for the precise purpose of expressing the original definition\", saying that \"all went happily\" with James's and F.C.S. Schiller's variant uses of the old name \"pragmatism\" and that he coined the new name because of the old name's growing use in \"literary journals, where it gets abused\". Yet he cited as causes, in a 1906 manuscript, his differences with James and Schiller and, in a 1908 publication, his differences with James as well as literary author Giovanni Papini's declaration of pragmatism's indefinability. Peirce in any case regarded his views that truth is immutable and infinity is real, as being opposed by the other pragmatists, but he remained allied with them on other issues. Pragmatism begins with the idea that belief is that on which one is prepared to act. Peirce's pragmatism is a method of clarification of conceptions of objects. It equates any conception of an object to a conception of that object's effects to a general extent of the effects' conceivable implications for informed practice.", "Peirce divided metaphysics into (1) ontology or general metaphysics, (2) psychical or religious metaphysics, and (3) physical metaphysics. Ontology. Peirce was a Scholastic Realist, declaring for the reality of generals as early as 1868. Regarding modalities (possibility, necessity, etc.), he came in later years to regard himself as having wavered earlier as to just how positively real the modalities are. In his 1897 \"The Logic of Relatives\" he wrote: Peirce retained, as useful for some purposes, the definitions in terms of information states, but insisted that the pragmaticist is committed to a strong modal realism by conceiving of objects in terms of predictive general conditional propositions about how they \"would\" behave under certain circumstances. Psychical or religious metaphysics. Peirce believed in God, and characterized such belief as founded in an instinct explorable in musing over the worlds of ideas, brute facts, and evolving habits—and it is a belief in God not as an \"actual\" or \"existent\" being (in Peirce's sense of those words), but all the same as a \"real\" being. In \"\" (1908), Peirce sketches, for God's reality, an argument to a hypothesis of God as the Necessary Being, a hypothesis which he describes in terms of how it would tend to develop and become compelling in musement and inquiry by", "Peirce outlined two fields, \"Cenoscopy\" and \"Science of Review\", both of which he called philosophy. Both included philosophy about science. In 1903 he arranged them, from more to less theoretically basic, thus: Peirce placed, within Science of Review, the work and theory of classifying the sciences (including mathematics and philosophy). His classifications, on which he worked for many years, draw on argument and wide knowledge, and are of interest both as a map for navigating his philosophy and as an accomplished polymath's survey of research in his time. Contemporaries associated with Peirce" ] }