Datasets:

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StivenLancheros

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all_datasets_wikis

like 0

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Gameplay.", "Contributed Levels.", "Add-on levels.", "Plot.", "Reception and impact." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "3", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The game was originally created by Bill Kendrick and is maintained by the SuperTux Development Team. It is written mostly in the C++ programming language. Many of the in-game graphics were created by Ingo Ruhnke, author of \"Pingus\". The game was developed under usage of Simple DirectMedia Layer as cross-platform middlelayer targeting OpenGL and OpenAL. Game engine and physics engine are own developed. The game's metadata are \"S-Expressions\" of the programming language Lisp, scripts are written in Squirrel. The development occurs in a series of stable milestones, each one improving steadily upon the last. First Milestone 1 (version 0.1.1-0.1.3) was released in 2003. Version 0.4.0 was released on December 20, 2015, which features significant improvements to gameplay, all new graphics, a switch to SDL2, and new features. Milestone 2 (version 0.5.0) was officially released as stable in 2016, with the inclusion of the official level editor. Version 0.6.0 was released on December 23, 2018 with redesigned Icy Island and Forest, revamped rendering engine and many minor improvements.", "Gameplay in SuperTux is similar to Super Mario Bros. Tux can jump under bonus blocks marked with question marks to gain coins or retrieve power-ups such as the egg, which makes Tux bigger and allows him to take an extra hit before dying. Other objects such as trampolines and invincibility granting stars can also be obtained from these blocks. Tux can defeat some bad guys by jumping on them, and most can be defeated or frozen by shooting bullets after collecting a fire flower or an ice flower. Earth flowers grant Tux a miner helmet with a spotlight for dark areas and can give invincibility for a few seconds, and air flowers allow Tux to glide in the air, jump higher and move faster. If Tux gets hit after he collected a flower, he looses his helmet and transforms back into big Tux. The objective of each level is to get to the end, usually marked by checker-patterned poles. At the end of each world is a boss, such as the Yeti boss on Icy Island.", "In addition to the two main worlds, there are contributed levels, which include the Bonus Islands and the community Incubator Island, where levels used to be tested and improved for possible implementation into the main game. In addition to this, there are installable addons and custom levels added by the player, either created in the internal Level Editor or added manually.", "There are additional add-on levels in SuperTux which can be installed with the built-in add-on manager or manually. The add-on manager lists over 20 add-ons. New add-ons are usually published on the forum and can be added to the list after testing.", "In the game, Tux begins in Icy Island. Tux holds a picnic with Penny, his girlfriend. He starts dancing and distracted, he doesn't notice that the villain of the game, named Nolok kidnapped Penny. Tux notices, he finds that Penny is missing. Determined to save Penny, Tux begins his journey. He then navigates the Icy Island and later Forest to find her.", "In 2007 \"Punto Informatico\" described the atmosphere of the game as pleasant and praised the free availability of the game. In 2008, \"SuperTux\" was used as a game for children by school district #73 in British Columbia, which had decided to transition to free and open-source software. The game was ported to many platforms for instance the GP2X, Pocket PC, PSP and Palm WebOS. The game was also scheduled to be included in the release of the EVO Smart Console as of April 2009. SuperTux became a quite popular free and open-source game which was distributed by numerous freeware outlets for download or was included in freeware collection and cover disks. For instance, in May 2017 download portal Softpedia lists for the Linux version alone over 80,000 downloads, Softonic over 750,000 downloads for the Windows version. Between 2002 and May 2017 SuperTux aggregated also over 850,000 downloads via Sourceforge.net." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "UK presence.", "US presence.", "International distribution.", "Slogans." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Haribo has expanded its operations, taking over many local confectionery manufacturers in countries all over the world. It began international expansion in the 1960s and entered American markets in the 1980s. It currently operates 16 factories which produce over 100 million gummy bears per day. Haribo was accused of using Jewish forced labor in its factories during World War II, but denies this. In 2014, Haribo's \"Skipper Mix\" was pulled in some markets because some of the candy pieces were shaped like caricatures of Asian, African, and Native American masks that some consumers considered to be racist.", "Haribo's key brands in the UK are Starmix, Tangfastics, Supermix, and Maoam, with Maoam being its own line of chewy sweets. They were once the distributor of Pez products in the United Kingdom, but this is no longer the case. Haribo makes Pontefract Cakes at their factory in Pontefract, West Yorkshire, and other locations.", "Haribo had been imported into the United States for many years by German food importers and sold at German and other gourmet stores at \"gourmet prices\", mostly in bulk. In Germany, Haribo was not an exclusive gourmet product, but a mass market candy. When Haribo of America was incorporated in the 1980s in Baltimore, Maryland, Haribo's gummi candies were introduced to the US mass market through areas such as drugstores, grocery stores, and discount stores. The packaging was translated into English, and package weights were adjusted to match U.S. candy price points and package sizes. A laydown bag was developed for the US supermarket trade, instead of the hanging bag commonly found in German supermarkets, and a boxed product was developed for theaters. Once this was done and Haribo products in US-style packaging were introduced at confectionery and fancy food shows, Haribo became a popular item. Sales soared the first year, and gummy bears became so popular in the US, Haribo in Germany could not supply enough products, so the US market was soon flooded with competitors such as German Trolli and American Black Forest. On 23 March 2017, Haribo announced they will be opening their first United States factory, a 500,000 sq ft (46,500 m2), 400 employee manufacturing plant in Kenosha County, Wisconsin, scheduled to open in 2020.", "Haribo plans to expand to China and Brazil. In China it has launched test stores in Shanghai and Guangdong. The US headquarters is located in Rosemont, IL. New production facilities opened in Castleford, West Yorkshire, (directly opposite the Normanton M62 Junction (J31)) in 2016 and plans to open in São Paulo, Brazil.", "Haribo's German catchphrase is \"\"Haribo macht Kinder froh – und Erwachsene ebenso\"\" (\"Haribo makes children happy – and adults as well\"). The German advertisements were voiced by Thomas Gottschalk from 1991 until 2015. In English-speaking countries, it uses the slogan \"Kids and grown-ups love it so – the happy world of Haribo\". In Hungary, it uses the slogan \"\"Gyermek, felnőtt kedve jó – édes élet, Haribo\"\" (\"Child and adult is happy – sweet life, Haribo\"). \"\"Haribo c'est beau la vie, pour les grands et les petits\"\" (\"Haribo life is beautiful, for big ones and little ones\") is used in France, while in Italy the song used during commercials is: \"\"Haribo è la bontà, che si gusta ad ogni età\"\" (\"Haribo is the delicacy that one can taste at any age\"). Similar slogans are used in other languages. The famed Haribo jingle music was created by UK composer Stephen Lee Vickers." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Operations.", "Sanitary landfill life cycle.", "Initial adjustment (Phase I).", "Transition (Phase II).", "Acid formation (Phase III).", "Methane fermentation (Phase IV).", "Final maturation and stabilization (Phase V).", "Social and environmental impact.", "Leachate.", "Decomposition gases.", "Vectors.", "Other nuisances.", "Landfill gas.", "Regional practice.", "Canada.", "European Union.", "India.", "United Kingdom.", "United States.", "Microbial topics.", "Reclaiming materials.", "Alternatives.", "Restrictions." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Operators of well-run landfills for non-hazardous waste meet predefined specifications by applying techniques to: They can also cover waste (usually daily) with layers of soil or other types of material such as woodchips and fine particles. During landfill operations, a scale or weighbridge may weigh waste collection vehicles on arrival and personnel may inspect loads for wastes that do not accord with the landfill's waste-acceptance criteria. Afterward, the waste collection vehicles use the existing road network on their way to the tipping face or working front, where they unload their contents. After loads are deposited, compactors or bulldozers can spread and compact the waste on the working face. Before leaving the landfill boundaries, the waste collection vehicles may pass through a wheel-cleaning facility. If necessary, they return to the weighbridge for re-weighing without their load. The weighing process can assemble statistics on the daily incoming waste tonnage, which databases can retain for record keeping. In addition to trucks, some landfills may have equipment to handle railroad containers. The use of \"rail-haul\" permits landfills to be located at more remote sites, without the problems associated with many truck trips. Typically, in the working face, the compacted waste is covered with soil or alternative materials daily. Alternative waste-cover materials include chipped wood or other \"green waste\", several sprayed-on foam products, chemically \"fixed\" bio-solids, and temporary blankets. Blankets can be lifted into place at night and then removed the following day prior to waste placement. The space that is occupied daily by the compacted waste and the cover material is called a daily cell. Waste compaction is critical to extending the life of the landfill. Factors such as waste compressibility, waste-layer thickness and the number of passes of the compactor over the waste affect the waste densities.", "The term \"landfill\" is usually shorthand for a municipal landfill or sanitary landfill. These facilities were first introduced early in the 20th century, but gained wide use in the 1960s and 1970s, in an effort to eliminate open dumps and other \"unsanitary\" waste disposal practices. The sanitary landfill is an engineered facility that separates and confines waste. Sanitary landfills are intended as biological reactors (bioreactors) in which microbes will break down complex organic waste into simpler, less toxic compounds over time. These reactors must be designed and operated according to regulatory standards and guidelines (See environmental engineering). Usually, aerobic decomposition is the first stage by which wastes are broken down in a landfill. These are followed by four stages of anaerobic degradation. Usually, solid organic material in solid phase decays rapidly as larger organic molecules degrade into smaller molecules. These smaller organic molecules begin to dissolve and move to the liquid phase, followed by hydrolysis of these organic molecules, and the hydrolyzed compounds then undergo transformation and volatilization as carbon dioxide (CO) and methane (CH), with rest of the waste remaining in solid and liquid phases. During the early phases, little material volume reaches the leachate, as the biodegradable organic matter of the waste undergoes a rapid decrease in volume. Meanwhile, the leachate's chemical oxygen demand increases with increasing concentrations of the more recalcitrant compounds compared to the more reactive compounds in the leachate. Successful conversion and stabilization of the waste depends on how well microbial populations function in syntrophy, i.e. an interaction of different populations to provide each other's nutritional needs.: The life cycle of a municipal landfill undergoes five distinct phases:", "As the waste is placed in the landfill, the void spaces contain high volumes of molecular oxygen (O). With added and compacted wastes, the O content of the landfill bioreactor strata gradually decreases. Microbial populations grow, density increases. Aerobic biodegradation dominates, i.e. the primary electron acceptor is O.", "The O is rapidly degraded by the existing microbial populations. The decreasing O leads to less aerobic and more anaerobic conditions in the layers. The primary electron acceptors during transition are nitrates and sulphates, since O is rapidly displaced by CO in the effluent gas.", "Hydrolysis of the biodegradable fraction of the solid waste begins in the acid formation phase, which leads to rapid accumulation of volatile fatty acids (VFAs) in the leachate. The increased organic acid content decreases the leachate pH from approximately 7.5 to 5.6. During this phase, the decomposition intermediate compounds like the VFAs contribute much chemical oxygen demand (COD). Long-chain volatile organic acids (VOAs) are converted to acetic acid (CHO), CO, and hydrogen gas (H). High concentrations of VFAs increase both the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and VOA concentrations, which initiates H production by fermentative bacteria, which stimulates the growth of H-oxidizing bacteria. The H generation phase is relatively short because it is complete by the end of the acid formation phase. The increase in the biomass of acidogenic bacteria increases the amount of degradation of the waste material and consuming nutrients. Metals, which are generally more water-soluble at lower pH, may become more mobile during this phase, leading to increasing metal concentrations in the leachate.", "The acid formation phase intermediary products (e.g. acetic, propionic, and butyric acids) are converted to CH and CO by methanogenic microorganisms. As VFAs are metabolized by the methanogens, the landfill water pH returns to neutrality. The leachate's organic strength, experessed as oxygen demand, decreases at a rapid rate with increases in CH and CO gas production. This is the longest decomposition phase.", "The rate of microbiological activity slows during the last phase of waste decomposition as the supply of nutrients limits the chemical reactions, e.g. as bioavailable phosphorus becomes increasingly scarce. CH production almost completely disappears, with O and oxidized species gradually reappearing in the gas wells as O permeates downwardly from the troposphere. This transforms the oxidation–reduction potential (ORP) in the leachate toward oxidative processes. The residual organic materials may incrementally be converted to the gas phase, and as organic matter is composted; i.e. the organic matter is converted to humic-like compounds.", "Landfills have the potential to cause a number of issues. Infrastructure disruption, such as damage to access roads by heavy vehicles, may occur. Pollution of local roads and water courses from wheels on vehicles when they leave the landfill can be significant and can be mitigated by wheel washing systems. Pollution of the local environment, such as contamination of groundwater or aquifers or soil contamination may occur, as well.", "When precipitation falls on open landfills, water percolates through the garbage and becomes contaminated with suspended and dissolved material, forming leachate. If this is not contained it can contaminate groundwater. All modern landfill sites use a combination of impermeable liners several metres thick, geologically stable sites and collection systems to contain and capture this leachate. It can then be treated and evaporated. Once a landfill site is full, it is sealed off to prevent precipitation ingress and new leachate formation. However, liners must have a lifespan, be it several hundred years or more. Eventually, any landfill liner could leak, so the ground around landfills must be tested for leachate to prevent pollutants from contaminating groundwater.", "Rotting food and other decaying organic waste creates decomposition gases, especially CO and CH from aerobic and anaerobic decomposition, respectively. Both processes occur simultaneously in different parts of a landfill. In addition to available O, the fraction of gas constituents will vary, depending on the age of landfill, type of waste, moisture content and other factors. For example, the maximum amount of landfill gas produced can be illustrated a simplified net reaction of diethyl oxalate that accounts for these simultaneous reactions: CHO + 1:5HO → 3:25CH + 2:75CO On average, about half of the volumetric concentration of landfill gas is CH and slightly less than half is CO. The gas also contains about 5% molecular nitrogen (N), less than 1% hydrogen sulfide (HS), and a low concentration of non-methane organic compounds (NMOC), about 2700 ppmv Landfill gases can seep out of the landfill and into the surrounding air and soil. Methane is a greenhouse gas, and is flammable and potentially explosive at certain concentrations, which makes it perfect for burning to generate electricity cleanly. Since decomposing plant matter and food waste only release carbon that has been captured from the atmosphere through photosynthesis, no new carbon enters the carbon cycle and the atmospheric concentration of CO is not affected. Carbon dioxide traps heat in the atmosphere, contributing to climate change. In properly managed landfills, gas is collected and flared or recovered for landfill gas utilization.", "Poorly run landfills may become nuisances because of vectors such as rats and flies which can spread infectious diseases. The occurrence of such vectors can be mitigated through the use of daily cover.", "Other potential issues include wildlife disruption due to occupation of habitat and animal health disruption caused by consuming waste from landfills, dust, odor, noise pollution, and reduced local property values.", "Gases are produced in landfills due to the anaerobic digestion by microbes. In a properly managed landfill this gas is collected and used. Its uses range from simple flaring to the landfill gas utilization and generation of electricity. Landfill gas monitoring alerts workers to the presence of a build-up of gases to a harmful level. In some countries, landfill gas recovery is extensive; in the United States, for example, more than 850 landfills have active landfill gas recovery systems.", "", "Landfills in Canada are regulated by provincial environmental agencies and environmental protection legislation. Older facilities tend to fall under current standards and are monitored for leaching. Some former locations have been converted to parkland.", "In the European Union, individual states are obliged to enact legislation to comply with the requirements and obligations of the European Landfill Directive. In the UK this is the Waste Implementation Programme. Finland, Sweden, Denmark, Poland, Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium, Austria and Slovenia have laws banning or severely restricting the disposal of household trash via landfills.", "Landfilling is currently the major method of municipal waste disposal in India. India also has Asia's largest dumping ground in Deonar, Mumbai. However issues frequently arise due alarming growth rate of landfills and poor management by authorities. On and under surface fires have been commonly seen in the Indian landfills over the last few years.", "Landfilling practices in the UK have had to change in recent years to meet the challenges of the European Landfill Directive. The UK now imposes landfill tax upon biodegradable waste which is put into landfills. In addition to this the Landfill Allowance Trading Scheme has been established for local authorities to trade landfill quotas in England. A different system operates in Wales where authorities are not able to 'trade' between themselves, but have allowances known as the Landfill Allowance Scheme.", "U.S. landfills are regulated by each state's environmental agency, which establishes minimum guidelines; however, none of these standards may fall below those set by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Permitting a landfill generally takes between five and seven years, costs millions of dollars and requires rigorous siting, engineering and environmental studies and demonstrations to ensure local environmental and safety concerns are satisfied.", "The status of a landfill's microbial community may determine its digestive efficiency. Bacteria that digest plastic have been found in landfills.", "One can treat landfills as a viable and abundant source of materials and energy. In the developing world, waste pickers often scavenge for still-usable materials. In commercial contexts, companies have also discovered landfill sites, and many have begun harvesting materials and energy. Well-known examples include gas-recovery facilities. Other commercial facilities include waste incinerators which have built-in material recovery. This material recovery is possible through the use of filters (electro filter, active-carbon and potassium filter, quench, HCl-washer, SO-washer, bottom ash-grating, etc.).", "In addition to waste reduction and recycling strategies, there are various alternatives to landfills, including waste-to-energy incineration, anaerobic digestion, composting, mechanical biological treatment, pyrolysis and plasma arc gasification. Depending on local economics and incentives, these can be made more financially attractive than landfills.", "Countries including Germany, Austria, Sweden, Denmark, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Switzerland, have banned the disposal of untreated waste in landfills. In these countries, only certain hazardous wastes, fly ashes from incineration or the stabilized output of mechanical biological treatment plants may still be deposited." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Classification.", "Signs and symptoms.", "Causes.", "Exertional.", "Situational.", "Drugs.", "Personal protective equipment.", "Other.", "Pathophysiology.", "Diagnosis.", "Prevention.", "Treatment.", "Epidemiology.", "Research." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In humans, hyperthermia is defined as a temperature greater than, depending on the reference used, that occurs without a change in the body's temperature set point. The normal human body temperature can be as high as in the late afternoon. Hyperthermia requires an elevation from the temperature that would otherwise be expected. Such elevations range from mild to extreme; body temperatures above can be life-threatening.", "An early stage of hyperthermia can be \"heat exhaustion\" (or \"heat prostration\" or \"heat stress\"), whose symptoms can include heavy sweating, rapid breathing and a fast, weak pulse. If the condition progresses to heat stroke, then hot, dry skin is typical as blood vessels dilate in an attempt to increase heat loss. An inability to cool the body through perspiration may cause the skin to feel dry. Hyperthermia from neurological disease may include little or no sweating, lack of heart rate change, and confusion or delirium. Other signs and symptoms vary. Accompanying dehydration can produce nausea, vomiting, headaches, and low blood pressure and the latter can lead to fainting or dizziness, especially if the standing position is assumed quickly. In severe heat stroke, they may be confused, hostile, or seemingly intoxicated behavior. Heart rate and respiration rate will increase (tachycardia and tachypnea) as blood pressure drops and the heart attempts to maintain adequate circulation. The decrease in blood pressure can then cause blood vessels to contract reflexively, resulting in a pale or bluish skin color in advanced cases. Young children, in particular, may have seizures. Eventually, organ failure, unconsciousness and death will result.", "Heat stroke occurs when thermoregulation is overwhelmed by a combination of excessive metabolic production of heat (exertion), excessive environmental heat, and insufficient or impaired heat loss, resulting in an abnormally high body temperature. In severe cases, temperatures can exceed. Heat stroke may be \"non-exertional\" (classic) or \"exertional\".", "Significant physical exertion in hot conditions can generate heat beyond the ability to cool, because, in addition to the heat, humidity of the environment may reduce the efficiency of the body's normal cooling mechanisms. Human heat-loss mechanisms are limited primarily to sweating (which dissipates heat by evaporation, assuming sufficiently low humidity) and vasodilation of skin vessels (which dissipates heat by convection proportional to the temperature difference between the body and its surroundings, according to Newton's law of cooling). Other factors, such as insufficient water intake, consuming alcohol, or lack of air conditioning, can worsen the problem. The increase in body temperature that results from a breakdown in thermoregulation affects the body biochemically. Enzymes involved in metabolic pathways within the body such as cellular respiration fail to work effectively at higher temperatures, and further increases can lead them to denature, reducing their ability to catalyse essential chemical reactions. This loss of enzymatic control affects the functioning of major organs with high energy demands such as the heart and brain.", "Situational heat stroke occurs in the absence of exertion. It mostly affects the young and elderly. In the elderly in particular, it can be precipitated by medications that reduce vasodilation and sweating, such as anticholinergic drugs, antihistamines, and diuretics. In this situation, the body's tolerance for high environmental temperature may be insufficient, even at rest. Heat waves are often followed by a rise in the death rate, and these 'classical hyperthermia' deaths typically involve the elderly and infirm. This is partly because thermoregulation involves cardiovascular, respiratory and renal systems which may be inadequate for the additional stress because of the existing burden of aging and disease, further compromised by medications. During the July 1995 heatwave in Chicago, there were at least 700 heat-related deaths. The strongest risk factors were being confined to bed, and living alone, while the risk was reduced for those with working air conditioners and those with access to transportation. Even then, reported deaths may be underestimates as diagnosis can be misclassified as stroke or heart attack.", "Some drugs cause excessive internal heat production. The rate of drug-induced hyperthermia is higher where use of these drugs is higher.", "Those working in industry, in the military, or as first responders may be required to wear personal protective equipment (PPE) against hazards such as chemical agents, gases, fire, small arms and improvised explosive devices (IEDs). PPE includes a range of hazmat suits, firefighting turnout gear, body armor and bomb suits, among others. Depending on design, the wearer may be encapsulated in a microclimate, due to an increase in thermal resistance and decrease in vapor permeability. As physical work is performed, the body’s natural thermoregulation (i.e., sweating) becomes ineffective. This is compounded by increased work rates, high ambient temperature and humidity levels, and direct exposure to the sun. The net effect is that desired protection from some environmental threats inadvertently increases the threat of heat stress. The effect of PPE on hyperthermia has been noted in fighting the 2014 Ebola virus epidemic in Western Africa. Doctors and healthcare workers were only able to work for 40 minutes at a time in their protective suits, fearing heat stroke.", "Other rare causes of hyperthermia include thyrotoxicosis and an adrenal gland tumor, called pheochromocytoma, both of which can cause increased heat production. Damage to the central nervous system from brain hemorrhage, status epilepticus, and other kinds of injury to the hypothalamus can also cause hyperthermia.", "A fever occurs when the core temperature is set higher, through the action of the pre-optic region of the anterior hypothalamus. For example, in response to a bacterial or viral infection, certain white blood cells within the blood will release pyrogens which have a direct effect on the anterior hypothalamus, causing body temperature to rise, much like raising the temperature setting on a thermostat. In contrast, hyperthermia occurs when the body temperature rises without a change in the heat control centers. Some of the gastrointestinal symptoms of acute exertional heatstroke, such as vomiting, diarrhea, and gastrointestinal bleeding, may be caused by barrier dysfunction and subsequent endotoxemia. Ultraendurance athletes have been found to have significantly increased plasma endotoxin levels. Endotoxin stimulates many inflammatory cytokines, which in turn may cause multiorgan dysfunction. Experimentally, monkeys treated with oral antibiotics prior to induction of heat stroke do not become endotoxemic. There is scientific support for the concept of a temperature set point; that is, maintenance of an optimal temperature for the metabolic processes that life depends on. Nervous activity in the preoptic-anterior hypothalamus of the brain triggers heat losing (sweating, etc.) or heat generating (shivering and muscle contraction, etc.) activities through stimulation of the autonomic nervous system. The pre-optic anterior hypothalamus has been shown to contain warm sensitive, cool sensitive, and temperature insensitive neurons, to determine the body's temperature setpoint. As the temperature that these neurons are exposed to rises above, the rate of electrical discharge of the warm-sensitive neurons increases progressively. Cold-sensitive neurons increase their rate of electrical discharge progressively below.", "Hyperthermia is generally diagnosed by the combination of unexpectedly high body temperature and a history that supports hyperthermia instead of a fever. Most commonly this means that the elevated temperature has occurred in a hot, humid environment (heat stroke) or in someone taking a drug for which hyperthermia is a known side effect (drug-induced hyperthermia). The presence of signs and symptoms related to hyperthermia syndromes, such as extrapyramidal symptoms characteristic of neuroleptic malignant syndrome, and the absence of signs and symptoms more commonly related to infection-related fevers, are also considered in making the diagnosis. If fever-reducing drugs lower the body temperature, even if the temperature does not return entirely to normal, then hyperthermia is excluded.", "When ambient temperature is excessive, humans and many other animals cool themselves below ambient by evaporative cooling of sweat (or other aqueous liquid; saliva in dogs, for example); this helps prevent potentially fatal hyperthermia. The effectiveness of evaporative cooling depends upon humidity. Wet-bulb temperature, which takes humidity into account, or more complex calculated quantities such as wet-bulb globe temperature (WBGT), which also takes solar radiation into account, give useful indications of the degree of heat stress and are used by several agencies as the basis for heat-stress prevention guidelines. (Wet-bulb temperature is essentially the lowest skin temperature attainable by evaporative cooling at a given ambient temperature and humidity.) A sustained wet-bulb temperature exceeding is likely to be fatal even to fit and healthy people unclothed in the shade next to a fan; at this temperature, environmental heat gain instead of loss occurs., wet-bulb temperatures only very rarely exceeded anywhere, although significant global warming may change this. In cases of heat stress caused by physical exertion, hot environments, or protective equipment, prevention or mitigation by frequent rest breaks, careful hydration, and monitoring body temperature should be attempted. However, in situations demanding one is exposed to a hot environment for a prolonged period or must wear protective equipment, a personal cooling system is required as a matter of health and safety. There are a variety of active or passive personal cooling systems; these can be categorized by their power sources and whether they are person- or vehicle-mounted. Because of the broad variety of operating conditions, these devices must meet specific requirements concerning their rate and duration of cooling, their power source, and their adherence to health and safety regulations. Among other criteria are the user's need for physical mobility and autonomy. For example, active-liquid systems operate by chilling water and circulating it through a garment; the skin surface area is thereby cooled through conduction. This type of system has proven successful in certain military, law enforcement, and industrial applications. Bomb-disposal technicians wearing special suits to protect against improvised explosive devices (IEDs) use a small, ice-based chiller unit that is strapped to one leg; a liquid-circulating garment, usually a vest, is worn over the torso to maintain a safe core body temperature. By contrast, soldiers traveling in combat vehicles can face microclimate temperatures in excess of and require a multiple-user, vehicle-powered cooling system with rapid connection capabilities. Requirements for hazmat teams, the medical community, and workers in heavy industry vary further.", "The underlying cause must be removed. Mild hyperthemia caused by exertion on a hot day may be adequately treated through self-care measures, such as increased water consumption and resting in a cool place. Hyperthermia that results from drug exposure requires prompt cessation of that drug, and occasionally the use of other drugs as counter measures. Antipyretics (e.g., acetaminophen, aspirin, other nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs) have no role in the treatment of heatstroke because antipyretics interrupt the change in the hypothalamic set point caused by pyrogens; they are not expected to work on a healthy hypothalamus that has been overloaded, as in the case of heatstroke. In this situation, antipyretics actually may be harmful in patients who develop hepatic, hematologic, and renal complications because they may aggravate bleeding tendencies. When body temperature is significantly elevated, mechanical cooling methods are used to remove heat and to restore the body's ability to regulate its own temperatures. Passive cooling techniques, such as resting in a cool, shady area and removing clothing can be applied immediately. Active cooling methods, such as sponging the head, neck, and trunk with cool water, remove heat from the body and thereby speed the body's return to normal temperatures. Drinking water and turning a fan or dehumidifying air conditioning unit on the affected person may improve the effectiveness of the body's evaporative cooling mechanisms (sweating). Sitting in a bathtub of tepid or cool water (immersion method) can remove a significant amount of heat in a relatively short period of time. It was once thought that immersion in very cold water is counterproductive, as it causes vasoconstriction in the skin and thereby prevents heat from escaping the body core. However, a British analysis of various studies stated: \"this has never been proven experimentally. Indeed, a recent study using normal volunteers has shown that cooling rates were fastest when the coldest water was used.\" The analysis concluded that iced water immersion is the most-effective cooling technique for exertional heat stroke. No superior cooling method has been found for \"non-exertional heat stroke\". Thus, aggressive \"ice-water\" immersion remains the gold standard for \"life-threatening heat stroke\". When the body temperature reaches about, or if the affected person is unconscious or showing signs of confusion, hyperthermia is considered a medical emergency that requires treatment in a proper medical facility. In a hospital, more aggressive cooling measures are available, including intravenous hydration, gastric lavage with iced saline, and even hemodialysis to cool the blood.", "Hyperthermia affects those who are unable to regulate their body heat, mainly due to environmental conditions. The main risk factor for hyperthermia is the lack of ability to sweat. People who are dehydrated or who are older may not produce the sweat they need to regulate their body temperature. High heat conditions can put certain groups at risk for hyperthermia including: physically active individuals, soldiers, construction workers, landscapers and factory workers. Some people that do not have access to cooler living conditions, like people with lower socioeconomic status, may have a difficult time fighting the heat. People are at risk for hyperthermia during high heat and dry conditions, most commonly seen in the summer. Various cases of different types of hyperthermia have been reported. A research study was published in March of 2019 that looked into multiple case reports of drug induced hyperthermia. The study concluded that psychotropic drugs such as anti-psychotics, antidepressants, and anxiolytics were associated with an increased heat-related mortality as opposed to the other drugs researched (anticholinergics, diuretics, cardiovascular agents, etc.). A different study was published in June of 2019 that examined the association between hyperthermia in older adults and the temperatures in the United States. Hospitalization records of elderly patients in the US between 1991 and 2006 were analyzed and concluded that cases of hyperthermia were observed to be highest in regions with arid climates. The study discussed finding a disproportionately high number of cases of hyperthermia in early seasonal heat waves indicating that people were not yet practicing proper techniques to stay cool and prevent overheating in the early presence of warm, dry weather. In urban areas people are at an increased susceptibility to hyperthermia. This is due to a phenomenon called the urban heat island effect. Since the 20th century in the United States, the north-central region (Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, Iowa, and Nebraska) was the region with the highest morbidity resulting from hyperthermia. Northeastern states had the next highest. Regions least affected by heat wave-related hyperthermia causing death were Southern and Pacific Coastal states. Northern cities in the United States are at greater risk of hyperthermia during heat waves due to the fact that people tend to have a lower minimum mortality temperature at higher latitudes. In contrast, cities residing in lower latitudes within the continental US typically have higher thresholds for ambient temperatures. In India, hundreds die every year from summer heat waves, including more than 2,500 in the year 2015. Later that same summer, the 2015 Pakistani heat wave killed about 2,000 people. An extreme 2003 European heat wave caused tens of thousands of deaths. Causes of hyperthermia include dehydration, use of certain medications, using cocaine and amphetamines or alcohol abuse. Bodily temperatures greater than 37.5–38.3°C (99.5-101.0°F) can be diagnosed as a hyperthermic case. As body temperatures increase or excessive body temperatures persist, individuals are at a heightened risk of developing progressive conditions. Greater risk complications of hyperthermia include heat stroke, organ malfunction, organ failure, and death. There are two forms of heat stroke; classical heatstroke and exertional heatstroke. Classical heatstroke occurs from extreme environmental conditions, such as heat waves. Those who are most commonly affected by classical heatstroke are very young, elderly or chronically ill. Exertional heatstroke appears in individuals after vigorous physical activity. Exertional heatstroke is displayed most commonly in healthy 15-50 year old people. Sweating is often present in exertional heatstroke. The associated mortality rate of heatstroke is 40 to 64%..", "Hyperthermia can also be deliberately induced using drugs or medical devices and is being studied and applied in clinical routine as a treatment of some kinds of cancer." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Terms.", "Etymology and definitions.", "Debate on the term and its limitations.", "Fear.", "Racism.", "Proposed alternatives.", "Origins and causes.", "History of the term.", "Contrasting views on Islam.", "Identity politics.", "Links to ideologies.", "Opposition to multiculturalism.", "Manifestations.", "Media.", "Organizations.", "Public opinion.", "Internalized Islamophobia.", "Trends.", "Criticism of term and use.", "Academic debate.", "Commentary.", "\"The Associated Press Stylebook\".", "Countering Islamophobia.", "Europe.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "There are a number of other possible terms which are also used in order to refer to negative feelings and attitudes towards Islam and Muslims, such as anti-Muslimism, intolerance against Muslims, anti-Muslim prejudice, anti-Muslim bigotry, hatred of Muslims, anti-Islamism, Muslimophobia, demonisation of Islam, or demonisation of Muslims. In German, \"Islamophobie\" (fear) and \"Islamfeindlichkeit\" (hostility) are used. The", "The word \"Islamophobia\" is a neologism formed from \"Islam\" and \"-phobia\", a Greek suffix used in English to form \"nouns with the sense 'fear of – – ', 'aversion to – – '.\" According to the \"Oxford English Dictionary\", the word means \"Intense dislike or fear of Islam, esp. as a political force; hostility or prejudice towards Muslims\". It is attested in English as early as 1923 to quote the French word \"islamophobie\", found in a thesis published by Alain Quellien in 1910 to describe a \"a prejudice against Islam that is widespread among the peoples of Western and Christian civilization\". The expression did not immediately turned into the vocabulary of the English-speaking world though, which preferred the expression \"feelings inimical to Islam\", until its re-appearance in an article by Georges Chahati Anawati in 1976. The term did not exist in the Muslim world, and was later translated in the 1990s as \"ruhāb al-islām\" (رهاب الاسلام) in Arabic, literally \"phobia of Islam\". The University of California at Berkeley's Islamophobia Research & Documentation Project suggested this working definition: \"Islamophobia is a contrived fear or prejudice fomented by the existing Eurocentric and Orientalist global power structure. It is directed at a perceived or real Muslim threat through the maintenance and extension of existing disparities in economic, political, social and cultural relations, while rationalizing the necessity to deploy violence as a tool to achieve 'civilizational rehab' of the target communities (Muslim or otherwise). Islamophobia reintroduces and reaffirms a global racial structure through which resource distribution disparities are maintained and extended.\"", "In 1996, the Runnymede Trust established the Commission on British Muslims and Islamophobia (CBMI), chaired by Gordon Conway, the vice-chancellor of the University of Sussex. The Commission's report, \"Islamophobia: A Challenge for Us All\", was published in November 1997 by the Home Secretary, Jack Straw. In the Runnymede report, Islamophobia was defined as \"an outlook or world-view involving an unfounded dread and dislike of Muslims, which results in practices of exclusion and discrimination.\" The introduction of the term was justified by the report's assessment that \"anti-Muslim prejudice has grown so considerably", "As opposed to being a psychological or individualistic phobia, according to professors of religion Peter Gottschalk and Gabriel Greenberg, \"Islamophobia\" connotes a social anxiety about Islam and Muslims. Some", "Several scholars consider Islamophobia to be a form of xenophobia or racism. A 2007 article in \"Journal of Sociology\" defines Islamophobia as anti-Muslim racism and a continuation of anti-Asian, anti-Turkic and anti-Arab racism. In their books Deepa Kumar and Junaid Rana have argued that formation of Islamophobic discourses has paralleled the development of other forms of racial bigotry. Similarly, John Denham has drawn parallels between modern Islamophobia and the antisemitism of the 1930s, so have Maud Olofsson, and Jan Hjärpe, among others. Others have questioned the relationship between Islamophobia and racism. Jocelyne Cesari writes that \"academics are still debating the legitimacy of the term and questioning how it differs from other terms such as racism, anti-Islamism, anti-Muslimness,", "The concept of Islamophobia as formulated by Runnymede was also criticized by professor Fred Halliday on several levels. He writes that the target of hostility in the modern era is not Islam and its tenets as much as it is Muslims, suggesting that a more accurate term would be \"Anti-Muslimism\". He also states that strains and types of prejudice against Islam and Muslims vary across different nations and cultures, which is not recognized in the Runnymede analysis, which was specifically about Muslims in Britain. Poole responds that many Islamophobic discourses attack what they perceive to be Islam's tenets, while Miles and Brown write that Islamophobia is usually based upon negative stereotypes about Islam which", "", "One early use cited as the term's first use is by the painter Alphonse Étienne Dinet and Algerian intellectual Sliman ben Ibrahim in their 1918 biography of Islam's prophet Muhammad. Writing in French, they used the term \"\". Robin Richardson writes that in the English version of the book the word was not translated as \"Islamophobia\" but rather as \"feelings inimical to Islam\". Dahou Ezzerhouni has cited several other uses in French as early as 1910, and from 1912 to 1918. These early uses of the term did not, according to Christopher Allen, have the same meaning as in contemporary usage, as they described a fear of Islam by liberal Muslims and Muslim feminists, rather than a fear or dislike/hatred of Muslims by non-Muslims. On the other hand, Fernando Bravo López argues that Dinet and ibn Sliman's use", "The Runnymede report contrasted \"open\" and \"closed\" views of Islam, and stated that the following \"closed\" views are equated with Islamophobia: These \"closed\" views are contrasted, in the report, with \"open\" views on Islam which,", "It has been suggested that Islamophobia is closely related to identity politics, and gives its adherents the perceived benefit of constructing their identity in opposition to a negative, essentialized image of Muslims. This occurs in the form of self-righteousness, assignment of blame and key identity markers. Davina Bhandar writes that: She views this as an ontological trap that hinders the perception of culture as something \"materially situated in the living practices of the everyday, situated in time-space and not based in abstract projections of what constitutes either a particular tradition or culture.\" In some societies, Islamophobia has materialized due to the portrayal of Islam and Muslims as the national \"Other\", where exclusion and discrimination occurs on the basis of their religion and civilization which differs with national tradition and identity. Examples include Pakistani and Algerian migrants in Britain and France respectively. This sentiment, according to Malcolm Brown and Robert Miles, significantly interacts with racism, although Islamophobia itself is not racism. Author Doug Saunders has drawn parallels between Islamophobia in the United States and its older discrimination and hate against Roman Catholics,", "Cora Alexa Døving, a senior scientist at the Norwegian Center for Studies of the Holocaust and Religious Minorities, argues that there are significant similarities between Islamophobic discourse and European pre-Nazi antisemitism. Among the concerns are imagined threats of minority growth and domination, threats to traditional institutions and customs, skepticism of integration, threats to secularism, fears of sexual crimes, fears of misogyny, fears based on historical cultural inferiority, hostility to modern Western Enlightenment values, etc. Matti Bunzl has argued that there are important differences between Islamophobia and antisemitism. While antisemitism was a phenomenon closely connected to European nation-building processes, he sees Islamophobia as having the concern of European", "According to Gabrielle Maranci, the increasing Islamophobia in the West is related to a rising repudiation of", "", "According to Elizabeth Poole in the \"Encyclopedia of Race and Ethnic Studies\", the media have been criticized for perpetrating Islamophobia. She cites a case study examining a sample of articles in the British press from between 1994 and 2004, which concluded that Muslim viewpoints were underrepresented and that issues involving Muslims usually depicted them in a negative light. Such portrayals, according to Poole, include the depiction of Islam and Muslims as a threat to Western security and values. Benn and Jawad write that hostility towards Islam and Muslims are \"closely linked to media portrayals of Islam as", "A report from the University of California Berkeley and the Council on American–Islamic Relations estimated that was funded to 33 groups whose primary purpose was \"to promote prejudice against, or hatred of, Islam and Muslims\" in the United States between 2008 and 2013, with a total of 74 groups contributing to Islamophobia in the United States during that period. Stop Islamization of America (SIOA) and the \"Freedom Defense Initiative\" are designated as hate groups by the Anti-Defamation League and the Southern Poverty Law Center. In August 2012 SIOA generated media publicity by sponsoring billboards in New York City Subway stations claiming there had been 19,250 terrorist attacks by Muslims since 9/11 and stating \"it's not Islamophobia, it's Islamorealism.\" It later ran advertisements reading \"In any war between the civilized man and the savage, support the civilized man. Support Israel. Defeat Jihad.\" Several groups condemned the advertisements as \"hate speech\" about all Muslims while others defended the ad as a narrow criticism of violent Jihadism. In early January 2013 the Freedom Defense Initiative put up advertisements next", "The extent of negative attitudes towards Muslims varies across different parts of Europe. Within the United States specifically, despite the rise in islamophobia, the Institute for Social Policy and Understanding (ISPU) has also found that the most Americans, “remain steadfast in their commitment to the country’s fundamental freedoms”, one of which being the freedom of religion. 86% of all Americans polled by ISPU said they wanted to “live in a country where no one is targeted for their religious identity”, 83% of the general public told ISPU they support “protecting the civil rights of American Muslims”, and overall, 66% of Americans, “believe negative political rhetoric toward Muslims is harmful to U.S.”. Average Americans also seem to be aware of the fact that islamophobia produces discriminatory consequences", "ISPU also highlighted a particular trend in relation to anti-Muslim sentiment in the U.S.- internalized Islamophobia among Muslim populations themselves. When asked if they felt most people want them to be ashamed", "Islamophobia has become a topic of increasing sociological and political importance. According to Benn and Jawad, Islamophobia has increased since Ayatollah Khomeini's 1989 fatwa inciting Muslims to attempt to murder Salman Rushdie, the author of \"The Satanic Verses\", and since the 11 September attacks (in 2001). Anthropologist Steven Vertovec writes that the purported growth in Islamophobia may be associated with increased Muslim presence in society and successes. He suggests a circular model, where increased hostility towards Islam and Muslims results in governmental countermeasures such as institutional guidelines and changes to legislation, which itself may fuel further Islamophobia due to increased accommodation for Muslims in public life. Vertovec concludes: \"As the public sphere shifts to provide a more prominent place for Muslims, Islamophobic tendencies may amplify.\" Patel, Humphries, and Naik (1998) claim that \"Islamophobia has always been present in Western countries and cultures. In the last two decades, it has become accentuated, explicit and extreme.\" However, Vertovec (2002) states that some have observed that Islamophobia has not necessarily escalated in the past decades, but that there has been increased public scrutiny of it. According to Abduljalil Sajid, one of the members of the Runnymede Trust's Commission on British Muslims and Islamophobia, \"Islamophobias\" have existed in varying strains throughout history, with each version possessing its own distinct features as well as similarities or adaptations from others. In 2005 Ziauddin Sardar, an Islamic scholar, wrote in the \"New Statesman\" that Islamophobia is a widespread European phenomenon. He noted that each country has anti-Muslim political figures, citing Jean-Marie Le Pen in France; Pim Fortuyn in the Netherlands; and Philippe van der Sande of Vlaams Blok, a Flemish nationalist party in Belgium. Sardar argued that Europe is \"post-colonial, but ambivalent.\" Minorities are regarded as acceptable as an underclass of menial workers, but if they want to be upwardly mobile anti-Muslim prejudice rises to the surface. Wolfram Richter, professor of economics at Dortmund University of Technology, told Sardar: \"I am afraid we have not learned from our history. My main fear is that what we did to Jews we may now do to Muslims. The next holocaust would be against Muslims.\" Similar fears, as noted by Kenan Malik in his book \"From Fatwa to Jihad\", had been previously expressed in the UK by Muslim philosopher Shabbir Akhtar in 1989, and Massoud Shadjareh, chair of the Islamic Human Rights Commission in 2000. In 2006 Salma Yaqoob, a Respect Party Councillor, claimed that Muslims in Britain were \"subject to attacks reminiscent of the gathering storm of anti-Semitism in the first decades of the last century.\". Malik, a senior visiting fellow in the Department of Political, International and Policy Studies at the University of Surrey, has described these claims of a brewing holocaust as \"hysterical to the point of delusion\"; whereas Jews in Hitler's Germany were given the official designation of \"Untermenschen\", and were subject to escalating legislation which diminished and ultimately removed their rights as citizens, Malik noted that in cases where \"Muslims are singled out in Britain, it is often for privileged treatment\" such as the 2005 legislation banning \"incitement to religious hatred\", the special funding Muslim organizations and bodies receive from local and national government, the special provisions made by workplaces, school and leisure centres for Muslims, and even suggestions by the Archbishop of Canterbury Rowan Williams and the former Lord Chief Justice, Lord Phillips, that sharia law should be introduced into Britain. The fact is, wrote Malik, that such well-respected public figures as Akhtar, Shadjareh and Yaqoob need \"a history lesson about the real Holocaust reveals how warped the Muslim grievance culture has become.\" In 2006 ABC News reported that \"public views of Islam are one casualty of the post-Sept. 11, 2001 conflict: Nearly six in 10 Americans think the religion is prone to violent extremism, nearly half regard it unfavorably, and a remarkable one in four admits to prejudicial feelings against Muslims and Arabs alike.\" They also report that 27 percent of Americans admit feelings of prejudice against Muslims. Gallup polls in 2006 found that 40 percent of Americans admit to prejudice against Muslims, and 39 percent believe Muslims should carry special identification. These trends have only worsened with the use of Islamophobia as a campaign tactic during the 2008 American presidential election (with several Republican politicians and pundits, including Donald Trump, asserting that Democratic candidate Barack Obama is secretly a Muslim), during the 2010 mid-term elections (during which a proposed Islamic community center was dubbed the \"Ground Zero Mosque\"), and the 2016 presidential election, during which Republican nominee Donald Trump proposed banning the entrance into the country of all Muslims. Associate Professor Deepa Kumar writes that \"Islamophobia is about politics rather than religion per se\" and that modern-day demonization of Arabs and Muslims by US politicians and others is racist and Islamophobic, and employed in support of what she describes as an unjust war. About the public impact of this rhetoric, she says that \"One of the consequences of the relentless attacks on Islam and Muslims by politicians and the media is that Islamophobic sentiment is on the rise.\" She also chides some \"people on the left\" for using the same \"Islamophobic logic as the Bush regime\". In this regards, Kumar confirms the assertions of Stephen Sheehi, who \"conceptualises Islamophobia as an ideological formation within the context of the American empire. Doing so \"allows us to remove it from the hands of 'culture' or from the myth of a single creator or progenitor, whether it be a person, organisation or community.\" An ideological formation, in this telling, is a constellation of networks that produce, proliferate, benefit from, and traffic in Islamophobic discourses.\" The writer and scholar on religion Reza Aslan has said that \"Islamophobia has become so mainstream in this country that Americans have been trained to expect violence against Muslims – not excuse it, but expect it\" A January 2010 British Social Attitudes Survey found that the British public \"is far more likely to hold negative views of Muslims than of any other religious group,\" with \"just one in four\" feeling \"positively about Islam,\" and a \"majority of the country would be concerned if a mosque was built in their area, while only 15 per cent expressed similar qualms about the opening of a church.\" A 2016 report by CAIR and University of California, Berkeley's Center for Race and Gender said that groups promoting islamophobia in the US had access to 206 million USD between 2008 and 2013. The author of the report said that \"The hate that these groups are funding and inciting is having real consequences like attacks on mosques all over the country and new laws discriminating against Muslims in America.\" Islamophobia has consequences. In the United States, religious discrimination against Muslims has become a significant issue of concern. In 2018, The Institute for Social Policy and Understanding found that out of the groups studied, Muslims are the most likely faith community to experience religious discrimination, the data having been that way since 2015. Despite 61% of Muslims reporting experiencing religious discrimination at some level and 62% reporting that most Americans held negative stereotypes about their community, 23% reported that they faith made them feel “out of place in the world”. There are intersections with racial identity and gender identity, with 73% of Arabs surveyed being more likely to experience religious discrimination, and Muslim women (75%) and youth (75%) being the most likely to report experiencing racial discrimination. The study also found that, although, “most Muslims (86%) express pride in their faith identity, they are the most likely group studied to agree that others want them to feel shame for that identity (30% of Muslims vs. 12% of Jews, 16% of non-affiliated, and 4–6% of Christian groups).”", "Although by the first decade of the 21st century the term \"Islamophobia\" had become widely recognized and used, its use, its construction and the concept itself have been criticized. Roland Imhoff and Julia Recker, in an article that puts forward the term \"Islamoprejudice\" as a better alternative, write that \"... few concepts have been debated as heatedly over the last ten years as the term Islamophobia.\"", "Jocelyne Cesari reported widespread challenges in the use and meaning of the term in 2006. According to \"The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics\", \"Much debate has surrounded the use of the term, questioning its adequacy as an appropriate and meaningful descriptor. However, since Islamophobia has broadly entered the social and political lexicon, arguments about the appropriateness of the term now seem outdated\". At the same time, according to a 2014 edition of \"A Dictionary of Sociology\" by Oxford University Press, \"the exact meaning of Islamophobia continues to be debated", "In the wake of the \"Jyllands-Posten\" Muhammad cartoons controversy, a group of 12 writers, including novelist Salman Rushdie and activist Ayaan Hirsi Ali, signed a manifesto entitled \"Together facing the new totalitarianism\" in the French weekly satirical newspaper \"Charlie Hebdo\", warning against the use of the term Islamophobia to prevent criticism of \"Islamic totalitarianism\". Writing in the \"New Humanist\", philosopher Piers Benn suggests that people who fear the rise of Islamophobia foster an environment \"not intellectually or morally healthy\", to the point that what he calls \"Islamophobia-phobia\" can undermine \"critical scrutiny of Islam as somehow impolite, or ignorant of the religion's true nature.\" Alan Posener and Alan Johnson have written that, while the idea of Islamophobia is sometimes misused, those who claim that hatred of", "In December 2012, media sources reported that the terms \"homophobia\" and \"Islamophobia\" would no longer be included in the \"AP Stylebook\", and Deputy Standards Editor Dave Minthorn expressed concern about the usage of the terms, describing them as \"just off the mark\"", "", "On 26 September 2018, the European Parliament in Brussels launched the \"Counter-Islamophobia Toolkit\" (CIK), with the goal of combatting the growing Islamophobia across the EU and to be distributed to national governments and other policy makers, civil society and the media. Based on the most comprehensive research in Europe, it examines patterns of Islamophobia and effective strategies against it in eight member states. It lists", "Informational notes Citations Bibliography Further reading" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Administrative and municipal status.", "Landmarks.", "Modern town.", "Transport.", "Culture and education.", "Sports.", "Twin towns – sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Serpukhov was established in 1339 to protect the southern approaches to Moscow. Two years later it was made a seat of the powerful princedom ruled by a cousin and close associate of Dmitry Donskoy, Vladimir the Bold. Town status was granted to it in 1374. The princedom continued until 1456, when the last prince escaped to Lithuania. The town frequently fell prey to the hordes of Tokhtamysh, Crimean Tatars, and other steppe conquerors. It was necessary to protect it with a stone citadel, or kremlin, which was completed by 1556 as part of the Great Abatis Belt.", "Within the framework of administrative divisions, Serpukhov serves as the administrative center of Serpukhovsky District, even though it is not a part of it. As an administrative division, it is incorporated separately as Serpukhov City Under Oblast Jurisdiction—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts. As a municipal division, Serpukhov City Under Oblast Jurisdiction is incorporated as Serpukhov Urban Okrug.", "The citadel commands a steep hill where the small Serpeyka River enters the Nara. However, during the 19th century, parts of the citadel were demolished by the town's inhabitants, who used its limestone for their private residences. Even now the vast majority of basements in nearby houses are built from this material. In the kremlin, the chief monument is the Trinity cathedral, built in 1696 in Moscow Baroque style. The Vysotsky Monastery features a cathedral and refectory dating from the late 16th century, as well as the allegedly miracle-working icon Inexhaustible Chalice. Another important cloister is called Vladychny, with the Presentation cathedral and a tent-like St. George's church, both erected during Boris Godunov's reign. The latter monastery is named after the honorary title of Russian bishops, as it was founded by the holy metropolitan Alexis in 1360.", "In modern times, Serpukhov has become a local industrial center with textile, mechanical engineering, furniture, and paper-producing industries. The SeAZ factory produces the Lada Oka microcar since the 1980s. The Prioksko-Terrasny Nature Reserve sprawls within from the city.", "The city is linked by trains to Moscow and Tula and is on the M2 highway between Moscow and the Crimea. There are also river boat services along the Oka River.", "Serpukhov is home to the Serpukhov Historical and Art Museum and the Serpukhov Art Gallery. The city is home to the Serpukhov Military Academy of Missile troops and branches of several Moscow based universities.", "The city association football team FC Zvezda Serpukhov plays in the Russian second division.", "Serpukhov is twinned with:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Early history.", "Eugen Sandow.", "First large-scale bodybuilding competition.", "Notable early bodybuilders.", "1950s1960s.", "1970s1990s.", "New organizations.", "Anabolic/androgenic steroid use.", "World Bodybuilding Federation.", "2000s.", "Olympic sport discussion.", "Areas.", "Professional bodybuilding.", "Natural bodybuilding.", "Men's Physique.", "Classic Physique.", "Female bodybuilding.", "Competition.", "Preparations.", "Bulking and cutting.", "Clean bulking.", "Dirty bulking.", "Pre-competition.", "Muscle growth.", "Weight training.", "Nutrition.", "Carbohydrates.", "Protein.", "Meals.", "Dietary supplements.", "Performance-enhancing substances.", "Injecting oil into muscles.", "Rest.", "Overtraining." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Stone-lifting traditions were practiced in ancient Egypt, Greece, and Tamilakam. Western weightlifting developed in Europe from 1880 to 1953, with strongmen displaying feats of strength for the public and challenging each other. The focus was not on their physique, and they often had large bellies and fatty limbs.", "Bodybuilding developed in the late 19th century, promoted in England by German Eugen Sandow, now considered as the \"Father of Modern Bodybuilding\". He allowed audiences to enjoy viewing his physique in \"muscle display performances\". Although audiences were thrilled to see a well-developed physique, the men simply displayed their bodies as part of strength demonstrations or wrestling matches. Sandow had a stage show built around these displays through his manager, Florenz Ziegfeld. The Oscar-winning 1936 musical film \"The", "Sandow organized the first bodybuilding contest on September 14, 1901, called the \"Great Competition\". It was held at the Royal Albert Hall in London. Judged by Sandow, Sir Charles Lawes, and Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, the contest was a great success and many bodybuilding enthusiasts were turned away due to the overwhelming amount of audience members. The trophy presented to the winner was a gold statue of Sandow sculpted by Frederick Pomeroy. The winner was William L. Murray of Nottingham. The silver Sandow trophy was presented to second-place winner D. Cooper. The bronze Sandow trophy — now the most famous of all — was presented to third-place winner A.C. Smythe. In 1950, this same bronze trophy was presented to", "Many other important bodybuilders in the early history of bodybuilding prior to 1930 include: Earle Liederman (writer of some of bodybuilding's earliest books), Zishe Breitbart, Georg Hackenschmidt, Emy Nkemena, George F. Jowett, Finn Hateral (a pioneer in the art of posing), Frank Saldo, Monte Saldo, William Bankier, Launceston Elliot, Sig Klein, Sgt. Alfred Moss, Joe Nordquist, Lionel Strongfort (\"Strongfortism\"), Gustav Frištenský, Ralph Parcaut (a champion wrestler who also authored an early book on \"physical culture\"), and Alan P. Mead (who became an impressive muscle champion despite the fact that he lost a leg in World War I). Actor Francis X. Bushman, who was a disciple of Sandow, started his career as a bodybuilder and sculptor's model before beginning his famous silent movie career.", "Bodybuilding became more popular in the 1950s and 1960s with the emergence of strength and gymnastics champions, and the simultaneous popularization of bodybuilding magazines, training principles, nutrition for bulking up and cutting down, the use of protein and other food supplements, and the opportunity to enter physique contests. The number of bodybuilding organizations grew, and most notably the International Federation of Bodybuilders (IFBB) was founded in 1946 by Canadian brothers Joe and Ben Weider. Other bodybuilding organizations included the Amateur Athletic Union (AAU), National Amateur Bodybuilding Association (NABBA), and the World Bodybuilding Guild (WBBG). Consequently, the contests grew both in number and in size. Besides the many \"Mr. XXX\" (insert town, city, state, or region) championships, the most prestigious titles", "", "In the 1970s, bodybuilding had major publicity thanks to the appearance of Arnold Schwarzenegger, Franco Columbu, Lou Ferrigno, and others in the 1977 docudrama \"Pumping Iron\". By this time, the IFBB dominated the competitive bodybuilding landscape and the Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) took a back seat.", "This period also saw the rise of anabolic steroids in bodybuilding and many other sports. In bodybuilding lore, this is partly attributed to the rise of \"mass monsters\", beginning with Arnold Schwarzenegger, Sergio Oliva, and Lou Ferrigno in the late 1960s and early 1970s, and continuing through the 1980s with Lee Haney, the 1990s with Dorian Yates, Ronnie Coleman, and Markus Rühl, and up to the present day. Bodybuilders such as Greg Kovacs attained mass and size never seen previously but were not successful at the pro level. Others were renowned for their spectacular development of a particular body part, like Tom Platz or Paul", "In 1990, professional wrestling promoter Vince McMahon announced that he was forming a new bodybuilding organization named the World Bodybuilding Federation (WBF). McMahon wanted to bring WWF-style showmanship and bigger prize money to the sport of bodybuilding. A number of IFBB stars were recruited but the roster was never very large and featured the same athletes competing; the most notable winner and first WBF champion was Gary Strydom. McMahon formally dissolved the WBF in July 1992. Reasons for this reportedly included lack of income from the pay-per-view broadcasts of the contests, slow sales of the WBF's magazine \"Bodybuilding Lifestyles\" (later \"WBF Magazine\"), and the expense of paying multiple six-figure contracts while producing two TV shows and a monthly magazine.", "In 2003, Joe Weider sold Weider Publications to AMI, which owns the \"National Enquirer\". The position of president of the IFBB was filled by Rafael Santonja following the death of Ben Weider in October 2008. In 2004, contest promoter Wayne DeMilia broke ranks with the IFBB and AMI took over the promotion of the Mr. Olympia contest: in 2017 AMI took the contest outright. In the early 21st century, patterns of consumption and recreation similar to those of the United States became more widespread in Europe and especially in Eastern Europe following the collapse of the Soviet Union. This resulted in the emergence of whole new populations of bodybuilders from former Eastern Bloc states.", "In the early 2000s, the IFBB was attempting to make bodybuilding an Olympic sport. It obtained full IOC membership in 2000 and was attempting to get approved as a demonstration event at the Olympics, which would hopefully lead to it being added as a full contest. This did not happen and Olympic recognition for bodybuilding remains controversial since many argue that bodybuilding is not a sport.", "", "In the modern bodybuilding industry, the term \"professional\" generally means a bodybuilder who has won qualifying competitions as an amateur and has earned a \"pro card\" from their respective organization. Professionals earn the right", "Due to the growing concerns of the high cost, health consequences, and illegal nature of some steroids, many organizations have formed in response and have deemed themselves \"natural\" bodybuilding competitions. In addition to the concerns noted, many promoters of bodybuilding have sought to shed the \"freakish\" perception that the general public has of bodybuilding and have successfully introduced a more mainstream audience to the sport of bodybuilding by including competitors whose physiques appear much", "Due to the number of people who found bodybuilding to be \"too big\" or \"ugly\" and unhealthy, a new category was started in 2013. The first MR. Olympia was Mark Wingson, which was followed by Jeremy Buendia for consecutive years. Like bodybuilding, the federations in which you can compete in are all the same, there is natural and regular as well but the main difference", "This is the middle ground of both Men's Physique and Bodybuilding. The competitors in this category are not nearly as big as bodybuilders but not as small as mens physique competitors. They pose and perform", "The first U.S. Women's National Physique Championship, promoted by Henry McGhee and held in Canton, Ohio in 1978, is generally regarded as the first true female bodybuilding contest—that is, the first contest where the entrants were judged solely on muscularity. In 1980, the first Ms. Olympia (initially known as the \"Miss\" Olympia), the most prestigious contest for professionals, was held. The first winner was Rachel McLish, who had also won the NPC's USA Championship earlier in the year. The contest was a major turning point for female bodybuilding. McLish inspired many future competitors to start training and competing. In 1985, the documentary \"\" was released. It documented the preparation of several women for the 1983 Caesars Palace World Cup Championship. Competitors prominently featured in the", "In competitive bodybuilding, bodybuilders aspire to present an aesthetically pleasing body on stage. In prejudging, competitors do a series of mandatory poses: the front lat spread, rear lat spread, front double biceps, back double biceps, side chest, side triceps, Most Muscular (men only), abdominals and thighs. Each competitor also performs a personal choreographed routine to display their physique. A posedown is usually held at the end of a posing round, while judges are finishing their scoring. Bodybuilders usually spend a lot of time practising their posing in front of mirrors or under the guidance of their coach. In contrast to strongman or powerlifting competitions, where physical strength is paramount, or to Olympic weightlifting, where the main point is equally split between strength and technique, bodybuilding competitions typically emphasize condition, size, and symmetry. Different organizations emphasize particular aspects of competition, and sometimes have different categories in which to compete.", "", "The general strategy adopted by most present-day competitive bodybuilders is to make muscle gains for most of the year (known as the \"off-season\") and, approximately 12–14 weeks from competition, lose a maximum of body fat (referred to as \"cutting\") while preserving as much muscular mass as possible. The bulking phase entails remaining in a net positive energy balance (calorie surplus). The amount of a surplus in which a person remains is based on the person's goals, as a bigger surplus and longer bulking phase will create more fat tissue. The surplus of calories relative", "The attempt to increase muscle mass in one's body without any gain in fat is called clean bulking. Competitive bodybuilders focus their efforts to achieve a peak appearance during a brief \"competition season\". Clean bulking takes longer and is a more refined approach to achieving the body fat and muscle mass percentage a person is looking for.", "\"Dirty bulking\" is the process of eating at a massive caloric surplus without trying to figure out the exact amount of ingested macronutrients. Weightlifters who are", "In the last week leading up to a contest, bodybuilders usually decrease their consumption of water, sodium, and carbohydrates, the former two to alter how water is retained by the body and the latter to reduce glycogen in the muscle. The day before the show, water is removed from the diet, and diuretics may be introduced, while carbohydrate loading is undertaken to increase the size of the muscles through replenishment of their glycogen. The goal is to maximize leanness and increase the visibility of veins, or \"vascularity\". The muscular definition and vascularity are further enhanced immediately before appearing on stage by darkening the skin through tanning products and applying oils to the skin to increase shine. Some competitors will eat sugar-rich foods to increase the visibility of their veins. A final step, called \"pumping\", consists in performing exercises with light weights or other kinds of low resistance (for instance two athletes can \"pump\" each other by holding a towel and pulling in turn), just before the contest, to fill the muscles with blood and further increase their size and density.", "Bodybuilders use three main strategies to maximize muscle hypertrophy: Bodybuilders often shorten these three steps into the well-known motto \"eat clean, train hard, sleep well\".", "Intensive weight training causes micro-tears to the muscles being trained; this is generally known as microtrauma. These micro-tears in the muscle contribute to the soreness felt after exercise, called delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS). It is the repair of these micro-traumas that results in muscle growth. Normally, this soreness becomes most apparent a day or two after a workout. However, as muscles become adapted to the exercises, soreness tends to decrease. Weight training aims to build muscle by prompting two different types of hypertrophy: sarcoplasmic and myofibrillar. Sarcoplasmic hypertrophy leads to larger muscles and so is favored", "The high levels of muscle growth and repair achieved by bodybuilders require a specialized diet. Generally speaking, bodybuilders require more calories than the average person of the same weight to provide the protein and energy requirements needed to support their training and increase muscle mass. In preparation of a contest, a sub-maintenance level of food energy is combined with cardiovascular exercise to lose body fat. Proteins, carbohydrates and fats are the three major macronutrients that the human body needs in order to build muscle. The ratios of calories from carbohydrates, proteins, and fats vary depending on the goals of the bodybuilder.", "Carbohydrates play an important role for bodybuilders. They give the body energy to deal with the rigors of training and recovery. Carbohydrates also promote secretion of insulin, a hormone enabling cells to get the glucose they need. Insulin also carries amino acids into cells and promotes protein synthesis. Insulin has steroid-like effects in terms of muscle gains. It is impossible to promote protein synthesis without the existence of insulin, which means that without", "The motor proteins actin and myosin generate the forces exerted by contracting muscles. Cortisol decreases amino acid uptake by muscle and inhibits protein synthesis. Current recommendations suggest that bodybuilders should consume 25–30% of protein per total calorie intake to further their goal of maintaining and improving their body composition. This is a widely debated topic, with many arguing that 1 gram of protein per pound of body weight per day is ideal, some suggesting that less is sufficient, while others recommending 1.5, 2, or more. It is believed that protein needs to be consumed frequently throughout the day, especially during/after a workout, and before sleep. There is also some debate concerning the best type of protein to take. Chicken, turkey, beef, pork, fish, eggs and dairy foods are high in protein, as are some nuts, seeds, beans, and lentils. Casein or whey are often used to supplement the diet with additional protein. Whey is the type of protein contained in many popular brands of protein supplements and is preferred by many bodybuilders because of its high biological", "Some bodybuilders often split their food intake into 5 to 7 meals of equal nutritional content and eat at regular intervals (e.g., every 2 to 3 hours). This approach serves two purposes: to limit overindulging in the cutting phase, and to allow for the consumption of large volumes of food during the", "The important role of nutrition in building muscle and losing fat means bodybuilders may consume a wide variety of dietary supplements. Various products are used in an attempt to augment muscle size, increase the rate of fat loss, improve joint health, increase natural testosterone production, enhance training performance and prevent potential nutrient deficiencies.", "Most bodybuilders use drugs such as anabolic steroids and precursor substances such as prohormones to increase muscle hypertrophy. Anabolic steroids cause hypertrophy of both types (I and II) of muscle fibers, likely caused by an increased synthesis of muscle proteins. They also provoke undesired side effects including hepatotoxicity, gynecomastia, acne, the early onset of male pattern baldness and a decline in the body's own testosterone production, which can cause testicular atrophy. Other performance-enhancing substances used by competitive bodybuilders include human growth hormone (HGH). Muscle growth is more difficult to achieve in older adults than younger adults because of biological aging, which leads to many metabolic changes detrimental to muscle growth; for instance, by diminishing growth hormone and testosterone levels. Some recent clinical studies have shown that low-dose HGH treatment for adults with HGH deficiency changes the body composition by increasing muscle mass, decreasing fat mass, increasing bone density and muscle strength, improves cardiovascular parameters, and affects the quality of life without significant side effects. In rodents, knockdown of metallothionein gene expression results in activation of the Akt pathway and increases in myotube size, in type IIb fiber hypertrophy, and ultimately in muscle strength.", "A recent trend in bodybuilding is to inject synthol into muscles to create larger bulges, or injecting PMMA into muscles to shape them. Use of PMMA to shape muscles is prohibited in the United States. Site enhancement oil, often called \"santol\" or \"synthol\" (no relation to the Synthol mouthwash brand), refers to oils injected into muscles to increase the size or change the shape. Some bodybuilders, particularly at the professional level, inject their muscles with such mixtures to mimic the appearance of developed", "Although muscle \"stimulation\" occurs in the gym (or home gym) when lifting weights, muscle \"growth\" occurs afterward during rest periods. Without adequate rest and sleep (6 to 8 hours), muscles do", "Overtraining occurs when a bodybuilder has trained to the point where their workload exceeds their recovery capacity. There are many reasons why overtraining occurs, including lack of adequate nutrition, lack of recovery time between workouts, insufficient sleep, and training at a high intensity for too long (a lack of splitting apart workouts). Training at a high intensity too frequently also stimulates the central nervous system (CNS) and can result in a hyperadrenergic state that interferes with sleep patterns. To avoid overtraining, intense frequent training must be met with" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Production.", "Design details.", "Service.", "First World War.", "Aircraft use.", "Second World War.", "Variants.", "Experimental projects.", "Influence on later designs." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "3", "2", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The Lewis gun was invented by U.S. Army colonel Isaac Newton Lewis in 1911, based on initial work by Samuel Maclean. Despite its origins, the Lewis gun was not initially adopted by the U.S. military, most likely because of political differences between Lewis and General William Crozier, the chief of the Ordnance Department. Lewis became frustrated with trying to persuade the U.S. Army to adopt his design, \"slapped by rejections from ignorant hacks\", in his words, and retired from the army. He left the United States in 1913 and went to Belgium, where he established the Armes Automatique Lewis company in Liège to facilitate commercial production of the gun. Lewis had been working closely with British arms manufacturer the Birmingham Small Arms Company Limited (BSA) in an effort to overcome some of the production difficulties of the weapon. The Belgians bought a small number of Lewises in 1913, using the.303 British round and, in 1914, BSA purchased a licence to manufacture the Lewis machine gun in England, which resulted in Lewis receiving significant royalty payments and becoming very wealthy. Lewis and his factory moved to England before 1914, away from possible seizure in the event of a German invasion. The onset of the First World War increased demand for the Lewis gun, and BSA began production, under the designation \"Model 1914\". The design was officially approved for service on 15 October 1915 under the designation \"Gun, Lewis,.303-cal.\" No Lewis guns were produced in Belgium during the war; all manufacture was carried out by BSA in England and the Savage Arms Company in the US.", "The Lewis was produced by BSA and Savage Arms during the war, and although the two versions were largely similar, enough differences existed to stop them being completely interchangeable, although this was rectified by the time of the Second World War. The major difference between the two designs was that the BSA weapons were chambered for.303 British ammunition, whereas the Savage guns were chambered for.30-06 cartridges, which necessitated some difference in the magazine, feed mechanism, bolt, barrel, extractors, and gas operation system. Savage did make Lewis guns in.303 British calibre, though. The Model 1916 and Model 1917 were exported to Canada and the United Kingdom, and a few were supplied to the US military, particularly the Navy. The Savage Model 1917 was generally produced in.30-06 calibre. A number of these guns were supplied to the UK under lend-lease during the Second World War.", "The Lewis gun was gas operated. A portion of the expanding propellant gas was tapped off from the barrel, driving a piston to the rear against a spring. The piston was fitted with a vertical post at its rear which rode in a helical cam track in the bolt, rotating it at the end of its travel nearest the breech. This allowed the three locking lugs at the rear of the bolt to engage in recesses in the gun's body to lock it into place. The post also carried a fixed firing pin, which protruded through an aperture in the front of the bolt, firing the next round at the foremost part of the piston's travel. The gun's aluminum barrel-shroud caused the muzzle blast to draw air over the barrel and cool it, due to the muzzle-to-breech, radially finned aluminum heat sink within the shroud's barrel, and protruding behind the shroud's aft end, running lengthwise in contact with the gun barrel (somewhat like the later American M1917/18 Marlin-Rockwell machine gun's similar gun barrel cooling design) from the \"bottleneck\" near the shroud's muzzle end and protruding externally behind the shroud's rear end. Some discussion occurred over whether the shroud was really necessary—in the Second World War, many old aircraft guns that did not have the tubing were issued to antiaircraft units of the British Home Guard and to British airfields, and others were used on vehicle mounts in the Western Desert; all were found to function properly without it, which led to the suggestion that Lewis had insisted on the cooling arrangement largely to show that his design was different from Maclean's earlier prototypes. Only the Royal Navy retained the tube/heatsink cooling system on their deck-mounted AA-configuration Lewis guns. The Lewis gun used a pan magazine holding 47 or 97 rounds. Pan magazines hold the rounds, bullet-noses inwards toward the center, in a radial fan. Unlike the more common drum magazines, which hold the rounds parallel to the axis and are fed by spring tension, pan magazines are mechanically indexed. The Lewis magazine was driven by a cam on top of the bolt which operated a pawl mechanism via a lever. An interesting point of the design was that it did not use a traditional helical coiled recoil spring, but used a spiral spring, much like a large clock spring, in a semicircular housing just in front of the trigger. The operating rod had a toothed underside, which engaged with a cog which wound the spring. When the gun fired, the bolt recoiled and the cog was turned, tightening the spring until the resistance of the spring had reached the recoil force of the bolt assembly. At that moment, as the gas pressure in the breech fell, the spring unwound, turning the cog, which, in turn, wound the operating rod forward for the next round. As with a clock spring, the Lewis gun recoil spring had an adjustment device to alter the recoil resistance for variations in temperature and wear. Unusual as it seems, the Lewis design proved reliable and was even copied by the Japanese and used extensively by them during the Second World War. The gun's cyclic rate of fire was about 500–600 rounds per minute. It weighed 28 lb (12.7 kg), only about half as much as a typical medium machine gun of the era, such as the Vickers machine gun, and was chosen in part because, being more portable than a heavy machine gun, it could be carried and used by one soldier. BSA even produced at least one model (the \"B.S.A. Light Infantry Pattern Lewis Gun\", which lacked the aluminium barrel shroud and had a wooden fore grip) designed as a form of assault rifle.", "", "During the first days of the war, the Belgian Army had put in service 20 prototypes (5 in 7.65×53mm and 15 in.303) for the defense of Namur. The United Kingdom officially adopted the Lewis gun in.303 British calibre for land and aircraft use in October 1915. The weapon was generally issued to the British Army's infantry battalions on the Western Front in early 1916 as a replacement for the heavier and less mobile Vickers machine gun. The Vickers was withdrawn from the infantry for use by specialist machine-gun companies. The US Navy and Marine Corps followed in early 1917, adopting the M1917 Lewis gun (produced by the Savage Arms Co.), in.30-06 calibre. Notes made during his training in 1918 by Arthur Bullock, a private soldier in the 2/4th Oxfordshire and Buckinghamshire Light Infantry, record that the chief advantage of the gun was 'its invulnerability' and its chief disadvantages were 'its delicacy, the fact that it is useless for setting up a barrage, and also that the system of air cooling employed does not allow of more than 12 magazines being fired continuously'. He records its weight as 26 lbs unloaded and 301⁄2 lbs loaded (though later he mentions that it weighed 35 lbs loaded), and that it had 47 cartridges in a fully loaded magazine; also that it was supported by a bipod in front and by the operator's shoulder at the rear. About six months into his service, Bullock was sent on Lewis gun refresher course at La Lacque, and he recalled that the rigour of the training meant that 'everyone passed out 100 percent efficient, the meaning of which will be appreciated when I say that part of the final test was to strip down the gun completely and then, blindfolded, put those 104 parts together again correctly in just one minute.' The gun was operated by a team of seven. Bullock was the First Lewis Gunner who carried the gun and a revolver, while 'The Second Gunner carried a bag containing spare parts, and the reminaing five members of the team carried loaded pans of ammunition'. Bullock noted, 'all could fire the gun if required, and all could effect repairs in seconds'. Bullock provides several vivid descriptions of the gun's use in combat. For example, on 13 April 1918 he and his fellow soldiers intercepted a German advance along the Calonne/Robecq road, noting 'we fired the gun in turns until it was too hot to hold' and recording that 400 German casualties were caused, 'chiefly by my Lewis gun!'. The US Army never officially adopted the weapon for infantry use and even went so far as to take Lewis guns away from US Marines arriving in France and replace them with the Chauchat LMG—a practice believed to be related to General Crozier's dislike of Lewis and his gun. The US Army eventually adopted the Browning Automatic Rifle in 1917 (although it was September 1918 before any of the new guns reached the front). The US Navy and Marine Corps continued to use the.30-06 calibre Lewis until the early part of the Second World War. The Russian Empire purchased 10,000 Lewis guns in 1917 from the British government, and ordered another 10,000 weapons from Savage Arms in the US. The US government was unwilling to supply the Tsarist Russian government with the guns and some doubt exists as to whether they were actually delivered, although records indicate that 5,982 Savage weapons were delivered to Russia by 31 March 1917. The Lewis guns supplied by Britain were dispatched to Russia in May 1917, but it is not known for certain whether these were the Savage-made weapons being trans-shipped through the UK, or a separate batch of UK-produced units. White armies in Northwest Russia received several hundred Lewis guns in 1918–1919. British Mark IV tanks used the Lewis, replacing the Vickers and Hotchkiss used in earlier tanks. The Lewis was chosen for its relatively compact magazines, but as soon as an improved magazine belt for the Hotchkiss was developed, the Lewis was replaced by them in later tank models. As their enemies used the mobility of the gun to ambush German raiding parties, the Germans nicknamed the Lewis \"the Belgian Rattlesnake\". They used captured Lewis guns in both World Wars, and included instruction in its operation and care as part of their machine-gun crew training. Despite costing more than a Vickers gun to manufacture (the cost of a Lewis gun was £165 in 1915 and £175 in 1918; the Vickers cost about £100), Lewis machine guns were in high demand with the British military during the First World War. The Lewis also had the advantage of being about 80% faster to build than the Vickers, and was a lot more portable. Accordingly, the British government placed orders for 3,052 guns between August 1914 and June 1915. By the end of the war, over 50,000 Lewis guns had been produced in the US and UK and they were nearly ubiquitous on the Western Front, outnumbering the Vickers by a ratio of about 3:1.", "The Lewis gun has the distinction of being the first machine gun fired from an aeroplane; on 7 June 1912, Captain Charles Chandler of the US Army fired a prototype Lewis gun from the foot-bar of a Wright Model B Flyer. Lewis guns were used extensively on British and French aircraft during the First World War, as either an observer's or gunner's weapon or an additional weapon to the more common Vickers. The Lewis's popularity as an aircraft machine gun was partly due to its low weight, the fact that it was air-cooled and that it used self-contained 97-round drum magazines. Because of this, the Lewis was first mounted on the Vickers F.B.5 \"Gunbus\", which was probably the world's first purpose-built combat aircraft when it entered service in August 1914, replacing the Vickers machine gun used on earlier experimental versions. It was also fitted on two early production examples of the Bristol Scout C aircraft by Lanoe Hawker in the summer of 1915, mounted on the port side and firing forwards and outwards at a 30° angle to avoid the propeller arc. The problem in mounting a Lewis to fire forward in most single-engined tractor configuration fighters was due to the open bolt firing cycle of the Lewis, which prevented it from being synchronized to fire directly forward through the propeller arc of such aircraft; only the unusual French SPAD S.A \"pulpit plane\" which possessed a unique hinged gunner's nacelle immediately \"ahead\" of the propeller (and the pilot), and the British \"pusher\" fighters Vickers F.B.5, Airco D.H.2, Royal Aircraft Factory F.E.2 and F.E.8 could readily use the Lewis as direct forward-firing armament early in the war. Some British single-engined \"tractor\" fighters used a Foster mounting on the top wing to elevate a Lewis gun above the propeller arc for unsynchronized firing, including production S.E.5/S.E.5a fighters and field-modified examples of the Avro 504. For the use of observers or rear gunners, the Lewis was mounted on a Scarff ring, which allowed the gun to be rotated and elevated whilst supporting the gun's weight. Until September 1916 Zeppelin airships were very difficult to attack successfully at high altitude, although this also made accurate bombing impossible. Aeroplanes struggled to reach a typical altitude of, and firing the solid bullets usually used by aircraft Lewis guns was ineffectual: they made small holes causing inconsequential gas leaks. Britain developed new bullets, the Brock containing spontaneously igniting potassium chlorate, and the Buckingham filled with pyrophoric phosphorus, to set fire to the Zeppelin's hydrogen. These had become available by September 1916. They proved very successful, and Lewis guns loaded with a mixture of Brock and Buckingham ammunition were often employed for balloon-busting against German Zeppelins, other airships and \"Drache\" barrage balloons. On the French Nieuport 11 and later Nieuport 17 sesquiplanes, a Lewis gun was mounted above the top wing (in a similar way as fitted to the British S.E.5a) – sometimes on a Foster mount, which allowed firing directly forward outside the propeller arc. The Foster mount usually incorporated an arc-shaped I-beam rail as its rearmost structural member, that a Lewis gun could be slid backwards and downwards along the rail towards the cockpit, to allow the ammunition drum to be changed in flight – but RFC fighter ace Albert Ball VC also understood that the Lewis gun in such a mount also retained its original trigger, and could thus be fired upwards. He used the upward firing Lewis to attack solitary German two-seater aircraft from below and behind, where the observer could not see him or fire back. It was his use of the weapon in this way, in a Nieuport, that led to its later introduction on the S.E.5/S.E.5a: Ball had acted in a consultant capacity on the development of this aeroplane. The later Sopwith Dolphin, already armed with twin synchronized Vickers guns just forward of the pilot and just above its V-8 engine, could also use one or two Lewis guns mounted on the forward crossbar of its cabane structure, between the top wing panels, as an anti-Zeppelin measure. A few of the Dolphins in use with No. 87 Squadron RAF in the summer of 1918, alternatively mounted their twin Lewises atop the lower wings just inboard of the inner wing struts for an additional pair of forward-firing machine guns; in such a field-achieved configuration, however, neither gun-jam clearing, nor drum magazine replacement were possible on their Lewises during a mission. Lewis guns were also carried as defensive guns on British airships. The SS class blimps carried one gun. The larger NS class blimps carried two or three guns in the control car and some were fitted with an additional gun and a gunner's position at the top of the gasbag.", "By the Second World War, the British Army had replaced the Lewis gun with the Bren gun for most infantry use. As an airborne weapon, the Lewis was largely supplanted by the Vickers K, a weapon that could achieve over twice the rate of fire of the Lewis. In the crisis following the Fall of France, where a large part of the British Army's equipment had been lost up to and at Dunkirk, stocks of Lewis guns in both.303 and.30-06 were hurriedly pressed back into service, primarily for Home Guard, airfield defence and anti-aircraft use. 58,983 Lewis guns were taken from stores, repaired, refitted and issued by the British during the course of the war. In addition to their reserve weapon role in the UK, they also saw front-line use with the Dutch, British, Australian, and New Zealand forces in the early years of the Pacific campaign against the Japanese. The Lewis gun saw continued service as an anti-aircraft weapon during the war; in this role, it was credited by the British for bringing down more low-flying enemy aircraft than any other AA weapon. Peter White indicates that his battalion of the King's Own Scottish Borderers was still using the Lewis on Universal carriers in 1945. At the start of the Second World War, the Lewis was the Royal Navy's standard close-range air defence weapon. It could be found on major warships, armed trawlers and defensively equipped merchant ships. It was often used in twin mountings and a quadruple mount was developed for motor torpedo boats. British submarines generally carried two guns on single mounts. Although it was gradually replaced by the Oerlikon 20 mm cannon, new corvettes were still being fitted with twin Lewises as late as 1942. Lewis guns were also carried by the Royal Air Force's air-sea rescue launches. American forces used the Lewis gun (in.30-06 calibre) throughout the war. The US Navy used the weapon on armed merchant cruisers, small auxiliary ships, landing craft and submarines. The US Coast Guard also used the Lewis on their vessels. It was never officially adopted by the US Army for anything other than aircraft use. The Germans used captured British Lewis guns during the war under the designation MG 137(e), whilst the Japanese copied the Lewis design and employed it extensively during the war; it was designated the Type 92 and chambered for a 7.7 mm rimmed cartridge that was interchangeable with the.303 British round. The Lewis was officially withdrawn from British service in 1946, but continued to be used by forces operating against the United Nations in the Korean War. It was also used against French and US forces in the First Indochina War and the subsequent Vietnam War. Total production of the Lewis gun during the Second World War by BSA was over 145,000 units, a total of 3,550 guns were produced by the Savage Arms Co. for US service—2,500 in.30-06 and 1,050 in.303 British calibre.", "", "A commercial venture in 1921 by the Birmingham Small Arms Company was a version which fired the 12.7×81mm (0.5-inch Vickers) ammunition, intended for use against aircraft and tanks. At around the same time, BSA developed the Light Infantry Model which had a 22-round magazine and a wooden fore-stock in place of the radiator fins and shroud; it was intended to be used in a similar way to the Browning Automatic Rifle. Another development was a twin Lewis for aircraft use in which the bodies of the two weapons were joined side-by-side and the drum magazines were mounted vertically, one on each side. None of these projects was accepted by any armed forces. Lewis had also experimented with lighter, 30-06 calibre, box magazine-fed infantry rifle variants intended for shoulder or hip fire as a competition to the BAR. They were dubbed \"Assault Phase Rifle\" – what could be understood as the first use of the term \"Assault Rifle\", despite the weapon being, by today's designation, a battle rifle. Despite being three pounds lighter than it and loaded with very forward-thinking features for the time (such as an ambidexterous magazine release), the U.S. Army still chose to adopt the BAR. A short-barrelled light machine gun variant was developed at the start of the Second World War. It came with a hand guard and was fed from a 30-round Bren magazines; however, it was decided by the British authorities to concentrate production on the Bren, which had the advantage of a changeable barrel.", "The German FG 42 paratrooper's rifle used the Lewis gun's gas assembly and bolt design which were in turn incorporated into the M60 machine gun. The Type 92 machine gun, the standard hand-held machine gun used by Imperial Japanese Navy aircraft gunners in WWII, was essentially a copy of the Lewis gun." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Canada.", "Emergency medical responder.", "Primary care paramedic.", "Advanced care paramedic.", "Critical care paramedic.", "Training.", "Republic of Ireland.", "United Kingdom.", "United States.", "Certification.", "Levels.", "Transition to new levels.", "EMR.", "EMT.", "Advanced EMT.", "Paramedic.", "Staffing levels.", "Education and training.", "Medical direction.", "Employment." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "There is considerable degree of inter-provincial variation in the Canadian paramedic practice. Although a national consensus (by way of the National Occupational Competency Profile) identifies certain knowledge, skills, and abilities as being most synonymous with a given level of Paramedic practice, each province retains ultimate authority in legislating the actual administration and delivery of emergency medical services within its own borders. For this reason, any discussion of \"Paramedic Practice\" in Canada is necessarily broad, and general. Specific regulatory frameworks and questions related to Paramedic practice can only definitively be answered by consulting relevant provincial legislation, although provincial Paramedic Associations may often offer a simpler overview of this topic when it is restricted to a province-by-province basis. In Canada, the levels of paramedic practice as defined by the National Occupational Competency Profile are: Emergency Medical Responder (EMR), Primary Care Paramedic, Advanced Care Paramedic, and Critical Care Paramedic. Regulatory frameworks vary from province to province, and include direct government regulation (such as Ontario's method of credentialing its practitioners with the title of A-EMCA, or Advanced Emergency Medical Care Assistant) to professional self-regulating bodies, such as the Alberta College of Paramedics. In Alberta, for instance, only someone registered with the Alberta College of Paramedics can call themselves a Paramedic; the title is legally protected. Almost all provinces have moved to adopting the new titles, or have at least recognized the NOCP document as a benchmarking document to permit inter-provincial labour mobility of practitioners, regardless of how titles are specifically regulated within their own provincial systems. In this manner, the confusing myriad of titles and occupational descriptions can at least be discussed using a common language for comparison sake.", "Most providers that work in ambulances will be identified as 'Paramedics' by the public. However, in many cases, the most prevalent level of emergency pre-hospital care is that which is provided by the emergency medical responder (EMR). This is a level of practice recognized under the National Occupational Competency Profile, although unlike the next three successive levels of practice, the high number of EMRs across Canada cannot be ignored as contributing a critical role in the chain of survival, although it is a level of practice that is least comprehensive (clinically speaking), and is also generally not consistent with any medical acts beyond advanced first-aid and oxygen therapy, administration of ASA, I.M. epinephrine and glucagon, oral glucose and administration of intranasal Narcan with the exception of automated external defibrillation (which is still considered a regulated medical act in most provinces in Canada).", "Primary care paramedics (PCP) are the entry-level of paramedic practice in Canadian provinces. The scope of practice includes performing semi-automated external defibrillation, interpretation of 4-lead ECGs, administration of Symptom Relief Medications for a variety of emergency medical conditions (these include oxygen, epinephrine, dextrose, glucagon, salbutamol, ASA and nitroglycerine), performing trauma immobilization (including cervical immobilization), and other fundamental basic medical care. Primary Care Paramedics may also receive additional training in order to perform certain skills that are normally in the scope of practice of Advanced Care Paramedics. This is regulated both provincially (by statute) and locally (by the medical director), and ordinarily entails an aspect of medical oversight by a specific body or group of physicians. This is often referred to as Medical Control, or a role played by a base hospital. For example, in the provinces of Ontario, Quebec and Newfoundland and Labrador, many paramedic services allow Primary Care Paramedics to perform 12-lead ECG interpretation, or initiate intravenous therapy to deliver a few additional medications.", "The Advanced care paramedic (ACP) is a level of practitioner that is in high demand by many services across Canada. However, Quebec only utilizes this level of practice in a very limited fashion as part of a pilot program in Montreal. The ACP typically carries approximately 20 different medications, although the number and type of medications may vary substantially from region to region. ACPs perform advanced airway management including intubation, surgical airways, intravenous therapy, place external jugular IV lines, perform needle thoracotomy, perform and interpret 12-lead ECGs, perform synchronized and chemical cardioversion, transcutaneous pacing, perform obstetrical assessments, and provide pharmacological pain relief for various conditions. Several sites in Canada have adopted pre-hospital fibrinolytics and rapid sequence induction, and prehospital medical research has permitted a great number of variations in the scope of practice for ACPs. Current programs include providing ACPs with discretionary direct 24-hour access to PCI labs, bypassing the emergency department, and representing a fundamental change in both the way that patients with S-T segment elevation myocardial infarctions (STEMI) are treated, but also profoundly affecting survival rates, as well as bypassing a closer hospitals to get an identified stroke patient to a stroke centre.", "Critical care paramedics (CCPs) are paramedics who generally do not respond to 9-1-1 emergency calls, with the exception of helicopter \"scene\" calls. Instead they focus on transferring patients from the hospital they are currently in to other hospitals that can provide a higher level of care. CCPs often work in collaboration with registered nurses and respiratory therapists during hospital transfers. This ensures continuity of care. However, when acuity is manageable by a CCP or a registered nurse or respiratory therapist is not available, CCPs will work alone. Providing this care to the patient allows the sending hospital to avoid losing highly trained staff on hospital transfers. CCPs are able to provide all of the care that PCPs and ACPs provide. That being said, CCPs significantly lack practical experience with advanced skills such as IV initiation, peripheral access to cardiovascular system for fluid and drug administration, advanced airway, and many other techniques. While a PCP and ACP may run 40–50 medical codes per year, a CCP may run 1–2 in an entire career. IV/IO starts are nearly non-existent in the field and for this reason CCPs are required to attend nearly double the amount of time in classroom situations or in hospital to keep current. In addition to this, they are trained for other skills such as medication infusion pumps, mechanical ventilation, and arterial line monitoring. CCPs often work in fixed and rotary wing aircraft when the weather permits and staff are available, but systems such as the Toronto EMS Critical Care Transport Program work in land ambulances. ORNGE Transport operates both land and aircraft in Ontario. In British Columbia, CCPs work primarily in aircraft with a dedicated Critical Care Transport crew in Trail for long-distance transfers and a regular CCP street crew stationed in South Vancouver that often also performs medevacs, when necessary.", "Paramedic training in Canada varies regionally; for example, the length of training may be eight months in British Columbia or two to four years in Ontario, Alberta, and Quebec. The nature of training and how it is regulated, like actual paramedic practice, varies from province to province.", "Emergency Medical Technician (EMT), Paramedic (P) and Advanced Paramedic (AP) are legally defined and protected titles in the Republic of Ireland based on the standard set down by the Pre-Hospital Emergency Care Council (PHECC). Emergency Medical Technician is the entry-level standard of practitioner for employment within the ambulance service. Currently, EMT's are authorized to work on non-emergency ambulances only as the standard for emergency (999) calls is a minimum of a two-Paramedic crew, although this minimum requirement was relaxed to and EMT - paramedic crew during the COVID 19 crisis. EMT's are a vital part of the private, voluntary and auxiliary services where a practitioner must be on board any ambulance in the process of transporting a patient to hospital.", "'Emergency Medical Technician' is a term that has existed for many years in the United Kingdom, but has no single defined scope. They may also be known as 'EMT', 'Ambulance Technician' or simply, 'Technician'. Most Emergency Medical Technicians hold an Institute for Healthcare Development (IHCD, now defunct) Ambulance Technician certificate and are employed in private ambulance companies or in National Health Service Ambulance Trusts. As of 2016, The IHCD Ambulance Technician certificate was replaced with the FAQ Level 4 Diploma for Associate Ambulance Practitioners. This provided a defined scope of practice agreed nationally by Ambulance Service Trusts. Their role title, however, may still be defined by their employer as 'Emergency Medical Technician'. They can work autonomously, making their own clinical decisions within their training and remit. They may also work as a clinical lead working alongside an Emergency Care Assistant or as assistants themselves to a Paramedic. As the role does not have a single defined scope, the skills they have can include: The term 'emergency medical technician' or EMT is not commonly used by members of the public in the United Kingdom. Instead, it is common for all ambulance personnel to be referred to as 'paramedics', although the Paramedic title is protected under registration of the Health and Care Professions Council.", "", "In the United States, EMTs are certified according to their level of training. Individual states set their own standards of certification (or licensure, in some cases) and all EMT training must meet the minimum requirements as set by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration's (NHTSA) standards for curriculum. The National Registry of Emergency Medical Technicians (NREMT) is a private organization which offers certification exams based on NHTSA education guidelines and has been around since the 1970s. Currently, NREMT exams are used by 46 states as the sole basis for certification at one or more EMT certification levels. A NREMT exam consists of skills and patient assessments as well as a written portion. On June 12, 2019, the NREMT changed the rules regarding age limits for EMTs, AEMTs, and Paramedics. There is no longer an age limit for registered personnel. However, applicants must successfully complete a state-approved EMT course that meets or exceeds the NREMT Standards within the past 2 years of applying. Those applying for the NREMT Certification must also complete a state-approved EMT psychomotor exam. It is possible for the candidate to be refused access to a state-approved course due to their age within the state.", "The NHTSA recognizes four levels of Emergency Medical Technician: Some states also recognize the Advanced Practice Paramedic or Critical Care Paramedic level as a state-specific licensure above that of the Paramedic. These Critical Care Paramedics generally perform high acuity transports that require skills outside the scope of a standard paramedic (such as mechanical ventilation and management of cardiac assist devices). In addition, EMTs can seek out specialty certifications such as Wilderness EMT, Wilderness Paramedic, Tactical EMT, and Flight Paramedic.", "In 2009, the NREMT posted information about a transition to a new system of levels for emergency care providers developed by the NHTSA with the National EMS Scope of Practice project. By 2014, these \"new\" levels will replace the fragmented system found around the United States. The new classification will include Emergency Medical Responder (replacing first responder), Emergency Medical Technician (replacing EMT-Basic), Advanced Emergency Medical Technician (replacing EMT-Intermediate/85), and Paramedic (replacing EMT-Intermediate/99 and EMT-Paramedic). Education requirements in transitioning to the new levels are substantially similar.", "EMR (Emergency Medical Responder) is the most basic level of training, and is considered the bare minimum certification for rescuers that respond to medical emergencies. EMRs are typically on-call volunteers in rural communities, or are primarily employed as police officers, firefighters, or search and rescue personnel. EMRs typically arrive quickly and assess/stabilize the patient before the transporting ambulance arrives, and then assist the crew. EMRs typically provide advanced first aid, cardio-pulmonary resuscitation (CPR), semi-automatic defibrillation, basic airway management (suction/airway adjuncts), oxygen therapy, and administration of basic, life-saving medications such as epinephrine auto-injectors and intranasal nalaxone.", "EMT (Emergency Medical Technician) is the next level of EMS certification, and is considered the most common entry level of training. The procedures and skills allowed at this level include bleeding control, management of burns, splinting of suspected fractures and spinal injuries, childbirth, cardiopulmonary resuscitation, semi-automatic defibrillation, oral suctioning, insertion of oropharyngeal and nasopharyngeal airways, pulse oximetry, blood glucose monitoring, auscultation of lung sounds, and administration of a limited set of medications (including oxygen, epinephrine, dextrose, nalaxone, albuterol, ipratropium bromide, glucagon, nitroglycerin, nitrous oxide, and acetylsalicylic acid). Some areas may add to the scope of practice, including intravenous access, insertion of supraglottic airway devices and CPAP. Training requirements and treatment protocols vary from area to area.", "Advanced EMT is the level of training between EMT and Paramedic. They can provide intermediate life support (ILS) care including obtaining intravenous/intraosseous access, fluid resuscitation, use of supraglottic airway devices, administration of some additional medications, and basic cardiac monitoring.", "Paramedics typically represent the highest degree of pre-hospital medical provider, providing advanced life support (ALS) care. Paramedics perform a variety of medical procedures such as endotracheal intubation, rapid sequence induction, cricothyrotomy, fluid resuscitation, drug administration, obtaining intravenous and intraosseous access, manual defibrillation, cardiac monitoring (continuous and 12-lead), capnometry, cardioversion, transcutaneous pacing, pericardiocentesis, thoracostomy, and other advanced procedures and assessments such as point-of-care ultrasound and blood chemistry interpretation.", "An ambulance with only EMTs is considered a Basic Life Support (BLS) unit, an ambulance utilizing AEMTs is dubbed an Intermediate Life Support (ILS), or limited Advanced Life Support (LALS) unit, and an ambulance with Paramedics is dubbed an Advanced Life Support (ALS) unit. Many states allow ambulance crews to contain a mix of crews levels (e.g. an EMT and a Paramedic or an AEMT and a Paramedic) to staff ambulances and operate at the level of the highest trained provider. There is nothing stopping supplemental crew members to be of a certain certification, though (e.g. if an ALS ambulance is required to have two Paramedics, then it is acceptable to have two Paramedics and an EMT). An emergency vehicle with only EMRs or a combination of both EMRs and EMTs is still dubbed a Basic Life Support (BLS) unit. An EMR must usually be overseen by an EMT-level provider or higher to work on a transporting ambulance.", "EMT training programs for certification vary greatly from course to course, provided that each course at least meets local and national requirements. In the United States, EMRs receive at least 40–80 hours of classroom training and EMTs receive at least 120–300 hours of classroom training. AEMTs generally have 200–500 hours of classroom training, and Paramedics are trained for 1,500–2,500 hours or more. In addition to each level's didactic education, clinical rotations are typically also be required. Similar in a sense to medical school clinical rotations, EMT students are required to spend a required amount of time in an ambulance and on a variety of hospital services (e.g. obstetrics, emergency medicine, surgery, intensive care unit, psychiatry) in order to complete a course and become eligible for the certification exam. The number of clinical hours for both time in an ambulance and time in the hospital vary depending on local requirements, the level the student is obtaining, and the amount of time it takes the student to show competency. In addition, a minimum of continuing education (CE) hours is required to maintain certification. For example, to maintain NREMT certification, EMTs must obtain at least 48 hours of additional education and either complete a 24-hour refresher course or complete an additional 24 hours of CEs that would cover, on an hour by hour basis, the same topics as the refresher course would. Recertification for other levels follows a similar pattern. EMT training programs vary greatly in calendar length (number of days or months). For example, fast track programs are available for EMTs that are completed in two weeks by holding class for 8 to 12 hours a day for at least two weeks. Other training programs are months long, or up to 2 years for Paramedics in an associate degree program. EMT training programs take place at numerous locations, such as universities, community colleges, technical schools, hospitals or EMS academies. Every state in the United States has an EMS lead agency or state office of emergency medical services that regulates and accredits EMT training programs. Most of these offices have web sites to provide information to the public and individuals who are interested in becoming an EMT.", "In the United States, an EMT's actions in the field are governed by state regulations, local regulations, and by the policies of their EMS organization. The development of these policies are guided by a physician medical director, often with the advice of a medical advisory committee. In California, for example, each county's Local Emergency Medical Service Agency (LEMSA) issues a list of standard operating procedures or protocols, under the supervision of the California Emergency Medical Services Authority. These procedures often vary from county to county based on local needs, levels of training and clinical experiences. New York State has similar procedures, whereas a regional medical-advisory council (\"REMAC\") determines protocols for one or more counties in a geographical section of the state. Treatments and procedures administered by Paramedics fall under one of two categories, off-line medical orders (standing orders) or on-line medical orders. On-line medical orders refers to procedures that must be explicitly approved by a base hospital physician or registered nurse through voice communication (generally by phone or radio) and are generally rare or high risk procedures (e.g. vasopressor initiation). In addition, when multiple levels can perform the same procedure (e.g. AEMT-Critical Care and Paramedics in New York), a procedure can be both an on-line and a standing order depending on the level of the provider. Since no set of protocols can cover every patient situation, many systems work with protocols as guidelines and not \"cook book\" treatment plans. Finally, systems also have policies in place to handle medical direction when communication failures happen or in disaster situations. The NHTSA curriculum is the foundation Standard of Care for EMS providers in the US.", "EMTs and Paramedics are employed in varied settings, mainly the prehospital environment such as in EMS, fire, and police agencies. They can also be found in positions ranging from hospital and health care settings, to industrial and entertainment positions. The prehospital environment is loosely divided into non-emergency (e.g. patient transport) and emergency (9-1-1 calls) services, but many ambulance services and EMS agencies operate both non-emergency and emergency care. In many places across the United States, it is not uncommon for the primary employer of EMRs, EMTs, and Paramedics to be the fire department, with the fire department providing the primary emergency medical system response including \"first responder\" fire apparatus, as well as ambulances. In other locations, such as Boston, Massachusetts, emergency medical services are provided by a separate, or “third-party”, municipal government emergency agency (e.g. Boston EMS). In still other locations, emergency medical services are provided by volunteer agencies. College and university campuses may provide emergency medical responses on their own campus using students. In some states of the US, many EMS agencies are run by Independent Non-Profit Volunteer First Aid Squads that are their own corporations set up as separate entities from fire departments. In this environment, volunteers are hired to fill certain blocks of time to cover emergency calls. These volunteers have the same state certification as their paid counterparts." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Format.", "History." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Like anime made for television broadcast, OVAs are sub-divided into episodes. OVA media (tapes, laserdiscs, or DVDs) usually contain just one episode each. Episode length varies from title to title: each episode may run from a few minutes to two hours or more. An episode length of 30 minutes occurs quite commonly, but no standard length exists. In some cases, the length of episodes in a specific OVA may vary greatly, for example in \"GaoGaiGar FINAL\", the first 7 episodes last around 30 minutes, while the last episode lasts 50 minutes; the OVA \"Key the Metal Idol\" consists of 15 separate episodes, ranging in length from 20 minutes to nearly two hours each; The OVA \"Hellsing Ultimate\" had released 10 episodes, ranging from 42 minutes to 56 minutes. An OVA series can run anywhere from a single episode (essentially a direct-to-video movie) to dozens of episodes in length. The longest OVA series ever made, \"Legend of the Galactic Heroes\", spanned 110 main episodes and 52 gaiden episodes. Many popular series first appear animated as an OVA, and later grow to become television series or movies. \"Tenchi Muyo!\", for example, began as an OVA but went on to spawn several TV series, three movies, and numerous other spin-offs. Producers make other OVA releases as sequels, side stories, music-video collections, or bonus episodes that continue existing as television series or films, such as \"Love Hina Again\" and \"Wolf's Rain\". OVA titles generally have a much higher budget per episode than in a television series; therefore the technical quality of animation can generally surpass that in television series; occasionally it even equals that of animated movies. OVA titles have a reputation for detailed plots and character-development, which can result from the greater creative freedom offered to writers and directors relative to other formats. This also allows for animated adaptations of manga to reflect their source material more faithfully. Since OVA episodes and series have no fixed conventional length, OVA directors can use however much time they like to tell the story. Time becomes available to expand upon significant background, character, and plot development. This contrasts with television episodes (which must end somewhere between 22 and 26 minutes) and with films (which rarely last more than two hours). In the same way, no pressure exists to produce \"filler content\" to extend a short plot into a full television series. The producers of OVA titles generally target a specific audience, rather than the more mass-market audience of films and television series, or may feel less constrained by content-restrictions and censorship (such as for violence, nudity, and language) often placed on television series. For example, the \"Kissxsis\" OVA series generally contains more sexual themes than its television counterpart. Much OVA-production aims at an audience of male anime enthusiasts. Bandai Visual stated in a 2004 news release (for their new OVAs aimed at women) that about 50% of the customers who had bought their anime DVDs in the past fell into the category of 25- to 40-year-old men, with only 13% of purchasers women, even with all ages included. These statistics cover Bandai Visual anime DVDs in general, not just OVAs, but they show the general tendency at this point. Nikkei Business Publications also stated in a news-release that mainly 25- to 40-year-old adults bought anime DVDs. Few OVAs specifically target female audiences, but \"Earthian\" exemplifies the exceptions. Some OVAs based on television series (and especially those based on manga) may provide closure to the plot – closure not present in the original series. The \"Rurouni Kenshin\" OVAs, to name one series, exemplified numerous aspects of OVAs; they were slightly based on chapters of the author Nobuhiro Watsuki's manga that had not been adapted into the anime television series, had higher-quality animation, were much more violent, and were executed in a far more dark and realistic style than the TV episodes or the manga. Dark realism featured in Masami Kurumada's famous manga \"Saint Seiya\". The anime adapted two of the three arcs in Kurumada's manga—the project to adapt the third arc to the anime never started. As Kurumada had completed his manga in 1991, its third act was finally adapted to anime, releasing the episodes as OVAs, starting in 2003 and finishing in 2008, at last adapting Kurumada's manga completely to anime. Most OVA titles run for four to eight episodes, and some only have one. They tend to have a complex and continuous plot, best enjoyed if all episodes are viewed in sequence. This contrasts with television series, which generally have many short \"mini-stories\" that happen to be related somehow, rather than a unified plot. Many OVA titles can be thought of as \"long films\" that just happen to be released in parts. Release schedules vary: some series may progress as slowly as 1–2 episodes per year. Some OVA titles with a lengthy release-schedule ended up unfinished due to lack of fan support and sales. Many one-episode OVAs exist as well. Typically, such an OVA provides a side-story to a popular TV series (such as \"Detective Conan\" OVAs). At an early stage in the history of the OVA (1980s) many one-episode OVAs appeared. Hundreds of manga that were popular but not enough to gain TV series were granted one-shot (or otherwise extremely short) OVA episodes. When these one-shot OVAs prove popular enough, a network can use the OVA as a pilot to an anime series.", "OVAs originated during the early 1980s. As the VCR became a widespread fixture in Japanese homes, the Japanese anime industry grew to behemoth proportions. Demand for anime became massive, so much so that consumers would willingly go directly to video stores to buy new animation outright. While people in the United States use the phrase \"direct-to-video\" as a pejorative for works that could not make it onto television or movie screens, in Japan the demand was so great that direct-to-video became a necessity. Many popular and influential series such as \"Bubblegum Crisis\" (1987–1991) and \"Tenchi Muyo!\" (1992–2005) were released directly to video as OVAs. The earliest known attempt to release an OVA involved Osamu Tezuka's \"The Green Cat\" (part of the Lion Books series) in 1983, although it cannot count as the first OVA: there is no evidence that the VHS tape became available immediately and the series remained incomplete. Therefore, the first official OVA release to be billed as such was 1983's \"Dallos\", directed by Mamoru Oshii and released by Bandai. Other famous early OVAs, premièring shortly thereafter, were \"Fight! Iczer One\" and the original \"Megazone 23\". Other companies were quick to pick up on the idea, and the mid-to-late 1980s saw the market flooded with OVAs. During this time, most OVA series were new, stand-alone titles. In the 1980s during Japan's economic bubble, production companies were more than willing to spontaneously decide to make a one- or two-part OVA. They paid money to anime studios, who then haphazardly created an OVA to be released to rental shops. Judging from sales, should a longer series be deemed feasible, TV networks paid for most of the production costs of the entire series. As the Japanese economy worsened in the 1990s, the flood of new OVA titles diminished to a trickle. Production of OVAs continued, but in smaller numbers. Many anime television series ran an economical 13 episodes rather than the traditional 26-episodes per season. New titles were often designed to be released to TV if they approached these lengths. In addition, the rising popularity of cable and satellite TV networks (with their typically less strict censorship rules) allowed the public to see direct broadcasts of many new titles—something that previously would have been impossible. Therefore, many violent, risque, and fan service series became regular TV series, when previously those titles would have been OVAs. During this time period most OVA content was limited to that related to existing and established titles. However, in 2000 and later, a new OVA trend began. Producers released many TV series without normal broadcasts of all of the episodes—but releasing some episodes on the DVD release of the series. Examples of this include the DVD-only 25th episode of \"Love Hina\", while several episodes of the \"Oh My Goddess\" TV series are DVD-only. In addition, the final episode of \"Excel Saga\" was offered only as an OVA, mostly due to content issues that would have made TV broadcast impossible. In these cases the series as a whole cannot be called an OVA, though certain episodes are. This trend is becoming quite common, and furthermore, many recent OVA series pre-broadcast the episodes and release the DVD with unedited and better quality, along with revised animations—thus further blurring the boundary between TV and video anime." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Design and development.", "Operational history.", "Engine problems.", "Use of the Lewis guns.", "Postwar service.", "Production and planned developments.", "Survivors.", "Reproduction.", "Variants.", "Operators." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In early 1917, the Sopwith chief engineer, Herbert Smith, began designing a new fighter (internal Sopwith designation 5F.1) powered by the geared 200 hp Hispano-Suiza 8B. The resulting Dolphin was a two-bay, single-seat biplane, with the upper wings attached to an open steel cabane frame above the cockpit. To maintain the correct centre of gravity, the lower wings were positioned forward of the upper wings, creating the Dolphin's distinctive negative wing stagger. The pilot sat with his head through the frame, where he had an excellent view. This configuration sometimes caused difficulty for novices, who found it difficult to keep the aircraft pointed at the horizon because the nose was not visible from the cockpit. The cockpit was nevertheless warm and comfortable, in part because water pipes ran alongside the cockpit walls to the two side-mounted radiator blocks. A pair of single-panel shutters, one in front of each radiator core and operated by the pilot, allowed the engine temperature to be controlled. The first Dolphin prototype was powered by a geared 150 hp Hispano-Suiza 8B-series V-8 engine and featured a deep \"car-type\" frontal radiator. Test pilot Harry Hawker carried out the maiden flight on 23 May 1917. In early June, the prototype was sent to Martlesham Heath for official trials. On 13 June, the prototype flew to Saint-Omer, France, where the aircraft's unfamiliar shape prompted Allied anti-aircraft gunners to fire on it. Several pilots, including Billy Bishop of No. 60 Squadron, evaluated the prototype and reported favourably. On 28 June 1917, the Ministry of Munitions ordered 200 Dolphins from Hooper & Co. Shortly afterwards, the Ministry ordered a further 500 aircraft from Sopwith and 200 aircraft from Darracq Motor Engineering Company. The second prototype introduced upper wing radiators in lieu of the frontal radiator and large cut-outs in the lower wing roots, to improve the pilot's downward vision. These features proved unsuccessful and were omitted from subsequent aircraft. The third and fourth prototypes incorporated numerous modifications to the radiator, upper fuselage decking, fin and rudder. The fourth prototype was selected as the production standard. Series production commenced in October 1917, with 121 Dolphins delivered by the end of the year.", "The Dolphin Mk I became operational with Nos. 19 and 79 Squadrons in February 1918 and Nos. 87 and 23 Squadrons in March. The Dolphin's debut was marred by several incidents in which British and Belgian pilots attacked the new aircraft, mistaking it for a German type. For the next few weeks, Dolphin pilots accordingly exercised caution near other Allied aircraft. New pilots also voiced concern over the Dolphin's wing arrangement, fearing serious injury to the head and neck in the event of a crash. Early aircraft were often fitted with improvised crash pylons consisting of steel tubes over the cockpit to protect the pilot's head. Experience showed that fears of pilot injury from overturning were largely unfounded. Crash pylons disappeared from frontline aircraft, though they were often retained on trainers. Night-flying Dolphins of 141 Squadron, a Home Defence unit, had metal loops fitted above the inner set of interplane struts. Despite early problems, the Dolphin proved successful and generally popular with pilots. The aircraft was fast, manoeuvrable, and easy to fly, though a sharp stall was noted. In his memoir \"Sagittarius Rising\", Cecil Lewis described a mock dogfight between his S.E.5 and a Dolphin: \"The Dolphin had a better performance than I realised. He was up in a climbing turn and on my tail in a flash. I half rolled out of the way, he was still there. I sat in a tight climbing spiral, he sat in a tighter one. I tried to climb above him, he climbed faster. Every dodge I have ever learned I tried on him; but he just sat there on my tail, for all the world as if I had just been towing him behind me.\" When functioning properly, the Dolphin's Hispano-Suiza engine afforded excellent performance at high altitude. Accordingly, the Dolphin was often sent against German reconnaissance aircraft such as the Rumpler C.VII, which routinely operated at altitudes above. No. 87 Squadron explored the use of equipment to supply pilots with oxygen at high altitude but the experiment was abandoned after trials showed that the oxygen tanks exploded when struck by gunfire. Four Royal Air Force squadrons operated the Dolphin as their primary equipment, while other squadrons used it in small numbers. No. 1 (Fighter) Squadron, a Canadian Air Force unit, formed with Dolphins at RAF Upper Heyford. The unit became operational shortly after the Armistice. In October 1918, the American Expeditionary Force purchased five standard Mk Is for evaluation, sending four back to the United States. The highest-scoring Dolphin unit was No. 87 Squadron, which shot down 89 enemy aircraft. Pilots of No. 79 Squadron shot down 64 enemy aircraft in the eight and a half months that the aircraft was at the front. The top two Dolphin aces served in No. 79 Squadron. Captain Francis W. Gillet, an American, scored 20 victories in the type. Lieutenant Ronald Bannerman, a New Zealander, scored 17 victories. The third-ranking Dolphin ace was Captain Arthur Vigers of 87 Squadron, who attained all 14 of his victories in the same aircraft, serial no. C4159. Another notable ace, Major Albert Desbrisay Carter of 19 Squadron, obtained approximately 13 of his 29 confirmed victories in the Dolphin. Captain Henry Biziou scored eight victories in the type.", "The scarcity and unreliability of the French-built Hispano-Suiza 8B engine proved to be the most serious problem in the deployment and use of the Dolphin. Use of insufficiently hardened metal in the pinion gears led to numerous failures of the reduction gearing, particularly in engines built by the French firm Brasier. The engine also suffered persistent lubrication problems. Limited production capacity for the Hispano-Suiza engine and the priority afforded to French aircraft like the SPAD S.XIII slowed Dolphin deliveries. Availability of the Hispano-Suiza improved in early 1918 as the French firm Emile Mayen began deliveries on an order placed by the British Admiralty.", "The official armament of the Dolphin was two fixed, synchronized Vickers machine guns and two Lewis guns mounted on the forward cabane crossbar, firing at an upward angle, over the propeller disc. The mounting provided three positions in elevation and some limited sideways movement. The Lewis guns proved unpopular as they were difficult to aim and tended to swing into the pilot's face. Pilots also feared that the gun butts would inflict serious head injuries in the event of a crash. Most pilots discarded the Lewis guns, though a minority retained one or both guns for attacking high altitude reconnaissance aircraft from below. Pilots of No. 87 Squadron, including Arthur Vigers, experimentally fitted some aircraft with two forward firing, unsynchronized Lewis guns mounted on top of the lower wing, just inboard of the inner wing struts. These guns could fire incendiary ammunition, which could not be used with the synchronized Vickers guns. The 97-round ammunition drums could not be changed once empty, nor could the pilot clear gun jams, and the field modification did not become standard.", "Dolphins were quickly retired after the war. Nos. 19 and 87 Squadrons demobilized in February 1919, followed by No. 23 Squadron in March. The last RAF unit to operate Dolphins was No. 79 Squadron, based in Bickendorf, Germany, as part of the British Army of the Rhine. No. 79 Squadron demobilized in July 1919. The Dolphin was declared obsolete on 1 September 1921. No. 1 (Fighter) Squadron, which operated Dolphins along with S.E.5as, Sopwith Snipes, and captured Fokker D.VIIs, was disbanded on 28 January 1920. Although retired from Canadian Air Force service, a small number of Dolphins were sent back to Canada. One Dolphin was converted for civilian use. In 1920, Handley Page obtained serial no. D5369 and operated it as a demonstrator under the civil registration G-EATC. This aircraft was sold in 1923. The Polish Air Force operated 10 Dolphins during the Polish-Soviet War. From August 1920, these aircraft were primarily used for ground attack duties in the Battle of Warsaw and other actions. They were soon grounded due to lack of spare parts. In October 1920, two Polish Dolphins were loaned to the Ukrainian Air Force (1. \"Zaporoska Eskadra Ukraińska\") for use against the Soviets. Both aircraft were returned to the Poles in February 1921.", "A total of 2,072 Dolphin Mk I aircraft were produced by Sopwith, Darracq Motor Engineering Company and Hooper & Co. Approximately 1,500 Dolphins were stored awaiting engines at the time of the Armistice. These incomplete airframes were eventually scrapped. Two developments of the Dolphin were planned. The French firm SACA (\"Société Anonyme des Constructions Aéronautiques\") commenced licensed production of the Dolphin Mk II in 1918. The RAF expressed no interest in this variant, which was intended for the French \"Aéronautique Militaire\" and the US Army Air Service. The Mk II’s 300 hp direct-drive Hispano-Suiza 8F gave a maximum speed of and a ceiling of. The new engine had a displacement of 18.5 litres (1,129 in) and required an enlarged, bulbous cowling that fully enclosed the guns. The Mk II also featured an additional fuel tank, a variable incidence tailplane, strengthened airframe and longer exhaust pipes. The Air Service anticipated delivery of over 2,000 Mk II aircraft by the summer of 1919 but only a few were delivered before the Armistice. Persistent difficulties with the geared 200 hp Hispano-Suiza 8B prompted development of the Dolphin Mk III, which used a direct-drive version of the 200 hp engine. The Mk III first flew in October 1918 and went into production just as hostilities ended. Many existing Dolphins were also converted to Mk III standard at aircraft repair depots, by removing the reduction gearing and fitting a modified cowling to accommodate the resultant lowered thrust line.", "No complete Dolphin is known to have survived to the present but a composite Dolphin Mk I was rebuilt at the Michael Beetham Conservation Centre, part of the Royal Air Force Museum Cosford. The airframe is based on an original 6 ft length of rear fuselage from serial no. C3988. It includes many other original parts, including a fuel tank, wheels, radiators, tailplane, and elevators from serial nos. D5329 and C4033. In March 2012, the Dolphin went on display in the Grahame White Hangar, at the Royal Air Force Museum London.", "In 1977, Cole Palen built an accurate Dolphin reproduction for his Old Rhinebeck Aerodrome living aviation museum, in the mid-Hudson Valley of eastern New York. It flew regularly at Old Rhinebeck's weekend air shows until September 1990, when it crash-landed after a fuel pump failure. The aircraft is presently under restoration to flying condition.", "Dolphin Mk I Dolphin Mk II Dolphin Mk III", "Ukrainian People's Republic" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot.", "Characters.", "Production.", "Themes.", "Related media.", "Films.", "Manga and books.", "Soundtracks and music.", "Video games.", "Releases.", "Reception.", "Influence and legacy.", "Merchandising." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In 2015, fifteen years after a global cataclysm known as the Second Impact, teenager Shinji Ikari is summoned to the futuristic city of Tokyo-3 by his estranged father Gendo Ikari, director of the special paramilitary force Nerv. Shinji witnesses United Nations forces battling an Angel, one of a race of giant monstrous beings whose awakening was foretold by the Dead Sea Scrolls. Because of the Angels' near-impenetrable force-fields, Nerv's giant Evangelion bio-machines, synchronized to the nervous systems of their pilots and possessing their own force-fields, are the only weapons capable of keeping the Angels from annihilating humanity. Nerv officer Misato Katsuragi escorts Shinji into the Nerv complex beneath the city, where his father pressures him into piloting the Evangelion Unit-01 against the Angel. Without training, Shinji is quickly overwhelmed in the battle, causing the Evangelion to go berserk and savagely kill the Angel on its own. Following hospitalization, Shinji moves in with Misato and settles into life in Tokyo-3. In his second battle, Shinji destroys an Angel but runs away afterwards, distraught. Misato confronts Shinji and he decides to remain a pilot. The Nerv crew and Shinji must then battle and defeat the remaining 14 Angels in order to prevent the Third Impact, a global cataclysm that would destroy the world. Evangelion Unit-00 is repaired shortly afterwards. Shinji tries to befriend its pilot, the mysterious, socially isolated teenage girl Rei Ayanami. With Rei's help, Shinji defeats another Angel. They are then joined by the pilot of Evangelion Unit-02, the multitalented, but", "Hideaki Anno attempted to create characters that reflected parts of his own personality. The characters of \"Evangelion\" struggle with their interpersonal relationships, their personal problems, and traumatic events in their past. The human qualities of the characters have enabled some viewers of the show to identify with the characters on a personal level, while others interpret them as historical, religious, or philosophical symbols. Shinji Ikari is the series protagonist and the designated pilot of Evangelion Unit-01. After witnessing his mother Yui Ikari's death as a child, Shinji was abandoned by his father, Gendo Ikari. He is emotionally hypersensitive and sometimes does as expected out of fear of rejection, but he has often rebelled and refused to pilot the Eva because of the extremely excruciating harm that has been done to him or to his friends. Throughout the series, he says to himself \"I mustn't run away\" as a means of encouraging himself to face the threats of the day, and this sometimes actually gives him bravery in battle, but he has a lingering habit of withdrawing in response to traumatic events. Anno has described Shinji as a boy who \"shrinks from human contact\" and has \"convinced himself that he is a completely unnecessary person\". The withdrawn and mysterious pilot of Evangelion Unit-00, Rei Ayanami, is a clone made from the salvaged remains of Yui and is plagued by a sense of negative self-worth stemming from the realization that she is an expendable asset. She at one time despised Shinji for his lack of trust in his father Gendo, with whom Rei is very close. However, after Shinji and Rei successfully defeat the Angel Ramiel, she takes a friendly liking to him. Towards the end of the series, it is revealed that she", "Director Hideaki Anno fell into a deep depression following completion of work on \"\" and the 1992 failure of the \"\" sequel project. According to Yasuhiro Takeda, Anno agreed to a collaboration between King Records and Gainax while drinking with King representative Toshimichi Ōtsuki; King Records guaranteed Anno a time slot for \"something, anything\". Anno began development of the new series in 1993 around the notion of not running away, which had been the underlying theme of \"Aoki Uru\", an earlier Anno project that had failed to move into production. Early into the production, Anno stated his intent to have \"Evangelion\" increase the number of otaku (anime fans) by attracting interest in the medium. According to him, the plot of the series reflects his four-year depression. In the early design phase of the \"Evangelion\" project several formats were considered, including a film, a television series and an original video animation (OVA) series. The producers finally opted for the television series as it was the most widely accessible media in Japan at that time. The proposed title \"Alcion\" was rejected due to its lack of hard consonant sounds. \"Evangelion\" borrowed certain scenarios and the use of introspection as a narrative device from a previous Anno project entitled \"Gunbuster\". He incorporated the narrative structure of \"Nadia\" and multiple frames of reference to leave the story open to interpretation. Over the course of the writing process, elements of the \"Evangelion\" storyline evolved from the original concept. A female protagonist was initially proposed for the series, but the idea was scrapped. Originally, the first episode presented the battle between an Angel and Rei, while the character of Shinji was only introduced after the Angel had been defeated. Further changes to the plot were made following the Aum Shinrikyo sect's sarin gas attack on the Tokyo subway in March. Azuma Hiroki has said that the original \"Evangelion\" story", "According to Patrick Drazen, the series contains numerous allusions to the \"Kojiki\" and the \"Nihongi\", the Shinto vision of the primordial cosmos and the mythical lances of the Shinto deities Izanagi and Izanami. Elements of the Judeo-Christian tradition also feature prominently throughout the series, including references to Adam, Lilith, Eve, the Lance of Longinus, the Dead Sea Scrolls, the Kabbalistic concept of Adam Kadmon, the Tree of Life, among many others. The merging of all human souls into one through the Human Instrumentality Project at the end of the series is similar to the Kabbalistic concept of tikkun olam. The Evangelions have been likened to the golem of Jewish folklore, and their visual design resembles the traditional depictions of oni (Japanese demons or ogres). References to mystical traditions in Judaism and Christianity, including Midrashic literature, Kabballah and Gnosticism are threaded liberally through the series. Complicating viewers' attempts to form an unambiguous interpretation, the series reworks Midrash stories, Zohar images and other Kabbalistic ideas developed from the Book of Genesis to create a new \"Evangelion\"-specific mythology. Assistant director Kazuya", "", "In May 1996, Gainax announced an \"Evangelion\" film in response to fan dissatisfaction with the series finale. On March 15, 1997, Gainax released \"Evangelion: Death & Rebirth\", consisting of 60 minutes of clips taken from the first 24 episodes of the series and only the first 30 minutes of the new ending due to production issues. The second film, \"The End of Evangelion\", which premiered on July 19, 1997, provided the complete new ending as a retelling of the final two episodes of the television series. Rather than depicting series' climax within the characters' minds, the film provides a more conventional, action-based resolution to the series' plot lines. The film won numerous awards and grossed 1.45 billion yen within six months of its release. EX.org ranked the film in 1999 as the", "Ten months prior to the television broadcast of \"Evangelion\", the character designer Yoshiyuki Sadamoto illustrated a manga version of the story, initially as a supplement meant to promote the animated series. The first installment of the manga was published in the February issue of \"Shōnen Ace\" in December 1994 with subsequent installments produced on an irregular basis over an eighteen-year period. The final installment was published in June 2013. Several publishers were", "Shirō Sagisu composed most of the original music for the series. The soundtracks released to high rankings on the Oricon charts, with \"Neon Genesis Evangelion III\" reaching the number one slot for highest sales in 1997; that same year, Sagisu received the Kobe Animation award for \"Best Music Score\" for his work on \"Evangelion\". Classical music by Ludwig van Beethoven, Johann Sebastian Bach, Giuseppe Verdi and George Frideric Handel were also featured throughout the series. Additional classical works and original symphonic compositions", "Several video games based on the series have been developed, ranging from RPG and adventure games", "The original home video releases in Japan included VHS and Laserdisc sets using a release structured around \"Genesis 0:(volume number)\", with each of the first 12 releases containing two episodes each. Each of the episodes received minor changes and Episodes 21–24 were extended with new scenes. \"Genesis 0:13\" and \"Genesis 0:14\" contained the original and the alternate versions of episodes 25 and 26 first presented in \"\". A fifteenth and final release for Laserdisc, entitled \"Genesis 0:X\", contained the broadcast versions of episodes 21 to 24 and was a special mail-in offer for fans who purchased all 14 discs. The first Japanese DVD release was spread across seven volumes; all contained four episodes with the seventh volume containing both the original and alternate versions of episodes 25 and 26. This version was identical to the previous laserdisc and VHS release. The Movies were also released as a special set, just like before. In 2000 and 2001, three box sets were released to commemorate the fictional \"Second Impact\" which occurred in the year 2000 in the series. The \"Second Impact Box\" contained the 26 original episodes and both movies on 9 DVDs—three per Box. The versions were the original broadcast and theatrical versions respectively and therefore different from the previous DVD release. In addition, the video game \"Girlfriend of Steel\" was included in the third box set. In 2003, the Japanese-only, nine volume \"Renewal of Evangelion\" DVDs were released on June 25, with improved acoustic effects, remixed dialogue and remastered soundtrack for 5.1 stereo sound. The first eight volumes covered the original 26 episodes, including two versions of episodes 21 to 24: the (extended) video version (that was available in previous releases) and a reconstruction of the shorter broadcast version, which was now made available for the first time since the Genesis 0:X laserdisc and also wasn't censored like in the original broadcast. The ninth volume was named \"Evangelion: The Feature Film\" and \"Revival of Evangelion\" and", "\"Neon Genesis Evangelion\" received critical acclaim both domestically and internationally during its initial broadcast and in the decades since its release. On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the series has an approval rating of 100% based on 29 reviews, with an average rating of 8.29/10. The website's critical consensus reads, \"\"Neon Genesis Evangelion\", both a cultural touchstone for Japan and an uncompromising auteurist vision by creator Hideaki Anno, doubles as an enthralling apex for the mecha anime genre and as a harrowing exploration of depression – making for a wholly singular epic about angels and inner demons.\" Following the conclusion of the series' original television broadcast, the public and critical reception to \"Neon Genesis Evangelion\" was polarized, particularly with regard to the final two episodes. The experimental style of the finale confused or alienated many fans and spawned debate and controversy; Hideaki Anno received anonymous online death threats, as well as a number of letters, which would later be shown in \"End of Evangelion,\" expressing both support and criticism. The criticism was largely directed toward the lack of storyline resolution in the final two episodes. Opinion on the finale was mixed, with the audience broadly divided between those who considered the episodes \"deep\", and those who felt their meaning was \"more apparent than real\". The English voice actors admitted that they also had trouble understanding the series' conclusion. The \"Mainichi Times\" wrote that after episode 25, \"nearly all viewers felt betrayed... When commentator Eiji Ōtsuka sent a letter to the \"Yomiuri Shimbun\", complaining about the end of the \"Evangelion\" series, the debate went nationwide.\" Despite the criticism, Anno stood by his artistic choices for the series' conclusion. Critic Zac Bertschy remarked in 2003 that \"Most of the backlash against \"Evangelion\" existed because people don't like to think\". The initial controversy surrounding the end of \"Evangelion\" has had no lasting negative influence on the popularity of the series. The \"richness\" of the characters and \"complex and layered\" narrative have received praise by critics, with Mike Hale of \"The New York Times\" describing it in 2009 as \"a superior anime, a giant-robot tale of unusual depth, feeling and detail.\" \"Evangelion\" has developed into a social phenomenon beyond its primary fan base, generating national discussion in Japan. The series has also been the subject of numerous media reports, debates, and research studies world-wide. \"Evangelion\" has received review by critics, academics and sociologists alike, including by Susan J. Napier, William Rout, Mick Broderick, Mari Kotani, Shinji Miyadai, Hiroki Azuma, Yuriko Furuhata, and Marc Steinberg. The series has been described as both a critique and deconstruction of the mecha genre. Theron Martin (Anime News Network) described the character design as \"distinctive, designed to be sexy rather than cutesy\", and the mecha designs as \"among the most distinctive ever produced for an anime series, with sleek, lithe appearances that look monstrous, fearsome, and nimble rather than boxy and knight-like\". Mike Crandol stated \"It no longer seems contrite to say that \"Evangelion\" is surely one of the all-time great works of animation\". Japanese critic Manabu Tsuribe considered that \"Evangelion\" was \"extremely interior and is lacking in sociality, so that it seems to reflect pathology of the times.\" In February 2004 \"Cinefantastique\" listed the anime as one of the \"10 Essential Animations\".", "\"Evangelion\" has had a significant impact on Japanese popular culture. The series also had a strong influence on anime, at a time when the anime industry and televised anime series in particular were in a slump period. CNET reviewer Tim Hornyak credits the series with revitalizing and transforming the giant mecha genre. In the 1980s and 1990s, Japanese animation saw decreased production following the economic crash in Japan. This was followed by a crisis of ideas in the years to come. Against this background, \"Evangelion\" imposed new standards for the animated serial, ushering in the era of the \"new Japanese animation serial\", characterized by innovations that allowed a technical and artistic revival of the industry. The production of anime serials began to reflect greater author control, the concentration of resources in fewer but higher quality episodes (typically ranging from 13 to 26), a directorial approach similar to live film, and greater freedom from the constraints of merchandising. \"Evangelion\" has influenced numerous subsequent anime series, including \"Serial Experiments Lain\", \"RahXephon\", \"Texhnolyze\", \"Gasaraki\", \"Guilty Crown\", \"Boogiepop Phantom\", \"Blue Submarine No. 6\", \"Mobile Battleship Nadesico\", \"\", \"Gurren Lagann\", \"Dual! Parallel Trouble Adventure\", \"Argento Soma\", \"Pilot Candidate\", \"Generator Gawl\", and \"Dai-Guard\". References, homages and tributes to the series are also contained in the third episode of \"Magical Shopping Arcade Abenobashi\", \"Koi Koi Seven\",", "The popularity of \"Neon Genesis Evangelion\" extends to its merchandising which exceeded $400 million within two years of its release. The series has established itself greatly on the Japanese market, developing a varied range of products for adult consumers, such as cell phones (including a special Nerv and MAGI-themed Sharp SH-06D smartphone released in 2012), laptop computers, many soundtracks, DVDs, action figures, and telephone cards. The stylized mecha design that would later earn praise for \"Evangelion\" was initially criticized by certain toy companies as being too difficult to manufacture, with some expressing concern that models of the Evangelions \"would never sell.\" Eventually, Sega agreed to license all toy and video game sales. At the time of the release of the Japanese film \"Death & Rebirth\" and \"The End of Evangelion\", estimated sales of \"Evangelion\" merchandise topped $300 million, of which 70% derived from sales of video and laser discs, soundtrack CDs, single CDs, computer software and the three-volume manga. Multiple merchandising products were released during the \"Renewal Project\", such as CDs, video games, cel-art illustrations and collectible models. The commercial exploitation of the series for the home video market achieved record sales and remained strong over a decade later. The fame of the show has grown through home video sales, which exceeded two or three times the sales of other contemporary anime series and films. The series contributed significantly to the spread of the DVD format in Japan and generated a considerable impact on the Japanese economy, calculated in billions of yen. In 2006, Matt Greenfield stated that the franchise had earned over. A 2007 estimate placed total sales of 6,000 related goods at over. In 2015, pachinko manufacturer Fields Corporation revealed that \"Evangelion\" pachinko and pachislot machines sold over 2million units, generating a revenue of." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Evolution of transgender terminology.", "Transsexual and its relationship to transgender.", "Other categories.", "Non-binary, including androgynous and bigender.", "Transvestite or cross-dresser.", "Drag kings and queens.", "LGBT community.", "Sexual orientation of transgender people.", "Healthcare.", "Mental healthcare.", "Physical healthcare.", "Law.", "Europe.", "Denmark.", "Germany.", "Canada.", "United States.", "India.", "Religion.", "Feminism.", "Scientific studies of transsexuality.", "Population figures.", "European Union.", "UK.", "North America.", "Canada.", "United States.", "Latin America.", "Non-western cultures.", "Asia.", "North America.", "Other.", "Coming out.", "Media representation.", "Events.", "International Transgender Day of Visibility.", "Transgender Awareness Week.", "Transgender Day of Remembrance.", "Trans March.", "Pride symbols." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Psychiatrist John F. Oliven of Columbia University coined the term \"transgender\" in his 1965 reference work \"Sexual Hygiene and Pathology\", writing that the term which had previously been used, \"transsexualism\", \"is misleading; actually, 'transgenderism' is meant, because sexuality is not a major factor in primary transvestism.\" The term \"transgender\" was then popularized with varying definitions by various transgender, transsexual, and transvestite people, including Virginia Prince, who used it in the December 1969 issue of \"Transvestia\", a national magazine for cross dressers she founded. By the mid-1970s both \"trans-gender\" and \"trans people\" were in use as umbrella terms, and \"transgenderist\" was used to refer to people who wanted to live cross-gender without sex reassignment surgery (SRS). By 1976, \"transgenderist\" was abbreviated as \"TG\" in educational materials. By 1984, the concept of a \"transgender community\" had developed, in which \"transgender\" was used as an umbrella term. In 1985, Richard Elkins established the \"Trans-Gender Archive\" at the University of Ulster. By 1992, the International Conference on Transgender Law and Employment Policy defined \"transgender\" as an expansive umbrella term including", "The term \"transsexual\" was introduced to English in 1949 by David Oliver Cauldwell and popularized by Harry Benjamin in 1966, around the same time \"transgender\" was coined and began to be popularized. Since the 1990s, \"transsexual\" has generally been used to refer to the subset of \"transgender\" people who desire to transition permanently to the gender with which they identify and who seek medical assistance (for example, sex reassignment surgery) with this. Distinctions between the terms \"transgender\" and \"transsexual\" are commonly based on distinctions between \"gender\" (psychological, social) and \"sex\" (physical). Hence transsexuality may be said to deal more with physical aspects of one's sex, while transgender considerations deal more with one's psychological gender disposition or predisposition, as well as the related social expectations that may accompany a given gender role. Many transgender people reject the term \"transsexual\". Christine Jorgensen publicly rejected \"transsexual\" in 1979 and instead identified herself in newsprint as \"trans-gender\", saying, \"gender doesn't have to do with bed partners, it has to do with identity.\" This refers to the concern that \"transsexual\" implies something", "These comprise genderqueer/non-binary genders, cross-dressers/transvestites, drag kings and drag queens, and intersex persons.", "Genderqueer or non-binary gender identities are not specifically male or female. They can be agender, androgynous, bigender, pangender, or genderfluid, and exist outside of cisnormativity. Bigender and androgynous are overlapping categories; bigender individuals may identify as moving between male", "A transvestite is a person who cross-dresses, or dresses in clothes typically associated with the gender opposite the one they were assigned at birth. The term \"transvestite\" is used as a synonym for the term \"cross-dresser\", although \"cross-dresser\" is generally considered the preferred term. The term \"cross-dresser\" is not exactly defined in the relevant literature. Michael A. Gilbert, professor at the Department of Philosophy, York University, Toronto, offers this definition: \"[A cross-dresser] is a person who has an apparent gender identification with one sex, and who has and certainly has been birth-designated as belonging to [that] sex, but who wears the clothing of the opposite sex because", "Drag is clothing and makeup worn on special occasions for performing or entertaining, unlike those who are transgender or who cross-dress for other reasons. Drag performance includes overall presentation and behavior in addition to clothing and makeup. Drag can be theatrical, comedic, or grotesque. Drag queens have been considered caricatures of women by second-wave feminism. Drag artists have", "The concepts of gender identity and transgender identity differ from that of sexual orientation. Sexual orientation is an individual's enduring physical, romantic, emotional, or spiritual attraction to another person, while gender identity is one's personal sense of being a man or a woman. Transgender people have more or less the same variety of sexual orientations as cisgender people. In the past, the terms \"homosexual\" and \"heterosexual\" were incorrectly used to label transgender individuals' sexual orientation based on their birth sex. Professional literature often uses terms such as \"attracted to men\" (androphilic), \"attracted to women\" (gynephilic), \"attracted to both\" (bisexual), or \"attracted to neither\" (asexual) to describe a person's sexual orientation without reference to their gender identity. Therapists are coming to understand the necessity of using terms with respect to their clients' gender identities and preferences. For example, a person who is assigned male at birth, transitions to female, and is attracted to men would be identified as heterosexual. Despite the distinction between sexual orientation and gender, throughout history the gay, lesbian, and bisexual subculture was often the only place where gender-variant people were socially accepted in the gender role they felt they belonged to; especially during the time when legal or medical transitioning was almost impossible. This acceptance has had a complex history. Like the wider world, the gay community in Western societies did not generally distinguish between sex and gender identity until the 1970s, and often perceived gender-variant people more as homosexuals who behaved in a gender-variant way than as gender-variant people in their own right. In addition, the role of the transgender community in the history of LGBT rights is often overlooked, as shown in Transforming History.", "In 2015, the American National Center for Transgender Equality conducted a National Transgender Discrimination Survey. Of the 27,715 transgender and non-binary people who took the survey, 21% said the term \"queer\" best described their sexual orientation, 18% said \"pansexual\", 16% said \"gay\", \"lesbian\", or \"same-gender-loving\", 15% said \"straight\",", "", "Most mental health professionals recommend therapy for internal conflicts about gender identity or discomfort in an assigned gender role, especially if one desires to transition. People who experience discord between their gender and the expectations of others or whose gender identity conflicts with their body may benefit by talking through their feelings in depth; however, research on gender identity with regard to psychology, and scientific understanding of the phenomenon and its related issues, is relatively new. The terms \"transsexualism\", \"dual-role transvestism\", \"gender identity disorder in adolescents or adults,\" and \"gender identity disorder not otherwise specified\" are listed as such in the International Statistical Classification of Diseases (ICD) by the WHO or the American \"Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders\" (DSM) under codes F64.0, F64.1, 302.85, and 302.6 respectively. The validity of the diagnosis and its presence in the forthcoming ICD-11 is debated. France removed gender identity disorder as a diagnosis by decree in 2010, but according to French trans rights organizations, beyond the impact of the announcement itself, nothing changed. In 2017, the Danish parliament abolished the F64 Gender identity disorders. The \"DSM-5\" refers to the topic as \"gender dysphoria\" (GD)", "Medical and surgical procedures exist for transsexual and some transgender people, though most categories of transgender people as described above are not known for seeking the following treatments. Hormone replacement therapy for trans men induces beard growth and masculinizes skin, hair, voice, and fat distribution. Hormone replacement therapy for trans women feminizes fat distribution and breasts. Laser hair removal or electrolysis removes excess hair for trans women. Surgical procedures for trans women feminize the voice, skin, face, Adam's apple, breasts, waist, buttocks, and genitals. Surgical procedures for trans", "Legal procedures exist in some jurisdictions which allow individuals to change their legal gender or name to reflect their gender identity. Requirements for these procedures vary from an explicit formal diagnosis of transsexualism, to a diagnosis of gender identity disorder, to a letter from a physician that attests the individual's gender transition or having established a different gender role. In 1994, the DSM IV entry was changed from \"Transsexual\" to \"Gender Identity Disorder\". In many places, transgender people are not legally protected from discrimination in the workplace or in public accommodations. A report released in February 2011 found that 90% of transgender people faced discrimination at work and were unemployed at double the rate of the general population, and over half had been harassed or turned away when attempting to access public services. Members of the transgender community also encounter high levels of discrimination in health care.", "36 countries in Europe require a mental health diagnosis for legal gender recognition and 20 countries still require sterilisation. In April 2017, the European Court of Human Rights ruled that requiring sterilisation for legal gender recognition violates human rights.", "Since 2014 it has been possible for adults without the requirement of a psychiatric evaluation,", "In November 2017, the Federal Constitutional Court ruled that the civil status law must allow a third gender option. Thus officially recognising \"third sex\" meaning that birth certificates will not have blank gender entries for intersex people. The ruling came after an intersex person, who is neither a man nor woman according to chromosomal analysis, brought a legal challenge after attempting to change their registered sex to \"inter\" or \"divers\".", "Jurisdiction over legal classification of sex in Canada is assigned to the provinces and territories. This includes legal change of gender classification. On June 19, 2017 Bill C-16, after having passed the legislative process in the House of Commons of Canada and the Senate of Canada, became law upon receiving Royal Assent", "In the United States, a federal bill to protect workers from discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity, the Employment Non-Discrimination Act, has stalled and failed several times over the past two decades. Individual states and cities have begun passing their own non-discrimination ordinances. In New York, for example, Governor David Paterson signed into law New York's first statute to include transgender protections in September 2010. Nicole Maines, a trans girl, took a case to Maine's Supreme Court in June, 2013. She argued that being denied access to her high school's women's restroom was a violation of Maine's Human Rights Act; one state judge has disagreed with her, but Maines won her lawsuit against the Orono school district in January 2014 before", "In April 2014, the Supreme Court of India declared transgender to be a 'third gender' in Indian law. The transgender community in India (made up of Hijras and others) has a long history in India and in Hindu mythology. Justice KS Radhakrishnan noted in his decision that, \"Seldom, our", "The Roman Catholic Church has been involved in the outreach to LGBT community for", "Some feminists and feminist groups are supportive of transgender people, but others are not. Though second-wave feminism argued for the sex and gender distinction, some feminists believed there was a conflict between transgender identity", "A study of Swedes estimated a ratio of 1.4:1 trans women to", "Little is known about the prevalence of transgender people in the general population and reported prevalence estimates are greatly affected by variable definitions of transgender. According to a recent systematic review, an estimated 9.2 out of every 100,000 people have received or requested gender affirmation surgery or transgender hormone therapy; 6.8 out of every 100,000 people have received a transgender-specific diagnoses; and 355 out of every 100,000 people self-identify as transgender. These findings underscore the value of using consistent terminology related to studying the experience of transgender, as studies that explore surgical or hormonal gender affirmation therapy may or may not be connected with others that follow a diagnosis of “transsexualism,” “gender identity disorder,” or “gender dysphoria,” none of which may relate with those that assess self-reported identity. Common terminology across studies does not yet exist, so population numbers may be inconsistent, depending on how they are being counted.", "According to Amnesty International, 1.5 million transgender people live in the European Union, making up 0.3% of the population.", "A 2011 survey conducted by the Equality and Human Rights Commission in the UK found that of 10,026 respondents, 1.4% would be classified into a gender minority group. The survey also showed that 1% had gone through any part of a gender reassignment process (including thoughts or actions).", "", "The \"Trans PULSE\" survey conducted in 2009 and 2010 suggest that as many as 1 in 200 adults may be trans (transgender, transsexual, or transitioned) in the Canadian province of Ontario. The 2017 survey of Canadian LGBT+ people called \"LGBT+ Realities Survey\"", "The Social Security Administration, since 1936, has tracked the sex of citizens. Using this information, along with the Census data, Benjamin Cerf Harris tracked the prevalence of citizens changing to names associated with the opposite sex or changing sex marker. Harris found that such changes had occurred as early as 1936. He estimated that 89,667 individuals included in the 2010 Census had changed to an opposite-gendered name, 21,833 of whom had also changed sex marker. Prevalence in the States varied, from 1.4 to 10.6 per 100,000. While most people legally changed both name and sex, about a quarter of people changed name, and then five years later changed sex. An earlier estimate in", "In Latin American cultures, a travesti is a person who has been assigned male at birth and who has a feminine, transfeminine, or \"femme\" gender identity. Travestis generally undergo hormonal treatment, use female gender expression including new names and pronouns from the masculine ones they were given when assigned a sex, and might use breast implants, but they are not offered or do not desire sex-reassignment surgery. Travesti might be regarded as a gender in itself (a \"third gender\"), a mix between man and woman (\"intergender/androgynes\"), or the presence of both masculine and feminine identities in a single person (\"bigender\"). They are framed", "", "In Thailand and Laos, the term kathoey is used to refer to male-to-female transgender people and effeminate gay men. Transgender people have also been documented in Iran, Japan, Nepal, Indonesia, Vietnam, South Korea, Singapore, and the greater Chinese region, including Hong Kong, Taiwan, and the People's Republic of China. The", "In what is now the United States and Canada, some Native American and First Nations cultures traditionally recognize the existence of more than two genders, such as the Zuni male-bodied \"lhamana\", the Lakota male-bodied \"winkte\", and the Mohave male-bodied \"alyhaa\" and female-bodied \"hwamee\". These traditional people, along", "Among the ancient Middle Eastern Akkadian people, a \"salzikrum\" was a person who appeared biologically female but had distinct male traits. \"Salzikrum\" is a compound word meaning \"male daughter.\" According to the Code of Hammurabi, \"salzikrūm\" had inheritance rights like that of priestesses; they inherited from their fathers, unlike regular daughters. A \"salzikrum's\" father could also stipulate that she inherit a certain amount. In Ancient Rome, the Gallae were castrated followers of the Phrygian goddess Cybele and can be regarded as transgender in today's terms. In early Medina, gender-variant male-to-female Islamic people were acknowledged in the form of the Mukhannathun. Mahu is a traditional third gender in Hawai'i and Tahiti. Mahu are valued as teachers, caretakers of culture, and healers, such as Kapaemahu. Also, in Fa'asamoa traditions, the Samoan culture allows a specific role for male to female transgender individuals as Fa'afafine.", "Transgender people vary greatly in choosing when, whether, and how to disclose their transgender status to family, close friends, and others. The prevalence of discrimination and violence (transgender people are 28% more likely to be victims of violence) against transgender persons can make coming out a risky decision. Fear of retaliatory behavior, such as being removed from the parental home while underage, is a cause for", "As more transgender people are represented and included within the realm of mass culture, the stigma that is associated with being transgender can influence the decisions, ideas, and thoughts based upon it. Media representation, culture industry, and social marginalization all hint at popular culture standards and the applicability and significance to mass culture as well. These terms play an important role in the formation of notions for those", "", "International Transgender Day of Visibility is an annual holiday occurring on March 31 dedicated to celebrating", "Transgender Awareness Week is a one-week celebration leading up to Transgender Day of Remembrance. The", "Transgender Day of Remembrance (TDOR) is held every year on November 20 in honor", "Annual marches, protests or gatherings take place around the world for transgender issues, often taking place during the", "A common symbol for the transgender community is the Transgender Pride Flag, which was designed by the American transgender woman Monica Helms in 1999, and was first shown at a pride parade in Phoenix, Arizona in 2000. The flag consists of five horizontal stripes: light blue, pink, white, pink, and light blue. Helms describes the meaning of the flag as follows: Other transgender symbols include the butterfly (symbolizing transformation or metamorphosis), and a pink/light blue yin and yang symbol. Several gender symbols have been used to represent transgender people, including ⚥ and ⚧." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Career.", "1950s.", "James Bond: 1962–1971, 1983.", "Beyond Bond.", "Retirement.", "Personal life.", "Political opinions.", "Tax status." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Thomas Sean Connery, named Thomas after his grandfather, was born in Fountainbridge, Edinburgh, Scotland on 25 August 1930. His mother, Euphemia \"Effie\" McBain McLean, was a cleaning woman. She was born the daughter of Neil McLean and Helen Forbes Ross, and named after her father's mother Euphemia McBain, wife of John McLean and daughter of William McBain from Ceres in Fife. Connery's father, Joseph Connery, was a factory worker and lorry driver. His paternal grandfather's parents emigrated to Scotland from Ireland in the mid-19th century. The remainder of his family was of Scottish descent, and his maternal great-grandparents were native Scottish Gaelic speakers from Fife (unusually, for a speaker of the language), and Uig on Skye. His father was a Roman Catholic, and his mother was a Protestant. He has a younger brother, Neil. Connery has said that he was called Sean, his middle name, long before becoming an actor, explaining that when he was young he had an Irish friend named Séamus and that those who knew them both had decided to call Connery by his middle name whenever both were present. He was generally referred to in his youth as \"Tommy\". Although he was small in primary school, he grew rapidly around the age of 12, reaching his full adult height of at 18. He was known during his teen years as \"Big Tam\", and has stated that he lost his virginity to an adult woman in an ATS uniform at the age of 14. Connery's first job was as a milkman in Edinburgh with St. Cuthbert's Co-operative Society. In 2009 Connery recalled a conversation in a taxi: Connery then joined the Royal Navy, during which time he acquired two tattoos, of which his official website says \"unlike many tattoos, his were not frivolous—his tattoos reflect two of his lifelong commitments: his family and Scotland.... One tattoo is a tribute to his parents and reads 'Mum and Dad,' and the other is self-explanatory, 'Scotland Forever.'\" Connery was later discharged from the navy on medical grounds because of a duodenal ulcer, a condition that affected most of the males in previous generations of his family. Afterwards, he returned to the co-op, then worked as, among other things, a lorry driver, a lifeguard at Portobello swimming baths, a labourer, an artist's model for the Edinburgh College of Art, and after a suggestion by former Mr. Scotland, Archie Brennan, a coffin polisher. The modelling earned him 15 shillings an hour. Artist Richard Demarco, at the time a student who painted several early pictures of Connery, described him as \"very straight, slightly shy, too, too beautiful for words, a virtual Adonis\". Connery began bodybuilding at the age of 18, and from 1951 trained heavily with Ellington, a former gym instructor in the British Army. While his official website claims he was third in the 1950 Mr. Universe contest, most sources place him in the 1953 competition, either third in the Junior class or failing to place in the Tall Man classification. Connery stated that he was soon deterred from bodybuilding when he found that the Americans frequently beat him in competitions because of sheer muscle size and, unlike Connery, refused to participate in athletic activity which could make them lose muscle mass. Connery was a keen footballer, having played for Bonnyrigg Rose in his younger days. He was offered a trial with East Fife. While on tour with \"South Pacific\", Connery played in a football match against a local team that Matt Busby, manager of Manchester United, happened to be scouting. According to reports, Busby was impressed with his physical prowess and offered Connery a contract worth £25 a week () immediately after the game. Connery admits that he was tempted to accept, but he recalls, \"I realised that a top-class footballer could be over the hill by the age of 30, and I was already 23. I decided to become an actor and it turned out to be one of my more intelligent moves.\"", "", "Seeking to supplement his income, Connery helped out backstage at the King's Theatre in late 1951. He became interested in the proceedings, and a career was launched. During a bodybuilding competition held in London in 1953, one of the competitors mentioned that auditions were being held for a production of \"South Pacific\", and Connery landed a small part as one of the Seabees chorus boys. By the time the production reached Edinburgh, he had been given the part of Marine Cpl Hamilton Steeves and was understudying two of the juvenile leads, and his salary was raised from £12 to £14–10s a week. The production returned the following year out of popular demand, and Connery was promoted to the featured role of Lieutenant Buzz Adams, which Larry Hagman had portrayed in the West End. While in Edinburgh, Connery was targeted by the Valdor gang, one of the most violent in the city. He was first approached by them in a billiard hall where he prevented them from stealing his jacket and was later followed by six gang members to a 15-foot-high balcony at the Palais. There Connery launched an attack singlehandedly against the gang members, grabbing one by the throat and another by a biceps and cracked their heads together. From then on he was treated with great respect by the gang and gained a reputation as a \"hard man\". Connery first met Michael Caine at a party during the production of \"South Pacific\" in 1954, and the two later became close friends. During the production of \"South Pacific\" at the Opera House, Manchester over the Christmas period of 1954, Connery developed a serious interest in the theatre through American actor Robert Henderson who lent him copies of the Henrik Ibsen works \"Hedda Gabler\", \"The Wild Duck\", and \"When We Dead Awaken\", and later listed works by the likes of Marcel Proust, Leo Tolstoy, Ivan Turgenev, George Bernard Shaw, James Joyce and William Shakespeare for him to digest. Henderson urged him to take elocution lessons and got him parts at the Maida Vale Theatre in London. He had already begun a film career, having been an extra in Herbert Wilcox's 1954 musical \"Lilacs in the Spring\" alongside Anna Neagle. Although Connery had secured several roles as extras, he was struggling to make ends meet, and was forced to accept a part-time job as a babysitter for journalist Peter Noble and his actress wife Mary, which earned him 10 shillings a night. He met Hollywood actress Shelley Winters one night at Noble's house, who described Connery as \"one of the tallest and most charming and masculine Scotsmen\" she'd ever seen, and later spent many evenings with the Connery brothers drinking beer. Around this time Connery was residing at TV presenter Llew Gardner's house. Henderson landed Connery a role in a £6 a week Q Theatre production of Agatha Christie's \"Witness for the Prosecution\", during which he met and became friends with fellow-Scot Ian Bannen. This role was followed by \"Point of Departure\" and \"A Witch in Time\" at Kew, a role as Pentheus opposite Yvonne Mitchell in \"The Bacchae\" at the Oxford Playhouse, and a role opposite Jill Bennett in Eugene O'Neill's production of \"Anna Christie\". During his time at the Oxford Theatre, Connery won a brief part as a boxer in the TV series \"The Square Ring\", before being spotted by Canadian director Alvin Rakoff, who gave him multiple roles in \"The Condemned\", shot on location in Dover in Kent. In 1956, Connery appeared in the theatrical production of \"Epitaph\", and played a minor role as a hoodlum in the \"Ladies of the Manor\" episode of the BBC Television police series \"Dixon of Dock Green\". This was followed by small television parts in \"Sailor of Fortune\" and \"The Jack Benny Program\". In early 1957, Connery hired agent Richard Hatton who got him his first film role, as Spike, a minor gangster with a speech impediment in Montgomery Tully's \"No Road Back\" alongside Skip Homeier, Paul Carpenter, Patricia Dainton and Norman Wooland. In April 1957, Rakoff—after being disappointed by Jack Palance—decided to give the young actor his first chance in a leading role, and cast Connery as Mountain McLintock in BBC Television's production of \"Requiem For a Heavyweight\", which also starred Warren Mitchell and Jacqueline Hill. He then played a rogue lorry driver, Johnny Yates, in Cy Endfield's \"Hell Drivers\" (1957) alongside Stanley Baker, Herbert Lom, Peggy Cummins and Patrick McGoohan. Later in 1957, Connery appeared in Terence Young's poorly received MGM action picture \"Action of the Tiger\" opposite Van Johnson, Martine Carol, Herbert Lom and Gustavo Rojo; the film was shot on location in southern Spain. He also had a minor role in Gerald Thomas's thriller \"Time Lock\" (1957) as a welder, appearing alongside Robert Beatty, Lee Patterson, Betty McDowall and Vincent Winter; this commenced filming on 1 December 1956 at Beaconsfield Studios. Connery had a major role in the melodrama \"Another Time, Another Place\" (1958) as a British reporter named Mark Trevor, caught in a love affair opposite Lana Turner and Barry Sullivan. During filming, star Turner's possessive gangster boyfriend, Johnny Stompanato, who was visiting from Los Angeles, believed she was having an affair with Connery. Connery and Turner had attended West End shows and London restaurants together. Stompanato stormed onto the film set and pointed a gun at Connery, only to have Connery disarm him and knock him flat on his back. Stompanato was banned from the set. Two Scotland Yard detectives advised Stompanato to leave and escorted him to the airport, where he boarded a plane back to the US. Connery later recounted that he had to lie low for a while after receiving threats from men linked to Stompanato's boss, Mickey Cohen. In 1959 Connery landed a leading role in Robert Stevenson's Walt Disney Productions film \"Darby O'Gill and the Little People\" (1959) alongside Albert Sharpe, Janet Munro, and Jimmy O'Dea. The film is a tale about a wily Irishman and his battle of wits with leprechauns. Upon the film's initial release, A. H. Weiler of \"The New York Times\" praised the cast (save Connery whom he described as \"merely tall, dark, and handsome\") and thought the film an \"overpoweringly charming concoction of standard Gaelic tall stories, fantasy and romance.\" He also had prominent television roles in Rudolph Cartier's 1961 productions of \"Adventure Story\" and \"Anna Karenina\" for BBC Television, in the latter of which he co-starred with Claire Bloom.", "Connery's breakthrough came in the role of British secret agent James Bond. He was reluctant to commit to a film series, but understood that if the films succeeded, his career would greatly benefit. He played 007 in the first five Bond films: \"Dr. No\" (1962), \"From Russia with Love\" (1963), \"Goldfinger\" (1964), \"Thunderball\" (1965), and \"You Only Live Twice\" (1967) – then appeared again as Bond in \"Diamonds Are Forever\" (1971) and \"Never Say Never Again\" (1983). All seven films were commercially successful. James Bond, as portrayed by Connery, was selected as the third-greatest hero in cinema history by the American Film Institute. Connery's selection for the role of James Bond owed a lot to Dana Broccoli, wife of producer Albert \"Cubby\" Broccoli, who is reputed to have been instrumental in persuading her husband that Connery was the right man. James Bond's creator, Ian Fleming, originally doubted Connery's casting, saying, \"He's not what I envisioned of James Bond looks\", and \"I'm looking for Commander Bond and not an overgrown stunt-man\", adding that Connery (muscular, 6' 2\", and a Scot) was unrefined. Fleming's girlfriend Blanche Blackwell told him that Connery had the requisite sexual charisma, and Fleming changed his mind after the successful \"Dr. No\" première. He was so impressed, he wrote Connery's heritage into the character. In his 1964 novel \"You Only Live Twice\", Fleming wrote that Bond's father was Scottish and from Glencoe. Connery's portrayal of Bond owes much to stylistic tutelage from director Terence Young, which helped polish the actor while using his physical grace and presence for the action. Lois Maxwell, who played Miss Moneypenny, related that \"Terence took Sean under his wing. He took him to dinner, showed him how to walk, how to talk, even how to eat.\" The tutoring was successful; Connery received thousands of fan letters a week after \"Dr. No’s\" opening, and the actor became a major male sex symbol in film. During the filming of \"Thunderball\" in 1965, Connery's life was in danger in the sequence with the sharks in Emilio Largo's pool. He had been concerned about this threat when he read the script. Connery insisted that Ken Adam build a special Plexiglas partition inside the pool, but this was not a fixed structure, and one of the sharks managed to pass through it. He had to abandon the pool immediately. In 2005, \"From Russia with Love\" was adapted by Electronic Arts into a video game, titled \"James Bond 007: From Russia with Love\", which featured all-new voice work by Connery, recorded by Terry Manning in the Bahamas, as well as his likeness, and those of several of the film's supporting cast.", "Although Bond had made him a star, Connery grew tired of the role and the pressure the franchise put on him, saying \"[I am] fed up to here with the whole Bond bit\" and \"I have always hated that damned James Bond. I'd like to kill him\". Michael Caine said of the situation, \"If you were his friend in these early days you didn't raise the subject of Bond. He was, and is, a much better actor than just playing James Bond, but he became synonymous with Bond. He'd be walking down the street and people would say, \"Look, there's James Bond.\" That was particularly upsetting to him.\" While making the Bond films, Connery also starred in other films such as Alfred Hitchcock's \"Marnie\" (1964) and \"The Hill\" (1965). Connery was offered the lead role in Michaelangelo Antonioni's film about \"swinging London\", \"Blowup\" (1966), but turned it down because Antonioni would not show him the complete script: only a summary that was stored in a cigarette packet. Having played Bond six times, Connery's global popularity was such that he shared a Golden Globe Henrietta Award with Charles Bronson for \"World Film Favorite – Male\" in 1972. He appeared in John Huston’s \"The Man Who Would Be King\" (1975), starring opposite Michael Caine, with both actors regarding it as their favourite film. The same year, he appeared in \"The Wind and the Lion\", and in 1976 played Robin Hood in \"Robin and Marian\" where he starred opposite Audrey Hepburn who played Maid Marian. Film critic Roger Ebert – who had praised the double act of Connery and Caine in \"The Man Who Would Be King\" – praised Connery’s chemistry with Hepburn, writing, \"Connery and Hepburn seem to have arrived at a tacit understanding between themselves about their characters. They glow. They really do seem in love.\" In the 1970s Connery was part of ensemble casts in films such as \"Murder on the Orient Express\" (1974) with Vanessa Redgrave and John Gielgud, and \"A Bridge Too Far\" (1977) co-starring Dirk Bogarde and Laurence Olivier. In 1981 Connery appeared in the film \"Time Bandits\" as Agamemnon. The casting choice derives from a joke Michael Palin included in the script, in which he describes the character removing his mask as being \"Sean Connery — or someone of equal but cheaper stature\". When shown the script, Connery was happy to play the supporting role. In 1982, Connery narrated \"G'olé!\", the official film of the 1982 FIFA World Cup. Connery agreed to reprise Bond as an ageing agent 007 in \"Never Say Never Again\", released in October 1983. The title, contributed by his wife, refers to his earlier statement that he would \"never again\" return to the role. Although the film performed well at the box office, it was plagued with production problems: strife between the director and producer, financial problems, the Fleming estate trustees' attempts to halt the film, and Connery's wrist being broken by fight choreographer, Steven Seagal. As a result of his negative experiences during filming, Connery became unhappy with the major studios and did not make any films for two years. Following the successful European production \"The Name of the Rose\" (1986), for which he won a BAFTA award, Connery's interest in more commercial material was revived. That same year, a supporting role in \"Highlander\" showcased his ability to play older mentors to younger leads, which became a recurring role in many of his later films. The following year, his acclaimed performance as a hard-nosed Irish-American cop in \"The Untouchables\" (1987) earned him his only Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor. His subsequent box-office hits included \"Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade\" (1989), in which he played Henry Jones, Sr., the title character's father, \"The Hunt for Red October\" (1990) (where he was reportedly called in at two weeks' notice), \"The Russia House\" (1990), \"The Rock\" (1996), and \"Entrapment\" (1999). In 1996, he voiced the role of Draco the dragon in the film \"Dragonheart\". In 1998, Connery received a BAFTA Academy Fellowship Award. Connery's later films included several box office and critical disappointments such as \"First Knight\" (1995), \"Just Cause\" (1995), \"The Avengers\" (1998), and \"The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen\" (2003); he received positive reviews for his performance in \"Finding Forrester\" (2000). He also received a Crystal Globe for outstanding artistic contribution to world cinema. In a 2003 poll conducted by Channel 4 Connery was ranked eighth on their list of the 100 Greatest Movie Stars. The failure of \"The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen\" was especially frustrating for Connery, who sensed during shooting that the production was \"going off the rails\" announced that the director, Stephen Norrington should be \"locked up for insanity\", and spent considerable effort in trying to salvage the film through the editing process, ultimately deciding to retire from acting rather than go through such stress ever again. Connery was offered the role of Gandalf in \"The Lord of the Rings\" series but declined it, claiming he didn't understand the script. Connery was reportedly offered $30 million along with 15 percent of the worldwide box office receipts for the role, which—had he accepted—would have earned him $450 million. Connery also turned down the opportunity to appear as the Architect in \"The Matrix\" trilogy for similar reasons. Connery's disillusionment with the \"idiots now making films in Hollywood\" was cited as a reason for his eventual decision to retire from film-making. In 2005 he recorded voiceovers for a new video game version of his Bond film \"From Russia with Love\". In an interview on the game disc, Connery stated that he was very happy that the producers of the game (EA Games) had approached him to voice Bond.", "When Connery received the American Film Institute's Lifetime Achievement Award on 8 June 2006, he confirmed his retirement from acting. On 7 June 2007, he denied rumours that he would appear in the fourth \"Indiana Jones\" film, stating that \"retirement is just too much damned fun\". In 2010, a bronze bust sculpture of Connery was placed in Tallinn, the capital of Estonia. The work is located outside Tallinn's Scottish Club, whose membership includes Estonian Scotophiles and a handful of expatriate Scots. Connery briefly came out of retirement in 2012 by voice acting the title character in the animated movie \"Sir Billi the Vet\". Connery served as executive producer for an expanded 80-minute version.", "During the production of \"South Pacific\" in the mid-1950s, Connery dated a \"dark-haired beauty with a ballerina's figure\", Carol Sopel, but was warned off by her Jewish family. He then dated Julie Hamilton, daughter of documentary filmmaker and feminist Jill Craigie. Given Connery's rugged appearance and rough charm, Hamilton initially thought he was an appalling person and was not attracted to him until she saw him in a kilt, declaring him to be the most beautiful thing she'd ever seen in her life. He also shared a mutual attraction with jazz singer Maxine Daniels, whom he met at the Empire Theatre. He made a pass at her, but she informed him that she was already happily married with a baby daughter. Connery was married to actress Diane Cilento from 1962 to 1973, though they separated in 1971. They had a son, actor Jason Connery. In her autobiography in 2006 she alleged that he had abused her mentally and physically during their relationship; Connery had been quoted as saying that occasionally hitting a woman was \"no big deal\". Connery cancelled an appearance at the Scottish Parliament because of the controversy, and said he had been misquoted and that any abuse of women was unacceptable. Connery was separated in the early 1970s when he dated Jill St. John, Lana Wood, Carole Mallory and Magda Konopka. Connery has been married to Moroccan-French painter Micheline Roquebrune (born 1929) since 1975. The marriage has survived a well-documented affair Connery had in the late 1980s with Lynsey de Paul. A keen golfer, Connery owned the Domaine de Terre Blanche in the South of France for twenty years (from 1979) where he planned to build his dream golf course on the of land; the dream was realised when he sold it to German billionaire Dietmar Hopp in 1999. He has been awarded an honorary rank of \"Shodan\" (1st dan) in Kyokushin karate. Connery was knighted by Elizabeth II at an investiture ceremony at Holyrood Palace in Edinburgh on 5 July 2000. He had been nominated for a knighthood in 1997 and 1998, but these nominations were reported to have been vetoed by Donald Dewar due to Connery's political views. Sean Connery has a villa in Kranidi, Greece. His neighbour is King Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands, with whom he shares a helicopter platform. Michael Caine (who co-starred with Connery in \"The Man Who Would Be King\" in 1975) is among Connery's closest friends. Connery is a keen supporter of Scottish Premiership football club Rangers F.C., having changed his allegiance from Celtic.", "Connery is a member of the Scottish National Party, a centre-left political party campaigning for Scottish independence from the United Kingdom, and has supported the party financially and through personal appearances. His funding of the SNP ceased in 2001, when the UK Parliament passed legislation that prohibited overseas funding of political activities in the UK.", "In response to accusations that he was a tax exile, Connery released documents in 2003 showing that he had paid £3.7 million in UK taxes between 1997/98 and 2002/03; critics pointed out that had he been continuously resident in the UK for tax purposes, his tax rate would have been far higher. In the run-up to the 2014 Scottish independence referendum, Connery's brother Neil said that Connery would not come to Scotland to rally independence supporters since his tax exile status greatly limited the number of days he could spend in the country. After Connery sold his Marbella villa in 1999, Spanish authorities launched an investigation into alleged tax evasion by him and his wife, alleging that the Spanish treasury had been defrauded of £5.5 million. Connery was subsequently cleared by the Spanish officials but his wife and 16 others were charged with attempting to defraud the Spanish treasury." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Career.", "L.A. Guns (1983–1985).", "Guns N' Roses (1985).", "Death." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Born in the city of Esbjerg, Beich, in his youth, achieved a degree of fame amongst local musicians and fans. He played guitar with several Danish bands, and recorded an album in 1979 with a band called Rock Nalle & The Flames. He was also a member of Mercyful Fate for a brief time, before deciding to move to Los Angeles in pursuit of a career in music.", "", "L.A. Guns were first formed in 1983 by guitarist Tracii Guns and drummer Rob Gardner. The first lineup included Guns, Beich, Gardner and singer Michael Jagosz. The band recorded an EP \"Collector's Edition No. 1\". Shortly after, Jagosz left the band following an arrest involving a bar fight and was replaced by Bill Bailey (who would later change his name to Axl Rose). Bailey had previously fronted Rapidfire with Kevin Lawrence and Hollywood Rose with Izzy Stradlin and Chris Weber. Jagosz came back after Rose left playing with the band for 2 weeks and for 5 shows. When L.A. Guns was reformed in 1985, Beich was replaced by Mick Cripps.", "Hollywood Rose reformed for a New Year's Eve show on New Year's Eve 1984, with Rose, Stradlin, Guns, Gardner and Steve Darrow. In March 1985 L.A. Guns merged with Hollywood Rose, changing their name to Guns N' Roses (combining the names of L.A. Guns and Hollywood Rose) with the lineup composed of Rose, Guns, Stradlin, Beich and Gardner. Beich played his only show with the band on March 26, 1985 before being fired. He was replaced by Duff McKagan. Tracii Guns left the group; he was replaced by Slash. McKagan went on to book shows taking place between Sacramento and Seattle, which was dubbed “The Hell Tour“. During this time, Gardner quit the group and was replaced by Steven Adler. This lineup becoming known as the \"classic lineup\" of Guns N' Roses.", "Beich died on October 16, 1991, drowning in Sankt Jørgens Lake in the center of Copenhagen. Not long before, on August 19, Guns N' Roses had performed in the city. His family believed that he became depressed after leaving Guns N' Roses in 1985 and was heavily abusing drugs before returning to Denmark in 1988. Heroin, and a blood alcohol content of.148, are thought to have contributed to his drowning, but his family still believes it was suicide. Beich is buried in Esbjerg next to his father Aksel, who died in 1995." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Types.", "Themes.", "Persecutory delusions.", "Causes.", "Specific delusions.", "Pathophysiology.", "Diagnosis.", "Definition.", "Criticism.", "Gaslighting.", "Treatment." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Delusions are categorized into four different groups:", "In addition to these categories, delusions often manifest according to a consistent theme. Although delusions can have any theme, certain themes are more common. Some of the more common delusion themes are: Grandiose delusions or delusions of grandeur are principally a subtype of delusional disorder but could possibly feature as a symptom of schizophrenia and manic episodes of bipolar disorder. Grandiose delusions are characterized by fantastical beliefs that one is famous, omnipotent or otherwise very powerful. The delusions are generally fantastic, often with a supernatural, science-fictional, or religious bent. In colloquial usage, one who overestimates one's own abilities, talents, stature or situation is sometimes said to have \"delusions of grandeur\". This is generally due to excessive pride, rather than any actual delusions. Grandiose delusions or delusions of grandeur can also be associated with megalomania.", "Persecutory delusions are the most common type of delusions and involve the theme of being followed, harassed, cheated, poisoned or drugged, conspired against, spied on, attacked, or otherwise obstructed in the pursuit of goals. Persecutory delusions are a condition in which the affected person wrongly believes that they are being persecuted. Specifically, they have been defined as containing two central elements: The individual thinks that: According to the DSM-IV-TR, persecutory delusions are the most common form of delusions in schizophrenia, where the person believes they are \"being tormented, followed, sabotaged, tricked, spied on, or ridiculed.\" In the DSM-IV-TR, persecutory delusions are the main feature of the persecutory type of delusional disorder. When the focus is to remedy some injustice by legal action, they are sometimes called \"querulous paranoia\".", "Explaining the causes of delusions continues to be challenging and several theories have been developed. One is the genetic or biological theory, which states that close relatives of people with delusional disorder are at increased risk of delusional traits. Another theory is the dysfunctional cognitive processing, which states that delusions may arise from distorted ways people have of explaining life to themselves. A third theory is called motivated or defensive delusions. This one states that some of those persons who are predisposed might suffer the onset of delusional disorder in those moments when coping with life and maintaining high self-esteem becomes a significant challenge. In this case, the person views others as the cause of their personal difficulties in order to preserve a positive self-view. This condition is more common among people who have poor hearing or sight. Also, ongoing stressors have been associated with a higher possibility of developing delusions. Examples of such stressors are immigration, low socioeconomic status, and even possibly the accumulation of smaller daily hassles.", "The top two factors mainly concerned in the germination of delusions are: 1. Disorder of brain functioning; and 2. background influences of temperament and personality. Higher levels of dopamine qualify as a symptom of disorders of brain function. That they are needed to sustain certain delusions was examined by a preliminary study on delusional disorder (a psychotic syndrome) instigated to clarify if schizophrenia had a dopamine psychosis. There were positive results - delusions of jealousy and persecution had different levels of dopamine metabolite HVA and homovanillyl alcohol (which may have been genetic). These can be only regarded as tentative results; the study called for future research with a larger population. It is too simplistic to say that a certain measure of dopamine will bring about a specific delusion. Studies show age and gender to be influential and it is most likely that HVA levels change during the life course of some syndromes. On the influence of personality, it has been said: \"Jaspers considered there is a subtle change in personality due to the illness itself; and this creates the condition for the development of the delusional atmosphere in which the delusional intuition arises.\" Cultural factors have \"a decisive influence in shaping delusions\". For example, delusions of guilt and punishment are frequent in a Western, Christian country like Austria, but not in Pakistan, where it is more likely persecution. Similarly, in a series of case studies, delusions of guilt and punishment were found in Austrian patients with Parkinson's being treated with l-dopa, a dopamine agonist.", "The two-factor model of delusions posits that dysfunction in both belief formation systems and belief evaluation systems are necessary for delusions. Dysfunction in evaluations systems localized to the right lateral prefrontal cortex, regardless of delusion content, is supported by neuroimaging studies and is congruent with its role in conflict monitoring in healthy persons. Abnormal activation and reduced volume is seen in people with delusions, as well as in disorders associated with delusions such as frontotemporal dementia, psychosis and Lewy body dementia. Furthermore, lesions to this region are associated with \"jumping to conclusions\", damage to this region is associated with post-stroke delusions, and hypometabolism this region associated with caudate strokes presenting with delusions. The aberrant salience model suggests that delusions are a result of people assigning excessive importance to irrelevant stimuli. In support of this hypothesis, regions normally associated with the salience network demonstrate reduced grey matter in people with delusions, and the neurotransmitter dopamine, which is widely implicated in salience processing, is also widely implicated in psychotic disorders. Specific regions have been associated with specific types of delusions. The volume of the hippocampus and parahippocampus is related to paranoid delusions in Alzheimer's disease, and has been reported to be abnormal post mortem in one person with delusions. Capgras delusions have been associated with occipito-temporal damage and may be related to failure to elicit normal emotions or memories in response to faces.", "The modern definition and Jaspers' original criteria have been criticised, as counter-examples can be shown for every defining feature. Studies on psychiatric patients show that delusions vary in intensity and conviction over time, which suggests that certainty and incorrigibility are not necessary components of a delusional belief. Delusions do not necessarily have to be false or 'incorrect inferences about external reality'. Some religious or spiritual beliefs by their nature may not be falsifiable, and hence cannot be described as false or incorrect, no matter whether the person holding these beliefs was diagnosed as delusional or not. In other situations the delusion may turn out to be true belief. For example, in delusional jealousy, where a person believes that their partner is being unfaithful (and may even follow them into the bathroom believing them to be seeing their lover even during the briefest of partings), it may actually be true that the partner is having sexual relations with another person. In this case, the delusion does not cease to be a delusion because the content later turns out to be verified as true or the partner actually chose to engage in the behavior of which they were being accused. In other cases, the belief may be mistakenly assumed to be false by a doctor or psychiatrist assessing it, just because it \"seems\" to be unlikely, bizarre or held with excessive conviction. Psychiatrists rarely have the time or resources to check the validity of a person’s claims leading to some true beliefs to be erroneously classified as delusional. This is known as the Martha Mitchell effect, after the wife of the attorney general who alleged that illegal activity was taking place in the White House. At the time, her claims were thought to be signs of mental illness, and only after the Watergate scandal broke was she proved right (and hence sane). Similar factors have led to criticisms of Jaspers' definition of true delusions as being ultimately 'un-understandable'. Critics (such as R. D. Laing) have argued that this leads to the diagnosis of delusions being based on the subjective understanding of a particular psychiatrist, who may not have access to all the information that might make a belief otherwise interpretable. R. D. Laing's hypothesis has been applied to some forms of projective therapy to \"fix\" a delusional system so that it cannot be altered by the patient. Psychiatric researchers at Yale University, Ohio State University and the Community Mental Health Center of Middle Georgia have used novels and motion picture films as the focus. Texts, plots and cinematography are discussed and the delusions approached tangentially. This use of fiction to decrease the malleability of a delusion was employed in a joint project by science-fiction author Philip Jose Farmer and Yale psychiatrist A. James Giannini. They wrote the novel \"Red Orc's Rage\", which, recursively, deals with delusional adolescents who are treated with a form of projective therapy. In this novel's fictional setting other novels written by Farmer are discussed and the characters are symbolically integrated into the delusions of fictional patients. This particular novel was then applied to real-life clinical settings. Another difficulty with the diagnosis of delusions is that almost all of these features can be found in \"normal\" beliefs. Many religious beliefs hold exactly the same features, yet are not universally considered delusional. For instance, if a person was holding a true belief then they will of course persist with it. This can cause the disorder to be misdiagnosed by psychiatrists. These factors have led the psychiatrist Anthony David to note that \"there is no acceptable (rather than accepted) definition of a delusion.\" In practice, psychiatrists tend to diagnose a belief as delusional if it is either patently bizarre, causing significant distress, or excessively pre-occupying the patient, especially if the person is subsequently unswayed in belief by counter-evidence or reasonable arguments. It is important to distinguish true delusions from other symptoms such as anxiety, fear, or paranoia. To diagnose delusions a mental state examination may be used. This test includes appearance, mood, affect, behavior, rate and continuity of speech, evidence of hallucinations or abnormal beliefs, thought content, orientation to time, place and person, attention and concentration, insight and judgment, as well as short-term memory. Johnson-Laird suggests that delusions may be viewed as the natural consequence of failure to distinguish conceptual relevance. That is, the person takes irrelevant information and puts it in the form of disconnected experiences, then it is taken to be relevant in a manner that suggests false causal connections. Furthermore, the person takes the relevant information, in the form of counterexamples, and ignores it.", "Although non-specific concepts of madness have been around for several thousand years, the psychiatrist and philosopher Karl Jaspers was the first to define the three main criteria for a belief to be considered delusional in his 1913 book \"General Psychopathology\". These criteria are: Furthermore, when a false belief involves a value judgment, it is only considered a delusion if it is so extreme that it cannot be, or never can be proven true. For example: a man claiming that he flew into the Sun and flew back home. This would be considered a delusion, unless he were speaking figuratively, or if the belief had a cultural or religious source. Robert Trivers writes that delusion is a discrepancy in relation to objective reality, but with a firm conviction in reality of delusional ideas, which is manifested in the \"affective basis of delusion\"", "Some psychiatrists criticize the practice of defining one and the same belief as normal in one culture and pathological in another culture for cultural essentialism. They argue that since cultural influences are mixed, including not only parents and teachers but also peers, friends, books and the internet, and the same cultural influence can have different effects depending on earlier cultural influences, the assumption that culture can be boiled down to a few traceable, distinguishable and statistically quantifiable factors and that everything that does not fall in those factors must be biological, is not a justified assumption. Other critical psychiatrists argue that just because a person's belief is unshaken by one influence does not prove that it would remain unshaken by another. For example, a person whose beliefs are not changed by verbal correction from a psychiatrist, which is how delusion is usually diagnosed, may still change his or her mind when observing empirical evidence, only that psychiatry rarely if ever present patients with such situations.", "Sometimes a correct belief may be mistaken for a delusion, such as when the belief in question is not demonstrably false but is nevertheless considered beyond the realm of possibility. A specific variant of this is when a person is fed lies in an attempt to convince them that they are delusional, a process called gaslighting, after the 1938 play \"Gaslight\", the plot of which centered around the process. Sometimes, gaslighting can be unintentional, for example if a person, or a group of people aim to lie or cover up an issue, it can lead to the victim being gaslighted as well.", "Psychotherapies that may be helpful in delusional disorder include individual psychotherapy, cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), and family therapy." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Tandem and side by side.", "Phases.", "Ab initio.", "Basic training.", "Advanced training.", "Lead-in fighter training.", "Operational conversion.", "Multi-engine trainers.", "Navigation trainers.", "Aerobatic display teams.", "Combat use of trainers.", "The future.", "Historical." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The two seating configurations for trainer aircraft are: pilot and instructor side by side, or in tandem, usually with the pilot in front and the instructor behind. The side-by-side seating configuration has the advantage that pilot and instructor can see each other's actions, allowing the pilot to learn from the instructor and the instructor to correct the student pilot. The tandem configuration has the advantage of being closer to the normal working environment that a fast jet pilot is likely to encounter. It is now the norm for pilots to begin their flight training in an aircraft with side by side seating and to progress to aircraft with tandem seating. This, however, has not always been the case. For example, it was usual to find tandem seating in biplane basic trainers such as the Tiger Moth and the Jungmann, and the British used side by side seating in the operational conversion of some of its fast jets such as the English Electric Lightning.", "Given the expense of military pilot training, air forces typically conduct training in phases to eliminate unsuitable candidates. The cost to those air forces that do not follow a graduated training regimen is not just monetary but also in lives. For example, for many years the Indian Air Force operated without a suitable advanced training aircraft, leading to a high casualty rate as pilots moved to high performance MiG-21 aircraft without suitable assessment of their aptitude for supersonic flight. There are two main areas for instruction, flight training and operational training. In flight training a candidate seeks to develop their flying skills. In operational training the candidate learns to use his or her flying skills through simulated combat, attack and fighter techniques.", "Typically, contemporary military pilots learn initial flying skills in a light aircraft not too dissimilar from civilian training aircraft. In this phase pilot candidates are screened for mental and physical attributes. Aircraft used for this purpose include the Slingsby Firefly, as at one time used by the United States Air Force Academy, and the Scottish Aviation Bulldogs of the RAF. The U.S. replaced the Firefly and the Enhanced Flight Screen Program (EFSP) with the Diamond DA20 and the Initial Flight Training (IFT) program. At the end of this stage, pilot trainees are assessed and those who pass advance to the full pilot training program. Those who are judged unsuitable for a pilot commission, but show other attributes, may be offered the chance to qualify as navigators and weapons officers. Smaller and more financially restricted air forces may use ultra-light aircraft, gliders and motor gliders for this role.", "After the ab-initio phase a candidate may progress to basic, or primary, trainers. These are usually turboprop trainers, like the Pilatus PC-9 and Embraer Tucano. Modern turbo-prop trainers can replicate the handling characteristics of jet aircraft as well as having sufficient performance to assess a candidate's technical ability at an aircraft's controls, reaction speed and the ability to anticipate events. Prior to the availability of high performance turboprops, basic training was conducted with jet aircraft such as the BAC Jet Provost, T-37 Tweet, and Fouga Magister. Those candidates who are not suitable to continue training as fast jet pilots may be offered flying commissions and be trained to fly multi-engined aircraft. Today, the USAF Academy uses light piston-powered aircraft such as the Cirrus SR20 (designated T-53A) for basic cadet flight training.", "Those that progress to training for fast jet flying will then progress to an advanced trainer, typically capable of high subsonic speeds, high-energy manoeuvers, and equipped with systems that simulate modern weapons and surveillance. Examples of such jet trainer aircraft include the supersonic Northrop T-38 Talon, the BAE Hawk, the Dassault/Dornier Alpha Jet, the Aero L-39 and the Yakovlev Yak-130. Effective combat aircraft are a function now of electronics as much as, if not more so than, the aerobatic ability or speed of an aircraft. It is at this stage that a pilot begins to learn to operate radar systems and electronics. Modern advanced trainers feature programmable multi-function displays which can be programmed to simulate different electronic systems and scenarios. Most advanced trainers do not have radar systems of their own, but onboard systems can be programmed to simulate radar contacts. With datalinks and GPS, virtual radar systems can be created with similarly equipped aircraft relaying to each other their positions in real time and onboard computers creating a \"radar display\" based on this information. The aim of programmable displays is to speed pilot training by replicating as far as possible the systems a pilot will find in an operational aircraft.", "Lead-in fighter training (LIFT) utilises advanced jet trainer aircraft with avionics and stores-management capability that emulate operational fighter planes, to provide efficient training in combat scenarios with reduced training costs compared to moving straight to operational conversion. The on-board avionics system may be linked to ground-based systems, and together they can simulate situations such as infrared or radar guided missile, interceptors, air-to-air and surface-to-air missiles, anti-aircraft batteries, radars, chaff and flare countermeasures and collision warnings, in low or dense electronic warfare environments. Systems may also be able to re-enact true-to-life combat situations.", "Most military ground-attack and interceptor aircraft have two-seat trainer versions. These are combat capable operational conversion aircraft types to provide on the job training to pilots who have graduated to this level, and are usually available with little conversion in times of emergency to a reconnaissance or combat role. Most operational conversion aircraft retain the full functionality of the operational version with slight degradations to performance due to increased weight and drag, and possibly reduced range due to a reduced internal fuel load. In some two-seat fighter aircraft such as the Tornado, the operational conversion unit (OCU) aircraft can be created by duplicating flight controls in the rear cockpit. In a normally single-seat aircraft, a second cockpit can be built behind the original cockpit (e.g. the TA-4S variant of the A-4SU Super Skyhawk) or the cockpit can be extended to place the instructor in a second seat behind the pilot. Once they are qualified to fly a specific type of aircraft, pilots will continue with regular training exercises to maintain qualifications on that aircraft and to improve their skills, for example the USAF's \"Red Flag\" exercises. Deployments of small flights of aircraft together with support staff and equipment to exercises conducted by other nations can be used to develop fighting skills and interservice and inter unit competitions in bombing and gunnery between units can also be used to develop those skills. The two-seat aircraft may itself become the basis of an operational aircraft, the second seat being used to create a weapons officer or navigators station in aircraft with originally only a pilot, for example the F-15E Strike Eagle is a development of the F-15D which is a two-seat training version of the F-15 Eagle. In some air forces that have a mix of high- and low-performance aircraft, pilots can be first be assigned to aircraft with a lower level of performance before moving on to the most demanding aircraft. For example, in the Italian Air Force a pilot may begin his service career on the AMX attack aircraft, and as their experience grows, progress to more capable aircraft such as the Tornado IDS. Other air forces, such as Canada, do not do this, and assign first-tour pilots to aircraft such as the CF-18 Hornet.", "Those pilots who train to fly transports, tankers and other multi-engine aircraft begin with small multi-engine aircraft such as the T-44A Pegasus variant of the Beechcraft King Air. Once they have mastered this, they may begin to fly in the right-hand seat of an operational type. Some airforces will seek to use a restricted number of multi-engined aircraft, with the derivatives of a basic aircraft filling different roles so that a pilot qualified on one of its types can easily convert to others in the same family. For example, the Boeing 707 was a popular airliner for conversion to tanker, transport and ELINT variants by numerous air forces.", "A minority of military training aircraft, such as the Beechcraft 18. Vickers Varsity, Hawker Siddeley Dominie and Boeing T-43 were developed from transport designs to train navigators and other rear crews operators. As these navigational trainees are normally learning how to navigate using instruments, they can be seated at consoles within the aircraft cabin and do not require a direct view of the landscape over which the aircraft is flying. The operators of airborne weapons or radar-related systems can be similarly trained, either in training aircraft or in an operational aircraft during training flights.", "Some jet trainers, such as the Aermacchi MB-326, Casa C-101, Folland Gnat, Fouga Magister and British Aerospace Hawk, are used by national formation aerobatic teams. Early jet aerobatic teams tended to use combat types such as the Hawker Hunter, English Electric Lightning, and North American F-100 Super Sabre. As air forces' combat fleets were scaled-down, it made sense for most national display teams to change to lighter training types. A few modifications may be needed to enable coloured smoke to be emitted during displays, but essentially these airframes can still perform their pilot training function.", "In smaller air forces basic trainers, in addition to being used for training, are used to provide air support in the counter-insurgency and airborne forward air control role. Most advanced trainers are capable of carrying and delivering war loads. However, most of these aircraft do not have the counter measures and sensors required to survive alone in a modern high intensity war fighting scenario, for example being vulnerable to MANPADs. However, they may still have a war fighting role in low intensity theatres if operated in conjunction with more capable aircraft. Historically many jet trainers were marketed with specialised attack variants e.g. the BAC Jet Provost/BAC Strikemaster and the Cessna T-37 Tweet/A-37 Dragonfly. Especially against opponents operating without a fighter screen or an effective anti-aircraft capability, such trainer derived attack aircraft could perform adequately. For example, Impala aircraft derived from the Aermacchi MB-326 trainer formed the main strike strength of the South African Air Force in its Bush war, and aircraft such as the Hongdu JL-8 are being acquired for the attack role in low intensity theatres. Despite their vulnerability, even small numbers of weapons-carrying trainer aircraft may achieve a disproportionate effect due to the element of surprise, especially when the attacked side believes to hold air supremacy. Forces that have used light trainer aircraft to great effect include the Biafran use of MFI-9s and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam use of covertly acquired light aircraft. In high-intensity conflicts, advanced trainer type aircraft can have a military utility if they operate under an umbrella of other aerial assets. For example, the Franco-German Dassault/Dornier Alpha Jet had an anti-shipping and light strike role when operating under an air umbrella provided by fighter aircraft, while the RAF planned to use pairs of gun- and AIM-9 Sidewinder-armed Hawk trainers in the point defence role. Each pair of Hawks was to be teamed with a Phantom FGR.2, in effect using the Phantoms as an Airborne Early Warning and Control system. Although never tested it was believed that the Hawk, combined with AIM-9L and flown by some of the best pilots in the RAF including those from the Red Arrows, would have made a viable air defence fighter.", "As the capabilities of front-line aircraft have increased, this has been reflected in increasingly sophisticated advanced trainers. As the costs of developing new aircraft have risen in real terms, it has become more likely that fewer aircraft will be designed specifically for the training role. The advanced trainer was often seen as a stepping stone by most nations in developing a fast jet design and manufacturing capability. With increasing costs, even major air forces will have difficulty reaching the economies of scale to justify development of new advanced trainers. Nations will be required to continue to push the modernisation of existing aircraft (some such as the Hawk dating from the 1970s) or co-operate in the development and procurement of advanced training aircraft. Furthermore, they must better utilise funding available by developing aircraft with an enhanced combat capability by producing operational single-seat variants, and better utilise aircraft on inventory incorporating operational systems either within the aircraft or as external pods. The trend of programmable electronic systems and datalinks is likely to continue with the possibility that ground-based radar systems and processing systems will allow advanced training aircraft to function as if they truly had onboard radar systems, with the cockpit closely replicating the look and feel of an air force's more capable aircraft for maximum familiarity. Programmable engine management and fly-by-wire flight control systems will allow an aircraft to mimic the flight characteristics of frontline aircraft with actual performance being restricted to a pilot's level of ability, with more power and greater agility becoming available as a pilot's skill improves. Training is now also carried out on ground-based simulators.", "Early trainers were often sport aircraft or obsolete combat aircraft. The French used a graduated system in which a pilot learned in progressively more capable aircraft, starting with aircraft that had been modified to prevent them from flying – called \"rouleurs\" or penguins. Pilots who had mastered ground handling would then graduate to lower powered two seaters, before finishing on obsolete fighters. The supply of obsolete aircraft proved inadequate and production of Caudron G.III, Nieuport 83 and other types specifically for training was undertaken. In the United Kingdom, a different training system was used, although it too started out with obsolete aircraft before the Avro 504 and Airco DH.6 became the primary trainers, supplemented until the end of the First World War with obsolete combat aircraft for advanced training. To train the many potential aviators coming from Canada and the US, the Royal Flying Corps Canada was set up, operating Curtiss JN-4 (Can) trainers until the United States began its own training program, using Curtiss JN-4s and Standard J-1s. In Germany, various obsolete two seaters were produced for training purposes, the most numerous being the Albatros C.III. Between the World Wars, purpose built trainers covering a variety of specialties largely replaced obsolete types in the Western armed forces, including aircraft specifically for bombing and gunnery and navigational training. When Germany began rearming in the 1930s, many of the initial aircraft were designed with a dual role, so that when they were obsolete in their combat role they would be used as trainers. By WW2 however their needs exceeded what could be spared from production and although using a number of purpose built designs such as the Bücker Bü 131, relied largely on captured aircraft and obsolete combat types. The United States armed forces standardized on three types – a Primary trainer, of which the Stearman PT-13/PT-17 is the best known, a Basic trainer such as the Vultee BT-13, and an advanced trainer such as the well known North American AT-6 Texan, which would also be widely exported to the Commonwealth countries as the Harvard. In addition, production of various combat types was diverted to training although considerable effort was made to cover all possible types of training with purpose built types. The British organized the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan, which moved the bulk of aircrew training away from active war zones to Canada and elsewhere, where pilots started on the De Havilland Tiger Moth or Fleet Finch basic trainers before continuing on North American Harvards for advanced training, Avro Ansons, Airspeed Oxfords and Bristol Bolingbrokes for multi-engine as well as bombing training. Obsolete types such as the Fairey Battle and Westland Lysander were used for target towing, while other types such as the North American Yale were used for wireless operator (radio) training. Postwar, the United States operated the Beechcraft T-34 Mentor for basic flight training, while the United Kingdom operated the De Havilland Chipmunk. The North American T-28 Trojan was replaced the T-6 in US service, while the Percival Provost filled a similar role with the RAF." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Nomenclature.", "Early models.", "Larger scales.", "Smaller scales.", "Competition increases and closure.", "Rebirth." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Called Martoys from 1974 to 1976, the company was founded by Mario, Ugo, and Martino Besana, who had previously started Mebetoys, which they sold to Mattel (Force 1992, 124). While Mebetoys had been 1:43 scale, Martoys, however, focused on larger toys in 1:24 and 1:18 scales. Martoys was renamed BBurago in 1976. BBurago (with two capital \"B's\") is the correct spelling, ostensibly standing for both the town name as well as the name of the Besana family. It is an easy detail to miss, even a book presented by the revered auction house Christie's misspells the name (Richardson & Richardson 1999, p. 173).", "One of the earliest BBurago lines were a series of 1:43 scale Fiat trucks, but these seem to have disappeared by about 1980, according to Force (1992, pp. 22, 124 to 125). Continuing the Martoys lineup, however, most models were produced initially in 1/24 scale and mostly represented contemporary European sports and saloon cars. Most were well detailed, and included many opening features. Later, a range of vehicles were produced which was to become the \"bread and butter\" of BBurago offerings. In the mid 1980s, a new 1/43 scale line was begun. As they were held together by screws, models in 1/24 and 1/18 were also commonly issued in kit form (later, 1/43 kits appeared as well). While vehicles in the kit ranges used the same castings as their contemporaries in the fully assembled ranges, the kits often depicted different versions, usually in racing or rally style. BBurago kits were notorious for featuring waterslide transfers which never adhered properly to the models, making well built examples of the kits rare. Clearcoat could be sprayed over the unassembled model to \"seal\" the decals \"in\". Conversely, the transfers on factory built cars were of the'stick on' variety, rather than the 'tampo' printing used by the likes of Maisto.", "Originally, the 1/18 scale range was aimed more at collectors, and BBurago was the link between European niche marketing in 1/43 scale and the 1/18 scale surge that occurred during the 1990s. BBurago was the first manufacturer to make this scale the main offering of the company, after Schuco, Gama, and Polistil pioneered larger offerings, but who by the end of the 1970s were going out of business. BBurago was also a contemporary of the mail order offerings of Franklin Mint Precision Models which were pricier, but sometimes of spotty quality. BBurago did not, however, stick strictly to 1/18, with smaller cars like the Renault Alpine A110 and the Fiat 500 presented in 1/16 and larger vehicles like the Ford F-150 pickup in 1/21. 1/24 was also a regular size. The Ford pickup, however, is an exception as European marques were a main focus of the Italian company. At first, offerings consisted mostly of 1930s cars, but later, more 1950s and 1960s models were introduced, like the Jaguar XK-E roadster. Finally, many contemporary high performance automobiles, like the Lamborghini Diablo, appeared and some of these were the company's most popular sellers. For cost savings, models were often duplicated from one scale to another. The \"Diamond\", \"Super\", and \"Gold\" ranges were the main lines in 1/18 scale with over 30 different models. Each vehicle would be offered in two or three colors and often in a roadster and coupe version (BBurago 1996). Differences in the ranges are hard to discern, but the Super line was more aligned to classic cars, while the \"Gold\" series had more deluxe packaging. There were also several lines in 1/24 scale. These included the Grand Prix, Bijoux, VIP, and Super lines. The Super series included many normal coupes, sedans, and micro cars in rally and police liveries, with 45 different models (BBurago 1996). The Grand Prix line consisted of ten Formula One and Indy Cars. The larger models usually had all apertures opening, had detailed engines, spare tires in trunks, working steering, windshield wipers and detailed instrument panels. A number of models also feature active suspension and removable wheels. Early on was there was a use of plastics for door and bonnet openings. These parts sometimes hindered fit and finish, and, after extended play, would stretch or bend, causing hoods and doors to not close properly. BBurago's 1/43 scale \"Pocket\" series consisted of about thirty six offerings in about sixty separate liveries. These had simple 'Hot Wheels' inspired chrome on hard plastic tires, and no opening features, but were good value for the money (Rixon 2005, p. 76). Though oriented more to children in price (often selling for only a couple of dollars), 1/43 model detail was excellent and the presentation, like the early Saab 900 or the long lived MCA/Mega Monte Carlo model (one version with Russian MIG sponsorship), were quite attractive (BBurago 2000).", "Bburago offers several models in 1/64 scale. Most models do not have opening features.", "By the end of the 1990s, BBurago no longer had a main corner on the 1/18 collector market, as many competitors of both high end and low were now producing models. Some of these were Exoto, Maisto, Yatming, Ertl, Mira, Revell, Jouef, Chrono, Anson, and also Mattel, to name a few. Maisto became the main diecast brand in larger scales and began to eclipse most other manufacturers. Many of these companies had an edge as their products could be produced with far cheaper labour in Thailand and China, while BBurago continued more expensive production in Italy. In October 2005, BBurago declared bankruptcy, and the receivers were called in. Many companies expressed interest in the tooling. Fortunately, the venerable toy name of BBurago was not left to die, but was finally purchased by Mae Cheong (Maisto) from the bankruptcy court in the beginning of 2006. This essentially marked the end of Italian mass produced (and also one of the last European manufactured) affordable diecast vehicles. Prior to its closure, the company was also hard hit by an exclusive promotional contract granted to Mattel for the production of model Ferraris. As much money had been invested in the tooling to produce these models, the company was adversely affected. This contract has now changed, and other diecast manufacturers (including BBurago) are again making miniatures of the prancing horse, but at the time this stretched BBurago's finances.", "BBurago cars, especially the early 1/24 scale models, are now collectible, and it is thought that the final models issued under the old management will also become similarly prized. Of the early cars, the rarest models are generally considered to be the Lancia Beta sedan introduced under the Martoys name, and the Innocenti Mini 120. The Lamborghini Cheetah 4x4, Renault 4L, Fiat 124 Spyder Abarth, Alfetta GTV and BMW 3.0 CSL \"Batmobile\" are all also now rare and valuable. Other collectible BBuragos include some rare promo models, like examples of the Camargue finished in metallic gold green, and at least one model that was issued only in mainland Europe; the Lancia Ypsilon in 1/24. The final 1/18 car issued before bankruptcy was the Peugeot 907 concept car. At the time the company ceased production of all its Ferrari models, a model of the Ferrari 360 Spider in 1/18 scale was about to be introduced. It is thought that a few may have left the factory in Italy (although this is not confirmed). In the beginning of 2007, the name was relaunched by May Cheong, which markets Maisto, so the situation is analogous to Mattel owning both Hot Wheels and Matchbox. In order for both lines to be successful, they must be differentiated in some manner and May Cheong's logical answer was to make BBurago's offerings more European. A count from the two brands' websites in 2011 confirms the two approaches. Out of 64 1/18 scale cars, BBurago only has six models that are not European, or 9%. Maisto, with 113 total 1/18 scale models, on the other hand, has fifty three non European models or 47% non European. May Cheong bets it can avoid internal competition among brands by having Maisto carry a more global selection of marques. Many of the earlier BBurago models made at the time of the May Cheong takeover are now being produced again in Thailand and China, along with new castings. By 2011, some models, like the smaller scale \"Race and Play\" series of \"garage\" scene Ferraris, were again appearing in retail stores like Toys-R-Us. It appears that no models are made in Italy any longer." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Overview.", "Differences among schools.", "Schools." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The practice of literary theory became a profession in the 20th century, but it has historical roots that run as far back as ancient Greece (Aristotle's \"Poetics\" is an often cited early example), ancient India (Bharata Muni's \"Natya Shastra\"), ancient Rome (Longinus's \"On the Sublime\") and medieval Iraq (Al-Jahiz's \"al-Bayan wa-'l-tabyin\" and \"al-Hayawan\", and ibn al-Mu'tazz's \"Kitab al-Badi\"). The aesthetic theories of philosophers from ancient philosophy through the 18th and 19th centuries are important influences on current literary study. The theory and criticism of literature are tied to the history of literature. However, the modern sense of \"literary theory\" only dates to approximately the 1950s when the structuralist linguistics of Ferdinand de Saussure began to strongly influence English language literary criticism. The New Critics and various European-influenced formalists (particularly the Russian Formalists) had described some of their more abstract efforts as \"theoretical\" as well. But it was not until the broad impact of structuralism began to be felt in the English-speaking academic world that \"literary theory\" was thought of as a unified domain. In the academic world of the United Kingdom and the United States, literary theory was at its most popular from the late 1960s (when its influence was beginning to spread outward from universities such as Johns Hopkins, Yale, and Cornell) through the 1980s (by which time it was taught nearly everywhere in some form). During this span of time, literary theory was perceived as academically cutting-edge, and most university literature departments sought to teach and study theory and incorporate it into their curricula. Because of its meteoric rise in popularity and the difficult language of its key texts, theory was also often criticized as faddish or trendy obscurantism (and many academic satire novels of the period, such as those by David Lodge, feature theory prominently). Some scholars, both theoretical and anti-theoretical, refer to the 1970s and 1980s debates on the academic merits of theory as \"the theory wars\". By the early 1990s, the popularity of \"theory\" as a subject of interest by itself was declining slightly (along with job openings for pure \"theorists\") even as the texts of literary theory were incorporated into the study of almost all literature. By 2010, the controversy over the use of theory in literary studies had quieted down, and discussions on the topic within literary and cultural studies tend now to be considerably milder and less lively. However, some scholars like Mark Bauerlein continue to argue that less capable theorists have abandoned proven methods of epistemology, resulting in persistent lapses in learning, research, and evaluation. Some scholars do draw heavily on theory in their work, while others only mention it in passing or not at all; but it is an acknowledged, important part of the study of literature.", "One of the fundamental questions of literary theory is \"what is literature?\" – although many contemporary theorists and literary scholars believe either that \"literature\" cannot be defined or that it can refer to any use of language. Specific theories are distinguished not only by their methods and conclusions, but even by how they create meaning in a \"text\". However, some theorists acknowledge that these texts do not have a singular, fixed meaning which is deemed \"correct\". Since theorists of literature often draw on a very heterogeneous tradition of Continental philosophy and the philosophy of language, any classification of their approaches is only an approximation. There are many types of literary theory, which take different approaches to texts. Even among those listed below, many scholars combine methods from more than one of these approaches (for instance, the deconstructive approach of Paul de Man drew on a long tradition of close reading pioneered by the New Critics, and de Man was trained in the European hermeneutic tradition). Broad schools of theory that have historically been important include historical and biographical criticism, New Criticism, formalism, Russian formalism, and structuralism, post-structuralism, Marxism, feminism and French feminism, post-colonialism, new historicism, deconstruction, reader-response criticism, and psychoanalytic criticism.", "The different interpretive and epistemological perspectives of different schools of theory often arise from, and so give support to, different moral and political commitments. For instance, the work of the New Critics often contained an implicit moral dimension, and sometimes even a religious one: a New Critic might read a poem by T. S. Eliot or Gerard Manley Hopkins for its degree of honesty in expressing the torment and contradiction of a serious search for belief in the modern world. Meanwhile, a Marxist critic might find such judgments merely ideological rather than critical; the Marxist would say that the New Critical reading did not keep enough critical distance from the poem's religious stance to be able to understand it. Or a post-structuralist critic might simply avoid the issue by understanding the religious meaning of a poem as an allegory of meaning, treating the poem's references to \"God\" by discussing their referential nature rather than what they refer to. A critic using Darwinian literary studies might use arguments from the evolutionary psychology of religion. Such a disagreement cannot be easily resolved, because it is inherent in the radically different terms and goals (that is, the theories) of the critics. Their theories of reading derive from vastly different intellectual traditions: the New Critic bases his work on an East-Coast American scholarly and religious tradition, while the Marxist derives his thought from a body of critical social and economic thought, the post-structuralist's work emerges from twentieth-century Continental philosophy of language, and the Darwinian from the modern evolutionary synthesis. In the late 1950s, the Canadian literary critic Northrop Frye attempted to establish an approach for reconciling historical criticism and New Criticism while addressing concerns of early reader-response and numerous psychological and social approaches. His approach, laid out in his \"Anatomy of Criticism\", was explicitly structuralist, relying on the assumption of an intertextual \"order of words\" and universality of certain structural types. His approach held sway in English literature programs for several decades but lost favor during the ascendance of post-structuralism. For some theories of literature (especially certain kinds of formalism), the distinction between \"literary\" and other sorts of texts is of paramount importance. Other schools (particularly post-structuralism in its various forms: new historicism, deconstruction, some strains of Marxism and feminism) have sought to break down distinctions between the two and have applied the tools of textual interpretation to a wide range of \"texts\", including film, non-fiction, historical writing, and even cultural events. Mikhail Bakhtin argued that the \"utter inadequacy\" of literary theory is evident when it is forced to deal with the novel; while other genres are fairly stabilized, the novel is still developing. Another crucial distinction among the various theories of literary interpretation is intentionality, the amount of weight given to the author's own opinions about and intentions for a work. For most pre-20th century approaches, the author's intentions are a guiding factor and an important determiner of the \"correct\" interpretation of texts. The New Criticism was the first school to disavow the role of the author in interpreting texts, preferring to focus on \"the text itself\" in a close reading. In fact, as much contention as there is between formalism and later schools, they share the tenet that the author's interpretation of a work is no more inherently meaningful than any other.", "Listed below are some of the most commonly identified schools of literary theory, along with their major authors. In many cases, such as those of the historian and philosopher Michel Foucault and the anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss, the authors were not primarily literary critics, but their work has been broadly influential in literary theory." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Basics.", "Cardinal numbers.", "Ordinal numbers.", "Power sets.", "Paradoxes of the infinite set.", "Paradoxes of enumeration.", "\"Je le vois, mais je ne crois pas\".", "Paradoxes of well-ordering.", "Paradoxes of the Supertask.", "The diary of Tristram Shandy.", "The Ross-Littlewood paradox.", "Paradoxes of proof and definability.", "Early paradoxes: the set of all sets.", "Paradoxes by change of language.", "König's paradox.", "Richard's paradox.", "Paradox of Löwenheim and Skolem." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Set theory as conceived by Georg Cantor assumes the existence of infinite sets. As this assumption cannot be proved from first principles it has been introduced into axiomatic set theory by the axiom of infinity, which asserts the existence of the set N of natural numbers. Every infinite set which can be enumerated by natural numbers is the same size (cardinality) as N, and is said to be countable. Examples of countably infinite sets are the natural numbers, the even numbers, the prime numbers, and also all the rational numbers, i.e., the fractions. These sets have in common the cardinal number |N| = formula_1 (aleph-nought), a number greater than every natural number. Cardinal numbers can be defined as follows. Define two sets to \"have the same size\" by: there exists a bijection between the two sets (a one-to-one correspondence between the elements). Then a cardinal number is, by definition, a class consisting of \"all\" sets of the same size. To have the same size is an equivalence relation, and the cardinal numbers are the equivalence classes.", "Besides the cardinality, which describes the size of a set, ordered sets also form a subject of set theory. The axiom of choice guarantees that every set can be well-ordered, which means that a total order can be imposed on its elements such that every nonempty subset has a first element with respect to that order. The order of a well-ordered set is described by an ordinal number. For instance, 3 is the ordinal number of the set {0, 1, 2} with the usual order 0 < 1 < 2; and ω is the ordinal number of the set of all natural numbers ordered the usual way. Neglecting the order, we are left with the cardinal number |N| = |ω| = formula_2. Ordinal numbers can be defined with the same method used for cardinal numbers. Define two well-ordered sets to \"have the same order type\" by: there exists a bijection between the two sets respecting the order: smaller elements are mapped to smaller elements. Then an ordinal number is, by definition, a class consisting of \"all\" well-ordered sets of the same order type. To have the same order type is an equivalence relation on the class of well-ordered sets, and the ordinal numbers are the equivalence classes. Two sets of the same order type have the same cardinality. The converse is not true in general for infinite sets: it is possible to impose different well-orderings on the set of natural numbers that give rise to different ordinal numbers. There is a natural ordering on the ordinals, which is itself a well-ordering. Given any ordinal α, one can consider the set of all ordinals less than α. This set turns out to have ordinal number α. This observation is used for a different way of introducing the ordinals, in which an ordinal is \"equated\" with the set of all smaller ordinals. This form of ordinal number is thus a canonical representative of the earlier form of equivalence class.", "By forming all subsets of a set \"S\" (all possible choices of its elements), we obtain the power set \"P\"(\"S\"). Georg Cantor proved that the power set is always larger than the set, i.e., |\"P\"(\"S\")| > |\"S\"|. A special case of Cantor's theorem proves that the set of all real numbers \"R\" cannot be enumerated by natural numbers. \"R\" is uncountable: |\"R\"| > |\"N\"|.", "Instead of relying on ambiguous descriptions such as \"that which cannot be enlarged\" or \"increasing without bound\", set theory provides definitions for the term infinite set to give an unambiguous meaning to phrases such as \"the set of all natural numbers is infinite\". Just as for finite sets, the theory makes further definitions which allow us to consistently compare two infinite sets as regards whether one set is \"larger than\", \"smaller than\", or \"the same size as\" the other. But not every intuition regarding the size of finite sets applies to the size of infinite sets, leading to various apparently paradoxical results regarding enumeration, size, measure and order.", "Before set theory was introduced, the notion of the \"size\" of a set had been problematic. It had been discussed by Galileo Galilei and Bernard Bolzano, among others. Are there as many natural numbers as squares of natural numbers when measured by the method of enumeration? By defining the notion of the size of a set in terms of its \"cardinality\", the issue can be settled. Since there is a bijection between the two sets involved, this follows in fact directly from the definition of the cardinality of a set. See Hilbert's paradox of the Grand Hotel for more on paradoxes of enumeration.", "\"I see it but I don't believe,\" Cantor wrote to Richard Dedekind after proving that the set of points of a square has the same cardinality as that of the points on just an edge of the square: the cardinality of the continuum. This demonstrates that the \"size\" of sets as defined by cardinality alone is not the only useful way of comparing sets. Measure theory provides a more nuanced theory of size that conforms to our intuition that length and area are incompatible measures of size. The evidence strongly suggests that Cantor was quite confident in the result itself and that his comment to Dedekind refers instead to his then-still-lingering concerns about the validity of his proof of it. Nevertheless, Cantor's remark would also serve nicely to express the surprise that so many mathematicians after him have experienced on first encountering a result that is so counter-intuitive.", "In 1904 Ernst Zermelo proved by means of the axiom of choice (which was introduced for this reason) that every set can be well-ordered. In 1963 Paul J. Cohen showed that in Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory without the axiom of choice it is not possible to prove the existence of a well-ordering of the real numbers. However, the ability to well order any set allows certain constructions to be performed that have been called paradoxical. One example is the Banach–Tarski paradox, a theorem widely considered to be nonintuitive. It states that it is possible to decompose a ball of a fixed radius into a finite number of pieces and then move and reassemble those pieces by ordinary translations and rotations (with no scaling) to obtain two copies from the one original copy. The construction of these pieces requires the axiom of choice; the pieces are not simple regions of the ball, but complicated subsets.", "In set theory, an infinite set is not considered to be created by some mathematical process such as \"adding one element\" that is then carried out \"an infinite number of times\". Instead, a particular infinite set (such as the set of all natural numbers) is said to already exist, \"by fiat\", as an assumption or an axiom. Given this infinite set, other infinite sets are then proven to exist as well, as a logical consequence. But it is still a natural philosophical question to contemplate some physical action that actually completes after an infinite number of discrete steps; and the interpretation of this question using set theory gives rise to the paradoxes of the supertask.", "Tristram Shandy, the hero of a novel by Laurence Sterne, writes his autobiography so conscientiously that it takes him one year to lay down the events of one day. If he is mortal he can never terminate; but if he lived forever then no part of his diary would remain unwritten, for to each day of his life a year devoted to that day's description would correspond.", "An increased version of this type of paradox shifts the infinitely remote finish to a finite time. Fill a huge reservoir with balls enumerated by numbers 1 to 10 and take off ball number 1. Then add the balls enumerated by numbers 11 to 20 and take off number 2. Continue to add balls enumerated by numbers 10\"n\" - 9 to 10\"n\" and to remove ball number \"n\" for all natural numbers \"n\" = 3, 4, 5,... Let the first transaction last half an hour, let the second transaction last quarter an hour, and so on, so that all transactions are finished after one hour. Obviously the set of balls in the reservoir increases without bound. Nevertheless, after one hour the reservoir is empty because for every ball the time of removal is known. The paradox is further increased by the significance of the removal sequence. If the balls are not removed in the sequence 1, 2, 3,... but in the sequence 1, 11, 21,... after one hour infinitely many balls populate the reservoir, although the same amount of material as before has been moved.", "For all its usefulness in resolving questions regarding infinite sets, naive set theory has some fatal flaws. In particular, it is prey to logical paradoxes such as those exposed by Russell's paradox. The discovery of these paradoxes revealed that not all sets which can be described in the language of naive set theory can actually be said to exist without creating a contradiction. The 20th century saw a resolution to these paradoxes in the development of the various axiomatizations of set theories such as ZFC and NBG in common use today. However, the gap between the very formalized and symbolic language of these theories and our typical informal use of mathematical language results in various paradoxical situations, as well as the philosophical question of exactly what it is that such formal systems actually propose to be talking about.", "In 1897 the Italian mathematician Cesare Burali-Forti discovered that there is no set containing all ordinal numbers. As every ordinal number is defined by a set of smaller ordinal numbers, the well-ordered set Ω of all ordinal numbers (if it exists) fits the definition and is itself an ordinal. On the other hand, no ordinal number can contain itself, so Ω cannot be an ordinal. Therefore, the set of all ordinal numbers cannot exist. By the end of the 19th century Cantor was aware of the non-existence of the set of all cardinal numbers and the set of all ordinal numbers. In letters to David Hilbert and Richard Dedekind he wrote about inconsistent sets, the elements of which cannot be thought of as being all together, and he used this result to prove that every consistent set has a cardinal number. After all this, the version of the \"set of all sets\" paradox conceived by Bertrand Russell in 1903 led to a serious crisis in set theory. Russell recognized that the statement \"x\" = \"x\" is true for every set, and thus the set of all sets is defined by {\"x\" | \"x\" = \"x\"}. In 1906 he constructed several paradox sets, the most famous of which is the set of all sets which do not contain themselves. Russell himself explained this abstract idea by means of some very concrete pictures. One example, known as the Barber paradox, states: The male barber who shaves all and only men who don't shave themselves has to shave himself only if he does not shave himself. There are close similarities between Russell's paradox in set theory and the Grelling–Nelson paradox, which demonstrates a paradox in natural language.", "", "In 1905, the Hungarian mathematician Julius König published a paradox based on the fact that there are only countably many finite definitions. If we imagine the real numbers as a well-ordered set, those real numbers which can be finitely defined form a subset. Hence in this well-order there should be a first real number that is not finitely definable. This is paradoxical, because this real number has just been finitely defined by the last sentence. This leads to a contradiction in naive set theory. This paradox is avoided in axiomatic set theory. Although it is possible to represent a proposition about a set as a set, by a system of codes known as Gödel numbers, there is no formula formula_3 in the language of set theory which holds exactly when \"a\" is a code for a finite description of a set and this description is a true description of the set \"x\". This result is known as Tarski's indefinability theorem; it applies to a wide class of formal systems including all commonly studied axiomatizations of set theory.", "In the same year the French mathematician Jules Richard used a variant of Cantor's diagonal method to obtain another contradiction in naive set theory. Consider the set \"A\" of all finite agglomerations of words. The set \"E\" of all finite definitions of real numbers is a subset of \"A\". As \"A\" is countable, so is \"E\". Let \"p\" be the \"n\"th decimal of the \"n\"th real number defined by the set \"E\"; we form a number \"N\" having zero for the integral part and \"p\" + 1 for the \"n\"th decimal if \"p\" is not equal either to 8 or 9, and unity if \"p\" is equal to 8 or 9. This number \"N\" is not defined by the set \"E\" because it differs from any finitely defined real number, namely from the \"n\"th number by the \"n\"th digit. But \"N\" has been defined by a finite number of words in this paragraph. It should therefore be in the set \"E\". That is a contradiction. As with König's paradox, this paradox cannot be formalized in axiomatic set theory because it requires the ability to tell whether a description applies to a particular set (or, equivalently, to tell whether a formula is actually the definition of a single set).", "Based upon work of the German mathematician Leopold Löwenheim (1915) the Norwegian logician Thoralf Skolem showed in 1922 that every consistent theory of first-order predicate calculus, such as set theory, has an at most countable model. However, Cantor's theorem proves that there are uncountable sets. The root of this seeming paradox is that the countability or noncountability of a set is not always absolute, but can depend on the model in which the cardinality is measured. It is possible for a set to be uncountable in one model of set theory but countable in a larger model (because the bijections that establish countability are in the larger model but not the smaller one)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Deperdussin.", "Armand arrested.", "SPAD.", "Blériot-SPAD." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The company was set up in 1911 as Aéroplanes Deperdussin, becoming the Société de Production des Aéroplanes Deperdussin in 1912. Its founder Armand Deperdussin (born 1867) had been a travelling salesman and a cabaret singer in Liège and Brussels, before making his fortune in the silk business. Deperdussin became fascinated by aviation in 1908, and in 1909 he established an aircraft works at Laon. Deperdussin himself was not a designer, but he hired the engineer Louis Béchereau (1880–1970) as technical director. Béchereau was responsible for Deperdussin and SPAD aircraft designs thereafter. The first Deperdussin aircraft was an unsuccessful canard, but their next aircraft, the Type A, was an immediate success, and led to a series of closely related monoplanes. Similar to the Nieuport IV and Morane-Saulnier G, this was a popular layout before the First World War. The Deperdussin TT was a considerable export success, and 63 were built by the Lebedev company in Russia and others at Highgate in London by the British Deperdussin Company. From 1911 onward Deperdussin produced aircraft at a new factory at Grenelle, in the suburbs of Paris. The company also produced a number of notable racing aircraft, including the groundbreaking Deperdussin Monocoque, which won the 1912 and 1913 Gordon Bennett Trophy races, set several world speed records and was the first airplane to exceed. The first Schneider Trophy competition, held on 16 April 1913 at Monaco, was won by a Deperdussin floatplane at an average speed of.", "On 6 August 1913, Armand Deperdussin was arrested for fraud. He had developed expensive tastes and in addition to funding competitions such as the Gordon Bennett Cup, he entertained lavishly. The trading arm of the Comptoir Industrial et Colonial bank discovered that he had been funding this through fraudulently obtained loans using forged receipts from his silk business as security. He remained incarcerated until his trial in 1917. Despite claims that he used much of the money to help develop France's aviation expertise, he was convicted and sentenced to five years in prison, but as a concession for first offenders he was reprieved (\"sursis\") and released immediately. Deperdussin committed suicide in 1924.", "After Armand Deperdussin's bankruptcy in 1913 the company went into administration and the name was changed to Société Provisoire des Aéroplanes Deperdussin, the first use of the SPAD acronym. With Deperdussin's disgrace financing stopped and the future of the SPAD company was endangered. A consortium led by Louis Blériot bought the company's assets in 1913 and reorganized it as the Société Pour L'Aviation et ses Dérivés, retaining the SPAD acronym. The first Béchereau-SPAD designs were unusual two-seat biplanes which attempted to provide a forward-firing machine gun in a tractor configuration aircraft. The pilot sat behind the wings, as in a conventional design, while the observer/gunner was seated in a nacelle, or pulpit, in front of the propeller, attached precariously to the landing gear. These designs, the SPAD A-series of models S.A.1, S.A.2, S.A.3, and S.A.4, were built in small numbers, around sixty each for French (mostly S.A.2) and Russian air forces (mostly S.A.4), and were neither popular nor successful. The availability of the Nieuport 11 and subsequent development of an effective machine gun synchronizer by the French rendered this unusual configuration obsolete. Other early Béchereau designs for SPAD were less successful. The SE, a large twin-engine biplane bomber, performed well on trials, but it was not ordered. Béchereau's first real success was the SPAD S.VII, which superficially resembled a smaller, neater A.2, without the forward gunner's nacelle. Developed from the SPAD V, of which 268 were ordered but none built as SPAD Vs, the SPAD S.VII was a single-seat tractor biplane fighter of simple and robust design powered by the new Hispano-Suiza water-cooled V-8 engine. Compared to earlier fighters, when the SPAD VII appeared in 1916 it was a heavy and unmanoeuvrable aircraft, but pilots learned to take advantage of its speed and strength. Some 3,500 SPAD S.VIIs were built in France, 120 in Britain, and 100 in Russia before their capitulation, although many more had been ordered from a new factory in Yaroslavl, which was not completed until after the Russian Civil War. Béchereau's subsequent wartime designs followed the basic outline of the SPAD S.VII. The two-seaters, the SPAD XI and SPAD XVI, were built in moderate numbers, around 1,000 of each type, but two-seater SPADs were much less successful than the rival Breguet 14 (5,500 built) and Salmson 2 (3,200 built). Single-seat developments of the SPAD VII were more successful. The SPAD XII was a minor variant, the first to use the geared Hispano-Suiza V-8 engine, which allowed it to be armed with a single-shot Hotchkiss cannon (\"moteur-canon\") firing through the propeller hub. Tested successfully by ace Georges Guynemer, the conclusion was that only very skilled pilots could exploit its powerful armament. Accordingly, although 300 were ordered, most were completed as normal SPAD fighters, with one (flown by Charles J. Biddle while with the USAAS' 13th Aero Squadron) and two may have served with the US Air Service in France. The SPAD S.XIII was essentially an enlarged SPAD S.VII redesigned around a more powerful geared drive Hispano-Suiza engine, as used on the SPAD XII. This was produced in much greater numbers: the exact total is uncertain, with figures from 7,300 to 8,472 being quoted by different sources. Single-seat SPADs were flown by many ace pilots, including Italy's Count Francesco Baracca and the United States Army Air Service's Capt. Eddie Rickenbacker, with 34 and 26 victories respectively. Georges Guynemer was, as has already been noted, highly successful with the SPAD S.XII, as well as the SPAD S.VII and SPAD S.XIII. At the end of the First World War, all 1,152 single-seat fighters on the strength of French front line air units were SPAD 13s. Nearly 900 SPAD XIII fighters were reported as being used in American service. Although SPAD had been successful, they were unable to keep up with demand and production of their later fighters was spread out among other aircraft manufacturers, including both direct competitors, as well as numerous companies that would become well known after the war. In 1916, over 98% of SPAD production came from SPAD and Blériot factories. By 1918, this had fallen to 43%, with the majority of SPAD XIII production from licensed manufacturers. SPAD designs accounted for around 20% of French aircraft produced during World War One.", "Post-war the company became Blériot-SPAD. The first of its designs to be known by this name was Bécherau's monocoque SPAD S.XX biplane. Despite the prototype being flown in 1918, SPAD 20 deliveries didn't begin until 1920 when post war reductions and a preference for the more capable Nieuport-Delage NiD.29 limited orders to 93. The return of peace also meant that the company had to deal with substantial liabilities under the excess profits tax of 1 July 1916. As modified in 1917, this imposed an 80% tax rate on \"excess profits\". With the future uncertain, SPAD was fully incorporated into the Blériot organisation in 1921, and the company effectively disappeared, although a number of Blériot types were marketed as SPADs." ] }

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{ "title": [ "PIO mode in the ATA interface.", "PIO Mode 5." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2" ], "content": [ "The PIO interface is grouped into different modes that correspond to different transfer rates. The electrical signaling among the different modes is similar — only the cycle time between transactions is reduced in order to achieve a higher transfer rate. All ATA devices support the slowest mode — Mode 0. By accessing the information registers (using Mode 0) on an ATA drive, the CPU is able to determine the maximum transfer rate for the device and configure the ATA controller for optimal performance. The PIO modes require a great deal of CPU overhead to configure a data transaction and transfer the data. Because of this inefficiency, the DMA (and eventually UDMA) interface was created to increase performance. The simple digital logic required to implement a PIO transfer still makes this transfer method useful today, especially if high transfer rates are not required like in embedded systems, or with FPGA chips where PIO mode can be used without significant performance loss. Two additional advanced timing modes have been defined in the CompactFlash specification 2.0. Those are PIO mode 5 and PIO mode 6. They are specific to CompactFlash.", "A PIO Mode 5 was proposed with operation at 22 MB/s, but was never implemented on hard disks because CPUs of the time would have been crippled waiting for the hard disk at the proposed PIO 5 timings, and the DMA standard ultimately obviated it. While no hard drives were ever manufactured to support this mode, some motherboard manufacturers preemptively provided BIOS support for it. PIO Mode 5 can be used with CompactFlash cards connected to IDE via CF-to-IDE adapters." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "France.", "Germany.", "Lithuania.", "Poland.", "Sweden.", "Russia." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The instance of revanchism that gave these groundswells of opinion their modern name came in the 1870s. French revanchism was a deep sense of bitterness, hatred and demand for revenge against Germany, especially because of the loss of Alsace and Lorraine following defeat in the Franco-Prussian War. Paintings that emphasized the humiliation of the defeat came in high demand, such as those by Alphonse-Marie-Adolphe de Neuville. Georges Clemenceau, of the Radical Republicans, opposed participation in the scramble for Africa and other adventures that would divert the Republic from objectives related to the \"blue line of the Vosges\" in Alsace-Lorraine. After the governments of Jules Ferry had pursued a number of colonies in the early 1880s, Clemenceau lent his support to Georges Ernest Boulanger, a popular figure, nicknamed \"Général Revanche\", who it was felt might overthrow the Republic in 1889. This ultranationalist tradition influenced French politics up to 1921 and was one of the major reasons France went to great pains to woo the Russian Empire, resulting in the Franco-Russian Alliance of 1894 and, after more accords, the Triple Entente of the three great Allied powers of World War I: France, Great Britain, and Russia. French revanchism influenced the Treaty of Versailles of 1919 following the end of World War I, which restored Alsace-Lorraine to France and extracted reparations from the defeated Germany. The conference was not only opened on the anniversary of the proclamation of the \"Second Reich\", the treaty also had to be signed by the new German government in the same room, the Hall of Mirrors.", "A German revanchist movement developed in response to the losses of World War I. Pan-Germanists within the Weimar Republic called for the reclamation of the property of a German state due to pre-war borders or because of the territory's historical relation to Germanic peoples. The movement called for the reincorporation of Alsace-Lorraine, the Polish Corridor and the Sudetenland (see Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia—parts of the Austrian Empire and Austria-Hungary until its dismemberment after World War I). Those claims, supported by Adolf Hitler, led to World War II, with the invasion of Poland. This irredentism had also been characteristic of the Völkisch movement in general and of the Pan-German League (\"Alldeutscher Verband\"). The \"Verband\" wanted to uphold German 'racial hygiene' and were against breeding with inferior races like the Jews and Slavs.", "Ethnographic Lithuania was an early 20th-century concept that defined Lithuanian territories as a significant part of the territories that belonged to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Lithuanians as all people living on them, regardless of whether those people spoke Lithuanian or and considered themselves Lithuanian. The concept was in contrast to those of \"historic Lithuania\", the territories of the Duchy, and the \"linguistic Lithuania\", the area in which Lithuanian language was overwhelmingly spoken. The concept of ethnographic Lithuania clashed with the right for self-determination of people living in that large territory, particularly Poles and Belarusians, who, according to the supporters of the ethnographic Lithuania, were \"Slavicized Lithuanians\" who needed to be re-Lithuanized. They argued that individuals cannot decide on his ethnicity and nationality and that it is related to not their language but their ancestry.", "In the 1920s and 1930s, Poland was trying to reclaim ethnic Polish lands that had been occupied by German, Russian and Austro-Hungarian empires:", "Sweden lost Finland to Russia at the conclusion of the Finnish War (1808-09), ending nearly 600 years of Swedish rule. For most of the rests of the 1800s there was talk but few practical plans and little political will to reclaim Finland from Russia. Since Sweden was never able to challenge Russia's military might on its own, no attempts were made. During the Crimean War in 1853 to 1856, the Allied nations initiated talks with Sweden to allow troop and fleet movements through Swedish ports to be used against Russia. In return, the Allies would help Sweden reclaim Finland with the help of an expeditionary force. In the end, the plans fell through and Sweden never became involved in the fighting.", "The annexation of the Crimean peninsula by the Russian Federation in April 2014, together with accusations by Western and Ukrainian leaders that Russia is supporting separatist actions by ethnic Russians in the secessionist Donbass region, has been cited by a number of prominent media outlets in the West as evidence of a revanchist policy on the part of the Kremlin and Russian President Vladimir Putin. Many Russian nationalists consider Alaska to be Russian territory that must be returned. Alaska was legally sold to the US by Russia in 1867." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early years.", "Creative period.", "Study with Alfred Boucher.", "Auguste Rodin.", "\"The Mature Age\" and other works.", "Alleged illness and confinement.", "Musée Camille Claudel.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Camille Claudel was born in Fère-en-Tardenois, Aisne, in northern France, the first child of a family of farmers and gentry. Her father, Louis-Prosper Claudel, dealt in mortgages and bank transactions. Her mother, the former Louise-Athanaïse Cécile Cerveaux, came from a Champagne family of Catholic farmers and priests. The family moved to Villeneuve-sur-Fère while Camille was still a baby. Her younger brother Paul Claudel was born there in 1868. Subsequently, they moved to Bar-le-Duc (1870), Nogent-sur-Seine (1876), and Wassy-sur-Blaise (1879), although they continued to spend summers in Villeneuve-sur-Fère, and the stark landscape of that region made a deep impression on the children. From the ages of 5 to 12, Claudel was educated by the Sisters of Christian Doctrine. While living in Nogent-sur-Seine at age 12, Claudel began working with the local clay, regularly sculpting the human form. Her mother Louise did not approve of Claudel's \"unladylike desire to become an artist.\" Her father was more supportive and took examples of her artwork to their artist neighbor Alfred Boucher, to assess her abilities. Boucher confirmed that Claudel was a capable, talented artist and encouraged her family to support her study of sculpture. Camille moved with her mother, brother, and younger sister to the Montparnasse area of Paris in 1881. Her father remained behind, working to support them.", "", "Claudel was fascinated with stone and soil as a child, and as a young woman she studied at the Académie Colarossi, one of the few places open to female students. Once in Paris, she studied with sculptor Alfred Boucher. The Académie Colarossi was more progressive than other arts institutions in that it not only allowed female students at the school but also permitted them to work from nude male models. At the time, the École des Beaux-Arts barred women from enrolling to study. In 1882, Claudel rented a studio workshop on rue Notre-Dames des Champs in Paris that she shared with three British sculptors: Jessie Lipscomb, Emily Fawcett and Amy Singer (daughter of John Webb Singer, whose foundry in Frome, Somerset, made large-scale bronze statues.) Several prominent Frome works are in London, including the Boadicea group on the Embankment, Cromwell, which graces the lawn in front of the Houses of Parliament, and the figure of Justice atop the Old Bailey. General Gordon on his camel at Chatham Barracks was also cast in Frome, as were the eight lions that form part of the Rhodes Memorial in Cape Town. Claudel visited Frome and the families of her fellow sculptors. All of these English friends had studied at the South Kensington Schools – that would become the Royal College of Art – before moving to Paris to be at the Academie Colarossi, where they had all met. Claudel prolonged her stay with Singer's family in Frome. Alfred Boucher had become Claudel's mentor, and provided inspiration and encouragement to the next generation of sculptors such as Laure Coutan. Claudel was depicted by Boucher in \"Camille Claudel lisant\", and later she sculpted a bust of her mentor. After teaching Claudel and the other sculptors for over three years, Boucher moved to Florence following an award for the Grand Prix du Salon. Before he left he asked Auguste Rodin to take over the instruction of his pupils. Rodin and Claudel met, and their artistic association and the tumultuous and passionate relationship soon began.", "Claudel started working in Rodin's workshop in 1883 and became a source of inspiration for him. She acted as his model, his confidante, and his lover. She never lived with Rodin, who was reluctant to end his 20-year relationship with Rose Beuret. Knowledge of the affair agitated her family, especially her mother, who already detested her for not being a boy and never approved of Claudel's involvement in the arts. As a consequence, Claudel was forced to leave the family home. In 1891, Claudel served as a jurist at the National Society of Fine Arts, reported to be \"something of a boys' club at the time.\" In 1892, after an abortion, Claudel ended the intimate aspect of her relationship with Rodin, although they saw each other regularly until 1898. Le Cornec and Pollock state that after the sculptors' physical relationship ended, she was not able to get the funding to realise many of her daring ideas - because of sex-based censorship and the sexual element of her work. Claudel thus had to either depend on Rodin, or to collaborate with him and see him get the credit as the lionised figure of French sculpture. She also depended on him financially, especially after her loving and wealthy father's death, which allowed her mother and brother, who disapproved of her lifestyle, to maintain control of the family fortune and leave her to wander the streets dressed in beggars' clothing. Claudel's reputation survived not because of her once notorious association with Rodin, but because of her work. The novelist and art critic Octave Mirbeau described her as \"A revolt against nature: a woman genius.\" Her early work is similar to Rodin's in spirit but shows imagination and lyricism quite her own, particularly in the famous \"The Waltz\" (1893). Louis Vauxcelles states that Claudel was the only sculptress on whose forehead shone the sign of genius like Berthe Morisot, the only well-known female painter of the century, and that Claudel's style was more virile than many of her male colleagues'. Others, like Morhardt and Caranfa, concurred, saying that their styles had become so different, with Rodin being more suave and delicate and Claudel being vehement with vigorous contrasts, which might have been one reason for their break up, with her becoming ultimately his rival. Claudel's onyx and bronze small-scale \"La Vague (The Wave)\" (1897) was a conscious break in style from her Rodin period. It has a decorative quality quite different from the \"heroic\" feeling of her earlier work.", "After Rodin saw Claudel's \"The Mature Age\" for the first time, in 1899, he reacted with shock and anger. He suddenly and completely stopped his support for Claudel. According to Ayral-Clause, Rodin might have put pressure on the ministry of fine arts to cancel the funding for the bronze commission. \"The Mature Age\" (1900) is usually interpreted as an allegory of the three stages of life: the man who represents Maturity is drawn into the hands of the old woman who represents Old Age and Death, while the young woman who represents Youth tries to save him. Her brother interpreted it as an allegory of her break with Rodin. Angelo Caranfa comments that \"The life that was, is, and will be in \"Maturity\" contains within its movement both the relentless movement of \"Clotho\" and the rhythmic, graceful, whirling movement of \"Fortune\", generating a single and sustaining movement or image out of the differences within\". According to Caranfa, \"Clotho\" (1893) and \"Fortune\" (1905) represent the two ideas of life: life in \"Clotho\" is portrayed as closed, hopeless existence and \"consummated in an unending death\"; life in \"Fortune\" is celebrated as the madness of eternal present with ups and downs, its \"rapture or total harmony\" (\"Fortune\" itself is a variation of the dancing woman in \"The Waltz\"). One of Claudel's figures, \"The Implorer\", was produced as an edition of its own and has been interpreted not as purely autobiographical but as an even more powerful representation of change and purpose in the human condition. Modelled for in 1898 and cast in 1905, Claudel didn't actually cast her own bronze for this work, but instead \"The Implorer\" was cast in Paris by Eugene Blot. In 1902 Claudel completed a large sculpture of \"Perseus and the Gorgon\". Beginning in 1903, she exhibited her works at the Salon des Artistes français or at the Salon d'Automne. \"Sakuntala\", 1888, is described by Angelo Caranfa as expressing Claudel's desire to reach the sacred, the fruit of the lifelong search of her artistic identity, free from Rodin's constraints. Caranfa suggests that Claudel's impressions of Rodin's deceptions and exploitation of her, as someone who could not become obedient as he wanted her to be and who was expected to conform to society's expectation of what women should be, were not false. Thus \"Sakuntala\" could be called a clear expression of her solitary existence and her inner search, her journey within. Ayral-Clause says that even though Rodin clearly signed some of her works, he was not treating her as different because of her gender; artists at this time generally signed their apprentices' work. Others also criticise Rodin for not giving her the acknowledgment or support she deserved. Walker argues that most historians believe Rodin did what he could to help her after their separation, and that her destruction of her own oeuvre was partly responsible for the long-time neglect the art world showed her. Walker also says that what truly defeated Camille, who was already recognised as a leading sculptor by many, were the sheer difficulties of the medium and the market: sculpting was an expensive art, and she did not receive many official commissions because her style was highly unusual for the contemporary conservative tastes. Despite this, Le Cornec and Pollock believe she changed the history of arts. Other authors write that it is still unclear how much Rodin influenced Claudel – and vice versa, how much credit has been taken away from her, or how much he was responsible for her woes. Most modern authors agree that she was an outstanding genius who, starting with wealth, beauty, iron will and a brilliant future even before meeting Rodin, was never rewarded and died in loneliness, poverty, and obscurity. Others like Eisen, Matthews and Flemming suggest it was not Rodin, but her brother Paul who was jealous of her genius, and that he conspired with her mother, who never forgave her for her supposed immorality, to later ruin her and keep her confined to a mental hospital. Kavaler-Adler notes that her younger sister Louise, who desired Camille's inheritance and was also jealous of her, was delighted at her sister's downfall. Less well known than her love affair with Rodin, the nature of her relationship with Claude Debussy has also been the object of much speculation. Stephen Barr reports that Debussy pursued her: it was unknown whether they ever became lovers. They both admired Degas and Hokusai, and shared an interest in childhood and death themes. When Claudel ended the relationship, Debussy wrote: \"I weep for the disappearance of the Dream of this Dream.\" Debussy admired her as a great artist and kept a copy of \"The Waltz\" in his studio until his death. By thirty, Claudel's romantic life had ended.", "After 1905 Claudel appeared to be mentally ill. She destroyed many of her statues, disappeared for long periods of time, exhibited signs of paranoia and was diagnosed as having schizophrenia. She accused Rodin of stealing her ideas and of leading a conspiracy to kill her. After the wedding of her brother in 1906 and his return to China, she lived secluded in her workshop. Claudel's father approved of her career choice, and he tried to help and support her financially. But when he died on 2 March 1913, Claudel was not informed of his death. Instead, eight days later, on 10 March 1913, at the request of her younger brother Paul, she was admitted to the psychiatric hospital of Ville-Évrard in Neuilly-sur-Marne. The form read that she had been \"voluntarily\" committed, although her admission was signed only by a doctor and her brother. There are records to show that, while she did have mental outbursts, she was clear-headed while working on her art. Doctors tried to convince Paul and their mother that Camille did not need to be in the institution, but they still kept her there. According to Cécile Bertran, a curator from the Musée Camille Claudel, the situation was not easy to judge, because modern experts who have looked at her records say she was indeed ill. In 1914, to be safe from advancing German troops, the patients at Ville-Évrard were at first relocated to Enghien. On 7 September 1914 Camille was transferred with a number of other women, to the Montdevergues Asylum, at Montfavet, six kilometres from Avignon. Her certificate of admittance to Montdevergues was signed on 22 September 1914; it reported that she suffered \"from a systematic persecution delirium mostly based upon false interpretations and imagination\". For a while, the press accused her family of committing a sculptor of genius. Her mother forbade her to receive mail from anyone other than her brother. The hospital staff regularly proposed to her family that Claudel be released, but her mother adamantly refused each time. On 1 June 1920, physician Dr. Brunet sent a letter advising her mother to try to reintegrate her daughter into the family environment. Nothing came of this. Paul Claudel visited his confined older sister seven times in 30 years, in 1913, 1920, 1925, 1927, 1933, 1936, and 1943. He always referred to her in the past tense. Their sister Louise visited her just one time, in 1929. Her mother, who died in June, 1929, never visited Camille. In 1929 sculptor and Claudel's former friend Jessie Lipscomb visited her, and afterwards insisted \"it was not true\" that Claudel was insane. Rodin's friend, Mathias Morhardt, insisted that Paul was a \"simpleton\" who had \"shut away\" his sister of genius. Camille Claudel died on 19 October 1943, after having lived 30 years in the asylum at Montfavet (known then as the Asile de Montdevergues, now the modern psychiatric hospital Centre hospitalier de Montfavet). Her brother Paul had been informed of his sister's terminal illness in September and, with some difficulty, had crossed Occupied France to see her, although he was not present at her death or funeral. Her sister did not make the journey to Montfavet. Claudel was interred in the cemetery of Montfavet, and eventually her remains were buried in a communal grave at the asylum. From the 2002 book, \"Camille Claudel, A Life\": \"Ten years after her death, Camille's bones had been transferred to a communal grave, where they were mixed with the bones of the most destitute. Joined forever to the ground she tried to escape for so long, Camille never, ever, returned to her beloved Villeneuve. Paul's neglect regarding his sister's grave is hard to forgive...while Paul decided not to be burdened with his sister's grave, he took great pains, on the contrary, in choosing his own final resting place, naming the exact location – in Brangues, under a tree, next to his grandchild – and citing the precise words to be written on the stone. Today his admirers pay homage to his memory at his noble grave; but of Camille there is not a trace. In Villeneuve, a simple plaque reminds the curious visitor that Camille Claudel once lived there, but her remains are still in exile, somewhere, just a few steps away from the place where she was sequestered for thirty years.\"", "The Musée Camille Claudel was opened in March, 2017, as a French national museum dedicated to Claudel's work. It is located in her teenage home town of Nogent-sur-Seine. The Musée Camille Claudel displays approximately half of Claudel's 90 surviving works. Plans to turn the Claudel family home at Nogent-sur-Seine into a museum were announced in 2003, and the museum negotiated with the Claudel family to buy Camille's works. These include 70 pieces, including a bust of Rodin.", "Though she destroyed much of her work, about 90 statues, sketches and drawings survive. She was at first censored as she portrayed sexuality in her work. Her response was a symbolic, intellectual style as opposed to the \"expressive\" approach normally attributed to women artists, Her work became well regarded. Some authors argue that Henrik Ibsen based his last play, 1899's \"When We Dead Awaken\", on Rodin's relationship with Claudel. In 1951, Paul Claudel organised an exhibition at the Musée Rodin, which continues to display her sculptures. A large exhibition of her works was organised in 1984. In 2005 a large art display featuring the works of Rodin and Claudel was exhibited in Quebec City (Canada), and Detroit, Michigan, in the US. In 2008, the Musée Rodin organised a retrospective exhibition including more than 80 of her works. The publication of several biographies in the 1980s sparked a resurgence of interest in her work. \"Camille Claudel\" (1988) was a dramatisation of her life based largely on historical records. Directed by Bruno Nuytten, co-produced by Isabelle Adjani, starring herself as Claudel and Gérard Depardieu as Rodin, the film was nominated for two Academy Awards in 1989. Another film, \"Camille Claudel 1915\", directed by Bruno Dumont and starring Juliette Binoche as Claudel, premiered at the 63rd Berlin International Film Festival in 2013. The 2017 film \"Rodin\" co-stars Izïa Higelin as Claudel. Composer Jeremy Beck's \"Death of a Little Girl with Doves\" (1998), an operatic soliloquy for soprano and orchestra, is based on the life and letters of Camille Claudel. This composition has been recorded by Rayanne Dupuis, soprano, with the Slovak Radio Symphony Orchestra. Beck's composition has been described as \"a deeply attractive and touching piece of writing... [demonstrating] imperious melodic confidence, fluent emotional command and yielding tenderness.\" Seattle playwright S.P. Miskowski's \"La Valse\" (2000) is a well-researched look at Claudel's life. Composer Frank Wildhorn and lyricist Nan Knighton's musical \"Camille Claudel\" was produced by Goodspeed Musicals at The Norma Terris Theatre in Chester, Connecticut in 2003. In 2005, Sotheby's sold a second edition \"La Valse\" (1905, Blot, number 21) for $932,500. In a 2009 Paris auction, Claudel's \"Le Dieu Envolé\" (1894/1998, foundry Valsuani, signed and numbered 6/8) had a high estimate of $180,000, while a comparable Rodin sculpture, \"L'éternelle Idole\" (1889/1930, Rudier, signed) had a high estimate of $75,000. In 2011 the world premiere of Boris Eifman's new ballet \"Rodin\" took place in St Petersburg, Russia. The ballet is dedicated to the life and creative work sculptor Auguste Rodin and his apprentice, lover and muse, Camille Claudel. In 2012, the world premiere of the play \"Camille Claudel\" took place. Written, performed and directed by Gaël Le Cornec, premiered at the Pleasance Courtyard Edinburgh Festival, the play looks at the relationship of master and muse from the perspective of Camille at different stages in her life. In 2014, the Columbus Dance Theater and the Carpe Diem String Quartet performed the premiere of \"Claudel\", with music by Korine Fujiwara, original poetry by Kathleen Kirk, and choreography by Tim Veach. In 2019, to mark the 155th anniversary of Claudel's birth, Google released a Google Doodle commemorating her." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Theory of operation.", "Limitations.", "Improvements.", "Qualitative information.", "Quantitative information." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Polarography is a voltammetric measurement whose response is determined by only diffusion mass transport. The simple principle of polarography is the study of solutions or of electrode processes by means of electrolysis with two electrodes, one polarizable and one unpolarizable, the former formed by mercury regularly dropping from a capillary tube. Polarography is a specific type of measurement that falls into the general category of linear-sweep voltammetry where the electrode potential is altered in a linear fashion from the initial potential to the final potential. As a linear sweep method controlled by convection/diffusion mass transport, the current vs. potential response of a polarographic experiment has the typical sigmoidal shape. What makes polarography different from other linear sweep voltammetry measurements is that polarography makes use of the dropping mercury electrode (DME) or the static mercury drop electrode. A plot of the current vs. potential in a polarography experiment shows the current oscillations corresponding to the drops of Hg falling from the capillary. If one connected the maximum current of each drop, a sigmoidal shape would result. The limiting current (the plateau on the sigmoid), called the diffusion current because diffusion is the principal contribution to the flux of electroactive material at this point of the Hg drop life.", "There are limitations in particular for the classical polarography experiment for quantitative analytical measurements. Because the current is continuously measured during the growth of the Hg drop, there is a substantial contribution from capacitive current. As the Hg flows from the capillary end, there is initially a large increase in the surface area. As a consequence, the initial current is dominated by capacitive effects as charging of the rapidly increasing interface occurs. Toward the end of the drop life, there is little change in the surface area which diminishes the contribution of capacitance changes to the total current. At the same time, any redox process which occurs will result in faradaic current that decays approximately as the square root of time (due to the increasing dimensions of the Nernst diffusion layer). The exponential decay of the capacitive current is much more rapid than the decay of the faradaic current; hence, the faradaic current is proportionally larger at the end of the drop life. Unfortunately, this process is complicated by the continuously changing potential that is applied to the working electrode (the Hg drop) throughout the experiment. Because the potential is changing during the drop lifetime (assuming typical experimental parameters of a 2 mV/s scan rate and a 4 s drop time, the potential can change by 8 mV from the beginning to the end of the drop), the charging of the interface (capacitive current) has a continuous contribution to the total current, even at the end of the drop when the surface area is not rapidly changing. As such, the typical signal to noise of a polarographic experiment allows detection limits of only approximately 10 or 10 M.", "Dramatically better discrimination against the capacitive current can be obtained using the tast and pulse polarographic techniques. These have been developed with introduction of analog and digital electronic potentiostats. A first major improvement is obtained, if the current is only measured at the end of each drop lifetime (tast polarography. An even greater enhancement has been the introduction of differential pulse polarography. Here, the current is measured before the beginning and before the end of short potential pulses. The latter are superimposed to the linear potential-time-function of the voltammetric scan. Typical amplitudes of these pulses range between 10 and 50 mV, whereas pulse duration is 20 to 50 ms. The difference between both current values is that taken as the analytical signal. This technique results in a 100 to 1000-fold improvement of the detection limit, because the capacitive component is effectively suppressed.", "Qualitative information can also be determined from the half-wave potential of the polarogram (the current vs. potential plot in a polarographic experiment). The value of the half-wave potential is related to the standard potential for the redox reaction being studied. This technique and especially the differential pulse anodic stripping voltammetry (DPASV) method can be used for environmental analysis, and especially for marine study for characterisation of organic matter and metals interactions.", "The Ilkovic equation is a relation used in polarography relating the diffusion current (\"I\") and the concentration of the depolarizer (\"c\"), which is the substance reduced or oxidized at the dropping mercury electrode. The Ilkovic equation has the form where \"k\" is a constant which includes π and the density of mercury, and with the Faraday constant \"F\" has been evaluated at 708 for maximal current and 607 for average current, \"D\" is the diffusion coefficient of the depolarizer in the medium (cm/s), \"n\" is the number of electrons exchanged in the electrode reaction, \"m\" is the mass flow rate of Hg through the capillary (mg/s), \"t\" is the drop lifetime in seconds, and \"c\" is depolarizer concentration in mol/cm. The equation is named after the scientist who derived it, the Slovak chemist Dionýz Ilkovič (1907–1980)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Population.", "Immigration.", "Structure.", "Total fertility rate.", "Life expectancy.", "Density.", "Births and fertility by race.", "U.S.-born people.", "Immigration.", "Vital statistics.", "Current vital statistics.", "Historical data.", "Median age of the population.", "Vital statistics.", "Total Fertility Rates from 1800 to 2010.", "Life expectancy at birth from 1901 to 2015.", "Percent distribution of the total population by age: 1900 to 2015.", "Population centers.", "Race and ethnicity.", "Race.", "Hispanic or Latino origin.", "Indigenous peoples.", "Other groups.", "Projections.", "U.S. Census Census Bureau projections.", "Foreign-born population.", "Citizens living abroad.", "Religion.", "Religious affiliations.", "Religions of U.S. adults.", "Income.", "Economic class.", "Generational cohorts.", "U.S. demographic birth cohorts.", "Demographic statistics.", "Birth, growth and death rates.", "Unemployment rate.", "Mobility.", "See also." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "the United States is estimated to have a population of 328,953,020. The following demographic statistics are from the \"CIA World Factbook\" estimated, unless otherwise indicated.", "In 2017, out of the U.S. foreign-born population, some 45% (20.7 million) were naturalized citizens, 27% (12.3 million) were lawful permanent residents (including many eligible to become citizens), 6% (2.2 million) were temporary lawful residents, and 23% (10.5 million) were unauthorized immigrants. Among current living immigrants to the U.S., the top five countries of birth are Mexico (25% of immigrants), China (6%), India (6%), the Philippines (5%) and El Salvador (3%). Some 13% of current living immigrants come from Europe and Canada, and 10% from the Caribbean. Among new arrivals, Asian immigrants have been more numerous than Hispanic immigrants since 2010; in 2017, 37.4% of immigrant arrivals were Asian, and 26.6% were Hispanic. Until 2017 and 2018, the United States led the world in refugee resettlement for decades, admitted more refugees than the rest of the world combined. From fiscal year 1980 until 2017, 55% of refugees came from Asia, 27% from Europe, 13% from Africa, and 4% from Latin America, fleeing war and persecution.", "The median age of the total population is 38.2 years; the male median age is 36.9 years; the female median age is 39.5 years. The population is distributed by age as follows: Sex ratios:", "In 1800 the average U.S. woman had 7.04 children; by the first decade of the 1900s, this number had already decreased to 3.56. Since the early 1970s the birth rate has been below the replacement rate of 2.1 with 1.76 children per woman in 2017. The drop in the U.S. fertility rate from 2.08 per woman in 2007 to 1.76 in 2017 was mostly due to the declining birth rate of Hispanics, teenagers, and young women, although the birth rate for older women rose, below the replacement rate of 2.1.", "The average life expectancy in the United States has been on a decline since 2014. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention cites three main reasons: a 72% increase in overdoses in the last decade (including a 30% increase in opioid overdoses from July 2016 to September 2017, but did not differentiate between accidental overdose with a legal prescription and overdose with opioids obtained illegally and/or combined with illegal drugs i.e., heroin, cocaine, methamphetamine, etc.), a ten-year increase in liver disease (men 25 to 34 increased by 8%; women by 11%), and a 33% increase in suicide rates since 1999.", "The most densely populated state is New Jersey (1,121/mi or 433/km). The population is highly urbanized, with 82.3% of the population residing in cities and suburbs. Large urban clusters are spread throughout the eastern half of the United States (particularly the Great Lakes area, northeast, east, and southeast) and the western tier states; mountainous areas, principally the Rocky Mountains and Appalachian chain, deserts in the southwest, the dense boreal forests in the extreme north, and the central prairie states are less densely populated; Alaska's population is concentrated along its southern coast – with particular emphasis on the city of Anchorage – and Hawaii's is centered on the island of Oahu. California and Texas are the most populous states, as the mean center of U.S. population has consistently shifted westward and southward. New York City is the most populous city in the United States and has been since at least 1790.", "", "\"Note: Hispanics are counted both by their ethnicity and by their race, giving a higher overall number.\" Also note that growth arrows indicate an increase or decrease in the number of births, not in the fertility rate. NOTE:", "As of 2017, 13.6% (44.4 million) of the population was foreign born – an increase from 4.7% in 1970 but less than the 1890 record of 14.8%. 45% of the foreign born population were naturalized US citizens. 23% (10.3 million) of the foreign born community is undocumented, accounting for 3.2% of the total population. According to the 2010 census, Latin America and the Caribbean is the largest region-of-birth group, accounting for 53% of the foreign born population. As of 2018 this region is still the largest source of immigrants to the United States In 2018, there were almost 90 million immigrants and U.S. born children of immigrants (second-generation Americans) in the United States, accounting for 28% of the overall U.S. population. In 2018, 1,096,611 immigrants were granted either permanent or temporary legal residence in the United States", "", "Number of births : Number of deaths : Natural increase :", "In 1900, when the U.S. population was 76 million, there were 66.8 million whites in the United States, representing 88% of the total population, 8.8 million Black Americans, with about 90% of them still living in Southern states, and slightly more than 500,000 Hispanics. Under the law, the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965, the number of first-generation immigrants living in the United States has increased, from 9.6 million in 1970 to about 38 million in 2007. Around a million people legally immigrated to the United States per year in the 1990s, up from 250,000 per year in the 1950s. In 1900, non-Hispanic whites comprised almost 97% of the population of the 10 largest U.S. cities. The Census Bureau reported that minorities (including Hispanic whites) made up 50.4% of the children born in the U.S. between July 2010 and July 2011, compared to 37% in 1990. In 2010, the state with the lowest fertility rate was Rhode Island, with a rate of 1.63, while Utah had the greatest rate with a rate of 2.45. This correlates with the ages of the states' populations: Rhode Island has the ninth-oldest median age in the US—39.2—while Utah has the youngest—29.0. In 2017, the U.S. birth rate remains well below the replacement level needed – at least 2.1 children per woman so as not to experience population decreases – as white American births fell in all 50 states and the District of Columbia. Among non-Hispanic white women, no states had a fertility rate above the replacement level. Among non-Hispanic Black women, 12 states reached above the replacement level needed. Among Hispanic women, 29 states did. For non-Hispanic white women, the highest total fertility rate was in Utah, at 2.099, and the lowest in the District of Columbia, at 1.012. Among non-Hispanic Black women, the highest total fertility rate was in Maine, at 4.003, and the lowest in Wyoming, at 1.146. For Hispanic women, the highest total fertility rate was in Alabama, at 3.085, and the lowest in Vermont, at 1.200, and Maine, at 1.281. Due to the aging and low birth rates among white people, deaths now outnumber births among white people (non-Hispanic) in more than half the states in the country. In 2018, U.S. births fell to the lowest level in 32 years.<ref name=\"bloomberg.com/news\"></ref>", "Median age of the U.S. population through history. Source: U.S. Department of Commerce. Bureau of Census, United States Census Bureau and The World Factbook.", "The U.S. total fertility rate as of 2018 is 1.728: Other: Source: National Vital statistics report based on 2010 US Census data", "The total fertility rate is the number of children born per woman. Sources: Ansley J. Coale, Zelnik and National Center for Health Statistics.", "Life expectancy in the United States from 1901 to 2015. Source: Our World In Data and the United Nations. 1901–1950 1950–2015 Source: \"UN World Population Prospects\"", "Sources: U.S. Census Bureau, U.S. Department of Commerce, United Nations medium variant projections.", "The United States has dozens of major cities, including 31 \"global cities\" of all types, with 10 in the \"alpha\" group of global cities: New York, Los Angeles, Chicago, Washington, D.C., Boston, San Francisco, Miami, Philadelphia, Dallas, and Atlanta., the United States had 51 metropolitan areas with a population of over 1,000,000 people each. (See Table of United States Metropolitan Statistical Areas.) , about 250 million Americans live in or around urban areas. That means more than three-quarters of the U.S. population shares just about three percent of the U.S. land area. The following table shows the populations of the top twenty metropolitan areas. Note Denver and Baltimore have over 2.5 million residents in their metro areas.", "", "The United States Census Bureau collects racial data in accordance with guidelines provided by the U.S. Office of Management and Budget (OMB), and these data are based on self-identification. Many other countries count multiple races based on origin while America compiles multiple dozens of ethnicity groups into skin color grouping them together. The racial classifications and definitions used by the U.S. Census Bureau are: Data about race and ethnicity are self-reported to the Census Bureau. Since the 2000 census, Congress has authorized people to identify themselves according to more than one racial classification by selecting more than one category. Only one ethnicity may be selected, however, because the U.S. Census recognizes only two ethnicities—Hispanic and Non-Hispanic—which are mutually exclusive since you can be one or the other, but not both. The Census Bureau defines \"Hispanic\" as any person who has an ancestral connection to Latin America. According to the 2013–2017 American Community Survey, the racial composition of the United States in 2017 was: Hispanic are shown like part of the races. Source: U.S. Census Bureau. Data are shown for the White, Black or African American, American Indian and Alaska Native, Asian and Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander, and Some other race alone populations. Source: United States Census Bureau. Source: United States Census Bureau.", "The U.S. Office of Management and Budget (OMB) defines \"Hispanic or Latino\" as a person of Cuban, Mexican, Puerto Rican, Dominican, South or Central American, or other Spanish culture or origin regardless of race. People who identify with the terms “Hispanic” or “Latino” are those who classify themselves in one of the specific Hispanic or Latino categories listed on the decennial census questionnaire and various Census Bureau survey questionnaires – “Mexican, Mexican Am., Chicano” or ”Puerto Rican” or “Cuban” – as well as those who indicate that they are “another Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin.” People who identify their origin as Hispanic or Latino may be of any race. Source: U.S. Census Bureau, decennial census of population, 1970 (5-percent sample), 1980 to 2010. Source: United States Census Bureau. Source: United States Census Bureau. Note: Hispanic origin is considered an ethnicity, not a race. Hispanics may be of any race.", "As of 2017, there are 2,098,763 American Indian and Alaska Native people in the United States, representing 0.7% of the U.S. population. There are 573 federally recognized tribal governments in the United States. As of 2000, the largest groups in the United States by population were Navajo, Cherokee, Choctaw, Sioux, Chippewa, Apache, Blackfeet, Iroquois, and Pueblo.", "There were 22.1 million veterans in 2009, meaning that less than 10% of Americans served in the Armed Forces. In 2010, \"The Washington Post\" estimated that there were 11 million undocumented immigrants in the country. As of 2017, Pew Research reported that there an estimated 10.5 million undocumented immigrants in the U.S. There were about 2 million people in prison in 2010. The 2000 U.S. Census counted same-sex couples in an oblique way; asking the sex and the relationship to the \"main householder\", whose sex was also asked. Community Marketing & Insights, an organization specializing in analyzing gay demographic data, reported, based on this count in the 2000 census and in the 2000 supplementary survey, that same-sex couples comprised between 0.99% and 1.13% of U.S. couples in 2000. A 2006 report issued by The Williams Institute on Sexual Orientation concluded that the number of same-sex couples in the U.S. grew from 2000 to 2005, from nearly 600,000 couples in 2000 to almost 777,000 in 2005. A 2006 UCLA study reported that 4.1% of Americans aged 18–45 identify as gay, lesbian, or bisexual. A 2011 report by the Williams Institute estimated that 9 million adults identify as gay, lesbian, or bisexual, representing 3.5% of the population over 18. A spokesperson said that, until recently, few studies have tried to eliminate people who had occasionally undertaken homosexual behavior or entertained homosexual thoughts, from people who identified as lesbian or gay. (Older estimates have varied depending on methodology and timing; see Demographics of sexual orientation for a list of studies.) The American Community Survey from the 2000 U.S. Census estimated 776,943 same-sex couple households in the country as a whole, representing about 0.5% of the population.", "A report by the U.S. Census Bureau projects a decrease in the ratio of Whites between 2010 and 2050, from 79.5% to 74.0%. At the same time, Non-Hispanic Whites are projected to no longer make up a majority of the population by 2045, but will remain the largest single ethnic group. In 2050 they will compose 46.3% of the population. Non-Hispanic whites made up 85% of the population in 1960. The report foresees the Hispanic or Latino population rising from 16% today to 30% by 2050, the Black percentage barely rising from 12.9% to 13.1%, and Asian Americans upping their 4.6% share to 7.8%. The United States had a population of 310 million people in October 2010, and is projected to reach 400 million by 2039 and 439 million in 2050. It is further projected that 82% of the increase in population from 2005 to 2050 will be due to immigrants and their children. Of the nation's children in 2050, 62% are expected to be of a minority ethnicity, up from 44% today. Approximately 39% are projected to be Hispanic or Latino (up from 22% in 2008), and 38% are projected to be single-race, non-Hispanic Whites (down from 56% in 2008). Racial and ethnic minorities surpassed non-Hispanic whites as the largest group of U.S. children under 5 years old in 2015. The United Nations projects a population of just over 400 million in 2060. The country's racial profile will be vastly different, and although whites will remain the single largest racial group in the U.S., they will no longer be a majority by 2055 according to Pew Research Center. Growth in the Hispanic and Asian populations is predicted to almost triple over the next 40 years. By 2055, the breakdown is estimated to be 48% white, 24% Hispanic, 14% Asian, and 13% Black. , 14% of the United States' population is foreign born, compared to just 5% in 1965. Nearly 39 million immigrants have come to the U.S. since 1965, with most coming from Asia and Latin America. The 2015 Census Report predicts that the percentage of the U.S. population that is foreign-born will continue to increase, reaching 19% by 2060. This increase in the foreign-born population will account for a large share of the overall population growth. The average person in the U.S. of 2060 is likely to be older than the average person of 2018 today, and almost one in four people will be 65 or older.", "Note: “Minority” refers to people who reported their ethnicity and race as something other than non-Hispanic White alone in the decennial census.", "As of 2017, there is a total of 44,525,458 foreign-born people in the United States that represents the 13.5% of the total population of the country. It is important to note that the foreign-born people are not necessarily recent immigrants, in general, Europeans have resided in the United States longer than the total immigrant population, approximately the 66 percent of the European inmigrants arrived prior to 2000.", "As of April 2015, the US State Department estimated that 8.7 million American citizens live overseas. Americans living overseas are not counted in the US Census unless they are a US government employee or the dependent of a US government employee. A 2010 paper estimated the number of civilian Americans living abroad to be around 4 million. So-called 'accidental Americans' are citizens of a country other than the United States who may also be considered U.S. citizens or be eligible for American citizenship under American nationality law but are not aware of having such status, or have only become aware of it recently during adulthood.", "", "The table below is based mainly on selected data as reported to the United States Census Bureau. It only includes the voluntary self-reported membership of religious bodies with 750,000 or more. The definition of a member is determined by each religious body., the US census bureau reported that about 13% of the population did not identify themselves as a member of any religion. In a Pew Research Survey performed in 2012, Americans without a religion (atheists, agnostics, nothing in particular, etc.) approached the numbers of Evangelical Protestant Americans with almost 20% of Americans being nonreligious (compared to just over 26% being Evangelical Protestant). If this current growth rate continues, by 2050, around 51% of Americans will not have a religion. Surveys conducted in 2014 and 2019 by Pew indicated that the percentage of Americans unaffiliated with a religion increased from 16% in 2007 to 23% in 2014 and 26% of the population in 2019. According to Pew Research Center study released in 2018, by 2040, Islam will surpass Judaism to become the second largest religion in the US due to higher immigration and birth rates.", "The United States government does not collect religious data in its census. The survey below, the American Religious Identification Survey (ARIS) 2008, was a random digit-dialed telephone survey of 54,461 American residential households in the contiguous United States. The 1990 sample size was 113,723; 2001 sample size was 50,281. Adult respondents were asked the open-ended question, \"What is your religion, if any?\". Interviewers did not prompt or offer a suggested list of potential answers. The religion of the spouse or partner was also asked. If the initial answer was \"Protestant\" or \"Christian\" further questions were asked to probe which particular denomination. About one-third of the sample was asked more detailed demographic questions. Religious Self-Identification of the U.S. Adult Population: 1990, 2001, 2008<br>Figures are not adjusted for refusals to reply; investigators suspect refusals are possibly more representative of \"no religion\" than any other group.", "In 2006, the median household income in the United States was around $46,326. Household and personal income depends on variables such as race, number of income earners, educational attainment and marital status.", "Social classes in the United States lack distinct boundaries and may overlap. Even their existence (when distinguished from economic strata) is controversial. The following table provides a summary of some prominent academic theories on the stratification of American society:", "A definitive recent study of US generational cohorts was done by Schuman and Scott (2012) in which a broad sample of adults of all ages was asked, \"What world events are especially important to you?\" They found that 33 events were mentioned with great frequency. When the ages of the respondents were correlated with the expressed importance rankings, seven (some put 8 or 9) distinct cohorts became evident. Today the following descriptors are frequently used for these cohorts:", "Subdivided groups are present when peak boom years or inverted peak bust years are present, and may be represented by a normal or inverted bell-shaped curve (rather than a straight curve). The boom subdivided cohorts may be considered as \"pre-peak\" (including peak year) and \"post-peak\". The year 1957 was the baby boom peak with 4.3 million births and 122.7 fertility rate. Although post-peak births (such as trailing edge boomers) are in decline, and sometimes referred to as a \"bust\", there are still a \"relatively\" large number of births. The dearth-in-birth bust cohorts include those up to the valley birth year, and those including and beyond, leading up to the subsequent normal birth rate. The baby boom began around 1943 to 1946. From the decline in U.S. birth rates starting in 1958 and the introduction of the birth control pill in 1960, the Baby Boomer normal distribution curve is negatively skewed. The trend in birth rates from 1958 to 1961 show a tendency to end late in the decade at approximately 1969, thus returning to pre-WWII levels, with 12 years of rising and 12 years of declining birth rates. Pre-war birth rates were defined as anywhere between 1939 and 1941 by demographers such as the Taeuber's, Philip M. Hauser and William Fielding Ogburn.", "", "The growth rate is 0.81% as estimated from 2017. The birth rate is 12.5 births/1,000 population, estimated and 2013. Country comparison to the world: 158th. This was the lowest since records began. There were 3,957,577 births in 2013. In 2009, \"Time magazine\" reported that 40% of births were to unmarried women. The following is a breakdown by race for unwed births: 17% Asian, 29% White, 53% Hispanics (of any race), 66% Native Americans, and 72% Black American. The drop in the birth rate from 2007 to 2009 is believed to be associated with the Great Recession. A study by the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ) found that more than half (51 percent) of live hospital births in 2008 and 2011 were male. Per U.S. federal government data released in March 2011, births fell 4% from 2007 to 2009, the largest drop in the U.S. for any two-year period since the 1970s. Births have declined for three consecutive years, and are now 7% below the peak in 2007. This drop has continued through 2010, according to data released by the U.S. National Center for Health Statistics in June 2011. Numerous experts have suggested that this decline is largely a reflection of unfavorable economic conditions. This connection between birth rates and economic downturns partly stems from the fact that American birth rates have now fallen to levels that are comparable to the Great Depression of the 1930s. Teen birth rates in the U.S. are at the lowest level in U.S. history. In fact, teen birth rates in the U.S. have consistently decreased since 1991 through 2011, except for a brief increase between 2005 and 2007. The other aberration from this otherwise steady decline in teen birth rates is the 6% decrease in birth rates for 15- to 19-year-olds between 2008 and 2009. Despite these years of decrease, U.S. teen birth rates are still higher than in other developed nations. Racial differences prevail with teen birth and pregnancy rates as well. The American Indian/Alaska Native, Hispanic, and non-Hispanic Black teen pregnancy rates are more than double the non-Hispanic white teen birth rate.", ", the U.S. unemployment rate was 14.7 percent (U3 rate) *Unemployement numbers impacted by the US response to Coronavirus disease 2019. , the U.S. unemployment rate was 3.7 percent (U3 rate). , the U.S. unemployment rate was 3.7 percent (U3 rate). , the U.S. unemployment rate was 4.3 percent (U3 rate). , the U.S. unemployment rate was 4.9 percent (U3 rate). , the U.S. unemployment rate was 5.3 percent (U3 rate). , the U.S. unemployment rate was 6.2 percent (U3 rate). The U6 unemployment rate was 8.6 percent. The U6 unemployment rate counts not only people without work seeking full-time employment (the more familiar U3 rate), but also counts \"marginally attached workers and those working part-time for economic reasons.\" Note that some of these part-time workers counted as employed by U6 could be working as little as an hour a week. And the \"marginally attached workers\" include those who have gotten discouraged and stopped looking, but still want to work. The age considered for this calculation is 16 years and over.", "In terms of internal migration, in 2013, about 15% of Americans moved. Most of these, 67%, moved within the same county. Of the 33% who moved beyond local county boundaries, 13% of those moved more than.", "Lists: Income: Population:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Origin.", "Italy.", "Western Europe.", "Britain.", "France.", "Germany.", "Operation Epsilon.", "Japan.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Manhattan Project was a research-and-development program, operated during and immediately after World War II. Led by the United States with contributions principally from the United Kingdom and Canada, it aimed to produce an atomic bomb. Brigadier General Leslie Groves of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers became its director in September 1942. The project operated under a tight blanket of security lest its discovery induce Axis powers, particularly Germany, to accelerate their own nuclear projects or to undertake covert operations against the project. The Manhattan Project intelligence staff believed that the Japanese atomic program was not far advanced because Japan had little access to uranium ore, the industrial effort required exceeded Japan's capacity, and, according to American physicists at the University of California, Berkeley, who knew the leading Japanese physicists personally, there were too few Japanese qualified to work in the area. Conversely, German scientists had reputations as leaders in the field, and the fear of Germany developing nuclear weapons first was one of the reasons for the establishment of the Manhattan Project. The Chancellor of Germany, Adolf Hitler, frequently claimed that Germany was developing secret weapons, and it was feared that these might include nuclear weapons. Reports of German nuclear activity were taken seriously. At the instigation of the Manhattan Project, Norwegian saboteurs and Allied bombers attacked heavy-water infrastructure in German-occupied Norway in late 1942 and early 1943. Following the September 1943 Allied invasion of Italy, Brigadier General Wilhelm D. Styer, Chief of Staff of Army Service Forces, was concerned intelligence activities related to foreign nuclear energy programs were not being properly coordinated. He feared that important items might be overlooked unless those responsible were properly briefed, yet at the same time wished to minimize the number of personnel with access to such secret information. Having the Manhattan Project itself take over responsibility for coordinating these efforts would address both these concerns. Accordingly, he approached Groves on behalf of General George Marshall, the Chief of Staff of the Army, with that recommendation. In response, Groves created the \"Alsos Mission\", a small team jointly staffed by the Office of Naval Intelligence (ONI), the Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD), the Manhattan Project, and Army Intelligence (G-2). Its assignment was to investigate enemy scientific developments, including nuclear weapons research. Groves was not pleased with the codename, the Greek word for \"grove\", but decided that changing it would only draw unwanted attention. The Chief of Army Intelligence, Major General George V. Strong, appointed Lieutenant Colonel Boris Pash to command the unit. Pash had served as the head of the Counter Intelligence Branch of the Western Defense Command, where he had investigated suspected Soviet espionage at the Radiation Laboratory at Berkeley. Pash's command comprised his executive officer Captain Wayne B. Stanard, four Counter Intelligence Corps (CIC) agents, four interpreters, and four scientists: Dr. James B. Fisk from the Bell Telephone Company, Dr. John R. Johnson from Cornell University, Commander Bruce Olds from the Office of Naval Intelligence (ONI) and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), and Major William Allis, originally from MIT although then serving on the War Department scientific staff.", "In December 1943, the Alsos Mission reached Algiers, where Pash reported to the Chief of Staff at Allied Force Headquarters (AFHQ), Major General Walter B. Smith, and his British Chief of Intelligence, Brigadier Kenneth Strong. This was awkward as Pash's instructions were not to give the British information about the Alsos Mission, but it turned out that Strong was already fully aware of it. It was arranged that Pash would deal with Strong's American deputy, Colonel Thomas E. Roderick. The Alsos Mission then moved on to Italy, where it was assigned to Major General Kenyon A. Joyce's Allied Control Commission. Pash met with Marshal of Italy Pietro Badoglio, the man who had negotiated Italy's surrender to the Allies, and was now head of the Italian Provisional Military Government, who gave him a letter of introduction addressed to Italian civil and military authorities. Alsos interviewed the Italian Minister for Communications, the Chief of Naval Ordnance, the staff of the Italian Naval Academy, and Italian scientists at the University of Naples, and examined what captured technical documents could be found. There was little information about developments in northern Italy and Germany. The Alsos Mission was attached to Colonel George Smith's S-Force. Built around a Royal Air Force ground reconnaissance squadron equipped with armored cars, this unit contained American, British, French, and Italian technical specialists of various kinds who would enter Rome on the heels of the advancing Allied forces. The expectation that Rome would soon be captured proved premature, and by March 1944 most of the Alsos Mission had returned to the United States. The Alsos Mission had gathered little of value about nuclear matters, but submitted detailed reports about German rockets and guided missiles. Rome fell on 4 June 1944. When the news came that its fall was imminent, Pash was ordered from London to Italy. He flew back to Italy and entered the city with S-Force on 5 June. Pash took key scientists into custody and arranged for sites targeted by Alsos, including the University of Rome and the \"Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche\", to be secured. The Alsos Mission to Italy was reconstituted under the command of Pash's deputy, Major Richard C. Ham, and Johnson and Major Robert R. Furman were sent from the United States to join him. They reached Rome on 19 June, and over the next weeks interviewed scientists including Edoardo Amaldi, Gian-Carlo Wick, and Francesco Giordani. The picture that the Alsos Mission built up indicated that the German effort was not far advanced.", "", "In December 1943, Groves sent Furman to Britain to discuss the establishment of a London Liaison Office for the Manhattan Project with the British government, and to confer over coordinating the intelligence effort. Lieutenant Commander Eric Welsh, the head of the Norwegian Section of MI6, was unimpressed with Furman's grasp of the subject matter. Groves selected the head of the Manhattan District's security activities, Captain Horace K. Calvert, as head of the London Liaison Office, with the title of Assistant Military Attaché. Working in cooperation with Welsh and Michael Perrin from Tube Alloys, the London Liaison Office consisted of Calvert, Captain George B. Davis, two Women's Army Corps clerks and three CIC agents. The Liaison Office interviewed European refugee scientists and studied German physics journals. It compiled lists of German scientists of interest and possible locations of nuclear research and industrial facilities, and the mining and stockpiling of uranium and thorium ores. Little thorium was available in Germany or German-occupied Europe, and attention soon centered on the mines at Joachimsthal in Sudetenland (the German-annexed part of Czechoslovakia). Aerial reconnaissance was carried out periodically, and production was measured by assessing the size of the piles of tailings. Groves warned General Dwight D. Eisenhower of the possibility that the Germans might disrupt the Normandy landings with radioactive poisons, and sent Major Arthur V. Peterson to brief his chief of staff, Lieutenant General Walter B. Smith. Under the codename Operation Peppermint, special equipment was prepared and Chemical Warfare Service teams were trained in its use. The British forces made similar preparations for their beaches. The precautions were unnecessary. Meanwhile, the new head of G-2, Major General Clayton L. Bissell, at the urging of Groves and Furman, decided to create a new, even larger Alsos Mission for western Europe in March 1944. Pash assumed command of the new unit upon its official creation by the Secretary of War, Henry L. Stimson, on 4 April. The military staff for the new mission were selected by Bissell on Pash's advice. Lieutenant Colonel George R. Eckman became the deputy commander. Captain Henry A. Schade was appointed as the head of the naval contingent. Groves and Vannevar Bush, the head of OSRD, selected the scientific staff, and appointed Samuel Goudsmit, a University of Michigan physicist with a good command of several western European languages, as its head. Goudsmit had not been working on the Manhattan Project, and therefore could not reveal any of its secrets if captured. The British considered creating their own rival mission, but in the end agreed to participate as a junior partner. Three Dutch and one Norwegian officer also served with the Alsos Mission. By the end of August it had seven officers and 33 scientists.", "On 5 August, Pash received a secret message from Washington, D.C., reporting that the French physicist Frédéric Joliot-Curie had been sighted at his holiday home at L'Arcouest in Brittany. Joliot-Curie was at the top of Alsos's wanted list, so Pash and CIC Special Agent Gerry Beatson set out to investigate in the wake of the advancing U.S. Third Army. On 11 August they reached the homes of Joliot-Curie, Francis Perrin, and Pierre Auger in the L'Arcouest area. Pash and Beatson got there the morning of 17 August with Task Force A, and they were directed to Joliot-Curie's house, which had been emptied by the Germans. They searched the University of Rennes and found some documents there on 21 August. The rest of the advance party of the Alsos Mission moved to Normandy in August 1944, where it joined T-Force, a similar formation to S-Force, at Rambouillet, where it was preparing for the liberation of Paris. An Alsos Mission team including Pash and Calvert reached Joliot-Curie's house in the Paris suburbs on 24 August to find that he was not there, but at his laboratory at the Collège de France. The next day they reached the Porte d'Orléans where they encountered troops of the French \"2e Division Blindée\", who were engaged in liberating the city, and came under small arms fire from the German defenders. The Alsos Mission replied with their M1 carbines and Thompson submachine guns as they made their way through the back streets to the college, where they found Joliot-Curie in his office. Goudsmit interviewed Joliot-Curie in Paris on 27 August. Accompanied by Calvert, Joliot-Curie was flown to London where Perrin and Goudsmit interviewed him about the activities of German scientists. Joliot-Curie recalled visits to the College, which had a cyclotron, by German scientists including Erich Schumann, who had initiated the German nuclear project, and controlled it until it had been handed over to the \"Reichsforschungsrat\" (National Research Council) in 1942; by Abraham Esau, who had been in charge of nuclear physics under the \"Reichsforschungsrat\"; and by Walter Gerlach, who had replaced him in January 1944. Other German physicists who had used the facilities included Kurt Diebner, Walther Bothe, and Erich Bagge, all of whom were known to be associated with the German nuclear project. Meanwhile, T-Force had moved into the Petit Palais. The main body of the Alsos Mission soon followed, and the Mission opened an office at the Place de l'Opéra. On 5 September, word was received that the British 21st Army Group was about to enter Brussels. There were two important Alsos Mission objectives in Belgium: the corporate headquarters of Union Minière du Haut Katanga, the world's largest supplier of uranium ore, in Antwerp, and its uranium processing plant in Olen. A six-man Alsos Mission team set out to secure them, led by Pash and the Assistant Chief of Staff, G-2, at ETOUSA, Colonel G. Bryan Conrad. On reaching Brussels, they made contact with Lieutenant Colonel David Strangeways, the commander of R Force, who provided them with an escort of Royal Air Force armored vehicles. They entered Antwerp on 7 September and found the office of Union Minière. They discovered that over 1,000 tons of refined uranium had been sent to Germany, but about 150 tons still remained at Olen. They set out for Olen, where they located 68 tons, but another 80 tons were missing, having been shipped to France in 1940 ahead of the German invasion of Belgium. The capture of Eindhoven by the U.S. 101st Airborne Division allowed early access to another high priority target, the Philips plant there. Brigadier Edgar Williams, the 21st Army Group's Chief of Intelligence, facilitated the Alsos Mission's detour to Eindhoven, where it was able to interview Dutch scientists. Williams also furnished a detachment of Royal Engineers to transport and move the uranium from Olen. Groves had it shipped to England, and, ultimately, to the United States. The Alsos Mission now attempted to recover the shipment that had been sent to France. Documentation was discovered that said that part of it had been sent to Toulouse. An Alsos Mission team under Pash's command reached Toulouse on 1 October and inspected a French Army arsenal. They used a Geiger counter to find barrels containing 31 tons of the uranium from Belgium. Conrad persuaded Major General Frank S. Ross to release the U.S. 3342nd Quartermaster Truck Company from the Red Ball Express to retrieve the shipment. The barrels were collected and transported to Marseille, where they were loaded on a ship bound for the United States. During the loading process a barrel fell into the water and had to be retrieved by a Navy diver. In Marseilles, the Alsos Mission detachment also met up with the detachment that had been sent to Italy, which now rejoined them. The remaining 49 tons of the original shipment to France were never found. Information gathered in Rennes, Paris, and Eindhoven pointed to Strasbourg as a place of particular interest. Physicists Rudolf Fleischmann and Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker were known to be working at the University of Strasbourg, as was Eugen von Haagen, an expert on viruses whose work was of great concern to the Alsos Mission's Biological Warfare section. The Naval section was interested in the torpedo research being carried out there, and jet engine development was being undertaken at Strasbourg's Junkers plant. On 22 November, the U.S. Sixth Army Group notified the Alsos Mission that the capture of Strasbourg was imminent, and it should join T-Force in Saarburg, where it was preparing to enter the city. The Alsos Mission joined T-Force in Strasbourg on 25 November. The German nuclear laboratory was discovered on the grounds of the Strasbourg Hospital, where the physicists attempted to pass themselves off as medics. Fleischmann was taken into custody, but Weizsäcker and von Haagen had fled the city. Documents discovered in Weizsäcker's office, Fleischmann's laboratory and the Strasbourg Hospital pointed to nuclear activities taking place at Stadtilm, Haigerloch, Hechingen, and Tailfingen. After establishing its headquarters in von Haagen's office Alsos staff uncovered documents concerning secret medical experiments at Natzweiler concentration camp. These indicated the Germans had been unable to develop a practical process for uranium enrichment. For the first time the Alsos Mission was able to categorically report that the Germans did not have nuclear weapons, and would not have them for some time.", "When the German Operation Nordwind offensive threatened Strasbourg, Pash ordered all captured documents to be removed. Papers indicating the nature of the Alsos Mission were removed or destroyed. Although Strasbourg was not abandoned by the Allies, and ultimately did not fall, the Alsos Mission departed the city on 8 January 1945. Pash even ordered an evacuation plan to be prepared for the Alsos Mission's main headquarters in Paris. The embarrassing series of intelligence failures that had led up to the Battle of the Bulge cast doubts on the Alsos Mission's own findings. A four-man team under Eckman was sent to investigate a suspiciously devastating V-2 explosion near Antwerp, and Fred Wardenburg had to confirm that it was not a small nuclear explosion. Rumors that Germany had an atomic bomb persisted as late as March 1945. A new forward headquarters, Alsos Forward North (AFwdN), was opened at Aachen, and on 8 February the Alsos Mission reopened its forward headquarters in Strasbourg as Alsos Forward South (AFwdS). In March, the U.S. Twelfth Army Group launched Operation Lumberjack, an offensive to clear the Germans west of the Rhine. Pash, who was promoted to colonel on 6 March, led an Alsos Mission detachment into Cologne on 7 March, but little additional information was found. The interrogation of German prisoners indicated that uranium and thorium were being processed in Germany, mostly at the \"Auergesellschaft\" plant at Oranienburg, so Groves arranged for the plant to be bombed on 15 March 1945. Some 612 B-17 Flying Fortresses of the U.S. Eighth Air Force dropped 1,500 tons of high explosive and 178 tons of incendiary bombs on the plant. On 30 March, the Alsos Mission reached Heidelberg, where important scientists were captured including Walther Bothe, Richard Kuhn, Philipp Lenard, and Wolfgang Gertner. Their interrogation revealed that Otto Hahn was at his laboratory in Tailfingen, while Werner Heisenberg and Max von Laue were at Heisenberg's laboratory in Hechingen, and the experimental natural uranium reactor that Heisenberg's team had built in Berlin had been moved to Haigerloch. Henceforth, the main focus of the Alsos Mission was on these nuclear facilities in the Württemberg area. As the Allied armies advanced into Germany in April 1945, Alsos Mission teams searched Stadtilm, where they found documentation concerning the German nuclear program, components of a nuclear reactor, and eight tons of uranium oxide. Scientists captured at Göttingen and Katlenburg-Lindau included Werner Osenberg, the chief of the planning board of the \"Reichsforschungsrat\", and Fritz Houtermans, who provided information about the Soviet atomic bomb project. At Celle, the Alsos Mission uncovered an experimental centrifuge for separating uranium isotopes, the result of work undertaken at the University of Hamburg by a team under Paul Harteck. The problem with the targets in the Württemberg area was that they not only lay in the path of the French First Army's advance, but were also in the occupation zone allocated to France. Groves attempted to get the occupation boundaries changed, but the State Department wanted to know why first, and Groves refused to provide this information. Groves, Marshall, and Stimson then decided that the area would have to be secured by American troops that would carry off what they could and destroy everything else. Pash was sent to ask General Jacob Devers, the commander of the U.S. Sixth Army Group, if the zones of the French First Army and the U.S. Seventh Army could be swapped around. He was informed that the matter would have to be taken up with Eisenhower. Groves dispatched Lieutenant Colonel John Lansdale, Jr., to Europe, where he participated in a meeting with Lieutenant General Bedell Smith and Major General Harold Bull of SHAEF; Major General Elbridge Chapman, the commander of the U.S. 13th Airborne Division; Pash, Furman, and Goudsmit of Alsos; and Brigadier General Reuben E. Jenkins from the Sixth Army Group. The plan, codenamed Operation Effective, called for the 13th Airborne Division to occupy the area to prevent its capture by the French, and seize an airfield that could be used to fly in an Alsos Mission team, and later to fly it out, along with captured German scientists. Operation Effective was scheduled for 22 April. Meanwhile, Devers took steps to delay the French advance. The Alsos Mission had learned that the uranium ores that had been taken from Belgium in 1944 had been shipped to the \"Wirtschaftliche Forschungsgesellschaft\" (WiFO) plant in Staßfurt. The 83rd Infantry Division captured this on 15 April. As it was in the occupation zone allocated to the Soviet Union at the Yalta Conference, the Alsos Mission, led by Pash and accompanied by Lansdale, Perrin and Air Commodore Sir Charles Hambro, arrived on 17 April to remove anything of interest. Over the following ten days, 260 truckloads of uranium ore, sodium uranate and ferrouranium weighing about 1,000 tons, were taken away by an African-American truck company. The uranium was taken to Hildesheim and most of it was flown to the United Kingdom by the Royal Air Force; the rest had to be moved to Antwerp by train and loaded onto a ship to England. On 20 April, the French First Army captured an intact bridge over the Neckar River at Horb and established a bridgehead. It was decided to send in a force on the ground instead of Operation Effective, which was cancelled on 19 April. This time, instead of following or accompanying the front-line troops, the Alsos Mission would operate behind enemy lines. The Alsos Mission had taken delivery of two armored cars, four jeeps with machine gun mounts, and two.50 caliber machine guns. The other two jeeps would carry captured German machine guns. They would be accompanied by three unarmed jeeps. For the operation, codenamed Operation Big, Pash would command a special force called Task Force A, built around his Alsos Mission team and the U.S. 1269th Engineer Combat Battalion commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Wilbur White, less its Company B. Sir Charles Hambro decided to accompany the Alsos Mission with a British group that included Michael Perrin, David Gattiker, Eric Welsh, and Rupert Cecil. Lansdale accompanied Task Force A as Groves' representative, and Brigadier General Eugene L. Harrison, the G-2 from the Sixth Army Group, as Devers' representative. The Alsos Mission set out on 20 April and rendezvoused with the 1269th Engineer Combat Battalion at Freudenstadt. The intact bridge over the Neckar River at Horb was crossed and Haigerloch was occupied without opposition on 22 April. The main body of Task Force A arrived on 23 April. In a laboratory in a cellar they found a German experimental nuclear reactor shaped like a cylinder and made of graphite blocks, but the uranium and heavy water were missing. The scientists immediately began dismantling it. Pash left Hambro in charge, while he led troops of Task Force A to Bisingen, and then on to Hechingen, where 25 scientists were captured, including von Weizsäcker, von Laue, Karl Wirtz, Horst Korsching and Erich Bagge. At Tailfingen they took Otto Hahn and nine members of his staff into custody. At Haigerloch, a sealed drum of documents was retrieved from a cesspool, and three drums of heavy water and 1.5 tons of uranium ingots were found buried in a field. The uranium and heavy water were loaded onto trucks. The apertures in the cellar were blown up with minor explosions to prevent their capture by the French. Werner Heisenberg remained at large, having left Hechingen on 19 April. On 1 May, Pash set out in pursuit of Heisenberg with ten men in the two armored cars and two jeeps. They teamed up with the 36th Reconnaissance Troop of the U.S. 36th Infantry Division and entered Urfeld on 2 May, where Pash found Heisenberg at his home. The Americans became involved in firefights with German troops attempting to enter the town, and the 36th Reconnaissance Troop had to head off on another mission, leaving Pash with just seven men. Fortunately, the German force, which numbered about 700, offered to surrender. Pash returned on 3 May with the 3rd Battalion, 142nd Infantry, which took them prisoner, while Pash and his Alsos Mission team took Heisenberg into custody. By VE day, the Alsos Mission had a strength of 114 men and women. It was officially disbanded on 15 October 1945.", "German scientists that had been captured by the Alsos Mission were held in several camps, separate from other prisoners of war. After VE Day, SHAEF decided to concentrate them in an internment camp at Kransberg Castle, codenamed \"Dustbin\", as part of Operation Epsilon. At Welsh's instigation, ten of the nuclear physicists, Bagge, Diebner, Gerlach, Hahn, Harteck, Heisenberg, Korsching, von Laue, von Weizsäcker and Wirtz, were brought to England. They were accommodated between 3 July 1945 and 3 January 1946 at Farm Hall, a house in Godmanchester, near Cambridge, that had been used by MI6 and SOE agents preparing to be flown into occupied Europe from nearby RAF Tempsford. The premises were thoroughly bugged to determine how close the German nuclear project had been to constructing an atomic bomb by listening in to their conversations., and transcripts of their conversations were sent to Groves. The most interesting conversations occurred after they received the news of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, when they struggled to comprehend how the Allies had done what they could not.", "Plans for the invasion of Japan incorporated an Alsos Mission. Japanese fire balloon attacks on the United States had aroused fears that the technique might be used in combination with biological agents, which the Japanese Unit 731 was known to be experimenting with. In March 1945, the physicist and seismologist L. Don Leet was appointed as head of the scientific section of the Alsos Mission to Japan. Leet had previously worked with the Manhattan Project on the Trinity nuclear test. Plans were drawn up to prepare and equip a T-Force along the lines of the one in Europe, but made up of personnel already in the Pacific. The mission differed from its European counterpart in that it was solely American and consisted of only one intelligence agency. Responsibility for nuclear matters was subsequently handled by a separate Manhattan Project Intelligence Group organized by Groves. Leet's group reached Manila in July 1945, where they met with the intelligence staff of General of the Army Douglas MacArthur's Army Forces, Pacific. Following the surrender of Japan the mission traveled to Japan and visited various research establishments including Tokyo Imperial University, Waseda University, Tokyo Institute of Technology, the Institute of Physical and Chemical Research, the Institute for Materials Research, Tokyo Shibaura Denki (Toshiba), the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, the National Research Council, and the Board of Technology. The mission, which included Karl Compton, interviewed over 300 Japanese scientists and produced reports on Japanese research into radar, rockets, and other developments, including chemical and biological warfare. The Manhattan Project Intelligence Group, under the command of Philip Morrison, arrived in Japan in September 1945 and examined Japan's wartime nuclear weapons program. The group concluded that lack of uranium ore and low priority had doomed the Japanese effort. They reported that, contrary to American belief, Japan's nuclear physicists were competent.", "After seeing the German project at Haigerloch, Goudsmit wrote that: In the end, the Alsos Mission contributed little to the Allied defeat of Nazi Germany, because the German nuclear and biological weapons programs that it had been formed to investigate turned out to be smaller and less threatening than had been feared. In the field of nuclear weapons development at least, the underfunded and disorganized German program lagged far behind the Allies' own efforts. In its appropriation of the accomplishments of European science, the Alsos Mission played a small part in the wartime and subsequent scientific and technological developments that characterized and transformed the postwar world." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early years.", "Military campaigns.", "Military innovations.", "Struggle for North India.", "Expansion into Central India.", "Conquest of Rajputana.", "Annexation of Western and Eastern India.", "Campaigns in Afghanistan and Central Asia.", "Conquests in the Indus Valley.", "Subjugation of parts of Baluchistan.", "Safavids and Kandahar.", "Deccan Sultans.", "Administration.", "Political government.", "Taxation.", "Military organization.", "Capital.", "Economy.", "Trade.", "Coins.", "Diplomacy.", "Matrimonial alliances.", "Foreign relations.", "Relations with the Portuguese.", "Relations with the Ottoman Empire.", "Relations with the Safavid Dynasty.", "Relations with other contemporary kingdoms.", "Religious policy.", "Association with the Muslim aristocracy.", "Din-i-Ilahi.", "Relation with Hindus.", "Relation with Jains.", "Historical accounts.", "Personality.", "Hagiography.", "Akbarnāma, the \"Book of Akbar\".", "Marriages.", "Death.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Defeated in battles at Chausa and Kannauj in 1539 to 1541 by the forces of Sher Shah Suri, Mughal emperor Humayun fled westward to Sindh. There he met and married the then 14-year-old Hamida Banu Begum, daughter of Shaikh Ali Akbar Jami, a Persian teacher of Humayun's younger brother Hindal Mirza. Jalal ud-din Muhammad Akbar was born the next year on 15 October 1542 (the fourth day of Rajab, 949 AH) at the Rajput Fortress of Amarkot in Rajputana (in modern-day Sindh), where his parents had been given refuge by the local Hindu ruler Rana Prasad. During the extended period of Humayun's exile, Akbar was brought up in Kabul by the extended family of his paternal uncles, Kamran Mirza and Askari Mirza, and his aunts, in particular Kamran Mirza's wife. He spent his youth learning to hunt, run, and fight, making him a daring, powerful and brave warrior, but he never learned to read or write. This, however, did not hinder his search for knowledge as it is always said when", "", "Akbar was accorded the epithet \"the Great\" because of his many accomplishments, including his record of unbeaten military campaigns that consolidated Mughal rule in the Indian subcontinent. The basis of this military prowess and authority was Akbar's skilful structural and organisational calibration of the Mughal army. The Mansabdari system in particular has been acclaimed for its role in upholding Mughal power in the time of Akbar. The system persisted with few changes down to the end of the Mughal Empire, but was progressively weakened under his successors. Organisational reforms were accompanied by innovations in cannons, fortifications, and", "Akbar's father Humayun had regained control of the Punjab, Delhi, and Agra with Safavid support, but even in these areas Mughal rule was precarious, and when the Surs reconquered Agra and Delhi following the death of Humayun, the fate of the boy emperor seemed uncertain. Akbar's minority and the lack of any possibility of military assistance from the Mughal stronghold of Kabul, which was in the throes of an invasion by the ruler of Badakhshan Prince Mirza Suleiman, aggravated the situation. When his regent, Bairam Khan, called a council of war to marshall the Mughal forces, none of Akbar's chieftains approved. Bairam Khan was ultimately able to prevail over the nobles, however, and it was decided that the Mughals would march against the strongest of the Sur rulers, Sikandar Shah Suri, in the Punjab. Delhi was left under the regency of Tardi Baig Khan. Sikandar Shah Suri, however, presented no major concern for Akbar, and avoided giving battle as the Mughal army approached. The gravest threat came from Hemu, a minister and general of one of the Sur rulers, who had proclaimed himself Hindu emperor and expelled the", "By 1559, the Mughals had launched a drive to the south into Rajputana and Malwa. However, Akbar's disputes with his regent, Bairam Khan, temporarily put an end to the expansion. The young emperor, at the age of eighteen, wanted to take a more active part in managing affairs. Urged on by his foster mother, Maham Anga, and his relatives, Akbar decided to dispense with the services of Bairam Khan. After yet another dispute at court, Akbar finally dismissed Bairam Khan in the spring of 1560 and ordered him to leave on Hajj to Mecca. Bairam Khan left for Mecca but on his way was goaded by his opponents to rebel. He was defeated by the Mughal army in the Punjab and forced to submit. Akbar forgave him, however, and gave him the option of either continuing in his court or resuming his pilgrimage; Bairam chose the latter. Bairam Khan was later assassinated on his way to Mecca, allegedly by an Afghan with a personal vendetta. In 1560, Akbar resumed military operations. A Mughal army under the command of his foster brother, Adham Khan, and a Mughal commander, Pir Muhammad Khan, began the Mughal conquest of Malwa. The Afghan ruler, Baz Bahadur, was defeated at the Battle of Sarangpur and fled to Khandesh for refuge leaving behind his harem, treasure, and war elephants. Despite initial success, the campaign proved a disaster from Akbar's point of view. His foster brother retained all the spoils and followed through with the Central Asian practice of slaughtering the surrendered garrison, their wives and children, and many Muslim theologians and Sayyids, who were the descendants of Muhammad. Akbar personally rode to Malwa to confront Adham Khan and relieve him of command. Pir Muhammad Khan was then sent in pursuit of Baz Bahadur but was beaten back by the alliance of the rulers of Khandesh and Berar. Baz Bahadur temporarily regained control of Malwa until, in the next year, Akbar sent another Mughal army to invade and annex the kingdom. Malwa became a province of the", "Having established Mughal rule over northern India, Akbar turned his attention to the conquest of Rajputana. No imperial power in India based on the Indo-Gangetic plains could be secure if a rival centre of power existed on its flank in Rajputana. The Mughals had already established domination over parts of northern Rajputana in Mewat, Ajmer, and Nagor. Now, Akbar was determined to drive into the heartlands of the Rajput kings that had never previously submitted to the Muslim rulers of the Delhi Sultanate. Beginning in 1561,", "Akbar's next military objectives were the conquest of Gujarat and Bengal, which connected India with the trading centres of Asia, Africa, and Europe through the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal respectively. Furthermore, Gujarat had been a haven for rebellious Mughal nobles, while in Bengal, the Afghans still held considerable influence under their ruler, Sulaiman Khan Karrani. Akbar first moved against Gujarat, which lay in the crook of the Mughal provinces of Rajputana and Malwa. Gujarat, with its coastal regions, possessed areas of rich agricultural production in its central plain, an impressive output of textiles and other industrial goods, and the", "Following his conquests of Gujarat and Bengal, Akbar was preoccupied with domestic concerns. He did not leave Fatehpur Sikri on a military campaign until 1581, when Punjab was again invaded by his brother, Mirza Muhammad Hakim. Akbar expelled his brother to Kabul and this time pressed on, determined to end the threat from Muhammad Hakim once and for all. In contrast to the problem that his predecessors once had in getting Mughal nobles to stay on in India, the problem now was to get them to leave India. They were, according to Abul Fazl \"afraid of the cold of Afghanistan.\" The Hindu officers, in turn, were additionally inhibited by the traditional taboo against crossing the Indus.", "While in Lahore dealing with the Uzbeks, Akbar had sought to subjugate the Indus valley to secure the frontier provinces. He sent an army to conquer Kashmir in the upper Indus basin when, in 1585, Ali Shah, the reigning king of the Shia Chak dynasty, refused to send his son as a hostage to the Mughal court. Ali Shah surrendered immediately to the Mughals, but another of his sons, Yaqub, crowned himself as king, and led a stubborn resistance to Mughal armies. Finally, in June, 1589, Akbar himself travelled from Lahore to", "As early as 1586, about half a dozen Baluchi chiefs, that were still under nominal Pani Afghan rule, had been persuaded to attend the imperial court and acknowledge the vassalage of Akbar. In preparations to take Kandahar from the Safavids, Akbar ordered the Mughal forces to conquer the rest of the Afghan held parts of Baluchistan", "Kandahar was the name given by Arab historians to the ancient Indian kingdom of Gandhara. It was intimately connected with the Mughals since the time of their ancestor, Timur, the warlord who had conquered much of Western, Central, and parts of South Asia in the 14th century. However, the Safavids considered it as an appanage of the Persian ruled territory of Khorasan and declared its association with the Mughal emperors to be a usurpation. In 1558, while Akbar was consolidating his rule over northern India, the Safavid emperor, Tahmasp I, had seized Kandahar and expelled its Mughal governor. For the next thirty years, it remained under Persian rule. The recovery of Kandahar had not been a priority for Akbar, but after his prolonged military activity in the northern frontiers, a move to restore Mughal rule over the region became desirable. The conquests of Sindh, Kashmir and", "In 1593, Akbar began military operations against the Deccan Sultans who had not submitted to his authority. He besieged Ahmednagar Fort in 1595, forcing Chand Bibi to cede Berar. A subsequent revolt forced Akbar to take the fort in August 1600. Akbar occupied Burhanpur and besieged Asirgarh", "", "Akbar's system of central government was based on the system that had evolved since", "Akbar set about reforming the administration of his empire's land revenue by adopting a system that had been used by Sher Shah Suri. A cultivated area where crops grew well was measured and taxed through fixed rates based on the area's crop and productivity. However, this placed hardship on the peasantry because tax rates were fixed on the basis of prices prevailing in the imperial court, which were often higher than those in the countryside. Akbar changed to a decentralised system of annual assessment, but this resulted in corruption among local officials and was abandoned in 1580, to be replaced by a system called the '. Under the new system, revenue was calculated as one-third of the average produce of the previous ten years, to be paid to the state in cash. This system was later refined, taking into account local prices, and grouping areas with", "Akbar organised his army as well as the nobility by means of a system called the \"mansabdari\". Under this system, each officer in the army was assigned a rank (a \"mansabdar\"), and assigned a number of cavalry that he had to supply to the imperial army. The \"mansabdars\" were divided into 33 classes. The top three commanding ranks, ranging from 7000 to 10000 troops, were normally reserved for princes. Other ranks between 10 and 5000 were assigned to other members of the nobility. The empire's", "Akbar was a follower of Salim Chishti, a holy man who lived in the region of Sikri near Agra. Believing the area to be a lucky one for himself, he had a mosque constructed there for the use of the priest. Subsequently, he celebrated the victories over Chittor and Ranthambore by laying the foundation of a new walled capital, west of Agra in 1569, which was named Fatehpur (\"\"town of victory\"\") after the conquest of Gujarat in 1573 and subsequently came", "", "The reign of Akbar was characterised by commercial expansion. The Mughal government encouraged traders, provided protection and security for transactions, and levied a very low custom duty to stimulate foreign trade. Furthermore, it strived to foster a climate conductive to commerce by requiring local administrators to provide restitution to traders for goods stolen while in their territory. To minimise such incidents, bands of highway police called \"\" were enlisted to patrol roads and ensure safety", "Akbar was a great innovator as far as coinage is concerned. The coins of Akbar set a new chapter in India's numismatic history. The coins of Akbar's grandfather, Babur, and father, Humayun, are basic and devoid of any innovation as the former was busy establishing the foundations of the Mughal rule in India while the latter was ousted by the Afghan, Sher Shah Suri, and returned to the throne only to die a year later. While the reign of both Babur and Humayun represented turmoil, Akbar's relative long reign of 50 years allowed him to experiment with coinage. Akbar", "", "The practice of arranging marriages between Hindu princesses and Muslim kings was known much before Akbar's time, but in most cases these marriages did not lead to any stable relations between the families involved, and the women were lost to their families and did not return after marriage. However, Akbar's policy of matrimonial alliances marked a departure in India from previous practice in that the marriage itself marked the beginning of a new order of relations, wherein the Hindu Rajputs who married their daughters", "", "At the time of Akbar's ascension in 1556, the Portuguese had established several fortresses and factories on the western coast of the subcontinent, and largely controlled navigation and sea-trade in that region. As a consequence of this colonialism, all other trading entities were subject to the terms and conditions of the Portuguese, and this was resented by the rulers and traders of the time including Bahadur Shah of Gujarat. In the year 1572 the Mughal Empire annexed Gujarat and acquired its first access to the sea after local officials informed Akbar that the Portuguese had begun to exert control in the Indian Ocean. Hence Akbar was conscious of the threat posed by the presence of the Portuguese and remained content with obtaining a \"cartaz\" (permit) from them for sailing in the Persian Gulf region. At the initial meeting of the Mughals and the Portuguese during the Siege of Surat in 1572, the Portuguese, recognising the superior strength of the Mughal army, chose to adopt diplomacy instead of war. The Portuguese Governor, upon the request of Akbar, sent him an ambassador to establish friendly relations. Akbar's efforts to purchase and secure from the Portuguese some of their compact artillery pieces", "In 1555, while Akbar was still a child, the Ottoman Admiral Seydi Ali Reis visited the Mughal Emperor Humayun. In 1569, during the early years of Akbar's rule, another Ottoman Admiral Kurtoğlu Hızır Reis arrived on the shores of the Mughal Empire. These Ottoman admirals sought to end the growing threats of the Portuguese Empire during their Indian Ocean campaigns. During his reign Akbar himself is known to have sent six documents addressing the Ottoman Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent. In 1576 Akbar sent a very large contingent of pilgrims led by Khwaja Sultan Naqshbandi, Yahya Saleh, with 600,000 gold and silver coins and 12,000 Kaftans of honour and large consignments of rice. In October 1576 Akbar sent a delegation including members of his family, including his aunt Gulbadan Begum and his consort Salima, on Hajj by two ships from Surat including an Ottoman vessel, which reached the port of Jeddah in 1577", "The Safavids and the Mughals had a long history of diplomatic relationship, with the Safavid ruler Tahmasp I having provided refuge to Humayun when he had to flee the Indian subcontinent following his defeat by Sher Shah Suri. However, the Safavids differed from the Sunni Mughals and Ottomans in following the Shiite sect of Islam. One of the longest standing disputes between the Safavids and the Mughals pertained to the control of the city of Qandahar in the Hindukush region, forming the border between the two empires. The Hindukush region was militarily very significant owing to its geography, and this was well-recognised by strategists of the times. Consequently, the city, which was being administered by Bairam Khan at the time of Akbar's accession, was invaded and captured by", "Vincent Arthur Smith observes that the merchant Mildenhall was employed in 1600 while the establishment of the Company was under adjustment to bear", "Akbar, as well as his mother and other members of his family, are believed to have been Sunni Hanafi Muslims. His early days were spent in the backdrop of an atmosphere in which liberal sentiments were encouraged and religious narrow-mindedness was frowned upon. From the 15th century, a number of rulers in various parts of the country adopted a more liberal policy of religious tolerance, attempting to foster communal harmony between Hindus and Muslims. These sentiments were earlier encouraged by the teachings of popular saints like Guru Nanak, Kabir and Chaitanya, the verses of the Persian poet Hafez which advocated human sympathy and a liberal outlook, as well as the Timurid ethos of religious tolerance in the empire, persisted in the polity right from the times of Timur to Humayun, and influenced Akbar's policy of tolerance in matters of religion. Further, his childhood tutors, who included two Irani Shias, were largely above sectarian prejudices, and made a significant contribution to Akbar's later inclination towards religious tolerance. Akbar sponsored religious debates between different Muslim groups (Sunni, Shia, Ismaili, and Sufis), Parsis, Hindus (Shaivite and Vaishnava), Sikhs, Jains, Jews, Jesuits and Materialists, but was partial to Sufism, he proclaimed that 'the wisdom of Vedanta is the wisdom of Sufism'. When he was at Fatehpur Sikri, he held discussions as he loved to know about others' religious beliefs. On one such day he got to know that the religious people of other religions were often intolerant of others religious beliefs. This led him to form the idea of the new religion, Sulh-e-kul meaning universal peace. His idea of this religion did not discriminate other religions and focused on the ideas of peace, unity and tolerance.", "During the early part of his reign, Akbar adopted an attitude of suppression towards Muslim sects that were condemned by the orthodoxy as heretical. In 1567, on the advice of Shaikh Abdu'n Nabi, he ordered the exhumation of Mir Murtaza Sharifi Shirazi – a Shia buried in Delhi – because of the grave's proximity to that of Amir Khusrau, arguing that a \"heretic\" could not be buried so close to the grave of a Sunni saint, reflecting a restrictive attitude towards the Shia, which continued to persist until the early 1570s. He suppressed Mahdavism in 1573 during his campaign in Gujarat, in the course of which the Mahdavi leader Bandagi Miyan Sheik Mustafa was arrested and brought in chains to the court for debate and released after eighteen months. However, as Akbar increasingly came under the influence of pantheistic Sufi mysticism from the early 1570s, it caused a great shift in his outlook and culminated in his shift from orthodox Islam as traditionally professed, in favour of a new concept of Islam transcending the limits of religion.", "Akbar was deeply interested in religious and philosophical matters. An orthodox Muslim at the outset, he later came to be influenced by Sufi mysticism that was being preached in the country at that time, and moved away from orthodoxy, appointing to his court several talented people with liberal ideas, including Abul Fazl, Faizi and Birbal. In 1575, he built a hall called the Ibadat Khana (\"\"House of Worship\"\") at Fatehpur Sikri, to which he invited theologians, mystics and selected courtiers renowned for their intellectual achievements and discussed matters of spirituality with them.", "Akbar decreed that Hindus who had been forced to convert to Islam could reconvert to Hinduism without facing the death penalty. In his days of tolerance he was so well liked by Hindus that there are numerous references to him, and his eulogies are sung in songs and religious hymns as well. Akbar practised several Hindu customs. He celebrated Diwali, allowed Brahman priests to tie jewelled strings round", "Akbar regularly held discussions with Jain scholars and was also greatly impacted by some of their teachings. His first encounter with Jain rituals was when he saw a procession of a Jain Shravaka named Champa after a six-month-long fast. Impressed by her power and devotion, he invited her guru, or spiritual teacher, Acharya Hiravijaya Suri to Fatehpur Sikri. Acharya accepted the invitation and began his march towards the Mughal capital from Gujarat. Akbar was impressed by the scholastic qualities and character of the Acharya. He held several inter-faith dialogues among philosophers of different religions. The arguments of Jains against eating meat persuaded him to become", "", "Akbar's reign was chronicled extensively by his court historian Abul Fazl in the books \"Akbarnama\" and \"Ain-i-akbari\". Other contemporary sources of Akbar's reign include the works of Badayuni, Shaikhzada Rashidi and Shaikh Ahmed Sirhindi. Akbar was a warrior, emperor, general, animal trainer (reputedly keeping thousands of hunting cheetahs during his reign and training many himself), and theologian. Believed to be dyslexic, he was read to everyday and had a remarkable memory. Akbar was said to have been a wise emperor and a sound judge of character. His son and heir, Jahangir, wrote effusive praise of Akbar's character in his memoirs,", "During Akbar's reign, the ongoing process of inter-religious discourse and syncretism resulted in a series of religious attributions to him in terms of positions of assimilation, doubt or uncertainty, which he either assisted himself or left unchallenged. Such hagiographical accounts of Akbar traversed a wide range of denominational", "The (), which literally means \"Book of Akbar\", is an official biographical account of Akbar, the third Mughal Emperor (r. 1542–1605), written in Persian. It includes vivid and detailed descriptions of his life and times. The work was commissioned by Akbar, and written by Abul", "Akbar's first wife and chief consort was his cousin, Princess Ruqaiya Sultan Begum, the only daughter of his paternal uncle, Prince Hindal Mirza, and his wife Sultanam Begum. In 1551, Hindal Mirza died fighting valorously in a battle against Kamran Mirza's forces. Upon hearing the news of his brother's death, Humayun was overwhelmed with grief. Out of affection to the memory of his brother, Humayun betrothed Hindal's nine-year-old daughter Ruqaiya to his son Akbar. Their betrothal took place in Kabul, shortly after Akbar's first appointment as a viceroy in the province of Ghazni. Humayun conferred on the imperial couple, all the wealth, army, and adherents of Hindal and Ghazni which one of Hindal's \"jagir\" was given to his nephew, Akbar, who was appointed as its viceroy and was also given the command of his uncle's army. Akbar's marriage with Ruqaiya was solemnized near Jalandhar, Punjab, when both of them were 14-years-old. Childless herself, she adopted Akbar's favorite grandson, Prince Khurram (the future emperor Shah Jahan). She died on 19 January 1626. His second wife was the daughter of Abdullah Khan Mughal. The marriage took place in 1557 during the siege of Mankot. Bairam Khan did not approve of this marriage, for Abdullah's sister was married to Akbar's uncle, Prince Kamran Mirza, and so he regarded Abdullah as a partisan of Kamran. He opposed the match until Nasir-al-mulk made him understand that opposition in such matters was unacceptable. Nasir-al-mulk arranged an assemblage of pleasure and banquet of joy, and a royal feast was provided. His third wife was his cousin, Salima Sultan Begum, the daughter of Nur-ud-din Muhammad Mirza and his wife Gulrukh Begum also known as Gulrang, the daughter of Emperor Babur. She was at first betrothed to Bairam Khan by Humayun. After Bairam Khan's death in 1561, Akbar married her himself the same year. She died childless on 2 January 1613. In 1562, he married the daughter of Raja Bharmal, ruler of Amer. The marriage took place when Akbar was on his way back from Ajmer after offering prayers to the tomb of Moinuddin Chishti. Bharmal had conveyed to Akbar that he was being harassed by his brother-in-law Sharif-ud-din Mirza (the Mughal \"hakim\" of Mewat). Akbar insisted that Bharmal should submit to him personally, it was also suggested that his daughter should be married to him as a sign of complete submission. She was entitled Mariam-uz-Zamani after giving birth to Akbar's eldest surviving son, Prince Salim (the future emperor Jahangir). She died on 19 May 1623. The same year, Akbar married the former wife of Abdul Wasi, the son", "On 3 October 1605, Akbar fell ill with an attack of dysentery from which he never", "Akbar left a rich legacy both for the Mughal Empire as well as the Indian subcontinent in general. He firmly entrenched the authority of the Mughal Empire in India and beyond, after it had been threatened by the Afghans during his father's reign, establishing its military and diplomatic superiority. During his reign, the nature of the state changed to a secular and liberal one, with emphasis on cultural integration. He also introduced several far-sighted social reforms, including prohibiting \"sati\", legalising widow remarriage and raising the age of marriage. Folk tales revolving around him and Birbal, one of his \"navratnas\", are popular in India. \"Bhavishya Purana\" is a minor \"Purana\" that depicts the various Hindu holy days and includes a section devoted to the various dynasties that ruled India, dating its oldest portion to 500 CE and newest to the 18th century. It contains a story about Akbar in which he is compared to the other Mughal rulers. The section called \"Akbar Bahshaha Varnan\", written in Sanskrit, describes his birth as a \"reincarnation\" of a sage who immolated himself on seeing the first Mughal ruler Babur, who is described as the \"cruel king of Mlecchas (Muslims)\". In this text it is stated that Akbar \"was a miraculous child\" and that he would not follow the previous \"violent ways\" of the Mughals. Citing Akbar's melding of the disparate 'fiefdoms' of India into the Mughal Empire as well as the lasting legacy of \"pluralism and tolerance\" that \"underlies the values of the modern republic of India\", Time magazine included his name in its list of top 25 world leaders. On the other hand, his legacy is explicitly negative in Pakistan for the same reasons. Historian Mubarak Ali, while studying the image of Akbar in Pakistani textbooks, observes that Akbar \"is conveniently ignored and not mentioned in any school textbook from class one to matriculation\", as opposed to the omnipresence of emperor Aurangzeb. He quotes historian Ishtiaq Hussain Qureshi, who said that, due to his religious tolerance, \"Akbar had so weakened Islam through his policies that it could not be restored to its dominant position in the affairs.\" A common thread among Pakistani historians is to blame Akbar's Rajput policy. As a conclusion, after analyzing many textbooks, Mubarak Ali says that \"Akbar is criticized for bringing Muslims and Hindus together as one nation and putting the separate identity of the Muslims in danger. This policy of Akbar contradicts the theory of Two-Nation and therefore makes him an unpopular figure in Pakistan.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Properties.", "Acidity.", "Phenoxide anion.", "Tautomerism.", "Reactions.", "Production.", "Cumene process.", "Oxidation of benzene and toluene.", "Older methods.", "Hydrolysis of benzenesulfonate.", "Hydrolysis of chlorobenzene.", "Coal pyrolysis.", "Miscellaneous methods.", "Uses.", "Medical.", "Niche uses.", "History.", "Second World War.", "Occurrences.", "Occurrence in whisky.", "Biodegradation.", "Toxicity.", "Phenols." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Phenol is an organic compound appreciably soluble in water, with about 84.2 g dissolving in 1000 mL (0.895 M). Homogeneous mixtures of phenol and water at phenol to water mass ratios of ~2.6 and higher are possible. The sodium salt of phenol, sodium phenoxide, is far more water-soluble.", "Phenol is a weak acid. In aqueous solution in the pH range ca. 8 - 12 it is in equilibrium with the phenolate anion CHO (also called phenoxide): One explanation for why phenol is more acidic than aliphatic compounds containing an -OH group is resonance stabilization of the phenoxide anion by the aromatic ring. In this way, the negative charge on oxygen is delocalized on to the ortho and para carbon atoms through the pi system. An alternative explanation involves the sigma framework, postulating that the dominant effect is the induction from the more electronegative sp hybridised carbons; the comparatively more powerful inductive withdrawal of electron density that is provided by the sp system compared to an sp system allows for great stabilization of the oxyanion. In support of the second explanation, the p\"K\" of the enol of acetone in water is 10.9, making it only slightly less acidic than phenol (p\"K\" 10.0). Thus, the greater number of resonance structures available to phenoxide compared to acetone enolate seems to contribute very little to its stabilization. However, the situation changes when solvation effects are excluded\".\" A recent \"in silico\" comparison of the gas phase acidities of the vinylogues of phenol and cyclohexanol in conformations that allow for or exclude resonance stabilization leads to the inference that about of the increased acidity of phenol is attributable to inductive effects, with resonance accounting for the remaining difference.", "The phenoxide anion is a strong nucleophile with a nucleophilicity comparable to the one of carbanions or tertiary amines. It can react at both its oxygen or carbon sites as an ambident nucleophile (see HSAB theory). Generally, oxygen attack of phenoxide anions is kinetically favored, while carbon-attack is thermodynamically preferred (see Thermodynamic versus kinetic reaction control). Mixed oxygen/carbon attack and by this a loss of selectivity is usually observed if the reaction rate reaches diffusion control.", "Phenol exhibits keto-enol tautomerism with its unstable keto tautomer cyclohexadienone, but only a tiny fraction of phenol exists as the keto form. The equilibrium constant for enolisation is approximately 10, which means only one in every ten trillion molecules is in the keto form at any moment. The small amount of stabilisation gained by exchanging a C=C bond for a C=O bond is more than offset by the large destabilisation resulting from the loss of aromaticity. Phenol therefore exists essentially entirely in the enol form. Phenoxides are enolates stabilised by aromaticity. Under normal circumstances, phenoxide is more reactive at the oxygen position, but the oxygen position is a \"hard\" nucleophile whereas the alpha-carbon positions tend to be \"soft\".", "Phenol is highly reactive toward electrophilic aromatic substitution as the oxygen atom's pi electrons donate electron density into the ring. By this general approach, many groups can be appended to the ring, via halogenation, acylation, sulfonation, and other processes. However, phenol's ring is so strongly activated—second only to aniline—that bromination or chlorination of phenol leads to substitution on all carbon atoms ortho and para to the hydroxy group, not only on one carbon. Phenol reacts with dilute nitric acid at room temperature to give a mixture of 2-nitrophenol and 4-nitrophenol while with concentrated nitric acid, more nitro groups get substituted on the ring to give 2,4,6-trinitrophenol which is known as picric acid. Aqueous solutions of phenol are weakly acidic and turn blue litmus slightly to red. Phenol is neutralized by sodium hydroxide forming sodium phenate or phenolate, but being weaker than carbonic acid, it cannot be neutralized by sodium bicarbonate or sodium carbonate to liberate carbon dioxide. When a mixture of phenol and benzoyl chloride are shaken in presence of dilute sodium hydroxide solution, phenyl benzoate is formed. This is an example of the Schotten–Baumann reaction: Phenol is reduced to benzene when it is distilled with zinc dust or when its vapour is passed over granules of zinc at 400 °C: When phenol is reacted with diazomethane in the presence of boron trifluoride (BF), anisole is obtained as the main product and nitrogen gas as a byproduct. When phenol reacts with iron(III) chloride solution, an intense violet-purple solution is formed.", "Because of phenol's commercial importance, many methods have been developed for its production, but only the cumene process is the dominant technology.", "Accounting for 95% of production (2003) is the cumene process, also called Hock process. It involves the partial oxidation of cumene (isopropylbenzene) via the Hock rearrangement: Compared to most other processes, the cumene process uses relatively mild conditions and relatively inexpensive raw materials. For the process to be economical, both phenol and the acetone by-product must be in demand. In 2010, worldwide demand for acetone was approximately 6.7 million tonnes, 83 percent of which was satisfied with acetone produced by the cumene process. A route analogous to the cumene process begins with cyclohexylbenzene. It is oxidized to a hydroperoxide, akin to the production of cumene hydroperoxide. Via the Hock rearrangement, cyclohexylbenzene hydroperoxide cleaves to give phenol and cyclohexanone. Cyclohexanone is an important precursor to some nylons.", "The direct oxidation of benzene to phenol is theoretically possible and of great interest, but it has not been commercialized: Nitrous oxide is a potentially \"green\" oxidant that is a more potent oxidant than O. Routes for the generatation of nitrous oxide however remain uncompetitive. An electrosynthesis employing alternating current gives phenol from benzene. The oxidation of toluene, as developed by Dow Chemical, involves copper-catalyzed reaction of molten sodium benzoate with air: The reaction is proposed to proceed via formation of benzyoylsalicylate.", "Early methods relied on extraction of phenol from coal derivatives or the hydrolysis of benzene derivatives.", "An early commercial route, developed by Bayer and Monsanto in the early 1900s, begins with the reaction of a strong base with benzenesulfonate. The conversion is represented by this idealized equation:", "Chlorobenzene can be hydrolyzed to phenol using base (Dow process) or steam (Raschig–Hooker process): These methods suffer from the cost of the chlorobenzene and the need to dispose of the chloride by product.", "Phenol is also a recoverable byproduct of coal pyrolysis. In the Lummus Process, the oxidation of toluene to benzoic acid is conducted separately.", "Phenyldiazonium salts hydrolyze to phenol. The method is of no commercial interest since the precursor is expensive. Salicylic acid decarboxylates to phenol.", "The major uses of phenol, consuming two thirds of its production, involve its conversion to precursors for plastics. Condensation with acetone gives bisphenol-A, a key precursor to polycarbonates and epoxide resins. Condensation of phenol, alkylphenols, or diphenols with formaldehyde gives phenolic resins, a famous example of which is Bakelite. Partial hydrogenation of phenol gives cyclohexanone, a precursor to nylon. Nonionic detergents are produced by alkylation of phenol to give the alkylphenols, e.g., nonylphenol, which are then subjected to ethoxylation. Phenol is also a versatile precursor to a large collection of drugs, most notably aspirin but also many herbicides and pharmaceutical drugs. Phenol is a component in liquid–liquid phenol–chloroform extraction technique used in molecular biology for obtaining nucleic acids from tissues or cell culture samples. Depending on the pH of the solution either DNA or RNA can be extracted.", "Phenol was once widely used as an antiseptic, its use pioneered by Joseph Lister (see History section). From the early 1900s to the 1970s it was used in the production of carbolic soap. Concentrated phenol liquids are commonly used for permanent treatment of ingrown toe and finger nails, a procedure known as a chemical matrixectomy. The procedure was first described by Otto Boll in 1945. Since that time it has become the chemical of choice for chemical matrixectomies performed by podiatrists. Phenol in medicinal formulation is also used as a preservative in some vaccines. Phenol spray, usually at 1.4% phenol as an active ingredient, is used medically to help sore throat. It is the active ingredient in some oral analgesics such as Chloraseptic spray, TCP and Carmex, commonly used to temporarily treat pharyngitis.", "Phenol is so inexpensive that it attracts many small-scale uses. It is a component of industrial paint strippers used in the aviation industry for the removal of epoxy, polyurethane and other chemically resistant coatings. Phenol derivatives have been used in the preparation of cosmetics including sunscreens, hair colorings, skin lightening preparations, as well as in skin toners/exfoliators. However, due to safety concerns, phenol is banned from use in cosmetic products in the European Union and Canada.", "Phenol was discovered in 1834 by Friedlieb Ferdinand Runge, who extracted it (in impure form) from coal tar. Runge called phenol \"Karbolsäure\" (coal-oil-acid, carbolic acid). Coal tar remained the primary source until the development of the petrochemical industry. In 1841, the French chemist Auguste Laurent obtained phenol in pure form. In 1836, Auguste Laurent coined the name \"phène\" for benzene; this is the root of the word \"phenol\" and \"phenyl\". In 1843, French chemist Charles Gerhardt coined the name \"phénol\". The antiseptic properties of phenol were used by Sir Joseph Lister (1827–1912) in his pioneering technique of antiseptic surgery. Lister decided that the wounds themselves had to be thoroughly cleaned. He then covered the wounds with a piece of rag or lint covered in phenol, or carbolic acid as he called it. The skin irritation caused by continual exposure to phenol eventually led to the introduction of aseptic (germ-free) techniques in surgery. Joseph Lister was a student at University College London under Robert Liston, later rising to the rank of Surgeon at Glasgow Royal Infirmary. Lister experimented with cloths covered in carbolic acid after studying the works and experiments of his contemporary, Louis Pasteur in sterilizing various biological media. Lister was inspired to try to find a way to sterilize living wounds, which could not be done with the heat required by Pasteur's experiments. In examining Pasteur's research, Lister began to piece together his theory: that patients were being killed by germs. He theorized that if germs could be killed or prevented, no infection would occur. Lister reasoned that a chemical could be used to destroy the micro-organisms that cause infection. Meanwhile, in Carlisle, England, officials were experimenting with a sewage treatment, using carbolic acid to reduce the smell of sewage cess pools. Having heard of these developments and having himself previously experimented with other chemicals for antiseptic purposes without much success, Lister decided to try carbolic acid as a wound antiseptic. He had his first chance on August 12, 1865, when he received a patient: an eleven-year-old boy with a tibia bone fracture which pierced the skin of his lower leg. Ordinarily, amputation would be the only solution. However, Lister decided to try carbolic acid. After setting the bone and supporting the leg with splints, Lister soaked clean cotton towels in undiluted carbolic acid and applied them to the wound, covered with a layer of tin foil, leaving them for four days. When he checked the wound, Lister was pleasantly surprised to find no signs of infection, just redness near the edges of the wound from mild burning by the carbolic acid. Reapplying fresh bandages with diluted carbolic acid, the boy was able to walk home after about six weeks of treatment. By 16 March 1867, when the first results of Lister's work were published in the Lancet, he had treated a total of eleven patients using his new antiseptic method. Of those, only one had died, and that was through a complication that was nothing to do with Lister's wound-dressing technique. Now, for the first time, patients with compound fractures were likely to leave the hospital with all their limbs intact Before antiseptic operations were introduced at the hospital, there were sixteen deaths in thirty-five surgical cases. Almost one in every two patients died. After antiseptic surgery was introduced in the summer of 1865, there were only six deaths in forty cases. The mortality rate had dropped from almost 50 per cent to around 15 per cent. It was a remarkable achievement Phenol was the main ingredient of the Carbolic Smoke Ball, an ineffective device marketed in London in the 19th century as protection against influenza and other ailments, and the subject of the famous law case \"Carlill v Carbolic Smoke Ball Company\".", "The toxic effect of phenol on the central nervous system, discussed below, causes sudden collapse and loss of consciousness in both humans and animals; a state of cramping precedes these symptoms because of the motor activity controlled by the central nervous system. Injections of phenol were used as a means of individual execution by Nazi Germany during the Second World War. It was originally used by the Nazis in 1939 as part of Aktion T4. The Germans learned that extermination of smaller groups was more economical by injection of each victim with phenol. Phenol injections were given to thousands of people. Maximilian Kolbe was also killed with a phenol injection after surviving two weeks of dehydration and starvation in Auschwitz when he volunteered to die in place of a stranger. Approximately one gram is sufficient to cause death.", "Phenol is a normal metabolic product, excreted in quantities up to 40 mg/L in human urine. The temporal gland secretion of male elephants showed the presence of phenol and 4-methylphenol during musth. It is also one of the chemical compounds found in castoreum. This compound is ingested from the plants the beaver eats.", "Phenol is a measurable component in the aroma and taste of the distinctive Islay scotch whisky, generally ~30 ppm, but it can be over 160ppm in the malted barley used to produce whisky. This amount is different from and presumably higher than the amount in the distillate.", "\"Cryptanaerobacter phenolicus\" is a bacterium species that produces benzoate from phenol via 4-hydroxybenzoate. \"Rhodococcus phenolicus\" is a bacterium species able to degrade phenol as sole carbon sources.", "Phenol and its vapors are corrosive to the eyes, the skin, and the respiratory tract. Its corrosive effect on skin and mucous membranes is due to a protein-degenerating effect. Repeated or prolonged skin contact with phenol may cause dermatitis, or even second and third-degree burns. Inhalation of phenol vapor may cause lung edema. The substance may cause harmful effects on the central nervous system and heart, resulting in dysrhythmia, seizures, and coma. The kidneys may be affected as well. Long-term or repeated exposure of the substance may have harmful effects on the liver and kidneys. There is no evidence that phenol causes cancer in humans. Besides its hydrophobic effects, another mechanism for the toxicity of phenol may be the formation of phenoxyl radicals. Since phenol is absorbed through the skin relatively quickly, systemic poisoning can occur in addition to the local caustic burns. Resorptive poisoning by a large quantity of phenol can occur even with only a small area of skin, rapidly leading to paralysis of the central nervous system and a severe drop in body temperature. The for oral toxicity is less than 500 mg/kg for dogs, rabbits, or mice; the minimum lethal human dose was cited as 140 mg/kg. The Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR), U.S. Department of Health and Human Services states the fatal dose for ingestion of phenol is from 1 to 32 g. Chemical burns from skin exposures can be decontaminated by washing with polyethylene glycol, isopropyl alcohol, or perhaps even copious amounts of water. Removal of contaminated clothing is required, as well as immediate hospital treatment for large splashes. This is particularly important if the phenol is mixed with chloroform (a commonly used mixture in molecular biology for DNA and RNA purification). Phenol is also a reproductive toxin causing increased risk of abortion and low birth weight indicating retarded development in utero.", "The word \"phenol\" is also used to refer to any compound that contains a six-membered aromatic ring, bonded directly to a hydroxyl group (-OH). Thus, phenols are a class of organic compounds of which the phenol discussed in this article is the simplest member." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Early Renaissance.", "18th and 19th centuries.", "Eve of World War I.", "World War I.", "Post-World War I.", "Types.", "Round.", "Cruciform.", "Pull-down apex.", "Annular.", "Rogallo wing.", "Ribbon and Ring.", "Ram-air.", "Varieties.", "Paragliders.", "Deployment.", "Safety.", "Malfunctions.", "Records." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The earliest evidence for the parachute dates back to the Renaissance period. The oldest parachute design appears in an anonymous manuscript from 1470s Renaissance Italy (British Library, Add MS 34113, fol. 200v), showing a free-hanging man clutching a crossbar frame attached to a conical canopy. As a safety measure, four straps ran from the ends of the rods to a waist belt. The design is a marked improvement over another folio (189v), which depicts a man trying to break the force of", "The modern parachute was invented in the late 18th century by Louis-Sébastien Lenormand in France, who made the first recorded public jump in 1783. Lenormand also sketched his device beforehand. Two years later, in 1785, Lenormand coined the word \"parachute\" by hybridizing an Italian prefix \"para\", an imperative form of \"parare\" = to avert, defend, resist, guard, shield or shroud, from \"paro\" = to parry, and \"chute\", the French word for \"fall\", to describe the aeronautical device's real function. Also in 1785, Jean-Pierre Blanchard demonstrated", "In 1907 Charles Broadwick demonstrated two key advances in the parachute he used to jump from hot air balloons at fairs: he folded his parachute into a pack he wore on his back and the parachute was pulled from the pack by a static line attached to the balloon. When Broadwick jumped from the balloon, the static line became taut, pulled the parachute from the pack, and then snapped. In 1911 a successful test took place with a dummy at the Eiffel tower in Paris. The puppet's weight was ; the parachute's weight was. The cables between puppet and the parachute were long. On February 4, 1912, Franz Reichelt jumped to his death from the tower during initial testing of his wearable parachute. Also in 1911, Grant Morton made the first parachute jump from an airplane, a Wright Model B piloted by Phil Parmalee, at Venice Beach, California. Morton's device was of the \"throw-out\" type where he held the parachute in his arms as", "The first military use of the parachute was by artillery observers on tethered observation balloons in World War I. These were tempting targets for enemy fighter aircraft, though difficult to destroy, due to their heavy anti-aircraft defenses. Because it was difficult to escape from them, and dangerous when on fire due to their hydrogen inflation, observers would abandon them and descend by parachute as soon as enemy aircraft were seen. The ground crew would then attempt to retrieve and deflate the balloon as quickly as possible. The main part of the parachute was in a bag suspended from the balloon with the pilot wearing only a simple waist harness attached", "The experience with parachutes during the war highlighted the need to develop a design that could be reliably used to exit a disabled airplane. For instance, tethered parachutes did not work well when the aircraft was spinning. After the war, Major Edward L. Hoffman of the United States Army led an effort to develop an improved parachute by bringing together the best elements of multiple parachute designs. Participants in the effort included Leslie Irvin and James Floyd Smith. The team eventually created the Airplane Parachute Type-A. This incorporated three key elements. In 1919, Irvin successfully tested the parachute by jumping from an airplane. The Type-A parachute was put into production and over time saved a number of lives. The effort was recognized by the awarding of the Robert J. Collier Trophy to Major Edward L. Hoffman in 1926. Irvin became the first person to make a premeditated free-fall parachute jump from an airplane. An early brochure of the Irvin Air Chute Company credits William O'Connor as having become, on August 24, 1920, at McCook Field near Dayton, Ohio, the first person", "Today's modern parachutes are classified into two categories – ascending and descending canopies. All ascending canopies refer to paragliders, built specifically to ascend and stay aloft as long as possible. Other parachutes, including ram-air non-elliptical, are classified as descending canopies by manufacturers. Some modern parachutes are classified as semi-rigid wings, which are maneuverable and can make a controlled descent to collapse on impact with the ground.", "Round parachutes are purely a drag device (that is, unlike the ram-air types, they provide no lift) and are used in military, emergency and cargo applications (eg. airdrops). Most have large dome-shaped canopies made from a single layer of triangular cloth gores. Some skydivers call them \"jellyfish 'chutes\" because of the resemblance to the marine organisms. Modern sports parachutists rarely use this type. The first round parachutes were simple, flat circulars. These early parachutes suffered from instability caused by oscillations. A hole in the apex helped to vent some air and reduce the oscillations. Many military applications adopted conical, \"i.e.\", cone-shaped, or parabolic (a flat circular canopy with an extended skirt) shapes, such as the", "The unique design characteristics of cruciform parachutes decrease oscillation (its user swinging back and forth) and violent turns during descent. This technology will be used by the United States Army as it replaces its older T-10 parachutes with T-11 parachutes under a program called Advanced Tactical Parachute System (ATPS). The ATPS", "A variation on the round parachute is the pull-down apex parachute, invented by a Frenchman named Pierre-Marcel Lemoigne. The first widely used canopy of this type was called the \"Para-Commander\" (made by the Pioneer Parachute Co.), although there are many other canopies with a pull-down apex produced in the years thereafter - these had minor differences in attempts to make a higher performance rig, such as different venting configurations. They are all considered 'round' parachutes, but with suspension lines to the canopy apex that apply load there and pull the apex closer to the load, distorting the round shape into a somewhat flattened or lenticular shape", "Some designs with a pull-down apex have the fabric removed from the apex to open a hole through which air can exit (most, if not all, round canopies have at least a small hole to allow easier tie-down for packing - these aren't considered", "Sport parachuting has experimented with the Rogallo wing, among other shapes and forms. These were usually an attempt to increase the forward speed and reduce the landing", "Ribbon and ring parachutes have similarities to annular designs. They are frequently designed to deploy at supersonic speeds. A conventional parachute would instantly burst upon opening and be shredded at such speeds. Ribbon parachutes have a ring-shaped canopy, often with", "The principle of the Ram-Air Multicell Airfoil was conceived in 1963 by Canadian Domina \"Dom\" C. Jalbert, but serious problems had to be solved before a ram-air canopy could be marketed to the sport parachuting community. Ram-air parafoils are steerable (as are most canopies used for sport parachuting), and have two layers of fabric—top and bottom—connected by airfoil-shaped fabric ribs to form \"cells\". The cells fill with higher-pressure air from vents that face forward on the leading edge of the airfoil. The fabric is shaped and the parachute lines trimmed under load such that the ballooning fabric inflates into an airfoil shape. This airfoil is sometimes maintained by use of fabric one-way valves called \"airlocks\". \"The first jump of this canopy (a Jalbert Parafoil) was made by International Skydiving Hall of Fame member Paul \"Pop\" Poppenhager.\"", "Personal ram-air parachutes are loosely divided into two varieties – rectangular or tapered – commonly called \"squares\" or \"ellipticals\", respectively. Medium-performance canopies (reserve-, BASE-, canopy formation-, and accuracy-type) are usually rectangular. High-performance, ram-air parachutes have a slightly tapered shape to their leading and/or trailing edges when viewed in plan form, and are known as ellipticals. Sometimes all the taper is on the leading edge (front), and sometimes in the trailing edge (tail). Ellipticals are usually used only by sport parachutists. They often have smaller, more numerous fabric cells and are shallower in profile. Their canopies can be anywhere from slightly elliptical to highly elliptical, indicating the amount of taper in the canopy design, which is often an indicator of the responsiveness of the canopy to control input for a given wing loading, and of the level of experience required to pilot the canopy safely. The rectangular parachute designs tend to look like square, inflatable air mattresses with open front ends. They are generally safer to operate because they are less prone to dive rapidly with relatively small control inputs, they are usually flown with lower wing loadings per square foot of area, and they glide more slowly. They typically have a lower glide ratio. Wing loading of parachutes is measured similarly to that of aircraft, comparing exit weight to area of parachute fabric. Typical wing loading for students, accuracy competitors, and BASE jumpers is less than 5 kg per square meter – often 0.3 kilograms per square meter or less. Most student skydivers fly with wing loading below 5 kg per square meter. Most sport jumpers fly with", "Paragliders - virtually all of which use ram-air canopies - are more akin to today's sport parachutes than, say, parachutes of the mid-1970s and earlier. Technically, they are \"ascending parachutes\", though that term is not used in the paragliding community, and they have the same basic airfoil design of today's'square' or 'elliptical' sports parachuting canopy, but generally have more sectioned cells, higher aspect ratio and a lower profile. Cell count varies widely, typically from the high 20s to the 70s, while aspect ratio can be 8 or more, though aspect ratio (projected) for such a canopy might be down at 6 or so - both outrageously higher than a representative skydiver's parachute. The wing span is typically so great that it's far closer to a very elongated rectangle or ellipse than a \"square\" and that term is rarely used by paraglider pilots. Similarly, span might be ~15 m with span (projected) at 12 m. Canopies are still attached to the harness by suspension lines and (four or six) risers, but they use lockable carabiners as the final connection to the harness. Modern high-performance paragliders often have the cell openings closer to the bottom of the leading edge and the end cells might appear to be closed, both for aerodynamic streamlining (these apparently closed end cells are vented and inflated from the adjacent cells, which have venting in the cell walls). The main difference is in", "Reserve parachutes usually have a ripcord deployment system, which was first designed by Theodore Moscicki, but most modern main parachutes used by sports parachutists use a form of hand-deployed pilot chute. A ripcord system pulls a closing pin (sometimes multiple pins), which releases a spring-loaded pilot chute, and opens the container; the pilot chute is then propelled into the air stream by its spring, then uses the force generated by passing air to extract a deployment bag containing the parachute canopy, to which it is attached via a bridle. A hand-deployed pilot chute, once thrown into the air stream, pulls a closing pin on the pilot chute bridle to open the container, then the same force extracts the deployment bag. There are variations on hand-deployed pilot chutes, but the system described is the more common throw-out system.", "A parachute is carefully folded, or \"packed\" to ensure that it will open reliably. If a parachute is not packed properly it can result in a malfunction where the main parachute fails to deploy correctly or fully. In the United States and many developed countries, emergency and reserve parachutes are packed by \"riggers\" who must be trained and certified according to legal standards. Sport skydivers are always trained to pack their own primary \"main\" parachutes. Exact numbers are difficult to estimate because parachute design, maintenance, loading, packing technique and operator experience has a significant impact on malfunction rates. Approximately one in a thousand sport main parachute openings malfunctions, requiring the use of the reserve parachute, although some skydivers have many thousands of jumps and never needed to use their reserve parachute.", "Below are listed the", "On August 16, 1960, Joseph Kittinger, in the Excelsior III test jump, set the previous world record for the highest parachute jump. He jumped from a balloon at an altitude of (which was also a manned balloon altitude record at the time). A small stabilizer chute deployed successfully, and Kittinger fell for 4 minutes and 36 seconds, also setting a still-standing world record for the longest parachute free-fall, if falling with a stabilizer chute is counted as free-fall. At an altitude of, Kittinger opened his main chute and landed safely in the New Mexico desert. The whole descent took 13 minutes and 45 seconds. During the descent, Kittinger experienced temperatures as low as. In the free-fall stage, he reached a top speed of 614 mph (988 km/h or 274 m/s), or Mach 0.8. According to \"Guinness World Records\", Yevgeni Nikolayevich Andreyev (Soviet Union) held the official FAI record for the longest free-fall parachute jump (without drogue chute) after falling for 24,500 m (80,380 ft) from an altitude of 25,457 m (83,523 ft) near the city of Saratov, Russia on November 1, 1962, until broken by Felix Baumgartner in 2012. Felix Baumgartner broke Joseph Kittinger's record on October 14, 2012, with a jump from an altitude of 127,852 feet (38,969.3 m) and reaching speeds up to 833.9 mph (1,342.0 km/h or 372.8 m/s), or nearly Mach 1.1. Kittinger was an advisor for Baumgartner's jump. Alan Eustace made a jump from the stratosphere on October 24, 2014, from an altitude of 135,889.108 feet (41,419 m). However, because Eustace's jump involved a drogue parachute while Baumgartner's did not, their vertical speed and free fall distance records remain in different record categories." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Royal vassal.", "Lord of Nablus.", "Lord of Oultrejordain.", "Knight Templar.", "Family." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Philip was the son of Guy of Milly, a knight of uncertain origin, who witnessed a dozen of royal charters in the Kingdom of Jerusalem between 1108 and 1126. Guy held fiefs in the royal demesne around Nablus and Jerusalem. Guy's wife was a Flemish noblewoman, Stephanie, according to the late 13th-century \"Lignages d'Outremer\". The same source stated that Philip was his parents' eldest son, but the sobriquet of his brother, Guy\"Francigena\" (or \"born in France\")implies that Guy was Philip's elder brother, born before their parents come to the Holy Land. The \"Lignages d'Outremer\" also claimed that Philip was a nephew of Pagan the Butler, but no other primary source refers to Pagan as Philip's uncle. The date of Guy's death is unknown, but he was most probably still alive in the early 1130s. Philip inherited his father's estates around Nablus. He married a noblewoman, Isabella, before 1144. Her name is the only known fact about her, but Steven Runciman writes that she was related to Maurice, Lord of Oultrejordain. Philip first appeared in a royal charter in 1138. The absence of Philip and his brothers from the lists of witnesses of royal charters in the 1130s shows that they could not secure their father's position during the reign of Fulk of Anjou. Fulk seized the throne through his marriage with Melisende of Jerusalem and appointed his own men to the most important offices.", "", "Philip's career started only after Fulk died and Melisende became the actual ruler of Jerusalem. He was first mentioned as lord of Nablus in 1144. Late in that year, the queen appointed Philip along with Elinand, Prince of Galilee, and Manasses of Hierges, to lead a relieve army to Edessa, but Imad ad-Din Zengi captured the town before they approached it. During the following years, he seized further fiefs, including lands in the hills near Nablus and Tyre. In 1148, upon the arrival of the Second Crusade, Philip participated in the council held at Acre, where he and the other native barons were overruled and the ill-fated decision to attack on Damascus was made. Along with the powerful Ibelin family, Philip was a supporter of Melisende during her conflict with her son Baldwin III. In the division of the kingdom in 1151, Melisende gained control of its southern part, including Nablus. Despite this arrangement, Philip assisted Baldwin during the siege of Ascalon in 1153. He granted estates to Order of Saint Lazarus in 1153. From 1155, Philip was regularly listed among the witnesses on Baldwin's charters. He participated in the relief of Banyas in June 1157, but he and his troops soon returned home, and were not present at Nur ad-Din's subsequent ambush of Baldwin at Jacob's Ford.", "Philip exchanged the lordship of Nablus with Baldwin III for Oultrejordain on 31 July 1161. For Melisende was dying, the agreement was confirmed by her sister, Hodierna, on her behalf. The king retained the revenues from tolling the caravans and the Bedouin tribes crossing Oultrejordain. One of Philip's new vassals, John Gothman, was required to directly swear fealty to the king. Philip strengthened Kerak Castle with a ditch and towers. He made a pilgrimage to Saint Catherine's Monastery in the early 1160s.", "Philip joined the military order of the Knights Templar in January 1166, passing on to them a significant part of Oultrejordain, including the castle of Ahamant. Acting against the decision of the Templars, Philip joined Amalric's invasion of Egypt in 1167. The Ibelin family later recalled an event during the siege of Bilbeis, in which Philip saved the life of Hugh of Ibelin, who had broken his leg when his horse fell in a ditch. The Templars as a whole refused to support Amalric's invasion, and the king blamed them for the failure of the expedition. After the death of their Grand Master Bertrand de Blanchefort in January 1169, Amalric pressured them to elect Philip in his place in August of that year. With the election of Philip, Amalric regained Templar support for the invasion of Egypt, although by the end of the year Amalric was forced to retreat. For unknown reasons Philip resigned as Grand Master in 1171, and was succeeded by Odo de St Amand. Philip accompanied Amalric to Constantinople as ambassador to the Byzantine Empire in order to restore good relations with them after the failure of the Egyptian invasion. He probably died on April 3, before reaching Constantinople.", "Philip's personal life is largely a mystery. William of Tyre describes him as one of the \"brave men, valiant in arms and trained from their earliest years in the art of war\" who accompanied Amalric to Egypt., Sometime after he became lord of Oultrejordain, he made a pilgrimage to the monastery of Saint Catherine's Monastery on Mount Sinai. With his wife Isabella he had a son, Rainier (who predeceased him), and two daughters, Helena and Stephanie. Isabella died probably in 1166, which may have led to Philip's decision to take vows as a brother of the Knights Templar. His lands were inherited by his elder daughter, Helena, wife of Walter III of Brisebarre, lord of Beirut, and after Walter's death, by Stephanie and her husbands." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early years.", "Clark and Lotus.", "Remarkable performances.", "Death.", "Legacy.", "Racing record.", "Formula One records.", "Formula Two results." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "James Clark Jr was born into a farming family at Kilmany House Farm, Fife, the youngest child of five, and the only boy. In 1942 the family moved to Edington Mains Farm, near Duns, Berwickshire, in the Borders. He was educated at primary schools, first in Kilmany and then in Chirnside, and then following three years of preparatory schooling at Clifton Hall School near Edinburgh he was sent to Loretto School in Musselburgh, near Edinburgh. Although his parents were opposed to the idea, Clark started his racing in local road rally and hill climb events driving his own Sunbeam-Talbot, and proved a fearsome competitor right from the start. On 16 June 1956, in his very first event, he was behind the wheel of a DKW \"sonderklasse\" at Crimond, Scotland. By 1958, Clark was driving for the local Border Reivers team for Ian Scott-Watson, racing Jaguar D-types and Porsches in national events, and winning 18 races. Then on Boxing Day 1958, Clark raced against the man who would launch him to superstardom. Driving a Lotus Elite, he finished second to Colin Chapman in a ten-lap GT race at Brands Hatch. In 1959 he drove a Lotus Elite, finishing tenth at Le Mans partnered with John Whitmore, and the ex-Bruce Halford Lister Jaguar, winning the Bo'ness Hill Climb. Chapman was sufficiently impressed to give Clark a ride in one of his Formula Junior cars. \"In March 1960, the first race for the newly introduced Formula Junior took place at Goodwood. The winner was J. Clark (Lotus Ford), from J. Surtees (Cooper B.M.C) with T. Taylor (Lotus Ford) third.\" <br> Clark had made an earlier FJ appearance in a one-off race at Brands Hatch on Boxing Day, 1959, driving a Gemini-B.M.C. for Graham Warner of the Chequered Flag garage, Chiswick.", "Clark made his F1 Grand Prix debut, part-way through the season, at the Dutch Grand Prix at Zandvoort on 6 June 1960. \"Lotus had lost Surtees, as he had gone to the Isle of Man to do some serious motorcycle racing, so they had Ireland, Stacey and Clark, the last-named being an acceptable substitute.\" He retired on lap 49 with final drive failure. His second Formula One race was the 1960 Belgian Grand Prix, held at the extremely fast and dangerous Spa-Francorchamps circuit; there, he got a taste of reality when two fatal accidents occurred (Chris Bristow and Alan Stacey). Clark was later quoted as saying in a 1964 interview: \"I was driving scared stiff pretty much all through the race\", even though he finished 5th and scored his first points finish. The next year, Clark was involved in one of the worst accidents in the history of Formula 1 racing. In the 1961 Italian Grand Prix on 10 September at Monza, Wolfgang von Trips in his Ferrari collided with Clark's Lotus. Von Trips's car became airborne and crashed into a side barrier, fatally throwing von Trips out of the car and killing fifteen spectators. His first Drivers' World Championship came driving the Lotus 25 in, winning seven out of the ten races and Lotus its first Constructors' World Championship. Clark's record of seven wins in a season would not be equalled until when Frenchman Alain Prost won seven races for McLaren. The record would not be broken until Brazilian Ayrton Senna won eight races in the season, also for McLaren (ironically, Senna's teammate that year was Prost who again equalled the old record by winning 7 races). However, Clark's record is favourable compared to Prost and Senna's as the 1963 championship only consisted of 10 rounds (giving Clark a 70% success rate), while 1984 and 1988 were run over 16 rounds giving Prost a success rate of 43.75% and Senna a 50% winning ratio. In 1963, he raced in his first Indianapolis 500 and finished in second position behind Parnelli Jones and won Rookie of the Year honours. The 1963 Indy 500 result remains controversial. Before the race United States Auto Club (USAC) officials had told the drivers that they would black flag any car that was seen to be leaking oil onto the track. Late in the race, Jones' front-engined roadster developed a crack in the oil tank and began to leak oil. With the track surface already being slippery this resulted in a number of cars spinning and led to popular driver Eddie Sachs crashing into the outside wall. USAC officials were set to black flag Jones after the Sachs crash until his car owner J. C. Agajanian ran down pit lane and somehow convinced them that the oil leak was below the level of a known crack and would not leak any further. Colin Chapman later accused USAC officials of being biased because Clark and Lotus were a British team with a rear-engine car. Many, including journalist and author Brock Yates, believed that had it been an American driver and car in second place instead of Clark in the British built Lotus, officials would have black flagged Jones. Despite this neither Lotus nor their engine supplier Ford protested the result, reasoning that winning as a result of a disqualification when Jones had led for 167 of the races 200 laps (Clark led for 28 laps) and had set the lap record speed of on lap 114, would not be well received by the public. In 1964 Clark came within just a few laps of retaining his World Championship crown but, just as in 1962, an oil leak from the engine robbed him of the title, this time conceding to John Surtees. Tyre failure damaging the Lotus's suspension put paid to that year's attempt at the Indianapolis 500. He made amends and won the Championship again in and also the Indianapolis 500 in the Lotus 38. He had to miss the prestigious Monaco Grand Prix in order to compete at Indianapolis, but made history by driving the first mid-engined car to win at the fabled \"Brickyard,\" as well as becoming the only driver to date to win both the Indy 500 and the F1 title in the same year. Other drivers, including Graham Hill, Mario Andretti, Emerson Fittipaldi and Jacques Villeneuve have also won both crowns, but not in the same year. At the same time, Clark was competing in the Australasia based Tasman series, run for older F1 cars, and was series champion in 1965, 1967, and 1968 driving for Lotus. He won fourteen races in all, a record for the series. This included winning the 1968 Australian Grand Prix at the Sandown International Raceway in Melbourne where he defeated the Ferrari 246T of Chris Amon by just 0.1 seconds after 55 laps of the 3.1 km (1.92 mi) circuit, the closest finish in the history of the Australian Grand Prix. The 1968 Tasman Series and Australian Grand Prix would prove to be his last major wins before his untimely death. According to Australian driver and regular Tasman Series driver Leo Geoghegan, during his time down under for the 1967 series, Clark arrived at the Sydney home that Leo shared with his parents and his younger brother Ian \"Pete\" Geoghegan. Neither Leo, Pete or their father Tom were home at the time, however Mrs Geoghean (Tom's wife) was. Not actually knowing who Clark was, Mrs Geoghegan thought that he was there to mow their lawns and told him that the mower was in the shed and he could start at any time. When the trio arrived home a short time later they were surprised to find a shirtless Clark casually mowing their front lawn. The FIA decreed from 1966, new 3-litre engine regulations would come into force. Lotus were less competitive. Starting with a 2-litre Coventry-Climax engine in the Lotus 33, Clark did not score points until the British Grand Prix and a third place at the following Dutch Grand Prix. From the Italian Grand Prix onwards Lotus used the highly complex BRM H16 engine in the Lotus 43 car, with which Clark won the U.S. Grand Prix. He also picked up another second place at the Indianapolis 500, this time behind Graham Hill. During Lotus and Clark used three completely different cars and engines. The Lotus 43 performed poorly at the opening South African Grand Prix, so Clark used an old Lotus 33 at the following Monaco Grand Prix, retiring with suspension failure. Lotus then began its fruitful association with Ford-Cosworth. Their first car, the Lotus 49 featuring the most successful F1 engine in history, the Ford-Cosworth DFV, won its first race at the Dutch Grand Prix, driven by Clark. He won with it again at the British, United States and Mexican Grands Prix; and, in January 1968, at the South African Grand Prix.", "Clark won the 1963 Belgian Grand Prix at Spa-Francorchamps in extremely foggy and rainy conditions. After starting eighth on the grid Clark passed all of the cars in front of him, including early leader Graham Hill. About 17 laps into the race, with the rain coming down harder than ever, Clark had not only lapped the entire field except for Bruce McLaren, but he was almost five minutes ahead of McLaren and his Cooper. This would be the first of seven victories for Clark and Team Lotus that year. In the 1967 Italian Grand Prix at Monza after starting from pole, Clark was leading in his Lotus 49 (chassis R2), when a tyre punctured. He lost an entire lap while having the wheel changed in the pits. Rejoining sixteenth, Clark ripped back through the field, progressively lowering the lap record and eventually equalling his pole time of 1m 28.5s, to regain the lost lap and the lead. He was narrowly ahead of Brabham and Surtees starting the last lap, but his car had not been filled with enough fuel for such a performance: it faltered, and finally coasted across the finish line in third place. In his Indianapolis 500 win, Clark led for 190 of the 200 laps, with an unprecedented average speed of over, to become the first non-American in almost half a century to win the In and, Clark equalled Alberto Ascari's record for \"highest percentage of possible championship points in a season\" (100%). Leading 71.47% of the laps in, Clark holds the record for \"highest percentage of laps in the lead in a season\". He also holds the record for most Grand Slams, taking pole, fastest lap, race win and leading every lap of the race in eight races (1962 British Grand Prix, 1963 Dutch Grand Prixwhich he won by more than a full lap, 1963 French Grand Prix, 1963 Mexican Grand Prix, 1964 British Grand Prix, 1965 South African Grand Prix, 1965 French Grand Prix, 1965 German Grand Prix).", "On 7 April 1968, Clark died in a racing accident at the Hockenheimring in West Germany. During the 4-month gap between the first (which Clark won) and second race of the 1968 Formula One season, drivers would compete in other racing formulas. Clark was originally slated to drive in the BOAC 1000 km sportscar race at Brands Hatch, but instead chose to drive in the Deutschland Trophäe, a Formula Two race, for Lotus at the Hockenheimring, primarily due to contractual obligations with Firestone. Although the race has sometimes been characterised as a \"minor race meeting\" the entry list was impressive with top-running Matras for the French drivers Jean-Pierre Beltoise and Henri Pescarolo, Tecnos for Carlo Facetti and Clay Regazzoni, Team Brabhams for Derek Bell and Piers Courage, a Ferrari for Chris Amon and McLarens for Graeme Lawrence and Robin Widdows. Team Lotus drivers Graham Hill and Clark were in Gold Leaf Team Lotuses and a young Max Mosley was also in the race, moving up from the Clubman series. The event was run in two heats. On the fifth lap of the first heat, Clark's Lotus 48 veered off the track and crashed into the trees. He suffered a broken neck and skull fracture, and died before reaching the hospital. The cause of the crash was never definitively identified, but investigators concluded it was most likely due to a deflating rear tyre. Clark's death affected the racing community terribly, with fellow Formula One drivers and close friends Graham Hill, Jackie Stewart, Dan Gurney, John Surtees, Chris Amon and Jack Brabham all being personally affected by the tragedy. People came from all over the world to Clark's funeral. Colin Chapman was devastated and publicly stated that he had lost his best friend. The 1968 F1 Drivers' Championship was subsequently won by his Lotus teammate Graham Hill, who pulled the heartbroken team together and held off Jackie Stewart for the crown, which he later dedicated to Clark. There was initial speculation as to whether the accident was caused by a driver error or a deflating rear tyre, and the Lotus was investigated thoroughly by aircraft crash investigators for three weeks. Many drivers including Surtees and Brabham were convinced that the crash was caused by a deflating rear tyre and were adamant that it was not a driver error—simply because they believed Clark was not capable of making such a mistake. According to Andrew Marriott of the classic journal \"Motor Sport\" who was covering the race as a young reporter \"Deaths in the sport were a regular occurrence in those days, but surely someone of Clark's sublime talent and skill? People reckoned that the rear tyre had deflated, and there is another theory that the mechanical metering unit on the Cosworth FVA engine had seized and caused Clark to crash.\" There is a large memorial to Clark at Hockenheim today, but because the track has been reduced in length and the old course reforested, the actual location of the crash is in a heavily wooded area; it is however easily accessible.", "Clark achieved 33 pole positions and won 25 races from his 72 Grands Prix starts in championship races. He is remembered for his ability to drive and win in all types of cars and series, including a Lotus-Cortina, with which he won the 1964 British Touring Car Championship; IndyCar; Rallying, where he took part in the 1966 RAC Rally of Great Britain in a Lotus Cortina; and sports cars. He competed in the Le Mans 24 Hour race in 1959, 1960 and 1961, finishing second in class in 1959 driving a Lotus Elite, and finishing third overall in 1960, driving an Aston Martin DBR1. He took part in a NASCAR event, driving a 7-litre Holman Moody Ford at the American 500 at the banked speedway at Rockingham on 29 October 1967. He was also able to master difficult Lotus sportscar prototypes such as the Lotus 30 and 40. Clark had an uncanny ability to adapt to whichever car he was driving. Whilst other drivers would struggle to find a good car setup, Clark would usually set competitive lap times with whatever setup was provided and ask for the car to be left as it was. Clark wrote an autobiography which was published just after his first world championship, titled \"Jim Clark at the Wheel.\" The book was updated after his Indy 500 victory. Sir Jackie Stewart on what made Clark such a good driver: \"He was so smooth, he was so clean, he drove with such finesse. He never bullied a racing car, he sort of caressed it into doing the things he wanted it to do.\" He apparently had difficulty understanding why other drivers were not as quick as himself. When Clark died, fellow driver Chris Amon was quoted as saying, \"If it could happen to him, what chance do the rest of us have? I think we all felt that. It seemed like we'd lost our leader.\" Clark is buried in the village of Chirnside in Berwickshire. A memorial stone can be found at the Hockenheimring circuit, moved from the site of his crash to a location closer to the current track, and a life-size statue of him in racing overalls stands by the bridge over a small stream in the village of his birth, Kilmany in Fife. A small museum, which is known as The Jim Clark Room, can be found in Duns. The Jim Clark Trophy was introduced in the 1987 Formula One season for drivers of cars with naturally aspirated engines but was discontinued after turbo-charged engines were restricted in 1988 and dropped for 1989. The Jim Clark Memorial Award is an annual award given by the Association of Scottish Motoring Writers to Scots who have contributed significantly to transport and motor sport. The Jim Clark Rally is an annual event held in Berwickshire. Clark was an inaugural inductee into the Scottish Sports Hall of Fame in 2002.", "", "Clark holds the following Formula One records:", "For reasons of space, only those Formula Two events which Clark attended are shown." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Geography.", "Climate.", "Infrastructure.", "Transport.", "International relations.", "Twin towns – Sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "The first human settlements, in areas that are now Świnoujście appeared five thousand years ago, as confirmed by archaeological findings. For a thousand years the estuary of the river was part of the state of the Świnoujście who were annexed by Polish ruler Mieszko I. In later centuries local Pomeranian princes ruled the area, and on both sides of the river, they built fortified castles, which were destroyed several times by the Danish invasions in the twelfth century in 1170 and 1173. Between 1185 and 1227 the settlement was part of a Danish fief. During the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) the city became part of the Swedish Empire. The river Świna () was formerly flanked by the fishing villages of Westswine and Ostswine. Towards the beginning of the 17th century it was made navigable for large ships. The Kingdom of Prussia gained the area in 1720 from Sweden, and included it in her Pomeranian province. Swinemünde was founded on the site of Westswine in 1748, fortified, and received town privileges from King Frederick II of Prussia in 1765. It served as the outer port of Stettin (Szczecin) and was administered within the Province of Pomerania. Swinemünde became part of the German Empire after the Kingdom of Prussia completed the unification of Germany in 1871. The town had broad unpaved streets and one-story houses built in the Dutch style, which gave it an almost rustic appearance, although its industries, beyond some fishing, were entirely connected with its shipping. The river mouth, which was the entrance to the harbor, and which was regarded as the best on the Prussian Baltic coast, was then protected by two curving long breakwaters, and was strongly fortified. On the island of Wollin, on the other side of the narrow Świna, a great lighthouse was erected. In 1897 the canal of the Kaiserfahrt was opened to navigation, and this waterway between the Stettin harbour and the Baltic Sea was deepened between 1900–01. From then on Stettin could be reached directly by ships, and Swinemünde's importance diminished somewhat. On 12 March 1945 during World War II, refugee-crowded Swinemünde suffered heavy destruction by the USAAF, an estimated 5,000 to 23,000 were killed, most of whom are buried on the Golm War Cemetery west of the town, on the German side of the border. The city and port were also destroyed during the Allied air raids on March 12 and April 16, 1945. The unfinished was scuttled in the harbor in an attempt to prevent its capture by the advancing Red Army (it was nevertheless refloated by the Soviets later). The German battleship had also participated in the defence of the city, before it too was scuttled. After the German forces defending the city were evacuated, Soviet forces occupied the city on the night of 4–5 May 1945. After Germany's defeat in the war, the Soviet Union imposed new borders in eastern Europe at the Potsdam Conference, which made Świnoujście a part of Poland. The entire population was forcibly expelled and replaced by ethnic Poles. The Treaty of Zgorzelec signed between the People's Republic of Poland and the German Democratic Republic affirmed the new border, and the German–Polish Border Treaty of 1990 officially affirmed the existing borders after the fall of the Iron Curtain. In the winter of 1945, some members of the communist Polish Security Forces who had been victims of German concentration camps and other German atrocities acted in revenge against local Germans. An investigation in 2008 estimated that over 40 German civilians were killed. Nine men were charged with the murder and maltreatment of Germans, and in 1947, after one escaped and one hanged himself, seven of them stood trial. The harshest sentence given in that trial was 4 years imprisonment, for theft. In another trial, the town's chief of police, Jan Zientara, was sentenced to eight years, for organizing robberies of German civilians. In 1948, the reconstruction and reconstruction of the port of Świnoujście from martial to commercial and fishing began. The construction of a large fish farm began, a huge swimming pool and industrial buildings were built, and 3 years later the Fisheries Base was commissioned. Within three years, a large fish factory was established, managed by the independent \"Przedsiębiorstwo Usług Rybackie Odra\" in Świnoujście. It was not until November 27, 1950, that the GDR government agreed to transfer to Poland the water intake for the city of Świnoujście, located at Lake Wolgastsee and demarcating the border there again. In June 1951, an area of 76.5 ha was incorporated into Poland together with a water treatment station, creating a characteristic promontory protruding into the German area (the so-called Worek, (53 54 49.11 N 14 11′11.18 E). In return, Germany was granted a similar area between the water intake and the Pomeranian Bay. The spa part of the city was occupied by the Soviet Armed Forces until 1957, and until the turn of the 1980s and 1990s, there was a base of Soviet warships with facilities in Świnoujście. Until 1972, the city belonged to the Wolin poviat. In 1959, the \"Uzdrowisko Świnoujście\" State Enterprise was established. Currently Uzdrowisko Świnoujście S.A. belongs to the largest and most modern in Poland, and its greatest asset is still bromide-iodide-sodium brine discovered a hundred years ago. In the 1960s and 1970s, a seaport was created, which together with Szczecin created a complex of ports Szczecin-Świnoujście. In 1964, ferry shipping to Scandinavia was resumed.", "The city is located on the Strait of Świna, which in its northern part connects with the Baltic Sea, and in the south with the Szczecin Lagoon. It is situated on three inhabited islands: Usedom (35,712 inhabitants in 2010), Wolin (4,317 inhabitants), Karsibór (703 inhabitants) and 41 smaller uninhabited islands. Świnoujście is located in the northwestern edge of the province. West Pomeranian (with coordinates 53 ° 54′N 14 ° 14′E). According to data from 1 January 2009, the area of the urban commune is 197.23 km2. Every year, the city's area increases by applying sand on the beach by sea currents. Sands settling at the shore caused the shoreline to shift by 1.5 km over the last 200 years. Currently, the beach in the widest section is 200 meters, making the beach in Świnoujście the widest beach in Poland.", "Świnoujscie is situated in the oceanic climate, which is characterized by mild winters and relatively cool summers. A very large influence on the climate of the city is the location of the Baltic Sea. Świnoujscie often in winter is the warmest city in Poland.", "", "The town is located on both banks of the river Świna, and since there is no road connection across it, transport is provided by regular ferries. Because the west section is otherwise wholly disconnected from the rest of Poland, this service is free of charge. Under current plans, a road tunnel will be built under the river. The construction contract for it was signed in September 2018, with completion planned for September, 2022. Świnoujście has the largest and most modern ferry terminal in Poland, with regular connections to Denmark and Sweden. The city lies at the northern terminus of Polish National Route 3 (DK3, in the future express road S3), which is, in turn, part of the European route E65 running across Europe from Sweden to Greece. Świnoujście has four railway stations on the eastern bank of the Świna, on Wolin island, with regular regional connections to Szczecin and long-distance connections to other cities in Poland (e.g. Poznań, Katowice, Bielsko-Biała, Kraków and Warszawa). Land border controls were abolished 21 December 2007, and free automobile traffic to and from Germany was allowed for the first time since 1945 (when it was part of German territory), as Poland implemented the Schengen Agreement. From 20 September 2008, the city has a railway connection to its western portion as well, when the railway line to Ahlbeck was extended eastward to Świnoujście (\"Świnoujście Centrum\") giving it a direct link to the German railway network. The nearest airport at Heringsdorf in Germany, west of Świnoujście, will likely become more important for travelling to the city, if it ever acquires year-round scheduled passenger connections; it currently has a number of summer connections to German cities only. The nearest airport with year-round traffic is the Szczecin-Goleniów \"Solidarność\" Airport, to the southeast in Poland.", "", "Świnoujście is twinned with:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography.", "History.", "The Coffer of Mercy.", "Santa Ana Hill.", "Communications.", "Roads.", "Nature.", "Demography.", "Population series.", "Historical.", "Economy.", "Sports.", "Government.", "Festivals." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The relief of the municipality is level, its altitude varies between the 500 and the 600 M.s. Most of the land are in a glacis, old channel of Iregua River. In the South zone are the first spurs of the Mountain range of Moncalvillo. The village is located in this zone, on the hill called El Conjuro. Is urbanized in \"bastille\" with his streets staggered and concentric. The residential zone extends from the slope south until the adjacent plain, whereas in the slope north, fresher, situates the Neighbourhood of Las Bodegas. The rivers are few and with great low water. Hardly precipices coming from the mountain range cross the term from the South to North, like \"Ruicidera\" or Río Daroca.", "The zone was populated by Romans, as it indicates the Roman town of \"La Dehesa\", in addition to the road of Zaragoza-Briviesca that crossed the municipality. Alfonso I of Asturias \"the Catholic\" in the middle of 8th century reconquered the villa from the Muslims. According to the Geographic Dictionary, published in Barcelona in 1830, Entrena it would be founded by this king around 750, but already it is known by the \"Chronicle of Alfonso III\" that these incursions realised by this king did not suppose the foundation of villages. These expeditions, carried out along with their brother Froila, consisted of killing the Muslims they found and gathering Christians to take them to the mountains. In 1044, Entrena appears documented under the romance name \"Antelena\". From 1076, it belongs to Castile and to its king Alfonso VI. This king, before the strategic value of the zone, border with the kingdoms of Aragón and Navarre, populated and raised diverse fortresses to protect his interests. One of those seats was Entrena. In 1160 Sancho VI of Navarre \"repopulated\" the villa. In certain gifts of king Sancho VI of Navarre it appears with the Latin name of \"Entidigone\". During the reign of Stephanie of Foix, widow of García Sánchez III of Navarre, was one of the villages favored by the privilege of union and other rights, with Sojuela, Velilla de la Rad, Fuenmayor, Hornos de Moncalvillo, Medrano and Navarrete. These municipalities were known as the Seven Towns of the Country. Later, this queen donated Entrena to the monastery of Santa María la Real of Nájera, appearing named as \"Antelana\". In 1189 the Benedictine monks of Santa María la Real of Nájera, among others, donated the church of Entrena to the bishopric of Calahorra after lawsuits between the bishop and the monastery, with intervention of the king and the abbot of Cluny. King Enrique II of Castile donates the town to \"Juan Ramirez de Arellano\" by the lent services, according to appears in the concession writing of the Señorío de Cameros. Since then the town would be linked to the \"Arellano\" family that would have great disputes with the \"Gómez Manrique\" (they were gentlemen of Navarrete by donation realised in 1380 by Juan I of Castile to \"Diego Gómez Manrique de Lara\"). In 1478 the neighbors of Navarrete destroy fortifications constructed by those of Entrena. In retaliation, people of Clavijo and Lagunilla, that were of \"Arellano\", destroyed the term of Ribafrecha that was affection of \"Manrique\" family. Entrena, until the abolition of the señoríos, belonged to the \"counts of Aguilar\", gentlemen of Cameros. In 1492 the expulsion of the Jews in Spain is carried out by the Catholic Monarchs. At this time the Jewish community in Entrena was important, getting to constitute an \"aljama\", with an approximated population of 50 families. In 1503 \"Carlos Ramirez de Arellano\" and his wife, \"Juana de Zúñiga\", gentlemen of Cameros and counts of Aguilar, founded the monastery of Santa Clara in Entrena granting to him in addition the already preexisting \"Santa Maria de Barrivero\". The founding nuns came from Tordesillas and the monastery belonged to the franciscan province of Burgos. The first abbess was a \"Arellano\". Entrena had a hospital and hostelry to take care of the pilgrims that approached by the French Way to arrive at Compostela as they testify documents of 16th century. After the disappearance of the señoríos, in 1811, formed part of the province of Soria, until the creation of the province of Logroño on 30 November 1833. In 1851, according to Pascual Madoz, Entrena \"had 202 houses, the one of the City council and prison; a convent of monks of Santa Clara, a source of potable water [...] And school for both sexes. His production consisted especially in wheat, barley, beans and wine, in addition to rear of sheeps and the hunting of partridges, quails and hares\". The industry was based in \"three mills, that each day go in decadence, and some factories of liquor, that works very little\". According to this census Entrena had a population of 181 neighbours, 780 souls.", "In 1571 Francisco de Moreda established an agricultural government social security fund, that it had the objective to distribute cereals, especially wheat, between the poorest farmers. These had to give back the grain loan with a minimum interest. Normally the neighbors of the town benefited from this one, but during first half of the 18th century also they did those of neighboring localities. It was in operation until 1799.", "It is an archaeological deposit excavated at the end of 1970s and the beginning of the 1980s by Antonio González Blanco and Urbano Espinosa Ruiz. The rests found more ancient belong to the hallstatt culture. Treat of two funds of bench-like sheds were recovered abundant material that find in the Museum of La Rioja. These materials consist in polished ceramics, painted, fingered and spatulated. The vessels are generally decorated with high neck and biconic profile. Also highlight several moulds for metallic axes realized in sandstone. This site was found in the peak of the hill and believe that it was a holy place since they have found ashes and other rests that indicate it. The populated could develop around the sides of the hill but his rests have disappeared because of the crop of these lands. Also have found rests of back periods, Celtiberians (La Tène culture) and Romans. The location of the settlement was next to the shod that communicated Zaragoza with Briviesca. Of the Roman era have found rests of ceramic, some Roman scales, lids of sarcophagus, low burials knit and a human-like round trail from the early Christian era.", "", "The main road of access is the LR-254 that communicates Entrena with Lardero and Logroño through the N-111. The LR-137 crosses the town from southeast to northwest and link with the roads N-111, N-120 and N-232 joining towns like Nalda, Navarrete and Fuenmayor. The LR-445 communicates Entrena with the neighbouring town of Sojuela and the LR-444 part of the LR-137 from the Hermitage of Santa Ana to Medrano.", "The main part of the municipality is used for crops and as soon as remain terrains with autochthonous vegetation. In the no ploughed zones grow oaks and holm oaks. Besides in the last years are recovering elms that in the old days were abundant in the town. In 1995 the city council transferred terrains in the hills \"San Lázaro\", \"Tone\" and \"Cuatro Cantos\" to ICONA, for repopulate them with pines. Regarding bushes highlights the thyme, rosemary, mormaga and the blackthorns of which elaborates the pacharán. The wild fauna that appears in this town are the rabbits and hares and in minor measured badgers and weasels. In occasions can us find with foxes or some wild boars, which is very abundant in the near Sierra de Moncalvillo.", "Due to its being situated near of the capital, Entrena has gone increasing its population slowly, in comparison with other next towns, but getting further away of most of the villages of the community, further, that have lost population. From the beginnings of 21st century Entrena has received the arrival of numerous immigrant, the majority Maghribians, that have speeded his demographic growth, as from other communities, because of the high prices of the housing in Logroño.", "Demographic evolution of Entrena, between 1900 and 2010.", "In the census of population of Crown of Castile of 16th century, Entrena appears in the additions of Nájera empadronated by 232 neighbors (1,160 souls). In already mentioned Geographic Dictionary of Barcelona (1830) Entrena is mentioned with 255 neighbors (1,285 souls). In the census of the Province of Logroño of 1840 it registers 191 neighbors (803 souls).", "The economy of Entrena is based on the farming of fruit trees (mainly pear trees) and grapevine and of the industry that derives from them. In addition olive trees, cereals, apple trees and other operations of smaller interest are cultivated. The irrigated cultivations are possible thanks to the \"Rio Antiguo\" channel that catches waters from the Iregua river in Islallana. Altogether there are 1,539 has of exploitations of which 703 ha are of irrigated land and 836 ha of dry land. In addition it has 222 ha dedicated to pastures. Since 1888 Entrena is the seat of the \"Community of Irrigators of Río Antiguo\", whereas the \"Union of Irrigations of Entrena\" was created on 28 June 1973. Entrena is one of the municipalities that is part of the \"Denominación de Origen Calificada\" Rioja. With five wineries registered in the denomination, it has a total surface planted of 716.11 ha, of which 623.97 are dedicated to the growing of the red grape and 92.14 of white grape. In addition, since 2008 it is in construction a Winery-Hotel, taking the advantage of the increasing wine tourism that practices in La Rioja. Also several fruit vegetable and canning companies are installed.", "Entrena has a sports centre adapted to sports like futsal or Basque pelota. In 2005 was created the futsal team \"Villa de Entrena\", being champions of the La Rioja Federation Cup in season 2005-2006. In addition there are municipal swimming pools, located in the road to Nalda.", "In the local elections of 2007, the People's Party obtained 5 of the 9 seats that correspond to the city council of Entrena. The Spanish Socialist Workers' Party obtained the rest 4 seats whereas the Riojan Party remained without representation. List of mayors of Entrena since 1979:", "The most important festivals are:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name.", "History.", "Historical sites.", "Geography and geology.", "Geology.", "Climate.", "Nature.", "Birds.", "Marine life.", "Land mammals.", "Reptiles and amphibians.", "Insects.", "Plant life.", "Politics and government.", "Demographics.", "Parishes and districts of Lewis.", "Settlements.", "Economy.", "Industry.", "Commerce.", "Transport.", "Peats.", "Religion.", "Education.", "Culture and sport.", "Language.", "Media and the arts.", "Sport.", "Myths and legends." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The Scottish Gaelic name \"Leòdhas\" may be derived from Norse \"Ljoðahús\" (\"song house\"), although other origins have been suggested – most notably the Scottish Gaelic \"leogach\" (\"marshy\"). It is probably the place referred to as \"Limnu\" by Ptolemy, which also means \"marshy\". It is also known as the \"Isle of Lewis\" (Gaelic: \"Eilean Leòdhais\"). Another name usually used in a cultural or poetic context is \"Eilean an Fhraoich\", (\"Heather Isle\"). although this refers to the whole of the island of Lewis and Harris.", "The earliest evidence of human habitation on Lewis is found in peat samples which indicate that about 8,000 years ago much of the native woodland was torched to make way for grassland to allow deer to graze. The earliest archaeological remains date from about 5,000 years ago. At that time, people began to settle in permanent farms rather than following their herds. The small houses of these people have been found throughout the Western Isles; in particular, at Dail Mhor, Carloway. The more striking great monuments of this period are the temples and communal burial cairns at places like Calanais. About 500 BC, island society moved into the Iron Age. The buildings became larger and more prominent, culminating in the brochs – circular, dry-stone towers belonging to the local chieftains – testifying to the uncertain nature of life then. The best remaining example of a broch in Lewis is at Dùn Chàrlabhaigh. The Scots arrived during the first centuries AD, bringing the Scottish Gaelic language with them. As Christianity began to spread through the islands in the 6th and later centuries, following Columban missionaries, Lewis was inhabited by the Picts. In the 9th century AD, the Vikings began to settle on Lewis, after years of raiding from the sea. The Norse invaders intermarried with local people and abandoned their pagan beliefs. At that time, rectangular buildings began to supersede round ones, following the Scandinavian style. Lewis became part of the Kingdom of Mann and the Isles, an offshoot of Norway. The Lewis chessmen, found on the island in 1831, date from the time of Viking rule. The people were called the Norse Gaels or Gall-Ghàidheil (lit. \"Foreigner Gaels\"), reflecting their mixed Scandinavian/Gaelic background, and probably their bilingual speech. The Norse language persists in many island placenames and some personal names to this day, although the latter are fairly evenly spread across the Gàidhealtachd. Lewis (and the rest of the Western Isles) became part of Scotland once more in 1266: under the Treaty of Perth it was ceded by the Kingdom of Norway. Under Scottish rule, the Lordship of the Isles emerged as the most important power in north-western Scotland by the 14th century. The Lords of the Isles were based on Islay, but controlled all of the Hebrides. They were descended from Somerled (Somhairle) Mac Gillibride, a Gall-Ghàidheil lord who had held the Hebrides and West Coast two hundred years earlier. Control of Lewis itself was initially exercised by the Macleod clan, but after years of feuding and open warfare between and even within local clans, the lands of Clan MacLeod were forfeited to the Scottish Crown in 1597 and were awarded by King James VI to a group of Lowland colonists known as the Fife adventurers in an attempt to anglicise the islands. However the adventurers were unsuccessful, and possession eventually passed to the Mackenzies of Kintail in 1609, when Coinneach, Lord MacKenzie, bought out the lowlanders. Following the 1745 rebellion, and Prince Charles Edward Stewart's flight to France, the use of Scottish Gaelic was discouraged, rents were demanded in cash rather than kind, and the wearing of folk dress was made illegal. Emigration to the New World increasingly became an escape for those who could afford it during the latter half of the century. In 1844 Lewis was bought by Sir James Matheson, co-founder of Jardine Matheson, but subsequent famine and changing land use forced vast numbers off their lands, and increased again the flood of emigrants. Paradoxically, those who remained became ever more congested and impoverished, as large tracts of arable land were set aside for sheep, deer-stalking or grouse shooting. Agitation for land resettlement became acute on Lewis during the economic slump of the 1880s, with several land raids (in common with Skye, Uist and Tiree); this quietened down as the island economy recovered. During the First World War, thousands of islanders served in the forces, many losing their lives, including 208 naval reservists from the island who were returning home after the war when the Admiralty yacht HMY \"Iolaire\" sank within sight of Stornoway harbour. Many servicemen from Lewis served in the Royal Navy and the Merchant Navy during the Second World War, and again many lives were lost. Afterwards, many more inhabitants emigrated to the Americas and mainland Scotland. In May 1918 the Isle of Lewis was bought by the soap magnate Lord Leverhulme, who intended to make Stornoway an industrial town and build a fish cannery. His plans were initially popular, but his opposition to land resettlement led to further land raids, especially around the farms of Coll, Gress and Tong. These raids, commemorated in monuments in several villages, were ultimately successful, as the government was prepared to take legal action in support of land resettlement. Faced with this, Leverhulme gave up on his plans for Lewis and concentrated his efforts on Harris, where the town of Leverburgh takes his name.", "The Isle of Lewis has a variety of locations of historical and archaeological interest, including: There are also numerous lesser stone circles and the remains of five further brochs.", "A cross-section of Lewis would see mostly sandy beaches backed by dunes and machair on the Atlantic west coast, giving way to an expansive peat covered plateau in the centre of the island. The eastern coastline is markedly more rugged and is mostly rocky cliffs broken by small coves and beaches. The more fertile nature of the eastern side led to the majority of the population settling there, including the largest (and only) town, Stornoway. Aside from the village of Achmore in the centre of the island, all settlements are on the coast. Compared with Harris, Lewis is relatively flat, except in the south-west, where Mealaisbhal,, is the highest point, and in the south-east, where Beinn Mhor reaches ; but there are 16 high points exceeding in height. Southern Lewis also has a large number of freshwater lochs compared to the north of the island. South Lewis, Harris and North Uist together comprise a National Scenic Area. There are four geographical Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) on Lewis – Glen Valtos, Cnoc a' Chapuill, Port of Ness and Tolsta Head. The coastline is severely indented, creating a number of large sea lochs, such as Lochs Resort and Seaforth, which form part of the border with Harris, Loch Roag, which surrounds the island of Great Bernera, and Loch Erisort. The principal capes are the Butt of Lewis, in the extreme north, with hundred foot (30 m) cliffs (the high point is high) and crowned with a lighthouse, the light of which is visible for ; Tolsta Head, Tiumpan Head and Cabag Head, on the east; Renish Point, in the extreme south; and, on the west, Toe Head and Gallon Head. The largest island associated with Lewis is Bernera or Great Bernera in the district of Uig and is linked to the mainland of Lewis by a bridge opened in 1953.", "The geology of Lewis is dominated by the metamorphic gneisses of the eponymous Lewisian complex. Exceptions are a patch of granite near Carloway, small bands of intrusive basalt at Gress and in Eye Peninsula and some sandstone at Stornoway, Tong, Vatisker and Carloway, which was originally thought to be Torridonian, but is now considered more likely to be Permo-Triassic in age.", "Exposure to the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf Stream lead to a cool, moist climate on Lewis. There is little temperature difference between summer and winter, both of which are moderately cloudy (although cloud and wet weather often blows over quickly in summer). Both seasons also have significant rainfall and frequent high winds, particularly during the autumn equinox. These winds have led to Lewis being designated a potential site for a significant wind-farm which has caused much controversy amongst the population.", "There are 15 Sites of Special Scientific Interest on Lewis in the biology category, spread across the island. Additionally, the Lewis Peatlands are recognised by Scottish Natural Heritage as a Special Protection Area, Special Area of Conservation and a Ramsar site, showing their importance as a wetland habitat for migratory and resident bird life.", "Many species of seabirds inhabit the coastal areas of Lewis, including shag, gannets, fulmars, kittiwakes, guillemots, and the ubiquitous gulls. Red grouse and woodcock are found in the interior. In the Uig hills, it is possible to spot golden eagles; it has also been claimed that white-tailed eagles have been seen in the area.<ref name = \"http://www.isle-of-lewis.com/\">Isle-of-Lewis.com</ref> In the Pairc area, one can see feeding oyster catchers and curlews. A few pairs of peregrine falcons inhabit the coastal cliffs and merlin and buzzard are common everywhere on hill and moor. An important feature of the winter bird life is the great diversity of wildfowl. Several varieties of duck, including eider and long-tailed, are found in the shallow water around Lewis.<ref name=\"cne-siar.gov.uk/factfile/environment/wildlife\">Local Authority Web Site</ref>", "Salmon frequent several Lewis rivers after crossing the Atlantic. Many of the fresh-water lochs are home to fish such as trout. Other freshwater fish present include Arctic char, European eel, 3 and 9 spined sticklebacks, thick-lipped mullet and flounder. Offshore, it is common to see seals, particularly in Stornoway harbour, and with luck, dolphins, porpoises, sharks and even the occasional whale can be encountered.", "There are only two native land mammals in the Western Isles: red deer and otter. The rabbit, blue hare, hedgehog, brown and black rat, feral cat, mink and polecat were introduced. The origin of mice and voles is uncertain. American mink, another introduced species (escapees from fur farms), cause problems for native ground-nesting birds, the local fishing industry and poultry farmers.<ref name=\"http://www.snh.org.uk/scottish/wisles/species.asp\"></ref> Mink have been successfully eradicated<ref name=\"http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/highlands_and_islands/5306182.stm\">BBC News</ref> from the Uists and Barra. The second and ongoing phase of the Hebridean Mink Project aims to rid Lewis and Harris of mink in similar fashion. There are claims that the Stornoway castle grounds are home to bats.<ref name=\"http://www.echoesecology.co.uk/documents/AnIntroductionToTheBatsofScotlandEdition1Dec2006_002.pdf\"></ref> In addition, some residents keep farm animals such as Hebridean sheep, Highland cattle or kyloe and a few pigs.", "In common with Ireland, no snakes inhabit Lewis, only the slowworm which is merely mistaken for a snake. Actually a legless lizard, it is the sole member of its order present. The common frog may be found in the centre of the island though it, along with any newts or toads present are introduced species.", "The island's most famous insect resident is the Scottish midge which is ever-present near water at certain times of the year. During the summer months, several species of butterflies and dragonflies can be found, especially around Stornoway. The richness of insect life in Lewis is evident from the abundance of carnivorous plants that thrive in parts of the island.", "The machair is noted for different species of orchid and associated vegetation such as various grasses. Three heathers; ling, bell heather and cross-leaved heather are predominant in the large areas of moorland vegetation which also holds large numbers of insectivorous plants such as sundews. The expanse of heather-covered moorland explains the name \"Eilean an Fhraoich\", Scottish Gaelic for \"The Heather Isle\".<ref name = \"http://news.scotsman.com/gaelic.cfm?id=140952005\">Scotsman piece with 'Eilean an Fhraoich' translation</ref> Lewis was once covered by woodland, but the only natural woods remaining are in small pockets on inland cliffs and on islands within lochs, away from fire and sheep. In recent years, Forestry Commission plantations of spruce and pine were planted, although most of the pines were destroyed by moth infestation. The most important mixed woods are those planted around Lews Castle in Stornoway, dating from the mid-19th century.<ref name=\"cne-siar.gov.uk/factfile/environment/flora\">Local Authority Web Site</ref>", "Historically, while Harris was part of Inverness-shire, Lewis was part of Ross-shire or Ross and Cromarty. The Western Isles Islands Council was established in 1975. Now called Comhairle nan Eilean Siar, its remit covers the whole of the Outer Hebrides and its headquarters are in Stornoway. Lewis is home to the majority of the Western Isles' electorate and six of the nine multi-member council wards are within Lewis and one is shared with Harris. 22 councillors are effectively elected by Lewis residents using the Single Transferable Vote system, and following the 2007 elections 19 are independents, one has Labour and two SNP party affiliation. The Isle of Lewis is in the Highlands electoral region and is part of the identical Na h-Eileanan an Iar Scottish Parliamentiary and Na h-Eileanan an Iar Westminster constituencies, both currently represented by members of the Scottish National Party (SNP) and previously held by members of the Labour Party before the respective elections.", "Lewis' main settlement, the only burgh on the Outer Hebrides, is Stornoway (\"Steòrnabhagh\"), from which ferries sail to Ullapool on the Scottish mainland. In the 2001 census Lewis had a usually resident population of 18,489. The island's settlements are on or near the coasts or sea lochs, being particularly concentrated on the north east coast. The interior of the island is a large area of moorland from which peat was traditionally cut as fuel, although this practice has become less common. The southern part of the island, adjoining Harris, is more mountainous with inland lochs.", "It is claimed that the site of the Stornoway War Memorial was chosen as it would be visible from at least one location in each of the four parishes; therefore, it may be possible to see all four parishes of Lewis from the top of the monument.", "While Lewis has only one town, Stornoway, with a population of approx 8,000, there are also several large villages and groupings of villages on Lewis, such as North Tolsta, Carloway and Leurbost with significant populations. Near Stornoway, Laxdale, Sandwick and Holm, although still de facto villages, have now become quasi-suburbs of Stornoway. The population of the greater-Stornoway area including these (and other) villages would be nearer 12,000. The island of Great Bernera contains the first planned crofting township created in the Outer Hebrides, Kirkibost created in 1805. This village was subsequently 'cleared' in 1823 and re-settled in 1878 using the exact land lotting divisions from 1805. The following is a non-exhaustive list of villages in Lewis according to their location:", "", "Traditional industries on Lewis are crofting, fishing and weaving. Though historically important, they are currently in decline and crofting in particular is little more than a subsistence venture today. Over 40% of the working population is employed by the public sector (chiefly Comhairle nan Eilean Siar, the local authority; or NHS Western Isles). Tourism is the only growing commercial industry, bringing in over £45 million a year in revenue to the islands. Despite the name the Harris tweed industry is today focused in Lewis with the major finishing mills in Shawbost and Stornoway. Every length of cloth produced is stamped with the official Orb symbol, trademarked by the Harris Tweed Association in 1909, when Harris Tweed was defined as \"hand-spun, hand-woven and dyed by the crofters and cottars in the Outer Hebrides\"; Machine-spinning and vat dyeing have since replaced hand methods, and only weaving is now conducted in the home, under the governance of the Harris Tweed Authority, established by an Act of Parliament in 1993. Harris Tweed is now defined as \"hand woven by the islanders at their homes in the Outer Hebrides, finished in the islands of Harris, Lewis, North Uist, Benbecula, South Uist and Barra and their several purtenances (The Outer Hebrides) and made from pure virgin wool dyed and spun in the Outer Hebrides.\" Aside from the concentration of industry and services in the Stornoway area many of the historical sites have associated visitor centres, shops or cafes. There is a pharmaceutical plant near Breasclete which specialises in fatty acid research. The main fishing fleet (and associated shoreside services) in Stornoway is somewhat reduced from its heyday, but many smaller boats perform inshore creel fishing and operate from smaller, local harbours right around Lewis. Fish farms are present in many of the sea lochs and along with the onshore processing and transportation required the industry as a whole is a major employer.", "Stornoway is the commercial centre of Lewis, there are several national chains with shops in the town, two national supermarket chains as well as numerous local businesses. Outwith Stornoway, many villages have an all-purpose shop (often combined with a post-office). Some villages have more than one, with these usually being specialist stores such as pharmacies or petrol stations. There are almost no rural public houses (for the sale of alcohol); instead, local hotels or inns function as meeting, eating and drinking places, often with accommodation provided. Recently, Abhainn Dearg distillery at Carnish, UIg, on the Isle of Lewis is producing Scotch Whisky, the first legal whisky in over 200 years. Itinerant, travelling shops also tour the island visiting some of the more remote locations. The ease of transport to Stornoway and the advent of the internet have led to many of the village shops closing in recent times. Mobile banking services are provided to remote villages by the Royal Bank of Scotland's travelling bank.", "A daily Caledonian MacBrayne ferry (MV \"Loch Seaforth\") sails from Stornoway to Ullapool on the Scottish mainland, taking 2 hours 30 minutes connecting Lewis with the mainland. There are two return crossings a day, with one on a Sunday in the winter. Other ferries sailing from Harris are easily accessible by road enabling transport to Skye and Uist. Suggestions for the possibility of an undersea tunnel linking Lewis to the Scottish mainland were raised in early 2007. One of the possible routes, between Stornoway and Ullapool, would be over long and hence become the longest road tunnel in the world;<ref name=\"http://news.independent.co.uk/uk/transport/article2245144.ece\">\"The Independent\" </ref> however, shorter routes would be possible. Stornoway is the public transport hub of Lewis with bus service links to Point, Ness, Back and Tolsta, Uig, the West Side, Lochs and Tarbert, Harris. These services are provided by the local authority and several private operators as well as some community-run organisations. Stornoway Airport is away from the town itself, and is located next to the village of Melbost. Loganair operate services to Benbecula, Edinburgh, Inverness and Glasgow. Eastern Airways flights to Aberdeen ended in November 2018. The airport is the base of a HM Coastguard Search & Rescue Sikorsky S-92 helicopter, and was previously home to RAF Stornoway.", "Peat is still cut as a fuel in many areas of Lewis. Peat is usually cut in late spring with a tool called a \"tairsgeir\" (that is, a peat iron, peat spade, peat knife or tosg; sometimes \"toirsgian\") which has a long wooden handle with an angled blade on one end. The peat bank is first cleared of heather turfs. The peat, now exposed, is cut using the \"tairsgeir\" and the peats thrown out on the bank to dry. A good peat cutter can cut 1000 peats in a day.<ref name = \"http://www.ambaile.org.uk/en/education/crofting/src8.jsp\">Am Baile Education – Crofting</ref> Once dried, the peats are carted to the croft and built into a large stack. These often resembled the shape of the croft house – broad, curved at each end and tapered to a point about 2 metres high. They varied in length from about 4 to 14 metres. Peat stacking also follows local customs and a well built peat stack can be a work of art. Peat stacks provide additional shelter to houses. A croft can burn as many as 15,000–18,000 peats in a year. The odour of the peat-smoke, especially in winter time, can add to the general atmosphere of the island. While peat burning still goes on, there has been a significant decline in recent years as people move to other, less labour-intensive forms of heating; however, it remains an important symbol of island life. In 2008, with the large increase in the price (and theft) of LPG and heating oil, there are signs that there may be a return to peat cutting.", "Religion is important in Lewis, with much of the population belonging to the Free Church and Church of Scotland (both Presbyterian in tradition). The Sabbath is generally observed with most shops and licensed premises closed on that day, although there is a scheduled air service to mainland Scotland as well as a scheduled ferry service since 19 July 2009. While Presbyterianism dominates Lewis, other denominations and other religions have a presence with a Catholic church, a Scottish Episcopal Church (part of the Anglican Communion), there is also a Catholic priest of the Anglican Ordinariate in Stornoway, a Salvation Army corps, a Pentecostal church (New Wine Church), a Plymouth Brethren church, a Baptist church, a meetinghouse of the LDS Church and a Jehovah's Witness Kingdom Hall all present in Stornoway. The island's first mosque opened in Stornoway in May 2018. Some churches in Lewis practice precenting the line, a distinctive, heterophonic style of congregational psalm singing in Scottish Gaelic.", "School education in Lewis is under the remit of Comhairle nan Eilean Siar, there are a total of 15 schools covering the 5–18 age range. Unusual features are the prevalence of Scottish Gaelic medium education (offered in 12 of 14 primary schools) and the Nicolson Institute, the only secondary school on the island. The large number of village schools lead to necessarily small rolls, and falls in pupil numbers led to the closures of all of the rural secondary departments and some of the primary schools. Stornoway is home to a small campus of the University of Stirling, teaching nursing, which is based in \"Ospadal nan Eilean\" (Western Isles Hospital). There is also a further education college, Lews Castle College, which is part of the UHI Millennium Institute. The college is the umbrella organisation for other vocational and community education, offered in several rural learning centres as well as on the main campus and covering subjects such as basic computer skills, Scottish Gaelic language classes and maritime qualifications.", "", "Lewis has a linguistic heritage rooted in Scottish Gaelic and Old Norse, which both continue to influence life in Lewis. Today, both Scottish Gaelic and English are spoken in Lewis, but in day-to-day life, a hybrid of English and Scottish Gaelic is very common.<ref name = \"http://www.linguae-celticae.org/dateien/Gaidhlig_Local_Studies_Vol_15_Steornabhagh_Ed_II.pdf\">Linguae-Celticae.Org</ref> As a result of the Scottish Gaelic influence, the Lewis accent of Highland English is frequently considered to sound more Irish or Welsh than stereotypically Scottish in some quarters. The Scottish Gaelic culture in the Western Isles is more prominent than in any other part of Scotland. Scottish Gaelic is the language of choice amongst many islanders and around 60% of islanders speak Scottish Gaelic as a daily language, whilst 70% of the resident population have some knowledge of Scottish Gaelic (including reading, writing, speaking or a combination of the three). Most signposts on the islands are written in both English and Scottish Gaelic and much day-to-day business is carried out in the Scottish Gaelic language. Almost all of the Gaelic speakers are bilingual. Most of the place names in Lewis and Harris come from Old Norse. The name \"Lewis\" is the English spelling of the Scottish Gaelic \"Leòdhas\" which comes from the Old Norse \"Ljóðhús\", as Lewis is named in medieval Norwegian maps of the island. Various suggestions have been made as to a Norse meaning such as \"song house\". The name is not of Gaelic origin, the Norse credentials are questionable and it may have a pre-Celtic root.", "As well as regularly playing host to the Royal National Mòd, there are annual local mods. Stornoway Castle Green hosts the annual 3 day Hebridean Celtic Festival in July, attracting over 10,000 visitors. The festival includes events such as ceilidhs, dances and special concerts featuring storytelling, song and music with performers from all round the Isles and beyond. The radio station Isles FM is based in Stornoway and broadcasts on 103FM, featuring a mixture of Scottish Gaelic and English programming. The town is also home to a studio operated by BBC Radio nan Gàidheal, and Studio Alba, an independent television studio from where the Scottish Gaelic TV channel TeleG was broadcast. The \"Stornoway Gazette\" is the main local paper, covering Lewis and beyond and is published weekly. \"The Hebridean\" is a sister paper of the Gazette and also provides local coverage. Some community organisations in the rural districts have their own publications with news and features for these particular areas, such as the \"Rudhach\" for the Point district. Lewis has been home to, or inspired, many writers, including bestselling contemporary author Kevin MacNeil, whose cult novel \"The Stornoway Way\" was set in the island's capital.", "There is a good provision of sporting grounds and sports centres in Lewis. Sports such as football, rugby union and golf are popular.", "The Isle of Lewis has a rich folklore, including \"Seonaidh\" – a water-spirit who had to be offered ale in the area of Teampull Mholuaidh in Ness – and \"The Blue Men\" who inhabited the Minch, between Lewis and the Shiants." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "Štreit began taking photographs in 1964, during his studies at the Pedagogical Faculty of Palacký University in Olomouc. Following his graduation he worked as a teacher in Rýmařov; later he became director of the school in Sovinec and Jiříkov. In addition to his profession, Štreit actively participated in public life. As a local chronicler he documented the everyday events and life of Czech villages under the communist regime. The photography theorist Antonín Dufek identified him as \"a continuer of the tradition of old village teachers, propagators of culture and progress\". In the late 1970s, Štreit's approach to photography began to change. He studied at the \"Institut výtvarné fotografie\" (Institute of Art Photography) in Brno, led by K. O. Hrubý and Antonín Hinšt. He graduated from the Institute with a cycle of theatrical photography. At the same time he continued expanding his cycle of everyday life of the villages in the foothills of the Jeseníky Mountains. Additionally, he helped organize cultural life in the region; he participated in organizing exhibitions and concerts. In 1981, during the general elections in the former Czechoslovakia, Štreit documented the official course of the elections. In some of his photographs made during the meetings of the local authorities, the portrait of the President of Czechoslovakia appeared on photographs in very \"unlikely and absurd places\". A year later, in June 1982, Štreit agreed to display his works at the exhibition \"Setkání\" (The Meeting) organized in Prague by the graphic artist Alena Kučerová. After several hours, the exhibition was banned by the state police and Štreit was arrested and accused of defamation of the President and the country. He was sentenced to ten months' imprisonment with a suspended sentence of two years. As a consequence, he lost his job and was forced to earn a living at a state farm in Rýžoviště. He was banned from taking photographs, but he never respected the ban and returned to photography immediately after his release from the prison. The photography theorist Anna Fárová managed to include his works in the exhibition \"9 + 9\", visited by Henri Cartier-Bresson, who documented Štreit's installation and published his photos in the French newspaper \"Le Monde.\" In 1989, after the Velvet Revolution and subsequent democratization of Czech society, Štreit was rehabilitated and allowed to take photographs without limitations. In 2009, he was named Professor of Applied Arts by the President of the Czech Republic Václav Klaus. As of 2010, Štreit works as a teacher at the \"Institut tvůrčí fotografie\" (Institute of Creative Photography of Silesian University in Opava)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Common uses.", "Safety.", "Training.", "Parachute deployment.", "Competitions.", "Artistic Events.", "Accuracy Landing.", "Canopy Formation.", "Formation skydiving.", "Style.", "Tunnel flying.", "Wingsuit flying.", "Other Skydiving disciplines.", "Angle Flying.", "Cross-country.", "Night jumps.", "Pond swooping.", "Space Ball.", "Stuff jumps.", "Swoop and chug.", "Tracking.", "Sit Flying.", "Head Down Flying.", "Organizations.", "Drop zones.", "Equipment.", "Record free fall parachute jumps.", "Popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The first parachute jump in history was made by André-Jacques Garnerin, the inventor of the parachute, on 22 October 1797. Garnerin tested his contraption by leaping from a hydrogen balloon above Paris. Garnerin's parachute bore little resemblance to today's parachutes, however, as it was not packed into any sort of container and did not feature a ripcord. The first intentional free-fall jump with a ripcord-operated deployment was not made until over a century later by Leslie Irvin in 1919. While Georgia Broadwick made an earlier free-fall in 1914 when her static line became entangled with her jump aircraft's tail assembly, her free-fall descent was not planned. Broadwick cut her static line and deployed her parachute manually, only as a means of", "Parachuting is performed as a recreational activity and a competitive sport. It's widely considered an extreme sport due to the risks involved. In 2018, there were 3.3 million jumps in the US. Modern militaries utilise parachuting for the deployment of airborne forces and supplies. Special operations forces commonly employ parachuting, especially free-fall parachuting, as a method of insertion. Occasionally, forest firefighters, known as \"smokejumpers\" in the United States, use parachuting as a means of rapidly inserting themselves near forest fires in especially remote or otherwise inaccessible areas. Manually exiting an aircraft and parachuting to safety has been widely used", "In the U.S. during the 1970s, the sport averaged 42.5 fatalities annually. In the 80s, the average dropped to 34.1, and in the 90s, the average decreased to 32.3 deaths per year. Between 2000 and 2009, the average dropped to 25.8 and over the eight years after 2009, the annual average declined to 22.4 fatalities (roughly 7.5 fatalities per one million jumps). In 2017, members of one organization, the United States Parachute Association (USPA) reported 2,585 skydiving injuries sufficiently severe to require resort to a medical care facility. In the US and in most of the western world, skydivers are required to wear two parachutes. The reserve parachute must be periodically inspected and re-packed (whether used or not) by a certified parachute rigger (in the US, an FAA certificated parachute rigger every 180 days). Many skydivers use an automatic activation device (AAD) that opens the reserve parachute at a pre-determined altitude if it detects that the skydiver is still in free fall. Depending on the country, AADs are often mandatory for new jumpers, and/or required for all jumpers regardless of their experience level. Some skydivers wear a visual altimeter, and some use audible altimeters fitted to their helmets. Injuries and fatalities occurring under a fully functional parachute usually happen because the skydiver performed unsafe maneuvres or made an error in judgement while flying their canopy, typically resulting in a high-speed impact with the ground or other hazards on the ground. One of the most common sources of injury is a low turn under a high-performance canopy and while swooping. Swooping is the advanced discipline of gliding at high-speed parallel to the ground during landing. Changing wind conditions are another risk factor. In conditions of strong winds and turbulence during hot days, the parachutist can be caught in downdrafts close to the ground. Shifting winds can cause a crosswind or downwind landing which have a higher potential for injury due to the wind speed adding to the landing speed. Another risk factor is that of \"canopy collisions\", or collisions between two or more skydivers under fully inflated parachutes. Canopy collisions can cause the jumpers' inflated parachutes to entangle with each other, often resulting in a sudden collapse (deflation) of one or more of the involved parachutes. When this occurs, the jumpers often must quickly perform emergency procedures (if there is sufficient altitude to do so) to \"cut-away\" (jettison) from their main canopies and deploy their reserve canopies. Canopy collisions are particularly dangerous when occurring at altitudes too low to allow the jumpers adequate time to safely jettison their main parachutes and fully deploy their reserve parachutes. Equipment failure causes fatalities and injuries. Approximately one in 750 deployments of a main parachute result in a malfunction. Ram-air parachutes typically spin uncontrollably when malfunctioning, and must be jettisoned before deploying the reserve parachute. Reserve parachutes are packed and deployed differently; they are also designed more conservatively and built and tested to more exacting standards so they are more reliable than main parachutes, but the real safety advantage comes from the probability of an unlikely main malfunction multiplied by the even less likely probability of a reserve malfunction. This yields an even smaller probability of a double malfunction although the possibility of a main malfunction that cannot be cutaway causing a reserve malfunction is a very real risk. Parachuting disciplines such as BASE jumping or those that involve equipment such as wingsuit flying and sky surfing have a higher risk factor due to the lower mobility of the jumper and the greater risk of entanglement. For this reason, these disciplines are generally practised by experienced jumpers. USPA member drop zones in the US and Canada are required to have an experienced jumper act as a \"safety officer\" (in Canada DSO – Drop Zone Safety Officer; in the U.S. S&TA – Safety and Training Advisor) who is responsible for dealing with jumpers who violate rules, regulations, or otherwise act in a fashion deemed unsafe by the appointed individual. In many countries, either the local regulations or the liability-conscious prudence of the drop zone owners require that parachutists must have attained the age of majority before engaging in the sport. The first skydive performed without a parachute was by stuntman Gary Connery on 23 May 2012 at 732 m.", "Skydiving can be practised without jumping. Vertical wind tunnels are used to practise for free fall", "At a sport skydiver's deployment altitude, the individual manually deploys a small pilot-chute which acts as a drogue, catching air and pulling out the main parachute or the main canopy. There are two principal systems in use: the \"throw-out\", where the skydiver pulls a toggle attached to the top of the pilot-chute stowed in a small pocket outside the main container: and the \"pull-out\", where the skydiver pulls a small pad attached to the pilot-chute which is stowed inside the container. Throw-out pilot-chute pouches are usually positioned at the bottom of the container – the B.O.C. deployment system – but older harnesses often have leg-mounted pouches. The latter are safe for flat-flying, but often unsuitable for freestyle or head-down flying. In a typical civilian sport parachute system, the pilot-chute is connected to a line known as the \"bridle\", which in turn is attached to a small deployment bag that contains the folded parachute and the canopy suspension lines, which are stowed with rubber bands. At the bottom of the container that holds the deployment bag is a closing loop which, during packing, is fed through the grommets of the four flaps that are used to close the container. At that point, a curved pin that is attached to the bridle is inserted", "World Championships are held every two years both Indoor and Outdoor in the competition disciplines Artistic Events (Freestyle and Freefly, indoor and outdoor), Canopy Formation (outdoor only), Canopy Piloting (outdoor only), Dynamic (indoor only), Formation Skydiving (indoor and outdoor), Paraski (outdoor only), Style & Accuracy Landing (outdoor only) and Wingsuit Flying (outdoor only). Continental Championships and World Cups can be held in alternate years.", "There are now two competitive Artistic Events, Freestyle and Freefly. Freestyle teams consist of a performer and a videographer, Freefly teams", "Often called \"Classic accuracy\", this is an individual or team contest performed under an open parachute. The aim is to touch down on a target whose center is 2 cm in diameter. The target can be a deep foam mattress or an air-filled landing pad. An electronic recording pad of 32 cm in diameter is set in the middle. It measures score in 1 cm increments up to 16 cm and displays result just after landing. The first part of any competition take place over 8 rounds. Then in the individual", "Previously called Canopy Relative Work, or CREW for short, is a skydive where the participants open their parachutes very quickly after leaving the aircraft with the intention of flying in close proximity to each other. The goal is to create various formations by \"docking\" with other parachutists on the jump.", "Formation Skydiving (FS) was born in California, USA during the 1960s. The first documented skydiving formation occurred over Arvin, California in March 1964 when Mitch", "Style can be considered as sprint of parachuting. This individual discipline is played in free fall. The idea is to take maximum speed and complete a pre-designated series of maneuvers as fast and cleanly as possible (speed can exceed 400 km/h / 250 mph). Jumps are filmed using a ground-based camera (with an exceptional lens to record the performance). Performance is timed (from the start of the manoeuvre until its completion) and then judged in public at the end of the", "Using a vertical wind tunnel to simulate free fall has become a", "'Wingsuit flying' or 'wingsuiting' is the sport of flying through the air using a wingsuit, which adds surface area to", "", "Angle Flying was presented for the first time in 2000 at the World Freestyle Competitions, the European Espace Boogie, and the Eloy Freefly Festival. The technique consists of flying diagonally with a determinate relation", "A cross-country jump is a skydive where the participants open their parachutes immediately after jumping, with the intention of covering as much ground under canopy as possible. Usual distance from jump run to the drop zone can be as much as several miles. There are two variations of a cross-country jump: The more popular one is to plan the exit point upwind of the drop zone. A map and information about the wind direction and velocity at", "Parachuting is not always restricted to daytime hours; experienced skydivers sometimes perform night jumps. For safety reasons, this requires more equipment than a usual daytime jump and in most jurisdictions, it requires both an advanced skydiving license (at least a B-License in the U.S.) and a meeting with the local safety official covering who will be doing what on the load. A lit altimeter (preferably accompanied with an audible altimeter) is a must. Skydivers performing night jumps often take flashlights up with them so that they can check their canopies have properly deployed. Visibility to other skydivers and other aircraft is also a consideration; FAA regulations require skydivers jumping at night to be wearing a light visible for three miles (5 km) in every direction, and to turn it on once they are under canopy. A chem-light(glowstick) is a good idea on a night jump.", "Pond swooping is a form of competitive parachuting wherein canopy pilots attempt to touch down and glide across a small body of water, and onto the shore. Events provide lighthearted competition, rating accuracy, speed, distance and style. Points and peer approval are reduced when a participant \"chows\", or fails to reach shore and sinks into the water. Swoop ponds are not deep enough to drown in under ordinary circumstances, their main danger being from", "This is when skydivers have a ball which weighs 455–590 grams and release it in free fall. The ball maintains the same fall rate as the skydivers. The skydivers can pass the ball around to each other whilst", "Thanks to large unpopulated areas to jump over,'stuff' jumps become possible. These jumps consist of skydivers leaving the aircraft with some object. Rubber raft jumps are popular; where the jumpers sit", "A tradition at many drop zones is the swoop and chug. As parachutists land from the last load of the day, other skydivers often hand the landing skydivers a beer that is customarily chugged in the landing area. This is sometimes timed as a friendly competition but is usually an informal, untimed, kick-off for the night's festivities. Another example", "Tracking is where skydivers take a body position to achieve a high forward speed, allowing them to cover a great distance over the ground. Tracking is also used at the end of group jumps to achieve separation from other", "This form of skydiving involves the skydivers flying in a feet to", "This form of skydiving involves the skydivers flying in a head to Earth position. Generally,", "The Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI), Parachuting Commission (IPC) conducts FAI's parachuting activities, in particular World Records and International Competitions. It sets globally recognised parachuting proficiency levels, international records requirements, international judging competencies and competition rules. National parachuting associations exist in many countries, many affiliated with the FAI, to promote their sport. In most cases, national representative bodies, as well as local drop zone operators, require that participants carry certification attesting to their training their level of experience in the sport, and their proven competence. Anyone who cannot produce such bona-fides is treated as a student, requiring close supervision. The sole organization in the United States is the United States Parachute Association (USPA), which issues licenses and ratings, governs skydiving, publishes Parachutist Magazine, and represents skydiving to government agencies. USPA publishes the Skydivers Information Manual (SIM) and many other resources.", "In parachuting, a drop zone or DZ is most technically the area above and around a location where a parachutist freefalls and expects to land. In common use it often refers to the totality of a skydiving operation", "A parachutist's equipment consists of at least three, usually four components, a container/harness system, a main canopy, a reserve canopy and increasingly frequently an automated activation device (AAD) as well. Other items may include a helmet, jumpsuit, altimeter, and gloves. Increasing number of skydivers wear cameras, like GoPros, to record their skydives. Costs in the sport are not trivial. The market is not large enough to permit the steady lowering of", "In 1914, while doing demonstrations for the U.S. Army, a parachute pioneer named Tiny Broadwick deployed her chute manually, thus becoming the first person to jump free-fall. According to the \"Guinness Book of Records\", Eugene Andreev (USSR) holds the official FAI record for the longest free-fall parachute jump after falling for from an altitude of near the city of Saratov, Russia, on 1 November 1962. Although later on jumpers would ascend higher altitudes, Andreev's record was set without the use of a drogue chute during the jump and therefore remains the longest genuine \"free fall\" record. During the late 1950s, Captain Joseph Kittinger of the United States was assigned to the Aerospace Medical Research Laboratories at Wright-Patterson AFB in Dayton, Ohio. For Project Excelsior (meaning \"ever upward\", a name given to the project by Colonel John Stapp), as part of research into high altitude bailout, he made a series of three parachute jumps wearing a pressurized suit, from a helium balloon with an open gondola. The first, from 76,400 feet (23,290 m) in November 1959 was a near tragedy when an equipment malfunction caused him to lose consciousness, but the automatic parachute saved him (he went into a flat spin at a rotational velocity of 120 rpm; the g-force at his extremities was", "A song with various versions of its lyrics, one of which uses as its first line \"\"He jumped without a parachute from twenty thousand feet\"\", and includes the line \"\"They scraped him off the tarmac like a lump of strawberry jam\"\", has been used as a campfire song by Scouts. It is sung to the tune Battle Hymn of the Republic, also known as John Brown's Body." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Example.", "History and applications." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "For example, consider a screen containing plain black text on a solid white background. There will be many long runs of white pixels in the blank space, and many short runs of black pixels within the text. A hypothetical scan line, with B representing a black pixel and W representing white, might read as follows: With a run-length encoding (RLE) data compression algorithm applied to the above hypothetical scan line, it can be rendered as follows: This can be interpreted as a sequence of twelve Ws, one B, twelve Ws, three Bs, etc., The run-length code represents the original 67 characters in only 18. While the actual format used for the storage of images is generally binary rather than ASCII characters like this, the principle remains the same. Even binary data files can be compressed with this method; file format specifications often dictate repeated bytes in files as padding space. However, newer compression methods such as DEFLATE often use LZ77-based algorithms, a generalization of run-length encoding that can take advantage of runs of strings of characters (such as codice_4). Run-length encoding can be expressed in multiple ways to accommodate data properties as well as additional compression algorithms. For instance, one popular method encodes run lengths for runs of two or more characters only, using an \"escape\" symbol to identify runs, or using the character itself as the escape, so that any time a character appears twice it denotes a run. On the previous example, this would give the following: This would be interpreted as a run of twelve Ws, a B, a run of twelve Ws, a run of three Bs, etc. In data where runs are less frequent, this can significantly improve the compression rate. One other matter is the application of additional compression algorithms. Even with the runs extracted, the frequencies of different characters may be large, allowing for further compression; however, if the run lengths are written in the file in the locations where the runs occurred, the presence of these numbers interrupts the normal flow and makes it harder to compress. To overcome this, some run-length encoders separate the data and escape symbols from the run lengths, so that the two can be handled independently. For the example data, this would result in two outputs, the string \"codice_6\" and the numbers (codice_7).", "Run-length encoding (RLE) schemes were employed in the transmission of analog television signals as far back as 1967. In 1983, run-length encoding was patented by Hitachi. RLE is particularly well suited to palette-based bitmap images such as computer icons, and was a popular image compression method on early online services such as CompuServe before the advent of more sophisticated formats such as GIF. It does not work well on continuous-tone images such as photographs, although JPEG uses it on the coefficients that remain after transforming and quantizing image blocks. Common formats for run-length encoded data include Truevision TGA, PackBits, PCX and ILBM. The International Telecommunication Union also describes a standard to encode run-length-colour for fax machines, known as T.45. The standard, which is combined with other techniques into Modified Huffman coding, is relatively efficient because most faxed documents are generally white space, with occasional interruptions of black." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Service career.", "Killed in action." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "A pre-war infantryman with the prussian 45th Infantry regiment, he saw action against the Russians at the Eastern Front and was decorated with the Iron Cross 2nd class. Subsequently in August 1915 he applied for aviation duty and completed an observer's course and served with \"Fliegerabteilung (Artillerie) 219\". Later he was accepted for pilot training and when he completed his training, he was sent to France in early 1917, serving for a brief period with \"Jasta Boelcke\", and then went to \"Jagdstaffel 5\" on 10 June 1917. He served as a \"Vizefeldwebel\", along with Josef Mai and Otto Könnecke, as one of the three NCO pilots who flew together and scored 40% of the squadron's successes, and were known as \"The Golden Triumvirate\". His personal marking on the aircraft he used was a demon's head. Rumey's first victim was a British observation balloon, flamed on July 6, 1917. His third was over British ace Captain Gerald Crole (5 victories) of 43 Squadron, who was taken prisoner. Rumey was wounded on 25 August 1917, and again on 24 September. By year's end he was credited with five victories. Rumey continued to accrue single victories throughout the first half of 1918. He killed ace Lt. James Dawe (8 victories) of No. 24 Squadron on 7 June 1918, for his 23rd claim. This same day he was commissioned as a leutnant. He brought down and killed Canadian ace Lt. Edward C. Eaton of No. 65 Squadron on 26 June 1918. About this time, he switched to a yellow Fokker D.VII. With 29 victories to his credit, Leutnant Rumey received the coveted \"Pour le Mérite\" in July 1918. This made him one of only five pilots to have received both this award and the Golden Military Merit Cross. He went scoreless in August but in September, shot down 16 aircraft, a figure only surpassed by Franz Büchner.", "There are conflicting accounts of Fritz Rumey's death. One theory was that he was killed after a mid-air collision with the SE5a of Captain G. E. B. Lawson (No. 32 Squadron, who survived). With the top wing of his Fokker D.VII smashed to pieces (his plane thus driven out of control), he bailed out. The spin that his aeroplane was in, however, caused his parachute to open incorrectly when he threw it from the cockpit. Another suggests Lieutenant Frank Hale (7 victories) of 32 Squadron actually shot Rumey down, while Rumey's squadron comrades believed that his full throttle diving pursuit of an RAF SE5a caused the fabric to peel off the upper wing of his aircraft. Whichever account is true, when he jumped from his damaged machine, his parachute failed entirely, sending the 27-year-old ace plummeting to the ground below (from 1,000 feet up according to Lawson's account). Rumey did not survive. Fritz Rumey's tally of 45 victories was almost entirely over enemy fighter planes. He shot down more enemy scouts (35) than Manfred von Richthofen, the Red Baron." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography.", "History.", "Infrastructures.", "Transport." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Slavutych is situated on the left bank of the Dnieper River, 40 kilometers from Chernihiv, 45 kilometers from the city of Pripyat, 50 kilometers from Chernobyl (both in Ivankiv Raion) and 200 kilometers from Kiev. While being geographically located in Ripky Raion (part of Chernihiv Oblast), administratively it belongs to Kiev Oblast. It is an administrative exclave, not belonging to any \"raion\".", "Slavutych was named after the Old Slavic name (Slavutych) of Dnieper River. The city was built in 1986 shortly after the Chernobyl nuclear disaster, to provide homes for those who had worked at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant and their families. They were evacuated from the abandoned city of Pripyat. The economic and social situation of the city is still heavily influenced by the power plant and other Chernobyl zone installations. Many of the residents still work in the energy industry in the region. In an interview with \"Pravda\" published on October 10, 1986, Erik Pozdyshev, the newly appointed Director of the Chernobyl nuclear power plant, officially announced that a new city was to be built. Construction of the town started shortly thereafter, and the first inhabitants settled in October 1988. The city was intended to replace Pripyat which became a ghost town after it was evacuated thirty-six hours after the nuclear disaster due to the nuclear fallout. There is a memorial in Slavutych to remember the victims of the disaster, especially to those who lost their lives immediately after the event from radiation-related diseases. The city is mostly home to survivors of the disaster who had to be relocated from the evacuation zone around the reactor, among them about 8,000 people who were children when the disaster occurred. As a result, the number of people who have a radiation-related illness is high. Many inhabitants still work at the site of the former plant for monitoring, maintenance or scientific purposes. They commute to the zone on a regular basis. A rail line (twice crossing the international border with Belarus) runs directly from the city to the site of the plant. Slavutych is located about 50 kilometers east of the former plant. The site had to be a reasonable distance away from the Chernobyl zone to ensure the risk of radiation-related illnesses was reduced. However, other factors that contributed to the choosing of the site were the availability of a nearby ready railroad infrastructure, and an accessible water supply from the nearby Dnieper River. In order to build the city, the ground was covered with a two-meter layer of uncontaminated soil.", "From the start, Slavutych was planned to become a \"21st-century city\". Compared to other cities in Ukraine, Slavutych has a modern architecture with pleasant surroundings, and the standard of living in the city is much higher than in most other Ukrainian cities. During the construction of the city, workers and architects from eight former Soviet republics became involved: Armenian SSR, Azerbaijan SSR, Estonian SSR, Georgian SSR, Latvian SSR, Lithuanian SSR, Russian SFSR and Ukrainian SSR. As a result, the city is divided into eight districts named after the capitals of the contributing republics, each with its own unique style and atmosphere. In addition, the city has a youth center, a modern community center, a town hall, an Internet cafe, numerous sports facilities, modern clinics, and a hotel. Around 80% of housing in the city is formed by apartments while the other 20% is formed by small, family houses. The city has a uniquely high birth rate as well as surprisingly low mortality. As a result, the average age in Slavutych is by far the lowest of any city in Ukraine. More than one third of its inhabitants are under 18. The infrastructure and public facilities of the city are mostly paid by the company which operated the Chernobyl nuclear plant. Because the remaining units of the nuclear power plant were shut down in 2001, the city would face significant social problems and an uncertain future. Until 2001, approximately 9,000 people worked at the plant. Since the shutdown, this number has dropped to 3,000, most of them working on monitoring and maintenance. 85% of the city budget was funded by the operator of the plant. In order to support the settlement and establishment of new companies, Slavutych was declared a Special Economic Zone. In addition, substantial vocational retraining programs are provided by the government to improve the occupational outlook of those who lost jobs. Despite these efforts, about 1,500 people have already left the city, a trend which is predicted to continue for the foreseeable future.", "Slavutych has a railway station, and a minor stop in the locality of Poselok Lesnoi, on the Chernihiv–Ovruch line. It is served by a branch (Semenyahivka-Slavutych) of the regional highway P56 Chernihiv-Chernobyl, and by the provincial road T2506." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Features." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Early presentation graphics software ran on computer workstations, such as those manufactured by Trollman, Genigraphics, Autographix, and Dicomed. It became quite easy to make last-minute changes compared to traditional typesetting and pasteup. It was also a lot easier to produce a large number of slides in a small amount of time. However, these workstations also required skilled operators, and a single workstation represented an investment of $50,000 to $200,000 (in 1979 dollars). In the mid-1980s developments in the world of computers changed the way presentations were created. Inexpensive, specialized applications now made it possible for anyone with a PC to create professional-looking presentation graphics. Originally these programs were used to generate 35 mm slides, to be presented using a slide projector. As these programs became more common in the late 1980s several companies set up services that would accept the shows on diskette and create slides using a film recorder or print transparencies. In the 1990s dedicated LCD-based screens that could be placed on the projectors started to replace the transparencies, and by the late 1990s they had almost all been replaced by video projectors. The first commercial computer software specifically intended for creating WYSIWYG presentations was developed at Hewlett Packard in 1979 and called BRUNO and later HP-Draw. The first microcomputer-based presentation software was Cromemco's Slidemaster, developed by John F. Dunn and released by Cromemco in 1981. The first software displaying a presentation on a personal computer screen was VCN ExecuVision, developed in 1982. This program allowed users to choose from a library of images to accompany the text of their presentation. PowerPoint was introduced for the Macintosh computer in 1987.", "A presentation program is supposed to help both the speaker with an easier access to his ideas and the participants with visual information which complements the talk. There are many different types of presentations including professional (work-related), education, entertainment, and for general communication. Presentation programs can either supplement or replace the use of older visual-aid technology, such as pamphlets, handouts, chalkboards, flip charts, posters, slides and overhead transparencies. Text, graphics, movies, and other objects are positioned on individual pages or \"slides\" or \"foils\". The \"slide\" analogy is a reference to the slide projector, a device that has become somewhat obsolete due to the use of presentation software. Slides can be printed, or (more usually) displayed on-screen and navigated through at the command of the presenter. An entire presentation can be saved in video format. The slides can also be saved as images of any image file formats for any future reference. Transitions between slides can be animated in a variety of ways, as can the emergence of elements on a slide itself. Typically a presentation has many constraints and the most important being the limited time to present consistent information. Many presentation programs come with pre-designed images (clip art) and/or have the ability to import graphic images, such as Visio and Edraw Max. Some tools also have the ability to search and import images from Flickr or Google directly from the tool. Custom graphics can also be created in other programs such as Adobe Photoshop or GIMP and then exported. The concept of clip art originated with the image library that came as a complement with VCN ExecuVision, beginning in 1983. With the growth of digital photography and video, many programs that handle these types of media also include presentation functions for displaying them in a similar \"slide show\" format, for example iPhoto. These programs allow groups of digital photos to be displayed in a slide show with options such as selecting transitions, choosing whether or not the show stops at the end or continues to loop, and including music to accompany the photos. Similar to programming extensions for an operating system or web browser, \"add ons\" or plugins for presentation programs can be used to enhance their capabilities. For example, it would be useful to export a PowerPoint presentation as a Flash animation or PDF document. This would make delivery through removable media or sharing over the Internet easier. Since PDF files are designed to be shared regardless of platform and most web browsers already have the plugin to view Flash files, these formats would allow presentations to be more widely accessible. Certain presentation programs also offer an interactive integrated hardware element designed to engage an audience (e.g. audience response systems, second screen applications) or facilitate presentations across different geographical locations through the internet (e.g. web conferencing). Other integrated hardware devices ease the job of a live presenter such as laser pointers and interactive whiteboards." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Image file sizes.", "Image file compression.", "Major graphic file formats.", "Raster formats.", "JPEG/JFIF.", "JPEG 2000.", "Exif.", "TIFF.", "GIF.", "BMP.", "PNG.", "PPM, PGM, PBM, and PNM.", "WebP.", "HDR raster formats.", "HEIF.", "BAT.", "Container formats of raster graphics editors.", "Vector formats.", "CGM.", "Gerber format (RS-274X).", "SVG.", "Compound formats." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2" ], "content": [ "The size of raster image files is positively correlated with the number of pixels in the image and the color depth (bits per pixel). Images can be compressed in various ways, however. A compression algorithm stores either an exact representation or an approximation of the original image in a smaller number of bytes that can be expanded back to its uncompressed form with a corresponding decompression algorithm. Images with the same number of pixels and color depth can have very different compressed file size. Considering exactly the same compression, number of pixels, and color depth for two images, different graphical complexity of the original images may also result in very different file sizes after compression due to the nature of compression algorithms. With some compression formats, images that are less complex may result in smaller compressed file sizes. This characteristic sometimes results in a smaller file size for some lossless formats than lossy formats. For example, graphically simple images (i.e. images with large continuous regions like line art or animation sequences) may be losslessly compressed into a GIF or PNG format and result in a smaller file size than a lossy JPEG format. For example, a 640 * 480 pixel image with 24-bit color would occupy almost a megabyte of space: 640 * 480 * 24 = 7,372,800 bits = 921,600 bytes = 900 KiB With vector images the file size increases only with the addition of more vectors.", "There are two types of image file compression algorithms: lossless and lossy. Lossless compression algorithms reduce file size while preserving a perfect copy of the original uncompressed image. Lossless compression generally, but not always, results in larger files than lossy compression. Lossless compression should be used to avoid accumulating stages of re-compression when editing images. Lossy compression algorithms preserve a representation of the original uncompressed image that may appear to be a perfect copy, but it is not a perfect copy. Often lossy compression is able to achieve smaller file sizes than lossless compression. Most lossy compression algorithms allow for variable compression that trades image quality for file size.", "Including proprietary types, there are hundreds of image file types. The PNG, JPEG, and GIF formats are most often used to display images on the Internet. Some of these graphic formats are listed and briefly described below, separated into the two main families of graphics: raster and vector. In addition to straight image formats, Metafile formats are portable formats which can include both raster and vector information. Examples are application-independent formats such as WMF and EMF. The metafile format is an intermediate format. Most applications open metafiles and then save them in their own native format. Page description language refers to formats used to describe the layout of a printed page containing text, objects and images. Examples are PostScript, PDF and PCL.", "", "JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group) is a lossy compression method; JPEG-compressed images are usually stored in the JFIF (JPEG File Interchange Format) file format. The JPEG/JFIF filename extension is JPG or JPEG. Nearly every digital camera can save images in the JPEG/JFIF format, which supports eight-bit grayscale images and 24-bit color images (eight bits each for red, green, and blue). JPEG applies lossy compression to images, which can result in a significant reduction of the file size. Applications can determine the degree of compression to apply, and the amount of compression affects the visual quality of the result. When not too great, the compression does not noticeably affect or detract from the image's quality, but JPEG files suffer generational degradation when repeatedly edited and saved. (JPEG also provides lossless image storage, but the lossless version is not widely supported.)", "JPEG 2000 is a compression standard enabling both lossless and lossy storage. The compression methods used are different from the ones in standard JFIF/JPEG; they improve quality and compression ratios, but also require more computational power to process. JPEG 2000 also adds features that are missing in JPEG. It is not nearly as common as JPEG, but it is used currently in professional movie editing and distribution (some digital cinemas, for example, use JPEG 2000 for individual movie frames).", "The Exif (Exchangeable image file format) format is a file standard similar to the JFIF format with TIFF extensions; it is incorporated in the JPEG-writing software used in most cameras. Its purpose is to record and to standardize the exchange of images with image metadata between digital cameras and editing and viewing software. The metadata are recorded for individual images and include such things as camera settings, time and date, shutter speed, exposure, image size, compression, name of camera, color information. When images are viewed or edited by image editing software, all of this image information can be displayed. The actual Exif metadata as such may be carried within different host formats, e.g. TIFF, JFIF (JPEG) or PNG. IFF-META is another example.", "The TIFF (Tagged Image File Format) format is a flexible format usually using either the TIFF or TIF filename extension. The tagged structure was designed to be easily extendible, and many vendors have introduced proprietary special-purpose tags – with the result that no one reader handles every flavor of TIFF file. TIFFs can be lossy or lossless, depending on the technique chosen for storing the pixel data. Some offer relatively good lossless compression for bi-level (black&white) images. Some digital cameras can save images in TIFF format, using the LZW compression algorithm for lossless storage. TIFF image format is not widely supported by web browsers. TIFF remains widely accepted as a photograph file standard in the printing business. TIFF can handle device-specific color spaces, such as the CMYK defined by a particular set of printing press inks. OCR (Optical Character Recognition) software packages commonly generate some form of TIFF image (often monochromatic) for scanned text pages.", "The GIF (Graphics Interchange Format) is in normal use limited to an 8-bit palette, or 256 colors (while 24-bit color depth is technically possible). GIF is most suitable for storing graphics with few colors, such as simple diagrams, shapes, logos, and cartoon style images, as it uses LZW lossless compression, which is more effective when large areas have a single color, and less effective for photographic or dithered images. Due to GIF's simplicity and age, it achieved almost universal software support. Due to its animation capabilities, it is still widely used to provide image animation effects, despite its low compression ratio compared to modern video formats.", "The BMP file format (Windows bitmap) handles graphic files within the Microsoft Windows OS. Typically, BMP files are uncompressed, and therefore large and lossless; their advantage is their simple structure and wide acceptance in Windows programs.", "The PNG (Portable Network Graphics) file format was created as a free, open-source alternative to GIF. The PNG file format supports eight-bit paletted images (with optional transparency for all palette colors) and 24-bit truecolor (16 million colors) or 48-bit truecolor with and without alpha channel – while GIF supports only 256 colors and a single transparent color. Compared to JPEG, PNG excels when the image has large, uniformly colored areas. Even for photographs – where JPEG is often the choice for final distribution since its compression technique typically yields smaller file sizes – PNG is still well-suited to storing images during the editing process because of its lossless compression. PNG provides a patent-free replacement for GIF (though GIF is itself now patent-free), and can also replace many common uses of TIFF. Indexed-color, grayscale, and truecolor images are supported, plus an optional alpha channel. The Adam7 interlacing allows an early preview, even when only a small percentage of the image data has been transmitted. PNG can store gamma and chromaticity data for improved color matching on heterogeneous platforms. PNG is designed to work well in online viewing applications like web browsers and can be fully streamed with a progressive display option. PNG is robust, providing both full file integrity checking and simple detection of common transmission errors. Animated formats derived from PNG are MNG and APNG, which is backwards compatible with PNG and supported by most browsers.", "Netpbm format is a family including the portable pixmap file format (PPM), the portable graymap file format (PGM) and the portable bitmap file format (PBM). These are either pure ASCII files or raw binary files with an ASCII header that provide very basic functionality and serve as a lowest common denominator for converting pixmap, graymap, or bitmap files between different platforms. Several applications refer to them collectively as PNM (\"Portable aNy Map\").", "WebP is an open image format released in 2010 that uses both lossless and lossy compression. It was designed by Google to reduce image file size to speed up web page loading: its principal purpose is to supersede JPEG as the primary format for photographs on the web. WebP is based on VP8's intra-frame coding and uses a container based on RIFF. In 2011, Google added an \"Extended File Format\" allowing WebP support for animation, ICC profile, XMP and Exif metadata, and tiling. The support for animation allowed for converting older animated GIF to animated WebP. The WebP container (i.e., RIFF container for WebP) allows feature support over and above the basic use case of WebP (i.e., a file containing a single image encoded as a VP8 key frame). The WebP container provides additional support for:", "Most typical raster formats cannot store HDR data (32 bit floating point values per pixel component), which is why some relatively old or complex formats are still predominant here, and worth mentioning separately. Newer alternatives are showing up, though. RGBE is the format for HDR images originating from Radiance and also supported by Adobe Photoshop. JPEG-HDR is a file format from Dolby Labs similar to RGBE encoding, standardized as JPEG XT Part 2. JPEG XT Part 7 includes support for encoding floating point HDR images in the base 8-bit JPEG file using enhancement layers encoded with four profiles (A-D); Profile A is based on the RGBE format and Profile B on the XDepth format from Trellis Management.", "The High Efficiency Image File Format (HEIF) is an image container format that was standardized by MPEG on the basis of the ISO base media file format. While HEIF can be used with any image compression format, the HEIF standard specifies the storage of HEVC intra-coded images and HEVC-coded image sequences taking advantage of inter-picture prediction.", "BAT was released into the public domain by C-Cube Microsystems. The \"official\" file format for JPEG files is SPIFF (Still Picture Interchange File Format), but by the time it was released, BAT had already achieved wide acceptance. SPIFF, which has the ISO designation 10918-3, offers more versatile compression, color management, and metadata capacity than JPEG/BAT, but it has little support. It may be superseded by JPEG 2000/DIG 2000: ISO SC29/WG1, JPEG – Information Links. Digital Imaging Group, \"JPEG 2000 and the DIG: The Picture of Compatibility.\"", "These image formats contain various images, layers and objects, out of which the final image is to be composed", "As opposed to the raster image formats above (where the data describes the characteristics of each individual pixel), vector image formats contain a geometric description which can be rendered smoothly at any desired display size. At some point, all vector graphics must be rasterized in order to be displayed on digital monitors. Vector images may also be displayed with analog CRT technology such as that used in some electronic test equipment, medical monitors, radar displays, laser shows and early video games. Plotters are printers that use vector data rather than pixel data to draw graphics.", "CGM (Computer Graphics Metafile) is a file format for 2D vector graphics, raster graphics, and text, and is defined by ISO/IEC 8632. All graphical elements can be specified in a textual source file that can be compiled into a binary file or one of two text representations. CGM provides a means of graphics data interchange for computer representation of 2D graphical information independent from any particular application, system, platform, or device. It has been adopted to some extent in the areas of technical illustration and professional design, but has largely been superseded by formats such as SVG and DXF.", "The Gerber format (aka Extended Gerber, RS-274X) was developed by Gerber Systems Corp., now Ucamco, and is a 2D bi-level image description format. It is the de facto standard format used by printed circuit board or PCB software. It is also widely used in other industries requiring high-precision 2D bi-level images.", "SVG (Scalable Vector Graphics) is an open standard created and developed by the World Wide Web Consortium to address the need (and attempts of several corporations) for a versatile, scriptable and all-purpose vector format for the web and otherwise. The SVG format does not have a compression scheme of its own, but due to the textual nature of XML, an SVG graphic can be compressed using a program such as gzip. Because of its scripting potential, SVG is a key component in web applications: interactive web pages that look and act like applications.", "These are formats containing both pixel and vector data, possible other data, e.g. the interactive features of PDF." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Beginning (1909–1959).", "Promotion to the Top Flight (1959–1971).", "Jim McLean era (1971–1993).", "Scottish Cup wins and relegation (1993–2016).", "Scottish Championship and promotion battles (Since 2016).", "Colours and badge.", "Historical home kits.", "Stadium.", "Achievements.", "League.", "Cups.", "Europe.", "Rivalries.", "Noted players.", "International players.", "Hall of Fame.", "Managers.", "Women's team." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The club was formed as Dundee Hibernian in 1909, playing from the outset at Tannadice Park. They were voted into the Scottish Football League in 1910. After being saved from going out of business in October 1923, the club changed their name to Dundee United in order to widen their appeal. Between 1925 and 1932 United were promoted and relegated between the first and second tier three times, winning the Second Division title in 1925 and 1929.", "The club took significant strides forward when Jerry Kerr became manager in 1959. Kerr's team won promotion in his first season in charge and became an established team in the top flight, where they remained until 1995. A key characteristic of Kerr's reign was the strengthening of the playing squad with Scandinavian imports, most notably with the signings of Lennart Wing, Finn Dossing, Mogens Berg, Finn Seemann and Orjan Persson. It was during this period that United qualified for European competition for the first time, eliminating Inter-Cities Fairs Cup holders Barcelona on their European debut in 1966.", "Jim McLean took over from Kerr in 1971 and under his management the club enjoyed the most successful era in its history. McLean's era became known for his youth policy and the offering of long term contracts that would see future Scotland international players such as Dave Narey, Paul Sturrock, Paul Hegarty, Davie Dodds, Eamonn Bannon and Maurice Malpas spend the majority of their careers at the club. United won its first major honour under McLean, capturing the Scottish League Cup in 1979 and again in 1980. They were crowned Premier Division champions in 1982–83. The club were also successful in Europe, reaching the European Cup semi-finals in 1984 and the UEFA Cup Final in 1987, the latter campaign involving another elimination of Barcelona during the earlier rounds (maintaining a 100% record over the Catalans in competitive European ties). Despite losing to IFK Gothenburg in the final, the club was awarded a FIFA Fair Play Award. McLean retired as manager in 1993, but remained as club chairman.", "United won the Scottish Cup for the first time in 1994 under McLean's successor Ivan Golac, but were relegated in 1995, before returning to the Premier Division a year later. Following a number of board changes, the club was purchased from McLean in 2002 by former Morning Noon and Night co-founder and chief executive Eddie Thompson. A lifelong United fan, Thompson invested heavily in the team in a bid to compete with significant spending which had developed following the formation of the Scottish Premier League, however little progress was made until Craig Levein became manager in 2006. Levein established United as a Top Six club, regularly achieving European qualification before he left the club to take the post as Scotland manager in 2009. With the foundations of the side in place, United won the Scottish Cup for a second time in 2010 under the management of Peter Houston. After several relatively successful seasons, a series of poor results in the Premiership led to United being relegated in 2016.", "Dundee United's first season in the Championship was under the management of Ray McKinnon. United won the Challenge Cup by beating St Mirren 2–1 in the final and they reached the play-off final for the Premiership. However they lost narrowly 1–0 to Hamilton. The second season in the second tier was less successful, as manager McKinnon was sacked and replaced with Csaba László; after a very disappointing season, United lost in the play-off semi-final to eventual promotion winners Livingston. After a poor start to the 2018–19 season the manager was once again sacked and replaced with Robbie Neilson. The team finished second in the Championship but lost in the play-offs to St Mirren, missing four penalty kicks in the process.", "United's playing kit consists of tangerine shirts and black shorts, first used when the team played under the Dallas Tornado moniker in the United Soccer Association competition of 1967, which they were invited to participate in after their first European excursion had created many headlines in the football world. After persuasion by the wife of manager Jerry Kerr, the colour would soon be adopted as the club's own in 1969 to give the club a brighter, more modern image. The new colour was paraded for the first time in a pre-season friendly against Everton in August. When founded as Dundee Hibernian, they had followed the example of other clubs of similar heritage by adopting the traditionally Irish colours of green shirts and white shorts. By the time the club became Dundee United in 1923, the colours had been changed to white shirts and black shorts as they sought to appeal to a wider cross-section of the community. These colours persisted in various forms up until 1969, sometimes using plain shirts, but also at various times including Celtic-style broad hoops, Queen's Park-style narrow hoops and an Airdrie-style \"V\" motif. The present club badge was introduced in 1993, and saw the previous lion rampant design rebranded in a new circular logo incorporating the club colours. To mark the club's centenary in 2009, a special version of the badge with an added \"\"1909 2009 Centenary\"\" logo was introduced for the duration of the 2009–10 season, along with additional green trim on the badge, representing Dundee Hibernian's colours. Previously, the lion had been represented on a simpler shield design. Although this \"classic\" version had been used as the club crest on the cover of the matchday programme as early as 1956, it had never appeared on the players' strip prior to 1983. Since 1959, various other designs had been worn on the shirts, incorporating either the lion rampant or the letters DUFC, often on a circular badge. The club first introduced shirt sponsorship in the 1985–86 season when future chairman Eddie Thompson's VG chain sponsored the club in the first of a two-year deal. A six-year association with Belhaven then ensued with a sponsorless 1993–94 season. Rover began a two-year deal early in time for the 1994 Scottish Cup final, sponsoring the club until the end of the 1995–96 season. Telewest took over sponsorship from 1996 for six years until Eddie Thompson's Morning, Noon and Night started sponsoring the club in 2002. This association continued until 2006 when Anglian Home Improvements began a two-year deal with an optional third year. At the same time, Ole International became the first shorts sponsors. JD Sports' Carbrini Sportswear brand sponsored the club in the 2008–09 and 2009–10 seasons. United's shirt sponsor from the 2016–17 season was McEwan Fraser Legal, with Utilita taking over in 2018. United have had a number of official kit suppliers, including Adidas, Hummel and, from June 2009, Nike.", "Alternative", "Dundee United's home ground throughout their history has been Tannadice Park, located on Tannadice Street in the Clepington area of the city. It is situated a mere away from Dens Park, home of rivals Dundee; The club has only ever played one home fixture at another venue. This was a League Cup tie against Rangers in March 1947, when despite snow rendering Tannadice Park unplayable, the match was able to go ahead across the road at Dens Park. Tannadice is currently an all-seater with a capacity of. The Main Stand, built in 1962, was the first cantilever to be constructed at a Scottish football ground. For long periods of its history, only a small proportion of the ground contained seated accommodation. In the late 1980s the ground had 2,252 seats out of a total capacity of 22,310. The comparative age and proximity of their stadiums has led to various discussions about the possibility of both Dundee clubs moving to a new, purpose-built shared stadium. The most recent proposal was put forward as part of Scotland's bid to jointly host the UEFA Euro 2008 championship, with several clubs seeking to benefit from a new stadium. With planning permission given to a proposed site at Caird Park, special dispensation was requested to proceed with the proposal, as rules at the time forbade SPL teams from groundsharing. Following Scotland's failed bid to host the tournament, the scheme was shelved, although it was resurrected in June 2008, following doubts about joint-host Ukraine's ability to stage Euro 2012, and the SFA's keenness to act as an alternative host.", "", "Dundee United's first trophy came in 1925, when they won the 1924–25 Division Two championship. After two seasons in the top tier, they were relegated, but they won the Division Two title for a second time in 1928–29. Immediate relegation followed and the club finished runners-up in 1931–32. Another runners-up spot was claimed in 1959–60, in manager Jerry Kerr's first season, and from then club remained in the top division for the next 35-years. Under Jim McLean's management, the club won the Premier Division title for the only time, in 1982–83, resulting in European Cup football the following season. The title win was United's last league success, although they finished runners-up in the First Division in 1995–96, after nearly avoiding relegation the previous season, and in third place in their first season back in the Premier Division.", "The club had to wait several decades before their first realistic chance at cup silverware, when they began the first of a six-game losing streak of Scottish Cup Final appearances in 1974, losing 3–0 to Celtic. Towards the end of the 1970s, things began to change, with three successive appearances in the League Cup Final. United won their first major trophy with a 3–0 replay victory over Aberdeen in the 1979–80 Scottish League Cup Final. The club reached both cup finals in the following season; while they retained the League Cup by winning 3–0 against rivals Dundee, United lost out again in the Scottish Cup with a replay defeat to Rangers. United reached a third consecutive League Cup Final in 1981–82, but failed to make it a hat-trick of wins as they lost 2–1 to Rangers. United suffered the agony of reaching three out of four Scottish Cup finals in the mid-1980s, only to lose them all by a single goal. First came a 2–1 defeat to Celtic in 1984–85, compounded by a 1–0 League Cup final loss to Rangers in the same season; then a 1–0 defeat in extra time to St Mirren in 1986–87; and finally, a last-minute 2–1 loss against Celtic the following year, despite being a goal ahead. A three-year gap ensued before the 1990–91 Scottish Cup final, which pitted Jim McLean against his brother Tommy, at Motherwell. The final was won 4–3 by 'Well, with United again losing in extra time. The sixth Cup Final loss was also the club's fifth final appearance in eleven years. These defeats in cup finals at Hampden Park led to the Scottish football media claiming that United suffered from a \"Hampden hoodoo\", as they had failed to win ten cup finals played at the ground between 1974 and 1991. When the club reached the 1994 Scottish Cup Final, manager Ivan Golac dismissed talk of the hoodoo, even though opponents Rangers were strong favourites to complete a domestic treble in the 1993–94 season. United broke the supposed hoodoo and won the Scottish Cup for the first time when Craig Brewster's goal gave them a 1–0 win. Eleven years passed until the next Scottish Cup final appearance, when United lost 1–0 to Celtic in 2005. Sandwiched in the middle of these appearances was a defeat on penalties to Stenhousemuir in the Scottish Challenge Cup (when United failed to concede a goal in the whole competition) and a 3–0 defeat to Celtic in the 1997 Scottish League Cup Final. United then lost the 2008 Scottish League Cup Final on penalties to Rangers after the match had finished 2–2 after extra time. Dundee United won their next major trophy in 2010, under the guidance of manager Peter Houston, when First Division side Ross County were defeated 3–0 in the 2010 Scottish Cup Final. David Goodwillie scored the first goal and Craig Conway scored the second and third goals. United's 10th appearance in the Scottish Cup final came in 2014, but the team lost 2–0 to St Johnstone at Celtic Park. The Tangerines reached the League Cup final the following year, but lost to Celtic in the final. Two years later, after the club's relegation from the Scottish Premiership, they faced St. Mirren in the 2017 Scottish Challenge Cup Final. United won the game 2–1, marking the club's first silverware since 2010.", "The club's first experience of Europe came in 1966–67 season when, helped by a clutch of Scandinavian players, United defeated Inter-Cities Fairs Cup holders FC Barcelona both home and away. Although Juventus proved too strong in the next round with a 3–1 aggregate victory, United made headlines and were asked to compete as Dallas Tornado in the United Soccer Association league in North America during the summer of 1967. In 1981–82 they began a period in which they were competitive in European competition. In a six-year spell they reached one UEFA final, another semi-final and two quarter finals. After their only Premier Division win in 1983, the team reached the resulting semi-final of the European Cup in 1984, losing 3–2 on aggregate to Roma. In 1987, the club went one better, reaching the final of the UEFA Cup. Despite the 2–1 aggregate loss to IFK Gothenburg, the club won the first-ever FIFA Fair Play Award for their supporters' sporting behavior after the final defeat.", "Dundee United's traditional rivals are Dundee, with whom they compete in the Dundee derby. The fixture was lacking a competitive element for a number of years until Dundee's return to the top flight of the Scottish game. A unique element of the rivalry lies in the fact that both clubs' stadiums are located within 100 yards of one another. In spite of their rivalry, the two sides previously contemplated ground-sharing as part of the SFA's unsuccessful bid to host Euro 2008. Perhaps the most notable meeting was the final game of the 1982–83 Premier Division season, where if United were victors at Dens Park, they would clinch the top flight title; United were victorious thanks to an Eamonn Bannon winner. Another intense fixture is that of the New Firm derby between United and North-East rivals Aberdeen. The match itself became one of fierce competition due to the domestic and European success the two sides achieved in the late 1970s and 1980s under the stewardship of United's Jim McLean and Aberdeen's Alex Ferguson. United also share a rivalry with St Johnstone due to the relatively close proximity of Dundee and Perth, known as the Tayside derby. The most notable meeting between the two sides was in the 2014 Scottish Cup Final, when St Johnstone won 2–0 at Celtic Park in United's tenth final appearance.", "", "This is a list of former and current players who have played at full international level while with the club. They are ordered by nationality and year of United debut below. Additionally, two goalkeepers – Pat Onstad (Canada) and Kémoko Camara (Guinea) – were both capped while at Tannadice yet never played a first-team game for United.", "The club launched its official Hall of Fame in 2008, with seven inaugural members. A further six players were inducted in January 2009 and seven more in January 2010. Since then six players have been inducted each year. 2008: 2009: 2010: 2011: 2012: 2013: 2014: 2015: 2016: 2017: 2019:", "The first manager of Dundee Hibernian in 1909 was Pat Reilly. The club's longest serving and most successful manager, Jim McLean, held the position from 1971 to 1993, winning three major honours – the Scottish Premier Division title in 1982–83 and the Scottish League Cup twice in 1979 and 1980. Two Dundee United managers have won the Scottish Cup – Ivan Golac in 1994 and Peter Houston in 2010.", "Dundee United announced in April 2015 that the club would be launching a women's team, with the aim of entering the Scottish league structure in 2016. Gavin Beith was appointed as the team's manager in June 2015." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Overview and direct results.", "Mandates.", "British approach.", "Dominion representation.", "French approach.", "Italian approach.", "American approach.", "Japanese approach.", "Racial equality proposal.", "Territorial claims.", "Greek approach.", "Chinese approach.", "Other nations' approach.", "All-Russian Government (Whites).", "Ukraine.", "Belarus.", "Minority rights.", "Caucasus.", "Korean delegation.", "Palestine.", "Women's approach.", "Historical assessments." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Conference formally opened on 18 January 1919 at the Quai d’Orsay in Paris. This date was symbolic, as it was the anniversary of the proclamation of William I as German Emperor in 1871, in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles, shortly before the end of the Siege of Paris - a day itself imbued with significance in its turn in Germany as the anniversary of the establishment of the Kingdom of Prussia in 1701. The Delegates from 27 nations (delegates representing 5 nationalities were for the most part ignored) were assigned to 52 commissions, which held 1,646 sessions to prepare reports, with the help of many experts, on topics ranging from prisoners of war to undersea cables, to international aviation, to responsibility for the war. Key recommendations were folded into the Treaty of Versailles with Germany, which had 15 chapters and 440 clauses, as well as treaties for the other defeated nations. The five major powers (France, Britain, Italy, the U.S., and Japan) controlled the Conference. Amongst the \"Big Five\", in practice Japan only sent a former prime minister and played a small role; and the \"Big Four\" leaders dominated the conference. The four met together informally 145 times and made all the major decisions, which in turn were ratified by other attendees. The open meetings of all the delegations approved the decisions made by the Big Four. The conference came to an end on 21 January 1920 with the inaugural", "A central issue of the conference was the disposition of the overseas colonies of Germany. (Austria-Hungary did not have major colonies, and the Ottoman Empire was a separate issue.) The British dominions wanted their reward for their sacrifice. Australia wanted New Guinea, New Zealand wanted Samoa, and South Africa wanted South West Africa. Wilson wanted the League to administer all German colonies until they were ready for independence. Lloyd George realized he needed to support his dominions and so he proposed a compromise: there be three types of mandates. Mandates for the Turkish provinces were one category and would", "The maintenance of the unity, territories, and interests of the British Empire was an overarching concern for the British delegates to the conference, but they entered the conference with more specific goals with this order of priority: The Racial Equality Proposal, put forth by the Japanese did not directly conflict with any core British interest, but as the conference progressed, its full implications on immigration to the British dominions, with Australia taking particular exception, would become a major point of contention within the delegation. Ultimately, Britain did not see the proposal as being one of the fundamental aims of the conference. Its delegation was, therefore, willing to sacrifice the proposal to placate the Australian delegation and thus help to satisfy its overarching aim of preserving the empire's unity. Britain had reluctantly consented to the attendance of separate dominion delegations, but the British managed to rebuff attempts by the envoys of the newly proclaimed Irish Republic to put its case to the conference for self-determination, diplomatic recognition, and membership of the proposed League of Nations. The Irish envoys' final \"Demand for Recognition\" in a letter to Clemenceau, the chairman, was not answered. Britain planned to legislate for two Irish Home Rule states, without dominion status, and accordingly passed the Government of Ireland Act 1920. Irish nationalists were generally unpopular with the Allies in 1919 because of their anti-war stance during the Conscription Crisis of 1918. David Lloyd George commented that he did \"not do badly\" at the peace conference \"considering I was seated between Jesus Christ and Napoleon.\" This was a reference to the great idealism of Wilson, who desired a lenient peace with Germany, and the stark realism of Clemenceau, who was determined to see Germany punished.", "The dominion governments were not originally given separate invitations to the conference but were expected to send representatives as part of the British delegation. Convinced that Canada had become a nation on the battlefields of Europe, Prime Minister Sir Robert Borden demanded that it have a separate seat at the conference. That was initially opposed not only by Britain but also by the United States, which saw a Dominion delegation as an extra British vote. Borden responded by pointing out that since Canada had lost nearly 60,000 men, a far larger proportion of its men than the 50,000 American men list, it had at least the right to the representation of", "French Prime Minister, Georges Clemenceau controlled his delegation, and his chief goal was to weaken Germany militarily, strategically, and economically. Having personally witnessed two German attacks on French soil in the last 40 years, he was adamant for Germany not to be permitted to attack France again. Particularly, Clemenceau sought an American and British joint guarantee of French security in the event of another German attack. Clemenceau also expressed skepticism and frustration with Wilson's Fourteen Points and complained: \"Mr. Wilson bores me with his fourteen points. Why, God Almighty has only ten!\" Wilson won a few points by signing a mutual defense treaty with France, but he did not present it to the Senate for ratification and so it never took effect. Another possible French policy was to seek a rapprochement with Germany.", "In 1914, Italy remained neutral despite the Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary. In 1915, it joined the Allies to gain the territories promised by the Triple Entente in the secret Treaty of London: Trentino, the Tyrol as far as Brenner, Trieste, Istria, most of the Dalmatian Coast (except Fiume), Valona, a protectorate over Albania, Antalya (in Turkey), and possibly colonies in Africa. Italian Prime Minister Vittorio Emanuele Orlando tried to obtain full implementation of the Treaty of London, as agreed by France and Britain before the war. He had popular support because of the loss of 700,000 soldiers and a budget deficit of 12,000,000,000 Italian lire during the war made both the government and people feel entitled to all of those territories and even others that not mentioned in the Treaty of London, particularly Fiume, which many Italians believed should be annexed to Italy because of the city's Italian population.", "Until Wilson's arrival in Europe in December 1918, no sitting American president had ever visited the continent. Wilson's 1917 Fourteen Points, had helped win many hearts and minds as the war ended in America and all over Europe, including Germany, as well as its allies in and the former subjects of the Ottoman Empire. Wilson's diplomacy and his Fourteen Points had essentially established the conditions for the armistices that had brought an end to World War I. Wilson felt it to be his duty and obligation to the people of the world to be a prominent figure at the peace negotiations. High hopes and expectations were placed on him to deliver what he had promised for the postwar era. In doing so, Wilson ultimately began to lead the foreign policy of the United States towards interventionism, a move that has been strongly resisted in some domestic circles ever since. Once Wilson arrived, however, he found \"rivalries, and conflicting claims previously submerged.\" He worked mostly trying to sway the direction that the French, led by Georges Clemenceau, and the British, led by David Lloyd George, towards Germany and its allies in Europe and the former Ottoman Empire in the Middle East. Wilson's attempts to gain acceptance of his Fourteen Points ultimately failed after France and Britain had refused to adopt some of their specific points and core principles.", "Japan sent a large delegation, headed by the former Prime Minister, Marquis Saionji Kinmochi. It was originally one of the \"big five\" but relinquished that role because of its slight interest in European affairs. Instead, it focused on two demands: the inclusion of its Racial Equality Proposal in the League's Covenant and Japanese territorial claims with respect to former German colonies: Shantung (including Kiaochow) and the Pacific islands north of the Equator (the Marshall Islands, Micronesia, the Mariana Islands, and the Carolines). The former Foreign Minister Baron Makino Nobuaki was \"de facto\" chief, and Saionji's role was symbolic and limited because history of his ill health. The Japanese delegation became unhappy after it had received only half of the rights of Germany, and it then walked out of the conference.", "Japan proposed the inclusion of a \"racial equality clause\" in the Covenant of the League of Nations on 13 February as an amendment to Article 21.: The equality of nations being a basic principle of the League of Nations, the High Contracting Parties agree to accord as soon as possible to all alien nationals of states, members of the League, equal and just treatment in every respect making no distinction, either in law or in fact, on account", "The Japanese claim to Shantung faced strong challenges by Chinese patriotic student group. In 1914, at the outset of the war, Japan had seized the territory that had been granted to Germany in 1897 and also seized the German islands in the Pacific north of the equator. In 1917, Japan had made secret agreements with Britain, France, and Italy to guarantee their annexation of these territories. With Britain, there was an agreement to", "Greek Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos took part in the conference as Greece's chief representative. Wilson was said to have placed Venizelos first for personal ability among all delegates in Paris. Venizelos proposed the Greek expansion on Thrace and Asia Minor, which had been", "The Chinese delegation was led by Lou Tseng-Tsiang, who was accompanied by Wellington Koo and Cao Rulin. Before the Western powers, Koo demanded for Germany's concessions on Shandong to be returned to China. He also called for an end to imperialist institutions such as extraterritoriality, legation guards, and foreign", "", "While Russia was formally excluded from the Conference although it had fought against the Central Powers for three years, the Russian Provincial Council (chaired by Prince Lvov), the successor to the Russian Constitutional Assembly and the political arm of the Russian White movement attended the conference and was represented", "Ukraine had its best opportunity to win recognition and support from foreign powers at the conference. At a meeting of the Big Five on 16 January, Lloyd George called Ukrainian leader Symon Petliura (1874–1926) an adventurer and dismissed Ukraine as an anti-Bolshevik stronghold. Sir Eyre Crowe, British Undersecretary", "A delegation of the Belarusian Democratic Republic, under Prime Minister Anton Łuckievič, also participated in the conference, and attempted to gain international recognition of the independence of Belarus.", "At the insistence of Wilson, the Big Four required Poland to sign a treaty on 28 June 1919 that guaranteed minority rights in the new nation. Poland signed under protest and made little effort to enforce the specified rights for Germans, Jews, Ukrainians, and other minorities. Similar treaties were signed by Czechoslovakia, Romania, Yugoslavia, Greece, Austria, Hungary, and Bulgaria and later by Latvia, Estonia, and Lithuania. Estonia had already given cultural autonomy to minorities in its declaration of independence. Finland and Germany were not asked to sign a minority treaty. In Poland, the key provisions were to become fundamental laws, which would override any national legal codes or legislation. The new country pledged to assure \"full and complete", "The three South Caucasian republics of Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia and the Mountainous Republic of the Northern Caucasus all sent a delegation to the conference. Their attempts to gain protection from threats posed by the ongoing Russian Civil War largely failed since none of the major powers was interested in taking a mandate over the Caucasian territories. After a series of delays, the three South Caucasian countries ultimately", "After a failed attempt by the Korean National Association to send a three-man delegation to Paris, a delegation of Koreans from China and Hawaii made it there. It included a representative from the Korean Provisional Government in Shanghai, Kim Kyu-sik. They were aided by the Chinese, who were eager for the opportunity to embarrass Japan at", "After the conference's decision to separate the former Arab provinces from the Ottoman Empire and to apply the new mandate-system to them, the World Zionist Organization submitted its draft resolutions for consideration by the conference on 3 February 1919. The statement included five main points: However, despite those attempts to influence the conference, the Zionists were instead constrained by Article 7 of the resulting Palestine Mandate to having the mere right of obtaining", "An unprecedented aspect of the conference was concerted pressure brought to bear on delegates by a committee of women, who sought to establish and entrench women's fundamental social, economic, and political rights, such as that of suffrage, within the peace framework. Although they were denied seats at the Paris Conference, the leadership of Marguerite de Witt-Schlumberger, the president of the French Union for Women's Suffrage, caused an Inter-Allied Women's Conference (IAWC) to be convened, which met", "The remaking of the world map at the conferences gave birth to a number of critical conflict-prone contradictions internationally that would become some of the causes of World War II. The British historian Eric Hobsbawm claimed: Hobsbawm and other left-wing historians have argued that Wilson's Fourteen Points, particularly the principle of self-determination, were measures that were primarily against the Bolsheviks and designed, by playing the nationist card, to tame the revolutionary fever that was sweeping across Europe in the wake of the October Revolution and the end of the war: The right-wing historian John Lewis Gaddis agreed: \"When Woodrow Wilson made the principle of self-determination one of his Fourteen Points his intent had been to undercut the appeal of Bolshevism.\" That view has a long history and can be summarised by Ray Stannard Baker's famous remark: \"Paris cannot be understood without Moscow.\" The British historian Antony Lentin viewed Lloyd George's role in Paris as a major success:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Novels.", "Historical context.", "\"I, Claudius\".", "\"Claudius the God\".", "Literary significance and criticism.", "Adaptations.", "German translation.", "Film and television.", "Radio.", "Comics.", "Theatre.", "Audio.", "Opera.", "Later references." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Claudius was the fourth Emperor of the Roman Empire, from AD 41 to 54. A grandson of Mark Antony and great-nephew of Augustus, he was a member of the Julio-Claudian family, Rome's first imperial ruling family. Claudius' family kept him out of public life until his sudden coronation at the age of fifty because of his persistent stammer, limp, and other nervous tics, which caused others to perceive him as mentally deficient and not a threat to his ambitious relatives. Even as his symptoms began to wane in his teenage years, he ran into trouble as a budding historian; his work on a history of the Roman civil wars was too truthful and too critical of the reigning emperor Augustus, and his mother Antonia Minor and grandmother Livia quickly put a stop to it. This episode reinforced their initial suspicions that Claudius was not fit for public office. Claudius was portrayed this way by scholars for most of history, and Graves uses these peculiarities to develop a sympathetic character whose survival in a murderous dynasty depends upon his family's incorrect assumption that he is a harmless idiot. Graves' interpretation of the story owes much to the histories of Gaius Cornelius Tacitus, Plutarch, and (especially) Suetonius' \"Lives of the Twelve Caesars\". Graves translated Suetonius before writing the novels and claimed that after reading Suetonius, Claudius came to him in a dream one night and demanded that his real story be told. The life of Claudius provided Graves with a way to write about the first four emperors of Rome from an intimate point of view. \"I, Claudius\" is written as a first-person narrative of Roman history from Claudius' perspective, covering the reigns of Augustus, Tiberius, and Caligula; \"Claudius the God\" is written as a later addition documenting Claudius' own reign. The real Claudius was a trained historian and is known to have written an autobiography (now lost) in eight books that covered the same period. Graves provides a theme for the story by having the fictional Claudius describe a visit to Cumae, where he receives a prophecy in verse from the Sibyl and an additional prophecy contained in a book of \"Sibylline Curiosities\". The latter concerns the fates of the \"hairy ones\" (i.e. the Caesars – from the Latin word \"caesar\", meaning \"a fine head of hair\") who are to rule Rome. The penultimate verse concerns his reign and Claudius assumes that he can tell the identity of the last emperor described in the prophecy. Graves establishes a fatalistic tone that plays out at the end of \"Claudius the God\" when Claudius correctly predicts his assassination and succession by Nero. At Cumae, the Sibyl tells Claudius that he will \"speak clear\". Claudius believes this means that his secret memoirs will one day be found and that he, having written the truth, will speak clearly, while his contemporaries, who had to distort their histories to appease the ruling family, will seem like stammerers. Since he wishes to record his life for posterity, Claudius explains that he chooses to write in Greek, which he believes will remain \"the chief literary language of the world\". This enables Graves' Claudius to offer explanations of Latin wordplay or etymologies that would seem unnecessary if his autobiography had been written for native Latin speakers.", "Writing in the first-person (from an unspecified time period, presumably late in his own reign as emperor), Claudius establishes himself as the author of this history of his family and insists on writing the truth, which includes harsh criticisms of the deified Augustus and especially of Livia. The narrative begins prior to his own birth, as he describes many of the events leading to the foundation of the Roman Principate and the increasingly firm emplacement of Augustus as emperor despite Augustus' own publicly expressed intention to eventually restore the former Republic. During his prosperous reign, Augustus is plagued by personal losses as his favored heirs, Marcellus, Marcus Agrippa, Gaius Caesar, and Lucius Caesar, die. Claudius reveals that these untimely deaths are all the machinations of Augustus' third wife Livia (who is also Claudius' paternal grandmother), a calculating murderess who seeks to make her son Tiberius (Claudius' uncle) succeed Augustus as the next emperor. As these intrigues occur, the sickly Claudius is born and is immediately shunned and mocked by his family. Only his brother Germanicus and his cousin Postumus treat him with any kindness. He is eventually given a great tutor, the reputable historian Athenodorus, who fosters a love of history and republican government in the young Claudius. During these early years, Claudius is advised by his idol Asinius Pollio to play the fool to survive. Postumus is eventually framed for raping Claudius' sister Livilla and beating his own niece Aemilia; Augustus has him banished to an island off the coast of Italy, but not before Postumus reveals the truth to Claudius. Claudius then passes this on to Germanicus, who convinces Augustus of Postumus' innocence. Augustus exchanges the exiled Postumus with a double named Clemens and secretly writes a will restoring Postumus as his heir, but Livia manages to discover this and poisons Augustus. Upon Augustus' death, Tiberius is declared emperor, though his mother Livia retains her power and influence as empress. The Roman legions campaigning in Germany refuse to accept the unpopular Tiberius and begin to mutiny, instead declaring Germanicus emperor. Shocked and confused, Germanicus refuses, declaring his loyalty to Tiberius. He sends his wife Agrippina and youngest son Caligula away from the military frontier and asks Claudius for an enormous sum of money to pay the soldiers. Claudius agrees and pretends that they are gambling debts. With the money and the return of Caligula, Germanicus ends the mutiny and leads several successful campaigns in Germany. In the midst of this, Claudius is informed that Postumus is alive and secretly forming a resistance group to take back his rightful place in Rome. Claudius' letters to Germanicus about Postumus are intercepted by Livia; Postumus is later captured and executed by Tiberius. Livia, recognizing that Claudius is a threat, sends him to Carthage to prevent him from having contact with Germanicus. Growing to fear Germanicus' popularity more and more, Tiberius sends a hostile governor, Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso, to spy on Germanicus. Germanicus soon becomes plagued by witchcraft before dying of poison. It is later revealed that Germanicus' son Caligula was the instigator of the witchcraft. As Tiberius becomes more hated by the public, he increasingly relies on his Praetorian Captain Sejanus to administer his edicts and punishments, who is able to manipulate Tiberius into suspecting that Germanicus' wife Agrippina and his own son Castor are plotting to usurp the monarchy. Sejanus meanwhile secretly plots with Livilla to usurp the monarchy for himself by poisoning Castor and systematically eliminating any ally of Agrippina and her sons. Agrippina only survives due to the protection of Livia, who holds vital information regarding Augustus' true opinion of Tiberius. Livia then hosts a surprising dinner, to which Claudius and Caligula are invited. She predicts that Caligula (and not his older brothers) will become emperor and that Claudius will succeed him. She privately admits to Claudius to having ordered the poisonings and assassinations of many people, and then begs Claudius to swear to deify her as a goddess, believing it will grant her a blissful afterlife, to which he agrees. Claudius is later invited to Livia's deathbed and reveals that Caligula betrayed his promise. Claudius swears that Livia will become the Queen of Heaven, which moves Livia to declare he is no fool before she dies. Tiberius, now free of Livia, loses all compunction and executes hundreds of influential citizens on false charges of treason. He banishes Agrippina and her son Nero, while Agrippina's son Drusus is imprisoned and starved to death in Rome. Tiberius retreats from public life to the island of Capri and Sejanus is given full command of the city in his absence, becoming \"de facto\" ruler of Rome. Tiberius is soon alerted to Sejanus' treachery by a letter from Antonia Minor and allies himself with Caligula, despite his awareness of Caligula's growing wickedness and narcissism, and transfers control of Rome to the even more despotic Naevius Sutorius Macro. Sejanus is executed along with his children; Claudius survives despite being married to Sejanus' sister, whom he quickly divorces. Livilla is locked in a room by her mother Antonia and starved to death, and Antonia punishes herself for having raised Livilla by listening to her daughter die. On his deathbed, the old and feeble Tiberius is smothered to death by Macro. Caligula is declared emperor and at first appears to be enlightened and kind. To his surprise, Claudius is recalled to Rome from his peaceful life in Capua writing history and living with his prostitute companion Calpurnia. Claudius quickly becomes the butt of many taunts and practical jokes by the Imperial Court. After recovering from a severe illness, Caligula descends into madness, his behavior becoming ever more egomaniacal and irrational. He declares himself a god in human disguise, stages arguments and battles with other gods, bankrupts the country, and kills thousands. The madness having reached a tempest is finally quelled by Cassius Chaerea, a captain of the Praetorian Guard who plots with the other captains to assassinate Caligula, along with his wife and daughter. Horrified, Claudius hides behind a curtain and is discovered by a disgruntled Praetorian Guard. Realizing they need a new emperor, the Guards suddenly and bemusedly declare Claudius emperor. Claudius pleads that he does not want to be emperor and only wants to see the Republic restored, but the Guards ignore him. He sadly accepts for the sake of his wife and unborn child, and for the access the emperorship will give him to valuable historical documents, on a whim deciding that as emperor he will finally be able to demand that people read his books.", "The story begins with an apology by Claudius for having ended his first history on a dramatic point and continues with a brief history of his friend Herod Agrippa. Herod was a schoolmate of Claudius and was liked by Claudius' mother Antonia. Herod always finds himself in debts and danger in the East and in Rome. He eventually gains the favour of Caligula and is made King of Bashan. Herod is in Rome when Caligula is assassinated and quickly is able to convince Claudius to accept the emperorship in order to avoid civil war. Claudius reluctantly executes Cassius Chaerea and several of the other assassins and begins tirelessly working for the sake of Rome. He applies himself to the law courts, demonstrates his intelligence in being able to locate one of Augustus' lost Eagles, and orders the building of a harbour in Ostia to help preserve the Roman food supply. Claudius is also able to quell two mutinies and conquers Britain. Herod Agrippa conspires to take over the East, as he regards himself as the Messiah. When he announces this he breaks the first commandment by declaring himself a god. Herod quickly dies a painful death, just as his grandfather had died, imploring Claudius to forgive him and not to trust anyone. Throughout Claudius' reign he is unwittingly manipulated by his adulterous wife Messalina, who kills many of her enemies as well as being involved in bribery. She eventually conspires to usurp the monarchy with her lover Gaius Silius. Claudius is distraught and crushed by this news and is given an \"Olympian Mixture\" in order to manage through the ordeal. Claudius arrests Silius and the leaders of the coup. Messalina is executed without Claudius' consent and Claudius has no reaction during his \"Olympian\" state, even bemusedly joking about being worshipped as a god in Britain. On being relieved of the \"Olympian Mixture\", Claudius is crushed and decides that the only way the Republic can be restored is by having a true mad monarch rather than the reign of a benevolent one. Comparing himself to the fable of the frogs who desired a King, Claudius privately refers to himself as \"Old King Log\" and plays a weak and easily manipulated fool. He then incestuously marries his niece Agrippinilla, whom he openly despises. In his feeble old age Claudius excessively enjoys gladiatorial games, is often intoxicated, and makes himself oblivious to Agrippinilla's schemes to gain power and make her son Nero emperor. Foreseeing that Nero will be a terrible ruler, Claudius plans on having his son Britannicus removed to live with the Northern Britons and later to return as Rome's saviour. Britannicus refuses and admits that while he loves the Republic, the Republic is dead and he wants to challenge Nero for the right to rule Rome as an emperor. Dismayed, Claudius agrees, knowing that he is sending his son to his death. Claudius resignedly accepts that his death will be soon with numerous signs suggesting such.", "The \"I, Claudius\" novels, as they are called collectively, became massively popular when first published in 1934 and gained literary recognition with the award of the 1934 James Tait Black Prize for fiction. They remain Graves' best known work, aside from his myth essay \"The White Goddess\", his English translation of \"The Golden Ass\", and his own autobiography \"Good-Bye to All That\". Graves later claimed that the novels were written only from financial need on a strict deadline. Nonetheless, they are today regarded as pioneering masterpieces of historical fiction.", "", "When the time came to translate the novels into German, Graves, who spoke the language, decided instead to rework them into a one volume edition. He collaborated with translator Hans Rothe and they jointly produced a shortened edition which left out the many digressions which were incorporated into the English original, with the aim of presenting Claudius' story in a clearer and more effective way. The contents of the books were thus roughly cut down to a half. The book is published as \"Ich Claudius, Kaiser und Gott\" (\"I Claudius, Emperor and God\") with Graves being styled \"Robert von Ranke Graves\", which is how he is credited in all German editions of his works.", "In 1937, abortive attempts were made to adapt the first book into a film by the film director Josef von Sternberg. The producer was Alexander Korda, who was then married to Merle Oberon, who was cast as Claudius' wife Messalina. Emlyn Williams was cast as Caligula, Charles Laughton was cast as Claudius, and Flora Robson was cast as Livia. Filming was abandoned after Oberon was injured in a serious motor car accident. In 1976, BBC Television adapted the book and its sequel into the popular TV serial, also entitled \"I, Claudius.\" The production, which starred Derek Jacobi, Siân Phillips, Brian Blessed and John Hurt, won four BAFTAs in 1977 and three Emmys in 1978. In 2008, it was reported that Relativity Media had obtained the rights to produce a new film adaptation of \"I, Claudius\". Jim Sheridan was named as director. In 2011, rights then passed to HBO and BBC2 to film a miniseries adaptation. Jane Tranter and Anne Thomopoulos, who previously worked on HBO/BBC2's miniseries \"Rome\" have been named as producers.", "In November and December 2010, as part of the \"Classic Serial\" strand, BBC Radio 4 broadcast a series of six hour-long episodes of a dramatisation of both novels, adapted by Robin Brooks and directed by Jonquil Panting. Performers were Derek Jacobi, Tom Goodman Hill and full cast. It won the 2012 Audie Award in the \"Audio Dramatization\" category.", "An episode from \"Claudius the God\" was adapted for comics in the EC Comics Two-Fisted Tales #36, in a story titled \"Battle!\", written by Colin Dwakins and drawn by Reed Crandall.", "The novel has also been adapted for theatre. The 1972 production \"I, Claudius\" was written by John Mortimer and starred David Warner.", "Several audio recordings of the novel have been produced. Derek Jacobi performed two separate readings of the novel, both as abridged versions, one for Dove Audio (1986) and one for CSA Word (2007). Nelson Runger performed unabridged readings of both \"I, Claudius\" and \"Claudius the God\" for Recorded Books (1987). Jonathan Oliver performed an unabridged reading for ISIS Audio Books (1988). Frederick Davidson performed an unabridged reading for Blackstone Audio (1994).", "The novel has also been adapted for opera by Igor Escudero under the title \"I, Claudius and Claudius the God\" (2019). The three parts, or chapters, that form the trilogy are titled \"Livia\", \"Caligula\" and \"Claudius the God\", and have been conceived to be performed not only sequentially, but also separately.", "A. E. van Vogt's 1957 novel \"Empire of the Atom\" is a wholesale translation of Graves' novel into science fiction. On the last page of \"The Areas of My Expertise\", John Hodgman includes a table comparing his \"future works\" with \"I, Claudius\". In 1998, software developer C.J. Silverio noted that several long passages of the novel \"The Manchurian Candidate\" seemed to be adapted from Graves' novel. \"I Claudia,\" a 2018 novel by Mary McCoy was loosely based on \"I, Claudius\" and translates the characters into a modern day private high school with a problematic power structure." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Overview.", "Early psychological thought.", "Beginnings of modern psychology.", "Etymology and early usage of word.", "Enlightenment psychological thought.", "Transition to contemporary psychology.", "Emergence of German experimental psychology.", "Psychoanalysis.", "Early American.", "Early French.", "Early British.", "Early Russian.", "Second generation German.", "Würzburg School.", "Gestalt psychology.", "Emergence of behaviorism in America.", "Second generation francophone.", "Genevan School.", "Soviet Marxist Psychology.", "Cognitivism.", "Scholarly journals." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Psychology borders on various other fields including physiology, neuroscience, artificial intelligence, sociology, anthropology, as well as philosophy and other components of the humanities. The history of psychology as a scholarly study of the mind and behavior dates back to the Ancient Greeks. There is also evidence of psychological thought in ancient Egypt. Very high level of work on mind-sciences one can find in Vedic scriptures of Sanatana Dharm (Hinduism) from the dated back of unknow history there was application of certain principle as a part in yogic practices of India. Psychology was a branch of the domain of philosophy until the 1870s, when it developed as an independent scientific discipline in Germany. Psychology as a self-conscious field of experimental study began in 1879, in Leipzig Germany, when Wilhelm Wundt founded the first laboratory dedicated exclusively to psychological research in Germany. Wundt was also the first person to refer to himself as \"a psychologist\" (a notable precursor of Wundt was Ferdinand Ueberwasser (1752-1812) who designated himself \"Professor of Empirical Psychology and Logic\" in 1783 and gave lectures on scientific psychology at the Old University of Münster, Germany). Other important early contributors to the field include Hermann Ebbinghaus (a pioneer in the study of memory), William James (the American father of pragmatism), and Ivan Pavlov (who developed the procedures associated with classical conditioning). Soon after the development of experimental psychology, various kinds of applied psychology appeared. G. Stanley Hall brought scientific pedagogy to the United States from Germany in the early 1880s. John Dewey's educational theory of the 1890s was another example. Also in the 1890s, Hugo Münsterberg began writing about the application of psychology to industry, law, and other fields. Lightner Witmer established the first psychological clinic in the 1890s.", "Many cultures throughout history have speculated on the nature of the mind, heart, soul, spirit, brain, etc. For instance, in Ancient Egypt, the Edwin Smith Papyrus contains an early description of the brain, and some speculations on its functions (described in a medical/surgical context). Though other medical documents of ancient times were full of incantations and applications meant to turn away disease-causing demons and other superstition, the Edwin Smith Papyrus gives remedies to almost 50 conditions and only two contain incantations to ward off evil. Ancient Greek philosophers, from Thales (fl. 550 BC) through even to the Roman period, developed an elaborate theory of what they termed the \"psuchẽ\" (psyche) (from which the first half of \"psychology\" is derived), as well as other \"psychological\" terms – \"nous\", \"thumos\", \"logistikon\", etc. The most influential of these are the accounts of Plato (especially in the \"Republic\"), Pythagoras and of Aristotle (esp. \"Peri Psyches\", better known under its Latin title, \"De Anima\"). Plato's tripartite theory of the soul, Chariot Allegory and concepts such as \"eros\" defined the subsequent Western Philosophy views of the psyche and anticipated modern psychological proposals, such as Freud's id, ego and super-ego and libido; to the point that \"in 1920, Freud decided to present Plato as the precursor of his own theory, as part of a strategy directed to define the scientific and cultural collocation of psychoanalysis\". Hellenistic philosophers (viz., the Stoics and Epicurians) diverged from the Classical Greek tradition in several important ways, especially in their concern with questions of the physiological basis of the mind. The Roman physician Galen addressed these issues most elaborately and influentially of all. The Greek tradition influenced some Christian and Islamic thought on the topic. In the Judeo-Christian tradition, the Manual of Discipline (from the Dead Sea Scrolls, ca. 21 BC–61 AD) notes the division of human nature into two temperaments or opposing spirits of either veracity or perversity Walter M Freeman proposes that Thomism is the philosophical system explaining cognition that is most compatible with neurodynamics, in a 2008 article in the journal \"Mind and Matter\" entitled \"Nonlinear Brain Dynamics and Intention According to Aquinas.\" In Asia, China had a long history of administering tests of ability as part of its education system. In the 6th century AD,", "Many of the Ancients' writings would have been lost had it not been for the efforts of the Christian, Jewish and Persian translators in the House of Wisdom, the House of Knowledge, and other such institutions in the Islamic Golden Age, whose glosses and commentaries were later translated into Latin in the 12th century. However, it is not clear how these sources first came to be used during the Renaissance, and their influence on what would later emerge as the discipline of psychology is a topic of scholarly debate.", "The first use of the term \"psychology\" is often attributed to the German scholastic philosopher Rudolf Göckel (1547–1628), often known under the Latin form Rodolphus Goclenius), who published the \"Psychologia hoc est: de hominis perfectione, animo et imprimis ortu hujus...\" in Marburg in 1590. However, the term seems to have been used more than six decades earlier by the Croatian humanist Marko Marulić (1450–1524) in the title of his Latin treatise, \"Psichiologia de ratione animae humanae.\" Although", "Early psychology was regarded as the study of the soul (in the Christian sense of the term). The modern philosophical form of psychology was heavily influenced by the works of René Descartes (1596–1650), and the debates that he generated, of which the most relevant were the objections to his \"Meditations on First Philosophy\" (1641), published with the text. Also important to the later development of psychology were his \"Passions of the Soul\" (1649) and \"Treatise on Man\" (completed in 1632 but, along", "Also influential on the emerging discipline of psychology were debates surrounding the efficacy of Mesmerism (a precursor to hypnosis) and the value of phrenology. The former was developed in the 1770s by Austrian physician Franz Mesmer (1734–1815) who claimed to use the power of gravity, and later of \"animal magnetism\", to cure various physical and mental ills. As Mesmer and his treatment became increasingly fashionable in both Vienna and Paris, it also began to come under the scrutiny of suspicious officials. In 1784, an investigation was commissioned in Paris by King Louis XVI which included American ambassador Benjamin Franklin, chemist Antoine Lavoisier and physician Joseph-Ignace Guillotin (later the popularizer of the guillotine). They concluded that Mesmer's method was useless. Abbé Faria, an Indo-Portuguese priest, revived public attention in animal magnetism. Unlike Mesmer, Faria claimed that the effect was 'generated from within the mind’ by the power of expectancy", "Until the middle of the 19th century, psychology was widely regarded as a branch of philosophy. Whether it could become an independent scientific discipline was questioned already earlier on: Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) declared in his \"Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science\" (1786) that psychology might perhaps never become a \"proper\" natural science because its phenomena cannot be quantified, among other reasons. Kant proposed an alternative conception of an empirical investigation of human thought, feeling, desire, and action, and lectured on these topics for over twenty years (1772/73-1795/96). His \"Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View\" (1798), which resulted from these lectures, looks like an empirical psychology in many respects. Johann Friedrich Herbart (1776–1841) took issue with what he viewed as Kant's conclusion and attempted to develop a mathematical basis for a scientific psychology. Although he was unable to empirically realize the terms of his psychological theory, his efforts did lead scientists such as Ernst Heinrich Weber (1795–18 78) and Gustav Theodor Fechner (1801–1887) to attempt to measure the mathematical relationships between the physical magnitudes of external stimuli and the psychological intensities of the resulting sensations. Fechner (1860) is the originator of the term psychophysics. Meanwhile, individual differences in reaction time had become a critical issue in the field of astronomy, under the name of the \"personal equation\". Early researches by Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel (1784–1846) in Königsberg and Adolf Hirsch led to the development of a highly precise chronoscope by Matthäus Hipp that, in turn, was based on a design by Charles Wheatstone for a device that measured the speed of artillery shells (Edgell & Symes, 1906). Other timing instruments were borrowed from physiology (e.g., Carl Ludwig's kymograph) and adapted for use by the Utrecht ophthalmologist Franciscus Donders (1818–1899) and his student Johan Jacob de Jaager in measuring", "Experimentation was not the only approach to psychology in the German-speaking world at this time. Starting in the 1890s, employing the case study technique, the Viennese physician Sigmund Freud developed and applied the methods of hypnosis, free association, and dream interpretation to reveal putatively unconscious beliefs and desires that he argued were the underlying causes of his patients' \"hysteria.\" He dubbed this approach psychoanalysis. Freudian psychoanalysis is particularly notable for the emphasis it places on the course of an individual's sexual development in pathogenesis. Psychoanalytic concepts have had a strong and lasting influence on Western culture, particularly on the arts. Although its scientific contribution is still a matter of debate, both Freudian and Jungian psychology revealed the existence of compartmentalized thinking, in which some behavior and thoughts are hidden from consciousness – yet operative as part of the complete personality. Hidden agendas, a bad conscience, or a sense of guilt, are", "Around 1875 the Harvard physiology instructor (as he then was), William James, opened a small experimental psychology demonstration laboratory for use with his courses. The laboratory was never used, at that time, for original research, and so controversy remains as to whether it is to be regarded as the \"first\" experimental psychology laboratory or not. In 1878, James gave a series of lectures at Johns Hopkins University entitled \"The Senses and the Brain and their Relation to Thought\" in which he argued, \"contra\" Thomas Henry Huxley, that consciousness is not epiphenomenal, but must have an evolutionary function, or it would not have been naturally selected in humans. The same year James was contracted by Henry Holt to write a textbook on the \"new\" experimental psychology. If he had written it quickly, it would have been the first English-language textbook on the topic. It was twelve years, however, before his two-volume \"The Principles of Psychology\" would be published. In the meantime textbooks were published by George Trumbull Ladd of Yale (1887) and James Mark Baldwin then of Lake Forest College (1889). William James was one of the founders of the American Society for Psychical Research in 1885, which studied psychic phenomena (parapsychology), before the creation of the American Psychological Association in 1892. James was also president of the British society that inspired the United States' one, the Society for Psychical Research, founded in 1882, which investigated psychology and the paranormal on topics such as mediumship, dissociation, telepathy and hypnosis, and it innovated research in psychology, by which, according to science historian Andreas Sommer, were \"devised methodological innovations such as randomized study designs\" and conducted \"the first experiments investigating the psychology of eyewitness testimony (Hodgson and Davey, 1887), [and] empirical and conceptual studies illuminating mechanisms of dissociation and hypnotism\"; Its members also initiated and organised the International Congresses of Physiological/Experimental psychology. In 1879 Charles Sanders Peirce was hired as a philosophy instructor at Johns Hopkins University. Although better known for his astronomical and philosophical work, Peirce also conducted what are perhaps the first American psychology experiments, on the subject of color vision, published in 1877 in the \"American Journal of Science\" (see Cadwallader, 1974). Peirce and his student Joseph Jastrow published \"On Small Differences in Sensation\" in the \"Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences\", in 1884. In 1882, Peirce was joined at Johns Hopkins by G. Stanley Hall, who opened the first American research laboratory devoted to experimental psychology in 1883. Peirce was forced out of his position by scandal and Hall was awarded the only professorship in philosophy at Johns Hopkins. In 1887 Hall founded the \"American Journal of Psychology\", which published work primarily emanating from his own laboratory. In 1888 Hall left his Johns Hopkins professorship for the presidency of the newly founded Clark University, where he remained for the rest of his career. Soon, experimental psychology laboratories were opened at the University of Pennsylvania (in 1887, by James McKeen Cattell), Indiana University (1888, William Lowe Bryan), the University of Wisconsin (1888, Joseph Jastrow), Clark University (1889, Edmund Sanford), the McLean Asylum (1889, William Noyes), and the University of Nebraska (1889, Harry Kirke Wolfe). However, it was Princeton University's Eno Hall, built in 1924, that became the first university building in the United States to be devoted entirely to experimental psychology when it became the home of", "Jules Baillarger founded the Société Médico-Psychologique in 1847, one of the first associations of its kind and which published the \"Annales Medico-Psychologiques\". France already had a pioneering tradition in psychological study, and it was relevant the publication of \"Précis d'un cours de psychologie\" (\"Summary of a Psychology Course\") in 1831 by Adolphe Garnier, who also published the\"Traité des facultés de l'âme, comprenant l'histoire des principales théories psychologiques\" (\"Treatise of the Faculties of the Soul, comprising the history of major psychological theories\") in 1852. Garnier was called \"the best monument of psychological science of our time\" by Revue des Deux Mondes in 1864. In no small measure because of the conservatism of the reign of Louis Napoléon (president, 1848–1852; emperor as \"Napoléon III\", 1852–1870), academic philosophy in France through the middle part of the 19th century was controlled by members of the eclectic and spiritualist schools, led by figures such as Victor Cousin (1792–1867), Thédodore Jouffroy (1796–1842), and Paul Janet (1823–1899). These were traditional metaphysical schools, opposed to regarding psychology as a natural science. With the ouster of Napoléon III after the débacle of the Franco-Prussian War, new paths, both political and intellectual, became possible. From the 1870 forward, a steadily increasing interest in positivist, materialist, evolutionary, and deterministic approaches to psychology developed, influenced by, among others, the work of Hyppolyte Taine (1828–1893) (e.g., \"De L'Intelligence\", 1870) and Théodule Ribot (1839–1916) (e.g., \"La Psychologie Anglaise Contemporaine\", 1870). In 1876, Ribot founded \"Revue Philosophique\" (the same year as \"Mind\" was founded in Britain), which for the next generation would be virtually the only French outlet for the \"new\" psychology (Plas, 1997). Although not a working experimentalist himself, Ribot's many books were to have profound influence on the next generation of psychologists. These included especially his \"L'Hérédité Psychologique\" (1873) and \"La Psychologie Allemande Contemporaine\" (1879). In the 1880s, Ribot's interests turned to psychopathology, writing books on disorders of memory (1881), will (1883), and personality (1885), and where he attempted to bring", "Although the British had the first scholarly journal dedicated to the topic of psychology – \"Mind\", founded in 1876 by Alexander Bain and edited by George Croom Robertson – it was quite a long while before experimental psychology developed there to challenge the strong tradition of \"mental philosophy.\" The experimental reports that appeared in \"Mind\" in the first two decades of its existence were almost entirely authored by Americans, especially G. Stanley Hall and his students (notably Henry Herbert Donaldson) and James McKeen Cattell. Francis Galton's (1822–1911) anthropometric laboratory opened in 1884. There people were tested on a wide variety of physical (e.g., strength of blow) and perceptual (e.g., visual acuity) attributes. In 1886 Galton was visited by James McKeen Cattell who would later adapt Galton's techniques in developing his own mental testing research program in the United States. Galton was not primarily a psychologist, however. The data he accumulated in the anthropometric laboratory primarily went toward supporting his case for eugenics. To help", "Insofar as psychology was regarded as the science of the soul and institutionally part of philosophy courses in theology schools, psychology was present in Russia from the second half of the 18th century. By contrast, if by psychology we mean a separate discipline, with university chairs and people employed as psychologists, then it appeared only after the October Revolution. All the same, by the end of the 19th century, many different kinds of activities called psychology had spread in philosophy, natural science, literature, medicine, education, legal practice, and even military science. Psychology was as much a cultural resource as it was a defined area of scholarship The question, \"Who Is to Develop Psychology and How?\", was of such importance that Ivan Sechenov, a physiologist and doctor by training and a teacher in institutions of higher education, chose it as the title for an essay in 1873. His question was rhetorical, for he was already convinced that physiology was the scientific basis on which to build psychology. The response to Sechenov's popular essay included one, in 1872–1873, from a liberal professor of law, Konstantin Kavelin. He supported a psychology drawing on ethnographic materials about national character, a program that had existed since 1847,", "", "In 1896, one of Wilhelm Wundt's former Leipzig laboratory assistants, Oswald Külpe (1862–1915), founded a new laboratory in Würzburg. Külpe soon surrounded himself with a number of younger psychologists, the so-called Würzburg School, most notably Narziß Ach (1871–1946), Karl Bühler (1879–1963), Ernst Dürr (1878–1913), Karl Marbe (1869–1953), and Henry Jackson Watt (1879–1925). Collectively, they developed a new approach to psychological experimentation that flew in the face of many of Wundt's restrictions. Wundt had drawn a distinction between the old philosophical style of self-observation (\"Selbstbeobachtung\") in which one introspected for extended durations on higher thought processes, and inner perception (\"innere Wahrnehmung\") in which one could be immediately aware of a momentary sensation, feeling, or image (\"Vorstellung\"). The former was declared to be impossible by Wundt, who argued that higher thought could not be studied experimentally through extended introspection, but only humanistically through \"Völkerpsychologie\" (folk psychology). Only the latter was a proper subject for experimentation. The Würzburgers, by contrast, designed experiments in which the experimental subject was presented with a complex stimulus (for example a Nietzschean aphorism or a logical problem) and", "Whereas the Würzburgers debated with Wundt mainly on matters of method, another German movement, centered in Berlin, took issue with the widespread assumption that the aim of psychology should be to break consciousness down into putative basic elements. Instead, they argued that the psychological \"whole\" has priority and that the \"parts\" are defined by the structure of the whole, rather than vice versa. Thus, the school was named \"Gestalt\", a German term meaning approximately \"form\" or \"configuration.\" It was led by Max Wertheimer (1880–1943), Wolfgang Köhler (1887–1967), and Kurt Koffka (1886–1941). Wertheimer had been a student of Austrian philosopher, Christian von Ehrenfels (1859–1932), who claimed that in addition to the sensory elements of a perceived object, there is an extra element which, though in some sense derived from the organization of the standard sensory elements, is also to be regarded as being an element in its own right. He called this extra element \"Gestalt-qualität\" or \"form-quality.\"", "As a result of the conjunction of a number of events in the early 20th century, behaviorism gradually emerged as the dominant school in American psychology. First among these was the increasing skepticism with which many viewed the concept of consciousness: although still considered to be the essential element separating psychology from physiology, its subjective nature and the unreliable introspective method it seemed to require, troubled many. William James' 1904 \"Journal of Philosophy...\" article \"Does Consciousness Exist?\", laid out the worries explicitly. Second was the gradual rise of a rigorous animal psychology. In addition to Edward Lee Thorndike's work with cats in puzzle boxes in 1898, the start of research in which rats learn to navigate mazes was begun by Willard Small (1900, 1901 in \"American Journal of Psychology\"). Robert M. Yerkes's 1905 \"Journal of Philosophy...\" article \"Animal Psychology and the Criteria of the Psychic\" raised the general question of when one is entitled to attribute consciousness to an organism. The following few years saw the emergence of John Broadus Watson (1878–1959) as a major player, publishing his dissertation on the relation between neurological development and learning in the white rat (1907, \"Psychological Review Monograph Supplement\"; Carr & Watson, 1908, \"J. Comparative Neurology & Psychology\"). Another important rat study was published by Henry H. Donaldson (1908, \"J. Comparative Neurology & Psychology\"). The year 1909 saw the first English-language account of Ivan Pavlov's studies of conditioning in dogs (Yerkes & Morgulis, 1909, \"Psychological Bulletin\"). A third factor was the rise of Watson to a position of significant power within the psychological community. In 1908, Watson was offered a junior position at Johns Hopkins by James Mark Baldwin. In addition", "", "In 1918, Jean Piaget (1896–1980) turned away from his early training in natural history and began post-doctoral work in psychoanalysis in Zurich. In 1919, he moved to Paris to work at the Binet-Simon Lab. However, Binet had died in 1911 and Simon lived and worked in Rouen. His supervision therefore came (indirectly) from Pierre Janet, Binet's old rival and a professor at the Collège de France. The job in Paris was relatively simple: to use the statistical techniques he had learned as a natural historian, studying molluscs, to standardize Cyril Burt's intelligence test", "In the early twentieth century, Ivan Pavlov's behavioral and conditioning experiments became the most internationally recognized Russian achievements. With the creation of the Soviet Union in 1922, Marxism was introduced as an overall philosophical and methodological framework in scientific research. In 1920s, state ideology promoted a tendency to the psychology of Bekhterev's reflexologist reductionism in its Marxist interpretation and to historical materialism, while idealistic philosophers and psychologists were harshly criticized. Another variation of Marxist version of psychology that got popularity mostly in Moscow and centered in the local Institute of Psychology was Konstantin Kornilov's (the Director of this Institute) reactology that became the main view, besides a small group of the members of the Vygotsky-Luria Circle", "Noam Chomsky's (1957) review of Skinner's book \"Verbal Behavior\" (that aimed to explain language acquisition in a behaviorist framework) is considered one of the major theoretical challenges to the type of radical (as in 'root') behaviorism that Skinner taught. Chomsky claimed that language could not be learned solely from the sort of operant conditioning that Skinner postulated. Chomsky's argument was that people could produce an infinite variety of sentences unique in structure and meaning and that these could not possibly be generated solely through experience of natural language. As an alternative, he concluded that there must be internal mental structures – states of mind of the sort that behaviorism rejected as illusory. The issue is not whether mental activities exist; it is whether they can be shown", "There are three \"primary journals\" where specialist histories of psychology are published: In addition, there are a large number of \"friendly journals\" where historical material can often be found. These are discussed in History of Psychology (discipline)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Formation and early years (1973–1987).", "Major label and mainstream success (1987–1997).", "Transitional challenges (1997 to 2001).", "Renewed popularity (2001–2009).", "Health concerns (2009–2010).", "Year off and \"Rewired\" (2011–2012).", "40th anniversary (2013–2014).", "\"The Story\" (2014–2017).", "\"The Last Dance\" and disbandment (2017–2018).", "Historical references.", "Discography." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The band was formed in 1973 with brothers Calum and Rory Macdonald and their friend Blair Douglas. Donnie Munro joined the following year and they started to expand outside their native Isle of Skye. Douglas left the band in late 1974 and was replaced by Robert Macdonald. This line-up continued until 1978, when Douglas re-joined and Malcolm Jones became guitarist, both displacing Robert Macdonald. In the same year, Runrig's first album, entitled \"Play Gaelic\", was released. All the songs were in Gaelic. It was re-released in 1990 as \"Play Gaelic, the first legendary recording\". In 1979, Blair Douglas left Runrig again to pursue a solo career. 1979 also saw the release of Runrig's second album, \"The Highland Connection\" on the band's own label, Ridge Records. A somewhat transitional album, it features wailing electric guitars and ballads. The album also included the original version of \"Loch Lomond\". A later version was to become their signature song and closing song at concerts. The third Runrig album, \"Recovery\" (released in 1981), was a thematic record dealing with the rise and politics of Scotland's Gaelic community. 1980 saw the arrival of drummer Iain Bayne (from Scottish folk/rock band New Celeste) and keyboard player Richard Cherns. In 1982, Runrig re-recorded \"Loch Lomond\" as their first single. They signed to a small label called Simple Records in 1984, and two singles were released. The first was \"Dance Called America\". A longer version of the second single \"Skye\" appeared on the Alba Records compilation \"A Feast Of Scottish Folk Music, Volume One\" along with an early version of \"Lifeline\", both of which were previously unreleased on albums, and \"Na h-Uain a's t-Earrach\" which was the B-side to \"Dance Called America\". The band then engaged the services of producer Chris Harley who brought to their recordings the benefit of his experience as a solo artist and a singer with The Alan Parsons Project and Camel. Runrig's fourth independent studio album, \"\"Heartland\"\" (released in 1985), combined Gaelic sounds with anthemic rock music. Richard Cherns left the band in February 1986 and was replaced by ex-Big Country member Pete Wishart.", "The period from 1987 to 1997 marked Runrig's most successful run, during which they achieved placings in both the UK albums and singles charts, and toured extensively. With (for the first time) major-label support (from Chrysalis), Runrig's fifth studio album, \"The Cutter and the Clan\" (1987), which had originally been released on the independent Ridge Records label before being re-released on Chrysalis, brought the band wider audiences in the United Kingdom, as well as in other parts of Europe. From 1987 to 1995, Runrig released a total of five studio albums through Chrysalis Records. Along with \"The Cutter and the Clan\", the other four albums were: \"Searchlight\" (1989), \"The Big Wheel\" (1991), \"Amazing Things\" (1993), and \"Mara\" (1995). On 22 June 1991, the band attracted around 50,000 people to an outdoor concert held in Balloch Country Park, near Loch Lomond. This was the largest number of people to attend a Runrig concert. Following the release of \"Mara\", lead singer Donnie Munro grew more involved in politics. In 1997, he left Runrig to stand for a seat in the House of Commons for the Labour Party. However, he was not elected. Runrig began searching for a new frontman, and in 1998 they announced their selection of Bruce Guthro, a singer-songwriter from Nova Scotia.", "Runrig's tenth album, \"In Search Of Angels\" (1999), was released amidst some uncertainty about the band's future. Since their contract with Chrysalis had ended, Runrig chose to release \"In Search Of Angels\" on their own label, Ridge Records. As a result, the record received much less promotion than the previous five, and sales were considerably smaller. Runrig was also faced with the challenge of acclimatising their fans to a new lead vocalist. The band toured extensively in support of the record, and in 2000, they also released a live album called \"Live at Celtic Connections 2000\", allowing fans to hear older Runrig songs sung by their new frontman. The year 2000 concluded with the release of an authorised songbook, \"Flower of the West – The Runrig Songbook\". The book included lyrics, sheet music, photographs, and background information for 115 of Runrig's songs – nearly every album track and single from the band's first ten studio albums.", "Having established that they could continue without Donnie Munro, Runrig set to work on their eleventh studio album. Among their independently-released studio albums, \"The Stamping Ground\" (2001) was Runrig's most successful. Moreover, critics who had given mixed reviews to \"In Search Of Angels\", praised \"The Stamping Ground\" as the quintessential Runrig album. The band continued to enjoy support in the UK, Germany, and Denmark. However, with a Canadian frontman, Runrig began finding new fans in Canada and the United States. In 2001, Pete Wishart, the band's keyboard player, left after being elected Member of Parliament for the constituency of Tayside North for the Scottish National Party. In the 2005 election he was again elected, this time for the new constituency of Perth and North Perthshire and again for the SNP. Brian Hurren stepped in to take Wishart's place in the band. Wishart has been re-elected in each subsequent general election, albeit with a very slim majority in 2017. The 2001 album \"The Stamping Ground\" was seen very much as a return to form after the lacklustre \"In Search Of Angels\" (1999), but 2003's \"Proterra\" divided opinion. In August 2003, Runrig played their 30th Anniversary concert on the esplanade at Stirling Castle, celebrating 30 years since the band's formation, and including visitors from previous line-ups, as well as guest artists including the Glasgow Islay Choir and Paul Mounsey. Runrig played their first U.S. concert, a benefit for the charity \"Glasgow the Caring City\", on 4 April 2006 at the Nokia Theatre in New York City. Founding member Blair Douglas joined the band onstage, playing accordion on several numbers. In the audience were fans from as far away as Texas, Alabama, Florida, Colorado, Minnesota, Norwich (England) and Scotland. While the bulk of their 2007 tour was scheduled for Denmark, Germany, and England, an outdoor show, titled \"Beat The Drum\", was held at Loch Ness on 18 August 2007. It was staged at Borlum Farm, Drumnadrochit and attended by 18,500 people in heavy rain. Because of the unusually large number of support acts, it had been likened to an all-day music festival, Runrig being the headline act. This was the first in what was to become a staple for Runrig – annually staging big outdoor shows in Scotland in summer. Runrig re-recorded \"Loch Lomond (Hampden Remix)\" to raise funds for the BBC's annual Children in Need appeal. This was released on 12 November [2007] and includes the 'Tartan Army' (Scotland's Hampden Football Supporters), including Rod Stewart, on backing vocals. It reached No. 9 in the UK Singles Chart. \"Loch Lomond (Hampden Remix)\" was named \"The Best Scottish Song Of All Time\" in November 2008. The band were presented the award by Lulu. On 5 December 2008, during the penultimate tour date at The Barrowlands, Glasgow, the band was inducted into the Scottish Traditional Music Hall Of Fame, by the Scottish Traditional Music Awards Director. On 29 August 2009, Runrig performed at Scone Palace for their third annual outdoor summer show (the second being at Edinburgh Castle in 2008). They were supported by acts such as the Peatbog Faeries, piper Fred Morrison, King Creosote, Kathleen Macinnes, and Blair Douglas (a former member of the group) and his band. Attendance numbered ~15,000.The show was part of Scotland's Year of Homecoming 2009. To underline this, First Minister Alex Salmond made an appearance on stage (introduced by his SNP colleague and former band member Pete Wishart), and launched an initiative called 'SconeStone.' This aims to promote Scotland as a kind and compassionate nation through the \"journey of kindness\" made by the SconeStone across the world. Its keepers, each holding it for a week before passing it on, are expected to undertake a good deed. Its first keeper was the Reverend Neil Galbraith, who was presented with the stone on the same day.", "In March 2009, guitarist Malcolm Jones suffered a heart attack in Edinburgh whilst running to catch a train. This forced the band to cancel a sizable tour of Austria, Switzerland, Denmark and Germany. After undergoing minor surgery, he took to the stage with Runrig again in May of the same year. During a routine check up with his doctors in June 2009, he was strongly advised to have heart bypass surgery, which forced the band to cancel a tour of Denmark. The operation was a success and, although the band was forced to cancel their show at the 35th Tønder Festival in Tønder, Denmark, Malcolm returned to the stage in late August 2009, at the band's big outdoor Scottish Homecoming show for 2009 at Scone Palace, Perthshire, Scotland. However, on 28 February 2010, just a week prior to an extensive German tour, it was announced that Malcolm would have to have yet another operation which in turn forced the band to cancel/postpone their Spring dates in Germany, due to start on 3 March 2010. In a statement released by the band on their official website they noted that Malcolm's health was \"good\" and that the problem was \"purely a technical one\". They also emphatically stated that \"All other concerts planned for 2010 will go ahead.\" It was announced that the winter tour scheduled for winter 2010 would be the last tour for a year with the band planning no concerts in 2011 so that they can focus on other projects. The final date for 2010 was in the Barrowland Ballroom, Glasgow which is traditionally where the band finishes their Scottish tours. In a statement released by the office, they promised it to be \"quite a party\". On 1 November 2010, the band released a four-disc compilation, entitled \"50 Great Songs\". The release includes both studio and live performances, focusing primarily upon Bruce Guthro's time within the band.", "After the end of the 2010 tour the band collectively made the decision to take a year off. Calum and Rory had been concentrating on a long gestating project outside of Runrig. The duo call themselves The Band from Rockall and released their debut album outside of Runrig at the end of April 2012. Keyboardist Brian Hurren also released his debut solo album, which he wrote, performed and produced himself, under the name \"A Hundred Thousand Welcomes\", the inspiration for the name coming from Bruce Guthro shouting the Gaelic equivalent of the phrase during \"Beat the Drum\" at Loch Ness. Guthro released another solo album, while drummer Iain Bayne was appointed manager of English folk-rock band Coast. The band re-united as a six-piece again in the summer of 2012 for the Rewired Tour, with the big Scottish outdoor show held in August at the Northern Meeting Park in Inverness.", "In November 2012, ahead of their planned Rewired Tour, the band announced a special 40th Anniversary Concert at the Black Isle Show Ground in Muir of Ord, near Inverness. The 40th Anniversary show was a weekend of live entertainment featuring'special guests', entitled \"Party on the Moor\". Shortly after that they announced another \"special\" concert at Edinburgh Castle in July, entitled \"Celebration in the City\". On 28 April 2013 (to mark Runrig's first ever concert 40 years earlier) Runrig released their first single in 5 years entitled \"And We'll Sing\". At Party on the Moor former members Donnie Munro and Pete Wishart performed onstage alongside the current lineup and Blair Douglas made an appearance via a short video highlighting the changes in the band's lineup since 1973. This was the first time Munro had performed with Runrig since 1997, and for many it was a powerful statement seeing Guthro and Munro singing together as there had been heated debates about who should be the band's frontman, and who was the better frontman among many fans and critics. The gig was hailed as a success by fans and critics many calling it one of the best concerts Runrig have ever staged. Bassist, Rory Macdonald said that \"in many ways, it was the perfect Runrig gig\" whilst drummer, Iain Bayne called it \"the culmination of a lifetime's work\". In late 2013 it was announced that Runrig would embark on a Spring 2014 tour of England to continue the 40th Anniversary celebrations. Entitled \"Party on the Tour\" it would \"draw inspiration\" from the Party on the Moor show. Alongside the English dates, several European music festivals were announced for 2014. In December 2013 it was officially confirmed that Party on the Moor would be released on DVD. In January further details for the DVD were released. On 31 March 2014 Runrig released the full, uncut concert on both DVD, CD and, for the first time ever for Runrig, Blu-ray.", "The band announced in issue 74 of The Wire magazine and on their official Twitter feed that they had begun work on their 14th studio album. It was also announced (informally) that to accommodate for the time it takes to write, record and produce an album they would not be playing any further live shows in 2014 after the Tønder Festival, due to be held on 28 and 29 August 2014. In the summer 2015 issue of The Wire it was revealed that the album would be called \"The Story\", and would be released in spring 2016. On 12 November 2015 the title track, and lead single, received its first radio play on BBC Radio nan Gàidheal. During an interview with the show's host Derek Murray, Calum Macdonald said that the upcoming album would likely be the last studio album that the band would release, also confirming the album's release date as 29 January 2016. On 13 November 2015, the single was released in both CD and digital download form accompanied by a music video. Shortly after the single was released, the band announced that along with a sizeable tour of the UK and Europe in 2016 they would both be headlining the 21st HebCelt Festival on the Isle of Lewis and staging an outdoor show at Edinburgh Castle in July 2016.", "On 26 September 2017 Runrig announced that after 45 years they would be \"pulling the curtain down\" on their music careers. The band announced one final tour named The Final Mile, taking part in Germany, Denmark and UK, ending with one final show in Stirling's City Park called \"The Last Dance\". Tickets for The Last Dance sold out in minutes and, after a few days of behind the scenes planning, Runrig announced another concert in the same location the night before. Tickets for this night sold out in less than six hours. It was a very emotional farewell, and the uncertain Scottish weather held out for their final rendition of \"Loch Lomond.\"", "Many of the band's songs include references to Scottish history or culture. These include the band's name itself – which is a reference to a pre-agricultural revolution farming practice, run rig.", "Studio albums" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Introduction.", "Wave equation in one space dimension.", "Derivation of the wave equation.", "From Hooke's law.", "Stress pulse in a bar.", "General solution.", "Algebraic approach.", "Plane wave eigenmodes.", "Scalar wave equation in three space dimensions.", "Spherical waves.", "Monochromatic spherical wave.", "Problems with boundaries.", "One space dimension.", "The Sturm–Liouville formulation.", "Investigation by numerical methods.", "Several space dimensions.", "Inhomogeneous wave equation in one dimension.", "Other coordinate systems.", "Further generalizations.", "Elastic waves.", "Dispersion relation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The wave equation is a partial differential equation that may constrain some scalar function of a time variable and one or more spatial variables. The quantity may be, for example, the pressure in a liquid or gas, or the displacement, along some specific direction, of the particles of a vibrating solid away from their resting positions. The equation is where \"c\" is a fixed non-negative real coefficient. Using the notations of Newtonian mechanics and vector calculus, the wave equation can be written more compactly as where formula_3 denotes double time derivative, ∇ is the nabla operator, and ∇ = ∇ · ∇ is the (spatial) Laplacian operator: A solution of this equation can be quite complicated, but it can be analyzed as a linear combination of simple solutions that are sinusoidal plane waves with various directions of propagation and wavelengths but all with the same propagation speed \"c\". This analysis is possible because the wave equation is linear; so that any multiple of a solution is also a solution, and the sum of any two solutions is again a solution. This property is called the superposition principle in physics. The wave equation alone does not specify a physical solution; a unique solution is usually obtained by setting a problem with further conditions, such as initial conditions, which prescribe the amplitude and phase of the wave. Another important class of problems occurs in enclosed spaces specified by boundary conditions, for which the solutions represent standing waves, or harmonics, analogous to the harmonics of musical instruments. The wave equation is the simplest example of a hyperbolic differential equation. It, and its modifications, play fundamental roles in continuum mechanics, quantum mechanics, plasma physics, general relativity, geophysics, and many other scientific and technical disciplines.", "The wave equation in one space dimension can be written as follows: This equation is typically described as having only one space dimension \"x\", because the only other independent variable is the time \"t\". Nevertheless, the dependent variable \"u\" may represent a second space dimension, if, for example, the displacement \"u\" takes place in y-direction, as in the case of a string that is located in the x–y plane.", "The wave equation in one space dimension can be derived in a variety of different physical settings. Most famously, it can be derived for the case of a string that is vibrating in a two-dimensional plane, with each of its elements being pulled in opposite directions by the force of tension. Another physical setting for derivation of the wave equation in one space dimension utilizes Hooke's Law. In the theory of elasticity, Hooke's Law is an approximation for certain materials, stating that the amount by which a material body is deformed (the strain) is linearly related to the force causing the deformation (the stress).", "The wave equation in the one-dimensional case can be derived from Hooke's Law in the following way: Imagine an array of little weights of mass \"m\" interconnected with massless springs of length \"h\". The springs have a spring constant of \"k\": Here the dependent variable \"u\"(\"x\") measures the distance from the equilibrium of the mass situated at \"x\", so that \"u(x)\" essentially measures the magnitude of a disturbance (i.e. strain) that is traveling in an elastic material. The forces exerted on the mass \"m\" at the location are: The equation of motion for the weight at the location is given by equating these two forces: where the time-dependence of \"u\"(\"x\") has been made explicit. If the array of weights consists of \"N\" weights spaced evenly over the length of total mass, and the total spring constant of the array we can write the above equation as: Taking the limit, and assuming smoothness one gets: which is from the definition of a second derivative. \"KL\"/\"M\" is the square of the propagation speed in this particular case.", "In the case of a stress pulse propagating longitudinally through a bar, the bar acts much like an infinite number of springs in series and can be taken as an extension of the equation derived for Hooke's law. A uniform bar, i.e. of constant cross-section, made from a linear elastic material has a stiffness \"K\" given by Where \"A\" is the cross-sectional area and \"E\" is the Young's modulus of the material. The wave equation becomes \"AL\" is equal to the volume of the bar and therefore where formula_13 is the density of the material. The wave equation reduces to The speed of a stress wave in a bar is therefore formula_15.", "", "The one-dimensional wave equation is unusual for a partial differential equation in that a relatively simple general solution may be found. Defining new variables: changes the wave equation into which leads to the general solution or equivalently: In other words, solutions of the 1D wave equation are sums of a right traveling function \"F\" and a left traveling function \"G\". \"Traveling\" means that the shape of these individual arbitrary functions with respect to \"x\" stays constant, however the functions are translated left and right with time at the speed \"c\". This was derived by Jean le Rond d'Alembert. Another way to arrive at this result is to note that the wave equation may be \"factored\": As a result, if we define \"v\" thus, then From this, \"v\" must have the form, and from this the correct form of the full solution \"u\" can be deduced. For an initial value problem, the arbitrary functions \"F\" and \"G\" can be determined to satisfy initial conditions: The result is d'Alembert's formula: In the classical sense if and then. However, the waveforms \"F\" and \"G\" may also be generalized functions, such as the delta-function. In that case, the solution may be interpreted as an impulse that travels to the right or the left. The basic wave equation is a linear differential equation and so it will adhere to the superposition principle. This means that the net displacement caused by two or more waves is the sum of the displacements which would have been caused by each wave individually. In addition, the behavior of a wave can be analyzed by breaking up the wave into components, e.g. the Fourier transform breaks up a wave into sinusoidal components.", "Another way to solve for the solutions to the one-dimensional wave equation is to first analyze its frequency eigenmodes. A so-called eigenmode is a solution that oscillates in time with a well-defined \"constant\" angular frequency formula_26, with which the temporal part of the wave function for such eigenmode takes a specific form formula_27. The rest of the wave function is then only dependent on the spatial variable formula_28, hence amounting to separation of variables. Now writing the wave function as we can obtain an ordinary differential equation for the spatial part formula_30 Therefore: which is precisely an eigenvalue equation for formula_30, hence the name eigenmode. It has the well-known plane wave solutions with wave number formula_35. The total wave function for this eigenmode is then the linear combination where complex numbers formula_37 depend in general on any initial and boundary conditions of the problem. Eigenmodes are useful in constructing a full solution to the wave equation, because each of them evolves in time trivially with the phase factor formula_38. so that a full solution can be decomposed into an eigenmode expansion or in terms of the plane waves, which is exactly in the same form as in the algebraic approach. Functions formula_41 are known as the Fourier component and are determined by initial and boundary conditions. This is a so-called frequency-domain method, alternative to direct time-domain propagations, such as FDTD method, of the wave packet formula_42, which is complete for representing waves in absence of time dilations. Completeness of the Fourier expansion for representing waves in the presence of time dilations has been challenged by chirp wave solutions allowing for time variation of formula_26. The chirp wave solutions seem particularly implied by very large but previously inexplicable radar residuals in the flyby anomaly, and differ from the sinusoidal solutions in being receivable at any distance only at proportionally shifted frequencies and time dilations, corresponding to past chirp states of the source.", "A solution of the initial-value problem for the wave equation in three space dimensions can be obtained from the corresponding solution for a spherical wave. The result can then be also used to obtain the same solution in two space dimensions.", "The wave equation can be solved using the technique of separation of variables. To obtain a solution with constant frequencies, let us first Fourier-transform the wave equation in time as So we get, This is the Helmholtz equation and can be solved using separation of variables. If spherical coordinates are used to describe a problem, then the solution to the angular part of the Helmholtz equation is given by spherical harmonics and the radial equation now becomes Here formula_47 and the complete solution is now given by where formula_49 and formula_50 are the spherical Hankel functions. To gain a better understanding of the nature of these spherical waves, let us go back and look at the case when formula_51. In this case, there is no angular dependence and the amplitude depends only on the radial distance i.e. formula_52. In this case, the wave equation reduces to This equation can be rewritten as where the quantity formula_55 satisfies the one-dimensional wave equation. Therefore, there are solutions in the form where \"F\" and \"G\" are general solutions to the one-dimensional wave equation, and can be interpreted as respectively an outgoing or incoming spherical wave. Such waves are generated by a point source, and they make possible sharp signals whose form is altered only by a decrease in amplitude as \"r\" increases (see an illustration of a spherical wave on the top right). Such waves exist only in cases of space with odd dimensions. For physical examples of non-spherical wave solutions to the 3D wave equation that do possess angular dependence, see dipole radiation.", "Although the word \"monochromatic\" is not exactly accurate since it refers to light or electromagnetic radiation with well-defined frequency, the spirit is to discover the eigenmode of the wave equation in three dimensions. Following the derivation in the previous section on Plane wave eigenmodes, if we again restrict our solutions to spherical waves that oscillate in time with well-defined \"constant\" angular frequency formula_57, then the transformed function formula_58 has simply plane wave solutions, or From this we can observe that the peak intensity of the spherical wave oscillation, characterized as the squared wave amplitude then", "", "", "A flexible string that is stretched between two points \"x\" = 0 and \"x\" = \"L\" satisfies the wave equation for \"t\" > 0 and 0 < \"x\" < \"L\". On the boundary points, \"u\" may satisfy a variety of boundary conditions. A general form that is appropriate for applications is where \"a\" and \"b\" are non-negative. The case where u is required to vanish at an endpoint is the limit of this condition when the respective \"a\" or \"b\" approaches infinity. The method of separation of variables consists in looking for solutions of this problem in the special form A consequence is that The eigenvalue \"λ\" must be determined so that there is a non-trivial solution of the boundary-value problem This is a special case of the general problem of Sturm–Liouville theory. If \"a\" and \"b\" are positive, the eigenvalues are all positive, and the solutions are trigonometric functions. A solution that satisfies square-integrable initial conditions for \"u\" and \"u\" can be obtained from expansion of these functions in the appropriate trigonometric series.", "Approximating the continuous string with a finite number of equidistant mass points one gets the following physical model: If each mass point has the mass \"m\", the tension of the string is \"f\", the separation between the mass points is Δ\"x\" and \"u\", \"i\" = 1,..., \"n\" are the offset of these \"n\" points from their equilibrium points (i.e. their position on a straight line between the two attachment points of the string) the vertical component of the force towards point is and the vertical component of the force towards point is Taking the sum of these two forces and dividing with the mass \"m\" one gets for the vertical motion: As the mass density is this can be written The wave equation is obtained by letting Δ\"x\" → 0 in which case \"u\"(\"t\") takes the form \"u\"(\"x\", \"t\") where \"u\"(\"x\", \"t\") is continuous function of two variables, formula_70 takes the form formula_71 and If the string is approximated with 100 discrete mass points one gets the 100 coupled second order differential equations (), () and () or equivalently 200 coupled first order differential equations. Propagating these up to the times using an 8th order multistep method the 6 states displayed in figure 2 are found: The red curve is the initial state at time zero at which the string is \"let free\" in a predefined shape with all formula_74. The blue curve is the state at time formula_75 i.e. after a time that corresponds to the time a wave that is moving with the nominal wave velocity formula_76 would need for one fourth of the length of the string. Figure 3 displays the shape of the string at the times formula_77. The wave travels in direction right with the speed formula_78 without being actively constraint by the boundary conditions at the two extremes of the string. The shape of the wave is constant, i.e. the curve is indeed of the form. Figure 4 displays the shape of the string at the times formula_79. The constraint on the right extreme starts to interfere with the motion preventing the wave to raise the end of the string. Figure 5 displays the shape of the string at the times formula_80 when the direction of motion is reversed. The red, green and blue curves are the states at the times formula_81 while the 3 black curves correspond to the states at times formula_82 with the wave starting to move back towards left. Figure 6 and figure 7 finally display the shape of the string at the times formula_83 and formula_84. The wave now travels towards left and the constraints at the end points are not active any more. When finally the other extreme of the string the direction will again be reversed in a way similar to what is displayed in figure 6.", "The one-dimensional initial-boundary value theory may be extended to an arbitrary number of space dimensions. Consider a domain \"D\" in \"m\"-dimensional \"x\" space, with boundary \"B\". Then the wave equation is to be satisfied if \"x\" is in \"D\" and \"t\" > 0. On the boundary of \"D\", the solution \"u\" shall satisfy where \"n\" is the unit outward normal to \"B\", and \"a\" is a non-negative function defined on \"B\". The case where \"u\" vanishes on \"B\" is a limiting case for \"a\" approaching infinity. The initial conditions are where \"f\" and \"g\" are defined in \"D\". This problem may be solved by expanding \"f\" and \"g\" in the eigenfunctions of the Laplacian in \"D\", which satisfy the boundary conditions. Thus the eigenfunction \"v\" satisfies in \"D\", and on \"B\". In the case of two space dimensions, the eigenfunctions may be interpreted as the modes of vibration of a drumhead stretched over the boundary \"B\". If \"B\" is a circle, then these eigenfunctions have an angular component that is a trigonometric function of the polar angle \"θ\", multiplied by a Bessel function (of integer order) of the radial component. Further details are in Helmholtz equation. If the boundary is a sphere in three space dimensions, the angular components of the eigenfunctions are spherical harmonics, and the radial components are Bessel functions of half-integer order.", "The inhomogeneous wave equation in one dimension is the following: with initial conditions given by The function \"s\"(\"x\", \"t\") is often called the source function because in practice it describes the effects of the sources of waves on the medium carrying them. Physical examples of source functions include the force driving a wave on a string, or the charge or current density in the Lorenz gauge of electromagnetism. One method to solve the initial value problem (with the initial values as posed above) is to take advantage of a special property of the wave equation in an odd number of space dimensions, namely that its solutions respect causality. That is, for any point, the value of depends only on the values of and and the values of the function \"g\"(\"x\") between and. This can be seen in d'Alembert's formula, stated above, where these quantities are the only ones that show up in it. Physically, if the maximum propagation speed is \"c\", then no part of the wave that can't propagate to a given point by a given time can affect the amplitude at the same point and time. In terms of finding a solution, this causality property means that for any given point on the line being considered, the only area that needs to be considered is the area encompassing all the points that could causally affect the point being considered. Denote the area that casually affects point as \"R\". Suppose we integrate the inhomogeneous wave equation over this region. To simplify this greatly, we can use Green's theorem to simplify the left side to get the following: The left side is now the sum of three line integrals along the bounds of the causality region. These turn out to be fairly easy to compute In the above, the term to be integrated with respect to time disappears because the time interval involved is zero, thus \"dt\" = 0. For the other two sides of the region, it is worth noting that is a constant, namely, where the sign is chosen appropriately. Using this, we can get the relation, again choosing the right sign: And similarly for the final boundary segment: Adding the three results together and putting them back in the original integral: Solving for \"u\"(\"x\", \"t\") we arrive at In the last equation of the sequence, the bounds of the integral over the source function have been made explicit. Looking at this solution, which is valid for all choices compatible with the wave equation, it is clear that the first two terms are simply d'Alembert's formula, as stated above as the solution of the homogeneous wave equation in one dimension. The difference is in the third term, the integral over the source.", "In three dimensions, the wave equation, when written in elliptic cylindrical coordinates, may be solved by separation of variables, leading to the Mathieu differential equation.", "", "The elastic wave equation (also known as the Navier-Cauchy equation) in three dimensions describes the propagation of waves in an isotropic homogeneous elastic medium. Most solid materials are elastic, so this equation describes such phenomena as seismic waves in the Earth and ultrasonic waves used to detect flaws in materials. While linear, this equation has a more complex form than the equations given above, as it must account for both longitudinal and transverse motion: where: By using formula_100 the elastic wave equation can be rewritten into the more common form of the Navier-Cauchy equation. Note that in the elastic wave equation, both force and displacement are vector quantities. Thus, this equation is sometimes known as the vector wave equation. As an aid to understanding, the reader will observe that if f and are set to zero, this becomes (effectively) Maxwell's equation for the propagation of the electric field E, which has only transverse waves.", "In dispersive wave phenomena, the speed of wave propagation varies with the wavelength of the wave, which is reflected by a dispersion relation where \"ω\" is the angular frequency and k is the wavevector describing plane wave solutions. For light waves, the dispersion relation is, but in general, the constant speed \"c\" gets replaced by a variable phase velocity:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "History.", "Theology.", "Revelation and scripture.", "Covenant theology.", "God.", "Christ and atonement.", "Sin.", "Salvation.", "Predestination.", "Five points of Calvinism.", "Church.", "Worship.", "Regulative principle of worship.", "Sacraments.", "Logical order of God's decree.", "Reformed Churches.", "Continental Reformed Churches.", "Congregational Churches.", "Presbyterian Churches.", "Evangelical Anglicanism.", "Reformed Baptist Churches.", "Variants in Reformed theology.", "Amyraldism.", "Hyper-Calvinism.", "Neo-Calvinism.", "Christian Reconstructionism.", "New Calvinism.", "Social and economic influences.", "Politics and society." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Calvinism is named after John Calvin. It was first used by a Lutheran theologian in 1552. It was a common practice of the Roman Catholic Church to name what it viewed as heresy after its founder. Nevertheless, the term first came out of Lutheran circles. Calvin denounced the designation himself: Despite its negative connotation, this designation became increasingly popular in order to distinguish Calvinists from Lutherans and from newer Protestant branches that emerged later. The vast majority of churches that trace their history back to Calvin (including Presbyterians, Congregationalists, and a row of other Calvinist churches) do not use it", "First-generation Reformed theologians include Huldrych Zwingli (1484–1531), Martin Bucer (1491–1551), Wolfgang Capito (1478–1541), John Oecolampadius (1482–1531), and Guillaume Farel (1489–1565). These reformers came from diverse academic backgrounds, but later distinctions within Reformed theology can already be detected in their thought, especially the priority of scripture as a source of authority. Scripture was also viewed as a unified whole, which led to a covenantal theology of the sacraments of baptism and the Lord's Supper as visible signs of the covenant of grace. Another Reformed distinctive present in these theologians was their denial of the bodily presence of Christ in the Lord's supper. Each of these theologians also understood salvation to be by grace alone, and affirmed a doctrine of particular election (the teaching that some people are chosen by God for salvation). Martin Luther and his successor Philipp Melanchthon were undoubtedly significant influences on these theologians, and to a larger extent later Reformed theologians. The doctrine of justification by faith alone was a direct inheritance from Luther. John Calvin (1509–64), Heinrich Bullinger (1504–75), Wolfgang Musculus (1497–1563), Peter Martyr Vermigli (1500–62), and Andreas Hyperius (1511–64) belong to the second generation of Reformed theologians. Calvin's \"Institutes of the Christian Religion\" (1536–59) was one of the most influential theologies of the era. Toward the middle of the 16th century, the Reformed began to commit their beliefs to confessions of faith, which would shape the future definition of the Reformed faith. The 1549 \"Consensus Tigurinus\" brought together those who followed Zwingli and Bullinger's memorialist theology of the Lord's supper, which taught that the supper simply serves as a reminder of Christ's death, and Calvin's view that the supper serves as a means of grace with Christ actually present, though spiritually rather than bodily. The document demonstrates the diversity as well as unity in early Reformed theology. The remainder of the 16th century saw an explosion of confessional activity. The stability and breadth of Reformed theology during this period stand in marked contrast to the bitter controversy experienced by Lutherans prior to the 1579 Formula of Concord. Due to Calvin's missionary work in France, his programme of reform eventually reached the French-speaking provinces of the Netherlands. Calvinism was adopted in the Electorate of the Palatinate under Frederick III, which led to the formulation of the Heidelberg Catechism in 1563, and in Navarre by Jeanne d'Albret. This and the Belgic Confession were adopted as confessional standards in the first synod of the Dutch Reformed Church in 1571. Leading divines, either Calvinist or those sympathetic to Calvinism, settled in England (Martin Bucer, Peter Martyr, and Jan Łaski) and Scotland (John Knox). During the English Civil War, the Calvinistic Puritans produced the Westminster Confession, which became the confessional standard for Presbyterians in the English-speaking world. Having established itself in Europe, the movement continued to spread to other parts of the world, including North America, South Africa, and Korea. Calvin did not live to see the foundation of his work grow into an international movement; but his death allowed his ideas to break out of their city of origin, to succeed far beyond their borders, and to establish their own distinct character.", "", "Reformed theologians believe that God communicates knowledge of himself to people through the Word of God. People are not able to know anything about God except through this self-revelation. Speculation about anything which God has not revealed through his Word is not warranted. The knowledge people have of God is different from that which they have of anything else because God is infinite, and finite people are incapable of comprehending an infinite being. While the knowledge revealed by God to people is never incorrect, it is also never comprehensive. According to Reformed theologians, God's self-revelation is always through his son Jesus Christ, because Christ is the only mediator between God and people. Revelation of God through Christ comes through two basic channels. The first is creation and providence, which is God's creating and continuing to work in the world. This action of God gives everyone knowledge about God, but this knowledge is only sufficient to make people culpable for their sin; it does not include knowledge of the gospel. The second channel through which God reveals himself is redemption, which is the gospel of", "Reformed theologians use the concept of covenant to describe the way God enters fellowship with people in history. The concept of covenant is so prominent in Reformed theology that Reformed theology as a whole is sometimes called \"covenant theology\". However, sixteenth and seventeenth-century theologians developed a particular theological system called \"covenant theology\" or \"federal theology\" which many conservative Reformed churches continue to affirm today. This framework orders God's life with people primarily in two covenants: the covenant of works and the covenant of grace. The covenant of works is made with Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden. The terms of the covenant are that God provides a blessed life in the garden on condition that Adam and Eve obey God's law perfectly. Because Adam and Eve broke the covenant by eating the forbidden fruit, they became subject to death and were banished from the garden. This sin was passed down", "For the most part, the Reformed tradition did not modify the medieval consensus on the doctrine of God. God's character is described primarily using three adjectives: eternal, infinite, and unchangeable. Reformed theologians such as Shirley Guthrie have proposed that rather than conceiving of God in terms of his attributes and freedom to do as he pleases, the doctrine of God is to be based on God's work in history and his freedom to live with and empower people. Traditionally, Reformed theologians have also followed the medieval tradition going back to before the early church councils of Nicaea and Chalcedon on the doctrine of the Trinity. God is affirmed to be one God in", "Reformed theologians affirm the historic Christian belief that Christ is eternally one person with a divine and a human nature. Reformed Christians have especially emphasized that Christ truly became human so that people could be saved. Christ's human nature has been a point of contention between Reformed and Lutheran Christology. In accord with the belief that finite humans cannot comprehend infinite divinity, Reformed theologians hold that Christ's human body cannot be in multiple locations at the same time. Because Lutherans believe that Christ is bodily present in the Eucharist, they hold that Christ is bodily present in many locations simultaneously. For Reformed Christians, such a belief denies that Christ actually became human. Some contemporary Reformed theologians have moved away from the traditional language of one person in two natures, viewing it as unintelligible to contemporary people. Instead, theologians tend to emphasize Jesus' context and particularity", "In Christian theology, people are created good and in the image of God but have become corrupted by sin, which causes them to be imperfect and overly self-interested. Reformed Christians, following the tradition of Augustine of Hippo, believe that this corruption of human nature was brought on by Adam and Eve's first sin, a doctrine called original sin. Although earlier Christian authors taught the elements of physical death, moral weakness, and a sin propensity within original sin, Augustine was the first Christian to add the concept of inherited guilt (\"reatus\") from Adam whereby every infant is born eternally damned and humans lack any residual", "Reformed theologians, along with other Protestants, believe salvation from punishment for sin is to be given to all those who have faith in Christ. Faith is not purely intellectual, but involves trust in God's promise to save. Protestants do not hold there to be any other requirement for salvation, but that faith alone is sufficient. Justification is the part of salvation where God pardons the sin of those who believe in Christ. It is historically held by Protestants to be the most important article of", "Reformed theologians teach that sin so affects human nature that they are unable even to exercise faith in Christ by their own will. While people are said to retain will, in that they willfully sin, they are unable not to sin because of the corruption of their nature due to original sin. Reformed Christians believe that God predestined some people to be saved and others were predestined to eternal damnation. This choice by God to save some is held to be unconditional and not based on any characteristic or action on the part of", "Most objections to and attacks on Calvinism focus on the \"five points of Calvinism\", also called the doctrines of grace, and remembered by the mnemonic \"TULIP\". The five points are popularly said to summarize the Canons of Dort; however, there is no historical relationship between them, and some scholars argue that their language distorts the meaning of the Canons, Calvin's theology, and the theology of 17th-century Calvinistic orthodoxy, particularly in the language of total depravity and limited atonement. The five points were more recently popularized in the 1963 booklet \"The Five Points of Calvinism Defined, Defended, Documented\" by David N. Steele and Curtis C. Thomas. The origins of", "Reformed Christians see the Christian Church as the community with which God has made the covenant of grace, a promise of eternal life and relationship with God. This covenant extends to those under the \"old covenant\" whom God chose, beginning with Abraham and Sarah. The church is conceived of as both invisible and visible. The invisible church is the body of all believers, known only to God. The visible church is the institutional body which contains both", "", "The regulative principle of worship is a teaching shared by some Calvinists and Anabaptists on how the Bible orders public worship. The substance of the doctrine regarding worship is that God institutes in the Scriptures everything he requires for worship in the Church and that everything else is prohibited. As the regulative principle is reflected in Calvin's own thought, it is driven by his evident antipathy toward the Roman Catholic Church and its worship practices, and it associates musical instruments with icons, which he considered violations of the Ten Commandments' prohibition of graven images. On this basis, many early Calvinists also eschewed musical instruments and", "The Westminster Confession of Faith limits the sacraments to baptism and the Lord's Supper. Sacraments are denoted \"signs and seals of the covenant of grace.\" Westminster speaks of \"a sacramental relation, or a sacramental union, between the sign and the thing signified; whence it comes to pass that the names and effects of the one are attributed to the other.\" Baptism is for infant children of believers as well as believers, as it is for all the Reformed except Baptists and some Congregationalists. Baptism admits the baptized into the visible church, and in it all the benefits of Christ are offered to the baptized. On the Lord's supper, Westminster takes a position between Lutheran sacramental union and Zwinglian memorialism: \"the", "There are two schools of thought regarding the logical order of God's decree to ordain the fall of man: supralapsarianism (from the Latin: \"supra\", \"above\", here meaning \"before\" + \"lapsus\", \"fall\") and infralapsarianism (from the Latin: \"infra\", \"beneath\", here meaning \"after\" + \"lapsus\", \"fall\"). The former view, sometimes called \"high Calvinism\", argues that the Fall occurred partly to facilitate God's purpose to choose some individuals for salvation and some for damnation. Infralapsarianism, sometimes called \"low Calvinism\", is the position that, while the Fall was indeed planned, it was not planned with reference to who would be saved. Supralapsarians believe that God chose which individuals to save logically prior to the decision to allow the race to fall and that the Fall", "The Reformed tradition is largely represented by the Continental Reformed, Presbyterian, Evangelical Anglican, Congregationalist, and Reformed Baptist denominational families.", "Considered to be the most oldest and orthodox bearers of the Reformed faith, the continental Reformed Churches uphold the Helvetic Confessions and", "The Congregational Churches are a part of the Reformed tradition founded under the influence of New England Puritanism. The", "The Presbyterian Churches are a part of the Reformed tradition and were", "Historic Anglicanism is a part of the wider Reformed tradition, as \"the founding documents of the Anglican church—the Book of Homilies, the Book of Common", "Reformed Baptist Churches, also known as Primitive Baptist Churches, are Baptists (a Christian denominational", "", "Amyraldism (or sometimes Amyraldianism, also known as the School of Saumur, hypothetical universalism, post redemptionism, moderate Calvinism, or four-point Calvinism) is the belief that God, prior to his decree of election, decreed Christ's atonement for all alike if they believe, but seeing that none would believe on their own, he then elected", "Hyper-Calvinism first referred to a view that appeared among the early English Particular Baptists in the 18th century. Their system denied that the call of the gospel to \"repent and believe\" is directed to every single person and that it is the duty of every person to trust in Christ for salvation.", "Neo-Calvinism, a form of Dutch Calvinism, is the movement initiated by the theologian and former Dutch prime minister Abraham Kuyper. James Bratt has identified a number of different types of Dutch Calvinism: The Seceders—split into the Reformed Church \"West\" and the Confessionalists; and the Neo-Calvinists—the Positives and the Antithetical Calvinists. The Seceders", "Christian Reconstructionism is a fundamentalist Calvinist theonomic movement that has remained rather obscure. Founded by R. J. Rushdoony, the movement has had an important influence on the Christian Right in the United States. The movement declined in the 1990s and was", "New Calvinism is a growing perspective within conservative Evangelicalism that embraces the fundamentals of 16th century Calvinism while also trying to be relevant in the present day world. In March 2009, \"Time\" magazine described the New Calvinism as", "Calvin expressed himself on usury in a 1545 letter to a friend, Claude de Sachin, in which he criticized the use of certain passages of scripture invoked by people opposed to the charging of interest. He reinterpreted some of these passages, and suggested that others of them had been rendered irrelevant by changed conditions. He also dismissed the argument (based upon", "Calvin's concepts of God and man led to ideas which were gradually put into practice after his death, in particular in the fields of politics and society. After their fight for independence from Spain (1579), the Netherlands, under Calvinist leadership, granted asylum to religious minorities, e.g. French Huguenots, English Independents (Congregationalists), and Jews from Spain and Portugal. The ancestors of the philosopher Baruch Spinoza were Portuguese Jews. Aware of the trial against Galileo, René Descartes lived in the Netherlands, out of reach of the Inquisition, from 1628 to 1649. Pierre Bayle, a Reformed Frenchman, also felt safer in the Netherlands than in his home country. He was the first prominent philosopher who demanded tolerance for atheists. Hugo Grotius (1583-1645) was able to publish a rather liberal interpretation of the Bible and his ideas about natural law in the Netherlands. Moreover, the Calvinist Dutch authorities allowed the printing of books that could not be published elsewhere, such as Galileo's \"Discorsi\" (1638). Alongside the liberal development of the Netherlands came the rise of modern democracy in England and North America. In the Middle Ages, state and church had been closely connected. Martin Luther's doctrine of the two kingdoms separated state and church in principle. His doctrine of the priesthood of all believers raised the laity to the same level as the clergy. Going one step further, Calvin included elected laymen (church elders, presbyters) in his concept of church government. The Huguenots added synods whose members were also elected by the congregations. The other Reformed churches took over this system of church self-government, which was essentially a representative democracy. Baptists, Quakers, and Methodists are organized in a similar way. These denominations and the Anglican Church were influenced by Calvin's theology in varying degrees. In another factor in the rise of democracy in the Anglo-American world, Calvin favored a mixture of democracy and aristocracy as the best form of government (mixed government). He appreciated the advantages of democracy. His political thought aimed to safeguard the rights and freedoms of ordinary men and women. In order to minimize the misuse of political power he suggested dividing it among several institutions in a system of checks and balances (separation of powers). Finally, Calvin taught that if worldly rulers rise up against God they should be put down. In this way, he and his followers stood in the vanguard of resistance to political absolutism and furthered the cause of democracy. The Congregationalists who founded Plymouth Colony (1620) and Massachusetts Bay Colony (1628) were convinced that the democratic form of government was the will of God. Enjoying self-rule, they practiced separation of powers. Rhode Island, Connecticut, and Pennsylvania, founded by Roger Williams, Thomas Hooker, and William Penn, respectively, combined democratic government with freedom of religion. These colonies became safe havens for persecuted religious minorities, including Jews. In England, Baptists Thomas Helwys ( 1575 – 1616),and John Smyth ( 1554 – ) influenced the liberal political thought of the Presbyterian poet and politician John Milton (1608-1674) and of the philosopher John Locke (1632-1704), who in turn had both a strong impact on the political development in their home country (English Civil War of 1642–1651), Glorious Revolution of 1688) as well as in North America. The ideological basis of the American Revolution was largely provided by the radical Whigs, who had been inspired by Milton, Locke, James Harrington (1611-1677), Algernon Sidney (1623-1683), and other thinkers. The Whigs' \"perceptions of politics attracted widespread support in America because they revived the traditional concerns of a Protestantism that had always verged on Puritanism\". The United States Declaration of Independence, the United States Constitution and (American) Bill of Rights initiated a tradition of human and civil rights that continued in the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen and the constitutions of numerous countries around the world, e. g. Latin America, Japan, India, Germany, and other European countries. It is also echoed in the United Nations Charter and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. In the nineteenth century, churches based on or influenced by Calvin's theology became deeply involved in social reforms, e.g. the abolition of slavery (William Wilberforce, Harriet Beecher Stowe, Abraham Lincoln, and others), women suffrage, and prison reforms. Members of these churches formed co-operatives to help the impoverished masses. The founders of the Red Cross Movement, including Henry Dunant, were Reformed Christians. Their movement also initiated the Geneva Conventions. Some sources would view Calvinist influence as not always being solely positive. The Boers and Afrikaner Calvinists combined ideas from Calvinism and Kuyperian theology to justify apartheid in South Africa. As late as 1974 the majority of the Dutch Reformed Church in South Africa was convinced that their theological stances (including the story of the Tower of Babel) could justify apartheid. In 1990 the Dutch Reformed Church document \"Church and Society\" maintained that although they were changing their stance on apartheid, they believed that within apartheid and under God's sovereign guidance, \"...everything was not without significance, but was of service to the Kingdom of God.\" These views were not universal and were condemned by many Calvinists outside South Africa. Pressure from both outside and inside the Dutch Reformed Calvinist church helped reverse apartheid in South Africa. Throughout the world, the Reformed churches operate hospitals, homes for handicapped or elderly people, and educational institutions on all levels. For example, American Congregationalists founded Harvard (1636), Yale (1701), and about a dozen other colleges." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Maltese euro designs.", "Design selection process.", "Mintage quantities.", "Mints.", "Other commemorative coins (Collectors' coins)." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "For images of the common side and a detailed description of the coins, see euro coins.", "The selection of the designs of the coins was decided by public consultation in two rounds. The first round of the consultation process started on 14 January 2006 and ended on 29 January 2006. During this period the Maltese public could participate in the process by choosing from a total of twelve options, divided into four design themes – Prehistoric Malta, Renaissance Malta, The Maltese Identity and The Maltese Archipelago. Three different options were presented for each theme. The results of the first round voting were The Baptism of Christ in St John’s Co-Cathedral (3498 votes), Malta’s Coat of Arms (2742 votes) and Mnajdra Temple Altar (1872 votes). Another design, The Fort St. Angelo option, received 2037 votes, but was not included as one of the three chosen options, since the Baptism of Christ received the most votes in that theme. Along with the visual design options, the public was also given several alternative options, which were voted on in the same manner. The first and second most popular suggestions made by the public were the Maltese cross and Dun Karm, respectively on the Maltese euro coin set. The Steering Committee for the adoption of the euro ultimately decided to include the most popular suggestion, the Maltese Cross, with the three chosen by the public. These four finalists were then sent to a designer (Noel Galea Bason) and four designs were rendered for the second round of voting. During the second phase, running from 29 May until 9 June 2006, the public was asked to choose the actual designs for the euro coins from the four mock ups produced by the designer. The three designs with the highest number of votes would then become the final design for the Maltese face of the euro coin set. The results of the second round were Maltese cross, followed by the Coat of arms of Malta and the Mnajdra Temples. The Central Bank of Malta released the final designs of the euro coins on 19 February 2007. On 23 October 2007, the designs were officially published in the Official Journal of the European Union.", "", "2008, 2016-2018: France 2010-2015: Netherlands", "Malta joined the Eurozone in 2008 and they have minted several collectors' coins in silver and gold. Their face value range from 10 to 50 euro. This is mainly done as a legacy of old national practice of minting gold and silver coins. These coins are not intended to be used as means of payment, so they do not circulate." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Early life and education.", "Title and heirs.", "Scandals and imprisonment.", "Return to freedom, delegate to the National Convention, and imprisonment.", "Imprisonment for his writings and death.", "Appraisal and criticism.", "Influence.", "Cultural depictions.", "Writing.", "Literary criticism.", "Libertine novels.", "Short fiction." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "De Sade was born on 2 June 1740, in the Hôtel de Condé, Paris, to Jean Baptiste François Joseph, Count de Sade and Marie Eléonore de Maillé de Carman, distant cousin and Lady-in-waiting to the Princess of Condé. He was his parents' only surviving child. He was educated by an uncle, the Abbé de Sade. In Sade's youth, his father abandoned the family; his mother joined a convent. He was raised by servants who indulged \"his every whim,\" which led to his becoming \"known as a rebellious and spoiled child with an ever-growing temper.\" Later in his childhood, Sade was sent to the Lycée Louis-le-Grand in Paris, a Jesuit college, for four years. While at the school, he was tutored by Abbé Jacques-François Amblet, a priest. Later", "The men of the Sade family alternated between using the \"marquis\" and \"comte\" (count) titles. His grandfather, Gaspard François de Sade, was the first to use \"marquis\"; occasionally, he was the \"Marquis de Sade\", but is identified in documents as the \"Marquis de Mazan\". The Sade family were \"noblesse d'épée\", claiming at the time the oldest, Frank-descended nobility, so assuming a noble title without a King's grant, was customarily \"de rigueur\". Alternating title usage indicates that titular hierarchy (below \"duc et pair\") was notional; theoretically, the \"marquis\" title was granted to noblemen owning \"several\" countships, but its use by men of dubious lineage caused its disrepute. At Court, precedence was by seniority and royal favor, not title. There is father-and-son correspondence, wherein", "Sade lived a scandalous libertine existence and repeatedly procured young prostitutes as well as employees of both sexes in his castle in Lacoste. He was also accused of blasphemy, a serious offense. His behavior also included an affair with his wife's sister, Anne-Prospère, who had come to live at the castle. Beginning in 1763, Sade lived mainly in or near Paris. Several prostitutes there complained about mistreatment by him and he was put under surveillance by the police, who made detailed reports of his activities. After several short imprisonments, which included a brief incarceration in the Château de Saumur (then a prison), he was exiled to his château at Lacoste in 1768. The first major scandal occurred on Easter Sunday in 1768, in which Sade procured the services of a woman,", "During Sade's time of freedom, beginning in 1790, he published several of his books anonymously. He met Marie-Constance Quesnet, a former actress with a six-year-old son, who had been abandoned by her husband. Constance and Sade stayed together for the rest of his life. He initially adapted the new political order after the revolution, supported the Republic, called himself \"Citizen Sade\", and managed to obtain several official positions despite his aristocratic background. Because of the damage done to his estate in Lacoste, which was sacked in 1789 by an angry mob, he moved to Paris. In 1790, he was elected to the National Convention, where he represented the far left. He was a member of the Piques section, notorious for", "In 1801, Napoleon Bonaparte ordered the arrest of the anonymous author of \"Justine\" and \"Juliette\". Sade was arrested at his publisher's office and imprisoned without trial; first in the Sainte-Pélagie Prison and, following allegations that he had tried to seduce young fellow prisoners there, in the harsh Bicêtre Asylum. After intervention by his family, he was declared insane in 1803 and transferred once more to the Charenton Asylum. His ex-wife and children had agreed to pay his pension there. Constance, pretending to be his relative, was allowed to live with him at Charenton. The director of the institution, Abbé de Coulmier, allowed and encouraged him to stage several of", "Numerous writers and artists, especially those concerned with sexuality, have been both repelled and fascinated by Sade. He has garnered the title of rapist and pedophile, and critics have debated whether his work has any redeeming value. An article in \"The Independent\", a British online newspaper, gives contrasting views: the French novelist Pierre Guyotat said, \"Sade is, in a way, our Shakespeare. He has the same sense of tragedy, the same sweeping grandeur\" while anarchist philosopher Michel Onfray said, \"it is intellectually bizarre to make Sade a hero... Even according to his most hero-worshipping biographers, this man was a sexual delinquent\". The contemporary rival pornographer Rétif de la Bretonne published an \"Anti-Justine\" in 1798. Geoffrey Gorer, an English anthropologist and author (1905–1985), wrote one of the earliest books on Sade, entitled \"The Revolutionary Ideas of the Marquis de Sade\" in 1935. He pointed out that Sade was in complete opposition to contemporary philosophers for both his \"complete and continual denial of the right to property\" and for viewing the struggle in late 18th century French society as being not between \"the Crown, the bourgeoisie, the aristocracy or the clergy, or sectional interests of any of these against one another\", but rather all of these \"more or less united against the proletariat.\" By holding these views, he cut himself off entirely from the revolutionary thinkers of his time to join those of the mid-nineteenth century. Thus, Gorer argued, \"he can with some justice be called the first reasoned socialist.\" Simone de Beauvoir (in her essay \"Must we burn Sade?\", published in \"Les Temps modernes\", December 1951 and January 1952) and other writers have attempted to locate traces of a radical philosophy of freedom in Sade's writings, preceding modern existentialism by some 150 years. He has also been seen as a precursor of Sigmund Freud's psychoanalysis in his focus on sexuality as a motive force. The surrealists admired him as one of their forerunners, and Guillaume Apollinaire famously called him \"the freest spirit that has yet existed\". Pierre Klossowski, in his 1947 book \"Sade Mon Prochain\" (\"Sade My Neighbour\"), analyzes Sade's philosophy as a precursor of nihilism, negating Christian values and the materialism of", "Sexual sadism disorder, a mental condition named after Sade, has been defined as experiencing sexual arousal in response to extreme pain, suffering or humiliation done \"non-consensually\" to others (as described in Sade's novels). Other terms have been used to describe the condition, which may overlap with other sexual preferences that also involve inflicting pain. It is distinct from situations where \"consenting\" individuals use mild or simulated pain or humiliation for sexual excitement. Various influential cultural figures have expressed a great interest in Sade's work, including the French philosopher Michel Foucault, the American film maker John Waters and the Spanish filmmaker Jesús Franco. The poet Algernon Charles Swinburne is also said to have been highly influenced by Sade. Nikos Nikolaidis' 1979 film \"The Wretches Are Still Singing\" was shot in a surreal way with a predilection for the aesthetics of the Marquis de Sade; Sade is said to have influenced Romantic and Decadent authors such as Charles Baudelaire, Gustave Flaubert, and Rachilde; and to have influenced a growing popularity of nihilism in Western thought. Sade's notions on strength and weakness", "There have been many and varied references to the Marquis de Sade in popular culture, including fictional works and biographies. The eponym of the psychological and subcultural term \"sadism\", his name is used variously to evoke sexual violence, licentiousness, and freedom of speech. In modern culture his works are simultaneously viewed as masterful analyses of how power and economics work, and as erotica. On a conventional moral view in Sade's time as today, Sade was incarcerated because his predilection for sexual and corporal abuse of vulnerable individuals made him a serious danger to the public. On the other hand, it could be argued that Sade's sexually explicit works were a medium for the articulation but also for the exposure of the corrupt and hypocritical values of the elite in his society, and that it was primarily this inconvenient and embarrassing satire that led to his long-term detention. On the second view he becomes a symbol of the artist's struggle with the censor and that of the moral philosopher with the constraints of conventional morality. Sade's use of pornographic devices to create provocative works that subvert the prevailing moral values of his time inspired many other artists in a variety of media. The cruelties depicted in his works gave rise to the concept of sadism. Sade's works have to this day been kept alive by certain artists and intellectuals because they themselves espouse a philosophy of extreme individualism. But Sade's life was lived in flat contradiction and breach of Kant's injunction to treat others as ends in themselves and never merely as means to an agent's own ends. In the late 20th century, there was a resurgence of interest in Sade; leading French intellectuals like Roland Barthes, Jacques Lacan, Jacques Derrida, and Michel Foucault published studies of the philosopher, and interest in", "", "The Marquis de Sade viewed Gothic fiction as a genre that relied heavily on magic and phantasmagoria. In his literary criticism Sade sought to prevent his fiction from being labeled \"Gothic\" by emphasizing Gothic's supernatural aspects as the fundamental difference from themes in his own work. But while he sought this separation he believed the Gothic played a necessary role in society and discussed its roots and its uses. He wrote that the Gothic novel was a perfectly natural, predictable consequence of the revolutionary sentiments in Europe. He theorized that the adversity of the period had rightfully caused Gothic writers to \"look to hell for help in composing their alluring novels.\" Sade held the work of writers Matthew Lewis and Ann Radcliffe high above other Gothic authors, praising the brilliant imagination of Radcliffe and pointing to Lewis' \"The Monk\" as without question the genre's best achievement. Sade nevertheless believed that the genre was at odds with itself, arguing that the supernatural elements within", "Sade's fiction has been classified under different genres, including pornography, Gothic, and baroque. Sade's most famous books are often classified not as Gothic but as libertine novels, and include the novels \"Justine, or the Misfortunes of Virtue\"; \"Juliette\"; \"The 120 Days of Sodom\"; and \"Philosophy in the Bedroom\". These works challenge traditional perceptions of sexuality, religion, law, age, and gender. His opinions on sexual violence, sadism, and pedophilia stunned even those contemporaries of Sade who were quite familiar with the dark themes of the Gothic novel during its popularity in the late 18th century. Suffering is the primary rule, as in these novels one must often decide between sympathizing with the torturer or the victim. While these works focus on the dark side", "In \"The Crimes of Love\", subtitled \"Heroic and Tragic Tales\", Sade combines romance and horror, employing several Gothic tropes for dramatic purposes. There is blood, banditti, corpses, and of course insatiable lust. Compared to works like \"Justine\", here Sade is relatively tame, as overt eroticism and torture is subtracted for a more psychological approach. It is the impact of sadism instead of acts of sadism itself that emerge in this work, unlike the aggressive and rapacious approach in his libertine works. The modern volume entitled \"Gothic Tales\" collects a variety of other short works of fiction intended to be included in Sade's \"Contes et Fabliaux d'un Troubadour Provencal du XVIII Siecle\". An example is \"Eugénie de Franval\", a" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Taxonomy and etymology.", "Description.", "Sexual dimorphism.", "Colour mutations.", "Distribution and habitat.", "Life span." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Originally described by Scottish writer and naturalist Robert Kerr in 1793 as \"Psittacus hollandicus\", the cockatiel (or cockateel) was moved to its own genus, \"Nymphicus\", by Wagler in 1832. Its genus name reflects the experience of one of the earliest groups of Europeans to see the birds in their native habitat; the travellers thought the birds were so beautiful that they named them after mythical nymphs. The specific name \"hollandicus\" refers to New Holland, a historic name for Australia. Its biological relationships were for a long time uncertain; it is now placed in a monotypic subfamily Nymphicinae, but was sometimes in the past classified among the Platycercinae, the broad-tailed parrots. This issue was settled with molecular studies. A 1984 study of protein allozymes signalled its closer relationship to cockatoos than to other parrots, and mitochondrial 12S rRNA sequence data places it among the Calyptorhynchinae (dark cockatoos) subfamily. The unique, parakeet (meaning long-tailed parrot) morphological feature is a consequence of the decrease in size and accompanying change of ecological niche. Sequence analysis of intron 7 of the nuclear \"?\"-fibrinogen gene, on the other hand, indicates that it may yet be distinct enough as to warrant recognition of the Nymphicinae rather than inclusion of the genus in the Calyptorhynchinae. The cockatiel is now biologically classified as a genuine member of Cacatuidae on account of sharing all of the cockatoo family's biological features, namely, the erectile crest, a gallbladder, powder down, suppressed cloudy-layer (which precludes the display of blue and green structural colours), and facial feathers covering the sides of the beak, all of which are rarely found outside the family Cacatuidae. This biological relation to other cockatoos is further supported by the existence of at least one documented case of a successful hybrid between a cockatiel and a galah, another cockatoo species.", "The cockatiel's distinctive erectile crest expresses the animal's emotional state. The crest is dramatically vertical when the cockatiel is startled or excited, gently oblique in its neutral or relaxed state, and flattened close to the head when the animal is angry or defensive. The crest is also held flat but protrudes outward in the back when the cockatiel is trying to appear alluring or flirtatious. In contrast to most cockatoos, the cockatiel has long tail feathers roughly making up half of its total length. At, the cockatiel is the smallest of the cockatoos which are generally larger at between. The \"normal grey\" or \"wild-type\" cockatiel's plumage is primarily grey with prominent white flashes on the outer edges of each wing. The face of the male is yellow or white, while the face of the female is primarily grey or light grey, and both sexes feature a round orange area on both ears, often referred to as \"cheddar cheeks\". This orange colouration is generally vibrant in adult males, and often quite muted in females. Visual sexing is often possible with this variant of the bird. Cockatiels are relatively vocal birds, the calls of the male being more varied than that of the female. Cockatiels can be taught to sing specific melodies and speak many words and phrases.", "All wild cockatiel chicks and juveniles look female, and are virtually indistinguishable from the time of hatching until their first moulting. They display horizontal yellow stripes or bars on the ventral surface of their tail feathers, yellow spots on the ventral surface of the primary flight feathers of their wings, a grey coloured crest and face, and a dull orange patch on each of their cheeks. Adult cockatiels are sexually dimorphic, though to a lesser degree than many other avian species. This is only evident after the first moulting, typically occurring about six to nine months after hatching: the male loses the white or yellow barring and spots on the underside of his tail feathers and wings. The grey feathers on his cheeks and crest are replaced by bright yellow feathers, while the orange cheek patch becomes brighter and more distinct. The face and crest of the female will typically remain mostly grey, though also with an orange cheek patch. Additionally, the female commonly retains the horizontal barring on the underside of her tail feathers. The colour in cockatiels is derived from two pigments: melanin (which provides the grey colour in the feathers, eyes, beak, and feet), and psittacofulvins (which provide the yellow colour on the face and tail and the orange colour of the cheek patch). The grey colour of the melanin overrides the yellow and orange of the psittacofulvins when both are present. The melanin content decreases in the face of the males as they mature, allowing the yellow and orange psittacofulvins to be more visible, while an increase in melanin content in the tail causes the disappearance of the horizontal yellow tail bars. In addition to these visible characteristics, the vocalisation of adult males is typically louder and more complex than that of females.", "Worldwide there are currently 22 cockatiel colour mutations established in aviculture, of which eight are exclusive to Australia. Mutations in captivity have emerged in various colours, some quite different from those observed in nature. Wild cockatiels are grey with visible differences between males and females. Male grey cockatiels typically have yellow heads while the female has a grey head. Juveniles tend to look like females with pinker beaks. The pied mutation first appeared in California in 1949. This mutation is a blotch of colour on an otherwise solid-coloured bird. For example, this may appear as a grey blotch on a yellow cockatiel. Lutino colouration was first seen in 1958. These birds lack the grey of their wild counterparts and are white to soft yellow. This is a popular colour; due to inbreeding, these cockatiels often have a small bald patch behind their crests. The cinnamon mutation, first seen in the 1950s, is very similar in appearance to the grey; however, these birds have a warmer, browner colouring. Pearling was first seen in 1967. This is seen as a feather of one colour with a different coloured edge, such as grey feathers with yellow tips. This distinctive pattern is on a bird's wings or back. The albino colour mutation is a lack of pigment. These birds are white with red eyes. Fallow cockatiels first appeared sometime in the 1970s. This mutation shows as a bird with cinnamon colouring with yellow sections. Other mutations include emerald/olive, dominant and recessive silver, and mutations exclusive to Australia: Australian fallow, faded (west coast silver), dilute/pastel silver (east coast silver), silver spangle (edged dilute), platinum, suffused (Australian olive), and pewter. Other mutations, such as face altering mutations, include whiteface, pastelface, dominant yellow cheek, sex-linked yellow cheek, gold cheek, creamface, and the Australian yellow cheek. Cockatiel colour mutations can become even more complex as one bird can have multiple colour mutations. For example, a yellow lutino cockatiel may have pearling – white spots on its back and wings. This is a double mutation. An example of a quadruple mutation would be cinnamon cockatiel with yellowface colouring with pearling and pied markings.", "Cockatiels are native to Australia, where they are found largely in arid or semi-arid country but always close to water. Largely nomadic, the species will move to where food and water is available. They are typically seen in pairs or small flocks. Sometimes, hundreds will flock around a single body of water. To many farmers' dismay, they often eat cultivated crops. They are absent from the most fertile southwest and southeast corners of the country, the deepest Western Australian deserts, and Cape York Peninsula. They are the only cockatoo species which can sometimes reproduce in the end of their first year.", "The cockatiel's lifespan in captivity is generally given as 16 to 25 years, though it is sometimes given as short as 10 to 15 years, and there are reports of cockatiels living as long as 32 years, the oldest confirmed specimen reported being 36 years old. Diet and exercise are major determining factors. If fed correctly a cockatiel can live up to 20 years." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot summary.", "Reception.", "Adaptations and derivative works.", "Music.", "Audiobook.", "Film.", "Novels.", "Stage.", "Television.", "Google Doodle.", "Computer games." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The book centres on a boy, Bastian Balthazar Bux, an overweight and strange child who is neglected by his father after the death of Bastian's mother. While escaping from some bullies, Bastian bursts into the antiquarian book store of Carl Conrad Coreander, where he finds his interest held by a book called \"The Neverending Story\". Unable to resist, he steals the book and hides in his school's attic, where he begins to read. The story Bastian reads is set in the magical land of Fantastica, a place of wonder ruled by the benevolent and mysterious Childlike Empress. A great delegation has come to the Empress to seek her help against a formless entity called \"The Nothing\". The delegates are shocked when the Empress's physician, a centaur named Cairon, informs them that the Empress is dying, and has chosen a boy warrior named Atreyu to find a cure. Upon finding Atreyu, Cairon gives him AURYN: a powerful medallion that protects him from all harm. At the advice of the giant turtle Morla the Aged One, Atreyu sets off in search of an invisible oracle known as Uyulala, who may know the Empress's cure. In reaching her, he is aided by a luckdragon named Falkor, whom he rescues from the creature Ygramul the Many. By Uyulala, he is told the only thing that can save the Empress is a new name given to her by a human child, who can only be found beyond Fantastica's borders. As Falkor and Atreyu search for the borders of Fantastica, Atreyu is flung from Falkor's back in a confrontation with the four Wind Giants and loses Auryn in the sea. Atreyu lands in the ruins of Spook City, the home of various creatures of darkness. Wandering the dangerous city, Atreyu finds the wolf Gmork, chained and near death, who tells him that all the residents of the city have leapt voluntarily into The Nothing. There, thanks to the irresistible pull of the destructive phenomenon, the Fantasticans are becoming lies in the human world. The wolf also reveals that he is a servant of The Manipulators, the force behind The Nothing. They wish to prevent the Empress's chosen hero from saving her. Gmork then reveals that when the princess of the city discovered his treachery against the Empress, she imprisoned him and left him to starve to death. When Atreyu announces that he is the hero Gmork has sought, the wolf laughs and succumbs to death. However, upon being approached, Gmork's body instinctively seizes Atreyu's leg in his jaws. Meanwhile, Falkor retrieves Auryn from the sea and arrives in time to save Atreyu from the rapid approach of The Nothing. Falkor and Atreyu go to the Childlike Empress, who assures them they have brought her rescuer to her; Bastian suspects that the Empress means him, but cannot bring himself to believe it. When Bastian refuses to speak the new name, to prompt him into fulfilling his role as savior, the Empress herself locates the Old Man of Wandering Mountain, who possesses a book also entitled \"The Neverending Story\", which the Empress demands he read aloud. As he begins, Bastian is amazed to find the book he is reading is repeating itself, beginning once again whenever the Empress reaches the Old Man—only this time, the story includes Bastian's meeting with Coreander, his theft of the book, and all his actions in the attic. Realizing that the story will repeat itself forever without his intervention, Bastian names the Empress \"Moon Child\", and appears with her in Fantastica, where he restores its existence through his own imagination. The Empress has also given him Auryn, on the back of which he finds the inscription \"DO WHAT YOU WISH\". For each wish, Bastian loses a memory of his life as a human. Unaware of this at first, Bastian goes through Fantastica, having adventures and telling stories, while losing his memories. In spite of the warnings of Atreyu and Bastian's other friends, Bastian uses Auryn to create creatures and dangers for himself to conquer, which causes some negative side effects for the rest of Fantastica. After being abetted by the wicked sorceress Xayide, and with the mysterious absence of the Childlike Empress, Bastian decides to take over Fantastica for himself, but is stopped by Atreyu, whom Bastian grievously wounds in battle. Bastian then meets human beings, who came to Fantastica earlier but could not find their way out, eking out a meaningless existence there. Ultimately, a repentant Bastian is reduced to two memories: that of his father, and of his own name. After more adventures, Bastian must give up the memory of his father to discover that his strongest wish is to be capable of love and to give love to others. After much searching, and on the verge of losing his final memory, Bastian is unable to find the Water of Life with which to leave Fantastica with his memories. Here, he is found by Atreyu. In remorse, Bastian lays down Auryn at his friend's feet, and Atreyu and Falkor enter Auryn with him, where the Water of Life demands to know Bastian's name, and if Bastian has finished all the stories he began in his journey, which he has not. Only after Atreyu gives Bastian's name and promises to complete all the stories for him does the Water of Life allow Bastian to return to the human world, along with some of the mystical waters. After drinking the Water of Life, Bastian returns to his original form, and feels comfortable and happy with it. He wanted to bring the water also to his father. He returns to his father, where he tells the full tale of his adventures, and thus reconciles with him. Afterwards, Bastian confesses to Coreander about stealing his book and losing it, but Coreander denies ever owning such a book. Coreander reveals he has also been to Fantastica, and that the book has likely moved into the hands of someone else and that Bastian—like Coreander—will eventually show that individual the way to Fantastica. This, the book concludes, \"is another story and shall be told another time\".", "Susan L. Nickerson of \"Library Journal\" writes in a review that \"Imaginative readers know the story doesn't end when the covers close; the magic to be found in books is eternal, and Ende's message comes through vividly.\" \"The two parts of the novel repeat each other\", as Maria Nikolajeva states in her book \"The Rhetoric of Character in Children's Literature,\" in that Bastian becomes a hero but then in the second half he \"acts not even as an antihero but as a false hero of the fairy tale.\" The characters of Bastian and Atreyu can also be seen as mirror halves. On September 1, 2016, the search engine Google featured a Google Doodle marking the 37th anniversary of \"The Neverending Storys\" initial publication.", "", "The album \"Wooden Heart\" by Listener was based on or heavily influenced by \"The Neverending Story\", as has been confirmed by the band. Different songs represent different ideas of the plot or characters, which can be seen on the band's lyric page for the album. The Spanish indie rock band \"\" derived its name from the ancient turtle in the novel. The band Bayside released a song called 'They Looked Like Strong Hands' on their self titled album in 2005, referencing the speech Rockbiter gives to Bastian.", "A German dramatized audioplay under the title \"Die unendliche Geschichte\" (Karussell/Universal Music Group 1984, directed by Anke Beckert, music by Frank Duval, 3 parts on LP and MC, 2 parts on CD). In March 2012 Tantor Media released an unabridged audiobook of \"The Neverending Story\" narrated by Gerard Doyle.", "\"The NeverEnding Story\" was the first film adaptation of the novel. It was released in 1984, directed by Wolfgang Petersen and starring Barret Oliver as Bastian, Noah Hathaway as Atreyu, and Tami Stronach as the Childlike Empress. It covered only the first half of the book, ending at the point where Bastian enters Fantastica (renamed \"Fantasia\" in the film). Ende, who was reportedly \"revolted\" by the film, requested they halt production or change the film's name, as he felt it had ultimately and drastically deviated from his novel; when they did neither, he sued them and subsequently lost the case. The music was composed by Klaus Doldinger. Some electronic tracks by Giorgio Moroder were added to the US version of the film; the title song, \"Never Ending Story\", composed by Giorgio Moroder and Keith Forsey, became a chart success for Limahl, the former singer of Kajagoogoo. \"\", directed by George T. Miller and starring Jonathan Brandis and Kenny Morrison, was released in 1990. It used plot elements primarily from the second half of Ende's novel, but told a new tale. \"The NeverEnding Story III\", starring Jason James Richter, Melody Kay and Jack Black, was released in 1994 in Germany and in 1996 in the US. This film was primarily based only upon the characters from Ende's book, having an original new story. The film was lambasted by film critics for its poor and laughable dialogue and special effects and was a box office bomb.", "From 2003 through 2004, the German publishing house AVAinternational published six novels of different authors in a series called Legends of Fantastica, each using parts of the original plot and characters to compose an entirely new storyline:", "The world première of the stage production took place in 2012 in Brisbane, Australia, by the Harvest Rain Theatre Company. In Germany, \"The Neverending Story\" has been variously adapted to a stage play, ballet, and opera which premiered both at Trier and at Weimar Nationaltheater on April 10, 2004 and was subsequently staged at Linz Landestheater on December 11, 2004. The scores to both the opera and the ballet versions were composed by Siegfried Matthus. The opera libretto was by Anton Perry. In Canada, the novel was adapted to stage for the Stratford Festival for the 2019 season adapted by David S. Craig with original music by Hawksley Workman.", "The 1995 animated series was produced by Nelvana, under the title of \"The Neverending Story: The Animated Adventures of Bastian Balthazar Bux\". The animated series ran for two years, and had a total of twenty-six episodes. Director duties were split between Marc Boreal and Mike Fallows. Each episode focused on Bastian's further adventures in Fantastica, largely different from his further adventures in the book, but occasionally containing elements of them. \"Tales from the Neverending Story\", a one-season-only TV series that is loosely based on Michael Ende's novel \"The Neverending Story\", was produced in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, through December 2000-August 2002 and distributed by Muse Entertainment, airing on HBO in 2002. It was aired as four two-hour television movies in the US and as a TV series of 13 one-hour episodes in the UK. The series was released on DVD in 2001.", "On 1 September 2016, a Google Doodle, created by Google artist Sophie Diao commemorated the publication of the work.", "A text adventure game was released by Ocean Software in 1985 for the ZX Spectrum, Amstrad CPC, Commodore 64 and Atari 800. A computer game based on the second film was released in 1990 by Merimpex Ltd under their Linel label and re-released by System 4 for the ZX Spectrum and Commodore 64. In 2001, the German video game studio attraction published their Ende-inspired video game, \"\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "First changes in the Romanian currency.", "The delays in adhering to the ERM II.", "Current perspectives.", "Monetary and exchange rate policies.", "Preparing the changeover to the euro.", "The Committee for Preparing the Changeover to the Euro.", "The National Commission for the foundation of the National Plan for the adoption of the euro.", "Public opinion." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Romania is an open economy with free capital flows since September 2006 and with a total foreign trade exceeding 75% of GDP (Isărescu 2007). Romania’s financial market is yet in progress, and the experts note the existence of a tendency towards the increase of the efficiency of stock exchange transactions. Consequently, the inflows of portfolio investments are likely to increase. They could become another resource covering the current account deficit. As to the remittances of the Romanian people working abroad, it can be estimated that they shall keep up to high levels, in the short term. Nevertheless, the country’s accession to the EU also gives rise to a new resource capable of covering the deficit, namely the transfers from structural and cohesion funds to Romania, as a cohesion country, which shall be achieved starting from 2008. The first step required in the preparation of the changeover of the leu into euro took place at the same time with the depreciation of the national currency. Thus, in 2005 the new Romanian leu was printed with the same physical dimensions as the euro, in order to fit the ATMs system. One year later, the Romanian Government announced that the new plan to join the ERM II (a prerequisite for euro adoption) will take place only after 2012. Although, important impediments such as price instability and high interest rates, were at stake. The president of the European Central Bank said in June 2007, that \"Romania has a lot of homework to do... over a number of years\" before joining ERM II. The Romanian government announced in December 2009, that they officially planned to join the eurozone by 1 January 2015. In 2011, the Romanian government announced it would strive to comply with the first four convergence criteria by 2013, but the economy will need further reforms to successfully change to euro.", "The governor of the National Bank of Romania (NBR) confirmed in 2012, that Romania would not meet its previous target of joining the Euro Zone in 2015. He addressed the benefits for Romania to not be a part of the Euro Area during the European debt-crisis, but that the country in the years ahead would strive to comply with all the convergence criteria. Concerns about its workforce productivity were also been cited for the delay. In 2013, Romania submitted their annual Convergence Programme to the European Commission, which for the first time did not specify a target date for euro adoption. Then Prime Minister Victor Ponta stated that \"Eurozone entry remains a fundamental objective for Romania but we can't enter poorly prepared\", and that 2020 was a more realistic target. At the same time, the NBR submitted draft amendments for the Romanian Constitution to the European Central Bank (ECB) for review. The amendments would make the NBR's statue an organic law to ensure \"institutional and functional stability\", and would allow for the \"transfer of NBR tasks to the ECB and the introduction of the euro as legal tender\" using organic law. In 2014, Romania's Convergence Report set a target date of 1 January 2019 for euro adoption. According to the Erste Group Bank, Romania will not be able to meet this ambitious target by 2019, not in regards of complying with the four nominal convergence criteria values, but in regards of reaching some appropriate levels of real convergence (i.e. raising the GDP per capita from 50% to a level above 60% of the EU average) ahead of the euro adoption. The Romanian Central Bank governor, Mugur Isărescu, admitted the target was challenging, but obtainable if the political parties passed a legal roadmap for the required reforms to be implemented. This roadmap should lead to Romania entering into the ERM II only on 1 January 2017 - so that the euro could be adopted after two years of ERM II membership on 1 January 2019. However, in 2015, Isărescu argued once again for a delay in the changeover to euro. Ahead of ERM II entry Romania needs to conduct monetary adjustments in form of finalizing the process of bringing minimum reserve requirement ratios in line with Eurozone levels (a process envisaged to last between 1 and 1 ⁄ years) and to complete major economic policy adjustments: Romania's Prime Minister Victor Ponta said in June 2015 that he was open to the idea of holding a referendum on euro adoption. However, the decisive trio, the President, BNR Governor, and Finance Minister did not considered this option. The Romanian target for \"real convergence\" ahead of euro adoption, is for its GDP per capita (in purchasing power standards) to be above 60% of the same average figure for the entire European Union, and according to the latest outlook, this relative figure was now forecast to reach 65% in 2018 and 71% in 2020, after having risen at the same pace from 29% in 2002 to 54% in 2014. Finally, the Romanian government also expressed its commitment to join all pillars of the Banking Union, as soon as possible. However, in September 2015 Romania's central bank governor Mugur Isarescu said that the 2019 target was no longer realistic. The new target date was initially the year 2022, as Teodor Meleșcanu, the foreign minister of Romania declared on 28 August 2017 that, as they \"meet all formal requirements\", Romania \"could join the currency union even tomorrow\". However, he thought Romania \"will adopt the euro in five years, in 2022\". In March 2018, members of the Social Democratic Party (PSD) voted at an extraordinary congress to back a 2024 target date to adopt the euro currency.", "There is no pressure on Romania to adhere to ERM in a certain year, followed by the adoption of the euro two years later. The EU Member States can bring into play the derogation clause from entering into ERM and hold on to their monetary policies as a buffer against external shocks. The EU Commission neither the European Council have ever urged Romania - a euro candidate country - to join the Eurozone, and it is not very probable that this will happen in the future – not least due to rising doubts in Brussels and the capitals of some current Eurozone members regarding the wisdom of further Eurozone enlargement. Thus Romania has enough time to establish the economic conditions under which the loss of monetary and fiscal sovereignty will be less painful.", "In Romania, the main objective of the NBR is to ensure and maintain price stability, promoting at the same time the general economic policy of the Government. As states in Article 2 of Law 312/2004, the National Bank is responsible for defining and implementing the monetary policy strategy (Direct inflation targeting) and the exchange rate policy. Over the years, the NBR has supported the monetary policy, by progressively decreasing the policy rate. The first step achieved was between February 2009 and March 2012, when the NBR cut the policy rate by a cumulative 500 basis points, to 5.25%. Followed by rapid decreases in the annual inflation rate which made it possible for the NBR to resume the downward adjustment of the policy rate: between July 2013 and February 2014, the NBR cut the policy rate by a cumulative 175 basis points, to 3.5%. Romania has managed floating exchange rates and it is in line with using inflation targets as a nominal anchor for monetary policy and allowing for a flexible policy response to unpredictable shocks likely to affect the economy. Reasons for not entering the euro area are complex, covering national problems, in particular the insufficient economic convergence over a lacking perceived attractiveness of euro membership, to an unresolved institutional reform agenda (Backé and Dvorsky 2018).", "Disclaimer of the monetary policy instrument. Monetary policy and exchange rate are passing in the responsibility of the European Central Bank. Thus, Romania remains without the ability to control a main monetary policy instrument (the monetary policy interest rate) and gives up to the exchange rate, another instrument that contributes to adjusting the economy, especially during the recession. Convergence. In order to be able to suffer a smaller cost of the currency changeover, the structural, real and institutional convergence has to be as high as possible; the business cycles must be synchronized (periods of economic downturn and economic growth to be simultaneous in Romania, and in the euro area). So far, in general, Romania is a quarter-lagged room against the euro area economy. Hence, the effects of the ECB's monetary policy will have an asymmetrical effect. The decision to change to the euro currency is not appropriate to the phase of Romania’s economic cycle. Control of macroeconomics balances. Romania must maintain the balance of macroeconomics: in the private sector (low debt rate), in the budgetary sector (a low budget deficit) and a stable balance in terms of the external sector. An alternative instrument for interest rate and exchange rate. By renouncing to the famous two instruments, there is a need to find a tool that should be substituted: the literature usually recommends the flexibility of the labour market, the flexibility of wages and mobility of production factors. It is an exercise of will and power. It is an ambitious objective that can bring Romania a solid, robust economy. Also, if Romania enters unprepared into the Monetary Union, the benefits will be smaller than the costs.", "The Committee for Preparing the Changeover to the Euro at the National Bank of Romania (“Committee”) was originally established in 2011. The original scope of the Committee was to work as an advisory body to analyze the aspects related to euro adoption. Another objective of the Committee was to constitute a genuine platform for discussions, given that representatives of other public authorities were invited to attend its meetings. The present objective of the Committee relays in a more in-depth and more comprehensive analysis within the NBR and a stronger relationship with the Board members and the heads of central bank departments in order to keep them informed about the aspects related to euro adoption. At the same time, the Committee keeps its initial role as a platform for discussion, due to the fact that it develops an inter-institutional dialogue with a view to raising awareness of the competent authorities about the fiscal and structural reforms for rendering the Romanian economy more flexible and taking the necessary steps for the changeover to the euro, on the other hand. The Committee’s main topics of discussion are: - the experience of other EU Member States in the preparation of the changeover to the euro; - the stage of Romania's preparation for the adoption of the euro; - new mechanisms and concepts developed at European Union level in the field of economic governance and the strengthening of the Economic and Monetary Union; - documents of the European Commission, the European Central Bank and the Government of Romania regarding the convergence to the euro area of the derogating Member States.", "In 2018, the Government established through a Government Emergency Ordinance (GEO) a new body to help achieve the right amount of convergence before changing to the euro. Thus, the National Commission for the foundation of the National Plan for the adoption of the euro (the National Commission) was established in 2018. During the functioning of this National Commission, the Committee’s activity will be suspended, according to the provisions in the GEO. The National Commission tasks which have a direct impact on criteria of legal convergence are: a) elaboration of the National Plan for the transition to the euro and of the timetable of the actions necessary for the adoption of the euro; b) periodic evaluation of the stage of meeting the convergence criteria; c) evaluation of the current legislative framework and preparation of new legislative projects for the introduction of the euro; d) preparing the national statistical system for updating the data series; e) monitoring the preparation of the national systems for the changeover to the euro, the modification/compatibility of the payment system and the national accounting; f) identification of the necessary actions and entities involved in organizing information campaigns for the general public on the adoption of the euro, developing and updating dedicated sites and setting up info-help points for citizens and companies. The National Commission will ensure that the public is informed clearly, objectively, in a timely and accurate manner about the adoption of the euro; g) establishing and monitoring the specific elements, respectively the parallel circulation of the national currency and the euro, as well as the display of prices in national currency and in euro; h) drawing up periodic working reports and sending them to the institutions involved.", "Public support for the euro in Romania The latest Flash Eurobarometer shows that a majority of Romanian respondents supports the introduction of the euro on the national market. With a decrease of 8 percentage points, 61% of Romanians are in favour of euro adoption. When referring to the positive impact of the changeover from the national currency to the euro, 52% of the Romanian respondents think that the common currency had a positive impact on the Eurozone Member States that already use it." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Names.", "Mythology.", "The Hundred-Handers.", "Briareus/Aegaeon.", "Titan ally.", "Association with the sea.", "Euboea.", "Poseidon.", "Buried under Etna, inventor of armour.", "Possible origins.", "Principal sources.", "The \"Theogony\".", "The \"Iliad\".", "The \"Titanomachy\".", "Ion of Chios.", "Virgil.", "Ovid.", "Apollodorus.", "Others." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The three Hundred-Handers were named Cottus, Briareus and Gyges. Cottus (\"Κόττος\") is a common Thracian name, and is perhaps related to the name of the Thracian goddess Kotys. The name Briareus (\"Βριάρεως\") was probably formed from the Greek \"βριαρός\" meaning \"strong\". Hesiod's \"Theogony\" also calls him \"Obriareus\". The name Gyges is possibly related to the mythical Attic king Ogyges (\"Ὠγύγης\"). \"Gyes\", rather than Gyges, is found in some texts. Homer's \"Iliad\" gives Briareus a second name, saying that Briareus is the name the gods call him, while Aegaeon (\"Αἰγαίων\") is the name that men call him. The root \"αἰγ-\" is found in words associated with the sea: \"αἰγιαλός\" \"shore\", \"αἰγες\" and \"αἰγάδες\" \"waves\". The name suggests a connection with the Aegean Sea. Poseidon was sometimes called Aegaeon or Aegaeus (\"Αἰγαῖος\"). Aegaeon could be a patronymic, i.e. \"son of Aegaeus\", or it could instead mean \"the man from Aegae\". The name Hecatoncheires derives from the Greek \"ἑκατόν\" (hekaton, \"hundred\") and \"χείρ\" (cheir, \"hand” or \"arm\"). Although the \"Theogony\" describes the three brothers as having one hundred hands (\"ἑκατὸν μὲν χεῖρες\"), the collective name Hecatoncheires (\"Ἑκατόγχειρες\"), i.e. the Hundred-Handers, is never used. The \"Theogony\" once refers to the brothers collectively as \"the gods whom Zeus brought up from the dark\", otherwise it simply uses their individual names: Cottus, Briareus (or Obriareus) and Gyges. The \"Iliad\" does not use the name Hecatoncheires either, although it does use the adjective \"hekatoncheiros\" (\"ἑκατόγχειρος\"), i.e. \"hundred-handed\", to describe Briareus. It is possible that Acusilaus used the name, however, the first certain usage is found in the works of the mythographers such as Apollodorus.", "", "The Hundred-Handers, Cottus, Briareus and Gyges, were three monstrous giants, of enormous size and strength, with fifty heads and one hundred arms. They were among the eighteen offspring of Uranus (Sky) and Gaia (Earth), which also included the twelve Titans, and the three one-eyed Cyclopes. According to the \"Theogony\" of Hesiod, they were the last of these children of Uranus to be born, while according to the mythographer Apollodorus they were the first. In the Hesiodic tradition, they played a key role in the Greek succession myth, which told how the Titan Cronus overthrew his father Uranus, and how in turn Zeus overthrew Cronus and his fellow Titans, and how Zeus was eventually established as the final and permanent ruler of the cosmos. According to the standard version of the succession myth, given in the accounts of Hesiod and Apollodorus, the Hundred-Handers, along with their brothers the Cyclopes, were imprisoned by their father Uranus. Gaia induced Cronus to castrate Uranus, and Cronus took over the supremacy of the cosmos. With his sister the Titaness Rhea, Cronus fathered several offspring, but he swallowed each of them at birth. However, Cronus' last child Zeus was saved by Rhea, and Zeus freed his brothers and sisters, and together they (the Olympians) began a great war, the Titanomachy, against the Titans, for control of the cosmos. Gaia had foretold that, with the help of the Hundred-Handers, the Olympians would be victorious, so Zeus released them from their captivity and the Hundred-Handers fought alongside the Olympians against the Titans and were instrumental in the Titans' defeat. The Titans were then imprisoned in Tartarus with the Hundred-Handers as their guards. The lost epic poem the \"Titanomachy\" (see below), although probably written after Hesiod's \"Theogony\", perhaps preserved an older tradition in which the Hundred-Handers fought on the side of the Titans, rather than the Olympians. According to a euhemeristic rationalized account, given by Palaephatus, Cottus and Brriareos, rather than being hundred-handed giants, were instead men, who were called the Hundred-Handers because they lived in a city called Hecatoncheiria (\"Hundredarm\"). They came to the aid of the residents of the city of Olympia (i.e. the Olympians) in driving away the Titans from their city.", "Briareus was the most prominent of the three Hundred-Handers. In Hesiod's \"Theogony\" he is singled out as being \"good\", and is rewarded by Poseidon, who gives Briareus his daughter Cymopolea (otherwise unknown) for his wife. In Homer's \"Iliad\", Briareus is given a second name, Aegaeon, saying that Briareus is the name the gods call him, while mortals call him Aegaeon. It is told in the \"Iliad\" how, during a palace revolt by the Olympians Hera, Poseidon and Athena, who wished to chain Zeus, the sea goddess Thetis brought to Olympus: This second name does not seem to be a Homeric invention. According to the scholiast on Apollonius of Rhodes, the legendary seventh-century BC poet Cinaethon apparently knew both names for the Hundred-Hander. The name also appears in the lost epic poem the \"Titanomachy\".", "While in Hesiod and Homer, the powerful Hundred-Hander Briareus was a faithful and rewarded ally of Zeus, the \"Titanomachy\" seems to have reflected a different tradition. Apparently, according to the \"Titanomachy\", Aegaeon was the son of Gaia and Pontus (Sea), rather than Gaia and Uranus, and fought on the side of the Titans, rather than the Olympians. The scholiast on Apollonius of Rhodes, tells us that according to Cinaethon, Aegeaon was defeated by Poseidon. Apollonius of Rhodes mentions the \"great tomb of Aegaeon\", seen by the Argonauts when \"they were passing within sight of the mouth of the Rhyndacus... a short distance beyond Phrygia\". The scholiast on Apollonius, says that the tomb marked the spot where Aegaeon's defeat occurred. As in the lost \"Titanomachy\", for the Latin poets Virgil and Ovid, Briareus was also an enemy of the gods, rather than an ally. In his \"Aeneid\", Virgil has Aegaeon make war against the gods, \"with fifty sounding shields and fifty swords\". Ovid, in his poem \"Fasti\", has Briareus on the side of the Titans. As Ovid tells us, after the Titans had been overthrown, apparently in order to restore the Titans to power, Briareus sacrificed a bull, about which it had been prophesied that whoever burned its entrails would be able to conquer the gods. However just when Briareus was about to burn the entrails, birds snatched them away, and were rewarded with a home among the stars.", "In the lost epic \"Titanomachy\", Aegaeon was the son of Pontus (Sea), and lived in the sea. Briareus/Aegaeon's association with the sea can perhaps already be seen in Hesiod and Homer. In the \"Theogony\", Briareus ends up living, apart from his brothers, with Cymopolea the (sea-nymph?) daughter of Poseidon the god of the sea, where it might be supposed the couple dwells, while in the \"Iliad\" one might also suppose that Briareus dwells in the sea, since it was the sea goddess Thetis that fetched him to Olympus. Apparently, this was made explicit by the fifth-century BC poet Ion of Chios, who referring to the Homeric story of the Olympians' revolt against Zeus, said that Aegaeon was the son of Thalassa (Sea) and that Thetis \"summoned him from the Ocean\". A connection to the sea can also be seen in the name Aegaeon (\"Αἰγαίων ̓\") itself. The root \"αἰγ-\" is found in words associated with the sea: \"αἰγιαλός\"'shore', \"αἰγες\" and \"αἰγάδες\" 'waves'. while Poseidon himself was sometimes called Aegaeon. Later writers also make Briareus/Aegaeon's association with the sea explicit. According to Aelian, Aristotle said that the Pillars of Heracles (i.e. the Strait of Gibraltar) had been previously named the Pillars of Briareus. Ovid, in his \"Metamorphoses\", describes Aegaeon as a \"dark-hued\" sea god \"whose strong arms can overpower huge whales\", while according to Arrian apparently, the Aegean Sea was said to have been named after Aegaeon. As reported by Pliny, according to the Euboean Archemachus, the first man to sail in a \"long ship” was Aegaeon.", "Briareus/Aegaeon had a particular connection with the Greek island of Euboea. According to the third-century Latin grammarian Solinus, Briareus was worshipped at Carystus, and Aegaeon at Chalcis. Aegaeon was said to be the name of a ruler of Carystus, which had also been named Aigaie (\"Αίγαίη\") after him, while Briareus was said to be the father of Euboea, after whom the island took its name. Aegeaon was perhaps associated with the place name Aegae mentioned by Homer (\"Il.\" 13.21, \"Od.\" 5.381) as Poseidon's home, and located by Strabo (8.7.4, 9.2.13) in Euboea north of Chalcis, as a place where Poseidon had a temple.", "Briareus/Aegaeon seems also closely connected with Poseidon. The name Aegaeon has associations with Poseidon. As noted above, Homer locates Poseidon's palace in Aegae. Poseidon was sometimes himself called Aegaeon, or Aegaeus (\"Αἰγαῖος\"), and Aegaeon could mean'son of Aegaeus'. Homer says that Briareus/Aegaeon \"is mightier than his father\", but who Homer is referring to as the father is unclear. It has been sometimes supposed that contrary to Hesiod, who makes Uranus the father of Briareus, Cottus and Gyges, the father being referred to here is Poseidon, although this interpretation of Homer is uncertain at best. In the \"Theogony\" Briareus becomes the son-in-law of Poseidon, while Poseidon, whether regarded as the father of Briareus/Aegaeon, or not, is a central figure in the story told about the Hundred-Hander in the ‘’Iliad’’. Both are sea-gods with a special connection to Euboea. As noted above Poseidon was sometimes called Aegaeon, and it is possible that Aegaeon was an older cult-title for Poseidon, however according to Lewis Richard Farnell, it is more likely that Poseidon inherited the title of an \"older Euboean sea-giant\". As mentioned above, the scholiast on Apollonius of Rhodes, tells us that according to Cinaethon, Aegeaon was defeated by Poseidon. Possibly then, Briareus/Aegaeon was an older (pre-Greek?) sea-god eventually displaced by Poseidon. According to a Corinthian legend, Briareus was the arbitrator in a dispute between Poseidon and Helios (Sun) over some land, deciding that the Isthmus of Corinth belonged to Poseidon and the acropolis of Corinth (Acrocorinth) to Helios.", "The third-century BC poet Callimachus, apparently confusing Briareus as one of the Giants, says he was buried under Mount Etna in Sicily, making his shift from one shoulder to the other, the cause of earthquakes. Like Callimachus, Philostratus also makes Aegaeon the cause of earthquakes. According to an Oxyrhynchus papyrus, “the first to use metal armour was Briareos, whilst previously men protected their bodies with animal skins.” These stories are perhaps connected to a myth which may have made Briareus, like the Olympian god Hephaestus, a subterranean smith, who used the fires of Mount Etna as a forge for metalworking.", "Briareus and Aegean, were perhaps originally, separate entities. Briareus/Aegaeon may have once been a many-armed sea monster, personifying the uncontrolled power of the sea itself. As noted above, Briareus/Aegaeon may have been an older god of the sea, replaced by Poseidon. He was perhaps a Greek reflection of Near-Eastern traditions in which the Sea challenged the storm-god, such as in the Ugaritic tradition of the battle between Yammu (Sea) and the storm-god Baal.", "", "According to the \"Theogony\" of Hesiod, Uranus (Sky) mated with Gaia (Earth) and produced eighteen children. First came the twelve Titans, next the three one-eyed Cyclopes, and finally the three monstrous brothers Cottus, Briareus and Gyges. As the \"Theogony\" describes it: Uranus hated his children, including the Hundred-Handers, and as soon as each was born, he imprisoned them underground, somewhere deep inside Gaia. As the \"Theogony\" describes it, Uranus bound the Hundred-Handers Eventually Uranus' son, the Titan Cronus, castrated Uranus, freeing his fellow Titans (but not, apparently, the Hundred-Handers), and Cronus became the new ruler of the cosmos. Cronus married his sister Rhea, and together they produced five children, whom Cronus swallowed as each was born, but the sixth child, Zeus, was saved by Rhea and hidden away to be raised by his grandmother Gaia. When Zeus grew up, he caused Cronus to disgorge his children, and a great war was begun, the Titanomachy, between Zeus and his siblings, and Cronus and the Titans, for control of the cosmos. Gaia had foretold that Zeus would be victorious with the help of the Hundred-Handers, so Zeus released the Hundred-Handers from their bondage under the earth, and brought them up again into the light. Zeus restored their strength by feeding them nectar and ambrosia, and then asked the Hundred-Handers to \"manifest your great strength and your untouchable hands\" and join in the war against the Titans. And Cottus, speaking for the Hundred-Handers, agreed saying: And so the Hundred-Handers \"took up their positions against the Titans... holding enormous boulders in their massive hands\", and a final great battle was fought. Striding forth from Olympus, Zeus unleashed the full fury of his thunderbolt, stunning and blinding the Titans, while the Hundred-handers pelted them with enormous boulders: Thus the Titans were finally defeated and cast into Tartarus, where they were imprisoned. As to the fate of the Hundred-Handers, the \"Theogony\" first tells us that they returned to Tartarus, to live nearby the \"bronze gates\" of the Titans' prison, where presumably, they took up the job of the Titans' warders. However, later in the poem, we are told that Cottus and Gyges \"live in mansions upon the foundations of Ocean\", while Briareus, \"since he was good\" became the son-in-law of Poseidon, who gave him \"Cymopoliea his daughter to wed\".", "In a story that survives nowhere else, the \"Iliad\" briefly mentions Briareus (where it is said he was also called Aegaeon), referring to his having been summoned to Zeus' defense when \"the other Olympians wished to put [Zeus] in bonds, even Hera and Poseidon and Pallas Athene.\" Achilles, while asking his mother the sea goddess Thetis to intercede with Zeus on his behalf, reminds her of a frequent boast of hers, that, at a time when the other Olympians wished to bind Zeus, she saved him by fetching the hundred-handed Briareus to Olympus: Who Homer means here as the father of Briareus/Aegaeon is unclear.", "The lost epic poem the \"Titanomachy\", based on its title, must have told the story of the war between the Olympians and the Titans. Although probably written after Hesiod's \"Theogony\", it perhaps reflected an older version of the story. Only references to it by ancient sources survive, often attributing the poem to Eumelus a semi-legendary poet from Corinth. One mentions Aegaeon, the name identified with the Hundred-Hander Briareus in the \"Iliad\". According to a scholion on Apollonius of Rhodes' \"Argonautica\": Thus the \"Titanomachy\" apparently followed a different tradition than the more familiar account in the \"Theogony\". Here Briareus/Aegaeon was the son of Earth (Gaia) and Sea Pontus) rather than Earth and Sky (Uranus), and he fought against the Olympians, rather than for them.", "According to the same scholion on Apollonius of Rhodes mentioned above, the fifth-century BC poet Ion of Chios said that Aegaeon (who Thetis summoned in the \"Iliad\" to aid Zeus), lived in the sea and was the son of Thalassa.", "The first-century BC Latin poet Virgil, in his \"Aeneid\", may have drawn on the same version of the story as that given in the lost \"Titanomachy\". Virgil locates Briareus, as in Hesiod, in the underworld, where the Hundred-Hander dwells among \"strange prodigies of bestial kind\", which include the Centaurs, Scylla, the Lernaean Hydra, the Chimaera, the Gorgons, the Harpies, and Geryon. Later Virgil describes the \"hundred-handed\" Aegaeon (the \"Iliad\"'s Briareus): Here Virgil has the Hundred-Hander as having fought on the side of the Titans rather than the Olympians, as in the \"Titanomachy\", with the additional descriptive details of the fifty fire-breathing mouths and breasts, and the fifty sets of sword and shield, perhaps also coming from that lost poem.", "The late first-century BC Latin poet Ovid, makes several references to the Hundred-Handers Briareus and Gyges in his poems. Briareus figures in a story that Ovid tells in his \"Fasti\" about how \"The star of the Kite\" (presumably a star or constellation named after the bird) came to reside in the heavens. According to Ovid, there was a monstrous offspring of \"mother Earth\", part bull, part serpent, about which it had been prophesied that whoever burned its entrails would be able to conquer the gods. Warned by the three Fates, Styx penned up the bull in \"gloomy woods\" surrounded by three walls. After the Titans were overthrown, Briareus (whom Ovid appears to regard as a Titan, or Titan ally) \"sacrificed\" the bull with an adamantine axe. But when he was about to burn the entrails, the birds, as commanded by Jupiter (Zeus), snatched them away, and were rewarded with a home among the stars. In his \"Metamorphoses\", Ovid describes Aegaeon (the \"Iliad\"'s Briareus) as a \"dark-hued\" sea god \"whose strong arms can overpower huge whales\". In both of these poems, Ovid appears to be following the same tradition as in the lost \"Titanomachy\", where Aegaeon was the sea god son of Pontus and a Titan ally. Ovid mentions \"Gyas of the hundred hands\" in his \"Amores\", when \"Earth made her ill attempt at vengeance, and steep Ossa, with shelving Pelion on its back, was piled upon Olympus.\" In his \"Fasti\", Ovid has Ceres (Demeter), complaing about the abduction of her daughter, say: \"What worse wrong could I have suffered if Gyges had been victorious and I his captive.\" In both of these poems Ovid has apparently confused the hundred-handers with the Giants (a different set of monstrous offspring of Gaia) who tried to storm Olympus in the Gigantomachy. Ovid perhaps also confused the Hundred-Handers with the Giants in his \"Metamorphoses\", where he refers to the Giants having tried to \"fix their hundred arms on captive Heaven\". Ovid also refers to \"a hundred-handed Gyes\" in his \"Tristia\".", "The mythographer Apollodorus, gives an account of the Hundred-Handers similar to that of Hesiod's, but with several significant differences. According to Apollodorus, they were the first offspring of Uranus and Gaia, (unlike Hesiod who makes the Titans the eldest) followed by the Cyclopes, and the Titans. Apollodorus describes the Hundred-Handers as \"unsurpassed in size and might, each of them having a hundred hands and fifty heads.\" Uranus bound the Hundred-Handers and the Cyclopes, and cast them all into Tartarus, \"a gloomy place in Hades as far distant from earth as earth is distant from the sky.\" But the Titans are, apparently, allowed to remain free (unlike in Hesiod). When the Titans overthrew Uranus, they freed the Hundred-Handers and Cyclopes (unlike in Hesiod where they remain imprisoned), and made Cronus their sovereign. But Cronus once again bound the six brothers, and reimprisoned them in Tartarus. As in Hesiod's account, Cronus swallowed his children; but Zeus, who was saved by Rhea, freed his siblings, and together they waged war against the Titans. According to Apollodorus, in the tenth year of the war, Zeus learned from Gaia, that to win he needed both the Hundred-Handers and the Cyclopes, so Zeus slew their warder Campe and released them:", "The fifth-century BC philosopher Plato, in his dialogue \"Laws\", mentions, in passing, \"Briareus, with his hundred hands\". The first-century AD Latin poet Horace, twice mentions \"centimanus\" ('hundred-handed') Gyges. In one poem Gyges and the \"fiery Chimaera\" are given as examples of fearsome creatures. In another poem, Gyges is used as an example of \"power\" hated by the gods \"that devises every kind of evil in its heart.\" According to the second-century AD geographer Pausanias, a Corinthian legend said that Briareus was the arbitrator in a dispute between Poseidon and Helios (Sun) over some land. Briareus adjudged that the Isthmus of Corinth belonged to Poseidon and the acropolis of Corinth (Acrocorinth) to Helios. Servius, the late fourth-century, early fifth-century AD commentator on Virgil, also seems to know of two versions of the Titanomachy, one in which the Hundred-Handers fought on the side of the Olympians, as in Hesiod, and the other in which they fought on the side of the Titans, as in the lost \"Titanomachy\". The fifth-century AD Greek poet Nonnus, in his \"Dionysiaca\", mentions Briareus with his \"ready hands\" and Aegaeon as the \"protector of [Zeus'] laws.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Origins and early years.", "2. Bundesliga to Bundesliga, UEFA Cup, and DFB-Pokal.", "The Nearly Men.", "Recent years.", "Club culture.", "Honours.", "Domestic.", "League.", "Cup.", "European." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "2" ], "content": [ "", "On 27 November 1903, Wilhelm Hauschild wrote a letter – signed by 170 of his fellow workers – to his employer, the Friedrich Bayer and Co., seeking the company's support in starting a sports club. The company agreed to support the initiative, and on 1 July 1904 \"Turn- und Spielverein Bayer 04 Leverkusen\" was founded. On 31 May 1907, a separate football department was formed within the club. In the culture of sports in Germany at the time, there was significant animosity between gymnasts and other types of athletes. Eventually this contributed to a split within the club: on 8 June 1928, the footballers formed a separate association – \"Sportvereinigung Bayer 04 Leverkusen\" – that also included the handball and fistball players, athletics, and boxing, while the gymnasts carried on as \"TuS Bayer 04 Leverkusen\". \"SV Bayer 04 Leverkusen\" took with them the club's traditional colours of red and black, with the gymnasts adopting blue and yellow. Through this period, and into the 1930s, SV Bayer 04 Leverkusen played third and fourth division football. In 1936, they earned promotion to the second highest class of play of the period. That was also the year that the club wore the familiar \"Bayer\" cross for the first time. They made their first appearance in upper league play in 1951, in the Oberliga West and played there until 1956, after which they were relegated. \"SV Bayer 04 Leverkusen\" would not return to the upper leagues until 1962, just one season before the formation of Germany's new professional league, the Bundesliga. The next year saw the club in the Regionalliga West, tier II, where their performances over the next few seasons left them well down the league table.", "SV Bayer 04 Leverkusen made something of a breakthrough in 1968 by winning the division title, but was unable to advance through the playoff round to the first division. The club was relegated again in 1973, but made a quick return to what was now called the 2. Bundesliga after just one season spent in the third division. Four years later, the club handily secured a place in the Bundesliga to start to play there in the 1979–80 season. By the mid-1980s, SV Bayer 04 Leverkusen had played its way into the upper half of the league table and was well-established there by the end of the decade. It was during this time, in 1984, that the two-halves of the club that had parted ways over a half century earlier were re-united as TSV Bayer 04 Leverkusen e.V. The new club took red and white as its colours. In addition to becoming an established Bundesliga side, the club earned its first honours with a dramatic win in the 1988 UEFA Cup. Down 0–3 to Espanyol after the first leg of the final, Bayer Leverkusen drew even in the return match and then captured the title on penalty kicks, 3–2. That same year, long-time Bayer Leverkusen executive Reiner Calmund became the general manager of the club. This is regarded as one of the most important moves in the club's history, as Calmund ushered in a decade and a half of the club's greatest successes through shrewd, far-sighted player acquisitions. After the German reunification in 1990, Reiner Calmund was quick to sign East German stars Ulf Kirsten, Andreas Thom and Jens Melzig. The three players would become instant crowd favourites, and make significant contributions to the team. Calmund also established groundbreaking contacts in Brazilian football, befriending Juan Figer, one of Brazil's most powerful player agents. Over the next few years, budding superstars, such as Jorginho and Paulo Sérgio, joined the team, as did Czech star Pavel Hapal. The club also signed charismatic players, such as Bernd Schuster, and Rudi Völler, helping to ensure the team's popularity and growing success. The club captured its next honour in 1993 with a 1–0 win in the DFB-Pokal over a surprising Hertha BSC amateur squad on 12 June 1993. In the following season, in a game also known for its 45 m \"German Goal of the Year\" by Schuster (a goal which was later also named \"Goal of the Decade\"), Bayer played Eintracht Frankfurt early in the season, and, as both a \"tip of the hat\" to its own history as well as an attempt to perhaps upset the Frankfurt team, Bayer played in its new third colours, which were old-fashioned red and black stripes, similar jerseys to those Frankfurt generally wore at the time. This proved so popular with the fans that, very shortly thereafter, the team reverted to its \"retro\" colours of red and black, colours used on all home jerseys ever since. After a near disaster in 1996 when the club faced a relegation battle, Bayer Leverkusen established itself as a powerful side, offering a technically pleasing offensive style of play under new coach Christoph Daum, who was also helped by the signing of players such as Lúcio, Emerson, Zé Roberto and Michael Ballack. Daum was later to be famously fired for a cocaine scandal that also cost him his ascent to the role of the Germany national team coach.", "The team earned a series of four-second-place finishes from 1997 to 2002. The finishes of 2000 and 2002 were heart-breaking for supporters as on both occasions the team had the Bundesliga title within its grasp. In 2000, Bayer Leverkusen needed only a draw against SpVgg Unterhaching to win the title, but an own goal by Michael Ballack helped send the team to a crushing 2–0 defeat, while Bayern Munich clinched the title with a 3–1 victory over Werder Bremen. Two years later, the club surrendered a five-point lead atop the league table by losing two of its last three matches while Borussia Dortmund swept ahead with three consecutive victories in its final matches. The 2002 season has been dubbed the \"Treble Horror\", as Bayer Leverkusen were also beaten 4–2 in the DFB-Pokal final by Schalke 04 and lost the UEFA Champions League final 2–1 to Real Madrid, which also led to some of the English-language media dubbing them \"Neverkusen\". Leverkusen was the first team to reach the final of the Champions League without ever having won a national championship.", "The club went through startling reversals of fortune in the next two seasons. In the 2002 off-season, the team lost influential midfield stars Michael Ballack and Zé Roberto to archrivals Bayern Munich. The team then flirted with relegation through most of the 2002–03 season, leading to the firing of Klaus Toppmöller, who had coached the team during its most successful year, and he was replaced by the inexperienced Thomas Hörster. Charismatic coach Klaus Augenthaler took up the reins in the last two games of the season and helped avoid disaster with a win over his previous club, 1. FC Nürnberg. He then led Bayer Leverkusen to a third-place finish and a Champions League place the following year. That following season's run in the Champions League saw the club get some measure of revenge on Real Madrid, opening its group stage campaign with a 3–0 rout of the Spanish giants, helping Leverkusen to win the group. Leverkusen, however, was defeated in the first knockout round by eventual champions Liverpool. The club finished sixth during the 2004–05 season to qualify for the next season's UEFA Cup. Early in 2005, Augenthaler was fired as manager after the club got off to its worst Bundesliga start in over 20 years, with only one win in its first four league matches and a 0–1 home loss to CSKA Sofia in the first leg of its UEFA Cup match-up. Former Germany national team manager Rudi Völler, who had been named sporting director prior to the season, took charge of five matches as caretaker manager. Michael Skibbe, who was Völler's assistant coach with the national team, was named as his successor in October 2005. Skibbe turned Leverkusen's season around and guided the club to a sixth-place finish in 2006, earning another UEFA Cup place, and then repeated that feat with a fifth place Bundesliga finish in 2007. The 2007–08 season was not a successful one for Leverkusen despite a good start to the season; five out of the last ten league matches were lost to clubs in the lower half of the table. Michael Skibbe was heavily criticised towards the end of the season after he continuously changed his starting line up. Bayer Leverkusen also lost a lot of its support towards the end of the season: in the 1–2 home loss against Hertha BSC, the Leverkusen fans caused much commotion, with fans chanting for the sacking of Skibbe, while some Ultras, who had seen enough, set fire to their jerseys and threw them onto the field. Michael Skibbe was sacked soon thereafter, leaving the club on 21 May 2008, with club officials stating that his departure was due to the failure to qualify for the following season's UEFA Cup group stage. The 2008–09 season got off to a great start for Bayer Leverkusen under new manager Bruno Labbadia, who the club had acquired from 2. Bundesliga club SpVgg Greuther Fürth. As the season progressed, however, the team failed to achieve any wins against top clubs in the Bundesliga. Leverkusen did manage to reach the DFB-Pokal final on 30 May 2009 in Berlin, but fell 0–1 to Werder Bremen. Leverkusen finished the season in ninth place in the Bundesliga table and Labbadia moved to Hamburger SV in June 2009. Shortly thereafter, Leverkusen presented Jupp Heynckes as its new manager, who had previously managed Bayern Munich after Jürgen Klinsmann's departure.", "In contrast to many other German football clubs, which hold close ties to their working-class roots, Bayer Leverkusen strives for a clean, family-friendly image. The BayArena has the reputation of being one of the most family-friendly football stadiums in Germany. Ironically, Bayer 04 was the first Bundesliga club whose fans identified themselves as \"Ultras\" and the city of Leverkusen is one of the old industrial cities of Germany. Bayer Leverkusen is perceived by some to have an ongoing image problem of a different sort. Although they are a financially healthy club with a stable of strong players, many fans of the traditional clubs denounce Bayer Leverkusen as being a \"plastic club\" without traditions or a committed fan base, existing solely as a creation of their rich pharmaceutical company sponsor – Bayer AG. As a result, the club and their fans have started to emphasize their industrial origins with pride, calling themselves \"Werkself\" (Eng. \"Factory team\", \"Millhanders\") or \"Pillendreher\" (Eng. \"Tablet twisters\"). Bayer Leverkusen's corporate origins, however, are far from unique. Other clubs, including PSV, Carl Zeiss Jena and Sochaux, share a similar reputation of being works teams. As distinguished from the various Red Bull teams (Salzburg, New York and Leipzig) which has been established or redefined in the recent past primarily for commercial reasons, the formation of Bayer Leverkusen was motivated by the idea of promoting the living conditions of local factory workers early in the 20th century. In view of this tradition, UEFA allows Bayer Leverkusen to use the brand name Bayer in European club competitions while disallowing such naming practices most notably to Red Bull Salzburg.", "", "", "Bundesliga: 2. Bundesliga North:", "DFB-Pokal DFB-Supercup:", "UEFA Cup: UEFA Champions League:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Political preparations for euro adoption.", "Prior to 2004.", "2005 – 2007.", "2008 - 2012.", "2013 - present.", "The process for introduction of the euro.", "Expected effects of the euro convergence.", "Public opinion.", "Other surveys.", "Convergence criteria.", "Convergence Reports." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Plans to join the eurozone began back in 2003 before the accession to the EU, when the contemporary premier Leszek Miller stated that Poland would join the eurozone between 2007 and 2009. One of the leaders of Civic Platform party (PO) Jan Rokita was certain that the best way to converge to euro was through a unilateral euroization. Nevertheless, euroization is against the rules of the EU and it cannot be adopted by any Member State without the approval of the Union. Lastly, the plan was not finalized and Poland suspended it.", "During coalition of Law and Justice, Self-Defence of the Republic of Poland and League of Polish Families the euro was not a priority on Poland’s agenda. In 2006 the premier Kazimierz Marcinkiewicz stated that the accession to euro area was possible only after 2009, as it would be possible that Polish deficit decreases to 3% of GDP until the end of 2007. Till then the negotiations on Poland in the eurozone have been postponed. Even more sceptical position held the premier Jarosław Kaczyński. In his opinion the euro was disadvantageous for Poland, and it would cause increase of prices, moreover, the stability of Polish złoty before the convergence would lose stability.", "The euro adoption process in Poland is regulated by the \"Strategic Framework for National Euro Changeover Plan\" (adopted by the Council of Ministers in 2010) and the \"National Euro Changeover Plan\" (approved in 2011 by the Committee for European Affairs). The plan comprises an economic impact assessment of the euro adoption, followed by a chapter on the measures needed to ensure Polish compliance with the \"Maastricht convergence criteria\", and finally a roadmap for the euro changeover process. On 10 September 2008, speaking at the launch of an economic forum in a Polish resort of Krynica-Zdrój, Polish Prime Minister Donald Tusk announced the ruling government's objective to join the Eurozone in 2012, which was confirmed by the government on 28 October 2008. However, Poland's then President Lech Kaczynski wanted euro adoption put to a referendum. Finance Minister Dominik Radziwill said on 10 July 2009 that Poland could meet the fiscal criteria by 2012 and enter the Eurozone in 2014. On 5 November 2009, speaking at the news conference, Polish Deputy Finance Minister Ludwik Kotecki said the government may announce a national strategy for euro adoption in mid-2010. In an interview for Rzeczpospolita daily 22 October 2009 he also said Poland could adopt the euro in 2014 if the general government deficit is reduced in 2012. Former President Lech Kaczyński said at a news conference that Poland was unable to join Eurozone before 2015, and even that date was still very optimistic. Also, Polish government officials had confirmed that Poland wouldn't join Eurozone in 2012. On Friday, 11 December 2009, Polish Prime Minister Donald Tusk said Poland could join the eurozone in 2015. Speaking during Finance Ministry-organized seminar on the euro-adoption process on 15 December 2009, Deputy Minister of Finance Ludwik Kotecki said the year 2015 is more likely than 2014, however he declined to specify the official target date. In the years following the 2008 Global Financial Crisis, economic statistics showed that the devaluation of its floating currency the złoty led Polish products to become more competitively priced to foreign buyers, and because of that Poland had a higher economic GDP growth in subsequent years than if the country had been a part of the eurozone. The Polish government advocated in 2012 that it would only be wise for Poland to join the eurozone once the euro crisis had ended, based on the argument that delaying their accession would minimise the risk for Poland to become one of the net financial creditors to other eurozone countries in financial difficulties. In December 2011, Polish foreign minister Radosław Sikorski said that Poland aimed to adopt the euro on 1 January 2016, but only if \"the eurozone is reformed by then, and the entrance is beneficial to us.\" The current Polish government plans to comply with all the Euro convergence criteria by 2015. In autumn 2012 the Monetary Policy Council of the Polish National Bank published its official monetary guidelines for 2013, confirming earlier political statements that Poland should only join the ERM-II once the existing eurozone countries have overcome the current sovereign-debt crisis, to maximise the benefits of monetary integration and minimise associated costs. The governor of the National Bank, Marek Belka, has stated that the euro won't be adopted before the end of his term in 2016. In late 2012, Tusk announced that he planned to launch a \"national debate\" on euro adoption the following spring, and in December 2012 Polish Finance Minister Jacek Rostowski said that his country should strive to adopt the euro as soon as possible. On 21 December 2012 it was announced by the Ministry of Finance that they planned to update the country's National Euro Changeover Plan in 2013, mainly due to the recent institutional changes in the eurozone which require additional considerations. One of the key details investigated as part of the work to update the plan is whether or not an amendment to Article 227 of the Constitution of the Republic of Poland will need to be passed to change the currency from the Złoty to the euro and to enact changes to the central bank. The opposition Law and Justice Party opposes euro adoption and the governing parties do not have enough seats in the Sejm to make the required constitutional amendment. The Polish Finance Minister emphasised that the government's support for euro adoption remained unchanged as a strategic goal, and would not be changed in the updated plan. At the same time, however, recent turbulences in the EU and in the world have caused the government to adopt a kind of additional criterion for euro adoption, namely the stabilization of the euro area.", "In January 2013, Polish President Bronislaw Komorowski stated that a decision on euro adoption should not be made until after parliamentary and presidential elections scheduled for 2015, but that in the meantime the country should try to comply with the convergence criteria. In February 2013, Jaroslaw Kaczynski, leader of the Law and Justice Party stated that \"I do not foresee any moment when the adoption of the euro would be advantageous for us\" and called for a referendum on euro adoption. Rostowski has stated that Poland won't set a target date for the switch since the country first needs to carry out reforms to prepare itself. In March 2013, Tusk said for the first time that he would be open to considering a referendum on euro participation - decided by simple majority - provided that it was part of a package in which the parliament first approved the necessary constitutional amendment to adopt the euro subject to approval in a referendum. In April 2013 Marek Belka, head of National Bank of Poland, said that Poland should demand to be permitted to adopt the euro without first joining the ERM-II due to concerns over currency speculation. Following the 2014 Russian military intervention in Ukraine, Belka said that Poland needed to reevaluate its reluctance to join the eurozone. In June 2014, a joint statement by the finance minister, central bank chief and president of Poland stated that Poland should begin a debate shortly after the 2015 parliamentary elections about when to adopt the euro, leading to a roadmap decision that might even include identification of a target date. In October 2014, the Deputy Prime Minister Janusz Piechociński suggested that Poland should join the Eurozone in 2020 at the earliest. The newly elect Prime Minister, Ewa Kopacz, having replaced Donald Tusk for the final year of the government's term, at the same time commented: \"Before answering the question which target date should be set for the euro changeover, we must ask another: What is the situation of the eurozone and where are they going? If the eurozone will strengthen, then Poland should fulfil all the criteria for inclusion, which would in any case be good for the economy.\" The PM hereby referred to the earlier political decision of first letting the \"National Coordination Committee for Euro Changeover\" complete its update of the changeover plan, which await a prior establishment of the banking union, before setting a target date for euro adoption. More recently, Krzysztof Szczerski, the foreign affairs advisor to Poland's new President Andrzej Duda, said in July 2015 that \"Poles should decide in a referendum whether they want to embrace the euro\". In the 2015 Polish parliamentary election, the winning party became the eurosceptic Law and Justice, which opposes euro adoption. On 13 April 2019 at a convention, Jarosław Kaczyński, the leader of Law and Justice Party (PiS) stated: “We will adopt the euro someday, because we are committed to do so and we are and will be in the European Union, but we will accept it when it is in our interest.” He came forth with a declaration, according to which the euro wouldn’t be introduced until Poland’s economy catches up with Western economies. In his view Poland should accept the euro only when the national economy will reach 85% of GDP per capita of Germany. Later on Jarosław Kaczyński and premier Mateusz Morawiecki maintain that convergence to euro at this point would be harmful for Poland.", "While Donald Tusk held the post of the premier in Poland first steps have been taken towards a creation of the interinstitutional organizational structure for euro adoption. On 13 January 2009 a new body of Government Plenipotentiary for Euro Adoption in the Republic of Poland was established. The position of the first Government Plenipotentiary took Ludwik Kotecki. Then, the next regulation from 3 November 2009 created new institutions: According to Regulation of the Council of Ministers from 28 December 2015, the position of Government Plenipotentiary for Euro Adoption in Poland has been suspended.", "The adaptation of the euro in Poland is subject of economic analysis by experts in finance in Poland. In 2017 Polish Robert Schuman Foundation together with Konrad Adenauer Foundation in Poland prepared a report of three possible scenarios as results of Poland accessing the euro area. According to the report, delaying the introduction of the euro goes against Poland. Moreover, there are government reports draw up by Ministry of Finance in Poland in 2005, and two reports by the National Bank of Poland in 2004 and 2009. Both documents focus on expected short-term and long-term effects, including benefits as well as possible threats and costs. The NBP in the report from 2009 concluded that in the long-term Poland will gain extra 7,5% GDP as a member of the eurozone. In 2014 analysis, the NBP confirmed that the euro adaptation will have positive impact on the economic growth and the wealthiness of Polish citizens. Expected positive effects include: The reports note that part of the possible positive effects is contingent on an execution of changes, such as a reform of public finance or reduction of public debt. On the other side, the team of NBP analysts lists possible negative effects of the convergence to the euro:", "", "In 2010, the eurozone's debt crisis caused Poles' interest to cool, with two out of five Poles opposed to entry. In March 2011, research by CBOS showed that 60% of Poles were against adopting the euro while 32% were supportive, a decrease from 41% in April 2010. Surveys in the first half of 2012 indicated that 60% of Poles were opposed to adopting the common currency. Public support for the euro continued to fall, reaching record lows in the CBOS polls from July 2012, where only 25% of those polled supported a switch to the euro. However, polls conducted by \"TNS Polska\" throughout 2012–2015 have consistently shown support for eventually adopting the euro, though that support depends on the target date (as revealed by the detailed data in the table below). The eurobarometer poll does not take adoption timing issues into concern, meaning that this result can not be directly compared to the above results of the \"TNS Polska\" surveys, as a percentage of those being surveyed might respond with a more negative bias (assuming the survey question is about if they favour \"adoption now\"\" rather than favour \"\"adoption either now or at a later point of time perceived as being more optimal for their country\"\"). The adoption support found by the 2012-15 surveys in the above table, was detected while a majority of Poles in the same surveys said they expected the euro adoption would negatively impact the Polish economy. In example, 58% of the surveyed in May 2012 had this belief. A later poll for the German Marshall Fund published in September 2012, even found 71% of Poles believed an immediate switch to the euro would be bad for the Polish economy.", "The Maastricht Treaty originally required that all members of the European Union join the euro once certain economic criteria are met. As of May 2018, Poland met 2 out of the 5 criteria.", "Since 1989, the European Commission and ECB prepare Convergence Reports on countries that do not participate in the euro area. According to Article 140 TFEU, at least once every 2 years Reports must be issued on Member States that did not join the eurozone. Reports cover: The report of 2018 verify that Poland meets 2 out of 4 economic criteria related to price stability and public finances. Poland does not meet 2 criteria of exchange rate stability and long-term interest rates. Moreover, Polish law is not completely compatible with the EU Treaties. The NBP Act and the Constitution of the Republic of Poland are not fully compatible with the Article 131 of the TFEU, which is related to lack of political approval in Poland. In order to fulfil legal compatibility Poland has to change three articles of the Constitution. First article to be changed is Article 227(1), which improperly defines the main goal of the National Bank of Poland. Secondly, Article 203(1) of the Constitution defines too broadly the competences of the Supreme Audit Office towards the National Bank. Finally, according to Article 198(1), President of the NBP carries responsibility before the State Tribunal, which is against requirements of the independence of the national central bank." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography.", "Climate.", "Vegetation.", "History.", "Points of interest.", "Administrative divisions.", "The \"exclaves\".", "Chernobyl zone.", "Important cities and towns.", "Demographics.", "Economy.", "Industry.", "Agriculture.", "Transportation.", "Education.", "Nomenclature.", "Notes." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Kyiv Oblast has a total area of (approximately 35 times the area of Kyiv city) and is located in north-central Ukraine. On the west it borders the Zhytomyr Oblast, on the Southwest – Vinnytsia Oblast, on the South – Cherkasy Oblast, on the Southeast – Poltava Oblast, on the East and Northeast – Chernihiv Oblast, and on the North – Homyel Voblasts of Belarus. The oblast is equally split between the both banks of Dnieper River (\"Dnipro\") north and south of Kyiv. Other significant rivers in the oblast are the Dnieper's tributaries: Pripyat (\"Prypiat\") (R), Desna (L), Teteriv (R), Irpin' (R), Ros' (R) and Trubizh (L). The length of the Dnipro River within the boundaries of the oblast totals. The oblast has a total number of 177 rivers intersecting the region; 13 reservoirs (the most notable ones being Kiev Reservoir and the Kaniv Reservoir), over 2000 ponds, and approximately 750 small lakes.", "The climate of Kyiv Oblast is characteristic of the Polesia area and other neighboring forested areas. The oblast has a moderately continental climate with relatively mild winters and warm summers. The temperatures range from in January to degrees in July.", "Kyiv Oblast has small mountains and slopes on the right bank of the Dnieper River. This entire area is surrounded by a continuous belt by greenery and forests. The oblast's \"green area\" covers, characterized by 250 different sorts of trees and bushes.", "Kyiv Oblast was officially created as part of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic on February 27, 1932. Earlier historical administrative units that later became the territory of the oblast include the Kyiv Voivodeship under the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and the Kyiv Governorate under the Russian Empire. The northern part of the oblast belongs to the historical region of Polesia (\"Polissia\"). In Kyiv region, there was a specific folk icon-painting style much influenced by the Kyiv Pechersk Lavra painting school. Saints were depicted on the deep purple or black background, their clothes dark, their haloes dark blue, dark green or even black, outlined by thin white dotted contours. The Kyiv region's icons' collection is the part of the exhibition of the Museum of Ukrainian home icons in the Historical and cultural complex \"The Radomysl Castle\". The current borders of the oblast were last set following the Chernobyl accident in 1986. Administrative oversight of the new city of Slavutych, which was constructed as part of the Chernihiv Oblast, was then transferred to the Kyiv Oblast (\"see Chernobyl zone below\").", "The following historic-cultural sites were nominated for the Seven Wonders of Ukraine.", "The oblast is subdivided into 25 raions (\"administrative districts\"). It consists of 26 cities, 30 towns, and more than 1,000 villages. The following data incorporates the number of each type of administrative divisions of Kyiv Oblast: As with other oblasts of Ukraine, the head of the Kyiv Oblast State Administration (governor) is appointed by the President of Ukraine and subordinated to the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine. Local self-government body is the popularly elected Kyiv Oblast Rada, chaired by a Speaker (elected from among the councilors).", "The municipality of Slavutych is located within the borders of the neighboring Chernihiv Oblast on the eastern bank of the Dnieper river and the municipality has no common border with the Kyiv Oblast. Still, Slavutych is administrated by the Kyiv Oblast authorities (being a kind of administrative exclave). Similarly, the town of Kotsiubynske, which is located within the borders of Kiev city (which is itself surrounded by the Kyiv Oblast), is administrated by the Irpin city council.", "The north-western end of the oblast is a part of the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone due to the radioactive contamination caused by the Chernobyl nuclear reactor accident. The largest cities within zone are Chernobyl and Prypiat, which are now abandoned (\"see ghost towns\"). The city of Slavutych was built outside of the zone to host evacuated residents of Prypyat and personnel of the zone installations.", "Important cities and towns of Kyiv Oblast include:", "Kyiv Oblast's largest nationality group are Ukrainians (1,684,800 people, or 92.5%), followed by Russians, Jews, Belarusians, Poles, and others. The current estimated population (excluding Kiev) is around 1.72 million (as of 2013). The population density is 63.01/km2. The urban population, according to the 2001 Ukrainian Census data, accounted for 1,053,500 people, or 57.6%, and the rural population – for 774,400 people, or 42.4%. According to the data, the number of men accounted for 845,900 people, or 46.3%, that of women – 982,000 people, or 53.7%.", "", "Kyiv Oblast's main industry's include: power production, food, chemical and petrochemical industries, mechanical engineering and metal-working. The national share of tire production for automobiles constitutes – 63%, excavators – 53%, paper and cardboard – 40%, hoisting cranes – 39%. In general, the oblast has a total of 330 licensed industrial enterprises and 742 smaller industrial enterprises. The Boryspil Bus Plant in Prolisky produces 1,700 buses per year of various modifications, and several other auto-industry factories are also located in the oblast'.", "In addition to industry, the oblast also has a developed agriculture production. In 1999, the gross grain yield in the region was about 1,118,600 tons, sugar-beets – 1,570,900 tons, sunflower seeds – 18,1 thousand tons, potatoes – 669,200 tons. The region also produced 156,900 tons of meat, 738,500 tons of milk and 855,2 million eggs. At the beginning of 1999, there were 1,130 registered farms within the oblast.", "Kyiv Oblast has a highly developed rail transport system. The total length of the oblast's working railroad lines is 88 km (as of 1985). Through the territory of the oblast pass the: Moscow—Kiev—Lviv, Kyiv—Dnipro—Donetsk and other railroad routes. In addition to inter-Ukraine and international rail routes, local Elektrychka lines also pass through the oblast: Kyiv—Fastiv—Koziatyn, Kyiv—Fastiv—Myronivka, Kyiv—Teteriv, Kyiv—Nizhyn, and Kyiv—Yahotyn. The length of the oblast's automobile roads totals 7,760 km, including 7,489 km of paved roads. The main roads passing thorough the oblast include: The oblast's main airports include two international airports: the Boryspil Airport and the Gostomel (Antonov) Cargo Airport. Ukrainian military airbases are located in the cities of Bila Tserkva and Uzyn. Strategic gas-pipelines located in the oblast include Urengoy—Pomary—Uzhhorod, and Shebelynka—Poltava—Kyiv.", "Kyiv Oblast has 795 state-run schools of general education, 219 (27.5%) of which are situated in urban areas and 576 (72.5%) of which – in rural areas. These schools are attended by 232,260 students, 141,416 (60.6%) which attend urban schools, and 98,944 (39.4%) which attend rural area schools. In addition, there are 12 evening schools with an enrollment of over 6,000 students, 15 private institutions containing about 7,000 students, 23 vocational schools containing over 14,300 students, 22 higher schools with an enrollment of over 34,900 students), and 52 home-school institutions containing over 48,700 children. There are also 756 institutions of pre-school education attended by a total of 44,400 children, 52 home-school institutions, 22 vocational institutions, having an enrollment of with 17,300 students. Also, educational institutions for orphans, physically and mentally disabled children represent an important component of Kyiv Oblast's educational system. In addition to general education schools, the oblast has educational institutions specifically for gifted children, including:", "Most of Ukraine's oblasts are named after their capital cities, officially referred to as \"oblast centers\". The name of each oblast is a relative adjective, formed by adding a feminine suffix to the name of respective center city: Kiev (\"Kyiv\" in transliterated Ukrainian) is the center of the \"Kyivs’ka oblast\"' (Kiev Oblast). Most oblasts are also sometimes referred to in a feminine noun form, following the convention of traditional regional place names, ending with the suffix \"-shchyna\", as is the case with the Kiev Oblast, \"Kyivshchyna\". Kiev is the traditional English name for the administrative center of the Kiev Oblast, but the Ukrainianized versions (transliterated from the Ukrainian language) \"Kyiv\" and \"Kyiv Oblast\" are sometimes also used.", "a. These neighboring settlements are practically merged into a conurbation" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Selecting the design.", "Convergence criteria.", "Joining ERM II.", "Status.", "Advantages of euro adoption.", "Linguistic issues." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Bulgaria euro coins will replace the lev once the convergence criteria are fulfilled. As the current lev was fixed to the Deutsche Mark at par, the lev's peg effectively switched to the euro, at the rate of 1.95583 leva = 1 euro, which is the Deutsche Mark's fixed exchange rate to euro. On the occasion of the signing of the EU accession treaty on 25 April 2005, the Bulgarian National Bank issued a commemorative coin with a face value of 1.95583 leva, giving it a nominal value of exactly 1 euro. The Madara Rider was one of the favourites to become the symbol of Bulgaria to be used on the national side of the country's euro coins. Other eminent pretenders for the title 'Symbol of Bulgaria' were the ancient tradition of the nestinars (Bulgarian fire-dancers), Cyrillic, the Rila Monastery and the Tsarevets medieval fortress near Veliko Turnovo. , debates about the design of the future Bulgarian euro coins were held all over the country. They continued until 29 June when a vote decided the symbol to be used on all coins. Bulgarians voted in post offices, gas stations and schools. Finally, on 29 June 2008 it was announced that 25.44% of the Bulgarian voters had chosen the Madara Horseman to be depicted on future euro coins.", "The Maastricht Treaty originally required that all members of the European Union join the euro once certain economic criteria are met. In November 2007 the Finance Minister Plamen Oresharski stated that his goal was to comply with all five convergence criteria by 2009 and adopt the euro in 2012. Besides not complying with the requirement to be an ERM-II member for two years, Bulgaria also did not satisfy the price stability criterion in 2008. Bulgaria's inflation in the 12 months from April 2007 to March 2008 reached 9.4%, well above the reference value limit at 3.2%. However, Bulgaria fulfilled the state budget criterion of only having a deficit at maximum 3% of the country's gross domestic product (GDP). The country had posted surpluses since 2003, which in 2007 was at 3.4% of GDP. At the time, the EC forecast that it would remain at 3.2% of GDP in both 2008 and 2009. Bulgaria also complied with the public debt criteria. During the prior decade the Bulgarian debt had declined from 50% of GDP to 18% in 2007. It was expected to reach 11% of GDP in 2009. Finally, the average for the long-term interest rate during the prior year was 4.7% in March 2008, and thus also well within the reference limit at 6.5%. A 2008 analysis said that Bulgaria would not be able to join the eurozone earlier than 2015 due to the high inflation and the repercussions of the global financial crisis of 2007–2008. Some members of Bulgarian government, notably economy minister Petar Dimitrov, have speculated about unilaterally introducing the euro, which was not well-met by the European Commission. The lev is not part of ERM-II, but since the launch of the euro in 1999, it has been pegged to the euro at a fixed rate of €1 = BGN 1.95583 through a strictly managed currency board. In all of the three latest annual assessment reports, Bulgaria managed to comply with four out of the five economic convergence criteria for euro adoption, only failing to comply with the criteria requiring the currency of the state to have been a stable ERM-II member for a minimum of two years.", "While Bulgaria has not formally joined the exchange rate mechanism, the ±15% floating band permitted within ERM II is less restrictive than Bulgaria's current strict peg of 1.95583 BGN to 1 EUR. The lev has been pegged to the euro since its launch, and prior to that was pegged on par to the German Mark. While the currency board which pegs Bulgaria to the euro has been seen as beneficial to the country fulfilling criteria so quickly, the ECB has pressured Bulgaria to drop it as it did not know how to let a country using a currency board join the euro. The Prime Minister has stated the desire to keep the currency board until the euro was adopted. However, factors such as a high inflation, an unrealistic exchange rate with the euro and the country's low productivity are negatively affected by the system. Simeon Dyankov, Bulgaria's then-finance minister, said in September 2009 that Bulgaria planned to enter ERM II in November 2009, but this was delayed. It was then delayed further due to an increased budget deficit, outside the Maastricht criteria. Since 2011, Bulgaria's non-membership of the ERM has been the primary factor that prevented their euro membership, as Bulgaria met the other criteria for euro adoption. In July 2011, Dyankov stated that the government would not adopt the euro as long as the European sovereign-debt crisis was ongoing, In January 2015, the then-Finance Minister Vladislav Goranov (under Prime Minister Boiko Borissov) changed approach and said, that it was possible for Bulgaria to join ERM-II before the term of current government. Goranov said he would begin talks with the Eurogroup and a co-ordination council to prepare the country for euro zone membership. The council was to draft a plan for the introduction of the euro, propose a target date, organisation and of the preparation work and coordination of the expert working groups. This was supported by the former governor of the Bulgarian National Bank,, who was in office when the currency board of the state was established. Paramov argued that adoption would \"trigger a number of positive economic effects\": \"Sufficient money supply (leading to increased lending which is needed to improve economic growth), getting rid of the currency board which prevents the national bank functioning as a lender of last resort to rescue banks in financial troubles, and finally private and public lending would benefit from lower interest rates (at least half as high).\" The former deputy governor of the Bulgarian National Bank,, agreed with Paramov, stating that it was possible to adopt the euro already in 2018, and \"Bulgaria's membership in the eurozone will bring only positive effect on the economy\" because \"since establishing the currency board in 1997, we have been accepting all the negative effects of accession into the eurozone without getting the positive ones (access to the European financial market)\". Following the 2017 parliamentary elections Borissov's government was re-elected. Borissov stated that he intended to apply to join ERM II but Goranov elaborated that the government would only seek to join once the eurozone states were ready to approve the application, and that he expected to have clarity of this by the end of 2017. On taking the presidency of the Council of the European Union in January 2018, Prime Minister Boyko Borisov indicated no clarification had been given but announced he was going to pursue applications for both ERM-II and Schengen by July 2018 regardless. Bulgaria sent a letter to the Eurogroup in July 2018 on its desire to participate in ERM II, and commitment to enter into a \"close cooperation\" agreement with the Banking Union. However, this deadline was put back to July 2019 due to extra conditions requested by Eurozone governments, namely that Bulgaria: While the CVM reforms are mentioned, and progress in judicial reform and organised crime is expected, leaving the CVM is not a precondition. As of October 2019, Finance Minister Vladislav Goranov's target was to enter the ERM II by April 2020. Borissov stated in February 2020 that Bulgaria's application would be reviewed in July. In March 2020 the Bulgarian central bank said that this target was no longer realistic due to the ongoing coronavirus pandemic. However in April 2020 Borissov stated that he would push forward the application by the end of April. The reason he gave for this U-turn was the 500 billion euros rescue package to deal with the economic fallout of the coronavirus pandemic, which the finance ministers of the Eurogroup had agreed upon on April 10. On April 24, Fitch Ratings stated that is was unlikely that Bulgaria would meet all requirements for ERM II accession by the end of April but that this was unlikely to jeopardize Bulgaria’s accession to ERM II and the banking union in general. Moreover, they announced that they would probably upgrade Bulgaria’s Foreign-Currency IDR by two notches between Bulgaria’s accession to ERM II and euro adoption: \"\"... Given that the COVID-19 pandemic response is taking up significant resources with regard to political engagement at the EU-wide level, facilitating the Bulgarian lev's ERM2 accession may decline as a relative priority for European institutions. If concerns about risks ease and the process resumes, this would be supportive of the rating, as underlined by our view that all things being equal, we would upgrade Bulgaria's Long-Term Foreign-Currency IDR by two notches between admission to the ERM II and joining the euro.\"\" Bulgaria officially submitted documents to the European Central Bank for membership to the ERM II exchange rate mechanism on 30 April 2020.", "Bulgaria met 2 out of the 5 criteria in the last convergence report published by the European Central Bank in June 2020.", "Because the lev is pegged to the euro at a fixed exchange rate, it can be argued that Bulgaria is already a de facto member of the euro area insofar that it cannot pursue an independent monetary policy and is therefore bound by the monetary policy and interest rate decisions of the European Central Bank (ECB) without having a say. Adopting the euro and thereby becoming a de jure member of the euro area would enhance Bulgaria's position by giving it a voice within the ECB. Moreover, the fact that the lev is pegged to the euro at a fixed exchange rate also means that Bulgaria cannot devalue its currency in order to make its exports more competitive. Therefore, Bulgaria would not lose anything in this regard by adopting the euro. Other advantages of adopting the euro include the improved supervision of Bulgaria's systemically important banks once it has joined ERM II together with the Banking Union, and the decreased cost of borrowing and full access to the rescue packages of the euro area that are intended to deal with the economic effects of the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic.", "The Bulgarian language's use of a Cyrillic script and its not straightforward transliteration of the word \"euro\" have caused some issues regarding the official use of the language relating to the euro. The European Central Bank and the European Commission initially insisted that Bulgaria adopt the name ЕУРО (i.e., euro), rather than the original ЕВРО (i.e., evro) (from Bulgarian, meaning \"Europe\"), claiming the currency's name should be standardised across the EU as much as possible. Bulgaria maintained that its language's alphabet and phonetic orthography warranted the exception. At the 2007 EU Summit in Lisbon the issue was decided in Bulgaria's favour, making евро the official Cyrillic spelling from 13 December 2007. This ruling has affected the design of euro banknotes. The second series of notes (beginning with the €5 note issued from 2013) includes the term \"ЕВРО\" and the abbreviation \"ЕЦБ\" (short for, the Bulgarian name of the European Central Bank). The first series had only the standard Latin alphabet \"EURO\" and the Greek \"ΕΥΡΩ\". The euro coins only have the Latin \"EURO\" on their common side. Greek coins include the alternative Greek spelling on the national (obverse) side. Bulgarian coins, therefore, may follow suit, having \"EURO\" on one side and \"ЕВРО\" on the other. The plural of in Bulgarian varies in spoken language –, – but the most widespread form is – without inflection in plural. The word for euro, though, has a normal form with the postpositive definite article – (, the euro). The word for eurocent is and most probably that, or only, will be used in future when the European currency is accepted in Bulgaria. In contrast to euro, the word for \"cent\" has a full inflection both in the definite and the plural form: (basic form), (full definite article – postpositive), (plural), (numerative form – after numerals). However, the word \"stotinki\" (), singular \"stotinka\" (), the name of the subunit of the current Bulgarian currency, could be used in place of cent, as it has become a synonym of the word \"coins\" in colloquial Bulgarian; just like \"cent\" (from Latin \"centum\"), its etymology is from a word meaning hundred – \"sto\" (). \"Stotinki\" is used widely in the Bulgarian diaspora in Europe to refer to subunits of currencies other than the Bulgarian lev." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Definition.", "Design.", "Relationship to first-person shooters.", "History." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "A third-person shooter is a game structured around shooting, and in which the player can see the avatar on-screen in a third-person view. Third-person shooter is a game where instead of seeing the games through the main character's eyes, you see the main character moving and shooting in the game and the game is specifically focused on shooting.", "It is a 3D genre, that has grown to prominence in recent years, especially on consoles. It combines the shooting elements of the first-person shooter with the jumping and climbing elements of puzzle-based games and brawlers. Third-person shooter games almost always incorporate an aim-assist feature, since aiming from a third-person camera is difficult. Most also have a first-person view, which allows precise shooting and looking around at environment features that are otherwise hidden from the default camera. In most cases, the player must stand still to use first-person view, but newer titles allow the player to play like a FPS; for example, \"Oddworld: Stranger's Wrath\" requires the player to shoot from first person, only allowing melee attacks in the chase camera views.", "These games are closely related to first-person shooters, which also tie the perspective of the player to an avatar, but the two genres are distinct. While the first-person perspective allows players to aim and shoot without their avatar blocking their view, the third-person shooter shows the protagonist from an \"over the shoulder shot\" or \"behind the back\" perspective. Thus, the third-person perspective allows the game designer to create a more strongly characterized avatar and directs the player's attention as in watching a film. In contrast, a first-person perspective provides the player with greater immersion into the game universe. This difference in perspective also affects gameplay. Third-person shooters allow players to see the area surrounding the avatar more clearly. This viewpoint facilitates more interaction between the character and their surrounding environment, such as the use of tactical cover in \"Gears of War\", or navigating tight quarters. As such, the third-person perspective is better for interacting with objects in the game world, such as jumping on platforms, engaging in close combat, or driving a vehicle. However, the third-person perspective can interfere with tasks that require fine aiming. Third-person shooters sometimes compensate for their distinct perspective by designing larger, more spacious environments than first-person shooters. The boundaries between third-person and first-person shooters are not always clear. For example, many third-person shooters allow the player to use a first-person viewpoint for challenges that require precise aiming. The first-person shooter \"\" was actually designed as a third-person shooter, but added a first-person perspective to improve the interface for aiming and shooting. The game switches to a third-person viewpoint when the avatar is piloting a vehicle, and this combination of first-person for aiming and third-person for driving has since been used in other games. \"Metroid Prime\" is another first-person shooter that switches to a third-person perspective when rolling around the environment using the morph ball. Alexander R. Galloway writes that the \"real-time, over-the-shoulder tracking shots of Gus Van Sant's \"Elephant\" evoke third-person shooter games like \"Max Payne\", a close cousin of the FPS\".", "2D third-person shooters have existed since the earliest days of video games, dating back to \"Spacewar!\" (1962); third-person perspective shooting is also featured in its clones, \"Galaxy Game\" (1971) and \"Computer Space\" (1971). Arcade shooters with a 3D third-person perspective include Nintendo's \"Radar Scope\" (1979), Atari's \"Tempest\" (1981), Nihon Bussan's \"Tube Panic\" (1983), Sega's \"Space Harrier\" (1985), Atari's \"Xybots\" (1987), and Square's \"3-D WorldRunner\" (1987). and \"JJ\" (1987) Third-person shooters for home computers include Dan Gorlin's \"Airheart\" (1986) and Paul Norman's \"Beyond Forbidden Forest\" (1986). Konami's run & gun shooter \"Contra\" (1987) featured several third-person shooter levels where the player trudges through indoor enemy bases. Konami's \"Devastators\" (1988) is a third-person shooter where, rather than moving forward automatically, the player walks forward by holding the Up direction, as the background slowly scales toward the screen. \"Devastators\" also featured various obstacles that could be used to take cover from enemy fire, as well as two-player cooperative gameplay. A similar shooter released that same year was \"Cabal\" (1988), which inspired many of its own \"\"Cabal\" clones,\" such as \"NAM-1975\" (1990) and \"Wild Guns\" (1994). Kurt Kalata of Hardcore Gaming 101 cites Sega's \"Last Survivor\" (1988), released for arcades and then ported to the FM Towns and FM Towns Marty, featuring eight-player deathmatch. He notes that it has a perspective and split-screen similar to \"Xybots\", but with entirely different gameplay and controls. In 1993, Namco released a two-player competitive 3D third-person shooter vehicle combat game, \"Cyber Sled\". A year later, Elite Systems Ltd. released \"Virtuoso\" on the 3DO. This was an early example of a home console third-person shooter which featured a human protagonist on-foot, as opposed to controlling a vehicle, and made use of polygonal 3D graphics along with sprites in a 3D environment. \"Fade to Black\" (1995) was also a fully 3D third-person shooter released around this time, but as well as featuring an on-foot protagonist rather than a vehicle, utilised entirely polygonal 3D graphics. \"Tomb Raider\" (1996) by Eidos Interactive (now Square Enix Europe) is claimed by some commentators as a third-person shooter, and Jonathan S. Harbour of the University of Advancing Technology argues that it's \"largely responsible for the popularity of this genre\". Other commentators have considered it influential on later third person shooters such as \"BloodRayne\" (2002), \"The Contra Adventure\" (1998), \"MDK\" (1997), \"\" (1998), \"Burning Rangers\" (1998), and \"\" (2000). The game eschewed the popular first person perspective of games such as \"Doom\", instead making use of \"third person\" viewpoints, wide 3D environments and a control system inspired by \"Prince of Persia\". \"Mega Man Legends\" (1997) by Capcom is another early 3D third person shooter which took a different approach to the genre, mixing this with a role-playing game influence. Around the same time, \"Deathtrap Dungeon\" (1998) by Eidos Interactive and \"MediEvil\" (1998) by SCE Cambridge Studio (then \"Millennium Interactive\") were some of the first 3D games in the genre to include third person shooter influences in a fantasy setting, with fictional or alternative weapons achieving the same effect as a gun for the player. \"Die Hard Trilogy\" (1998) by Fox Interactive was met with critical acclaim at the time of its release, and the section of the game based around the first \"Die Hard\" film in the trilogy was another early take on a 3D third person shooter. \"Syphon Filter\" (1999) by Eidetic (now SCE Bend Studio) combined the perspective of \"Tomb Raider\" with action elements of games such as \"GoldenEye 007\" (1997) and \"Metal Gear Solid\" (1998). Richard Rouse III wrote in GamaSutra that the game was the most popular third person shooter for the PlayStation. The Nintendo 64 version of \"\" by The 3DO Company was released the same year as Syphon Filter, and is an early example of a popular third person shooter which introduced the player being allowed to control aiming of their weapon themselves by means of two control sticks. In \"Tomb Raider\" and \"Syphon Filter\", on the other hand, the protagonists automatically aimed at antagonists. Forcing or allowing the player to control aiming themselves, either using control sticks or a mouse, would go on to become commonplace in later games in the genre, such as \"Oni\" (2001), \"Max Payne\" (2001) and \"\" (2002). \"Max Payne\" (2001) was acclaimed as a superlative third person shooter, inspired by Hong Kong action cinema. Several platform games with third-person shooter elements were also released during that time; examples included \"Ratchet & Clank\" and most of the games in the \"Jak and Daxter\" series, both of which were designed for younger audiences than most third-person shooters. \"Resident Evil 4\" (2005) was influential in helping to redefine the third-person shooter genre, with its use of \"over the shoulder\" offset camera angles, where the camera is placed directly over the right shoulder and therefore doesn't obscure the action. An important gameplay mechanic that helped revolutionize third-person shooters in the past decade was the cover system. Koei's \"WinBack\" (1999) has a cover system. \"Kill Switch\" (2003) features the cover system as its core game mechanic, along with a blind fire mechanic. \"Gears of War\" (2006) and \"\" (2007) employed tactical elements such as taking cover, influenced by \"Kill Switch\", using off-center viewpoints inspired by \"Resident Evil 4\". The game also employed grittier themes than other titles and used a unique feature which rewarded the player for correctly reloading weapons. \"Gears of War\", as well as games such as \"Army of Two\" (2008), place a greater emphasis on two player cooperative play, as does \"Resident Evil 5\" (2009). As of 2009, the third-person shooter genre has a large audience outside Japan, particularly in North America. \"Vanquish\" (2010) by PlatinumGames featured a gameplay style reminiscent of bullet hell shooters, with bullets and missiles coming from all directions. The third-person shooter genre is still quite popular in contemporary gaming circles. In 2012, Rockstar Games released \"Max Payne 3\", which was praised for its refined gameplay. In 2015, Nintendo published multiplayer third-person shooter game \"Splatoon\" for the Wii U, which was followed by a sequel for Nintendo Switch in 2017, which ahs become one of the console's highest selling games. In the late 2010s, the third-person shooter battle royale game \"Fortnite Battle Royale\" saw huge popularity. The survival horror games \"Resident Evil 2\" and \"\" were remade in 2019 and 2020 respectively, featuring third-person shooter gameplay similar to \"Resident Evil 4\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Conceptual origin.", "Prop construction.", "Visual effects.", "Sound.", "Depiction.", "Types.", "Colors.", "Choreography.", "Cultural impact.", "Merchandise.", "Disney Parks.", "Attractions.", "Parodies.", "Games.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "There are several literary precedents in science fiction for a \"sword\" of pure energy that can cut through anything, notably:", "For the original \"Star Wars\" film, the film prop hilts were constructed by John Stears from old Graflex press camera flash battery packs and other pieces of hardware. The full sized sword props were designed to appear ignited onscreen, by later creating an \"in-camera\" glowing effect in post-production. The blade is a three-sided rod which was coated with a Scotchlite retroreflector array, the same sort used for highway signs. A lamp was positioned to the side of the taking camera and reflected towards the subject through 45-degree angled glass so that the sword would appear to glow from the camera's point of view. Set decorator Roger Christian found the handles for the Graflex Flash Gun in a photography shop in Great Marlborough Street, in London's West End. He then added cabinet T-track to the handles, securely attaching them with cyanoacrylate glue. Adding a few \"greebles\" (surface details), Christian managed to hand-make the first prototype of a lightsaber prop for Luke before production began. George Lucas decided he wanted to add a clip to the handle, so that Luke could hang it on his belt. Once Lucas felt the handle was up to his standards, it went to John Stears to create the wooden dowel rod with front-projection paint so that the animators would have a glow of light to enhance later on in post production. Due to lack of preparation time, Christian's prototype and a second spare were used for the shooting in Tunisia, where filming on \"Star Wars\" began. It was discovered, however, that the glowing effect was greatly dependent on the rod's orientation to the camera, and during the Obi-Wan Kenobi/Darth Vader duel, they could clearly be seen as rods. Because of this, the glow would be added in post-production through rotoscoping, which also allowed for diffusion to be employed to enhance the glow.", "Korean animator Nelson Shin, who was working for DePatie–Freleng Enterprises at the time, was asked by his manager if he could animate the lightsaber in the live action scenes of a film. After Shin accepted the assignment, the live action footage was given to him. He drew the lightsabers with a rotoscope, an animation which was superimposed onto the footage of the physical lightsaber blade prop. Shin explained to the people from Lucasfilm that since a lightsaber is made of light, the sword should look \"a little shaky\" like a fluorescent tube. He suggested inserting one frame that was much lighter than the others while printing the film on an optical printer, making the light seem to vibrate. Shin also recommended adding a degausser sound on top of the other sounds for the weapon since the sound would be reminiscent of a magnetic field. The whole process took one week, surprising his company. Lucasfilm showed Shin the finished product, having followed his suggestions to use an X-Acto knife to give the lightsaber a very sharp look, and to have sound accompany the weapon's movements.", "The lightsaber sound effect was developed by sound designer Ben Burtt as a combination of the hum of idling interlock motors in aged movie projectors and interference caused by a television set on a shieldless microphone. Burtt discovered the latter accidentally as he was looking for a buzzing, sparking sound to add to the projector-motor hum. The pitch changes of lightsaber movement were produced by playing the basic lightsaber tone on a loudspeaker and recording it on a moving microphone, generating Doppler shift to mimic a moving sound source.", "Lightsabers were present in the earliest drafts as mundane plasma weapons that were used alongside laser guns. The introduction of the Force in a later revision made the Jedi and the Sith supernaturally skilled; initially they were only portrayed as swordsmen. The lightsaber became the Force-user's tool, described in \"A New Hope\" by Obi-Wan Kenobi as \"not as clumsy or random as a blaster. An elegant weapon, for a more civilized age.\" The source of a lightsaber's power is a kyber crystal. These crystals are also the power source of the Death Star's superlaser.", "Lightsabers are depicted as hand-built as part of a Jedi's or Sith's training regimen. Each lightsaber is unique, though some may bear resemblance to others, especially if there is a connection between the builders. The first film appearance of a dual-bladed lightsaber (first depicted in the comic series \"Tales of the Jedi\") was in \"The Phantom Menace\", wielded by Darth Maul. The video game \"The Force Unleashed\" introduced two other variants: a lightsaber pike (a lightsaber with a shorter blade but a long handle, resembling a spear) and a Tonfa-style lightsaber with right-angle hilt. Count Dooku wields a standard lightsaber with a curved hilt. The \"Star Wars\" expanded universe adds several lightsaber types, including short and dual-phase (adjustable length) weapons. In \"Star Wars Rebels\", Ezra Bridger's original lightsaber is a hybrid that features a fully functional blaster pistol built into the handle. Kylo Ren, introduced in \"The Force Awakens\", uses a lightsaber that features two crosshilt blades, giving it the appearance of a greatsword. His blade also has an unstable, fiery appearance, explained in canon reference books as stemming from a cracked kyber crystal. The Inquisitors of the Galactic Empire are depicted as wielding a unique variation of a double-bladed saber, mounted on a rotating ring enabling the blades 360 degrees of rotation and short-term flight capability. More obscure lightsaber variations, such as the \"lightwhip\", an elongated flexible blade used in a matter akin to a whip, the \"lightclub\", an enlarged standard lightsaber, and the \"shoto\", a dramatically smaller variation often paired with a standard sized saber have also made appearances.", "Lightsabers depicted in the first two released films, \"A New Hope\" and \"The Empire Strikes Back\", had blades that were colored either blue (for the Jedi) or red (for the Sith). Luke Skywalker's new lightsaber in \"Return of the Jedi\" was colored blue during the initial editing of the film, and appears so in both an early movie trailer and the official theatrical posters. However, it was changed to green in the film's final edit after initial viewings by the filmmakers, who felt that it would better stand out against the blue sky of Tatooine in outdoor scenes, and this color change is also reflected in the film's re-release posters. Mace Windu's purple-bladed lightsaber, as first seen in \"Attack of the Clones\", was requested by the actor Samuel L. Jackson for two reasons; purple is his favorite color and that the purple blade is one way to make his character stand out among other Jedi. Jackson is known to frequently request that the characters he plays use an item that is purple in color. showed the guardians of the Jedi Temple wielding yellow-bladed lightsabers, and, at the end of \"The Rise of Skywalker\", Rey is shown to have built a gold-bladed lightsaber using part of her staff as the hilt. As depicted in \"The Clone Wars\" and \"Rebels\", the builder of a lightsaber chooses a kyber crystal and meditates with it until the crystal acquires a color. The color of this crystal becomes the blade's color when installed into a lightsaber hilt. In the book \"\" and the comic series \"Darth Vader: Dark Lord of the Sith\", it is shown that dark side users remove the crystal from a defeated Jedi's lightsaber and concentrate force energy on it to break its connection to the light side, a process known as \"bleeding\" to create a red crystal. The process can also be reversed, as shown in \"Ahsoka\", when the titular character does so to a pair of crystals taken from an Inquisitor. She uses them in the pair of white-bladed lightsabers she builds at the end of the novel. Other colors have appeared in various expanded media projects, including many video games where the player can select their character's lightsaber color.", "The technical lightsaber choreography for the original \"Star Wars\" trilogy was developed by Hollywood sword-master Bob Anderson. Anderson personally trained Mark Hamill (Luke Skywalker) and, in \"The Empire Strikes Back\" and \"Return of the Jedi\", performed all the stunts as Darth Vader during the lightsaber duels wearing Vader's costume. Anderson's role in the trilogy was highlighted in the film \"Reclaiming the Blade\" where he shared his experiences as a fencer developing the lightsaber techniques for the three original movies. The lightsaber duels in the \"Star Wars\" prequel trilogy were specifically choreographed by stunt-coordinator Nick Gillard to be miniature \"stories\". For these films, Gillard was the primary sword instructor for Liam Neeson (Qui-Gon Jinn), Ewan McGregor (Obi-Wan Kenobi), Ray Park (Darth Maul) and Hayden Christensen (Anakin Skywalker / Darth Vader) among other actors. His goal in choreographing the action for \"The Phantom Menace\" was to create stunts that flow from the story; \"You can't just think, 'I'm a stunt coordinator, I'm going to make a big stunt happen',\" Gillard said. \"It's all about making it tie in nicely with the film so that you don't notice the stunts.\" In writing the prequel trilogy, George Lucas said he wanted the lightsaber combat to be \"reminiscent of what had been done in the previous films but also something that was more energized. We'd seen old men, young boys, and characters who were half-droid, but we'd never seen a Jedi in his prime. I wanted to do that with a fight that was faster and more dynamic – and we were able to pull that off.\" According to Gillard, various lightsaber combat styles were devised for the prequels and intended to further characterize their practitioners. For \"The Phantom Menace\", Gillard set out certain styles and faults for the saber-wielding characters. He added that the Jedi's use of such \"a short-range weapon\" meant \"they would have to be very good at it\"; combining a variety of disciplines from various sword fighting styles to martial arts \"with a touch of tennis and tree chopping\", he created the style seen in the \"Episode I\" lightsaber battles. For \"The Force Awakens\", director J. J. Abrams decided to approach the choreography similarly to how it was done in the original trilogy. Abrams stated that the prequel trilogy choreography was \"increasingly spectacular and stylized, almost like dance choreography\", but that was not what they really wanted to go for in the new films. He told \"Empire\" magazine, \"When you look at \"Star Wars\" and \"Empire\", they are very different lightsaber battles, but for me they felt more powerful because they were not quite as slick. I was hoping to go for something much more primitive, aggressive and rougher, a throwback to the kind of heart-stopping lightsaber fights I remembered being so enthralled by as a kid.\"", "", "Since the release of the first film, replicas of lightsabers have been a popular piece of \"Star Wars\" merchandise, ranging from inexpensive plastic toys to the \"Force FX\" series from Master Replicas, deluxe replicas which use LED lighted tubes and sound effects to create a close audio-visual representation of what is seen on screen.", "Disneyland in California sells lightsaber-themed churros outside its \"Star Tours\" attraction. Disneyland and Disney World (Hollywood Studios) also sell legacy lightsabers which are replicas of the lightsabers seen used by the Jedi and Sith in the movies such as Darth Vader, Obi-Wan Kenobi, Rey Palpatine, Count Dooku, and Kylo Ren. Disneyland and Hollywood Studios also offer Savi's Workshop, a place where you can build your own lightsaber and choose your own color. Besides Savi's Workshop, there is another custom lightsaber experience. The Star Trader at Disneyland offers guests a chance to build their own lightsaber, without first paying 200 dollars for the experience.", "The \"\" is a live show where children are selected to learn the teachings of the Jedi Knights, the Force, and the basics of Lightsaber combat to become Padawan learners. The show is present at the Rebels stage next to Star Tours - The Adventures Continue attraction at Disney's Hollywood Studios and at the Tomorrowland Terrace at Disneyland.", "In the \"Spaceballs\" film by Mel Brooks, \"the Schwartz\" is a play on \"the Force\", from \"Star Wars\". The lightsabers emanating from the Schwartz-rings held in front of the crotch are phallic symbols. The cartoon series \"Futurama\" features many lightsaber-style weapons, notably expanding batons used by police. The batons glow and \"whoosh\" with a lightsaber's distinctive hum, but merely slap victims when used, as if they are plastic toys. In Jim Butcher's \"Dresden Files\" novel series, medical examiner and \"Star Wars\" fan Waldo Butters wields one of the three holy Swords of the Cross, which re-fashions itself into a lightsaber upon accepting him as its owner.", "With the advent of motion-controlled video games, players were given the opportunity to wield an in-game lightsaber with their own hands. In the seventh generation of video game consoles, there were several \"Star Wars\" video games available on the Wii (\"\", \"\", \"\", \"\" and \"\") and one on the Xbox 360 (\"Kinect Star Wars\") that utilized motion controls to wield a lightsaber through arm gestures. \"Unleashed\" and \"Duels\", both developed by Krome Studios, have more precise control of the lightsaber, allowing players to swing it in any of five different directions (up, down, left, right or forward) with the Wii Remote, while \"Kinect\" takes advantage of the eponymous, camera-based motion controller to grant the player a more fluid, one-to-one control method of swinging the lightsaber. Prior to the seventh generation, there were also a few earlier \"Star Wars\" games that used gesture-based control to simulate lightsaber combat, such as the two bonus levels of the arcade game \"Star Wars Trilogy\", where the player controls Luke Skywalker as he wields his lightsaber against Boba Fett and Darth Vader in \"Return of the Jedi\" by pushing a joystick in one of eight directions to follow on-screen offensive and defensive cues, and a TV game released around the release of \"Revenge of the Sith\", titled \"Star Wars: Saga Edition - Lightsaber Battle Game\", in which the player swings a lightsaber-shaped controller to deflect blaster bolts from infantry (such as battle droids and clone troopers) and duel against characters from across the saga. By the time Disney purchased Lucasfilm, new technological advances made augmented reality possible, leading to the creation of some more notable motion-controlled lightsaber video games that took advantage of that feature. One of them came in the form of a special activity mode in the official \"Star Wars\" fan app on iOS and Android in which players use their smartphone's motion sensors to practice and master blaster deflection with a training droid (which appears on the phone's rear camera), similar to the deflection training exercises featured aboard the \"Millennium Falcon\" in \"A New Hope\", while progressing through the ranks of the Jedi or Sith order. Another is in \"Star Wars: Jedi Challenges\", which works with a Lenovo Mirage AR headset, a tracking sensor and a dedicated lightsaber controller that launched in December 2017. One of the multiple game modes available in \"Challenges\", which was jointly developed by Disney and Lenovo, enables players to confront \"Star Wars\" villains in lightsaber duels, such as Darth Maul and Kylo Ren.", "Footnotes Citations" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early career.", "Service as fighter pilot.", "Post war service.", "Decorations and awards." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Büchner was born in Leipzig in the Kingdom of Saxony, the son of a businessman. He volunteered for the army in September 1914, aged 16. He served in the Royal Saxon 7th Infantry Regiment Nr. 106 (\"Kgl. Sächsisches 7. Infanterie-Regiment König Georg Nr. 106\"). After surviving a case of typhoid fever, he fought on both the Eastern and Western fronts. He was subsequently commissioned in 1916 shortly after his 18th birthday. He was wounded in combat in France on 3 April 1916. After his recovery, he transferred to the German Army Air Service, or Luftstreitkräfte, and was assigned as an observation pilot with FFA 270.", "In March 1917 Büchner became a fighter pilot, joining the Prussian Jagdstaffel 9 where he scored his first and only victory with them, on 17 August. Upon his transfer to Jagdstaffel 13, he found his niche under Rudolph Berthold, one of Germany's most dedicated soldiers. However, it was several months before he scored again, on 15 October. With the introduction of the Fokker D.VII in 1918, Büchner came into his own; he flew at least three different machines during his career, scoring three victories in June and becoming Commanding Officer of the Jasta on 15 June. It was after his fifth victory that he landed and announced to his squadron colleagues that he had now learned how to win in aerial combat. It was a prescient statement. On 2 July, he shot down and killed \"The Mad Major\", Irish 5-victory ace Major Joseph Callaghan, CO of No. 87 Squadron, who was flying a Sopwith Dolphin in a solo attack on Jasta 13. Five days later, he followed up with Canadian ace Lieutenant Merrill Taylor (7 victories), killed in a Sopwith Camel of No. 209 Squadron. On 29 July 1918 Büchner shot an American Sopwith Camel down in flames with just 14 rounds. His wingman, Leutnant Werner Niethammer, cited this combat as an illustration of Büchner's skill as a marksman; according to Niethammer's account, Büchner had no sooner spotted the American than he had set the enemy aircraft on fire. This would be the last of his seven victories in July. On 10 August, Büchner's career nearly ended. While attacking and shooting down a two seater in bad flying weather, his plane's fuel tank was hit. Drenched in gasoline, he landed in no man's land and tagged along with two retreating German machine gunners. The incident does not seem to have slowed him down. It was the second of his eight victories in August. In September Büchner scored 17 victories, the top scoring German fighter pilot for the month. On 10 October, Büchner survived a mid-air collision with fellow Jasta pilot Michaelis; both of them parachuted to safety. He brought his tally to 40 victories by 22 October 1918. Three days later he was awarded the Pour le Mérite on 25 October 1918, one of the last awards before the Kaiser's abdication. Having downed 38 of his 40 victories in the Fokker D.VII, in a span of five months, he's the most successful pilot in the type.", "In the turbulent postwar period the 22-year-old Büchner flew against communist revolutionaries but was shot down and killed by members of the Spartacus League during a reconnaissance flight near his hometown of Leipzig on March 18, 1920, three days after Rudolf Berthold was murdered in Harburg.", "Besides the Pour le Mérite, Prussia's highest military honor, Büchner also received the highest military honor of his home state, Saxony's Military Order of St. Henry (\"Militär-St. Heinrichs-Orden\"), on October 7, 1918. Büchner's other decorations include the Prussian Iron Cross 1st and 2nd Class, the Knight's Cross with Swords of Prussia's Royal House Order of Hohenzollern, the Knight's Cross with Swords of Saxony's Merit Order, and the Knight's Cross with Swords of Saxony's Albert Order." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Origins.", "Military class.", "Civil class.", "Notable recipients.", "Recipients of the Civil class.", "Recipients of both classes.", "Similar orders in other countries." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The \"Pour le Mérite\" was founded in 1740 by King Frederick II of Prussia. It was named in French, which was the leading international language and the favoured language at Frederick's court. The French name was retained, despite the rising tide of nationalism and increasing hostility between French and Germans during the 19th century, and ironically many of its recipients were honoured for acts performed in wars against France. The insignia of the military award was a blue-enameled Maltese Cross with golden eagles between the arms (which is based on the symbol of the Johanniter Order) and the Prussian royal cypher and the words \"Pour le Mérite\" (\"For Merit\" in French) written in gold letters on the body of the cross. The ribbon was black with edge stripes of silver-white. The order consisted of only one class, both civil and military, until 1810. Only a few civilians were honored: Pierre Louis Maupertuis (1747), Francesco Algarotti (1747) and Voltaire (1750).", "In January 1810, during the Napoleonic wars, King Frederick William III decreed that the award could be presented only to serving military officers. In March 1813, the king added an additional distinction, a spray of gilt oak leaves attached above the cross. Award of the oak leaves originally indicated extraordinary achievement in battle, and was usually reserved for high-ranking officers. The original regulations called for the capture or successful defence of a fortification, or victory in a battle. By World War I, the oak leaves often indicated a second or higher award of the \"Pour le Mérite\", though in most cases the recipients were still high-ranking officers (usually distinguished field commanders fitting the criteria above; the few lower ranking recipients of the oak leaves were mainly general staff officers responsible for planning a victorious battle or campaign). In early 1918, it was proposed to award the oak leaves to Germany's top flying ace, Manfred von Richthofen, but he was deemed ineligible under a strict reading of the regulations. Instead, Prussia awarded von Richthofen a slightly less prestigious honor, the Order of the Red Eagle, 3rd Class with Crown and Swords. This was still a high honour, as the 3rd Class was normally awarded to colonels and lieutenant colonels, and von Richthofen's award was one of only two of the 3rd Class with Crown and Swords during World War I. In 1866, a special military \"Grand Cross\" class of the award was established. This grade of the award was given to those who, through their actions, caused the retreat or destruction of an army. There were only five awards of the Grand Cross: to King Wilhelm I in 1866, to Crown Prince Frederick William of Prussia (later Emperor Frederick III) and Prince Frederick Charles of Prussia in 1873, to Tsar Alexander II of Russia in 1878, and to Helmuth Graf von Moltke in 1879. The \"Pour le Mérite\" gained international fame during World War I. Although it could be awarded to any military officer, its most famous recipients were the pilots of the German Army Air Service (Luftstreitkräfte), whose exploits were celebrated in wartime propaganda. In aerial warfare, a fighter pilot was initially entitled to the award upon downing eight enemy aircraft. Aces Max Immelmann and Oswald Boelcke were the first airmen to receive the award, on January 12, 1916. It was awarded to Germany's highest-scoring ace, Manfred von Richthofen, in January 1917. Although it has been reported that because of Immelmann's renown among his fellow pilots and the nation at large, the \"Pour le Mérite\" became known, due to its colour and Immelmann's first name, as the \"Blue Max,\" that has not been confirmed. The number of aerial victories necessary to receive the award continued to increase during the war; by early 1917, it generally required destroying 16 enemy airplanes, and by war's end the approximate figure was 30. However, other aviation recipients included zeppelin commanders, bomber and observation aircrews, and at least one balloon observer. Recipients of the \"Blue Max\" were required to wear the award whenever in uniform. Although many of its famous recipients were junior officers, especially pilots, more than a third of all awards in World War I went to generals and admirals. Senior officer awards tended to be more for outstanding leadership in combat than for individual acts of bravery. Junior officers (army captains and lieutenants and their navy equivalents) accounted for only about a fourth of all awards. Several famous lieutenant-ranked (\"Kapitänleutnant\") U-boat commanders, including Lothar von Arnauld de la Perière (), Walther Schwieger () Otto Hersing () and Otto Weddigen, received the \"Pour le Mérite\". The last new member admitted to the military class of the order was flying ace Theo Osterkamp, on 2 September 1918. The military class of the \"Pour le Mérite\" became extinct as a result of Kaiser William II's abdication as king of Prussia and German Emperor on 9 November 1918. This marked the end of the Prussian monarchy and it was never awarded thereafter; however the honour continued to be recognized for, and worn by, previous recipients.", "In 1842, King Frederick William IV of Prussia, acting on the advice of Alexander von Humboldt, founded a separate civil class of the order, the Order Pour le Mérite for Sciences and Arts (\"Orden Pour le Mérite für Wissenschaften und Künste\"), with the three sections: humanities, natural science and fine arts. When a vacancy occurred the Academy of Arts and Sciences nominated three candidates, one of whom the king appointed. In November 1918 the Kingdom of Prussia came to an end, and with it that state's sponsorship of the \"Pour le Mérite\". However, unlike the military class of the order, the class of the order for achievements in the arts and sciences did not come to an end. The members re-established their order as an autonomous organization, with revised rules and processes for nomination. The awarding of new memberships resumed in 1923. Recipients included Albert Einstein (1923), Käthe Kollwitz (1929) and Ernst Barlach (1933). During the era of National Socialism in Germany (1933–45), the order was re-absorbed into the state honours system, and the list of its members was reviewed and revised according to the policies of the new government. A number of Jews and other perceived dissidents or \"enemies\" of the state were deprived of their awards by the Nazi regime. They included Einstein (who resigned his membership in the order in 1933, and refused invitations to renew it after the war), Kollwitz, and Barlach. Such actions were later repudiated by both the order, and the postwar German government. In 1952, with the assistance of President of West Germany Theodor Heuss, the order was again re-established – now as an independent organization with state recognition and the President of the German Federal Republic as Protector of the Order. However, unlike the somewhat similar Bundesverdienstkreuz (Federal Cross of Merit) also established by Heuss, it is not a state order. The revived civil order of the \"Pour le Mérite\" is awarded for achievements in the arts and sciences. Active membership is limited to 40 German citizens, ten each in the fields of humanities, natural science, and medicine and the arts. Honorary membership can be conferred on foreigners, again to the limit of 40. When a vacancy occurs, the remaining members select a new inductee.", "", "Among famous recipients of the civil class of the \"Pour le Mérite\" in the first group of awards in 1842 were Alexander von Humboldt, Carl Friedrich Gauss, Jakob Grimm, Felix Mendelssohn, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling and August Wilhelm Schlegel. Foreign recipients in the \"class of 1842\" included François-René de Chateaubriand, Louis Daguerre, Michael Faraday, Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres and Franz Liszt. Later recipients included Thomas Babington Macaulay (1853), John C. Frémont (1860), Theodor Mommsen (1868), Charles Darwin (1868), Friedrich Wilhelm August Argelander (1874), Thomas Carlyle (1874) (who never accepted any other honor), Max Müller (1874), Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (1875), William Thomson, Lord Kelvin (1884), Heinrich von Treitschke (1887), Johannes Brahms (1887), Giuseppe Verdi (1887), William Henry Flower and Hubert von Herkomer (1899), Camille Saint-Saëns (1901), Luigi Cremona (1903), John Singer Sargent (1908), Ferdinand von Zeppelin (1910), Otto Lessing (sculptor) (1911), Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen (1911), Sir William Ramsay (1911), Max Planck (1915), and Rudolph Sohm (1916). New members of the revised order in 1923 included Albert Einstein (1923), Gerhart Hauptmann (1923), Richard Strauss (1924), Wilhelm Furtwängler (1929), antiwar sculptor Käthe Kollwitz (1929) – the first female recipient of the honor – and Ernst Barlach (1933). Among those inducted in 1952 were Otto Heinrich Warburg, Otto Hahn, Paul Hindemith, Reinhold Schneider and Emil Nolde. Later recipients include Arthur Compton (1954), Hermann Hesse (1954), Albert Schweitzer (1954), Thomas Mann (1955), Oskar Kokoschka (1955), Carl Orff (1956), Erwin Schrödinger (1956), Thornton Wilder (1956), Karl Schmidt-Rottluff (1956), Werner Heisenberg (1957), Gerhard Ritter (1957), Lise Meitner (1957), Ludwig Mies van der Rohe (1957), Percy Ernst Schramm (1958), Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker (1961), Karl Jaspers (1964), Otto Klemperer (1967), Carl Zuckmayer (1967), Henry Moore (1972), Raymond Aron (1973), George F. Kennan (1976), Friedrich Hayek (1977), Karl Popper (1980), Emil Schumacher (1982), Eugène Ionesco (1983), Hans Bethe (1984), Gordon A. Craig (1990), Carlos Kleiber (1990), Witold Lutosławski (1993), Fritz Stern (1994), Rudolf Mößbauer (1996), Umberto Eco (1998), Hans Magnus Enzensberger (1999), Bronisław Geremek (2002), Wim Wenders (2005), James J. Sheehan (2006) and Svante Pääbo (2008). More recent recipients were Gidon Kremer (2016), Emmanuelle Charpentier (2017) and Heinz Holliger (2018).", "Only a small number of persons have received both the military and civil classes of the \"Pour le Mérite\":", "Besides Prussia, several other states of the former German Empire also conferred similar awards for the arts and sciences. These included the Kingdom of Bavaria's Maximilian Order for Art and Science (\"Maximiliansorden für Kunst und Wissenschaft\"), the Duchy of Anhalt's Order of Merit for Science and Art (\"Verdienstorden für Wissenschaft und Kunst\"), and the Principality of Lippe's Lippe Rose Order for Art and Science (\"Lippische Rose, Orden für Kunst und Wissenschaft\"). A number of other countries have founded similar high civic honors for accomplishments in the arts and sciences. The sovereign of the Commonwealth realms confers the Order of Merit and Order of the Companions of Honour. The Republic of Austria confers the Austrian Decoration of Honor for Science and the Arts, founded in 1955. Like the Order Pour le Mérite for Sciences and Arts, this was in a sense a revival of an earlier imperial award, in this case the Austro-Hungarian Decoration of Honor for Art and Science (\"Österreichisch-Ungarisches Ehrenzeichen für Kunst und Wissenschaft\"), which existed from 1887 to 1918. Unlike the German award, however, the design of the modern Austrian award is unlike that of its imperial predecessor. France has the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres for significant contributions to the arts and literature. In Poland the Gloria Artis Medal has been established for the same purpose. Other countries also may recognize accomplishments in the arts and sciences, but with more general orders also awarded for accomplishments in other fields. France's Légion d'honneur is an example of a decoration often conferred for accomplishment in many fields, including the arts and sciences. Belgium awards either its Order of Leopold or Order of the Crown for outstanding accomplishments in the arts and sciences, and may award its Civil Decoration for lesser accomplishments in these fields." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Naval career.", "Opening of Key West.", "Father of the Steam Navy.", "Promotion to Commodore.", "Mexican–American War.", "Perry Expedition: opening of Japan, 1852–1854.", "First visit, 1853.", "Second visit, 1854.", "Return to the United States, 1855.", "Last years.", "Personal life.", "Perry's flag and legacy.", "External links." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Matthew Perry was the son of Sarah Wallace (née Alexander) (1768–1830) and Navy Captain Christopher Raymond Perry (1761–1818). He was born April 10, 1794, South Kingstown, R.I., U.S. His siblings included Oliver Hazard Perry, Raymond Henry Jones Perry, Sarah Wallace Perry, Anna Marie Perry (mother of George Washington Rodgers), James Alexander Perry, Nathaniel Hazard Perry, and Jane Tweedy Perry (who married William Butler). His mother was born in County Down, Ireland and was a descendant of an uncle of William Wallace, the Scottish knight and landowner who is known for leading a resistance during the Wars of Scottish Independence and is today remembered as a patriot and national hero. His paternal grandparents were James Freeman Perry, a surgeon, and Mercy Hazard, a descendant of Governor Thomas Prence, a co-founder of Eastham, Massachusetts, who was a political leader in both the Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay colonies, and governor of Plymouth; and a descendant of \"Mayflower\" passengers, both of whom were signers of the Mayflower Compact, Elder William Brewster, the Pilgrim colonist leader and spiritual elder of the Plymouth Colony, and George Soule, through Susannah Barber Perry.", "In 1809, Perry received a midshipman's warrant in the Navy, and was initially assigned to, under the command of his elder brother. His early career saw him assigned to several ships, including, where he served as an aide to Commodore John Rodgers. \"President\" was in a victorious engagement over a British vessel,, shortly before the War of 1812 was officially declared. Perry continued aboard \"President\" during the War of 1812 and was present at the engagement with. Rodgers fired the first shot of the war at \"Belvidera\". A later shot resulted in a cannon bursting, killing several men and wounding Rodgers, Perry and others. Perry transferred to, commanded by Stephen Decatur, and saw little fighting in the war afterwards, since the ship was trapped in port at New London, Connecticut. Following the signing of the Treaty of Ghent, which ended the war, Perry served on various vessels in the Mediterranean. Perry served under Commodore William Bainbridge during the Second Barbary War. He then served in African waters aboard USS \"Cyane\" during its patrol off Liberia from 1819 to 1820. After that cruise, Perry was sent to suppress piracy and the slave trade in the West Indies. Later during this period, while in port in Russia, Perry was offered a commission in the Imperial Russian Navy, which he declined.", "Perry commanded, a schooner with 12 guns, from 1821 to 1825. In 1763, when Britain possessed Florida, the Spanish contended that the Florida Keys were part of Cuba and North Havana. Certain elements within the United States felt that Key West (which was then named Cayo Hueso, meaning \"Bone Key\") could potentially be the \"Gibraltar of the West\" because it guarded the northern edge of the wide Straits of Florida—the deep water route between the Atlantic and the Gulf of Mexico. In 1815 the Spanish governor in Havana deeded the island of Key West to Juan Pablo Salas of Saint Augustine. After Florida was transferred to the United States, Salas sold Key West to American businessman John W. Simonton for $2,000 in 1821. Simonton lobbied the U.S. Government to establish a naval base on Key West both to take advantage of its strategic location and to bring law and order to the area. On March 25, 1822, Perry sailed \"Shark\" to Key West and planted the U.S. flag, physically claiming the Keys as United States territory. Perry renamed Cayo Hueso \"Thompson's Island\" for the Secretary of the Navy Smith Thompson and the harbor \"Port Rodgers\" for the president of the Board of Navy Commissioners. Neither name stuck however. From 1826 to 1827, Perry acted as fleet captain for Commodore Rodgers. Perry returned to Charleston, South Carolina for shore duty in 1828, and in 1830 took command of a sloop-of-war,. He spent the years 1833–1837 as second officer of the New York Navy Yard (later the Brooklyn Navy Yard), gaining promotion to captain at the end of this tour.", "Perry had an ardent interest in and saw the need for naval education, supporting an apprentice system to train new seamen, and helped establish the curriculum for the United States Naval Academy. He was a vocal proponent of modernizing the Navy. Once promoted to captain, he oversaw construction of the Navy's second steam frigate, which he commanded after its completion. He was called \"The Father of the Steam Navy\", and he organized America's first corps of naval engineers, and conducted the first U.S. naval gunnery school while commanding \"Fulton\" in 1839–1841 off Sandy Hook on the coast of New Jersey.", "Perry received the title of commodore in June 1840, when the Secretary of the Navy appointed him commandant of New York Navy Yard. The United States Navy did not have ranks higher than captain until 1857, so the title of commodore carried considerable importance. Officially, an officer would revert to his permanent rank after the squadron command assignment had ended, although in practice officers who received the title of commodore retained the title for life, as did Perry. During his tenure in Brooklyn, he lived in Quarters A in Vinegar Hill, a building which still stands today. In 1843, Perry took command of the African Squadron, whose duty was to interdict the slave trade under the Webster-Ashburton Treaty, and continued in this endeavor through 1844.", "In 1845, Commodore David Conner's length of service in command of the Home Squadron had come to an end. However, the coming of the Mexican–American War persuaded the authorities not to change commanders in the face of the war. Perry, who would eventually succeed Conner, was made second-in-command and captained. Perry captured the Mexican city of Frontera, demonstrated against Tabasco, being defeated in San Juan Bautista by Colonel Juan Bautista Traconis in the First Battle of Tabasco, and took part in the capture of Tampico (November 14, 1846). He had to return to Norfolk, Virginia to make repairs and was still there when the amphibious landings at Veracruz took place. His return to the U.S. gave his superiors the chance to finally give him orders to succeed Commodore Conner in command of the Home Squadron. Perry returned to the fleet during the siege of Veracruz and his ship supported the siege from the sea. After the fall of Veracruz, Winfield Scott moved inland and Perry moved against the remaining Mexican port cities. Perry assembled the Mosquito Fleet and captured Tuxpan in April 1847. In July 1847 he attacked Tabasco personally, leading a 1,173-man landing force ashore and attacking the city of San Juan Bautista (Villahermosa today) from land defeating the Mexican forces and taking the city.", "In 1852, Perry was assigned a mission by American President Millard Fillmore to force the opening of Japanese ports to American trade, through the use of gunboat diplomacy if necessary. The growing commerce between the United States and China, the presence of American whalers in waters offshore Japan, and the increasing monopolization of potential coaling stations by the British and French in Asia were all contributing factors. Shipwrecked foreign sailors were either imprisoned or executed, and the safe return of such persons was one demand. The Americans were also driven by concepts of Manifest Destiny and the desire to expand western civilization to what they perceived as more backward Asian nations. The Japanese were forewarned by the Dutch of Perry's voyage, but were unwilling to change their 250-year-old policy of national seclusion. There was considerable internal debate in Japan on how best to meet this potential threat to Japan's economic and political sovereignty. On November 24, 1852, Perry embarked from Norfolk, Virginia for Japan, in command of the East India Squadron in pursuit of a Japanese trade treaty. He chose the paddle-wheeled steam frigate as his flagship, and made port calls at Madeira (December 11–15), St Helena (January 10–11), Cape Town (January 24 – February 3), Mauritius (February 18–28), Ceylon (March 10–15), Singapore (March 25–29) and Macao and Hong Kong (April 7–28), where he met with American-born Sinologist Samuel Wells Williams, who provided Chinese language translations of his official letters, and where he rendezvoused with. He continued to Shanghai (May 4–17), where he met with the Dutch-born American diplomat, Anton L. C. Portman, who translated his official letters into the Dutch language, and where he rendezvoused with. Perry then switched his flag to \"Susquehanna\" and made call at Naha on Great Lewchew Island (now Okinawa) from May 17–26. Ignoring the claims of Satsuma Domain to the islands, he demanded an audience with the Ryukyuan King Shō Tai at Shuri Castle and secured promises that the Kingdom would be open to trade with the United States. Continuing on to the Ogasawara islands in mid-June, Perry met with the local inhabitants and purchased a plot of land.", "Perry finally reached Uraga at the entrance to Edo Bay in Japan on July 8, 1853. His actions at this crucial juncture were informed by a careful study of Japan's previous contacts with Western ships and what he knew about the Japanese hierarchical culture. As he arrived, Perry ordered his ships to steam past Japanese lines towards the capital of Edo, and turn their guns towards the town of Uraga. Perry refused Japanese demands to leave, or to proceed to Nagasaki, the only Japanese port open to foreigners. Perry attempted to intimidate the Japanese by presenting them a white flag and a letter which told them that in case they chose to fight, the Americans would destroy them. He also fired blank shots from his 73 cannons, which he claimed was in celebration of the American Independence Day. Perry's ships were equipped with new Paixhans shell guns, cannons capable of wreaking great explosive destruction with every shell. He also ordered his ship boats to commence survey operations of the coastline and surrounding waters over the objections of local officials. In the meantime, the Japanese government was paralyzed due to the incapacitation by illness of \"shōgun\" Tokugawa Ieyoshi and by political indecision on how to handle the unprecedented threat to the nation's capital. On July 11, \"Rōjū\" Abe Masahiro temporized, deciding that simply accepting a letter from the Americans would not constitute a violation of Japanese sovereignty. The decision was conveyed to Uraga, and Perry was asked to move his fleet slightly southwest to the beach at Kurihama (in modern-day Yokosuka), where he was allowed to land on July 14, 1853. After presenting the letter to attending delegates, Perry departed for Hong Kong, promising to return the following year for the Japanese reply.", "On his way back to Japan, Perry anchored off Keelung in Formosa, known today as Taiwan, for ten days. Perry and crewmembers landed on Formosa and investigated the potential of mining the coal deposits in that area. He emphasized in his reports that Formosa provided a convenient, mid-way trade location. Perry's reports noted that the island was very defensible and it could serve as a base for exploration in a similar way that Cuba had done for the Spanish in the Americas. Occupying Formosa could help the United States counter European monopolization of the major trade routes. The United States government failed to respond to Perry's proposal to claim sovereignty over Formosa. To command his fleet, Perry chose officers with whom he had served in the Mexican–American War. Commander Franklin Buchanan was captain of \"Susquehanna\" and Joel Abbot (Perry's second in command) was captain of \"Macedonian\". Commander Henry A. Adams became the Commodore's chief of staff with the title \"Captain of the Fleet\". Major Jacob Zeilin (future commandant of the United States Marine Corps) was the ranking Marine officer, and was stationed on \"Mississippi\". Perry returned on 13 February 1854, after only half a year rather than the full year promised, and with ten ships and 1600 men. Both actions were calculated to put even more pressure onto the Japanese. After initial resistance, Perry was permitted to land at Kanagawa, near the site of present-day Yokohama on March 8, 1854, where, after negotiations lasting for around a month, the Convention of Kanagawa was signed on March 31, 1854. Perry signed as American plenipotentiary, and Hayashi Akira, also known by his title of \"Daigaku-no-kami\", signed for the Japanese side. Perry departed, mistakenly believing the agreement had been made with imperial representatives, not understanding the true position of the \"shōgun\", the de facto ruler of Japan. Perry then visited Hakodate on the northern island of Hokkaido and Shimoda, the two ports which the treaty stipulated would be opened to visits by American ships.", "When Perry returned to the United States in 1855, Congress voted to grant him a reward of $20,000 (US $ in ) in appreciation of his work in Japan. He used part of this money to prepare and publish a report on the expedition in three volumes, titled \"Narrative of the Expedition of an American Squadron to the China Seas and Japan\". He was also promoted to the grade of rear-admiral on the retired list (when his health began to fail) as a reward for his service in the Far East.", "Living in his adopted home of New York City, Perry's health began to fail as he suffered from cirrhosis of the liver due to heavy drinking. Perry was known to have been an alcoholic, which compounded the health complications leading to his death. He also suffered severe arthritis that left him in frequent pain, and on occasion precluded him from his duties. Perry spent his last years preparing for the publication of his account of the Japan expedition, announcing its completion on December 28, 1857. Two days later he was detached from his last post, an assignment to the Naval Efficiency Board. He died awaiting further orders on March 4, 1858, in New York City, of rheumatic fever that had spread to the heart, compounded by complications of gout and alcoholism. Initially interred in a vault on the grounds of St. Mark's Church in-the-Bowery, in New York City, Perry's remains were moved to the Island Cemetery in Newport, Rhode Island on March 21, 1866, along with those of his daughter, Anna, who died in 1839. In 1873, an elaborate monument was placed by Perry's widow over his grave in Newport.", "Perry was married to Jane Slidell Perry (1797–1864) and had ten children:", "A replica of Perry's US flag is on display on board the memorial in Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, attached to the bulkhead just inboard of the Japanese surrender signing site on the starboard side of the ship. The original flag was brought from the U.S. Naval Academy Museum to Japan for the Japan surrender ceremony and was displayed on that occasion at the request of Douglas MacArthur, who was himself a blood-relative of Perry. Photographs of the signing ceremony show that this flag was displayed properly as all flags on vessels (known as ensigns) on the starboard side are, with the stars in the upper right corner. The cloth of the historic flag was so fragile that the conservator at the Museum directed that a protective backing be sewn on it. Today, the flag is preserved and on display at the Naval Academy Museum in Annapolis, Maryland. The pattern for the Union canton on this flag is different from the standard 31-star flag then in use. Perry's flag had columns of five stars save the last column which had six stars. Perry's US flag was unique when it was first flown in Tokyo Bay in 1853–1854. The replica of this historic flag on board the USS \"Missouri\" memorial is also placed in the same location on the bulkhead of the veranda deck where it had been initially mounted on the morning of September 2, 1945 by Chief Carpenter Fred Miletich.", "\"China Through Western Eyes.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Usage.", "Example study.", "Disadvantages.", "Banders." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Mist nets were used by Japanese hunters for nearly 300 years for capturing birds. They were first introduced into use for ornithology in the United States of America by Oliver L. Austin in 1947. Mist netting is a popular and important tool for monitoring species diversity, relative abundance, population size, and demography. There are two ways in which mist nets are primarily utilized: target netting of specific species or individuals, and broadcast netting of all birds within a particular area. Targeted netting is typically used for scientific studies that examine a single species. Nets deployed in this manner often use a playback of a species' song or call, or a model of that species placed near the net to lure the targeted individuals into the net (e.g. ). Because broadcast netting captures birds indiscriminately, this technique is better suited to examining the species that occur within a specific habitat. Bird banding stations throughout the United States use this method. Typically such stations collect a set of standard measurements from each individual, including mass, wing chord, breeding status, body fat index, sex, age, and molt status. Although setting up mist nets is time-consuming and requires certification, there are certain advantages to visual and aural monitoring techniques, such as sampling species that may be poorly detected in other ways. It also allows easy standardization, hands-on examination, and reduces misidentification of species. Because they allow scientists to examine species up close, mist nets are often used in mark-recapture studies over extended periods of time to detect trends in population indices (Dunn and Ralph 2004). Some uses of data collected using mist net sampling are: Because there is still debate as to whether or not these techniques provide precise data measurements, it is suggested that mist netting is used as a supplement to aural and visual methods of observation. One of the main disadvantages of mist nets is that the numbers captured may only represent a small proportion of the true population size (Dunn and Ralph 2004). Mist netting is a unique method in that it provides demographic estimates throughout all seasons, and offers valuable guides to relative abundance of certain species or birds and/or bats (Dunn and Ralph 2004).", "Mist nets can be important tools for collecting data to reveal critical ecological conditions in a variety of situations. This summarized study, \"Effects of forest fragmentation on Amazonian understory bird communities\" by Richard O. Bierregaard and Thomas E. Lovejoy, used mist nets to analyze the effects of forest fragmentation on understory bird communities in terra firme forest of Central Amazon. Data from intensive mist netting mark-recapture programs on understory birds from isolated forest reserves were compared to pre-isolation data from the same reserves to investigate changes related to isolation from continuous forest (Bierregard and Lovejoy 1989). Birds surveyed were from a variety of ecological guilds, including nectivores, insectivores, frugivores, obligatory army ant followers, forest edge specialists and flocking species. The periodic sampling by mist netting capture program provided the quantitative basis for this project. Reserves of varied sizes (1 and 10 hectare) within the Biological Dynamics of Forest Fragments project site were sampled with transects of tethered mist nets once every three or four weeks. Capture rates from isolated reserves were compared to pre-isolation rates to measure changes in population size and/or avian activity due to isolation (Bierregard and Lovejoy 1989). Data was analyzed in the following ways: capture rates per net hour as a function off time since isolation, percent recapture as a function of time since isolation, abundance distribution of species against the species rank by abundance, percent individuals banded according to species and feeding strategy, and finally, capture rates per net hour in isolated reserves against capture rates per net hour in continuous forests. A summary of the results and discussion as stated by Bierregaard and Lovejoy is as follows: ...changes in the understory avian community in isolated patches. Following isolation, capture rates increase significantly as birds fleeing the felled forest entered new forest fragments. Movement to and from the reserve is limited as witnessed by an increase in recapture percentages following isolation. Species of birds that are obligate army ant followers disappeared at the time the surrounding habitat was removed from 1 and 10 ha areas. The complex mixed-species of insectivorous flocks typical of Amazonian forests deteriorated within 2 years of isolation of 1 and 10 ha forest fragments. Several species of mid-story insectivores changed their foraging behavior after isolation of small forest reserves. These data were collected using mist nets. Data from mist netting efforts may be used to gain a greater understanding of ecological effects of factors impacting ecosystems, such human activities or environmental changes. This is just one example of the use of mist nets as a tool for ecological and biological sciences, as well as possible ecosystem management implications mist net data offers.", "There are several disadvantages to using mist nets. Mist-netting is very time-consuming. Nets have to be set up properly without mistakes. An animal caught in a mist net becomes entangled, so the net must be checked often and the animal removed promptly. Disentangling an animal from a mist net can be difficult and must be done carefully by trained personnel. If an animal is heavily tangled the mist net may need to be cut to avoid injuring the animal, which damages the net as well. Also, mist nets will not capture birds in direct proportion to their presence in the area (Remsen and Good 1996) and can miss a species completely if it is active in a different strata of vegetation, such as high in the canopy. They however can provide an index to population size. People using mist nets must be careful and well trained since there is a possibility that the birds caught in the net can become harmed in the process. One study found the average rate of injury for birds in mist nets is lower than any other method of studying vertebrates, between 0 and 0.59% while the average mortality rate is between 0 and 0.23% (Spotswood et al. 2011). While rare, it has been suggested without scientific studies that larger birds may be more prone to leg injuries and internal bleeding. If smaller birds have problems it is with tangling issues and wing injuries. Factors that affect the injury and mortality rate are human error while handling the species, time of year caught, time of day caught, predators in the area, and size/material of the mist net.", "Humans who deal with the species caught in mist nets are called banders in the United States. Banders are responsible for banding the species caught in the net so they can be tracked. In the United States, in order to band a bird or bat, one must have a banding permit. Banding permits are given to people who have gone through training and whose projects contribute to the conservation and management of the bird population. Banders are responsible for the animals caught and thus apply their training by paying attention to stress cues (for birds these include panting, tiredness, closing of eyes, and raising of feathers). If not, the animal can severely injure itself. There are different types of banding permits for birds, the Master Permit and the Sub permit. Master Permits are given to individuals who band on their own or who supervise banding operations. Sub permits are given to individuals who will be supervised while banding by a person with a Master Permit. In order to receive a permit, one must fill out an application and return it to the nearest banding office. Banders must ask for special authorization in their application in order to use mist nets, cannon nets, chemicals, or auxiliary markers (North American Bander's Study Guide 6)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life and work.", "Dorothea Schlegel.", "Selected works.", "Letters." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Karl Friedrich von Schlegel was born on 10 March 1772 at Hanover, where his father, Johann Adolf Schlegel, was the pastor at the Lutheran Market Church. For two years he studied law at Göttingen and Leipzig, and he met with Friedrich Schiller. In 1793 he devoted himself entirely to literary work. In 1796 he moved to Jena, where his brother August Wilhelm lived, and here he collaborated with Novalis, Ludwig Tieck, Fichte, and Caroline Schelling, who married August Wilhelm. Novalis and Schlegel had a famous conversation about German idealism. In 1797 he quarreled with Schiller, who did not like his polemic work. Schlegel published \"Die Griechen und Römer\" (The Greeks and Romans), which was followed by \"Geschichte der Poesie der Griechen und Römer\" (History of the Poesy of the Greeks and Romans) (1798). Then he turned to Dante, Goethe, and Shakespeare. In Jena he and his brother founded the journal \"Athenaeum\", contributing fragments, aphorisms, and essays in which the principles of the Romantic school are most definitely stated. They are now generally recognized as the deepest and most significant expressions of the subjective idealism of the early Romanticists. After a controversy, Friedrich decided to move to Berlin. There he lived with Friedrich Schleiermacher and met Henriette Herz, Rahel Varnhagen, and his future wife, Dorothea Veit, a daughter of Moses Mendelssohn and the mother of Johannes and Philipp Veit. In 1799 he published \"Lucinde\", an eccentric and unfinished novel, which is remarkable as an attempt to transfer to practical ethics the Romantic demand for complete individual freedom. \"Lucinde\", in which he extolled the union of sensual and spiritual love as an allegory of the divine cosmic Eros, caused a great scandal by its manifest autobiographical character, mirroring his liaison with Dorothea Veit, and it contributed to the failure of his academic career in Jena where he completed his studies in 1801 and lectured as a Privatdozent on transcendental philosophy. In September 1800 he met four times with Goethe, who would later stage his tragedy \"Alarcos\" (1802) in Weimar, albeit with a notable lack of success. In June 1802 he arrived in Paris, where he lived in the house formerly owned by Baron d'Holbach and joined a circle including Heinrich Christoph Kolbe. He lectured on philosophy in private courses for Sulpiz Boisserée, and under the tutelage of Antoine-Léonard de Chézy and linguist Alexander Hamilton he continued to study Sanskrit and the Persian language. He edited the journal \"Europa\" (1803), where he published essays about Gothic architecture and the Old Masters. In April 1804 he married Dorothea Veit in the Swedish embassy in Paris, after she had undergone the requisite conversion from Judaism to Protestantism. In 1806 he and his wife went to visit Aubergenville, where his brother lived with Madame de Staël. In 1808 he published an epoch-making book, \"Über die Sprache und Weisheit der Indier\" (On the Language and Wisdom of India). Here he advanced his ideas about religion and importantly argued that a people originating from India were the founders of the first European civilizations. Schlegel compared Sanskrit with Latin, Greek, Persian and German, noting many similarities in vocabulary and grammar. The assertion of the common features of these languages is now generally accepted, albeit with significant revisions. There is less agreement about the geographic region where these precursors settled, although the Out-of-India model has generally become discredited. In 1808, he and his wife joined the Roman Catholic Church in the Cologne Cathedral. From this time on, he became more and more opposed to the principles of political and religious freedom. He went to Vienna and in 1809 was appointed imperial court secretary at the military headquarters, editing the army newspaper and issuing fiery proclamations against Napoleon. He accompanied archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen to war and was stationed in Pest during the War of the Fifth Coalition. Here he studied the Hungarian language. Meanwhile he had published his collected \"Geschichte\" (Histories) (1809) and two series of lectures, \"Über die neuere Geschichte\" (On Recent History) (1811) and \"Geschichte der alten und neuen Literatur\" (On Old and New Literature) (1815). In 1814 he was knighted in the Supreme Order of Christ. Following the Congress of Vienna (1815), he was councilor of legation in the Austrian embassy at the Frankfurt Diet, but in 1818 he returned to Vienna. In 1819 he and Clemens Brentano made a trip to Rome, in the company of Metternich and Gentz. There he met with his wife and her sons. In 1820 he started a conservative Catholic magazine, \"Concordia\" (1820–1823), but was criticized by Metternich and by his brother August Wilhelm, then professor of Indology in Bonn and busy publishing the Bhagavad Gita. Schlegel began the issue of his \"Sämtliche Werke\" (Collected Works). He also delivered lectures, which were republished in his \"Philosophie des Lebens\" (Philosophy of Life) (1828) and in his \"Philosophie der Geschichte\" (Philosophy of History) (1829). He died on 12 January 1829 at Dresden, while preparing a series of lectures.", "Friedrich Schlegel's wife, Dorothea von Schlegel, authored an unfinished romance, \"Florentin\" (1802), a \"Sammlung romantischer Dichtungen des Mittelalters\" (Collection of Romantic Poems of the Middle Ages) (2 vols., 1804), a version of \"Lother und Maller\" (1805), and a translation of Madame de Staël's \"Corinne\" (1807–1808) — all of which were issued under her husband's name. By her first marriage she had two sons, Johannes and Philipp Veit, who became eminent Catholic painters.", "", "Friedrich Schlegel's \"Sämtliche Werke\" appeared in 10 vols. (1822–1825); a second edition (1846) in 55 vols. His \"Prosaische Jugendschriften\" (1794–1802) have been edited by J. Minor (1882, 2nd ed. 1906); there are also reprints of \"Lucinde\", and F. Schleiermacher's \"Vertraute Briefe über Lucinde\", 1800 (1907). See R. Haym, \"Die romantische Schule\" (1870); I. Rouge, \"F. Schlegel et la genie du romantisme allemand\" (1904); by the same, \"Erläuterungen zu F. Schlegels „Lucinde“\" (1905); M. Joachimi, \"Die Weltanschauung der Romantik\" (1905); W. Glawe, \"Die Religion F. Schlegels\" (1906); E. Kircher, \"Philosophie der Romantik\" (1906); M. Frank \"\"Unendliche Annäherung\". Die Anfänge der philosophischen Frühromantik\" (1997); Andrew Bowie, \"From Romanticism to Critical Theory: The Philosophy of German Literary Theory\" (1997)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Personal life.", "Early career.", "Vancouver Expedition.", "Exploring Japan and Sakhalin.", "Later career.", "Death and legacy.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "William Robert Broughton was born on 22 March 1762. His father, Charles Broughton, was a Hamburg merchant and his mother, Anne Elizabeth, was the daughter of Baron William de Hertoghe. Broughton married his cousin, Jemima, on 26 November 1802. They had four children. On 12 March 1821, while in Florence, Broughton suffered an angina attack and died two days later. He was buried in the English burial ground in Leghorn.", "Broughton's name was added to the muster of the yacht \"Catherine\" on 1 May 1774, as captain's servant but Broughton first went to sea on 18 November when he joined the 10-gun brig-sloop, \"Falcon\" which sailed for North America, under the command of Captain John Linzee. On 14 February 1777, Broughton, by then a midshipman, transferred to \"Harlem\" under Lieutenant John Knight. He was appointed to the 64-gun \"Eagle\" on 1 July 1778, then in December he joined the seventy-four, \"Superb\" as a Master's mate and began service in the East Indies. On 12 January 1782, Broughton was promoted to lieutenant aboard the 68-gun \"Burford\" commanded by Captain Peter Rainier. When \"Burford\" paid off on 19 July 1784, Broughton went ashore and did not serve again for almost four years. Broughton resumed his career on 23 June 1788, aboard the 18-gun sloop, \"Orestes\", under Manley Dixon, serving in The Channel and later, the Mediterranean. On 13 May 1790, he moved to and renewed his acquaintance with John Knight, her captain. Broughton's first command came on 18 December when he was given command of the brig, \"Chatham\" and asked to accompany George Vancouver in his exploration of the north-west Pacific.", "En route to the Pacific Northwest the expedition spent some time exploring the South Pacific and whilst sailing separately from Vancouver, in November 1791, Broughton and his crew became the first Europeans to sight both The Snares and the Chatham Islands on the 23rd and 29th respectively. The former group contains an island that still bears Broughton's name. Sometime after their arrival in North America, in 1792, Broughton was given the task of charting a group of islands in the Queen Charlotte Sound. In his honour, Vancouver named them the Broughton Archipelago. In October, Broughton was ordered to explore the lower stretches of the Columbia River, between present-day Oregon and Washington. With several boats from his ship, Broughton and his party navigated upstream as far as the Columbia River Gorge and on 30 October, he reached his farthest point, landing in eastern Multnomah County east of Portland and northwest of Mount Hood, which he named for Viscount Samuel Hood, Admiral of the British Fleet. Late in 1792, Vancouver, stymied by conflicting instructions over Nootka Sound, sent Broughton back to England via Mexico and the Atlantic, bearing dispatches and requesting instructions.", "On 3 October 1793, Broughton was promoted to commander and given command of, a ship formerly commanded by Captain William Bligh. The fitting out caused a long delay and the ship didn't sail until February 1795 and when Broughton finally returned to north-west America, he was unable to locate Vancouver. Correctly determining that Vancouver had returned to England having completed his survey, Broughton crossed the Pacific and began a four-year survey of the Asian coast between the latitudes of 35 and 52 degrees north, which would include, the Kurile Islands, Japan, Okinawa, and Formosa. From September 1796 Broughton charted the east coast of Honshu and Hokkaidō before wintering at Macau where he purchased a small schooner to assist the \"Providence.\" Next year he returned to Japan where the \"Providence\" was wrecked on what was to become known as Providence Reef, now Yabiji (八重干瀬), at Miyako Island. The schooner saved the crew of the wrecked ship and they continued north along the east coast of Honshu. Passing Hokkaido, the expedition sailed north into the Gulf of Tartary along the west coast of Sakhalin. Finding extensive shallows at the north end of the gulf it was falsely concluded that Sakhalin was part of the mainland (a common mistake). Broughton turned south along the coast of Korea and then headed home by way of Trincomalee, Ceylon, where the crew was paid off and he was court-martialled for the loss of his ship. Having been acquitted, he reached England in February 1799 and shortly after began to write his book, \"\"A Voyage of Discovery to the North Pacific Ocean; in which the coast of Asia, from the latitude of 35° north to the latitude of 52° north, the island of Insu (commonly known under the name of Jesso), the north, south and east coasts of Japan, the Lieuchieux and adjacent islands, as well as the coast of Corea, have been examined and surveyed, Performed in His Majesty's Sloop Providence and her tender, in the years 1795, 1796, 1797, 1798\"\". It was published in 1804.", "Having been kept from the greater part of the French Revolutionary War by his book, Broughton resumed his active naval career on 23 June 1801, when he was given command of the 50-gun \"Batavier\" in The Channel. He served aboard her until the Peace of Amiens was ratified, in April 1802. In May, Broughton was given command of the 36-gun \"Penelope\", serving in the North Sea, an appointment that lasted until two days before his next command, the seventy-four, \"Illustrious\", on 30 May 1807. In her, Broughton continued service, seeing action at the Battle of the Basque Roads. After the battle, Lord Cochrane proclaimed that Admiral Gambier had not done enough to destroy the French fleet and Gambier demanded a court martial at which he was acquitted, despite Broughton speaking out against him. In November 1810, Broughton, still in command of \"Illustrious\", took part in the Mauritius Campaign, joining a fleet off the island of Rodriquez, under Vice-admiral Albermarle Bertie. On 29 November, this fleet landed around 10,000 troops at Grande-Baie, north-east of Port-Louis, on the Isle de France which capitulated five days later on 3 December. In 1811, Broughton took part in the Java Expedition. He was initially given command of the expedition by Admiral O'Bryen Drury the then Commander-in-Chief in the East Indies but he was relieved of his post after Drury's death by Admiral Robert Stopford, who had arrived from the Cape. This angered Broughton, who felt that Stopford had exceeded his authority, and who applied for a court-martial, which was ultimately rejected. The mission however was a success, the British having complete control of the island by 18 September 1811. Broughton resigned his commission on 23 October 1812 but was recalled on 31 May 1815 to serve in the channel as commander of the 100-gun \"Royal Sovereign\". In August 1815 he transferred to \"Spencer\", a seventy-four, serving as a guardship at Plymouth. On 4 June 1815, Broughton was made a Companion of The Most Honourable Order of the Bath and promoted to Colonel of the Marines on 12 March 1819.", "Broughton died in Florence, Italy in 1821, and was buried in the Old English Cemetery, Livorno. He named many locations in the course of his explorations and has been honoured with namings as well:", "Derek Hayes, Historical Atlas of the North Pacific Ocean',2001" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Explanation and variants.", "Possible resolutions.", "Alfred Tarski.", "Arthur Prior.", "Saul Kripke.", "Jon Barwise and John Etchemendy.", "Dialetheism.", "Non-cognitivism.", "Bhartrhari's perspectivism.", "Logical structure.", "Applications.", "Gödel's first incompleteness theorem.", "In popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The Epimenides paradox (circa 600 BC) has been suggested as an example of the liar paradox, but they are not logically equivalent. The semi-mythical seer Epimenides, a Cretan, reportedly stated that \"All Cretans are liars.\" However, Epimenides' statement that all Cretans are liars can be resolved as false, given that he knows of at least one other Cretan who does not lie. It is precisely in order to avoid uncertainties deriving from the human factor and from fuzzy concepts that modern logicians proposed a \"strengthened\" liar such as the sentence \"this sentence is false\". The paradox's name translates as \"pseudómenos lógos\" (ψευδόμενος λόγος) in Ancient Greek. One version of the liar paradox is attributed to the Greek philosopher Eubulides of Miletus who lived in the 4th century BC. Eubulides reportedly asked, \"A man says that he is lying. Is what he says true or false?\" The paradox was once discussed by St. Jerome in a sermon: The Indian grammarian-philosopher Bhartrhari (late fifth century AD) was well aware of a liar paradox which he formulated as \"everything I am saying is false\" (sarvam mithyā bravīmi). He analyzes this statement together with the paradox of \"unsignifiability\" and explores the boundary between statements that are unproblematic in daily life and paradoxes. There was discussion of the liar paradox in early Islamic tradition for at least five centuries, starting from late 9th century, and apparently without being influenced by any other tradition. Naṣīr al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī could have been the first logician to identify the liar paradox as self-referential.", "The problem of the liar paradox is that it seems to show that common beliefs about truth and falsity actually lead to a contradiction. Sentences can be constructed that cannot consistently be assigned a truth value even though they are completely in accord with grammar and semantic rules. The simplest version of the paradox is the sentence: If (A) is true, then \"This statement is false\" is true. Therefore, (A) must be false. The hypothesis that (A) is true leads to the conclusion that (A) is false, a contradiction. If (A) is false, then \"This statement is false\" is false. Therefore, (A) must be true. The hypothesis that (A) is false leads to the conclusion that (A) is true, another contradiction. Either way, (A) is both true and false, which is a paradox. However, that the liar sentence can be shown to be true if it is false and false if it is true has led some to conclude that it is \"neither true nor false\". This response to the paradox is, in effect, the rejection of the claim that every statement has to be either true or false, also known as the principle of bivalence, a concept related to the law of the excluded middle. The proposal that the statement is neither true nor false has given rise to the following, strengthened version of the paradox: If (B) is neither true nor false, then it must be not true. Since this is what (B) itself states, it means that (B) must be true. Since initially (B) was not true and is now true, another paradox arises. Another reaction to the paradox of (A) is to posit, as Graham Priest has, that the statement is both true and false. Nevertheless, even Priest's analysis is susceptible to the following version of the liar: If (C) is both true and false, then (C) is only false. But then, it is not true. Since initially (C) was true and is now not true, it is a paradox. However, it has been argued that by adopting a two-valued relational semantics (as opposed to functional semantics), the dialetheic approach can overcome this version of the Liar. There are also multi-sentence versions of the liar paradox. The following is the two-sentence version: Assume (D1) is true. Then (D2) is true. This would mean that (D1) is false. Therefore, (D1) is both true and false. Assume (D1) is false. Then (D2) is false. This would mean that (D1) is true. Thus (D1) is both true and false. Either way, (D1) is both true and false – the same paradox as (A) above. The multi-sentence version of the liar paradox generalizes to any circular sequence of such statements (wherein the last statement asserts the truth/falsity of the first statement), provided there are an odd number of statements asserting the falsity of their successor; the following is a three-sentence version, with each statement asserting the falsity of its successor: Assume (E1) is true. Then (E2) is false, which means (E3) is true, and hence (E1) is false, leading to a contradiction. Assume (E1) is false. Then (E2) is true, which means (E3) is false, and hence (E1) is true. Either way, (E1) is both true and false – the same paradox as with (A) and (D1). There are many other variants, and many complements, possible. In normal sentence construction, the simplest version of the complement is the sentence: If F is assumed to bear a truth value, then it presents the problem of determining the object of that value. But, a simpler version is possible, by assuming that the single word 'true' bears a truth value. The analogue to the paradox is to assume that the single word 'false' likewise bears a truth value, namely that it is false. This reveals that the paradox can be reduced to the mental act of assuming that the very idea of fallacy bears a truth value, namely that the very idea of fallacy is false: an act of misrepresentation. So, the symmetrical version of the paradox would be:", "", "Alfred Tarski diagnosed the paradox as arising only in languages that are \"semantically closed\", by which he meant a language in which it is possible for one sentence to predicate truth (or falsehood) of another sentence in the same language (or even of itself). To avoid self-contradiction, it is necessary when discussing truth values to envision levels of languages, each of which can predicate truth (or falsehood) only of languages at a lower level. So, when one sentence refers to the truth-value of another, it is semantically higher. The sentence referred to is part of the \"object language\", while the referring sentence is considered to be a part of a \"meta-language\" with respect to the object language. It is legitimate for sentences in \"languages\" higher on the semantic hierarchy to refer to sentences lower in the \"language\" hierarchy, but not the other way around. This prevents a system from becoming self-referential. However, this system is incomplete. One would like to be able to make statements such as \"For every statement in level \"α\" of the hierarchy, there is a statement at level \"α\"+1 which asserts that the first statement is false.\" This is a true, meaningful statement about the hierarchy that Tarski defines, but it refers to statements at every level of the hierarchy, so it must be above every level of the hierarchy, and is therefore not possible within the hierarchy (although bounded versions of the sentence are possible).", "Arthur Prior asserts that there is nothing paradoxical about the liar paradox. His claim (which he attributes to Charles Sanders Peirce and John Buridan) is that every statement includes an implicit assertion of its own truth. Thus, for example, the statement \"It is true that two plus two equals four\" contains no more information than the statement \"two plus two equals four\", because the phrase \"it is true that...\" is always implicitly there. And in the self-referential spirit of the Liar Paradox, the phrase \"it is true that...\" is equivalent to \"this whole statement is true and...\". Thus the following two statements are equivalent: The latter is a simple contradiction of the form \"A and not A\", and hence is false. There is therefore no paradox because the claim that this two-conjunct Liar is false does not lead to a contradiction. Eugene Mills presents a similar answer.", "Saul Kripke argued that whether a sentence is paradoxical or not can depend upon contingent facts. If the only thing Smith says about Jones is and Jones says only these three things about Smith: If Smith really is a big spender but is \"not\" soft on crime, then both Smith's remark about Jones and Jones's last remark about Smith are paradoxical. Kripke proposes a solution in the following manner. If a statement's truth value is ultimately tied up in some evaluable fact about the world, that statement is \"grounded\". If not, that statement is \"ungrounded\". Ungrounded statements do not have a truth value. Liar statements and liar-like statements are ungrounded, and therefore have no truth value.", "Jon Barwise and John Etchemendy propose that the liar sentence (which they interpret as synonymous with the Strengthened Liar) is ambiguous. They base this conclusion on a distinction they make between a \"denial\" and a \"negation\". If the liar means, \"It is not the case that this statement is true\", then it is denying itself. If it means, \"This statement is not true\", then it is negating itself. They go on to argue, based on situation semantics, that the \"denial liar\" can be true without contradiction while the \"negation liar\" can be false without contradiction. Their 1987 book makes heavy use of non-well-founded set theory.", "Graham Priest and other logicians, including J. C. Beall and Bradley Armour-Garb, have proposed that the liar sentence should be considered to be both true and false, a point of view known as dialetheism. Dialetheism is the view that there are true contradictions. Dialetheism raises its own problems. Chief among these is that since dialetheism recognizes the liar paradox, an intrinsic contradiction, as being true, it must discard the long-recognized principle of explosion, which asserts that any proposition can be deduced from a contradiction, unless the dialetheist is willing to accept trivialism – the view that \"all\" propositions are true. Since trivialism is an intuitively false view, dialetheists nearly always reject the explosion principle. Logics that reject it are called \"paraconsistent\".", "Andrew Irvine has argued in favour of a non-cognitivist solution to the paradox, suggesting that some apparently well-formed sentences will turn out to be neither true nor false and that \"formal criteria alone will inevitably prove insufficient\" for resolving the paradox.", "The Indian grammarian-philosopher Bhartrhari (late fifth century AD) dealt with paradoxes such as the liar in a section of one of the chapters of his magnum opus the Vākyapadīya. Although chronologically he precedes all modern treatments of the problem of the liar paradox, it has only very recently become possible for those who cannot read the original Sanskrit sources to confront his views and analyses with those of modern logicians and philosophers because sufficiently reliable editions and translations of his work have only started becoming available since the second half of the 20th century. Bhartrhari's solution fits into his general approach to language, thought and reality, which has been characterized by some as \"relativistic\", \"non-committal\" or \"perspectivistic\". With regard to the liar paradox (\"sarvam mithyā bhavāmi\" \"everything I am saying is false\") Bhartrhari identifies a hidden parameter which can change unproblematic situations in daily communication into a stubborn paradox. Bhartrhari's solution can be understood in terms of the solution proposed in 1992 by Julian Roberts: \"Paradoxes consume themselves. But we can keep apart the warring sides of the contradiction by the simple expedient of temporal contextualisation: what is 'true' with respect to one point in time need not be so in another... The overall force of the 'Austinian' argument is not merely that 'things change', but that rationality is essentially temporal in that we need time in order to reconcile and manage what would otherwise be mutually destructive states.\" According to Robert's suggestion, it is the factor \"time\" which allows us to reconcile the separated \"parts of the world\" that play a crucial role in the solution of Barwise and Etchemendy. The capacity of time to prevent a direct confrontation of the two \"parts of the world\" is here external to the \"liar\". In the light of Bhartrhari's analysis, however, the extension in time which separates two perspectives on the world or two \"parts of the world\" – the part before and the part after the function accomplishes its task – is inherent in any \"function\": also the function to signify which underlies each statement, including the \"liar\". The unsolvable paradox – a situation in which we have either contradiction (\"virodha\") or infinite regress (\"anavasthā\") – arises, in case of the liar and other paradoxes such as the unsignifiability paradox (Bhartrhari's paradox), when abstraction is made from this function (\"vyāpāra\") and its extension in time, by accepting a simultaneous, opposite function (\"apara vyāpāra\") undoing the previous one.", "For a better understanding of the liar paradox, it is useful to write it down in a more formal way. If \"this statement is false\" is denoted by A and its truth value is being sought, it is necessary to find a condition that restricts the choice of possible truth values of A. Because A is self-referential it is possible to give the condition by an equation. If some statement, B, is assumed to be false, one writes, \"B = false\". The statement (C) that the statement B is false would be written as \"C = 'B = false. Now, the liar paradox can be expressed as the statement A, that A is false: This is an equation from which the truth value of A = \"this statement is false\" could hopefully be obtained. In the boolean domain \"A = false\" is equivalent to \"not A\" and therefore the equation is not solvable. This is the motivation for reinterpretation of A. The simplest logical approach to make the equation solvable is the dialetheistic approach, in which case the solution is A being both \"true\" and \"false\". Other resolutions mostly include some modifications of the equation; Arthur Prior claims that the equation should be \"A = 'A = false and A = true and therefore A is false. In computational verb logic, the liar paradox is extended to statements like, \"I hear what he says; he says what I don't hear\", where verb logic must be used to resolve the paradox.", "", "Gödel's incompleteness theorems are two fundamental theorems of mathematical logic which state inherent limitations of sufficiently powerful axiomatic systems for mathematics. The theorems were proven by Kurt Gödel in 1931, and are important in the philosophy of mathematics. Roughly speaking, in proving the first incompleteness theorem, Gödel used a modified version of the liar paradox, replacing \"this sentence is false\" with \"this sentence is not provable\", called the \"Gödel sentence G\". His proof showed that for any sufficiently powerful theory T, G is true, but not provable in T. The analysis of the truth and provability of G is a formalized version of the analysis of the truth of the liar sentence. To prove the first incompleteness theorem, Gödel represented statements by numbers. Then the theory at hand, which is assumed to prove certain facts about numbers, also proves facts about its own statements. Questions about the provability of statements are represented as questions about the properties of numbers, which would be decidable by the theory if it were complete. In these terms, the Gödel sentence states that no natural number exists with a certain, strange property. A number with this property would encode a proof of the inconsistency of the theory. If there were such a number then the theory would be inconsistent, contrary to the consistency hypothesis. So, under the assumption that the theory is consistent, there is no such number. It is not possible to replace \"not provable\" with \"false\" in a Gödel sentence because the predicate \"Q is the Gödel number of a false formula\" cannot be represented as a formula of arithmetic. This result, known as Tarski's undefinability theorem, was discovered independently by Gödel (when he was working on the proof of the incompleteness theorem) and by Alfred Tarski. George Boolos has since sketched an alternative proof of the first incompleteness theorem that uses Berry's paradox rather than the liar paradox to construct a true but unprovable formula.", "The liar paradox is occasionally used in fiction to shut down artificial intelligences, who are presented as being unable to process the sentence. In \"\" episode \"I, Mudd\", the liar paradox is used by Captain Kirk and Harry Mudd to confuse and ultimately disable an android holding them captive. In the 1973 \"Doctor Who\" serial \"The Green Death\", the Doctor temporarily stumps the insane computer BOSS by asking it \"If I were to tell you that the next thing I say would be true, but the last thing I said was a lie, would you believe me?\" However BOSS eventually decides the question is irrelevant and summons security. In the 2011 videogame \"Portal 2\", GLaDOS attempts to use the \"this sentence is false\" paradox to defeat the naïve artificial intelligence Wheatley, but, lacking the intelligence to realize the statement a paradox, he simply responds, \"Um, true. I'll go with true. There, that was easy.\" and is unaffected, although the frankencubes around him do spark and go offline. In the seventh episode of \"\" titled \"Access Denied\" the main character Jesse and his friends are captured by a supercomputer named PAMA. After PAMA controls two of Jesse's friends, Jesse learns that PAMA stalls when processing and uses a paradox to confuse him and escape with his last friend. One of the paradoxes the player can make him say is the liar paradox. In Douglas Adams \"The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy\", chapter 21 he describes a solitary old man inhabiting a small asteroid in the spatial coordinates where it should have been a whole planet dedicated to Biro (ballpoint pen) life forms. This old man repeatedly claimed that nothing was true, though he was later discovered to be lying. Rollins Band's 1994 song \"Liar\" alluded to the paradox when the narrator ends the song by stating \"I'll lie again and again and I'll keep lying, I promise\". Robert Earl Keen's song \"The Road Goes On and On\" alludes to the paradox. The song is widely believed to be written as part of Keen's feud with Toby Keith, who is presumably the \"liar\" Keen refers to." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Work.", "Early work.", "Contributions to economic anthropology.", "Contributions to historical anthropology.", "Centrality of culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Sahlins was born in Chicago. He was of Russian Jewish descent but grew up in a secular, non-practicing family. His family claims to be descended from Baal Shem Tov, a mystical rabbi considered to be the founder of Hasidic Judaism. Sahlin's mother admired Emma Goldman and was a political activist as a child in Russia. Sahlins received his Bachelor of Arts and Master of Arts degrees at the University of Michigan where he studied with evolutionary anthropologist Leslie White. He earned his PhD at Columbia University in 1954. There his intellectual influences included Eric Wolf, Morton Fried, Sidney Mintz, and the economic historian Karl Polanyi. After receiving his PhD, he returned to teach at the University of Michigan. In the 1960s he became politically active, and while protesting against the Vietnam War, Sahlins coined the term for the imaginative form of protest now called the \"teach-in,\" which drew inspiration from the sit-in pioneered during the civil rights movement. In 1968, Sahlins signed the \"Writers and Editors War Tax Protest\" pledge, vowing to refuse tax payments in protest against the Vietnam War. In the late 1960s, he also spent two years in Paris, where he was exposed to French intellectual life (and particularly the work of Claude Lévi-Strauss) and the student protests of May 1968. In 1973, he took a position in the anthropology department at the University of Chicago, where he is currently the Charles F. Grey Distinguished Service Professor of Anthropology Emeritus. His commitment to activism has continued throughout his time at Chicago, most recently leading to his protest over the opening of the University's Confucius Institute (which later closed in the fall of 2014). On February 23, 2013, Sahlins resigned from the National Academy of Sciences to protest the call for military research for improving the effectiveness of small combat groups and also the election of Napoleon Chagnon. The resignation followed the publication in that month of Chagnon's memoir and widespread coverage of the memoir, including a profile of Chagnon in the \"New York Times\" magazine. Alongside his research and activism, Sahlins trained a host of students who went on to become prominent in the field. One such student, Gayle Rubin, said: \"Sahlins is a mesmerizing speaker and a brilliant thinker. By the time he finished the first lecture, I was hooked.\" In 2001, Sahlins became publisher of Prickly Pear Pamphlets, which was started in 1993 by anthropologists Keith Hart and Anna Grimshaw, and was renamed Prickly Paradigm Press. The imprint specializes in small pamphlets on unconventional subjects in anthropology, critical theory, philosophy, and current events. His brother was the writer and comedian Bernard Sahlins (1922–2013). His son, Peter Sahlins, is a historian.", "Sahlins is known for theorizing the interaction of structure and agency, his critiques of reductive theories of human nature (economic and biological, in particular), and his demonstrations of the power that culture has to shape people's perceptions and actions. Although his focus has been the entire Pacific, Sahlins has done most of his research in Fiji and Hawaii.", "Sahlins's training under Leslie White, a proponent of materialist and evolutionary anthropology at the University of Michigan, is reflected in his early work. In his \"Evolution and Culture\" (1960), he touched on the areas of cultural evolution and neoevolutionism. He divided the evolution of societies into \"general\" and \"specific\". General evolution is the tendency of cultural and social systems to increase in complexity, organization and adaptiveness to environment. However, as the various cultures are not isolated, there is interaction and a diffusion of their qualities (like technological inventions). This leads cultures to develop in different ways (specific evolution), as various elements are introduced to them in different combinations and on different stages of evolution. \"Moala\", Sahlins's first major monograph, exemplifies this approach.", "\"Stone Age Economics\" (1972) collects some of Sahlins's key essays in substantivist economic anthropology. As opposed to \"formalists,\" substantivists insist that economic life is produced through cultural rules that govern the production and distribution of goods, and therefore any understanding of economic life has to start from cultural principles, and not from the assumption that the economy is made up of independently acting, \"economically rational\" individuals. Perhaps Sahlins's most famous essay from the collection, \"The Original Affluent Society,\" elaborates on this theme through an extended meditation on \"hunter-gatherer\" societies. \"Stone Age Economics\" inaugurated Sahlins's persistent critique of the discipline of economics, particularly in its Neoclassical form.", "After the publication of \"Culture and Practical Reason\" in 1976, his focus shifted to the relation between history and anthropology, and the way different cultures understand and make history. Of central concern in this work is the problem of historical transformation, which structuralist approaches could not adequately account for. Sahlins developed the concept of the \"structure of the conjuncture\" to grapple with the problem of structure and agency, in other words that societies were shaped by the complex conjuncture of a variety of forces, or structures. Earlier evolutionary models, by contrast, claimed that culture arose as an adaptation to the natural environment. Crucially, in Sahlins's formulation, individuals have the agency to make history. Sometimes their position gives them power by placing them at the top of a political hierarchy. At other times, the structure of the conjuncture, a potent or fortuitous mixture of forces, enables people to transform history. This element of chance and contingency makes a science of these conjunctures impossible, though comparative study can enable some generalizations. \"Historical Metaphors and Mythical Realities\" (1981), \"Islands of History\" (1985), \"Anahulu\" (1992), and \"Apologies to Thucydides\" (2004) contain his main contributions to historical anthropology. \"Islands of History\" sparked a notable debate with Gananath Obeyesekere over the details of Captain James Cook's death in the Hawaiian Islands in 1779. At the heart of the debate was how to understand the rationality of indigenous people. Obeyesekere insisted that indigenous people thought in essentially the same way as Westerners and was concerned that any argument otherwise would paint them as \"irrational\" and \"uncivilized\". In contrast Sahlins argued that each culture may have different types of rationality that make sense of the world by focusing on different patterns and explain them within specific cultural narratives, and that assuming that all cultures lead to a single rational view is a form of eurocentrism.", "Over the years, Sahlins took aim at various forms of economic determinism (mentioned above) and also biological determinism, or the idea that human culture is a by-product of biological processes. His major critique of sociobiology is contained in \"The Use and Abuse of Biology\". His recent book, \"What Kinship Is—And Is Not\" picks up some of these threads to show how kinship organizes sexuality and human reproduction rather than the other way around. In other words, biology does not determine kinship. Rather, the experience of \"mutuality of being\" that we call kinship is a cultural phenomenon." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Subregions.", "Tōkai.", "Chūkyō.", "Kōshin'etsu.", "Hokuriku." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "3", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The Chūbu region covers a large and geographically diverse area of Honshū which leads to it generally being divided into three distinct subregions: Tōkai, Kōshin'etsu, and Hokuriku. There is also another subregion occasionally referred to in business circles called Chūkyō.", "The Tōkai region, mostly bordering the Pacific Ocean, is a narrow corridor interrupted in places by mountains that descend into the sea. Since the Tokugawa period (1600–1867), this corridor has been critical in linking Tokyo, Kyoto, and Osaka. One of old Japan's most important ancient roadways, the Tōkaidō, ran through it connecting Tokyo (at that time called Edo) and Kyoto, the old imperial capital. In the twentieth century, it became the route for new super-express highways and high-speed railroad lines (shinkansen). The area consists of Aichi, Mie, Shizuoka, and southern Gifu prefectures. A number of small alluvial plains are found in the corridor section. A mild climate, favorable location relatively close to the great metropolitan complexes, and availability of fast transportation have made this area a center for truck-gardening and out-of-season vegetables. Upland areas of rolling hills are extensively given over to the growing of mandarin oranges and tea. Nagoya, which faces Ise Bay, is a center for heavy industry, including iron and steel and machinery manufacturing. The corridor also has a number of small but important industrial centers. The western part of Tōkai includes the Nōbi Plain, where rice was being grown by the seventh century.", "The three Tōkai prefectures centered on Nagoya (Aichi, Gifu, and Mie) have particularly strong economic ties, and the parts of these prefectures that are closest to the city comprise the Chūkyō Metropolitan Area. This area boasts the third strongest economy in Japan and this influence can sometimes extend into the more remote parts of these prefectures that are farther away from Nagoya. Thus, these three prefectures are sometimes called the \"Chūkyō region\" in a business sense. This name does not see widespread usage throughout Japan; however, as the economy in the area strengthens, this name may become more well-known country-wide.", "Kōshin'etsu is an area of complex and high rugged mountains—often called the \"roof of Japan\"—that include the Japanese Alps. The population is chiefly concentrated in six elevated basins connected by narrow valleys. It was long a main silk-producing area, although output declined after World War II. Much of the labor formerly required in silk production was absorbed by the district's diversified manufacturing industry, which included precision instruments, machinery, textiles, food processing, and other light manufacturing. Kōshin'etsu means Yamanashi, Nagano, and Niigata prefectures; Niigata is also included to the Hokuriku region. Yamanashi, Nagano and northern Gifu Prefecture are sometimes referred to as Chūō-kōchi or Tōsan region.", "The Hokuriku region lies on the Sea of Japan coastline, northwest of the massive mountains that comprise Kōshin'etsu. Hokuriku includes the four prefectures of Ishikawa, Fukui, Niigata and Toyama, The district has very heavy snowfall (sometimes enough to block major roads) and strong winds in winter, and its turbulent rivers are the source of abundant hydroelectric power. Niigata Prefecture is the site of domestic gas and oil production as well. Industrial development is extensive, especially in the cities in Niigata and Toyama; Fukui and Ishikawa prefectures also have large manufacturing industries. Historically, Hokuriku's development is owed to markets in the Kansai region, however recently the urban areas at the heart of the Kantō region and Tōkai region are having a heavy an influence as well. Hokuriku has port facilities which are mainly to facilitate trade with Russia, Korea and China. Transportation between Niigata and Toyama used to be geographically limited and so Niigata has seen especially strong influence from the Kantō region, because of this Niigata Prefecture is often classified as being part of the Kōshin'etsu region with Nagano and Yamanashi Prefectures." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History and description.", "Hypothetical biogenic features." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "ALH 84001 was found on the Allan Hills Far Western Icefield during the 1984-85 season, by Roberta Score, Lab Manager of the Antarctic Meteorite Laboratory at the Johnson Space Center. ALH84001 is thought to be one of the oldest Martian meteorites, proposed to have crystallized from molten rock 4.091 billion years ago. Based on chemical analyses, it is thought to have originated on Mars during a period when liquid water existed on the planet's surface. In September 2005, Vicky Hamilton of the University of Hawaii at Manoa presented an analysis of the origin of ALH84001 using data from the \"Mars Global Surveyor\" and \"2001 Mars Odyssey\" spacecraft orbiting Mars. According to the analysis, Eos Chasma in the Valles Marineris canyon appears to be the source of the meteorite. The analysis was not conclusive, in part because it was limited to areas of Mars not obscured by dust. The theory holds that ALH84001 was blasted away from the surface of Mars by the impact of another meteor about 17 million years ago, and fell on Earth roughly 13,000 years ago. These dates were established by a variety of radiometric dating techniques, including samarium–neodymium (Sm–Nd), rubidium–strontium (Rb–Sr), potassium–argon (K–Ar), and carbon-14 dating. Other meteorites that have potential biological markings have generated less interest because they do not contain rock from a \"wet\" Mars; ALH84001 is the only meteorite originating from a time period during which Mars is suspected to have supported liquid water. In October 2011 it was reported that isotopic analysis indicated that the carbonates in ALH84001 were precipitated at a temperature of with water and carbon dioxide from the Martian atmosphere. The carbonate carbon and oxygen isotope ratios imply deposition of the carbonates from a gradually evaporating subsurface water body, probably a shallow aquifer meters or tens of meters below the surface. In April 2020, researchers reported discovering nitrogen-bearing organics in Allan Hills 84001.", "On August 6, 1996, a team of researchers led by NASA scientists including lead author David S. McKay published an article in \"Science\" claiming that the meteorite may contain trace evidence of life from Mars. Under a scanning electron microscope, structures were visible that some scientists interpreted as fossils of bacteria-like lifeforms. The structures found on ALH84001 are in diameter, similar in size to theoretical nanobacteria, but smaller than any cellular life known at the time of their discovery. If the structures had been fossilized lifeforms, as was proposed by the so-called biogenic hypothesis of their formation, they would have been the first solid evidence of the existence of extraterrestrial life, aside from the chance of their origin being terrestrial contamination. The announcement of possible extraterrestrial life caused considerable controversy. When the discovery was announced, many immediately conjectured that the fossils were the first true evidence of extraterrestrial life—making headlines around the world, and even prompting President of the United States Bill Clinton to make a formal televised announcement to mark the event. McKay argued that likely microbial terrestrial contamination found in other Martian meteorites does not resemble the microscopic shapes in ALH84001. In particular, the shapes within ALH84001 look intergrown or embedded in the indigenous material, while likely contamination does not. While it has not yet conclusively been shown how the features in the meteorite were formed, similar features have been recreated in the lab without biological inputs by a team led by D.C. Golden. McKay says these results were obtained using unrealistically pure raw materials as a starting point, and \"will not explain many of the features described by us in ALH84001.\" According to McKay, a plausible inorganic model \"must explain simultaneously all of the properties that we and others have suggested as possible biogenic properties of this meteorite.\" The rest of the scientific community disagreed with McKay. In January 2010, a team of scientists at Johnson Space Center, including McKay, argued that since their original paper was published in November 2009, the biogenic hypothesis has been further supported by the discovery of three times the original amount of fossil-like data, including more \"biomorphs\" (suspected Martian fossils), inside two additional Martian meteorites, as well as more evidence in other parts of the Allan Hills meteorite itself. However, the scientific consensus is that \"morphology alone cannot be used unambiguously as a tool for primitive life detection.\" Interpretation of morphology is notoriously subjective, and its use alone has led to numerous errors of interpretation. Features of ALH84001 that have been interpreted as suggesting the presence of microfossils include:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Introduction.", "Types of Crisis.", "Natural disaster.", "Technological crisis.", "Confrontation crisis.", "Crisis of malevolence.", "Crisis of organizational misdeeds.", "Crises of skewed management values.", "Crisis of deception.", "Crisis of management misconduct.", "Workplace violence.", "Rumors.", "Crisis leadership.", "Sudden crisis.", "Smoldering crisis.", "Signal detection.", "Preparation and prevention.", "Containment and damage control.", "Business recovery.", "Learning.", "Crisis communication.", "Models and theories associated with crisis management.", "Crisis Management Strategy.", "Crisis Management Model.", "Crisis Management Planning.", "Contingency Planning.", "Business Continuity Planning.", "Structural-Functional systems theory.", "Diffusion of innovation theory.", "Role of apologies in crisis management.", "Crisis leadership.", "Unequal human capital theory.", "Social media and crisis management.", "Examples of successful crisis management.", "Tylenol (Johnson and Johnson).", "Odwalla Foods.", "Mattel.", "Pepsi.", "Examples of unsuccessful crisis management.", "Bhopal.", "Ford and Firestone Tire and Rubber Company.", "Exxon.", "Lessons learned in crisis management.", "Impact of catastrophes on shareholder value.", "Crisis as Opportunity.", "Public-sector crisis management.", "Schools and crisis management.", "Government and crisis management.", "People and crisis management.", "Elected officials and crisis management.", "Professional organizations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Crisis management is a situation-based management system that includes clear roles and responsibilities and process related organisational requirements company-wide. The response shall include action in the following areas: Crisis prevention, crisis assessment, crisis handling and crisis termination. The aim of crisis management is to be well prepared for crisis, ensure a rapid and adequate response to the crisis, maintaining clear lines of reporting and communication in the event of crisis and agreeing rules for crisis termination. The techniques of crisis management include a number of consequent steps from the understanding of the influence of the crisis on the corporation to preventing, alleviating, and overcoming the different types of crisis. Crisis management consists of different aspects including: Crisis-management methods of a business or an organization are called a crisis-management plan. A British Standard BS11200:2014 provides a useful foundation for understanding terminology and frameworks relating to crisis, in this document the focus is on the corporate exposure to risks in particular to the black swan events", "During the crisis management process, it is important to identify types of crises in that different crises necessitate the use of different crisis management strategies. Potential crises are enormous, but crises can be clustered. Lerbinger categorized eight types of crises", "Natural disaster related crises, typically natural disasters, are such environmental phenomena as earthquakes,", "Technological crises are caused by human application of science and technology. Technological accidents inevitably occur when technology becomes complex and coupled and something goes wrong in the system as a whole (Technological breakdowns). Some technological crises occur", "Confrontation crisis occur when discontented individuals and/or groups fight businesses, government, and various interest groups to win acceptance of their demands", "An organization faces a crisis of malevolence when opponents or miscreant individuals use criminal means or other extreme tactics for the purpose of expressing", "Crises occur when management takes actions it knows will harm or place stakeholders at risk for harm without adequate precautions. Lerbinger specified three different types of crises of organizational misdeeds: crises of skewed management values, crises of deception, and crises of management misconduct.", "Crises of skewed management values are caused when managers favor short-term economic gain and neglect broader social values and stakeholders other than investors. This state of lopsided values", "Crisis of deception occur when management conceals or misrepresents", "Some crises are caused not only by skewed values and deception but deliberate amorality and illegality.", "Crises occur when an employee or", "False information about an organization or its products creates crises hurting the", "Alan Hilburg, a pioneer in crisis management, defines organizational crises as categorized as either acute crises or chronic crises. Hilburg also created the concept of the Crisis Arc. Erika Hayes James, an organizational psychologist at the University of Virginia's Darden Graduate School of Business, identifies two primary types of organizational crisis. James defines organizational crisis as \"any emotionally charged situation that, once it becomes public, invites negative stakeholder reaction and thereby has the potential to threaten the financial well-being, reputation, or survival of the firm or some portion thereof\".", "Sudden crises are circumstances that occur without warning and beyond an institution's", "Smoldering crises differ from sudden crises in that they begin as minor internal issues that, due to manager's negligence, develop to crisis status. These are situations when leaders are blamed for the crisis and its subsequent effect on the institution in question. James categorises five", "Signal detection is the stage in a crisis in which leaders should, but do", "It is during this stage that crisis handlers begin preparing for or averting the crisis that had been foreshadowed in the signal detection stage. Hilburg has demonstrated that using an impact/probability model allows organizations to fairly accurately predict crisis scenarios. He's recognized the greatest", "Usually the most vivid stage, the goal of crisis containment and damage control is to limit the reputational, financial, safety, and other threats to", "When crisis hits, organizations must be able to carry on with their business in the midst of the crisis while simultaneously planning for how", "In the wake of a crisis, organizational decision makers adopt a learning orientation and use prior experience to develop new", "The effort taken by an organization to communicate with the public and stakeholders when an unexpected event occurs that could have a negative impact on the organization's reputation. This can also refer", "", "Crisis management strategy (CMS) is corporate development strategy designed primarily to prevent crisis for follow-up company advancement. Thus, CMS is synthesis of strategic management. It includes projection of the future based", "Successfully managing a crisis requires an understanding of how to handle a crisis – beginning with before they occur. Alan Hilburg speaks about a", "No corporation looks forward to facing a situation that causes a significant disruption to their business, especially one that stimulates extensive media coverage. Public scrutiny can result in a negative financial, political, legal and government impact. Crisis management planning deals with providing the best response to a crisis. With the growing threat of cyber attacks, \"traditional information technology incident response plans", "Preparing contingency plans in advance, as part of a crisis-management plan, is the first step to ensuring an organization is appropriately prepared for a crisis. Crisis-management teams can rehearse a crisis plan by developing a simulated scenario to use as a drill. The plan should clearly stipulate that the only people to speak to publicly about the crisis are the designated persons, such as the company spokesperson or crisis team members. Ideally it should be one spokesperson who can be available on", "When a crisis will undoubtedly cause a significant disruption to an organization, a business continuity plan can help minimize the disruption. First, one must identify the critical functions and processes that are necessary to keep the organization running. This part of the planning should be conducted in the earliest stages, and is part of a business impact analysis phase that will signpost \"How much does the organization stand to lose?” (Osborne, A. (2007). Practical Business Continuity Management. Business Management: Top tips for effective, real-world Business Continuity Management). Each critical function and or/process must have its own contingency plan in the event that one of the functions/processes ceases or fails, then the business/organization is more resilient, which in itself provides a mechanism to lessen the possibility of having to invoke", "Providing information to an organization in a time of crisis is critical to effective crisis management. Structural-functional systems theory addresses the intricacies", "Another theory that can be applied to the sharing of information is Diffusion of Innovation Theory. Developed by Everett Rogers, the theory describes how innovation is disseminated and communicated through certain channels over a period of time. Diffusion of innovation in communication occurs when an individual communicates a new", "There has been debate about the role of apologies in crisis management, and some argue that apology opens an organization up for possible legal consequences. \"However some evidence indicates that compensation and", "James identifies five leadership competencies which facilitate organizational restructuring during and after a crisis. Crisis leadership research concludes that leadership action in crisis reflects the", "James postulates that organizational", "Social media has accelerated the speed that information about a crisis can spread. The viral effect of social networks such as Twitter means that stakeholders can break news faster than traditional media - making managing a crisis harder. This can be mitigated by having the right training and policy in place as well as the right social media monitoring tools to detect signs of a crisis breaking. Social media also gives crisis management teams access to real-time information about how a crisis is impacting stakeholder sentiment and the issues that are of most concern to them. The advent of social media changed the field of crisis management dramatically, empowering stakeholders and making organisations more accountable for their actions. By creating a platform for two-way symmetrical communication between an organisation and its stakeholders, social media facilitated a rise in organisational crises, allowing for stakeholders anywhere in the world - providing they have an internet connection - to communicate publicly with organisations. The", "", "In the fall of 1982, a murderer added 65 milligrams of cyanide to some Tylenol capsules on store shelves, killing seven people, including three in one family. Johnson & Johnson recalled and destroyed 31 million capsules at a cost of $100 million. The affable CEO, James", "When Odwalla's apple juice was thought to be the cause of an outbreak of E. coli infection, the company lost a third of its market value. In October 1996, an outbreak of E. coli bacteria in Washington state, California, Colorado and British Columbia was traced to unpasteurized apple juice manufactured by natural juice maker Odwalla Inc. Forty-nine cases were reported, including the death of a small", "Mattel Inc., the toy maker, has been plagued with more than 28 product recalls and in the summer of 2007, among problems with exports from China, faced two product recalls in two weeks. The company \"did everything it could to get its message out, earning high marks from consumers and retailers. Though upset by the situation, they were appreciative of the company's response. At Mattel,", "The Pepsi Corporation faced a crisis in 1993 which started with claims of syringes being found in cans of diet Pepsi. Pepsi urged stores not to remove the product from shelves while it had the cans and the situation investigated. This led to an arrest, which Pepsi made public and then followed with their first video news release, showing the production process to demonstrate that", "", "The Bhopal disaster in which poor communication before, during, and after the crisis cost thousands of lives, illustrates the importance of incorporating cross-cultural communication in crisis management plans. According to American University's Trade Environmental Database Case Studies (1997), local residents were not sure how to react to warnings of potential threats from the Union Carbide plant. Operating manuals printed only in English is an extreme example of mismanagement but", "The Ford-Firestone Tire and Rubber Company dispute transpired in August 2000. In response to claims that their 15-inch Wilderness AT, radial ATX and ATX II tire treads were separating from the tire core—leading to crashes—Bridgestone/Firestone recalled 6.5 million tires. These tires were mostly used on the Ford Explorer,", "On 24 March 1989, a tanker belonging to the Exxon Corporation ran aground in the Prince William Sound in Alaska. The Exxon Valdez spilled millions of gallons of crude oil into the waters off Valdez, killing thousands of fish, fowl, and sea otters. Hundreds of miles of coastline were polluted and salmon spawning runs disrupted; numerous fishermen, especially Native Americans, lost their livelihoods. Exxon, by contrast, did not react quickly in terms of dealing with the media", "", "One of the foremost recognized studies conducted on the impact of a catastrophe on the stock value of an organization was completed by Dr Rory Knight and Dr Deborah Pretty (1996, Templeton College, University of Oxford - commissioned by the Sedgewick Group). This study undertook a detailed analysis of the stock price (post impact) of organizations that had experienced catastrophes. The study identified organizations that recovered and even exceeded pre-catastrophe stock price, (\"Recoverers\"), and those that did not recover on stock price, (\"Non-recoverers\"). The average", "Hilburg proffers that every crisis is an opportunity to showcase an institution's character, its commitment to its brand promise and its institutional values. To address such shareholder impact, management must move from a mindset that manages crisis to one that generates crisis leadership. James contends that most executives focus on communications", "Corporate America is not the only community that is vulnerable to the perils of a crisis. Whether a school shooting, a public health crisis or a terrorist attack that leaves the public seeking comfort in the calm, steady leadership of an elected official, no sector of society is immune to crisis. In response to that reality, crisis management policies, strategies and practices have been developed and adapted across multiple disciplines.", "In the wake of the Columbine High School Massacre, the September 11 attacks in 2001, and shootings on college campuses including the Virginia Tech massacre, educational institutions at all levels are now focused on crisis management. A national study conducted by the University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences (UAMS) and Arkansas Children's Hospital Research Institute (ACHRI) has shown that many", "Historically, government at all levels—local, state, and national—has played a large role in crisis management. Indeed, many political philosophers have considered this to be one of the primary roles of government. Emergency services, such as fire and police departments at the local level, and the United States National Guard at the federal level, often play integral roles in crisis situations. To help coordinate communication during the response phase of a crisis, the U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) within the Department of Homeland Security administers the National Response Plan (NRP). This plan is intended to", "A group of international psychoanalysts started in 1994 with a project to contribute to crisis management in the sense of managing conflicts", "Historically, politics and crisis go hand in hand. In describing crisis, President Abraham Lincoln said, \"We live in the midst of alarms, anxiety beclouds the future; we expect some new disaster with each newspaper we read\". Crisis management has become a defining feature of contemporary governance. In times of crisis, communities and members of organizations expect their public leaders to minimize the impact of the crisis at hand, while critics and bureaucratic competitors try to seize the moment to blame incumbent rulers and their policies. In this extreme environment, policymakers must somehow establish a sense of normality, and", "There are a number of professional industry associations that provide advice, literature and contacts to turnaround professionals and academics. Some are: 1. International Association of Emergency Managers (International) 2. Turnaround Management Society (International / Focus on Europe) 3. Institute for Turnaround (England) 4. Turnaround Management Association (International) 5. Institut für die Standardisierung von Unternehmenssanierungen (Germany) 6. Disaster Recovery Institute (International)" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Hammer and sickle.", "Red star.", "Red flag.", "Red and black flag.", "\"The Internationale\".", "Plough (or Starry Plough).", "Socialist heraldry.", "Other communist symbols.", "Gallery." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The hammer stands for the industrial working class and the sickle represents the agricultural workers, therefore together they represent the unity of the two groups. The hammer and sickle were first used during the 1917 Russian Revolution, but it did not become the official symbol of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic until 1924. Since the Russian Revolution, the hammer and sickle have come to represent various communist parties and communist states.", "The five-pointed red star is a symbol of communism as well as broader socialism in general. The red star was a revolutionary symbol after the October Revolution and following civil war in Russia. It was widely used by anti-fascist resistance parties and underground organizations in Europe leading up to and during World War II. During the war, the red star was prominently used as a symbol of the Workers' and Peasants' Red Army from the Soviet Union, which liberated its country from the invading forces of Nazi Germany and went on to rid the rest of Eastern Europe from the fascist occupation forces, achieving absolute victory and ending the war at the Battle of Berlin. Most states in the Eastern Bloc incorporated the red star into state symbols to signify their socialist nature. While there is no known original allegory behind the red star beyond being a universal political symbol, in the Soviet Union the red star gained a more precise symbolism as representing the Communist Party and its position on the flag over the united hammer and sickle symbolised the party leading the Soviet working class in the building of communism. Today, the red star is used by many socialist and communist parties and organizations across the world.", "The red flag is often seen in combination with other communist symbols and party names. The flag is used at various communist and socialist rallies like May Day. The flag, being a symbol of socialism itself, is also commonly associated with non-communist variants of socialism. The red flag has had multiple meanings in history, but it was first used as a flag of defiance. The red flag gained its modern association with communism in the 1871 French Revolution. After the October Revolution, the Soviet government adopted the red flag with a superimposed hammer and sickle as its national flag. Since the October Revolution, various socialist states and movements have used the red flag.", "The red and black flag has been a symbol of general communist movements, though generally used by anarcho-communists. The flag was used as the symbol of the anarcho-syndicalists during the Spanish Civil War. The black represents anarchism and the red represents leftist and socialist ideals. Over time, the flag spilled into statist leftist movements, these movements include the Sandinistas and the 26th of July Movement, where the flags colors are not divided diagonally, but horizontally. As in the case of the Sandinistas, they adopted the flag due to the movement's anarchist roots.", "\"The Internationale\" is an anthem of the Communist movement. It is one of the most universally recognized songs in the world and has been translated into nearly every spoken language. Its original French refrain is \"C'est la lutte finale\"/\"Groupons-nous et demain\"/\"L'Internationale\"/\"Sera le genre humain\" (English: This is the final struggle/Let's group together and tomorrow/The International/Will be the human race). It is often sung with a raised fist salute. The song has been used by communists all over the world since it was composed in the 19th century and adopted as the official anthem of the Second International. It later became the anthem of Soviet Russia in 1918 and of the Soviet Union in 1922. It was superseded as the Soviet Union anthem in 1944 with the adoption of the State Anthem of the Soviet Union, which placed more emphasis on patriotism. The song was also sung in defiance to Communist governments, such as in the German Democratic Republic in 1989 prior to reunification as well as in the People's Republic of China during the Tienanmen Square protests of the same year.", "Although not an exclusively communist symbol, the Plough, or Starry Plough, is a symbol of Irish socialism. It may have the same roots as the original hammer and Plough that was replaced by the hammer and sickle in Soviet Russia. The significance of the banner was that a free Workers Republic of Ireland would control its own destiny from the plough to the stars and the sword forged into the plough would mean the redundancy of war with the establishment of a socialist International. The flag depicts the Big Dipper, part of the constellation of Ursa Major that is known as \"The Plough\" in Ireland and Great Britain. The Plough is one of the most prominent features of the night sky over Ireland throughout the year. This was unveiled in 1914 and flown by the socialist workers' militia (the Irish Citizen Army) during the 1916 Easter Rising. In China, the Plough flag (), a red flag with white or yellow plough, is widely used in the period of the First Revolutionary Civil War as the flag of the Chinese peasant associations, an organization led by the Communist Party of China. It is believed that Peng Pai () was the first user in 1923 at the peasants' association of Hailufeng. The Plough flag has many different versions and some are combined with the flag of Blue Sky, White Sun or Red Field; other are different on the details of the plough.", "Many communist governments purposely diverged from the traditional forms of European heraldry in order to distance themselves from the monarchies that they usually replaced, with actual coats of arms being seen as symbols of the monarchs. Instead, they followed the pattern of the national emblems adopted in the late 1910s and early 1920s in Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union. Socialist heraldry, also called communist heraldry, is a colloquial name for the common design patterns of the national emblems adopted by communist states. Although commonly called coats of arms, most such devices are not actually coats of arms in the traditional heraldic sense, but the recognisable common patterns have led to the use of the unofficial term \"socialist heraldry\".", "While not necessarily communist in nature, the following graphic elements are often incorporated into the flags, seals and propaganda of communist countries and movements. Notable examples of communist states that use no overtly communist imagery on their flags, emblems or other graphic representations are Cuba and the former Polish People's Republic.", "Examples of these symbols in use." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Apprenticeship to Basire.", "Royal Academy.", "Gordon Riots.", "Marriage and early career.", "Relief etching.", "Engravings.", "Later life and career.", "Felpham.", "Return to London.", "Dante's \"Divine Comedy\".", "Death.", "Politics.", "Development of his views.", "Religious views.", "Sexuality.", "19th-century \"free love\" movement.", "Assessment.", "Creative mindset.", "Visions.", "Cultural influence.", "Exhibitions.", "External links." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "William Blake was born on 28 November 1757 at 28 Broad Street (now Broadwick St.) in Soho, London. He was the third of seven children, two of whom died in infancy. Blake's father, James, was a hosier. He attended school only long enough to learn reading and writing, leaving at the age of ten, and was otherwise educated at home by his mother Catherine Blake (\"née\" Wright). Even though the Blakes were English Dissenters, William was baptised on 11 December at St James's Church, Piccadilly, London. The Bible was an early and profound influence on Blake, and remained a source of inspiration throughout his life. Blake started engraving copies of drawings of Greek antiquities purchased for him by his father, a practice that was preferred to actual drawing. Within these drawings Blake found his first exposure to classical forms through the work of Raphael, Michelangelo, Maarten van Heemskerck and Albrecht Dürer. The number of prints and bound books that James and Catherine were able to purchase for young William suggests that the Blakes enjoyed, at least for a time, a comfortable wealth. When William was ten years old, his parents knew enough of his headstrong temperament that he was not sent to school but instead enrolled in drawing classes at Pars's drawing school in the Strand. He read avidly on subjects of his own choosing. During this period, Blake made explorations into poetry; his early work displays knowledge of Ben Jonson, Edmund Spenser, and the Psalms.", "On 4 August 1772, Blake was apprenticed to engraver James Basire of Great Queen Street, at the sum of £52.10, for a term of seven years. At the end of the term, aged 21, he became a professional engraver. No record survives of any serious disagreement or conflict between the two during the period of Blake's apprenticeship, but Peter Ackroyd's biography notes that Blake later added Basire's name to a list of artistic adversaries – and then crossed it out. This aside, Basire's style of line-engraving was of a kind held at the time to be old-fashioned compared to the flashier stipple or mezzotint styles. It has been speculated that Blake's instruction in this outmoded form may have been detrimental to his acquiring of work", "On 8 October 1779, Blake became a student at the Royal Academy in Old Somerset House, near the Strand. While the terms of his study required no payment, he was expected to supply his own materials throughout the six-year period. There, he rebelled against what he regarded as the unfinished style of fashionable painters such as Rubens, championed by the school's first president, Joshua Reynolds. Over time, Blake came to detest Reynolds' attitude towards art, especially his pursuit of \"general truth\" and \"general beauty\". Reynolds wrote in his \"Discourses\" that the \"disposition to abstractions, to generalising and classification, is the great glory of the", "Blake's first biographer, Alexander Gilchrist, records that in June 1780 Blake was walking towards Basire's shop in Great Queen Street when he was swept up by a rampaging mob that stormed Newgate Prison. The mob attacked the prison gates with shovels and", "Blake met Catherine Boucher in 1782 when he was recovering from a relationship that had culminated in a refusal of his marriage proposal. He recounted the story of his heartbreak for Catherine and her parents, after which he asked Catherine, \"Do you pity me?\" When she responded affirmatively, he declared, \"Then I love you.\" Blake married Catherine – who was five years his junior – on 18 August 1782 in St Mary's Church, Battersea. Illiterate, Catherine signed her wedding contract with an X. The original wedding certificate may be viewed at the church, where a commemorative stained-glass window was installed between 1976 and 1982. Later, in addition to teaching Catherine to read and write, Blake trained her as an engraver. Throughout his life she proved an invaluable aid, helping to print his illuminated works and maintaining his spirits throughout numerous misfortunes. Blake's first collection of poems, \"Poetical Sketches\", was printed around 1783. After his father's death, Blake and former fellow apprentice James Parker", "In 1788, aged 31, Blake experimented with relief etching, a method he used to produce most of his books, paintings, pamphlets and poems. The process is also referred to as illuminated printing, and the finished products as illuminated books or prints. Illuminated printing involved writing the text of the poems on copper plates with pens and brushes, using an acid-resistant medium. Illustrations could appear alongside words in the manner of earlier illuminated manuscripts. He then etched the plates in acid to dissolve the untreated copper and leave the design standing", "Although Blake has become better known for his relief etching, his commercial work largely consisted of intaglio engraving, the standard process of engraving in the 18th century in which the artist incised an image into the copper plate, a complex and laborious process, with plates taking months or years to complete, but as Blake's contemporary, John Boydell, realised, such engraving offered a \"missing link with commerce\", enabling artists to connect with a mass audience and became an immensely important activity by the end of the 18th century. \"Europe Supported by Africa and America\" is an engraving by Blake dating to 1792 held in the collection of the University of Arizona Museum of Art. The engraving was for a book written by Blake's friend John Gabriel Stedman called \"The Narrative of a Five Years Expedition against the Revolted Negroes of Surinam\" (1796). It depicts three attractive women embracing one another. Black Africa and", "Blake's marriage to Catherine was close and devoted until his death. Blake taught Catherine to write, and she helped him colour his printed poems. Gilchrist refers to \"stormy times\" in the early years of the marriage. Some biographers have suggested that Blake tried to bring a concubine into the marriage bed in accordance with the beliefs of the more radical branches of the Swedenborgian Society, but other scholars have dismissed these theories as conjecture. In his Dictionary, Samuel Foster Damon suggests that Catherine may have had a stillborn daughter for which \"The Book of Thel\" is an elegy. That is how he rationalizes the Book's unusual ending, but notes that he is speculating.", "In 1800, Blake moved to a cottage at Felpham, in Sussex (now West Sussex), to take up a job illustrating the works of William Hayley, a minor poet. It was in this cottage that Blake began \"\" (the title page is dated 1804, but Blake continued to work on it until 1808). The preface to this work includes a poem beginning \"And did those feet in ancient time\", which became the words for the anthem \"Jerusalem\". Over time, Blake began to resent his new patron, believing that Hayley was uninterested in true", "Blake returned to London in 1804 and began to write and illustrate \"Jerusalem\" (1804–20), his most ambitious work. Having conceived the idea of portraying the characters in Chaucer's \"Canterbury Tales\", Blake approached the dealer Robert Cromek, with a view to marketing an engraving. Knowing Blake was too eccentric to produce a popular work, Cromek promptly commissioned Blake's friend Thomas Stothard to execute the concept. When Blake learned he had been cheated, he broke off contact with Stothard. He set up an independent exhibition in his brother's haberdashery shop at 27 Broad Street in Soho. The exhibition was designed to market his own version of the Canterbury illustration (titled \"The Canterbury Pilgrims\"), along with other works. As a result, he wrote his \"Descriptive Catalogue\" (1809), which contains what Anthony Blunt called a \"brilliant analysis\" of Chaucer and is regularly anthologised as a classic of Chaucer criticism. It also contained detailed explanations", "The commission for Dante's \"Divine Comedy\" came to Blake in 1826 through Linnell, with the aim of producing a series of engravings. Blake's death in 1827 cut short the enterprise, and only a handful of watercolours were completed, with only seven of the engravings arriving at proof form. Even so, they have earned praise: Blake's illustrations of the poem are not merely accompanying works, but rather seem to critically revise, or furnish commentary on, certain spiritual or moral aspects of the text. Because the project was never completed, Blake's intent may be obscured. Some indicators bolster the impression that Blake's illustrations in their", "Blake's last years were spent at Fountain Court off the Strand (the property was demolished in the 1880s, when the Savoy Hotel was built). On the day of his death (12 August 1827), Blake worked relentlessly on his Dante series. Eventually, it is reported, he ceased working and turned to his wife, who was in tears by his bedside. Beholding her, Blake is said to have cried, \"Stay Kate! Keep just as you are – I will draw your portrait – for you have ever been an angel to me.\" Having completed this portrait (now lost), Blake laid down his tools and began to sing hymns and verses. At six that evening, after promising his wife that he would be with her always, Blake died. Gilchrist reports that a female lodger in the house, present at his expiration, said, \"I have been at the death, not of a man, but of a blessed angel.\" George Richmond gives the following account of Blake's death in a letter to Samuel Palmer: Catherine paid for Blake's funeral with money lent to her by Linnell. Blake's body was buried in a plot shared with others, five days after his death – on the eve of his 45th wedding anniversary – at the Dissenter's burial ground in Bunhill Fields, in what is today the London Borough of Islington. His parents' bodies were buried in the same graveyard. Present at the ceremonies were Catherine, Edward Calvert, George Richmond, Frederick Tatham and John Linnell. Following Blake's death, Catherine moved into Tatham's house as a housekeeper. She believed she was regularly visited by Blake's spirit. She continued selling his illuminated works and paintings, but", "Blake was not active in any well-established political party. His poetry consistently embodies an attitude of rebellion against the abuse of class power as documented in David Erdman's large study \"\". Blake was concerned about senseless wars and the blighting effects of the Industrial Revolution. Much of his poetry recounts in symbolic allegory the effects of the French and American revolutions. Erdman claims Blake was disillusioned with them, believing they", "Because Blake's later poetry contains a private mythology with complex symbolism, his late work has been less published than his earlier more accessible work. The Vintage anthology of Blake edited by Patti Smith focuses heavily on the earlier work, as do many critical studies such as \"William Blake\" by D. G. Gillham. The earlier work is primarily rebellious in character and can be seen as a protest against dogmatic religion especially notable in \"The Marriage of Heaven and Hell\", in which the figure represented by the \"Devil\" is virtually a hero rebelling against an imposter authoritarian deity. In later works, such as \"Milton\" and \"Jerusalem\", Blake carves a distinctive vision of a humanity redeemed by self-sacrifice and forgiveness, while retaining his earlier negative attitude towards what he felt was the rigid", "Although Blake's attacks on conventional religion were shocking in his own day, his rejection of religiosity was not a rejection of religion \"per se\". His view of orthodoxy is evident in \"The Marriage of Heaven and Hell\". Therein, Blake lists several \"Proverbs of Hell\", among which are the following: In \"The Everlasting Gospel\", Blake does not present Jesus as a philosopher or traditional messianic figure, but as a supremely creative being, above dogma, logic and even morality: <poem> If he had been Antichrist Creeping Jesus, He'd have done anything to please us: Gone sneaking into Synagogues And not us'd the Elders & Priests like Dogs, But humble as a Lamb or Ass, Obey'd himself to Caiaphas. God wants not Man to Humble himself (55–61, E519–20) </poem> For Blake, Jesus symbolises the vital relationship and unity between divinity and humanity: \"All had originally one language, and one religion: this was the religion of Jesus, the everlasting Gospel. Antiquity preaches the Gospel of Jesus.\" (\"Descriptive Catalogue\", Plate 39, E543) Blake designed his own mythology, which appears largely in his prophetic books. Within these he describes a number of characters, including \"Urizen\", \"Enitharmon\", \"Bromion\" and \"Luvah\". His mythology seems to have a basis in the Bible as well as Greek and Norse mythology, and it accompanies his ideas about the everlasting Gospel. One of Blake's strongest objections to orthodox Christianity is that he felt it encouraged the suppression of natural desires and discouraged earthly joy. In \"A Vision of the Last Judgement\", Blake says that: His words concerning religion in \"The Marriage of Heaven and Hell\": <poem> All Bibles or sacred codes have been the causes of the following Errors. But the following Contraries to these are True </poem> Blake does not subscribe to the notion of a body distinct from the soul that must submit to the rule of the soul, but sees the body as an extension of the soul, derived from the \"discernment\" of the senses. Thus, the emphasis orthodoxy places upon the denial of bodily urges is a dualistic error born of misapprehension of the relationship between body and soul. Elsewhere, he describes Satan as the \"state of error\", and as beyond salvation. Blake opposed the sophistry of theological thought that excuses pain, admits evil and apologises for injustice. He abhorred self-denial, which he associated with religious repression and particularly sexual repression: <poem> Prudence is a rich ugly old maid courted by Incapacity. He who desires but acts not breeds pestilence. (7.4–5, E35)</poem> He saw the concept of \"sin\" as a trap to bind men's desires (the briars of \"Garden of Love\"), and believed that restraint in obedience to a moral code imposed from the outside was against the spirit of life: <poem> Abstinence sows sand all over The ruddy limbs & flaming hair But Desire Gratified Plants fruits & beauty there. (E474) </poem> He did not hold with the doctrine of God as Lord, an entity separate from and superior to mankind; this is shown clearly in his words about Jesus Christ: \"He is the only God... and so am I, and so are you.\" A telling phrase in \"The Marriage of Heaven and Hell\" is \"men forgot that All deities reside in the human breast\".", "", "Since his death, William Blake has been claimed by those of various movements who apply his complex and often elusive use of symbolism and allegory to the issues that concern them. In particular, Blake is sometimes considered (along with Mary Wollstonecraft and her husband William Godwin) a forerunner of the 19th-century \"free love\" movement, a broad reform tradition starting in the 1820s that held that marriage is slavery, and advocated the removal of all state restrictions on sexual activity such as homosexuality, prostitution, and adultery, culminating in the birth control movement of the early 20th century. Blake scholarship was more focused on this theme in the earlier 20th century than today, although it is still mentioned notably by the Blake scholar Magnus Ankarsjö who moderately challenges this interpretation. The 19th-century \"free love\" movement was not particularly focused on the idea of multiple partners, but did agree with Wollstonecraft that state-sanctioned marriage was \"legal prostitution\" and monopolistic in character. It has somewhat more in common with early feminist movements", "", "Northrop Frye, commenting on Blake's consistency in strongly held views, notes Blake \"himself says that his notes on [Joshua] Reynolds, written at fifty, are 'exactly Similar' to those on Locke and Bacon, written when he was'very Young'. Even phrases and lines of verse will reappear as much as forty years later. Consistency in maintaining what he believed to be true was itself one of his leading principles... Consistency, then, foolish or otherwise, is one of Blake's chief preoccupations, just as'self-contradiction' is always one of his most contemptuous comments\". Blake abhorred slavery and believed in racial and sexual equality. Several of his poems and paintings express a notion of universal humanity: \"As all men are", "From a young age, William Blake claimed to have seen visions. The first may have occurred as early as the age of four when, according to one anecdote, the young artist \"saw God\" when God \"put his head to the window\", causing Blake to break into screaming. At the age of eight or ten in Peckham Rye, London, Blake claimed to have seen \"a tree filled with angels, bright angelic wings bespangling every bough like stars.\" According to Blake's Victorian", "Blake's work was neglected for a generation after his death and almost forgotten by the time Alexander Gilchrist began work on his biography in the 1860s. The publication of the \"Life of William Blake\" rapidly transformed Blake's reputation, in particular as he was taken up by Pre-Raphaelites and associated figures, in particular Dante Gabriel Rossetti and Algernon Charles Swinburne. In the 20th century, however, Blake's work was fully appreciated and his influence increased. Important early and mid-20th-century scholars involved in enhancing Blake's standing in literary and artistic circles included S. Foster Damon, Geoffrey Keynes, Northrop Frye, David V. Erdman and G. E. Bentley Jr. While Blake had a significant role in the art and poetry of figures such as Rossetti, it was during the Modernist period that this work began to influence a wider set of writers and artists. William Butler Yeats, who edited an edition of Blake's collected works in 1893, drew on him for poetic and philosophical ideas, while British surrealist art in particular drew on Blake's conceptions of non-mimetic, visionary practice in the painting of artists such", "Major recent exhibitions focusing on William Blake", "Profiles Archives Digital editions and research" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "1980 anime series.", "1983 American animated television series.", "External links." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Monchhichi franchise is held by the Sekiguchi Corporation, a famous doll company, located in Tokyo, Japan. Monchhichi was created by Yoshiharu Washino on January 25, 1974, as an improvement to the already successful Kuta Kuta Monkey (Exhausted monkey). Sekiguchi claims they created these characters in order to inspire respect and love in the young (Japanese) children and adults, their name is derived from the words \"Mon\" which translates to \"Mine\" in French and \"Chichi\" which closely resembles the sound a child's pacifier would produce according to Japanese phonetics, also the resulting word has a similar sound to the word \"Monkey\" in English. The dolls were successful in Japan, and the animated TV series, \"Futago no Monchhichi\" (ふたごのモンチッチ, \"Monchhichi Twins\") which ran in 1980, helped increase its popularity even further. Export of the doll line started in 1975, towards Germany and Austria. The following years would see the Monchhichi line marketed in more countries. The original name was changed to \"Chicaboo\" in the United Kingdom, to \"Mon Cicci\" in Italy, to \"Kiki\" in France, to \"Bølle\" in Denmark and to \"Moncsicsi\" in Hungary. The height of the Monchhichi dolls' popularity was in Germany during the 1980s, surpassing even the Japanese figure sales during this period. The Monchhichi doll line reached the North American shores in 1980. Mattel bought the license for the toy line. The American cartoon series \"Monchhichis\" was produced by Hanna-Barbera in 1983 and aired on ABC (as part of \"The Monchhichis/Little Rascals/Richie Rich Show\") in an effort to promote the doll line. The line was dropped by Mattel due to poor sales in 1985, but was reintroduced during Monchhichi's 30 anniversary in 2004 by Sekiguchi. As of 2013, Monchhichi dolls are still available in the United States from retailers such as Target. As of 2015, Monchchichi is still popular in Germany and finds a full rack space across toy shops. Many variants of Monchhichi as well as sizes have emerged. For example, the original Monchhichi is still available under the Classic variant in 10 cm, 20 cm, 24 cm, 45 cm and even 80 cm sizes. Also other variants like Boutique (Monchhichi in various dress styles), Mother Care (Monchhichi with a young one in her front pocket), 40th Anniversary edition are available. Now even dollhouses for Monchhichi are available.", "is a Japanese animated series which first aired in 1980.", "The American \"Monchhichi\" cartoon aired on [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] in the 1983-1984 season.", "[[Category:1970s toys]] [[Category:1980 anime television series]] [[Category:1980s toys]] [[Category:Doll brands]] [[Category:Japanese brands]] [[Category:Fictional monkeys]] [[Category:Mattel]] [[Category:Toy companies of Japan]] [[Category:Toy animals]] [[Category:TV Tokyo shows]] [[Category:Japanese popular culture]]" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Mythology.", "Functions.", "Symbolism." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Euterpe was born as one of the daughters of Mnemosyne, Titan goddess of memory, and fathered by Zeus, god of the gods. Her sisters include Calliope (muse of epic poetry), Clio (muse of history), Melpomene (muse of tragedy), Terpsichore (muse of dancing), Erato (muse of erotic poetry), Thalia (muse of comedy), Polyhymnia (muse of hymns), and Urania (muse of astronomy). Sometimes they are referred to as water nymphs having been born from the four sacred springs on Helicon which flowed from the ground after Pegasus, the winged horse, stamped his hooves on the ground. Along with her sister Muses, Euterpe was believed to have lived on Mt. Olympus where she and her sisters entertained their father and the other Olympian gods with their great artistry. Later on, tradition also placed them on Mt. Helicon in Boeotia where there was a major cult center to the goddesses, or on Mt. Parnassus where the Castalian spring was a favorite destination for poets and artists. Pindar and other sources (the author of the \"Bibliotheca\", and Servius), describe the Thracian king Rhesus, who appears in the Iliad, as son of Euterpe and the river-god Strymon; Homer calls him son of Eioneus.", "Her and her sisters’ role was to entertain the gods on Mount Olympus. She inspired the development of liberal and fine arts in Ancient Greece, serving as an inspiration to poets, dramatists, and authors (such as Homer). According to the traditions and beliefs of the Ancient Greeks musicians would invoke the aid of Euterpe to inspire, guide and assist them in their compositions. This would often take the form of a prayer for divine inspiration from the minor goddess.", "The mountain spring on Mount Parnassus was sacred to Euterpe and the other Muses. It flowed between two high rocks above the city of Delphi, and in ancient times its sacred waters were introduced into a square stone basin, where they were retained for the use of the Pythia, the priests, priestesses, as well as the oracle of Apollo. Some people believe that she invented the aulos or double-flute, though most mythographers credit Marsyas or Athena with its invention. Some say she also invented other wind instruments. Euterpe is often depicted holding a flute in artistic renditions of her." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Work.", "Transmission.", "Subject matter.", "Poetic style.", "Classical scholarship.", "Modern scholarship.", "Friedrich Nietzsche.", "Charles Darwin." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Ancient commentators, the poems themselves and even modern scholars offer mixed signals about the poet's life. Some of the poems respond in a personal and immediate way to events widely dispersed in time. Ancient sources record dates in the mid-sixth centuryEusebius dates Theognis in the 58th Olympiad (548–45 BC), Suda the 59th Olympiad (544–41 BC) and Chronicon Paschale the 57th Olympiad (552–49 BC)yet it is not clear whether Suda in this case means a date of birth or some other significant event in the poet's life. Some scholars have argued that the sources could have derived their dates from lines 773–82 under the assumption that these refer to Harpagus's attack on Ionia in the reign of Cyrus The Great. Chronological evidence from the poems themselves is hampered by their uncertain authenticity. Lines 29–52, if composed by Theognis, seem to portray the political situation in Megara before the rise of the tyrant Theagenes, about the latter half of the \"seventh century\", but lines 891–95 describe a war in Euboea in the second quarter of the \"sixth century\", and lines 773–82 seem to refer to the Persian invasion of mainland Greece in the reign of Xerxes, at the end of the first quarter of the \"fifth century\". Even some modern scholars have interpreted those lines in that time-frame, deducing a birth date on or just before 600 BC, while others place his birth around 550 BC to fit in with the Persian invasion under either Darius or Xerxes. There is confusion also about his \"place\" of birth, \"Megara\", which Plato for example understood to be Megara Hyblaea in Sicily, while a scholiast on Plato cites Didymus for the rival theory that the poet was born in a Megara in Attica, and ventures the opinion that Theognis might have later migrated to the Sicilian Megara (a similar theory had assigned an Attic birthplace to the Spartan poet Tyrtaeus). Modern scholars in general opt for a birthplace in mainland Greek Megara though a suitable context for the poems could be found just about anywhere in archaic Greece and there are options for mix-and-match, such as a birth in mainland Megara and then migration to Sicilian Megara (lines 1197–1201 mention dispossession/exile and lines 783–88 journeys to Sicily, Euboea and Sparta). The elegiac verses attributed to Theognis present him as a complex character and an exponent of traditional Greek morality. Thus for example Isocrates includes him among \"the best advisers for human life\", although all consider words of advice both in poetry and in prose to be most useful, they certainly do not derive the greatest pleasure from listening to them, but their attitude towards them is the same as their attitude towards those who admonish: for although they praise the latter, they prefer to associate with those who share in their follies and not with those who seek to dissuade them. As proof one could cite the poetry of Hesiod, Theognis and Phocylides; for people say that they have been the best advisers for human life, but while saying this they prefer to occupy themselves with one another's follies than with the precepts of those poets.\"Isocrates, \"To Nicocles\" 42–4, cited and translated by Douglas E. Gerber, \"Greek Elegiac Poetry\", Loeb Classical Library (1999), page 171–3</ref> yet Plato's Socrates cites some Theognidean verses to dismiss the poet as a confused and self-contradictory sophist whose teachings are not to be trusted, while a modern scholar excuses self-contradictions as typical of a lifelong poet writing over many years and at the whim of inspiration. The \"Theognidea\" might in fact be a collection of elegiac poems by different authors (see Modern scholarship below) and the \"life\" that emerges from them depends on which poems editors consider authentic. Two modern authorities have drawn these portraits of Theognis, based on their own selections of his work:", "", "It was probably his reputation as a moralist, significant enough to deserve comment by Aristotle and Plato, that guaranteed the survival of his work through the Byzantine period. However, it is clear that we don't possess his total output. The Byzantine Suda, for example, mentions 2 800 lines of elegiacs, twice the number preserved in medieval manuscripts. Different scholars have different theories about the transmission of the text to account for the discrepancy yet it is generally agreed that the present collection actually contains too many verses under the name of Theognis: the collection appears in fact to be an anthology that includes verses by him. The collection is preserved in more than forty manuscripts, comprising a continuous series of elegiac couplets that modern editors now separate into some 300 to 400 \"poems\", according to personal preferences. The best of these manuscripts, dated to the early 10th century, includes an end section titled \"Book 2\" (sometimes referred to as \"Musa Paedica\"), which features some hundred additional couplets and which \"harps on the same theme throughout—boy love.\" The quality of the verse in the end section is radically diverse, ranging from \"exquisite and simple beauty\" to \"the worst specimens of the bungler's art\", and many scholars have rejected it as a spurious addition, including the philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche (see Nietzsche and Theognis below). However, many modern scholars consider the verses of Book 2 an integral part of the collection. The rest of the work also raises issues about authenticity, since some couplets look like lines attributed by ancient sources to other poets (Solon, Euenus, Mimnermus and Tyrtaeus). and other couplets are repeated with few or no changes elsewhere in the text. Ironically, Theognis mentions to his friend Cyrnus precautions that he has taken to ensure the fidelity of his legacy: The nature of this seal and its effectiveness in preserving his work is much disputed by scholars (see Modern scholarship below).", "All the poetry attributed to Theognis deals with subjects typically discussed at aristocratic symposiadrinking parties that had symbolic and practical significance for the participants: Sympotic topics covered by Theognis include wine, politics, friendship, war, life's brevity, human nature, wealth and homosexual love. Distinctions are frequently made between \"good\" () and \"bad\" (), a dichotomy based on a class distinction between aristocrats and \"others\", typical of the period but usually implicit in the works of earlier poets such as Homer—\"In Theognis it amounts to an obsession\". The verses are addressed to Cyrnus and other individuals of unknown identity, such as Scythes, Simonides, Clearistus, Onomacritus, Democles, Academus, Timagoras, Demonax and Argyris and \"Boy\". Poems are also addressed to his own heart or spirit, and deities such as Zeus, Apollo, Artemis, Castor and Pollux, Eros, Ploutos, the Muses and Graces. Theognis also details the heightened political tensions within Megara during the seventh century. His works depict the arrival of \"other men\" that have challenged and displaced former members of the elite. His works, particularly lines 53-58, demonstrate that increasing urbanization among the rural populace surrounding Megara has resulted in heightened social pressures within the city. His writings are thought by modern scholars to largely represent the aristocratic viewpoint of the Megarian elite. However, it is difficult for modern scholars to ascertain both Theognis' position in Megarian society and his role in writing these lines due to possible later additions to his works and the confusion surrounding his origins.", "Theognis wrote in the archaic elegiac style. An \"elegy\" in English is associated with lamentation. In ancient Greece it was a much more flexible medium, suitable for performance at drinking parties and public festivals, urging courage in war and surrender in love. It gave the hexameter line of epic verse a lyrical impulse by the addition of a shorter \"pentameter\" line, in a series of couplets accompanied by the music of the aulos or pipe. Theognis was conservative and unadventurous in his use of language, frequently imitating the epic phrasing of Homer, even using his Ionian dialect rather than the Dorian spoken in Megara, and possibly borrowing inspiration and entire lines from other elegiac poets, such as Tyrtaeus, Mimnermus and Solon. His verses are not always melodious or carefully constructed but he often places key words for good effect and he employs linguistic devices such as asyndeton, familiar in common speech. He was capable of arresting imagery and memorable statements in the form of terse epigrams. Some of these qualities are evident in the following lines, considered to be \"the classic formulation of Greek pessimism\": The lines were much quoted in antiquity, as for example by Stobaeus and Sextus Empiricus, and it was imitated by later poets, such as Sophocles and Bacchylides. Theognis himself might be imitating others: each of the longer hexameter lines is loosely paraphrased in the shorter pentameter lines, as if he borrowed the longer lines from some unknown source(s) and added the shorter lines to create an elegiac version. Moreover, the last line could be imitating an image from Homer's \"Odyssey\" (5.482), where Odysseus covers himself with leaves though some scholars think the key word might be corrupted. The smothering accumulation of eta () sounds in the last line of the Greek is imitated here in the English by \"mound round\".", "According to Diogenes Laërtius, the second volume of the collected works of Antisthenes includes a book entitled \"Concerning Theognis\". The work does not survive.", "The collection of verses attributed to Theognis has no overall structure, being a continuous series of elegiac couplets featuring frequent, sudden changes in subject and theme, in which different people are addressed and even the speaker seems to change persona, voicing contradictory statements and, on a couple of occasions, even changing sex. It looks like a miscellaneous collection by different authors (some verses are in fact attributed elsewhere to other poets) but it is not known when or how the collection was finalized. Friedrich Gottlieb Welcker, sometime known as \"the father of Theognidean criticism\", was the first modern scholar to edit the collection with a view to separating authentic verses from spurious additions (1826), Ernest Harrison (\"Studies in Theognis\" 1902) subsequently defended the authenticity of the collection, and thus the scholarly world divided into two camps, which one recent scholar half-jokingly referred to as \"separatists\" and \"unitarians\" There have also been divisions within the camps. Separatists have agreed with Theodor Bergk (1843) that the collection was originally assembled as the work of Theognis, into which a large admixture of foreign matter has somehow found its way, or they have believed it was compiled originally as a textbook for use in schools or else as a set of aristocratic drinking songs, in which some verses of Theognis happen to be strongly represented. Quite recently Martin Litchfield West identified 306 lines as a core sequence of verses that can be reliably attributed to Theognis since they contain mention of Cyrnus and are attested by 4th century authorities such as Plato and Aristotle, though the rest of the corpus could still contain some authentic verses. West however acknowledges that the whole collection is valuable since it represents a cross-section of elegiac poetry composed in the sixth and early fifth centuries. According to another view, the quest for authentically Theognidean elegies is rather beside the point—the collection owes its survival to the political motivations of Athenian intellectuals in the 5th and 4th century, disappointed with democracy and sympathetic to old aristocratic values: \"The persona of the poet is traditionally based, ideologically conditioned and generically expressed.\" According to this view, the verses were drinking songs in so far as the symposium was understood to be a microcosm of society, where multiple views were an aspect of adaptive behaviour by the embattled aristocracy, and where even eroticism had political symbolism: \"As the polis envisaged by Theognis is degenerate, erotic relationships are filled with pain...\" In lines 19–22, the poet announces his intention of placing a \"seal\" on the verses to protect them from theft and corruption. The lines are among the most controversial in Theognidean scholarship and there is a large body of literature dedicated to their explanation. The'seal' has been theorized to be the name of Theognis or of Cyrnus or, more generally, the distinct poetic style or else the political or ethical content of the 'poems', or even a literal seal on a copy entrusted to some temple, just as Heraclitus of Ephesus was said once to have sealed and stored a copy of his work at the Artemisium.", "Friedrich Nietzsche, the German philosopher, already studied the work of Theognis during his school days at Schulpforta, the subject of his thesis entitled De Theognide Megarensi, an activity which he continued during his studies at Leipzig University. His first published article (in an influential classical journal, \"Rheinisches Museum\") concerned the historical transmission of the collected verses. Nietzsche was an ardent exponent of \"catchword theory\", which explains the arrangement of the Theognidean verses as pairs of poems, each pair linked by a shared word or catchword that could be placed anywhere in either poem, as for example in these pairs: However a later scholar has observed that the catchword principle can be made to work for just about any anthology as a matter of coincidence due to thematic association. Nietzsche valued Theognis as an archetype of the embattled aristocrat, describing him as \"...a finely formed nobleman who has fallen on bad times\", and \"a distorted Janus-head\" at the crossroads of social change. Not all the verses in the collection however fitted Nietzsche's notion of Theognis, the man, and he rejected \"Musa Paedica\" or \"Book 2\" as the interpolation of a malicious editor out to discredit him. In one of his seminal works, \"On the Genealogy of Morals\", he describes the poet as a'mouthpiece' of the Greek nobility: Theognis represents superior virtues as traits of the aristocracy and thus distinguishes (in Nietzsche's own words) the \"truthful\" aristocrat from the \"lying common man\".", "Charles Darwin represented a widespread preference for a biological interpretation of such statements when he commented on the above lines thus:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Personal life.", "Gender expression.", "Notable relationships.", "Relationship with Chopin.", "Death.", "Career and politics.", "Political views.", "Criticism.", "Opinions on her writings.", "Influences on literature.", "In film.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "George Sand – known to her friends and family as \"Aurore\" – was born in Paris and was raised for much of her childhood by her grandmother, Marie-Aurore de Saxe, Madame Dupin de Francueil, at her grandmother's estate, Nohant, in the French province of Berry (see House of George Sand). Sand later used the estate setting in many of her novels. Her father, Maurice Dupin, was the grandson of the Marshal General of France, Maurice, Comte de Saxe, an out-of-wedlock son of Augustus II the Strong, King of Poland and Elector of Saxony, and a cousin to the sixth degree to Kings Louis XVI, Louis XVIII and Charles X of France. She was also more distantly related to King Louis Philippe of France through common ancestors from German and Danish ruling families. Sand's mother, Sophie-Victoire Delaborde, was a commoner.", "Sand was one of many notable 19th-century women who chose to wear male attire in public. In 1800, the police issued an order requiring women to apply for a permit in order to wear male clothing. Some women applied for health, occupational, or recreational reasons (e.g., horseback riding), but many women chose to wear pants and other traditional male attire in public without receiving a permit. They did so as well for practical reasons, but also at times to subvert dominant stereotypes. Sand was one of the women who wore men's clothing without a permit, justifying them as being less expensive and far sturdier than the typical dress of a noblewoman at the time. In addition to being comfortable, Sand's male attire enabled her to circulate more freely in Paris than most of her female contemporaries, and gave her increased access to venues from which women were often barred, even women of her social standing. Also scandalous was Sand's smoking tobacco in public; neither peerage nor gentry had yet sanctioned the free indulgence of women in such a habit, especially in public (though Franz Liszt's paramour Marie d'Agoult affected this as well, smoking large cigars). While there were many contemporary critics of her comportment, many people accepted her behaviour until they became shocked with the subversive tone of her novels. Those who found her writing admirable were not bothered by her ambiguous or rebellious public behaviour. As Victor Hugo commented, “George Sand cannot determine whether she is male or female. I entertain a high regard for all my colleagues, but it is not my place to decide whether she is my sister or my brother.”", "In 1822, at the age of eighteen, Sand married Casimir Dudevant (1795–1871; first name \"François\"), out-of-wedlock son of Baron Jean-François Dudevant. She and Dudevant had two children: Maurice (1823–1889) and Solange (1828–1899). In 1825 she had an intense but perhaps platonic affair with the young lawyer Aurélien de Sèze. In early 1831, she left her husband and entered upon a four- or five-year period of \"romantic rebellion.\" In 1835, she was legally separated from Dudevant, and took custody of their children. Sand had romantic affairs with Jules Sandeau (1831), Prosper Mérimée, Alfred de Musset (summer 1833 – March 1835), Louis-Chrysostome Michel, Pierre-François Bocage, Charles Didier, Félicien Mallefille, Louis Blanc, and composer Frédéric Chopin (1837–1847). Later in her life, she corresponded with Gustave Flaubert, and despite their differences in temperament and aesthetic preference, they eventually became close friends. She engaged in an intimate friendship with actress Marie Dorval, which led to widespread but unconfirmed rumours of a romantic affair.", "Sand spent the winter of 1838–1839 with Chopin in Majorca at the (formerly abandoned) Carthusian monastery of Valldemossa. The trip to Majorca was described in her \"Un hiver à Majorque\" (\"A Winter in Majorca\"), first published in 1841. Chopin was already ill with incipient tuberculosis at the beginning of their relationship, and spending a cold and wet winter in Majorca where they could not get proper lodgings exacerbated his symptoms. They separated two years before his death for a variety of reasons. In her novel \"Lucrezia Floriani\", Sand used Chopin as a model for a sickly Eastern European prince named Karol. He is cared for by a middle-aged actress past her prime, Lucrezia, who suffers a great deal through her affection for Karol. Though Sand claimed not to have made a cartoon out of Chopin, the book's publication and widespread readership may have exacerbated their later antipathy towards each other. The tipping point in their relationship involved her daughter Solange. Chopin continued to be cordial to Solange after she and her husband, Auguste Clésinger, had a falling out with Sand over money. Sand took Chopin's support of Solange to be extremely disloyal, and confirmation that Chopin had always \"loved\" Solange. Sand's son Maurice also disliked Chopin. Maurice wanted to establish himself as the \"man of the estate\" and did not wish to have Chopin as a rival. Chopin was never asked back to Nohant; in 1848, he returned to Paris from a tour of the United Kingdom, to die at the Place Vendôme in the following year. Chopin was penniless at that time; his friends had to pay for his stay there, as well as his funeral at the Madeleine. The funeral was attended by over 3,000 people, including Eugène Delacroix, Franz Liszt, Victor Hugo and other notables. George Sand was notably absent.", "Sand died at Nohant, near Châteauroux, in France's Indre \"département\" on 8 June 1876, at the age of 71. She was buried in the private graveyard behind the chapel at Nohant-Vic. In 2003, plans that her remains be moved to the Panthéon in Paris resulted in controversy.", "George Sand was the most popular writer (of any gender) in Europe by the age of 27, more popular than both Victor Hugo and Honoré de Balzac in England in the 1830s and 1840s, and she remained immensely popular as a writer throughout her lifetime and long after her death. Early in her career, her work was in high demand and already by 1836, the first of several compendia of her writings was published in 24 volumes. In total, 4 separate editions of her \"Complete Works\" were published during her lifetime. In 1880 her children sold the rights to her literary estate for 125,000 Francs (equivalent to 36 kg worth of gold, or 1.3 million dollars in 2015 USD) Drawing from her childhood experiences of the countryside, Sand wrote the pastoral novels \"La Mare au Diable\" (1846), \"François le Champi\" (1847–1848), \"La Petite Fadette\" (1849), and \"Les Beaux Messieurs de Bois-Doré\" (1857). \"A Winter in Majorca\" described the period that she and Chopin spent on that island from 1838 to 1839. Her other novels include \"Indiana\" (1832), \"Lélia\" (1833), \"Mauprat\" (1837), \"Le Compagnon du Tour de France\" (1840), \"Consuelo\" (1842–1843), and \"Le Meunier d'Angibault\" (1845). Theatre pieces and autobiographical pieces include \"Histoire de ma vie\" (1855), \"Elle et Lui\" (1859, about her affair with Musset), \"Journal Intime\" (posthumously published in 1926), and \"Correspondence\". Sand often performed her theatrical works in her small private theatre at the Nohant estate. Sand was well-known around the world, while her social practices, writings, and beliefs prompted much commentary, often by other members of the world of arts and letters. Sand's literary debut came as a result of a collaboration with the writer Jules Sandeau. They published several stories together, signing them \"Jules Sand.\" Sand's first published novel, \"Rose et Blanche\" (1831), was written in collaboration with Sandeau. She subsequently adopted, for her first independent novel, \"Indiana\" (1832), the pen name that made her famous – George Sand.", "In addition, Sand authored literary criticism and political texts. In her early life, she sided with the poor and working class as well as women's rights. When the 1848 Revolution began, she was an ardent republican. Sand started her own newspaper, which was published in a workers' co-operative. Politically, she became very active after 1841 and the leaders of the day often consulted with her and took her advice. She was a member of the provisional government of 1848, and during Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte’s coup d’état of December 1851, she negotiated pardons and reduced sentences for her friends. Sand was known for her implication and writings during the Paris Commune, where she took a position for the Versailles assembly against the \"communards,\" urging them to take violent action against the \"rebels.\" She was appalled by the violence of the Paris Commune. She wrote: \"The horrible adventure continues. They ransom, they threaten, they arrest, they judge. They have taken over all the city halls, all the public establishments, they’re pillaging the munitions and the food supplies.\"", "", "Sand's writing was immensely popular during her lifetime and she was highly respected by the literary and cultural elite in France. Victor Hugo, in the eulogy he gave at her funeral, said \"the lyre was within her.\" Eugène Delacroix was a close friend and respected her literary gifts. Flaubert, by no means an indulgent or forbearing critic, was an unabashed admirer. Honoré de Balzac, who knew Sand personally, once said that if someone thought she wrote badly, it was because their own standards of criticism were inadequate. He also noted that her treatment of imagery in her works showed that her writing had an exceptional subtlety, having the ability to \"virtually put the image in the word.\" Alfred de Vigny referred to her as \"Sappho\". Not all of her contemporaries admired her or her writing: poet Charles Baudelaire was one contemporary critic of George Sand: \"She is stupid, heavy and garrulous. Her ideas on morals have the same depth of judgment and delicacy of feeling as those of janitresses and kept women... The fact that there are men who could become enamoured of this slut is indeed a proof of the abasement of the men of this generation.\"", "Fyodor Dostoevsky \"read widely in the numerous novels of George Sand\" and translated her \"La dernière Aldini\" in 1844, but \"discovered to his dismay that the work had already appeared in Russian\". In his novel \"Demons\" (1871), the character of Stepan Verkhovensky takes to translating the works of George Sand in his periodical, before the periodical was subsequently seized by the ever-cautious Russian government of the 1840s. The English poet Elizabeth Barrett Browning (1806–61) wrote two poems: \"To George Sand: A Desire\" (1853) and \"To George Sand: A Recognition\". The American poet Walt Whitman cited Sand's novel \"Consuelo\" as a personal favorite, and the sequel to this novel, \"La Comtesse de Rudolstadt\", contains at least a couple of passages that appear to have had a very direct influence on him. In the first episode of the \"Overture\" to \"Swann's Way\"—the first novel in Marcel Proust's \"In Search of Lost Time\" sequence—a young, distraught Marcel is calmed by his mother as she reads from \"François le Champi\", a novel which (it is explained) was part of a gift from his grandmother, which also included \"La Mare au Diable\", \"La Petite Fadette\", and \"Les Maîtres Sonneurs\". As with many episodes involving art in \"À la recherche du temps perdu\", this reminiscence includes commentary on the work. Sand is also referred to in Virginia Woolf's book-length essay \"A Room of One's Own\" along with George Eliot and Charlotte Brontë as \"all victims of inner strife as their writings prove, sought ineffectively to veil themselves by using the name of a man.\" Frequent literary references to George Sand can be found in \"\" (1990) by A. S. Byatt and in the play \"Voyage\", the first part of Tom Stoppard's \"The Coast of Utopia\" trilogy (2002). George Sand also makes an appearance in Isabel Allende's \"Zorro\", going still by her given name, as a young girl in love with Diego de la Vega, \"i.e.\", Zorro.", "George Sand is portrayed by Merle Oberon in \"A Song to Remember\", by Patricia Morison in \"Song Without End\", by Rosemary Harris in \"Notorious Woman\", by Judy Davis in James Lapine's 1991 British-American film \"Impromptu\"; and by Juliette Binoche in the 1999 French film \"Children of the Century (Les Enfants du siècle)\".", "Notes Sources" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Family.", "Function and representation.", "Urania as Muse." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Urania was the daughter of Zeus by Mnemosyne and also a great granddaughter of Uranus. Some accounts list her as the mother of the musician Linus by Apollo or Amphimarus, son of Poseidon, and Hymenaeus also is said to have been a son of Urania.", "Urania is often associated with Universal Love and the Holy Spirit. Sometimes identified as the eldest of the divine sisters, Urania inherited Zeus' majesty and power and the beauty and grace of her mother Mnemosyne. Urania dresses in a cloak embroidered with stars and keeps her eyes and attention focused on the Heavens. She is usually represented with a celestial globe to which she points with a little staff. She is able to foretell the future by the arrangement of the stars.", "Those who are most concerned with philosophy and the heavens are dearest to her. Those who have been instructed by her she raises aloft to heaven, for it is a fact that imagination and the power of thought lift men's souls to heavenly heights.\"Urania, o'er her star-bespangled lyre,\"\"With touch of majesty diffused her soul;\"\"A thousand tones, that in the breast inspire,\"\"Exalted feelings, o er the wires'gan roll—\"\"How at the call of Jove the mist unfurled,\"\"And o'er the swelling vault—the glowing sky,\"\"The new-born stars hung out their lamps on high,\"\"And rolled their mighty orbs to music's sweetest sound.\"—From \"An Ode To Music\" by James G. PercivalDuring the Renaissance, Urania began to be considered the Muse for Christian poets. In the invocation to Book 7 of John Milton's epic poem \"Paradise Lost\", the poet invokes Urania to aid his narration of the creation of the cosmos, though he cautions that it is \"[t]he meaning, not the name I call\" (7.5)" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Mythology.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Clio, sometimes referred to as \"the Proclaimer\", is often represented with an open parchment scroll, a book, or a set of tablets. The name is etymologically derived from the Greek root κλέω/κλείω (meaning \"to recount,\" \"to make famous,\" or \"to celebrate\"). Like all the muses, she is a daughter of Zeus and the Titaness Mnemosyne, goddess of memory. Along with her sister Muses, she is considered to dwell at either Mount Helicon or Mount Parnassos. Other common locations for the Muses are Pieria in Thessaly, near to Mount Olympus. She had one son, Hyacinth, with one of several kings, in various myths—with Pierus or with king Oebalus of Sparta, or with king Amyclas, progenitor of the people of Amyclae, dwellers about Sparta. Some sources say she is also the mother of Hymenaios. Other accounts credit her as the mother of Linus, a poet who was buried at Argos, although Linus has a number of differing parents depending upon the account, including several accounts in which he is the son of Clio's sisters Urania or Calliope.", "In her capacity as \"the proclaimer, glorifier and celebrator of history, great deeds and accomplishments,\" Clio is the namesake of various modern brands, including the Clio Awards for excellence in advertising. The Cambridge University History Society is informally referred to as Clio, similarly, the Cleo of Alpha Chi society at Trinity College, Connecticut is named after the muse. Likewise, the undergraduate student outreach group for the Penn Museum at the University of Pennsylvania is known as the Clio Society. 'Clio' also represents history in some coined words in academic usage: cliometrics, cliodynamics. Clio Bay in Antarctica is named after the muse." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Description.", "Distribution.", "Life-cycle.", "Ecology.", "Evolution.", "In culture and folklore." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The exact meaning of the name \"antlion\" is uncertain. It has been thought to refer to ants forming a large percentage of the prey of the insect, the suffix \"lion\" merely suggesting destroyer or hunter. In any case, the term seems to go back to classical antiquity. The antlion larva is often called a \"doodlebug\" in North America because of the odd winding, spiralling trails it leaves in the sand while relocating, which look as if someone has been doodling. The scientific name of the type genus \"Myrmeleo\" – and thus, the family as a whole – is derived from Ancient Greek \"léon\" (λέων) \"lion\" + \"mýrmex\" (μύρμηξ) \"ant\", in a loan translation of the names common across Europe. In most European and Middle Eastern languages, at least the larvae are known under the local term corresponding to \"antlion\".", "Antlions can be fairly small to very large neuropterans, with wingspans ranging from. The African genus \"Palpares\" contains some of the largest examples. \"Acanthaclisis occitanica\" is the largest European species, with an wingspan, and most North American species approach this size. The adult has two pairs of long, narrow, multiveined, translucent wings and a long, slender abdomen. Although they somewhat resemble dragonflies or damselflies, they belong to a different infraclass of winged insects. Antlion adults are easily distinguished from damselflies by their prominent, apically clubbed antennae which are about as long as the head and thorax combined. Also, the pattern of wing venation differs, and compared to damselflies, the adults are very feeble fliers and are normally found fluttering about at night in search of a mate. Adult antlions are typically nocturnal, and rarely seen by day. Males of most species have a unique structure, a bristle-bearing knob known as a \"pilula axillaris\", at the base of the rear wing. The abdomen in males is usually longer than in females and often has an extra lobe. The tip of the abdomen of females shows greater variation than that of males, depending perhaps on oviposition sites, and usually bears tufts of bristles for digging and a finger-like extension. The antlion larva has a robust fusiform body, a very plump abdomen, and a thorax bearing three pairs of walking legs. The prothorax forms a slender mobile \"neck\" for the large, square, flattened head, which bears an enormous pair of sickle-like jaws with several sharp, hollow projections. The jaws are formed by the maxillae and mandibles; the mandibles each contain a deep groove over which the maxilla fits neatly, forming an enclosed canal for injecting venom to immobilise the victim, and enzymes to digest its soft parts. The larva is clad in forward-pointing bristles which help it to anchor itself and exert greater traction, enabling it to subdue prey considerably larger than itself. Antlion larvae are unusual among insects in lacking an anus. All the metabolic waste generated during the larval stage is stored; some is used to spin the silk for the cocoon and the rest is eventually voided as meconium at the end of its pupal stage.", "There are about 2,000 species of antlion found in most parts of the world, with the greatest diversity being in warmer areas. The best known species are those in which the larvae dig pits to trap their prey, but by no means do all species do this. Antlions live in a range of usually dry habitats including open woodland floors, scrub-clad dunes, hedge bases, river banks, road verges, under raised buildings and in vacant lots.", "Apart from pit-trap-forming taxa, the biology of members of the family Myrmeleontidae, to which the antlions belong, has been little studied. The life-cycle begins with oviposition (egg-laying) in a suitable location. The female antlion repeatedly taps the prospective laying site with the tip of her abdomen and then inserts her ovipositor into the substrate and lays an egg. Depending on the species and where it lives, the larva either conceals itself under leaves, debris or pieces of wood, hides in a crack or digs a funnel-shaped pit in loose material. As ambush predators, catching prey is risky because food arrives unpredictably and, for those species that make traps, maintaining one is costly; the larvae therefore have low metabolic rates and can survive for long periods without food. They can take several years to complete their life-cycle; they mature faster with plentiful food, but can survive for many months without feeding. In cooler climates they dig their way deeper and remain inactive during the winter. When the larva attains its maximum size, it pupates and undergoes metamorphosis. It makes a globular cocoon of sand or other local substrate stuck together with fine silk spun from a slender spinneret at the rear end of the body. The cocoon may be buried several centimetres deep in sand. After completing its transformation into an adult insect over the course of about one month, it emerges from the case, leaving the pupal integument behind, and works its way to the surface. After about twenty minutes, the adult's wings are fully opened and it flies off in search of a mate. The adult is considerably larger than the larva as antlions exhibit the greatest disparity in size between larva and adult of any type of holometabolous insect. This is by virtue of the fact that the exoskeleton of the adult is extremely thin and flimsy, with an exceptionally low density. The adult typically lives for about 25 days, but some insects survive for as long as 45 days.", "Antlion larvae eat small arthropods – mainly ants – while the adults of some species eat pollen and nectar, and others are predators of small arthropods. In certain species of Myrmeleontidae, such as \"Dendroleon pantherinus\", the larva, although resembling that of \"Myrmeleon\" structurally, makes no pitfall trap, but hides in detritus in a hole in a tree and seizes passing prey. In Japan, \"Dendroleon jezoensis\" larvae lurk on the surface of rocks for several years while awaiting prey; during this time they often become coated with lichen, and have been recorded at densities of up to 344 per square metre. The larva is a voracious predator. Within a few minutes of seizing its prey with its jaws and injecting it with venom and enzymes, it begins to suck out the digestion products. The larva is extremely sensitive to ground vibrations, the low-frequency sounds made by an insect crawling across the ground; the larva locates the source of the vibrations by the differences in timing of the arrival of waves detected by receptors, tufts of hairs on the sides of the two hindmost thoracic segments. In trap-building species, an average-sized larva digs a pit about 2 in (5 cm) deep and 3 in (7.5 cm) wide at the edge. This behavior has also been observed in the Vermileonidae (Diptera), whose larvae dig the same sort of pit to feed on ants. Having marked out the chosen site by a circular groove, the antlion larva starts to crawl backwards, using its abdomen as a plough to shovel up the soil. By the aid of one front leg, it places consecutive heaps of loosened particles upon its head, then with a smart jerk throws each little pile clear of the scene of operations. Proceeding thus, it gradually works its way from the circumference towards the center. As it slowly moves round and round, the pit gradually gets deeper and deeper, until the slope angle reaches the critical angle of repose (that is, the steepest angle the sand can maintain, where it is on the verge of collapse from slight disturbance), and the pit is solely lined by fine grains. By digging in a spiral when constructing its pit, the antlion minimises the time needed to complete the pit. When the pit is completed, the larva settles down at the bottom, buried in the soil with only the jaws projecting above the surface, often in a wide-opened position on either side of the very tip of the cone. The steep-sloped trap that guides prey into the larva's mouth while avoiding crater avalanches is one of the simplest and most efficient traps in the animal kingdom. The fine grain lining ensures that the avalanches which carry prey are as large as possible. Since the sides of the pit consist of loose sand at its angle of repose, they afford an insecure foothold to any small insects that inadvertently venture over the edge, such as ants. Slipping to the bottom, the prey is immediately seized by the lurking antlion; if it attempts to scramble up the treacherous walls of the pit, it is speedily checked in its efforts and brought down by showers of loose sand which are thrown at it from below by the larva. By throwing up loose sand from the bottom of the pit, the larva also undermines the sides of the pit, causing them to collapse and bring the prey with them. Thus, it does not matter whether the larva actually strikes the prey with the sand showers. Antlion larvae are capable of capturing and killing a variety of insects and other arthropods, and can even subdue small spiders. The projections in the jaws of the larva are hollow and through this, the larva sucks the fluids out of its victim. After the contents are consumed, the dry carcass is flicked out of the pit. The larva readies the pit once again by throwing out collapsed material from the center, steepening the pit walls to the angle of repose. Antlion larvae require loose soil, not necessarily but often sand. Antlions can also handle larger granular material which is filtered out of the soil during pit construction. The larvae prefer dry places protected from the rain. When it first hatches, the tiny larva specialises in very small insects, but as it grows larger, it constructs larger pits, and thus catches larger prey, sometimes much larger than itself. Other arthropods may make use of the antlion larva's ability to trap prey. The larva of the Australian horsefly (\"Scaptia muscula\") lives in antlion (for example \"Myrmeleon pictifrons\") pit traps and feeds on the prey caught, and the female chalcid wasp (\"Lasiochalcidia igiliensis\") purposefully allows itself to be trapped so that it can parasitise the antlion larva by ovipositing between its head and thorax.", "The closest living relatives of antlions within the Myrmeleontoidea are the owlflies (Ascalaphidae); the Nymphidae are more distantly related. The extinct Araripeneuridae and Babinskaiidae are considered likely to be stem groups in the Myrmeleontiformia clade. The phylogeny of the Neuroptera has been explored using mitochondrial DNA sequences, and while issues remain for the group as a whole (the \"Hemerobiiformia\" being paraphyletic), the Myrmeleontiformia is generally agreed to be monophyletic, giving the following cladogram: The subfamilies are shown below; a few genera, mostly fossil, are of uncertain or basal position. The fossil record of antlions is very small by neuropteran standards. However, some Mesozoic fossils attest to the antlions' origin more than 150 million years ago. These were at one time separated as the Palaeoleontidae, but are now usually recognized as early antlions. There is little consensus regarding the supra-generic classification within the Myrmeleontidea, but the following four subfamilies (with select genera) are accepted by many researchers: The following subfamilies have been recognized by some taxonomists: Antlions of uncertain systematic position are:", "In popular folklore in the southern United States, people recite a poem or chant to make the antlion come out of its hole. Similar practices have been recorded from Africa, the Caribbean, China and Australia. The Myrmecoleon was a mythical ant-lion hybrid written about in the 2nd century AD \"Physiologus\", where animal descriptions were paired with Christian morals. The ant-lion as described was said to starve to death because of its dual nature – the lion nature of the father could only eat meat, but the ant half from the mother could only eat grain chaff, thus the offspring could not eat either and would starve. It was paired with the Biblical verse. The fictional ant-lion of \"Physiologus\" is probably derived from a misreading of Job 4:11. The French naturalist Jean-Henri Fabre wrote that \"The Ant-lion makes a slanting funnel in the sand. Its victim, the Ant, slides down the slant and is then stoned, from the bottom of the funnel, by the hunter, who turns his neck into a catapult.\" Antlions appear as antagonists in the 1991 life simulation video game, \"SimAnt\", the \"Final Fantasy\" series, \"Terraria\", \"Monster Rancher 2\", \"Mother 3\", and in the \"Half-Life 2\" video game series. The Trapinch, Vibrava, and Flygon Pokémon evolution line is based on an antlion. In Don’t Starve Together, an antlion is featured as a boss. The fictional sarlacc from the \"Star Wars\" franchise is often compared to the real-life antlion. It also appears as a predator in the film \"Enemy Mine\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography.", "Course.", "Tributaries.", "Saltwater river.", "Watershed.", "History.", "Native Americans.", "European-American exploration and settlement.", "Great Raft.", "Greer County debate.", "2015 Red River flood.", "Recreation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The North Fork Red River meets the southern and largest fork near the Texas–Oklahoma border. The southern fork, which is about long, is generally called the Prairie Dog Town Fork. It is formed in Randall County, Texas, near the county seat of Canyon, by the confluence of Tierra Blanca Creek and intermittent Palo Duro Creek (Not to be confused with another Palo Duro Creek 75 miles to the north which drains into the North Canadian River). The Red River turns and flows southeast through Palo Duro Canyon in Palo Duro Canyon State Park at an elevation of, then past Newlin, Texas, to meet the Oklahoma state line. Past that point, it is generally considered the main stem of the Red River. Near Elmer, Oklahoma, the North Fork finally joins, and the river proceeds to follow a winding course east through one of the most arid parts of the Great Plains, receiving the Wichita River as it passes the city of Wichita Falls. Near Denison, the river exits the eastern end of Lake Texoma, a reservoir formed by the Denison Dam. The lake is also fed by the Washita River from the north. After the river flows out of the southeastern end of the lake, it runs generally east towards Arkansas and receives Muddy Boggy Creek before turning southward near Texarkana. Soon after, the waterway crosses south into Louisiana. The sister cities of Shreveport and Bossier City were developed on either bank of the river, as were the downriver cities of Alexandria and Pineville. Where it is joined by the Ouachita River, its largest tributary, the river later broadens into a complex network of marshlands surrounding the Mississippi and Atchafalaya rivers. Its waters eventually discharge into the Atchafalaya River and flow eastward or southward into the Gulf of Mexico. In 1946, the Red River flood spilled over into Pineville because of insufficient levee height and strength. However, the taller and stronger levee held in Alexandria. Willie E. Kees Jr., the newly elected mayor of Pineville, worked to gain support for the Corps of Engineers to increase the height of the levee on the eastern side of the river to equal that in Alexandria.", "Tributaries include the Little Red River, Prairie Dog Town Fork Red River, Salt Fork Red River, North Fork Red River, Pease River, Washita River, Kiamichi River, Little Wichita River, Little River, Sulphur River, Loggy Bayou (through Lake Bistineau and Dorcheat Bayou) as well as the Ouachita River (also known as the Black River at that point) not far (at Acme, Louisiana) from the mouth.", "The Red River is a saltwater river. The saltiness is caused by a natural phenomenon that dates back to ancient times. About 250 million years ago, an inland sea blanketed parts of what is now those states. As time passed, that sea evaporated, leaving salt deposits – mostly sodium chloride. Rock and silt eventually buried the deposits, but the salt continues to leech through natural seeps in tributaries above Lake Texoma, sending as much as 3,450 tons of salt per day flowing down the Red River.", "The Red River's watershed covers and is the southernmost major river system in the Great Plains. Its drainage basin is mostly in the states of Texas and Oklahoma, but also covers parts of New Mexico, Arkansas and Louisiana. Its basin is characterized by flat, fertile agricultural land, with only a few major cities. The drainage basin of the Red River is very arid and receives little precipitation. As a result, much of the river above the Texas–Oklahoma border is intermittent, and until the river is past its great bend south in Arkansas, the flow varies widely. Most of the agriculture in the basin is sustained by groundwater, which is recharged with rainfall and riverflow. The lower course of the river flows through a series of marshes and swamps, where its flow is dramatically moderated.", "", "Native American cultures along the river were diverse, developing specialized adaptations to the many different environments. By the time of European contact, the eastern Piney Woods were dominated by the numerous historic tribes of the Caddo Confederacy. They found plentiful game and fish, and also had good land for cultivating staple crops. The middle part of the Red River was dominated by Wichita and Tonkawa. This area was prairie, where Native Americans constructed portable and temporary tepees for housing. They practiced limited farming and followed game in seasonal, nomadic hunting cycles. The Plains division of the Lipan Apache dominated the western Red River area until the 18th century, when they were displaced by invading Comanche from the north.", "In 1806, President Thomas Jefferson commissioned the Red River Expedition to explore parts of the new lands of the Louisiana Purchase by traveling up the Red River. He said it was \"in truth, next to the Missouri, the most interesting water of the Mississippi\", in a letter to William Dunbar. Having threaded the maze of bayous at the river's confluence, and the \"Great Raft\" of lodged driftwood, the expedition was stopped by the Spanish near what is now New Boston, Texas. In 1806, Lieutenant Zebulon Pike, under orders to ascertain the source of the Red River, ascended the Arkansas River, made his way downstream on what turned out to be the Rio Grande, and was sent home by the Spanish authorities. A more successful exploration of the river's upper reaches to both its sources was the 1852 expedition under Capt. Randolph Barnes Marcy, assisted by Brevet Capt. George B. McClellan. A decade later McClellan was an important general in the American Civil War. In April 1815, Captain Henry Miller Shreve was the first person to bring a steamboat, the \"Enterprise\", up the Red River. Fulton and Livingston, who claimed the exclusive right to navigate Louisiana waters by steamboat, sued Shreve in the District Court of New Orleans. The judge ruled that the monopoly claimed by the plaintiffs was illegal. That decision, along with a similar outcome in \"Gibbons v. Ogden\" freed navigation on every river, lake or harbor in the United States from interference by monopolies. When John Quincy Adams became Secretary of State in 1817, one of his highest priorities was to negotiate the boundaries of the Louisiana Purchase with Spain. He negotiated with the Spanish Minister to the United States, Luis de Onis, and finally concluded the Adams–Onis Treaty, also known as the Treaty of 1819. The treaty defined the south bank of the river as the boundary between the United States and Spain. That boundary continued to be recognized when Mexico gained its independence from Spain, then again when Texas became independent from Mexico. It remained so until the United States Congress consented to the Red River Boundary Compact adopted by the states of Oklahoma and Texas, which set the jurisdictional boundary between Texas and Oklahoma at the vegetation line on the south bank, but left title of adjacent property owners at the south bank. The Red River Campaign (March–May 1864) was fought along the Red River Valley in Louisiana during the American Civil War. It was a failed attempt by the Union to occupy eastern Texas. Confederate commander Richard Taylor was able to repel an army under Nathaniel Banks three times bigger than his own. In Louisiana, the area of present-day Natchitoches Parish was settled by French Creole and mixed-race Louisiana Creole people, starting before 1800. The Cane River National Heritage Area marks this area of influence, with plantations and churches founded by Louisiana Creoles. Some of the sites are designated as destinations on the Louisiana African American Heritage Trail, designed in the 21st century. For nearly 100 years after the American Civil War, some of the plantations were the center of a large African American and Creole community, whose people lived and worked in this area for generations. The area along the lower Red River of Grant Parish, Louisiana and neighboring parishes were a mixture of hill country and cotton plantations, with white planters and subsistence farmers, and numerous African American slaves working the plantations in the \"ante bellum\" years. It was an area of heated social tensions and insurgency during and after the Reconstruction era. Grant was a new parish created by the Reconstruction legislature, with the goal of increasing Republican Party representation. In 1873, Grant Parish was the site of the Colfax massacre, caused by political tension and violence arising from the disputed 1872 gubernatorial election and efforts by local whites to maintain white supremacy. White militias, organized from nearby parishes, killed more than 100 freedmen, some of whom had surrendered as prisoners. In 1874, such militias organized as the White League in Grant Parish and other chapters were soon founded across the state. The Coushatta massacre was attributed to the White League, which attacked Republican office holders to run them out of office. The paramilitary groups intimidated and terrorized freedmen to keep them from the polls, and by the late 1870s, conservative Democrats had retaken political control of the state.", "In the early 19th century, settlers found that much of the river's length in Louisiana was unnavigable because of a collection of fallen trees that formed a \"Great Raft\" over long. Captain Henry Miller Shreve began clearing the log jam in 1839. The log jam was not completely cleared until the 1870s, when dynamite became available. The river was thereafter navigable, but north of Natchitoches it was restricted to small craft. Removal of the raft further connected the Red and Atchafalaya rivers, accelerating the development of the Atchafalaya River channel. In the 20th century, the interest group known as the Red River Valley Association was formed to lobby the United States Congress to make the river fully navigable between Alexandria and Shreveport, Louisiana. Leading supporters of the longstanding project were Louisiana Democratic senators Allen J. Ellender, J. Bennett Johnston and Russell B. Long, the Fourth District Congressman Joe Waggonner, and the late Shreveport Mayor Calhoun Allen. With the completion of the project, a lock system constructed by the US Army Corps of Engineers allowed navigation of barge traffic as far north as Shreveport.", "Specialists debate whether the North Fork or the Prairie Dog Town Fork is the true stem. Because of a cartographic error, the land between the north and south forks was claimed by both the state of Texas and the United States federal government. Randolph B. Marcy's expedition followed the Prairie Dog Town Fork in 1852. Originally called Greer County, Texas, the US Supreme Court ruled that it belonged to the United States, which at the time oversaw the Oklahoma Territory. That territory was later incorporated into the state of Oklahoma, whose southern border now follows the south fork. Today, the southern Prairie Dog Town Fork is considered the main fork, though the North Fork is as long and normally has a greater water flow.", "In June 2015, the Red River flooded parts of northeast Texas, southwest Arkansas, southeast Oklahoma and Louisiana, from Denison Dam, to just south of Alexandria, Louisiana.", "In 1943, Denison Dam was built on the Red River to form Lake Texoma, a large reservoir of, some north of Dallas. Other reservoirs on the river's tributaries serve as flood control." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot.", "Cast.", "Cast changes.", "Production.", "Production and scheduling notes.", "Production styles.", "Sets.", "Theme music.", "Merchandising revenue lawsuit.", "Legacy.", "Broadcast and syndication.", "Home media.", "Reunion specials.", "Spin-offs.", "In other media.", "Books.", "Comic Books.", "Animation.", "Musicals." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Set in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, the series revolves around teenager Richie Cunningham and his family: his father, Howard, who owns a hardware store; traditional homemaker and mother, Marion; younger sister Joanie; Richie's older brother Chuck (briefly in seasons 1 and 2 only); and high school dropout, biker and suave ladies' man Arthur \"Fonzie\"/\"The Fonz\" Fonzarelli, who would eventually become Richie's best friend and the Cunninghams' over-the-garage tenant. The earlier episodes revolve around Richie and his friends, Potsie Weber and Ralph Malph, with Fonzie as a secondary character. However, as the series progressed, Fonzie proved to be a favorite with viewers, and soon more story lines were written to reflect his growing popularity; Winkler eventually received top billing in the opening credits alongside Howard. Fonzie befriended Richie and the Cunningham family, and when Richie left the series for military service, Fonzie became the central figure of the show, with Winkler receiving sole top billing. In later seasons, other characters were introduced including Fonzie's young cousin, Charles \"Chachi\" Arcola, who became a love interest for Joanie Cunningham. The eleven seasons of the series roughly track the eleven years from 1955 to 1965 in which the show was set. The series' pilot was originally shown as \"Love and the Television Set\", later retitled \"Love and the Happy Days\" for syndication, a one-episode teleplay on the anthology series \"Love, American Style\", aired on February 25, 1972. \"Happy Days\" spawned successful television shows \"Laverne & Shirley\" and \"Mork & Mindy\" as well as three failures, \"Joanie Loves Chachi\", \"Blansky's Beauties\" featuring Nancy Walker as Howard's cousin, and \"Out of the Blue\". The show is the basis for the \"Happy Days\" musical touring the United States since 2008. The leather jacket worn by Winkler during the series was acquired by the Smithsonian Institution for the permanent collection at the National Museum of American History. The original tan McGregor jacket Winkler wore during the first season was eventually thrown into the garbage after ABC relented and allowed the Fonzie character to wear a leather jacket.", "", "With season four, Al Molinaro was added as Al Delvecchio, the new owner of Arnold's, after Pat Morita's character of Arnold moved on after his character got married. (Morita had left the program to star in a short-lived sitcom of his own, \"Mr. T and Tina\", which was actually a spin-off of \"Welcome Back, Kotter\". Morita also starred in a subsequent short lived \"Happy Days\" spin-off series titled \"Blansky's Beauties\".) Al Molinaro also played Al's twin brother Father Anthony Delvecchio, a Catholic priest. Al eventually married Chachi's mother (played by Ellen Travolta) and Father Delvecchio served in the wedding of Joanie to Chachi in the series finale. The most major character changes occurred after season five with the addition of Scott Baio as Fonzie's cousin, Charles \"Chachi\" Arcola. Originally, the character Spike (mentioned as Fonzie's nephew in the episode \"Not with My Sister You Don't\", but also claimed to be his cousin, as was stated in one episode) was supposed to be the character who became Chachi. Season five also saw the introduction of more outlandish and bizarre plots including Fonzie making a bet with the Devil, and the appearance of Mork (Robin Williams), an alien who wanted to take Richie back to his homeworld. Although when first aired this ended with it all simply being a dream Richie was having, this episode was retconned in subsequent airings by way of additional footage to have actually taken place, with Mork having wiped everyone's memory except Richie's and then deciding to time travel to the present day (the setting of \"Mork & Mindy\"). Lynda Goodfriend joined the cast as semi-regular character Lori Beth Allen, Richie's steady girlfriend, in season five, and became a permanent member of the cast between seasons eight and nine, after Lori Beth married Richie. After Ron Howard (Richie) left the series, Ted McGinley joined the cast as Roger Phillips, the new physical education teacher at Jefferson High and nephew to Howard and Marion. He took over from the departed Richie Cunningham character, acting as counterpoint to Fonzie. Cathy Silvers also joined the cast as Jenny Piccolo, Joanie's best friend who was previously referenced in various episodes from earlier seasons and remained as a main cast member until the final season. Both actors were originally credited as guest stars but were promoted to the main cast during season ten after several series regulars left the show. The real focus of the series was now on the Joanie and Chachi characters, and often finding ways to incorporate Fonzie into them as a shoulder to cry on, advice-giver, and savior as needed. The Potsie character, who had already been spun off from the devious best friend of Richie to Ralph's best friend and confidante, held little grist for the writers in this new age, and was now most often used as the occasional \"dumb\" foil for punchlines (most often from Mr. C. — whom he later worked for at Cunningham Hardware — or Fonzie). Billy Warlock joined the cast in season 10 as Roger's brother Flip, along with Crystal Bernard as Howard's niece K.C. They were intended as replacements for Erin Moran and Scott Baio (who departed for their own show, \"Joanie Loves Chachi\") and were credited as part of the semi-regular cast. Both characters left with the return of Moran and Baio, following the cancellation of \"Joanie Loves Chachi\". Al Molinaro also left \"Happy Days\" in season 10 for \"Joanie Loves Chachi\". Pat Morita then returned to the cast as Arnold in his absence. In season 11, the story line of Richie and Lori Beth is given closure with the two-part episode \"Welcome Home\". Richie returns home from the Army, but barely has time to unpack when he learns that his parents have lined up a job interview at \"The Milwaukee Journal\" for him. However, they are taken aback when he tells them he prefers to take his chances in California to become a Hollywood screenwriter. They remind him of his responsibilities and while Richie gives in, he becomes angry and discontented, torn between his obligations to his family and fulfilling his dream. After a confrontation that ends with a conversation with Fonzie, he decides to face his family and declare his intentions. While somewhat reluctant at first, they support him and bid Richie, Lori Beth, and Little Richie an emotional farewell.", "\"Happy Days\" originated during a time of 1950s nostalgic interest as evident in 1970s film, television, and music. In late winter of 1971, Michael Eisner was snowed in at Newark airport where he bumped into Tom Miller, head of development at Paramount. Eisner has stated that he told Miller, \"Tom, this is ridiculous. We're wasting our time here. Let's write a show.\" The script treatment that came out of that did not sell. But in spite of the market research department telling them that the 1950s theme would not work, they decided to redo it, and this was accepted as a pilot. This unsold pilot was filmed in late 1971 and titled \"New Family in Town,\" with Harold Gould in the role of Howard Cunningham, Marion Ross as Marion, Ron Howard as Richie, Anson Williams as Potsie, Ric Carrott as Charles \"Chuck\" Cunningham, and Susan Neher as Joanie. Paramount passed on making it into a weekly series, and the pilot was recycled with the title \"Love and the Television Set\" (later retitled \"Love and the Happy Days\" for syndication), for presentation on the television anthology series \"Love, American Style.\" Also in 1971, the musical Grease had a successful opening in Chicago, and by the following year became successful on Broadway. Also in 1972, George Lucas asked to view the pilot to determine if Ron Howard would be suitable to play a teenager in \"American Graffiti,\" then in pre-production. Lucas immediately cast Howard in the film, which became one of the top-grossing films of 1973. With the movie's success generating a renewed interest in the 1950s era, (although, the film was set in 1962) TV show creator Garry Marshall and ABC recast the unsold pilot to turn \"Happy Days\" into a series. According to Marshall in an interview, executive producer Tom Miller said while developing the sitcom, \"If we do a TV series that takes place in another era, and when it goes into reruns, then it won't look old.\" This made sense to Marshall while on the set of the show. Gould had originally been tapped to reprise the role of Howard Cunningham on the show. However, during a delay before the start of production he found work doing a play abroad and when he was notified the show was ready to begin production, he declined to return because he wanted to honor his commitment. Bosley was then offered the role.", "", "The first two seasons of \"Happy Days\" (1974–75) were filmed using a single-camera setup and laugh track. One episode of season two (\"Fonzie Gets Married\") was filmed in front of a studio audience with three cameras as a test run. From the third season on (1975–84), the show was a three-camera production in front of a live audience (with a cast member, usually Tom Bosley, announcing in voice-over, \"\"Happy Days\" is filmed before a live audience\" at the start of most episodes), giving these later seasons a markedly different style. A laugh track was still used during post-production to smooth over live reactions. Gary Marshall's earlier television series \"The Odd Couple\" had undergone an identical change in production style after its first season in 1970–71.", "The show had two main sets: the Cunningham home and Arnold's/Al's Drive-in. In seasons one and two, the Cunningham house was arranged with the front door on the left and the kitchen on the right of screen, in a triangular arrangement. From season three on, the house was rearranged to accommodate multiple cameras and a studio audience. The Cunninghams' official address is 565 North Clinton Drive, Milwaukee, Wisconsin. The house that served as the exterior of the Cunningham residence is actually located at 565 North Cahuenga Boulevard (south of Melrose Avenue) in Los Angeles, several blocks from the Paramount lot on Melrose Avenue. The Milky Way Drive-In, located on Port Washington Road in the North Shore suburb of Glendale, Wisconsin (now Kopp's Frozen Custard Stand), was the inspiration for the original Arnold's Drive-In; it has since been demolished. The exterior of Arnold's was a standing set on the Paramount Studios lot that has since been demolished. This exterior was close to Stage 19, where the rest of the show's sets were located. The set of the diner in the first season was a room with the same vague details of the later set, such as the paneling, and the college pennants. When the show changed to a studio production in 1975, the set was widened and the entrance was hidden, but allowed an upstage, central entrance for cast members. The barely-seen kitchen was also upstaged and seen only through a pass-through window. The diner had orange booths, downstage center for closeup conversation, as well as camera left. There were two restroom doors camera right, labeled \"Guys\" and \"Dolls\". A 1953 Seeburg Model G jukebox (with replaced metal pilasters from Wico Corp.) was positioned camera right, and an anachronistic \"Nip-It\" pinball machine (actually produced in 1972) was positioned far camera right. College pennants adorned the walls, including Purdue and University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee, along with a blue and white sign reading \"Jefferson High School\". Milwaukee's Washington High School provided the inspiration for the exteriors of the fictional Jefferson. In a two-part episode from the seventh season, the original Arnold's Drive-In was written out of the series as being destroyed by fire (see List of \"Happy Days\" episodes, episodes 159 and 160). In the last seasons that covered the 1960s timeline, a new Arnold's Drive-In set (to portray the new Arnold's that replaced the original Arnold's destroyed by the fire) emerged in a 1960s decor with wood paneling and stained glass. In 2004, two decades after the first set was destroyed, the \"Happy Days 30th Anniversary Reunion\" requested that the reunion take place in Arnold's. The set was rebuilt by production designer James Yarnell based on the original floor plan. The reunion special was taped at CBS Television City's Bob Barker Studio in September 2004.", "Season one used a newly recorded version of \"Rock Around the Clock\" by Bill Haley & His Comets (recorded in the fall of 1973) as the opening theme song. This recording was not commercially released at the time, although the original 1954 recording returned to the American Billboard charts in 1974 as a result of the song's use on the show. The \"Happy Days\" recording had its first commercial release in 2005 by the German label Hydra Records. (When \"Happy Days\" entered syndication in 1979, the series was retitled \"Happy Days Again\" and used an edited version of the 1954 recording instead of the 1973 version.) In some prints intended for reruns and overseas broadcasts, the original \"Rock Around the Clock\" opening theme is replaced by the more standard \"Happy Days\" theme. The show's closing theme song in seasons one and two was a fragment from \"Happy Days\" (although in a different recording with a different lyric from that which would become the standard version), whose music was composed by Charles Fox and whose lyric was written by Norman Gimbel. According to SAG, this version was performed by Jimmy Haas on lead vocals, Ron Hicklin of the Ron Hicklin Singers, Stan Farber, Jerry Whitman, and Gary Garrett on backing vocals, and studio musicians. From seasons three to ten inclusive, a longer version of \"Happy Days\" replaced \"Rock Around the Clock\" at the beginning of the show. Released as a single in 1976 by Pratt & McClain, \"Happy Days\" cracked the Top 5. The show itself finished the 1976–77 television season at #1, ending the five-year Nielsen reign of \"All in the Family\". On the Season 2 DVD set release and later re-releases of the Season 1 DVD set, the song \"Rock Around the Clock\" was replaced with a reconstructed version of \"Happy Days\" because of music rights issues. For the show's 11th and final season (1983–84), the theme was rerecorded in a more modern style. It featured Bobby Arvon on lead vocals, with several back-up vocalists. To accompany this new version, new opening credits were filmed, and the flashing \"Happy Days\" logo was reanimated to create an overall \"new\" feel which incorporated 1980s sensibilities with 1950s nostalgia (although by this time the show was set in 1965).", "On April 19, 2011, \"Happy Days\" co-stars Erin Moran, Don Most, Marion Ross and Anson Williams, as well as the estate of Tom Bosley (who died in 2010), filed a $10 million breach-of-contract lawsuit against CBS, which owns the show, claiming they had not been paid for merchandising revenues owed under their contracts. The cast members claimed they had not received revenues from show-related items, including comic books, T-shirts, scrapbooks, trading cards, games, lunch boxes, dolls, toy cars, magnets, greeting cards and DVDs where their images appear on the box covers. Under their contracts, they were supposed to be paid 5% of the net proceeds of merchandising if their sole image were used, and half that amount if they were in a group. CBS said it owed the actors $8,500 and $9,000 each, most of it from slot machine revenues, but the group said they were owed millions. The lawsuit was initiated after Ross was informed by a friend playing slots at a casino of a \"Happy Days\" machine on which players win the jackpot when five Marion Rosses are rolled. In October 2011, a judge rejected the group's fraud claim, which meant they could not receive millions of dollars in potential damages. On June 5, 2012, a judge denied a motion filed by CBS to have the case thrown out, which meant it would go to trial on July 17 if the matter was not settled by then. In July 2012, the actors settled their lawsuit with CBS. Each received a payment of $65,000 and a promise by CBS to continue honoring the terms of their contracts.", "The idiom \"jumping the shark\" describes a point in a series where it resorts to outlandish or preposterous plot devices to maintain or regain good ratings. Specifically, the term arose from the season five episode \"Hollywood (Part 3)\" that first aired on September 20, 1977, in which a water-skiing Fonzie (clad in swim trunks and signature leather jacket) jumps over a confined shark. Despite the term, \"Happy Days\" continued to be popular in the ratings for several years, only seeing a real downturn in its final season (1983–84). The program was more popular with audiences than its peers, never receiving an Emmy nomination for writing during its entire run; comedy writing Emmy nominations during \"Happy Days' \" broadcast history were routinely awarded to the writers of such shows as \"M*A*S*H\", \"The Mary Tyler Moore Show\", and \"All in the Family\". Fonzie's signature leather jacket has been on display at the National Museum of American History, part of the Smithsonian Institution, since the early 1990s.", "\"Happy Days\" has been rerun by many networks. It aired in the United States on TBS from 1989 to 1995, Nick at Nite from 1995 to 2000 (and again in 2002–03), Odyssey Network/Hallmark Channel from 1999 to 2002 (and again from January to April 2013), TV Land from 2002 to 2007, WGN America from 2002 until 2008, and FamilyNet from 2009 to 2010, INSP from 2012 to 2013, The Hub Network from 2010 to 2014. It currently airs reruns on MeTV. In the United Kingdom reruns aired on Five USA and on Channel 4 between the early 1990s and the early 2000s. Original-run episodes in the 1970s and 1980s were shown on various regions of the ITV network usually on a weekday afternoon at 17:15. It is currently (2015–16) being shown on the True Entertainment channel until the channel ceased broadcasting in September 2019. When reruns first went into syndication on local stations while the series was still producing new episodes, the reruns were re-titled \"Happy Days Again\". The series went into off-network syndication in fall 1979, just as season seven began on ABC. There are also some episodes still aired with the \"Happy Days Again\" title. The show has aired in Australia on Eleven (a digital channel of Network Ten) since January 11, 2011 during the afternoon and midnight. \"Happy Days\" was a perennial favorite seen on the Nine Network from 1974 to 2006. During its original run in the 70s and early 80s on the Nine Network was shown every Sunday night with reruns shown every Saturday afternoons during the early 2000s.", "Paramount Home Entertainment and CBS DVD have released the first six seasons of \"Happy Days\" on DVD in Region 1, as of December 2, 2014. For the second season, CBS features music replacements due to copyright issues, including the theme song \"Rock Around the Clock\". (The Complete First Season retains the original opening, as it was released before CBS was involved). Only season 3 and 4 of the DVD release contain the original music. The Sixth Season was released on December 2, 2014. It is unknown if the remaining 5 seasons will be released. The season 7 premiere \"Shotgun Wedding: Part 1\" was also released on the \"Laverne & Shirley\" season 5 DVD. To date, this is the last episode released on home media. Seasons 1 to 4 have also been released on DVD in the UK and in regions 2 and 4.", "There have been two reunion specials which aired on ABC: the first was \"The Happy Days Reunion Special\" originally aired in March 1992, followed by \"Happy Days: 30th Anniversary Reunion\" in February 2005 to commemorate the program's 30th anniversary. Both were set up in interview/clip format.", "\"Happy Days\" resulted in seven different spin-off series, including two that were animated: \"Laverne & Shirley,\" \"Blansky's Beauties,\" \"Mork & Mindy,\" \"Out of the Blue,\" \"Joanie Loves Chachi,\" \"The Fonz and the Happy Days Gang\" (animated) and \"Laverne & Shirley with The Fonz\" (animated). Spin-off pilots that did not succeed include \"The Ralph and Potsie Show\" as well as \"The Pinky Tuscadero Show\".", "", "A series of novels based on characters and dialog of the series was written by William Johnston and published by Tempo Books in the 1970s. A (possibly unofficial) reimagining titled \"Who Killed the Fonz?\" continues the story in the 1980s as a murder mystery. It was published in hardcover on February 19, 2019, and written by James Boice.", "Western Publishing published a Happy Days comic book series in 1979 under their Gold Key Comics brand and Whitman Comics brand.", "There are two animated series, both produced by Hanna-Barbera Productions in association with Paramount Television (now known as CBS Television Distribution). \"The Fonz and the Happy Days Gang\" ran from 1980 to 1982. There are also animated spin-offs of \"Laverne & Shirley\" (\"Laverne & Shirley in the Army\") and \"Mork & Mindy\" (centering on a young Mork and Mindy in high school). The following season, they were connected together as \"Mork & Mindy/Laverne & Shirley/Fonz Hour\" (1982).", "In the late 1990s, a touring arena show called \"Happy Days: The Arena Spectacular\" toured Australia's major cities. The story featured a property developer, and former girlfriend of Fonzie's, called Miss Frost (Rebecca Gibney), wanting to buy the diner and redevelop it. It starred Craig McLachlan as Fonzie, Max Gillies and Wendy Hughes as Mr. and Mrs. Cunningham, Doug Parkinson as Al, and Jo Beth Taylor as Richie's love interest Laura. Tom Bosley presented an introduction before each performance live on stage, and pop group Human Nature played a 1950s-style rock group. Another stage show, \"Happy Days: A New Musical,\" began touring in 2008." ] }

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{ "title": [ "State pro-population policy in the 1970s.", "21st century." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The most significant post-war baby boom in Czechoslovakia culminated in 1974. After the events of the Prague Spring in 1968 and subsequent restoration of the conditions prevailing before the reform period, many Czechoslovaks resigned themselves to their fate and became unconcerned with the political situation in the country. In reaction, the Czechoslovak communist régime came with its own version of Goulash Communism, presented in a new concept: the state pro-population policy. The duration of maternity leave was extended, the child allowance increased, and newlyweds were subsidized with attractive state loans. However, the \"generous\" state policy soon reached its limits. In the late 1970s, the state finance reserves intended for the support of the pro-population policy were limited and the baby boom ended. The influence of the state pro-population policy has been questioned in the past. The population growth began to increase in 1969. The state financial subsidy was approved in 1973 and the baby boom culminated in 1974. After the initial sharp increase, the birth rate began to decline. The roots of the unusual population explosion could be associated with the post-war period rather than the \"social engineering\" of the communist regime.", "As of the 00s, the generation of Husák's children represent an important element of Czech society. The 1970s generation of baby boomers caused another significant population increase in the later years of the aughts. Husák's children also became a target of a marketing and economic \"retro-invasion\" on the Czech market. After the fall of the Iron Curtain, following a period of fascination with almost any Western product, Czech society gradually turned its attention back to the traditional Czech brands. The marketing campaigns of the companies began to focus on the productive generation and its nostalgia for its childhood. Retro designs of products and brands known in the 1970s and 1980s appeared on the Czech market once again. The term Husák's children appeared in the words of the song \"1970\" by the Czech band Chinaski:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description and course.", "Whitewater paddling sections.", "River Flows.", "Names." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The river rises in a region of granite mountains in Iron County, Missouri, and flows generally southwardly through the Ozarks and the St. Francois Mountains near Missouri's highest point Taum Sauk. It forms the Missouri-Arkansas border in the Bootheel and eventually exits the state at Missouri's lowest point in the \"toe\" at above sea level. It passes through Lake Wappapello, which is formed by a dam constructed in 1941. Below the dam the river meanders through cane forests and willow wetlands or forested swamp, transitioning from a clear stream into a slow and silt-laden muddy river as it enters the flat lands of the Mississippi embayment. In its lower course the river parallels Crowleys Ridge and is part of a navigation and flood-control project that encompasses a network of diversion channels and ditches along it and the Castor and Little rivers. Below the mouth of the Little River in Poinsett County, Arkansas, the St. Francis is navigable by barge. It joins the Mississippi River in Phillips County, Arkansas, about north of Helena. Along its course in Missouri, the river flows through the Mark Twain National Forest and past Sam A. Baker State Park and the towns of Farmington, Greenville and Fisk. In Arkansas it passes the towns of St. Francis, Lake City, Marked Tree and Parkin, and continues through two additional namesakes of the river — St. Francis County, and St. Francis Township in northeastern Phillips County — ending its course adjoining the St. Francis National Forest. In addition to the Little River, tributaries of the St. Francis include the Little St. Francis River, which joins it along its upper course in Missouri; the Tyronza River, which joins it in Arkansas; and the L'Anguille River, which joins it just above its mouth.", "General overview and logistics: The most popular section of the St. Francis River for whitewater boating is divided into two sections, the Upper and the Lower. The Upper section's put-in is near Fredericktown, Missouri, off HW 72 just after it crosses the river. The put is also located just upstream of where Stouts Creek joins in with the St. Francis River. The take out for the upper St. Francis is at Millstream Gardens Conservation Area or slightly downstream of that at Tiemann Shut-ins, which also serves as the usual put-in for the lower St. Francis. The total five-mile stretch that encompasses both the upper and the Lower St. Francis River ends at Silver Mines Recreation Area (old highway D bridge). Upper St. Francis: The upper section of the river is much less technical than the lower and also has extensive flat water sections between rapids. The upper section is the longer of the two sections at 3.2 miles. At the put-in for the upper section, the water is very calm and is a great place for beginner paddlers to practice skills and rolling. Following the calm pool, the river constricts slightly as it makes a large right turn and a great eddy line is formed to practice in. The first rapid encountered on the upper is Entrance Rapid. Entrance is a long, wide rapid with a series of ledges, steeper on the right, which provide good play waves for more technical boaters at lower levels. At flood levels, Entrance Rapid can be hazardous due to the willows growing along the sides and can present a challenge greater than the whitewater! The second rapid on the upper is Kitten's Crossing and consists of a series of 3 drops with the third having a sizable surfing, wave/hole and a service eddy on the left. The final rapid for the upper is Land of Oz and has two back-to-back surfing waves on the left but the drop just below that collects wood and debris, so be cautious. (Land of Oz is named in honor of Oscar \"Oz\" Hawksley, an early exploratory paddler from Missouri and officer in the American Whitewater Affiliation.) After a several pools, the river makes a bend to the right before the take-out at Fisherman's Access in Millstream Gardens Conservation Area. Lower St. Francis: The lower section is the much more exciting half of the river and contains the largest rapids, but is also the shorter section of the river at 2.3 miles in length. \"This is Missouri's premier whitewater run. Probably 80% of the whitewater paddling in Missouri occurs on this section of the St. Francis River with the other 20% taking place either on the Upper St. Francis, on the whitewater creeks close to the St. Francis, on the Mississippi River Chain of Rocks at St. Louis, or at park-and-play spots around the state.\" The put-in at (Tiemann Shut-ins) in Millstream Gardens Conservation Area, marks the beginning of a granite gorge with the river dropping 60 feet per mile. The whitewater action picks up immediately and continues through four major drops known as Big Drop, Cat's Paw, Double Drop, and Rickety-Rack. Throughout the lower St. Francis there are numerous play-spots with surfing waves/holes found everywhere. Downstream of Rickety-Rack, a high bluff can be seen on the right where Mud Creek enters on river right. The entrance of Mud creek onto the Lower St. Francis is a good place to stretch you legs and take a small hike up the creek. The creek can be floated down at really high water, but an inner-tube would probably work best. After mud creek and a slow section, Turkey Creek enters on the left at Turkey Creek Picnic Area, part of the USFS Silver Mine Recreation Area. Following this the river bends to the right and is divided briefly by a forest of willow trees. This section contains some small happy white water and slightly higher levels can produce some small surfing waves. The left rout in the Willow jungle contains a small squeeze between two rocks. After the willows the river flows into a pool formed by the Silver Mines Dam, left over from long-ago mining activity. A breach blown in the left side of the dam provides a class II - II+ rapid at normal to moderate river levels. At higher levels when the river is near or over D bridge(6 ft), a dangerous hole forms, that just keeps getting bigger as the level rises. When the river is high enough for the entire dam to be covered (8 ft), the extremely hazardous pour-over is best if portaged around on river-right. When at lower levels, due to the large flat rocks bordering river left and the huge eddy one river right, the Dam is a very popular spot to stop and rest/eat/play. Downstream from the dam the only remaining rapids of note are Little Drop and Fat Man's Squeeze. At levels below 5 ft, Little Drop makes for an amazing surfing hole/wave. The river continues fairly slow until the take-out at the low-water bridge in the Silver Mines Recreation Area.", "Upper St. Francis Lower St. Francis", "The origin of the river's name is unclear. It might refer to St. Francis of Assisi, the founder of the Franciscan order. None of the region's early explorers were Franciscans, however. One possibility is that Jacques Marquette, a Jesuit, named the river when he explored its mouth in 1673. Before his voyage down the Mississippi Marquette had spent some time at the mission of St. Francois Xavier, named for the Jesuit missionary Francis Xavier. The spelling of the river's name shifted from \"François\" to \"Francis\" in the early 20th century. A number of place names in the region stem from the river's name, including St. Francois County and the St. Francois Mountains. The United States Board on Geographic Names settled on \"St. Francis River\" as the stream's name in 1899. According to the Geographic Names Information System, historical names for the river have included:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Characteristics.", "Terminology." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Over Memorial Day weekend of 1934, Tom Carvel, the founder of the Carvel brand and franchise, suffered a flat tire in his ice cream truck in Hartsdale, New York. He pulled into a parking lot and began selling his melting ice cream to vacationers driving by. Within two days he had sold his entire supply of ice cream and concluded that both a fixed location and soft (as opposed to hard) frozen desserts were potentially good business ideas. In 1936, Carvel opened his first store on the original broken down truck site and developed a secret soft serve ice cream formula as well as patented super low temperature ice cream machines. Dairy Queen also claims to have invented soft serve. In 1938, near Moline, Illinois, J. F. McCullough and his son, Alex, developed their soft serve formula. Their first sales experiment was August 4, 1938, in Kankakee, Illinois at the store of their friend, Sherb Noble. Within two hours of the \"all you can eat\" trial sale, they had dished out more than 1,600 servings—more than one every 4.5 seconds. During the late 1940s, future UK Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher worked briefly as a chemist for food manufacturer J. Lyons and Co., at a time when the company had partnered with the United States distributor Mister Softee and was developing a soft-serve recipe that was compatible with the American machines. Thatcher's precise role at Lyons is unclear, but she is reported to have worked on the company's ice cream products, as well as cakes and pies. A common anecdote, probably spread by her political opponents, is that by \"inventing\" soft serve ice cream, Thatcher \"added air, lowered quality and raised profits\", used as a metaphor for her policies later as prime minister. In the 1960s, ice cream machine manufacturers introduced mechanized air pumps into vending machines, providing better aeration.", "Soft serve is generally lower in milk-fat (3 to 6 percent) than ice cream (10 to 18 percent) and is produced at a temperature of about compared to ice cream, which is stored at. Soft serve contains air, introduced at the time of freezing. The air content, called \"overrun\", can vary from 0 to 60 percent of the total volume of finished product. The amount of air alters the taste of the finished product. Product with low quantities of air has a heavy, icy taste and appears more yellow. Ice cream with higher air content tastes creamier, smoother, and lighter and appears whiter. The optimum quantity of air is determined by other ingredients, if any, and individual taste. It is generally accepted that the ideal air content should be between 33 and 45 percent of volume. If more than this, the product loses taste, tends to shrink as it loses air, and melts more quickly than that with less air. Less than 33 to 45 percent, the product will not melt as quickly but will not taste good. Some forms of soft serve, like many other processed foods, have palm oil. All ice cream must be frozen quickly to avoid crystal growth. With soft serve, this is accomplished by a special machine at the point of sale. Pre-mixed product (see definitions below) is introduced to the storage chamber of the machine where it is kept at. When product is drawn from the draw valve, fresh mix combined with the targeted quantity of air is introduced to the freezing chamber either by gravity or pump. It is then churned and quick frozen and stored until required. While some machines only dispense one flavor of mix at a time, certain models of soft serve machines have an additional nozzle that dispenses a mixture of two separate flavors simultaneously. This mixture emerges in a distinct swirl pattern. It is classified as its own separate flavor on menus as \"swirl\" or \"twist\". Pre-mix can be obtained in several forms:", "Various terms are used to refer to soft serve ice cream:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot summary.", "Publication history.", "Film adaptation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The novel tells the story of two cousins, Jean Taconnat and Marcel Lornans, travelling from Cette, France, to Oran, Algeria, with the purpose of enlisting in the 5th regiment of the \"Chasseurs D'Afrique\". Sailing to Oran aboard the \"Argelès\", they meet Clovis Dardentor, a wealthy industrialist. Jean and Marcel, whose desire to travel to Africa arises from their pursuit of financial independence, find out that Clovis —an unmarried man, with no family— has left no heirs to his fortune. Yet Marcel, well-versed in the Law, knows that any person who were to save Clovis' life either from a fight, from drowning, or from a fire, would have to be adopted by Clovis. The cousins come to a plan: They will find a way to save Clovis' life, so that he will indeed be legally required to adopt them. Clovis saves the cousins' lives: Marcel is saved from a fire, and Jean is saved from drowning. Eventually, while Jean continues to look for the opportunity to save Clovis' life, Marcel falls in love with Louise Elissane, the prospective daughter-in-law of one of Clovis' acquaintances, the unpleasant Desirandelle family. Louise becomes a key character in the novel, for it is she who saves Clovis Dardentor's life. In the end, Louise is adopted by Clovis, and marries Marcel.", "\"Clovis Dardentor\" was first published in France in 1896; and, in 1897, the first British edition, fully illustrated, was published by Sampson Low, Marston, and Company. The book was not published in the U.S. until 2008, when the Choptank Press of Saint Michaels, Maryland, re-published the Sampson Low version in a fully illustrated replica edition as a Lulu Press book.", "Three British film-makers are currently in the development stages of \"Killing Clovis Dardentor\", an adaptation of the book, funding it through the site [www.buyacredit.com]. Writer Lizzie Hopley has written the screenplay for the movie." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Foundation and early history.", "Middle Ages and early modern period.", "19th century.", "Early to mid-20th century.", "Postwar period to the 21st century.", "Demographics.", "Population development.", "Religion.", "Immigration.", "Main sights.", "Parks and gardens.", "Politics.", "Subdivisions.", "City council.", "International relations.", "Twin towns/sister cities.", "Transport.", "Road.", "Bicycle.", "Train.", "Tram and bus.", "Air.", "Name.", "Government offices.", "Research and science.", "Education.", "Economy.", "Culture.", "Media.", "Festivals.", "Museums and galleries.", "Music and dance.", "Sports.", "Notable people." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The date and circumstances of the town's foundation are unknown. Tradition maintains that Braunschweig was created through the merger of two settlements, one founded by Brun(o), a Saxon count who died in 880, on one side of the River Oker – the legend gives the year 861 for the foundation – and the other the settlement of a legendary Count Dankward, after whom Dankwarderode Castle (\"Dankward's clearing\"), which was reconstructed in the 19th century, is named. The town's original name of \"Brunswik\" is a combination of the name Bruno and Low German \"wik\" (related to the Latin \"vicus\"), a place where merchants rested and stored their goods. The town's name therefore indicates an ideal resting-place, as it lay by a ford across the Oker River. Another explanation of the city's name is that it comes from \"Brand\", or burning, indicating a place which developed after the landscape was cleared through burning. The city was first mentioned in documents from the St. Magni Church from 1031, which give the city's name as \"Brunesguik\".", "Up to the 12th century, Braunschweig was ruled by the Saxon noble family of the Brunonids, then, through marriage, it fell to the House of Welf. In 1142, Henry the Lion of the House of Welf became duke of Saxony and made Braunschweig the capital of his state (which, from 1156 on, also included the Duchy of Bavaria). He turned Dankwarderode Castle, the residence of the counts of Brunswick, into his own \"Pfalz\" and developed the city further to represent his authority. Under Henry's rule, the Cathedral of St. Blasius was built and he also had the statue of a lion, his heraldic animal, erected in front of the castle. The lion subsequently became the city's landmark. Henry the Lion became so powerful that he dared to refuse military aid to the emperor Frederick I Barbarossa, which led to his banishment in 1182. Henry went into exile in England. He had previously established ties to the English crown in 1168, through his marriage to King Henry II of England's daughter Matilda, sister of Richard the Lionheart. However, his son Otto, who could regain influence and was eventually crowned Holy Roman Emperor, continued to foster the city's development. During the Middle Ages, Braunschweig was an important center of trade, one of the economic and political centers in Northern Europe and a member of the Hanseatic League from the 13th century to the middle of the 17th century. By the year 1600, Braunschweig was the seventh largest city in Germany. Although formally one of the residences of the rulers of the Duchy of Brunswick-Lüneburg, a constituent state of the Holy Roman Empire, Braunschweig was \"de facto\" ruled independently by a powerful class of patricians and the guilds throughout much of the Late Middle Ages and the Early modern period. Because of the growing power of Braunschweig's burghers, the Princes of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, who ruled over one of the subdivisions of Brunswick-Lüneburg, finally moved their \"Residenz\" out of the city and to the nearby town of Wolfenbüttel in 1432. The Princes of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel didn't regain control over the city until the late 17th century, when Rudolph Augustus, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg, took the city by siege. In the 18th century Braunschweig was not only a political, but also a cultural centre. Influenced by the philosophy of the Enlightenment, dukes like Anthony Ulrich and Charles I became patrons of the arts and sciences. In 1745 Charles I founded the \"Collegium Carolinum\", predecessor of the Braunschweig University of Technology, and in 1753 he moved the ducal residence back to Braunschweig. With this he attracted poets and thinkers such as Lessing, Leisewitz, and Jakob Mauvillon to his court and the city. \"Emilia Galotti\" by Lessing and Goethe's \"Faust\" were performed for the first time in Braunschweig.", "In 1806, the city was captured by the French during the Napoleonic Wars and became part of the short-lived Napoleonic Kingdom of Westphalia in 1807. The exiled duke Frederick William raised a volunteer corps, the Black Brunswickers, who fought the French in several battles. After the Congress of Vienna in 1815, Braunschweig was made capital of the reestablished independent Duchy of Brunswick, later a constituent state of the German Empire from 1871. In the aftermath of the July Revolution in 1830, in Brunswick duke Charles II was forced to abdicate. His absolutist governing style had previously alienated the nobility and bourgeoisie, while the lower classes were disaffected by the bad economic situation. During the night of 7–8 September 1830, the ducal palace in Braunschweig was stormed by an angry mob, set on fire, and destroyed completely. Charles was succeeded by his brother William VIII. During William's reign, liberal reforms were made and Brunswick's parliament was strengthened. During the 19th century, industrialisation caused a rapid growth of population in the city, eventually causing Braunschweig to be for the first time significantly enlarged beyond its medieval fortifications and the River Oker. On 1 December 1838, the first section of the Brunswick–Bad Harzburg railway line connecting Braunschweig and Wolfenbüttel opened as the first railway line in Northern Germany, operated by the Duchy of Brunswick State Railway.", "On 8 November 1918, at the end of World War I, a socialist workers' council forced Duke Ernest Augustus to abdicate. On 10 November, the council proclaimed the Socialist Republic of Brunswick under one-party government by the Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany (USPD); however, the subsequent Landtag election on 22 December 1918 was won by the Social Democratic Party of Germany (MSPD), and the USPD and MSPD formed a coalition government. An uprising in Braunschweig in 1919, led by the communist Spartacus League, was defeated when \"Freikorps\" troops under Georg Ludwig Rudolf Maercker took over the city on order of the German Minister of Defence, Gustav Noske. An SPD-led government was subsequently established; in December 1921 a new constitution was approved for the Free State of Brunswick, now a parliamentary republic within the Weimar Republic, again with Braunschweig as its capital. After the Landtag election of 1930, Brunswick became the second state in Germany where the Nazis participated in government, when the National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP) formed a coalition government with several conservative and right-wing parties. With the support of Dietrich Klagges, Brunswick's minister of the interior, the NSDAP organized a large SA rally in Braunschweig. On 17–18 October 1931, 100,000 SA stormtroopers marched through the city, street fights between Nazis, socialists and communists left several dead or injured. On 25 February 1932, the state of Brunswick granted Adolf Hitler German citizenship to allow him to run in the 1932 German presidential election. In Braunschweig, Nazis carried out several attacks on political enemies, with the acquiescence of the state government. After the Nazi seizure of power in 1933, several state institutions were placed in Braunschweig, including the \"Luftfahrtforschungsanstalt\" in Völkenrode, the Hitler Youth Academy for Youth Leadership, and the SS-Junkerschule Braunschweig. With the Reichswerke Hermann Göring in Salzgitter and the Stadt des KdF-Wagens, as well as several factories in the city itself (including Büssing and the Volkswagenwerk Braunschweig), the Braunschweig region became one of the centres of the German arms industry. During the Second World War, Braunschweig was an \"Untergebiet Hauptquartier\" (\"Sub-Area Headquarters\") of Wehrkreis XI (\"Military District XI\"), and was the garrison city of the 31st Infantry Division that took part in the invasions of Poland, Belgium, and France, largely being destroyed during its retreat following the invasion of Russia. In this period, thousands of Eastern workers were brought to the city as forced labor, and in the 1943–1945 period at least 360 children taken away from such workers died in the \"Entbindungsheim für Ostarbeiterinnen\" (\"Maternity Ward for Eastern Workers\"). In 1944, a subcamp of the concentration camp Neuengamme was established in Braunschweig. Hundreds of prisoners, mostly Jews, lived in brutal conditions and hundreds died from hunger, disease, and overwork. Piera Sonnino, an Italian author, writes of her imprisonment in that camp in her book, \"This Has Happened\", published in English in 2006 by MacMillan Palgrave. The Allied air raid on October 15, 1944, destroyed most of the city's churches, and the \"Altstadt\" (old town), the largest homogeneous ensemble of half-timbered houses in Germany. The city's cathedral, which had been converted to a \"Nationale Weihestätte\" (national shrine) by the Nazi government, still stood.", "Small sections of the city survived Allied bombing, so remain to represent its distinctive architecture. The cathedral was restored to its function as a Protestant church. Politically, after the war, the Free State of Brunswick was dissolved by the Allied occupying authorities, Braunschweig ceased to be a capital, and most of its lands were incorporated in the newly formed state of Lower Saxony. During the Cold War, Braunschweig, then part of West Germany, suffered economically due to its proximity to the Iron Curtain. The city lost its historically strong economic ties to what was then East Germany; for decades, economic growth remained below and unemployment stayed above the West German average. On 28 February 1974, as part of a district reform in Lower Saxony, the rural district of Braunschweig, which had surrounded the city, was disestablished. The major part of the former district was incorporated into the city of Braunschweig, increasing its population by roughly 52,000 people. In the 1990s, efforts increased to reconstruct historic buildings that had been destroyed in the air raid. The façade of the \"Braunschweiger Schloss\" was rebuilt, and buildings such as the \"Alte Waage\" (originally built in 1534) now stand again.", "", ", the population of Braunschweig was 252,768. Today Braunschweig is among the twenty German cities found to be most attractive to young people between the ages of 25 and 34, leading to an influx of younger residents.", "In 2015, 91,785 people or 36.3% of the population were Protestant and 34,604 (13.7%) people were Roman Catholic; 126,379 people (50.0%) either adhered to other denominations or followed no religion.", "A total of 64,737 of Braunschweig's residents, including German citizens, had an immigrant background in 2015 (25.6% of the total population). Among those, 25,676 were non-German citizens (10.2%); the following table lists up the largest minority groups:", "", "Parks and gardens in the city include the botanical garden \"Botanischer Garten der Technischen Universität Braunschweig\", founded in 1840 by Johann Heinrich Blasius, the \"Bürgerpark\", the \"Löwenwall\" with an obelisk from 1825, the \"Prinz-Albrecht-Park\", and the \"Inselwallpark\". Other parks and recreation areas are \"Stadtpark\", \"Westpark\", \"Theaterpark\", \"Museumpark\", \"Heidbergsee\", \"Südsee\", \"Ölpersee\", the zoological garden \"Arche Noah Zoo Braunschweig\" and the nearby Essehof Zoo.", "", "Braunschweig is made up of 19 boroughs (German: \"Stadtbezirke\"), which themselves may consist of several quarters (German: \"Stadtteile\") each. The 19 boroughs, with their official numbers, are: Formed in 2011 out of the former boroughs of Wabe-Schunter and Bienrode-Waggum-Bevenrode.", "The council of the city is made up of the fractions of the different parties (54 seats) and the lord mayor, who is elected directly, with one seat. Since 2014, the lord mayor of Braunschweig is Ulrich Markurth (SPD). Results of the most recent local elections on 11 September 2011 and 11 September 2016 were:", "", "Braunschweig is twinned with:", "Braunschweig's city centre is mostly a car-free pedestrian zone.", "Two main autobahns serve Braunschweig, the A2 (Berlin—Hanover—Dortmund) and the A39 (Salzgitter—Wolfsburg). City roads are generally wide, built after World War II to support the anticipated use of the car. There are several car parks in the city.", "Many residents travel around town by bicycle using an extensive system of bicycle-only lanes. The main train station includes a bicycle parking area.", "The city is on the main rail line between Frankfurt and Berlin. Deutsche Bahn (German Railways) serves the city with local, inter-city and high-speed InterCityExpress (ICE) trains, with frequent stops at Braunschweig Central Station (German: \"Braunschweig Hauptbahnhof\").", "The Braunschweig tramway network is an inexpensive and extensive long electric tramway system. First opened in 1897, it has been modernized, including a extension in 2007. The network has an gauge, unique for a European railway or tramway network. However, it is being supplemented in stages by a third rail, to allow future joint working with the main railway network. The municipally owned Braunschweiger Verkehrs-AG currently operates five tram lines and several bus lines. The tram lines are:", "The Braunschweig Airport (BWE / EDVE) is located north of the city at, elev.", "Many other geographical locations around the world are named Brunswick, after the historical English name of Braunschweig. Between 1714 and 1837, the House of Hanover ruled Great Britain in personal union with the Electorate of Hanover. The House of Hanover was formally known as the House of Brunswick-Lüneburg, Hanover line. As a result, many places in the British colonies were named after Brunswick, such as the province of New Brunswick in Canada. Ironically, the city of Braunschweig was not ruled by the Hanoverians while its name was being given to other Brunswicks around the world. Starting in 1269, the Duchy of Brunswick-Lüneburg underwent a series of divisions and mergers, with parts of the territory being transferred between various branches of the family. The city of Braunschweig went to the senior branch of the house, the Wolfenbüttel line, while Lüneburg eventually ended up with the Hanover line. Although the territory had been split, all branches of the family continued to style themselves as the House of Brunswick-Lüneburg. In 1884, the senior branch of the House of Welf became extinct. The Hanover line, being the last surviving line of the family, subsequently held the throne of the Duchy of Brunswick from November 1913 until November 1918.", "The offices of the Luftfahrt-Bundesamt (LBA, \"Federal Aviation Office\") and the German Federal Bureau of Aircraft Accident Investigation (BFU) are located in Braunschweig.", "Braunschweig has been an important industrial area. Today it is known for its University and research institutes, mainly the \"Johann Heinrich von Thuenen Institute\", the \"Julius Kühn-Institut\", and the \"Institute for Animal Food\" of the Friedrich Loeffler Institute, until the end of 2007 all part of the Federal Agricultural Research Centre, the German Collection of Microorganisms and Cell Cultures, and the Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB). The PTB Braunschweig maintains the atomic clock responsible for the DCF77 time signal and the official German time. In 2006 the region of Braunschweig was the most R&D-intensive area in the whole European Economic Area investing 7.1% of its GDP for research & technology. In 2014, the figure had risen to 7.7%, making Braunschweig retain its ranking as the most R&D-intensive region in Germany. Braunschweig was named Germany's \"City of Science 2007\" (). Braunschweig University of Technology (German: \"Technische Universität Braunschweig\") was founded in 1745 and is the oldest member of TU9, an incorporated society of the nine most prestigious, oldest, and largest universities focusing on engineering and technology in Germany. With approximately 18,000 students, Braunschweig University of Technology is the third largest university in Lower Saxony.", "Also located in Braunschweig is the \"Martino-Katharineum\" (), a secondary school founded in 1415. It had such famous pupils as Carl Friedrich Gauss, Hoffmann von Fallersleben, Richard Dedekind and Louis Spohr. Since 2004, Braunschweig also has an \"International School\". Other notable secondary schools include the Gymnasium Neue Oberschule, Gymnasium Gaussschule, \"Gymnasium Kleine Burg\" (), \"Hoffmann-von-Fallersleben-Schule Braunschweig\" (), \"Integrierte Gesamtschule Franzsches Feld\" (), and \"Wilhelm-Gymnasium\" (). Lower Saxony's only university of art, founded in 1963, can be found in Braunschweig, the \"Hochschule für Bildende Künste Braunschweig\" (Braunschweig College of Fine Arts). The HBK is an institution of higher artistic and scientific education and offers the opportunity to study for interdisciplinary artistic and scientific qualifications. Additionally, one of the campuses of the Eastphalia University of Applied Sciences (German: \"Ostfalia Hochschule für angewandte Wissenschaften\", formerly \"Fachhochschule Braunschweig/Wolfenbüttel\") was located in the city until 2010.", "In 2015, the German weekly business news magazine \"Wirtschaftswoche\" ranked Braunschweig as one of the most dynamic economic spaces in all of Germany. Braunschweig was one of the centres of the industrialization in Northern Germany. During the 19th and early 20th century the canning and railroad industries and the sugar production were of great importance for Braunschweig's economy, but eventually other branches such as the automotive industry became more important, while especially the canning industry began to vanish from the city after the end of World War II. The defunct truck and bus manufacturer Büssing was headquartered in Braunschweig. Current factories in the city include Volkswagen, Siemens, Bombardier Transportation, and Bosch. The fashion label NewYorker, the publishing house Westermann Verlag, Nordzucker, Volkswagen Financial Services and Volkswagen Bank have their headquarters in the city as well as the Volkswagen utility vehicle holding. Also two major optical companies were headquartered in Braunschweig: Voigtländer and Rollei. During the 1980s and early 1990s the computer companies Atari and Commodore International both had branches for development and production within the city. Braunschweig is the home of two piano companies, both known worldwide for the high quality of their instruments: Schimmel and Grotrian-Steinweg. Both companies were founded in the 19th century. Additionally is based in Braunschweig.", "Braunschweig is famous for \"Till Eulenspiegel\", a medieval jester who played many practical jokes on its citizens. It also had many breweries, and still a very peculiar kind of beer is made called \"Mumme\", first quoted in 1390, a malt-extract that was shipped all over the world. Two major breweries still produce in Braunschweig, the \"\", founded in 1627, and the former \"\" brewery, founded in 1871, now operated by Oettinger Beer. Braunschweiger Mettwurst, a soft, spreadable smoked pork sausage, is named after the city. Other traditional local dishes include white asparagus, \"Braunschweiger Lebkuchen\", \"Braunkohl\" (a variant of kale served with Bregenwurst), and \"Uhlen un Apen\" (Low German for \"Owls and Guenons\", a pastry).", "Braunschweig's major local newspaper is the \"Braunschweiger Zeitung\", first published in 1946. Papers formerly published in Braunschweig include the \"Braunschweigische Anzeigen\"/\"Braunschweigische Staatszeitung\" (1745–1934), the \"Braunschweigische Landeszeitung\" (1880–1936) and the \"Braunschweiger Stadtanzeiger\"/\"Braunschweiger Allgemeiner Anzeiger\" (1886–1941), and the social-democratic \"\" (1871–1933). Near Braunschweig at Cremlingen-Abbenrode, there is a large medium wave transmitter, which transmits the program of \"Deutschlandfunk\" on 756 kHz, the Cremlingen transmitter.", "\"\", a medieval Northern German form of carnival was celebrated in Braunschweig as early as the 13th century. Since 1979 an annual Rosenmontag parade is held in Braunschweig, the largest in Northern Germany, which is named Schoduvel in honour of the medieval custom. An annual \"Weihnachtsmarkt\" (Christmas market) is held in late November and December on the Burgplatz in the centre of Braunschweig. In 2008 the market had 900,000 visitors.", "The city's most important museum is the Herzog Anton Ulrich Museum, a well known art museum and the oldest public museum in Germany, founded in 1754. It houses a collection of masters of Western art, including Dürer, Giorgione, Cranach, Holbein, Van Dyck, Vermeer, Rubens, and Rembrandt. The State Museum of Brunswick (\"Braunschweigisches Landesmuseum\"), founded in 1891, houses a permanent collection documenting the history of the Brunswick area ranging from its early history to the present. The Municipal Museum of Brunswick (\"Städtisches Museum Braunschweig\"), founded in 1861, is a museum for art and cultural history, documenting the history of the city of Braunschweig. The State Natural History Museum is a zoology museum founded in 1754. Other museums in the city include the Museum of Photography (\"Museum für Photographie\"), the Jewish Museum (\"Jüdisches Museum\"), the Museum for Agricultural Technology \"Gut Steinhof\", and the Gerstäcker-Museum. Frequent exhibitions of contemporary art are also held by the Art Society of Braunschweig (German: \"Kunstverein Braunschweig\"), housed in the \"Villa Salve Hospes\", a classicist villa built between 1805 and 1808.", "The \"Braunschweig Classix Festival\" was an annual classical music festival. It is the largest promoter of classical music in the region and one of the most prominent music festivals in Lower Saxony. From 2001 to 2009, and again since 2013, the annual finals of the international breakdance competition Battle of the Year have been held at the Volkswagen Halle in Braunschweig. \"Braunschweiger TSC\" is among the leading competitive formation dance teams in the world and has won multiple World and European championship titles.", "Braunschweig's major local football team is Eintracht Braunschweig. Founded in 1895, Eintracht Braunschweig can look back on a long and chequered history. Eintracht Braunschweig won the German football championship in 1967, and currently plays in the 3. Bundesliga, the third tier of German football, and attracts a large number of supporters. Braunschweig was also arguably the city in which the first ever game of football in Germany took place. The game had been brought to Germany by the local school teacher Konrad Koch, also the first to write down a German version of the rules of football, who organized the first match between pupils from his school \"Martino-Katharineum\" in 1874. The 2011 German drama film Lessons of a Dream is based on Koch. Eintracht Braunschweig also fields a successful women's field hockey team that claimed nine national championship titles between 1965 and 1978. In the past, the club also had first or second tier teams in the sports of ice hockey, field handball, and water polo. The New Yorker Lions (formerly Braunschweig Lions) are the city's American football team, winning a record number of 12 German Bowl titles, as well as five Eurobowls (a shared record). The city's professional basketball team, the Basketball Löwen Braunschweig, plays in the Basketball Bundesliga, the highest level in Germany. The Löwen's predecessor SG Braunschweig had previously played in the Bundesliga as well. Eintracht Braunschweig's women's basketball team plays in the, the second tier of women's basketball in Germany. In handball, MTV Braunschweig, the city's oldest sports club (founded in 1847), plays in the semi-professional. Other sports clubs from Braunschweig that play or have played at the Bundesliga or 2nd Bundesliga level include (baseball), (field hockey), (handball), Rugby-Welfen Braunschweig (rugby union), and (volleyball). Annual sporting events held in Braunschweig include the international equestrian tournament \"Löwen Classics\", \"Rund um den Elm\", Germany's oldest road bicycle race, and the professional tennis tournament \"Sparkassen Open\".", "Alphabetical list of some notable people associated with Braunschweig:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Stay at the Cape.", "Later life.", "Other works.", "Legacy.", "Further reading." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Anne was born at Balcarres House in Fife, the ninth child and first daughter of Anne Lindsay (née Dalrymple) and James, Earl of Balcarres. In 1793 she moved to London, where she met and was married to Andrew Barnard, who was twelve years her junior and the son of Thomas Barnard, Bishop of Limerick. She later obtained from Viscount Melville an appointment for him as colonial secretary at the Cape of Good Hope, which was then under British military occupation.", "The Barnards travelled to the Cape in March 1797, Lady Anne remaining there until January 1802. Her letters written to Melville, then secretary for war and the colonies, and her diaries of travels into the interior have become an important source of information about the people, events and social life of the time. She is also retained in popular memory as a socialite, known for entertaining at the Castle of Good Hope as the official hostess of Earl Macartney. The remarkable series of letters, journals and drawings she produced was published in 1901 under the title \"South Africa a Century Ago\".", "In 1806, on the reconquest of the Cape by the British, Andrew Barnard was reappointed colonial secretary, but Lady Anne chose to remain in London rather than accompany him to the Cape. Andrew died there in 1807, and the remainder of Anne's life was passed in London, where she died on 6 May 1825.", "Lady Anne was also an accomplished artist, some of her works being included in her published accounts of life in the 18th and 19th centuries. Her works include oil paintings and drawings. The Rev. William Leeves revealed in 1812 that \"Auld Robin Gray\" had been written by her in 1772 and set to music by him. It was published anonymously in 1783, Lady Anne only acknowledging the authorship of the words two years before her death in a letter to Sir Walter Scott (1823), who subsequently edited it for the Bannatyne Club with two continuations.", "Lady Anne is commemorated in several ways in Cape Town. A chamber in the Castle of Good Hope is known as \"Lady Anne Barnard's Ballroom\"; a road in the suburb of Newlands, where the Barnards lived, is named \"Lady Anne Avenue\" and a carved sculpture of her is displayed in the foyer of the civic centre in the neighbouring suburb of Claremont. The Barnards' country house, The Vineyard, survives as part of a hotel.", "Stephen Taylor - \"Defiance: The Life and Choices of Lady Anne Barnard\" (Faber, 2016)" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Geography.", "Geology.", "Floods.", "1950 flood.", "1997 flood.", "2009 flood.", "2011 flood.", "Flow rates and flood potential." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The watershed of the Red River was part of Rupert's Land, the concession established by the British Hudson's Bay Company in north central North America. The Red was a key trade route for the company, and contributed to the settlement of British North America. The river was long used by fur traders, including the French and the Métis people, who established a community in this area before the British defeated France in the Seven Years' War. Following that, they took over French territory in Canada. Settlers of the Red River Colony established farming along the river, and their primary settlement developed as Winnipeg, Manitoba. What became known as the Red River Trails, nineteenth-century oxcart trails developed originally by the Métis, supported the fur trade and these settlements. They contributed to further development of the region on both sides of the international border.", "The Red River begins at the confluence of the Bois de Sioux and Otter Tail rivers, on the border of Wahpeton, North Dakota and Breckenridge, Minnesota. Downstream, it is bordered by the twin cities of Fargo, North Dakota – Moorhead, Minnesota, and Grand Forks, North Dakota – East Grand Forks, Minnesota. It crosses the Canada–United States border just before reaching the town of Emerson, Manitoba. Manitoba's capital, Winnipeg, is at the Red's confluence with the Assiniboine River, at a point called The Forks. Together with the Assiniboine, the Red River fully encloses the endorheic basin of Devils' Lake and Stump Lake. The Red flows further north before draining into Lake Winnipeg which then drains through the Nelson River into Hudson Bay, both part of the Hudson Bay watershed. The mouth of the Red River forms a freshwater river delta called the Netley–Libau Marsh. The Netley Marsh is west of the Red and the Libau Marsh is east, forming a wetland. Southern Manitoba has a frost-free season of between 120 and 140 days per year in the Red River Valley.", "The Red River flows across the flat lake bed of the ancient glacial Lake Agassiz, an enormous glacial lake created at the end of the Wisconsin glaciation from meltwaters of the Laurentide Ice Sheet. As this continental glacier decayed, its meltwaters formed the lake. Over thousands of years, sediments precipitated to the bottom of the lakebed. These lacustrine soils are the parent soils of today's Red River Valley. The river is very young; it developed only after Lake Agassiz drained, about 9,500 years ago. The word \"valley\" is a misnomer. While the Red River drains the region, it did not create a valley wider than a few hundred feet. The much wider floodplain is the lake bed of the ancient glacial lake. It is remarkably flat; from its origin near Breckenridge, Minnesota, to the international border near Emerson, Manitoba, its gradient is only about 1:5000 (1 metre per 5 kilometres), or approximately 1 foot per mile. The river, slow and small in most seasons, does not have the energy to cut a gorge. Instead it meanders across the silty bottomlands in its progress north. In consequence, high water has nowhere to go, except to spread across the old lakebed in \"overland flooding\". Heavy snows or rains, especially on saturated or frozen soil, have caused a number of catastrophic floods, which often are made worse by the fact that snowmelt starts in the warmer south, and waters flowing northward are often dammed or slowed by ice. These periodic floods have the effect of refilling, in part, the ancient lake.", "Major floods in historic times include those of 1826, 1897, 1950, 1997, 2009, 2011, and there has been significant flooding many years in between. Geologists have found evidence of many other floods in prehistoric times of equal or greater size. These \"paleofloods\" are known from their effects on local landforms, and have been the subject of scholarly studies. After the disastrous 1950 flood, which resulted in extensive property damage and losses in Winnipeg, the province of Manitoba undertook flood prevention by constructing the Red River Floodway. Completed in 1968, it diverts floodwaters around the city to less settled areas farther down the river. Grand Forks, North Dakota, and East Grand Forks, Minnesota, suffered widespread destruction in the flood of 1997. 75% of the population in the former city was evacuated, and all of the latter. Many of the residential areas along the rivers were inundated and all the homes had to be destroyed. Afterward a massive flood protection project was undertaken to protect both cities.", "On May 8, 1950 the Red River reached its highest level at Winnipeg since 1861. Eight dikes protecting Winnipeg gave way and flooded much of the city, turning of farmland into an enormous lake. The city turned to the Canadian Army and the Red Cross and The Salvation Army for help, and nearly 70,000 people were evacuated from their homes and businesses. Four of eleven bridges in the city were destroyed, and damage was estimated at between $900 million and $1 billion. As a result of the floods, a flood control project was constructed to prevent such damage in the future. The Red River Floodway around Winnipeg attracted some derision at the time, as some people thought it was massively overbuilt and was the then-largest earth-moving project in the world. The project was completed under-budget, and has been used for at least some flood control 20 times in the 37 years from its completion to 2006. The Floodway has saved an estimated $10 billion (CAD) in flood damages.", "In the spring of 1997 a major flood of the Red River caused a total of $3.5 billion in damage and required temporary evacuation of towns and cities on both sides of the border. The cities of Grand Forks, North Dakota, and East Grand Forks, Minnesota, suffered the most damage, and most of their populations had to be evacuated. The river crested at more than above datum. The cities worked with FEMA and the state of Minnesota to clear the floodplains of the river on both sides, prohibiting future housing or businesses in this area. They created the Greater Grand Forks Greenway on both sides, which includes city and state parks, a long bike trail, and other recreational amenities. The trees and greenery help absorb floodwaters. A dike system was constructed outside this area on both sides to protect the cities from future floods. In East Grand Forks, a removable flood wall was constructed in the downtown area so that residents did not lose their connection to the river. In Winnipeg, the flood crested at above datum at the James Avenue pumping station, making it the third-highest flood at Winnipeg in recorded history. It was surpassed by the floods of 1825, and 1826. The city was largely spared the fate of Grand Forks thanks to the Floodway, which was pushed to its capacity during the 1997 flood.", "In 2009 the Red River flooded in early spring. By Friday, March 27, the river at Fargo had reached the highest level in recorded history. Its discharge at that location was far in excess of normal flows. The river crested at the James Avenue pumping station in Winnipeg at above datum, making it the fourth-highest flood in recorded history.", "Due to a wet summer in 2010, as well as an above average amount of snowfall through the winter in the Red River Valley, the Red River spilled its banks. It crested in Winnipeg at the James Avenue pumping station at above datum, as the sixth highest flood levels in recorded history if flood protection such as the Portage Diversion and the Red River Floodway were not in place. That same year there was a surprise major flood on the Assiniboine River. In May 2011, a Manitoba-wide state of emergency was declared in the wake of a 300-year flood on the Assiniboine River at Brandon. Many residents had to be evacuated.", "Below are the estimated, measured, and calculated peak flow rates of the Red River at various locations for the top ten floods of the Red River Valley, as measured at Winnipeg." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "André was born in Alès in the Cévennes, into a mining family. His father was an amateur musician; André studied trumpet with a friend of his father, who suggested that André be sent to the conservatory. In order to gain free admission to the conservatory, he joined a military band. After only six months at the conservatory, he won his first prize. At the conservatory, André's professor, Raymond Sabarich, reprimanded him for not having worked hard enough and told him to return when he could excel in his playing. A few weeks later, he returned to play all fourteen etudes found in the back of Arban's book to a very high standard. Sabarich later said that \"it was then that Maurice Andre became Maurice Andre.\" Maurice André won the Geneva International Music Competition in 1955, together with Theo Mertens, and the ARD International Music Competition in Munich in 1963. He was made an honorary member of the Delta chapter of Phi Mu Alpha Sinfonia at Ithaca College in New York in 1970. André rose to international prominence in the 1960s and 1970s with a series of recordings of baroque works on piccolo trumpet for Erato and other labels. He also performed many transcriptions of works for oboe, flute, and even voice and string instruments. André had over 300 audio recordings to his name, from the mid-1950s to his death. André had three children: Lionel (1959-1988), trumpeter and music teacher; Nicolas, who plays the trumpet; and Béatrice, who plays the oboe. All three performed with their father in concert. He also made several recordings with his brother Raymond (b. 1941). One of André's students, Guy Touvron, wrote a biography entitled \"Maurice André: Une trompette pour la renommée\" (Maurice André: A Trumpet for Fame), which was published in 2003. André spent the last few years of his life in retirement in southern France. He died at the age of 78 in a hospital in Bayonne on 25 February 2012. He is buried in the cemetery of the village of Saint-André-Capcèze (in the Lozère)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Childhood.", "Career.", "Junior success.", "Early International success (2002-2003).", "Injury and comeback (2004-2006).", "Draft to Borussia Düsseldorf.", "Climb to World No. 1 and further success (2007-2015).", "Knee Injury and Comeback (2015-2016).", "Continued Success (2017-).", "Technique.", "Club history.", "Personal life." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Boll was born in Erbach im Odenwald, Hessen. Boll started playing at age 4, and was coached at the time by his father. In 1987, he became a member of TSV Höchst. At age 8, he was discovered by Helmut Hampel, a Hessian trainer who promoted him. In 1990, he started to train at the training centre Pfungstadt and four years later changed teams to with whom he took part in the Second Division, at which time he attracted the attention of other table tennis associations. recruited him in 1995, a move which required the entire team to relocate 170 km away, to Höchst, to enable daily training with the then 14-year-old Boll. Boll was placed in position five on the team, but lost only one match throughout the whole season. This contributed to the team's transition to the table tennis national league's Tischtennis-Bundesliga (First Division).", "", "At age 14, Boll held the title of youngest player in the national league (A title he shared with Frank Klitzsch). He celebrated his first international success during the Table Tennis European Youth Championships in The Hague in 1995, where he won three gold medals. In 1996, he was a runner up in the Junior Boys Singles of that same competition, but then went on to win the singles title in 1997 and 1998, as well the doubles title in 1998. He finished school with a secondary school level I certificate.", "In 2002, Timo Boll became the first German player to win the Europe-Top-12-Tournament beating Vladimir Samsonov in the final. Boll also became the 10th best German player, according to the ITTF Rankings, overtaking Jörg Roßkopf. During the European Table Tennis Championships in Zagreb, Boll won both the singles and the doubles with Zoltan Fejer-Konnerth. The German team featuring Boll was defeated in the final by the Swedish team with a score of 2–3. With his victory in the 2002 Table Tennis World Cup held in Jinan, China (where he beat the world champion Wang Liqin and the Olympic champion Kong Linghui), Timo Boll finished the year as the highest ranked player in the world. During the European Championship of 2003, Vladimir Samsonov led the Belarusian team to victory in the final against the German team. After his elimination during the second round of the singles competition, Boll lost his number one position in the world rankings.", "Back problems troubled Boll during the first half of 2004, which hindered his preparation for the 2004 Summer Olympics. Here, he was outclassed in the quarterfinal by Jan-Ove Waldner. After a period marked by public criticism, Timo Boll won tournament victories in Poland, Austria, and Germany. He also reached semifinals of the Pro Tour in Peking, where he was edged out 3–4 by Ma Lin. Early in the 2005 season, Boll's back problems struck again; nevertheless, he won the silver medal in doubles at the World Championship, playing with Christian Süß. He was awarded the Fair Play Award from the ITTF after a referee’s decision was reversed in favor of his opponent during the knockout rounds of that competition, leading to a defeat. The year ended with Boll winning the Champions League with, and the Table Tennis World Cup in Liège in Belgium, in which he defeated all three Chinese first-class players. In 2007, he won the European Championship in singles, doubles, and in the team competition.", "In December 2006, Timo Boll signed a 3-year contract with, the current championship record-holding team, due to his former team’s financial situation and loss of key players. Boll also moved in light of the upcoming Olympic Games 2008 and the possibility to train there with his doubles partner, Christian Süß. His 3-year contract with Borussia Düsseldorf began on July 1, 2007, with stipulations allowing him to miss certain Bundesliga matches in order to focus on international tournaments. His contract was later extended until 2022.", "In 2007, he won the European Championship singles, doubles, and in the team competition. He was also active as a guest player in the Chinese Super League. During the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, he participated again with the German national team. After victories over Croatia, Canada, Singapore and Japan in preliminary rounds and the semifinal, the team lost 0–3 against the host Chinese team. As the top-ranked player in 2008, Boll successfully defended his three European Champion titles from the previous year. At the 2012 Summer Olympics, Boll lost in the last 16 to Adrian Crisan but the German team won the bronze medal in the men's team event, losing to China in semifinals but beating Hong Kong in the bronze medal deciding match. Back problems led Boll to not participate in the 2008 and 2009 World Championships in China and Japan respectively. At the 2008 World Cup in Liège, he scored a semi-final victory over Ma Long but lost out in the final against Wang Hao, winning a silver medal. At the beginning of 2011, Timo Boll was back at the top of the world rankings, having beaten Ma Lin in the Volkswagen Cup final. In April 2011, he was replaced as number 1 by Wang Hao. At the 2011 World Table Tennis Championships in Rotterdam, Boll won his first singles medal in that competition, a bronze medal, after being beaten 4:1 by world champion, Zhang Jike. During this championship, Boll declined to compete in doubles and team matches, focussing instead on the singles competition. Playing for the German national team, Boll received silver medals at both the Team World Championships 2010 in Moscow and the 2012 championships in Dortmund, losing out both times to the Chinese team.", "Boll kept his good form at the Chinese Super League in 2015, obtaining a result of 7 wins and 5 losses. Due to a knee injury, Boll opted for an operation to pre-empt a more serious injury. The surgery kept him out of action for an extended period of time. After resting from the surgery, Boll qualified for the 2016 Summer Olympics. At the Olympic Singles event, Boll lost against Quadri Aruna in the round of 32. At the Team event, Boll along with partners Bastian Steger and Dimitrij Ovtcharov won the bronze medal at the team event.", "Boll also won the silver medal at the 2017 World Cup, defeating Lin Gaoyuan in the quarterfinals, Ma Long in the semifinals but losing to fellow teammate Dimitrij Ovtcharov in the finals. He won the silver medal in the following World Cup in 2018, losing to Fan Zhendong in the finals. Boll won another eight titles at the European Table Tennis Championships in 2009, 2010, 2011 and 2018.", "Timo Boll is a left-handed player whose best weapon is his forehand topspin drive but is also noted for his extremely quick backhand loop. His blade is the \"Timo Boll ALC\" with Dignics 09c rubbers on both sides. His present doubles partner is Patrick Franziska. Boll's technique was ahead of its time as he was one of the first two-winged loopers. He employs the spin-block instead of a passive block to put more pressure on his opponents. He is renowned for being one of the top players when it comes to generating elevated amounts of spin, especially in his opening topspin. This is rendered possible by his low stance, quick acceleration and use of the wrist. This technique brought him a lot of success due to his opponents being put under pressure during the celluloid ball era. In recent years, due to the introduction of the plastic ball, which cannot be imparted with as much spin, Boll relies more on his counter-topspin technique from both the backhand and forehand side. A good example of him employing this technique is his match against Fan Zhendong at the Austrian Open in 2019, in which he reached the deciding set against the 16 years younger World No. 1. This technique allows him to conserve energy but requires very good anticipation and reading of the opponent.", "Timo Boll has played for TSV Höchst (1986 to 1994), FTG Frankfurt (1994 to 1995) and for TTV Gönnern (1995 to 2007). On July 1, 2007, his three-year contract began with Borussia Düsseldorf.", "Timo Boll married his longtime girlfriend, Rodelia Jacobi, on December 31, 2002. They have a daughter, Zoey Malaya, born Dec 4, 2013." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Terminology.", "History.", "The Upanishads.", "Bhakti movement.", "Types and classifications.", "Bhakti Yoga.", "Bhagavata Purana and Navaratnamalika.", "Bhavas.", "Related practices in other religions.", "Buddhism.", "Jainism." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The Sanskrit word \"bhakti\" is derived from the verb root \"bhaj-\", which means \"to divide, to share, to partake, to participate, to belong to\". The word also means \"attachment, devotion to, fondness for, homage, faith or love, worship, piety to something as a spiritual, religious principle or means of salvation\". The meaning of the term \"Bhakti\" is analogous to but different from Kama. Kama connotes emotional connection, sometimes with sensual devotion and erotic love. Bhakti, in contrast, is spiritual, a love and devotion to religious concepts or principles, that engages both emotion and intellection. Karen Pechelis states that the word Bhakti should not be understood as uncritical emotion, but as committed engagement. She adds that, in the concept of \"bhakti\" in Hinduism, the engagement involves a simultaneous tension between emotion and intellection, \"emotion to reaffirm the social context and temporal freedom, intellection to ground the experience in a thoughtful, conscious approach\". One who practices \"bhakti\" is called a \"bhakta\". The term bhakti, in Vedic Sanskrit literature, has a general meaning of \"mutual attachment, devotion, fondness for, devotion to\" such as in human relationships, most often between beloved-lover, friend-friend, king-subject, parent-child. It may refer to devotion towards a spiritual teacher (Guru) as \"guru-bhakti\", or to a personal god, or for spirituality without form (nirguna). According to the Sri Lankan Buddhist scholar Sanath Nanayakkara, there is no single term in English that adequately translates or represents the concept of \"bhakti\" in Indian religions. Terms such as \"devotion, faith, devotional faith\" represent certain aspects of \"bhakti\", but it means much more. The concept includes a sense of deep affection, attachment, but not wish because \"wish is selfish, affection is unselfish\". Some scholars, states Nanayakkara, associate it with \"saddha\" (Sanskrit: \"Sraddha\") which means \"faith, trust or confidence\". However, \"bhakti\" can connote an end in itself, or a path to spiritual wisdom. The term \"Bhakti\" refers to one of several alternate spiritual paths to moksha (spiritual freedom, liberation, salvation) in Hinduism, and it is referred to as \"bhakti marga\" or \"bhakti yoga\". The other paths are \"Jnana marga\" (path of knowledge), \"Karma marga\" (path of works), \"Rāja marga\" (path of contemplation and meditation). The term \"bhakti\" has been usually translated as \"devotion\" in Orientalist literature. The colonial era authors variously described \"Bhakti\" as a form of mysticism or \"primitive\" religious devotion of lay people with monotheistic parallels. However, modern scholars state \"devotion\" is a misleading and incomplete translation of \"bhakti\". Many contemporary scholars have questioned this terminology, and most now trace the term \"bhakti\" as one of the several spiritual perspectives that emerged from reflections on the Vedic context and Hindu way of life. Bhakti in Indian religions is not a ritualistic devotion to a god or to religion, but participation in a path that includes behavior, ethics, mores and spirituality. It involves, among other things, refining one's state of mind, knowing god, participating in god, and internalizing god. Increasingly, instead of \"devotion\", the term \"participation\" is appearing in scholarly literature as a gloss for the term \"bhakti\". David Lorenzen states that \"bhakti\" is an important term in Sikhism and Hinduism. They both share numerous concepts and core spiritual ideas, but \"bhakti\" of \"nirguni\" (devotion to divine without attributes) is particularly significant in Sikhism. In Hinduism, diverse ideas continue, where both \"saguni\" and \"nirguni\" bhakti (devotion to divine with or without attributes) or alternate paths to spirituality are among the options left to the choice of a Hindu.", "", "The last of three epilogue verses of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad, dated to be from 1st millennium BCE, uses the word \"Bhakti\" as follows, This verse is one of the earliest use of the word \"Bhakti\" in ancient Indian literature, and has been translated as \"the love of God\". Scholars have debated whether this phrase is authentic or later insertion into the Upanishad, and whether the terms \"Bhakti\" and \"Deva\" meant the same in this ancient text as they do in the modern era. Max Muller states that the word \"Bhakti\" appears only once in this Upanishad, that too in one last verse of the epilogue, could have been a later addition and may not be theistic as the word was later used in much later \"Sandilya Sutras\". Grierson as well as Carus note that the first epilogue verse 6.21 of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad is also notable for its use of the word \"Deva Prasada\" (देवप्रसाद, grace or gift of God), but add that \"Deva\" in the epilogue of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad refers to \"pantheistic Brahman\" and the closing credit to sage Shvetashvatara in verse 6.21 can mean \"gift or grace of his Soul\". Scholarly consensus sees \"bhakti\" as a post-Vedic movement that developed primarily during the Epics and Puranas era of Indian history. The \"Bhagavad Gita\" is the first text to explicitly use the word \"bhakti\" to designate a religious path, using it as a term for one of three possible religious approaches. The Bhagavata Purana develops the idea more elaborately, while the Shvetashvatara Upanishad presents evidence of \"guru-bhakti\" (devotion to one's spiritual teacher).", "The \"Bhakti Movement\" was a rapid growth of bhakti, first starting in the later part of 1st millennium CE, from Tamil Nadu in Southern India with the Saiva Nayanars and the Vaisnava Alvars. Their ideas and practices inspired bhakti poetry and devotion throughout India over the 12th-18th century CE. The Alvars (\"those immersed in God\") were Vaishnava poet-saints who wandered from temple to temple singing the praises of Vishnu. They established temple sites (Srirangam is one) and converted many people to Vaishnavism. Like the Alvars the Saiva Nayanar poets were influential. The \"Tirumurai\", a compilation of hymns by sixty-three Nayanar poets, is still of great importance in South India. Hymns by three of the most prominent poets, Appar (7th century CE), Campantar (7th century) and Sundarar (9th century), were compiled into the \"Tevaram\", the first volumes of the \"Tirumurai\". The poets' itinerant lifestyle helped create temple and pilgrimage sites and spread devotion to Shiva. Early Tamil-Siva bhakti poets are quoted the Black Yajurveda. The Alwars and Nayanars were instrumental in propagating the Bhakti tradition. The Bhagavata Purana's references to the South Indian Alvar saints, along with its emphasis on \"bhakti\", have led many scholars to give it South Indian origins, though some scholars question whether this evidence excludes the possibility that \"bhakti\" movement had parallel developments in other parts of India. Scholars state that the \"bhakti\" movement focused on the gods Vishnu, Shiva, Shakti and other deities, that developed and spread in India, was in response to the arrival of Islam in India about 8th century CE, and subsequent religious violence. This view is contested by other scholars. The Bhakti movement swept over east and north India from the fifteenth-century onwards, reaching its zenith between the 15th and 17th century CE. Bhakti poetry and ideas influenced many aspects of Hindu culture, religious and secular, and became an integral part of Indian society. It extended its influence to Sufism, Christianity, and Jainism. Sikhism was founded by Nanak in the 15th century, during the bhakti movement period, and scholars call it a Bhakti sect of Indian traditions. The movement has traditionally been considered as an influential social reformation in Hinduism, and provided an individual-focused alternative path to spirituality regardless of one's birth caste or gender. Postmodern scholars question this traditional view and whether the Bhakti movement were ever a social reform or rebellion of any kind. They suggest Bhakti movement was a revival, reworking and recontextualization of ancient Vedic traditions.", "", "The \"Bhagavad Gita\", variously dated to have been composed in 5th to 2nd century BCE, introduces bhakti yoga in combination with \"karma yoga\" and \"jnana yoga\", while the \"Bhagavata Purana\" expands on bhakti yoga, offering nine specific activities for the bhakti yogi. Bhakti in the \"Bhagavad Gita\" offered an alternative to two dominant practices of religion at the time: the isolation of the sannyasin and the practice of religious ritual. \"Bhakti Yoga\" is described by Swami Vivekananda as \"the path of systematized devotion for the attainment of union with the Absolute\". In various chapters, including the twelfth chapter of the \"Bhagavad Gita\", Krishna describes \"bhakti yoga\" as one of the paths to the highest spiritual attainments. In the sixth chapter, for example, the Gita states the following about bhakti yogin: Shandilya and Narada produced two important Bhakti texts, the \"Shandilya Bhakti Sutra\" and \"Narada Bhakti Sutra\". They define devotion, emphasize its importance and superiority, and classify its forms. According to Ramana Maharishi, states David Frawley, bhakti is a \"surrender to the divine with one's heart\". It can be practiced as an adjunct to self-inquiry, and in one of four ways:", "The \"Navaratnamalika\" (garland of nine gems), nine forms of \"bhakti\" are listed: (1) \"śravaṇa\" (listening to ancient texts), (2) \"kīrtana\" (praying), (3) \"smaraṇa\" (remembering teachings in ancient texts), (4) \"pāda-sevana\" (service to the feet), (5) \"archana\" (worshiping), (6) \"namaskar\" or \"vandana\" (bowing to the divine), (7) \"dāsya\" (service to the divine), (8) \"sākhyatva\" (friendship with the divine), and (9) \"ātma-nivedana\" (self-surrender to the divine). The Bhagavata Purana teaches nine similar facets of bhakti.", "Traditional Hinduism speaks of five different \"bhāvas\" or \"affective essences\". In this sense, \"bhāvas\" are different attitudes that a devotee takes according to his individual temperament to express his devotion towards God in some form. The different \"bhāvas\" are: Several saints are known to have practiced these \"bhavas\". The nineteenth century mystic, Ramakrishna is said to have practiced these five \"bhavas\". The attitude of Hanuman towards lord Rama is considered to be of \"dasya bhava\". The attitude of Arjuna and the shepherd boys of Vrindavan towards Krishna is regarded as \"sakhya bhava\". The attitude of Radha towards Krishna is regarded as \"madhura bhava\". The attitude of Yashoda, who looked after Krishna during his childhood is regarded as \"vatsalya bhava\". Caitanya-caritamrta mentions that Mahaprabhu came to distribute the four spiritual sentiments of Vraja loka: dasya, sakhya, vatsalya, and sringara. Sringara is the relationship of the intimate love.", "In olden days, saints such as Mirabai, Soordas, Marsinh Mehta composed several bhajans that were a path towards Bhakti for many, that are universally sung even today. A modern age saint, Shri Devendra Ghia (Kaka) has composed about 10,000 hymns (a phenomenal task.) These hymns are related to bhakti, knowledge, devotion, faith, introspection and honesty. Devotionalism, similar to \"Bhakti\", states Michael Pasquier, has been a common form of religious activity in world religions throughout human history. It is found in Christianity, Islam, Buddhism and Judaism.", "Bhakti (called \"bhatti\" in Pali language) has been a common aspect of Buddhism, where offerings and group prayers are made to images such the images of the Buddha and the \"Bodhisattvas\", or to deities such as wrathful deities. Karel Werner notes that Bhakti has been a significant practice in Theravada Buddhism, and states, \"there can be no doubt that deep devotion or \"bhakti / bhatti\" does exist in Buddhism and that it had its beginnings in the earliest days\". According to Sri Lankan scholar Indumathie Karunaratna, the meaning of \"bhatti\" changed throughout Buddhist history, however. In early Buddhism, such as in the text Theragāthā, \"bhatti\" had the meaning of 'faithful adherence to the [Buddhist] religion', and was accompanied with knowledge. In later text tradition, however, the term developed the meaning of an advanced form of emotional devotion. Examples of the latter include the veneration of Buddha Amitabha and those in the \"Saddharmapundrarika Sutra\". This changed the meaning of Buddhist devotion to a more person-centered sense, similar to a theist sense used in Hindu scriptures. This sense of devotion was no longer connected with a belief in a religious system, and had little place for doubt, contradicting the early Buddhist concept of \"saddhā\". \"Saddhā\" did not exclude reasonable doubt on the spiritual path, and was a step in reaching the final aim of developing wisdom, not an end in itself. In early Buddhism, states Sanath Nanayakkara, the concept of taking refuge to the Buddha had the meaning of taking the Buddha as an ideal to live by, rather than the later sense of self-surrender. But already in the Commentary to the Abhidhamma text \"Puggalapaññatti\", it is mentioned that the Buddhist devotee should develop his \"saddhā\" until it becomes \"bhaddi\", a sense not mentioned in earlier texts and probably influenced by the Hindu idea of \"bhakti\". There are instances where commentator Buddhaghosa mentions taking refuge in the Buddha in the sense of mere adoration, indicating a historical shift in meaning. Similar developments took place with regard to the term \"puja\" (honor) and the role of the Buddha image. In Mahāyāna Buddhism, the doctrine of the trikāya (three bodies) and the devotion towards \"Bodhisattvas\" all indicating a shift of emphasis toward devotion as a central concept in later Buddhism. In later faith-oriented literature, such as the Avadānas, faith is given an important role in Buddhist doctrine. Nevertheless, faith (\"śraddhā\") is discussed in different contexts than devotion (\"bhakti\"). \"Bhakti\" is often used disparagingly to describe acts of worship to deities, often seen as ineffective and improper for a Buddhist. Also, \"bhakti\" is clearly connected with a person as an object, whereas \"śraddhā\" is less connected with a person, and is more connected with truthfulness and truth. Śraddhā focuses on ideas such as the working of karma and merit transfer. Nevertheless, affective devotion is an important part of Buddhist practice, not only in Mahāyāna Buddhism. According to Winston King, a scholar on Theravāda Buddhism in Myanmar, \"warm, personalized, emotional\" \"bhakti\" has been a part of the Burmese Buddhist tradition apart from the monastic and lay intellectuals. The Buddha is treasured by the everyday devout Buddhist, just like Catholics treasure Jesus. The orthodox teachers tend to restrain the devotion to the Buddha, but to the devout Buddhist populace, \"a very deeply devotional quality\" was and remains a part of the actual practice. This is observable, states King, in \"multitudes of pagoda worshippers of the Buddha images\" and the offerings they make before the image and nowhere else. Another example is the worship of the \"Bodhisattvas\" and various deities in Tibetan and other traditions of Buddhism, including the so-called wrathful deities.", "Bhakti has been a prevalent ancient practice in various Jaina sects, wherein learned Tirthankara (\"Jina\") and human \"gurus\" have been venerated with offerings, songs and Āratī prayers. Jainism participated in the Bhakti school of medieval India, and has a rich tradition of bhakti literature (\"stavan\") though these have been less studied than those of the Hindu tradition. The \"Avasyaka sutra\" of Jains includes, among ethical duties for the devotee, the recitation of \"hymns of praise to the Tirthankaras\" as the second Obligatory Action. It explains this \"bhakti\" as one of the means to destroy negative karma. According to Paul Dundas, such textual references to devotional activity suggests that \"bhakti\" was a necessary part of Jainism from an early period. According to Jeffery Long, along with its strong focus on ethics and ascetic practices, the religiosity in Jainism has had a strong tradition of \"bhakti\" or devotion just like their Hindu neighbors. The Jain community built ornate temples and prided in public devotion for its fordmakers, saints and teachers. \"Abhisekha\", festival prayers, community recitals and \"Murti puja\" (rituals before an image) are examples of integrated bhakti in Jain practice." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography.", "Transportation.", "History." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The Nelson River flows into Playgreen Lake from Lake Winnipeg then flows from two channels into Cross Lake. The east channel and the Jack River flow from the southeast portion of the lake into Little Playgreen Lake then the Nelson east channel continues in a northerly direction passing through Pipestone Lake on its way to Cross Lake. The west channel flows out of the north ends of Playgreen Lake, Kiskittogisu Lake and Kiskitto Lake into Cross Lake at the Manitoba Hydro's Jenpeg Generating Station and Dam. From Cross Lake it flows through Sipiwesk Lake, Split Lake and Stephens Lake on its way to the Hudson Bay. Since it drains Lake Winnipeg, it is the last part of the large Saskatchewan River system, as well as that of the Red River and Winnipeg River. Devils Lake is unusual for a glacial lake in being presently closed, also has been known to overflow into the Red River for at least five separate periods since deglaciation. Besides Lake Winnipeg, its primary tributaries include the Grass River, which drains a long area north of Lake Winnipeg, and the Burntwood River, which passes through Thompson, Manitoba. The river flows into Hudson Bay at Port Nelson (now a ghost town), just north of the Hayes River and York Factory. Other communities upriver from there include Bird, Sundance, Long Spruce, Gillam, Split Lake, Arnot, Cross Lake, and Norway House.", "North America has just one port on the Arctic Ocean, linked to the North American railway grid—at Churchill, Manitoba, at the mouth of the Churchill River. Originally port facilities were to be built at Port Nelson, a rail link was to be built to Port Nelson. Practical problems led to the port's relocation to Churchill. Those difficulties included a much greater need for dredging, because the Nelson River's water was more full of silt, in absolute terms, and carried more silt because of its greater volume of flow. The Nelson estuary is broad and shallow, so port facilities would have to be constructed on artificial islands created in the middle of the river, that would require a causeway approximately a kilometer long to reach.", "The river was named by Sir Thomas Button, a Welsh explorer from St. Lythans, Glamorganshire, who wintered at its mouth in 1612, after Robert Nelson, a ship's master who died there. At that time, the Cree people who lived along its banks called it Powinigow or Powinini-gow, which may have meant \"the Rapid Strangers' river\". The area was fought over for the fur trade, though the Hayes River, whose mouth is near the Nelson's, became the main route inland. Fort Nelson, a historic Hudson's Bay Company trading post, was at the mouth of the Nelson River at Hudson Bay and was a key trading post in the early 18th century. After his pivotal role in establishing the Hudson's Bay Company, Pierre Esprit Radisson, noted French explorer, was chief director of trade at Fort Nelson during one of his sustained periods of service to England. Today, Fort Nelson no longer exists. Port Nelson, the abandoned shipping port, remains on the opposite side of the river mouth on Hudson Bay. The Nelson River's huge volume and long drop make it useful for generating hydroelectricity. Flooding caused by damming of the river has provoked bitter disputes with First Nations in the past although the Northern Flood Agreement was created in the 1970s to help offset the damages caused by flooding." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Death.", "Works." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "John Cunningham was born in 1729 in Dublin, Ireland. His parents, who were of Scottish descent, had won a lottery, risen up the social ladder, become bankrupt, and moved back down the social ladder. John went to Drogheda Grammar School, Drogheda, but had to leave when his father's wealth disappeared. Early in life he was attracted to the stage and the acting profession. As an actor, he never achieved any distinction, for in figure, voice, and temperament he was quite unfitted for such a profession. He started to write in the age of twelve and at the age of 17 wrote his first drama, \"Love in a mist\", which was performed in Dublin. Afterwards he performed at various places, with but indifferent success, amongst others, at York, Newcastle, Alnwick, Sunderland, and Edinburgh. While gaining his living, as an actor, he still continued to write poetry. It was at Edinburgh that he first came into notice as a poet, and on leaving it he returned to Newcastle, where he had previously made his headquarters while playing in the North of England. He lived for the remainder of his life, writing poems, and playing wherever he could get an engagement in the vicinity. His earnings were scanty, but his wants were few, and his amiable, simple character, and poetic talent, made him many friends. One of the best and truest was Mr. and Mrs. Thomas Slack. Slack was a bookseller, and publisher of the \"Newcastle Chronicle\". Cunningham supplemented his income by writing articles for publication. After befriending the poor poet in many ways, Slack at length took him home to his house. Cunningham was then almost worn out, but his benefactor paid him every attention that his state required. Writing to a friend, the poet says of Mr. Slack:", "John Cunningham gave his last performance as an actor in Darlington on 20 June 1773. He returned to Newcastle, was taken ill, and died on 18 September 1773 at the age of 44, at his lodgings in Union Street, Newcastle. He was buried at St John's Churchyard, a monument being placed at his grave by Mr. Slack, of the Newcastle Chronicle. This monument was restored in 1887 by public subscription, after falling into decay. In 1891 The Chronicle's current proprietor, Joseph Cowen, placed a memorial window in St John's Church in his memory.", "The poetry of Cunningham is all written in a quiet, lifted strain. Some of his descriptions of natural scenery are very true and very pleasing in their simplicity; there is much tenderness and grace in his pastorals, but he never rises into passion, or allows himself to be carried away by poetic enthusiasm. There is more fire, perhaps, in his eulogy of \"Newcastle Beer\" than in most of his other compositions. The theme may, to some, appear unworthy of a poet's efforts, but it must be remembered that in Cunningham's days Newcastle beer was a great institution, and the great ones of the town did not disdain on occasions to indulge in the local nectar. Often were their servants sent round to see where the beer was in best condition (each house brewed its own then), and acting on their reports, the masters would patronise mine host who had the best on tap. His works include the following :- The play – Love in a mist A book of Poems – published 1766 Extract from an Elegy on a pile of Ruins Search where Ambition raged with rigour steeled Where Slaughter like the rapid lightning ran And say, while memory weeps the blood-stained field Where lies the chief? And where the common man? Newcastle Beer – A lyrical poem with classical illusions, aimed at the moneyed class Holiday Gown" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Apprenticeship in Italy.", "Commissions in Savoy and Germany.", "Return to Bohemia (after 1601).", "Works." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Born in The Hague to a patrician family, his early training is obscure; a recent suggestion suggests an apprenticeship with Willem Danielsz. van Tetrode, known in Italy as Guglielmo Fiammingo, a pupil of Benvenuto Cellini who had returned to the Netherlands. Another possibility is that he was apprenticed to a goldsmith, his brother-in-law Simon Adriaensz Rottermont. Both possibilities are suggestive in view of de Vries' virtuoso casting technique and refined finish.", "He travelled to Florence, where, as early as 1581, he is documented working in the studio of the master Mannerist sculptor Giambologna, a Northerner like himself, and the greatest influence on his mature work. Three of the \"Virtues\" and some of the putti for Giambologna's Grimaldi Chapel, in San Francesco di Castelletto, Genoa (1579), have been attributed to Adriaen de Vries. In 1586 he was called to Milan to assist Pompeo, the son of the ailing Leone Leoni, whom he succeeded as master of one of Italy's largest bronze-casting studios; for Leoni de Vries provided three heroically-scaled saints for Leoni's high altar at the basilica of San Lorenzo at the Escorial.", "This led to his brief appointment as court sculptor to Philip II's son-in-law Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy in Turin. In 1589-94 he worked for the first time in Prague, making busts and reliefs for Emperor Rudolf II. These sculptures are now housed in Vienna and at the Victoria and Albert Museum, which possesses a bust of Rudolf in bas-relief. He left Prague in 1594 for a visit to study in Rome. On his return through Germany he executed two fountains in 1596 for the city of Augsburg, the \"Mercury\" and \"Hercules and the Hydra\" fountains, which may still be seen in Maximilianstraße.", "De Vries returned in 1601 to Prague, where Rudolf made him \"Kammerbildhauer\" (\"chamber sculptor\", i.e. privileged artist). During his hypothetical stay in Rome in 1604, he had cast a statue of \"Christ at the column\", a centrepiece for Adam von Hannewaldt's tomb monument in the Holy Trinity Church in Rothsürben (Żórawina), today in the National Museum in Warsaw. It was conceived as a part of a five figure group of the \"Flagellation of Christ\". He remained in Prague after Rudolf's death in 1612, though the Imperial court returned to Vienna, until his own death in Prague in 1626. During this late period he found a new patron in the Prince Karl of Liechtenstein and received sculpture commissions from several German sovereigns, such as from Ernst of Schaumburg for the resurrection group in Stadthagen mausoleum, today the only work of De Vries to be seen in its original situation; he was also commissioned to make a Neptune fountain for the gardens of the king of Denmark's royal palace, Frederiksborg (one of the statues from this fountain is now displayed in the Rijksmuseum).", "The Rijksmuseum owns the only two sculptures by de Vries found in his native Netherlands, a bronze relief of Bacchus and Ariadne, and the recently-purchased (2014) Bacchant. The artist was scarcely known there until the exhibition mounted by the Rijksmuseum, the Nationalmuseum, Stockholm, and the J. Paul Getty Museum in 1999. Fourteen sculptures, the largest collection of De Vries' work, are in \"Museum De Vries\" at Drottningholm Palace, opened in 2001. Their presence in Sweden is the result of the Sack of Prague in the last days of the Thirty Years' War, when the Swedes pillaged what remained of Rudolf's huge collections, and took a great many statues, in particular duke Albrecht von Wallenstein's garden statues, that used to adorn his palace on the Lesser Town (city quarter) of Prague. The originals, now to be found in Museum de Vries, are represented by bronze replicas at the Wallenstein Palace in Prague, now seat of the Czech senate. Another famous work by de Vries also now at Drottningholm was the Neptunus Fountain, made for Frederiksborg Palace in Denmark. These sculptures were also taken as prizes of war, during the Dano-Swedish War (1658–60)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Overview.", "Construction.", "Parallel overhead lines.", "Types of wires.", "Tensioning.", "Breaks.", "Section break.", "Neutral section (phase break).", "Dead section.", "Gaps.", "Overhead conductor rails.", "Crossings.", "Australia.", "Greece.", "Italy.", "Multiple overhead lines.", "Overhead catenary.", "Height.", "Problems with overhead equipment.", "History." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Electric trains that collect their current from overhead lines use a device such as a pantograph, bow collector or trolley pole. It presses against the underside of the lowest overhead wire, the contact wire. Current collectors are electrically conductive and allow current to flow through to the train or tram and back to the feeder station through the steel wheels on one or both running rails. Non-electric locomotives (such as diesels) may pass along these tracks without affecting the overhead line, although there may be difficulties with overhead clearance. Alternative electrical power transmission schemes for trains include third rail, ground-level power supply, batteries and electromagnetic induction.", "To achieve good high-speed current collection, it is necessary to keep the contact wire geometry within defined limits. This is usually achieved by supporting the contact wire from a second wire known as the \"\" (in the US & Canada) or \"catenary\" (in the UK). This wire approximates the natural path of a wire strung between two points, a catenary curve, thus the use of \"catenary\" to describe this wire or sometimes the whole system. This wire is attached to the contact wire at regular intervals by vertical wires known as \"droppers\" or \"drop wires\". It is supported regularly at structures, by a pulley, link or clamp. The whole system is then subjected to mechanical tension. As the pantograph moves along under the contact wire, the carbon insert on top of the pantograph becomes worn with time. On straight track, the contact wire is zigzagged slightly to the left and right of the centre from each support to the next so that the insert wears evenly, thus preventing any notches. On curves, the \"straight\" wire between the supports causes the contact point to cross over the surface of the pantograph as the train travels around the curve. The movement of the contact wire across the head of the pantograph is called the \"sweep\". The zigzagging of the overhead line is not required for trolley poles. For tramways, a contact wire without a messenger wire is used. Depot areas tend to have only a single wire and are known as \"simple equipment\" or \"trolley wire\". When overhead line systems were first conceived, good current collection was possible only at low speeds, using a single wire. To enable higher speeds, two additional types of equipment were developed: Earlier dropper wires provided physical support of the contact wire without joining the catenary and contact wires electrically. Modern systems use current-carrying droppers, eliminating the need for separate wires. The present transmission system originated about 100 years ago. A simpler system was proposed in the 1970s by the Pirelli Construction Company, consisting of a single wire embedded at each support for of its length in a clipped, extruded aluminum beam with the wire contact face exposed. A somewhat higher tension than used before clipping the beam yielded a deflected profile for the wire that could be easily handled at by a pneumatic servo pantograph with only 3 g acceleration.", "An electrical circuit requires at least two conductors. Trams and railways use the overhead line as one side of the circuit and the steel rails as the other side of the circuit. For a trolleybus, no rails are available for the return current, as the vehicles use rubber tyres on the road surface. Trolleybuses use a second parallel overhead line for the return, and two trolley-poles, one contacting each overhead wire. (Pantographs are generally incompatible with parallel overhead lines.) The circuit is completed by using both wires. Parallel overhead wires are also used on the rare railways with three-phase AC railway electrification.", "In the Soviet Union the following types of wires/cables were used. For the contact wire, cold drawn solid copper was used to insure good conductivity. The wire is not round but has grooves at the sides to allow the hangers to attach to it. Sizes were (in cross section area) 85, 100, or 150 mm. To make the wire stronger, 0.04% tin might be added. The wire must resist the heat generated by arcing and thus such wires should never be spliced by thermal means. The messenger (or catenary) wire needs to be both strong and have good conductivity. They used multi-strand wires (or cables) with 19 strands in each cable (or wire). Copper, aluminum, and/or steel were used for the strands. All the 19 strands could be of the same metal or some strands could be of steel for strength with the remaining strands of aluminum or copper for conductivity. Another type looked like it had all copper wires but inside each wire was a steel core for strength. The steel strands were galvanized but for better corrosion protection they could be coated with an anti-corrosion substance.", "Catenary wires are kept in mechanical tension because the pantograph causes mechanical oscillations in the wire and the wave must travel faster than the train to avoid producing standing waves that would cause wire breakage. Tensioning the line makes waves travel faster, and also reduces sag from gravity. For medium and high speeds, the wires are generally tensioned by weights or occasionally by hydraulic tensioners. Either method is known as \"auto-tensioning\" (AT) or \"constant tension\" and ensures that the tension is virtually independent of temperature. Tensions are typically between per wire. Where weights are used, they slide up and down on a rod or tube attached to the mast, to prevent them from swaying. For low speeds and in tunnels where temperatures are constant, fixed termination (FT) equipment may be used, with the wires terminated directly on structures at each end of the overhead line. The tension is generally about. This type of equipment sags on hot days and is taut on cold days. With AT the continuous length of overhead line is limited due to the change in the height of the weights as the overhead line expands and contracts with temperature changes. This movement is proportional to the distance between anchors. Tension length has a maximum. For most 25 kV OHL equipment in the UK, the maximum tension length is. An additional issue with AT equipment is that, if balance weights are attached to both ends, the whole tension length is free to move along the track. To avoid this a midpoint anchor (MPA), close to the centre of the tension length, restricts movement of the messenger/catenary wire by anchoring it; the contact wire and its suspension hangers can move only within the constraints of the MPA. MPAs are sometimes fixed to low bridges, or otherwise anchored to vertical catenary poles or portal catenary supports. A tension length can be seen as a fixed centre point, with the two half-tension lengths expanding and contracting with temperature. Most systems include a brake to stop the wires from unravelling completely if a wire breaks or tension is lost. German systems usually use a single large tensioning pulley (basically a ratchet mechanism) with a toothed rim, mounted on an arm hinged to the mast. Normally the downward pull of the weights and the reactive upward pull of the tensioned wires lifts the pulley so its teeth are well clear of a stop on the mast. The pulley can turn freely while the weights move up or down as the wires contract or expand. If tension is lost the pulley falls back toward the mast, and one of its teeth jams against the stop. This stops further rotation, limits the damage, and keeps the undamaged part of the wire intact until it can be repaired. Other systems use various braking mechanisms, usually with multiple smaller pulleys in a block and tackle arrangement.", "Lines are divided into sections to limit the scope of an outage and to allow maintenance.", "To allow maintenance to the overhead line without having to turn off the entire system, the line is broken into electrically separated portions known as \"sections\". Sections often correspond with tension lengths. The transition from section to section is known as a \"section break\" and is set up so that the vehicle's pantograph is in continuous contact with one wire or the other. For bow collectors and pantographs, this is done by having two contact wires run side by side over the length between 2 or 4 wire supports. A new one drops down and the old one rises up, allowing the pantograph to smoothly transfer from one to the other. The two wires do not touch (although the bow collector or pantograph is briefly in contact with both wires). In normal service, the two sections are electrically connected; depending on the system this might be an isolator, fixed contact or a Booster Transformer). The isolator allows the current to the section to be interrupted for maintenance. On overhead wires designed for trolley poles this is done by having a neutral section between the wires, requiring an insulator. The driver of the tram or trolleybus must temporarily reduce the power draw before the trolley pole passes through, to prevent arc damage to the insulator. Pantograph-equipped locomotives must not run through a section break when one side is de-energized. The locomotive would become trapped, but as it passes the section break the pantograph briefly shorts the two catenary lines. If the opposite line is de-energized, this voltage transient may trip supply breakers. If the line is under maintenance, injury may occur as the catenary is suddenly energized. Even if the catenary is properly grounded o protect the personnel, the arc generated across the pantograph can damage the pantograph, the catenary insulator or both.", "Sometimes on a larger electrified railway, tramway or trolleybus system it is necessary to power different areas of track from different power grids, without guaranteeing synchronisation of the phases. Long lines may be connected to the country's national grid at various points and different phases. (Sometimes the sections are powered with different voltages or frequencies.) The grids may be synchronised on a normal basis, but events may interrupt synchronisation. This is not a problem for DC systems. AC systems have a particular safety implication in that the railway electrification system would act as a \"Backdoor\" connection between different parts, resulting in, amongst other things, a section of the grid de-energised for maintenance being re-energised from the railway substation creating danger. For these reasons Neutral sections are placed in the electrification between the sections fed from different points in a national grid, or different phases, or grids which are not synchronized. It is highly undesirable to connect synchronized grids. A simple section break is insufficient to guard against this as the pantograph briefly connects both sections. In countries such as France, South Africa and the United Kingdom, a pair of permanent magnets beside the rails at either side of the neutral section operate a bogie-mounted transducer on the train which causes a large electrical circuit-breaker to open and close when the locomotive or the pantograph vehicle of a multiple unit passes over them. In the United Kingdom equipment similar to Automatic Warning System (AWS) is used, but with pairs of magnets placed the running rails (as opposed to the AWS magnets placed midway between the rails). Lineside signs on the approach to the neutral section warn the driver to shut off traction power and coast through the dead section. A neutral section or phase break consists of two insulated breaks back-to-back with a short section of line that belongs to neither grid. Some systems increase the level of safety by the midpoint of the neutral section being earthed. The presence of the earthed section in the middle is to ensure that should the transducer controlled apparatus fail, and the driver also fail to shut off power, the energy in the arc struck by the pantograph as it passes to the neutral section is conducted to earth, operating substation circuit breakers, rather than the arc either bridging the insulators into a section made dead for maintenance, a section fed from a different phase, or setting up a Backdoor connection between different parts of the country's national grid. On the Pennsylvania Railroad, phase breaks were indicated by a position light signal face with all eight radial positions with lenses and no center light. When the phase break was active (the catenary sections out of phase), all lights were lit. The position light signal aspect was originally devised by the Pennsylvania Railroad and was continued by Amtrak and adopted by Metro North. Metal signs were hung from the catenary supports with the letters \"PB\" created by a pattern of drilled holes.", "A special category of phase break was developed in America, primarily by the Pennsylvania Railroad. Since its traction power network was centrally supplied and only segmented by abnormal conditions, normal phase breaks were generally not active. Phase breaks that were always activated were known as \"Dead Sections\": they were often used to separate power systems (for example, the Hell's Gate Bridge boundary between Amtrak and Metro North's electrifications) that would never be in-phase. Since a dead section is always dead, no special signal aspect was developed to warn drivers of its presence, and a metal sign with \"DS\" in drilled-hole letters was hung from the catenary supports.", "Occasionally gaps may be present in the overhead lines, when switching from one voltage to another or to provide clearance for ships at moveable bridges, as a cheaper alternative for moveable overhead power rails. Electric trains coast across the gaps. To prevent arcing, power must be switched off before reaching the gap and usually the pantograph would be lowered.", "Given limited clearance such as in tunnels, the overhead wire may be replaced by a rigid overhead rail. An early example was in the tunnels of the Baltimore Belt Line, where a ∏ section bar (fabricated from three strips of iron and mounted on wood) was used, with the brass contact running inside the groove. When the overhead line was raised in the Simplon Tunnel to accommodate taller rolling stock, a rail was used. A rigid overhead rail may also be used in places where tensioning the wires is impractical, for example on moveable bridges. In a movable bridge that uses a rigid overhead rail, there is a need to transition from the catenary wire system into an overhead conductor rail at the bridge portal (the last post before the movable bridge). For example, the power supply can be done through a catenary wire system near a swing bridge. The catenary wire typically comprises messenger wire (also called catenary wire) and a contact wire where it meets the pantograph. The messenger wire is terminated at the portal, while the contact wire runs into the overhead conductor rail profile at the transition end section before it is terminated at the portal. There is a gap between the overhead conductor rail at the transition end section and the overhead conductor rail that runs across the entire span of the swing bridge. The gap is required for the swing bridge to be opened and closed. To connect the conductor rails together when the bridge is closed, there is another conductor rail section called \"rotary overlap\" that is equipped with a motor. When the bridge is fully closed, the motor of the rotary overlap is operated to turn it from a tilted position into the horizontal position, connecting the conductor rails at the transition end section and the bridge together to supply power. Short overhead conductor rails are installed at tram stops as for the Combino Supra.", "Trams draw their power from a single overhead wire at about 500 to 750 V. Trolleybuses draw from two overhead wires at a similar voltage, and at least one of the trolleybus wires must be insulated from tram wires. This is usually done by the trolleybus wires running continuously through the crossing, with the tram conductors a few centimetres lower. Close to the junction on each side, the tram wire turns into a solid bar running parallel to the trolleybus wires for about half a metre. Another bar similarly angled at its ends is hung between the trolleybus wires, electrically connected above to the tram wire. The tram's pantograph bridges the gap between the different conductors, providing it with a continuous pickup. Where the tram wire crosses, the trolleybus wires are protected by an inverted trough of insulating material extending below. Until 1946, a level crossing in Stockholm, Sweden connected the railway south of Stockholm Central Station and a tramway. The tramway operated on 600-700 V DC and the railway on 15 kV AC. In the Swiss village of Oberentfelden, the WSB tramway operating at 750 V DC crosses the SBB line at 15 kV AC; there used to be a similar crossing between the WSB and the SBB at Suhr, this has been replaced by an underpass in 2010. Some crossings between tramway/light rail and railways are extant in Germany. In Zürich, Switzerland, VBZ trolleybus line 32 has a level crossing with the 1,200 V DC Uetliberg railway line; at many places, trolleybus lines cross the tramway. In some cities, trolleybuses and trams shared a positive (feed) wire. In such cases, a normal trolleybus frog can be used. Alternatively, section breaks can be sited at the crossing point, so that the crossing is electrically dead.", "Many cities had trams and trolleybuses using trolley poles. They used insulated crossovers, which required tram drivers to put the controller into neutral and coast through. Trolleybus drivers had to either lift off the accelerator or switch to auxiliary power. In Melbourne, Victoria, tram drivers put the controller into neutral and coast through section insulators, indicated by insulator markings between the rails. Melbourne has three level crossings between electrified suburban railways and tram lines. They have mechanical switching arrangements (changeover switch) to switch the 1,500 V DC overhead of the railway and the 650 V DC of the trams, called a Tram Square. Proposals have been advanced to grade separate these crossings or divert the tram routes.", "Athens has two crossings of tram and trolleybus wires, at Vas. Amalias Avenue and Vas. Olgas Avenue, and at Ardittou Street and Athanasiou Diakou Street. They use the above-mentioned solution.", "In Rome, at the crossing between viale Regina Margherita and via Nomentana, tram and trolleybus lines cross: tram on viale Regina Margherita and trolleybus on via Nomentana. The crossing is orthogonal, therefore the typical arrangement was not available. In Milan, most tram lines cross its circular trolleybus line once or twice. Trolleybus and tram wires run parallel in streets such as viale Stelvio and viale Tibaldi.", "Some railways used two or three overhead lines, usually to carry three-phase current. This is used only on the Gornergrat Railway and Jungfrau Railway in Switzerland, the Petit train de la Rhune in France, and the Corcovado Rack Railway in Brazil. Until 1976, it was widely used in Italy. On these railways, the two conductors are used for two different phases of the three-phase AC, while the rail was used for the third phase. The neutral was not used. Some three-phase AC railways used three overhead wires. These were an experimental railway line of Siemens in Berlin-Lichtenberg in 1898 (length 1.8 kilometres), the military railway between Marienfelde and Zossen between 1901 and 1904 (length 23.4 kilometres) and an 800-metre-long section of a coal railway near Cologne between 1940 and 1949. On DC systems, bipolar overhead lines were sometimes used to avoid galvanic corrosion of metallic parts near the railway, such as on the Chemin de fer de la Mure. All systems with multiple overhead lines have high risk of short circuits at switches and therefore tend to be impractical in use, especially when high voltages are used or when trains run through the points at high speed. The Sihltal Zürich Uetliberg Bahn has two lines with different electrification. To be able to use different electric systems on shared tracks, the Sihltal line has its overhead wire right above the train, whilst the Uetliberg line has its overhead wire off to one side.", "A catenary is a system of overhead wires used to supply electricity to a locomotive, tram (streetcar), or light rail vehicle that is equipped with a pantograph. Unlike simple overhead wires, in which the uninsulated wire is attached by clamps to closely spaced crosswires supported by poles, catenary systems use at least two wires. The catenary or messenger wire is hung at a specific tension between line structures, and a second wire is held in tension by the messenger wire, attached to it at frequent intervals by clamps and connecting wires known as \"droppers\". The second wire is straight and level, parallel to the rail track, suspended over it as the roadway of a suspension bridge is over water. Catenary systems are suited to high-speed operations whereas simple wire systems, which are less expensive to build and maintain, are common on light rail or tram (streetcar) lines, especially on city streets. Such vehicles can be fitted with either a pantograph or trolley pole. The Northeast Corridor in the United States has catenary over the between Boston, Massachusetts and Washington, D.C. for Amtrak's inter-city trains. Commuter rail agencies including MARC, SEPTA, NJ Transit, and Metro-North Railroad utilize the catenary to provide local service. In Cleveland, Ohio the interurban/light rail lines and the heavy rail line use the same overhead wires, due to a city ordinance intended to limit air pollution from the large number of steam trains that passed through Cleveland between the east coast and Chicago. Trains switched from steam to electric locomotives at the Collinwood rail yards about east of Downtown and at Linndale on the west side. When Cleveland constructed its rapid transit (heavy rail) line between the airport, downtown, and beyond, it employed a similar catenary, using electrification equipment left over after railroads switched from steam to diesel. Light and heavy rail share trackage for about along the Cleveland Hopkins International Airport Red (heavy rail) line, Blue and Green interurban/light rail lines between Cleveland Union Terminal and just past East 55th Street station, where the lines separate. Part of the Boston, Massachusetts Blue Line through the northeast suburbs uses overhead lines, as does the Green Line.", "The height of overhead line can create hazards at level crossings, where it may be struck by road vehicles. Warning signs are placed on the approaches, advising drivers of the maximum safe height. The wiring in most countries is too low to allow double stack container trains. The Channel Tunnel has an extended height overhead line to accommodate double-height car and truck transporters. India is proposing a network of freight-only lines that would be electrified with extra height wiring and pantographs.", "Overhead lines may be adversely affected by strong winds causing wires to swing. Power storms can knock the power out with lightning strikes on systems with overhead wires, stopping trains following a power surge. During cold or frosty weather, ice may coat overhead lines. This can result in poor electrical contact between the collector and the overhead line, resulting in electrical arcing and power surges. The installation of overhead lines may require reconstruction of bridges to provide safe electrical clearance. Overhead lines, like most electrified systems, require a greater capital expenditure when building the system than an equivalent non-electric system. While a conventional rail line requires only the grade, ballast, ties and rails, an overhead system also requires a complex system of support structures, lines, insulators, power-control systems and power lines, all of which require maintenance. This makes non-electrical systems more attractive in the short term, although electrical systems can pay for themselves eventually. Also, the added construction and maintenance cost-per-mile makes overhead systems less attractive on long-distance railways, such as those found in North America, where the distances between cities are typically far greater than in Europe. Such long lines require enormous investment in overhead line equipment, and major difficulties confront energizing long portions of overhead wire on a permanent basis, especially in areas where energy demand already outstrips supply. Many people consider overhead lines to be \"visual pollution\", due to the many support structures and complicated system of wires and cables that fill the air. Such considerations have driven the move towards replacing overhead power and communications lines with buried cables where possible. The issue came to a head in the UK with the Great Western main line electrification scheme especially through the Goring Gap. A protest group with their own website has been formed.", "The first tram with overhead lines was presented by Werner von Siemens at the International Electric Exposition in Paris 1881: the installation was removed after that event. In October 1883, the first permanent tram service with overhead lines was on the Mödling and Hinterbrühl Tram in Austria. The trams had bipolar overhead lines, consisting of two U-pipes, in which the pantographs hung and ran like shuttles. In April to June 1882, Siemens had tested a similar system on his Electromote, an early precursor of the trolleybus. Much simpler and more functional was an overhead wire in combination with a pantograph borne by the vehicle and pressed at the line from below. This system, for rail traffic with a unipolar line, was invented by Frank J. Sprague in 1888. From 1889 it was used at the Richmond Union Passenger Railway in Richmond, Virginia, pioneering electric traction." ] }

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{ "title": [ "In signal processing circuits.", "Mechanical integrators.", "Practical integrator (lossy integrator)." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "An electronic integrator is a form of first-order low-pass filter, which can be performed in the continuous-time (analog) domain or approximated (simulated) in the discrete-time (digital) domain. An integrator will have a low pass filtering effect but when given an offset it will accumulate a value building it until it reaches a limit of the system or overflows. A \"voltage integrator\" is an electronic device performing a time integration of an electric voltage, thus measuring the total volt-second product. A \"current integrator\" is an electronic device performing a time integration of an electric current, thus measuring a total electric charge. A charge amplifier is an example of current integrator. A current integrator is also used to measure the electric charge on a Faraday cup in a residual gas analyzer to measure partial pressures of gasses in a vacuum. Another application of current integration is in ion beam deposition, where the measured charge directly corresponds to the number of ions deposited on a substrate, assuming the charge state of the ions is known. The two current-carrying electrical leads must to be connected to the ion source and the substrate, closing the electric circuit which in part is given by the ion beam.", "Mechanical integrators were key elements in the mechanical differential analyser, used to solve practical physical problems. Mechanical integration mechanisms were also used in control systems such as regulating flows or temperature in industrial processes. Mechanisms such as the ball-and-disk integrator were used both for computation in differential analysers and as components of instruments such as naval gun directors, flow totalizers and others. A planimeter is a mechanical device used for calculating the definite integral of a curve given in graphical form, or more generally finding the area of a closed curve. An integraph is used to plot the indefinite integral of a function given in graphical form.", "The gain of an integrator at low frequency can be limited to avoid the saturation problem, therefore to avoid saturation of the op amp the feedback capacitor is shunted by a resistor Rf. The parallel combination of Rf and C behaves like a practical capacitor which dissipates power, unlike an ideal capacitor. For this reason this circuit is also called a lossy integrator. The resistor Rf limits the low frequency gain to (-Rf/R), generally [Rf=10*R1] and thus provides DC stabilisation." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Club career.", "Pogoń Siedlce.", "Legia Warsaw.", "Celtic.", "Fiorentina.", "Southampton.", "AFC Bournemouth.", "International career.", "Controversies.", "Personal life.", "Honours." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Born in Siedlce, Boruc began his career in 1998 at Pogoń Siedlce, in his hometown.", "The next season Boruc joined Legia Warsaw, initially playing for the reserve team, as well as being loaned out in 2000 for half a season to Dolcan Ząbki. On 8 March 2002, Boruc played his first league match for Legia when he came on as a substitute during a 2–2 draw against Pogoń Szczecin. This unexpected debut was due to an injury sustained by Bulgarian goalkeeper, Radostin Stanev, during the game. Boruc played in Legia's next four league matches and kept clean sheets against Wisła Kraków and Odra Wodzisław, although Stanev regained his place in the side upon his return from injury for the remaining league and cup fixtures. Legia went on to win the Ekstraklasa title that season for the first time in seven years. In the second half of the following season, 2002–03, Boruc established himself as the club's first choice goalkeeper where he played in 11 of the club's last 15 league fixtures. Legia lost only 1 of these 11 matches and Boruc kept 5 clean sheets, although Legia only managed to finish fourth. By the 2003–04 season, Boruc was very much a first-pick for Legia and played in all 26 of their league fixtures. In June 2004, Boruc scored his only goal for the club, converting a penalty kick in a home game against Widzew Łódź (final score: 6–0) and then celebrated by waving the corner flag. Legia finished second in the league and qualified for the following season's UEFA Cup. Boruc also made his first appearance for Poland in April 2004, playing in a scoreless draw against the Republic of Ireland. The 2004–05 season saw Boruc remain Legia's key player and a fan-favourite, again playing in all of the club's league fixtures. Boruc's performances for Legia saw the club extend his contract up to 2012. In March 2005, Boruc was made captain of the side. However, it was another disappointing league campaign for Legia, as they came a distant third behind Wisła Kraków who finished as champions for the third year in a row. Legia's UEFA Cup run was also relatively brief, disposing of FC Tbilisi 7–0 on aggregate in a relatively easy qualifying tie before going out 1–4 on aggregate in the first-round proper to Austria Wien. Despite the lack of silverware though, Boruc's form was by the summer of 2005 attracting attention from abroad.", "On 20 July 2005, Boruc signed with Scottish club Celtic. The deal was initially a year's loan, with an option to make it permanent. The move was later made permanent, with Boruc penning a three-and-a-half-year contract on 17 October until 2009. On 5 January 2008, it was reported that Boruc had signed a new contract with Celtic set to keep him at the club until 2011. Boruc made his debut for Celtic on 2 August 2005 when he replaced David Marshall for the second leg of their UEFA Champions League qualifier tie against Slovakian side Artmedia Bratislava. Celtic won 4–0, but having lost the first leg 5–0 still went out on aggregate. Boruc quickly established himself as first-choice keeper at Celtic, displaying a combination of outstanding shot-stopping, immense self-belief and, at times, outright arrogance. Indeed, gestures allegedly made by Boruc towards Rangers fans at Ibrox Stadium on 12 February 2006 later resulted in the player being cautioned by the police. In his first season, he made 40 appearances and kept 17 clean sheets. Boruc also added to his winner's medals collection as Celtic won the Scottish Premier League and the Scottish League Cup, the latter after beating Dunfermline Athletic 3–0. Boruc continued his fine form for Celtic the following season. On 21 November 2006, in a UEFA Champions League match against Manchester United at Celtic Park, Boruc helped Celtic through to the knockout stage of the competition by saving Louis Saha's 89th-minute penalty. Indeed, Boruc succeeded in keeping a clean sheet in each of Celtic's three home Champions League group stages games (Copenhagen 1–0, Benfica 3–0 and Manchester United 1–0). He was named player of the month for December 2006 in the Scottish Premier League, a very uncommon event for a goalkeeper. His form was also recognised with a nomination for the Scottish PFA Players' Player of the Year award for 2007. The season culminated in more silverware for Boruc as Celtic retained their Scottish Premier League title and defeated Dunfermline 1–0 on 26 May 2007 to win the Scottish Cup. The start of the 2007–08 season saw Celtic drawn against Russian side Spartak Moscow in the third qualifying round for the Champions League. The tie ended in a penalty shootout, with Boruc saving twice to ensure Celtic's passage to the group stages. The season also saw Celtic complete a hat-trick of consecutive Scottish Premier League titles. Boruc was fined an estimated £50,000 by Celtic in August 2008 for breaching the club's drinking policy after a pre-season friendly in the Netherlands against Feyenoord. Boruc endured a decline of form in the first half of season 2008–09 as he committed several goalkeeping errors, in particular against Rangers in a 2–4 defeat at Parkhead on 31 August 2008 where he was badly at fault for Rangers fourth goal, and against Hibernian at Easter Road on 7 December 2008, where John Rankin scored against him from 45 yards out, a goal Rankin later referred to as a \"squiggler.\" He did however save a James McArthur penalty in a 4–0 win over Hamilton Academical on 4 October 2008. Despite this run of relatively poor performances, Boruc was one of 55 players (including five goalkeepers) shortlisted on 20 October 2008 for the FIFPro World XI Player Awards. Discipline, however, also became an issue again, with Boruc fined £500 by the Scottish Football Association (SFA) for gestures he made towards Rangers fans during the Old Firm game in August. On 28 January 2009, Boruc converted a penalty for Celtic during the penalty shootout in the semi-final match of the League Cup against Dundee United, helping Celtic to an 11–10 win on penalties. Boruc picked up his last silverware at Celtic in the same tournament a couple of months later when Celtic defeated Rangers 2–0 after extra-time in the Scottish League Cup Final. On 12 December 2009, Boruc made his 200th appearance for Celtic against Motherwell, which Celtic won 3–2. In April 2010, he won the Scottish Premier League save of the season award for a reflex save against Hibernian at Easter Road in August 2009. On 4 May 2010, Boruc made the last appearance of his Celtic career in a 2–1 victory against Old Firm rivals Rangers, although he had to be substituted in the second half as he was unable to continue playing due to an injury he sustained to his hand in the pre-match warm up. This transpired to be a broken finger and ruled him out of the final league fixture of the season.", "On 12 July 2010, Celtic agreed to sell Boruc to Serie A club Fiorentina subject to a medical, for an undisclosed fee. The transfer was confirmed three days later. He made his Fiorentina debut on 26 October 2010 in the Coppa Italia against Empoli. After an injury to first-choice goalkeeper Sébastien Frey, he made his Serie A debut in a 1–0 win over Chievo on 7 November 2010. Boruc went on to play in the next 25 Serie A fixtures, before Frey regained his place in the team for the final two league games of the season. On 18 August 2011, Boruc officially claimed Fiorentina's number one jersey after Frey's move to Genoa. For the next year, Boruc played in all but two of Fiorentina's Serie A fixtures, but despite this he was criticised for some of his performances and apparent lack of fitness. After two seasons in Italy, Boruc was released by Fiorentina in July 2012.", "On 22 September 2012, Boruc joined Premier League club Southampton on a one-year deal. He made his debut on 20 October in a 4–1 defeat away to West Ham United at Upton Park. On 28 October 2012, he was allegedly involved in an incident following Tottenham Hotspur's second goal, when he responded to the jeers coming from behind him by sarcastically applauding the home fans, before throwing a water bottle in their direction. The incident resulted in Boruc being dropped from the side. Despite the early controversy in his Southampton career, Boruc regained his place in the first team and played in all the club's league matches from 1 January 2013 to the end of the season. On 9 March 2013 in a league match against Norwich City at Carrow Road, Boruc saved a penalty in the 90th minute from Grant Holt. The game finished 0–0, with Southampton winning a point in their bid to avoid relegation. Boruc's form since returning to the Southampton first team resulted in manager Mauricio Pochettino expressing a desire for Boruc to be signed up on a longer-term deal at Southampton. On 18 April 2013 this wish was realised when Boruc signed a new 2-year contract for the club. Southampton's 1–1 draw with Sunderland on 12 May 2013 ensured their Premier League status for the following season., and they eventually finished in 14th place at the end of season. Now firmly established as first-choice goalkeeper at Southampton, Boruc helped his team make an excellent start to the 2013–14 season. The club's 2–0 win over Fulham on 26 October 2013 saw the team move to 18 points and into third place in the Premier League, their best-ever start to a top-flight season. On 2 November 2013, in a 1–1 draw at Stoke City, Boruc conceded a goal to opposing goalkeeper Asmir Begović after just 13 seconds. Three weeks later, under pressure from Arsenal's Olivier Giroud, \"instead of simply clearing he did one Cruyff turn, then another, before tying himself into so many knots attempting a third that Giroud was able to nick the ball off him\" and score the first of Arsenal's two goals. A week later, he suffered a broken hand trying to keep out a Demba Ba goal in a 3–1 defeat against Chelsea, which kept him out for six weeks. Boruc returned from injury on 11 January 2014 and kept a clean sheet in Southampton's 1–0 win over West Bromwich Albion, impressing with a last minute save from Shane Long to deny the club an equaliser. Boruc maintained his place in his side, and although he was at fault for one of Sunderland's goals in a 2–2 draw on 18 January, he redeemed himself with better performances in 1–0 and 3–0 league wins over Fulham and Hull City respectively during February 2014. His form remained reasonably consistent, although his distribution was occasionally poor, and he helped Southampton to an eighth-place finish in the league at the end of the season.", "At the start of the 2014–15 season, Fraser Forster arrived at Southampton from Celtic in a £10 million transfer deal, with the Englishman taking over Boruc's place in goal. On 19 September 2014, Boruc joined Championship side AFC Bournemouth on an emergency loan deal until January 2015. He made his debut the following day in a 1–1 draw away against Watford. On 25 October, Bournemouth won 0–8 away at St. Andrew's against Birmingham City. It was the first time that the Cherries had ever scored eight goals in a league game (barring a 10–0 win over Northampton Town in September 1939 which was expunged from the records after World War II broke out the next day), and they recorded their biggest winning margin in a league fixture. Boruc played his part in this statistic by saving a penalty taken by Paul Caddis in the 53rd minute with the score at 0–3. The loan spell at Bournemouth went well, and by the end of December 2014, Boruc had kept clean sheets in nine of his 18 appearances, helping the club go top of the Championship. As such, the loan was extended to the end of the season, with Boruc commenting, \"I'm pleased I'm here and that I'm part of a great team, and that's why I'm staying until the end of the season.\" On 2 May 2015, Boruc was part of the Bournemouth team which won the Championship title and a first-ever promotion to the Premier League. Twenty-four days later, he was one of six players released by Southampton, Boruc began the 2015–16 season as Bournemouth's first choice goalkeeper, starting the club's first ever top division match against Aston Villa on 8 August 2015. His and the club's first clean sheet came in a 2–0 defeat of Sunderland at Dean Court on 19 September. After a poor performance in a 1–5 home defeat by Tottenham Hotspur on 25 October, Boruc was replaced in the Bournemouth goal by Adam Federici for all four of the Cherries' November fixtures. An injury to Federici saw Boruc return to the side for an away fixture at Premier League champions Chelsea on 5 December, with the Polish goalkeeper keeping a clean sheet in a 1–0 win for Bournemouth. A week later, Boruc was a member of the Bournemouth side that beat Manchester United 2–1 at Dean Court. On 17 May 2018 he signed a new contract with Bournemouth, keeping him at the club until the summer of 2019. He signed a further contract in June 2019.", "Boruc's debut for Poland came on 28 April 2004 in a friendly against the Republic of Ireland, coming on as second-half substitute for Jerzy Dudek, with the match ending in a goalless draw. Boruc made his first starting appearance for Poland with his third cap, a friendly on 12 July 2004 in Chicago against the United States. Boruc saved a penalty in the 11th minute from American striker Brian McBride. Boruc soon established himself as a regular in the Polish squad and was selected to the 23-men national squad for the 2006 FIFA World Cup finals held in Germany. He had been battling with Tomasz Kuszczak and also Łukasz Fabiański for the starting slot, but was first-choice goalkeeper during the World Cup and played in all three of their games. Boruc was particularly outstanding in the game against Germany, although he was unable to prevent his country losing 1–0. Boruc remained first choice goalkeeper and was named in Poland's UEFA Euro 2008 squad. He played their first game against Germany and held his place through to the important second game against co-hosts Austria in which the Poles conceded a penalty in the 92nd minute to level the game. In the same match, he saved all three shots by the Austrians, leading to a final score of 1–1. He was nicknamed \"Spaceman\" by the Austrian and German press during the tournament. The famous Polish striker from the late 1970s and 1980s, Zbigniew Boniek, criticised Poland's team performance at Euro 2008 but singled out Boruc for praise, describing him as \"world class.\" Boruc incurred the wrath of manager Leo Beenhakker in August 2008 when he and two teammates went on a night out after a friendly against Ukraine in defiance of the orders of their manager. As a result, Boruc, Dariusz Dudka and Radosław Majewski were all suspended by Beenhakker for the next two internationals. Boruc, however, quickly regained his place in the team and continued to be the regular choice until falling from favour again in October 2010 under Beenhakker's successor as Poland manager, Franciszek Smuda. After an absence of over two years, Boruc was recalled to the Polish squad in January 2013 and played in their 0–2 defeat against the Republic of Ireland a week later on 6 February 2013. Boruc maintained his place in the international side for their next two competitive games on 22 and 26 March 2013, World Cup qualifiers against Ukraine and San Marino respectively. Boruc made 64 appearances for his country, his last appearance coming in a friendly on 14 November 2016 against Slovenia, playing the first half before being substituted at half time in a 1–1 draw. His appearance in that game saw him become the most highly capped goalkeeper for Poland, passing Jan Tomaszewski's record of 63 caps. In March 2017, Boruc announced his retirement from international football, through his Instagram profile, citing his age, \"peace of mind\" regarding the position of a Polish goalkeeper, and focusing on his career in Bournemouth. He earned his final 65th cap at his farewell match against Uruguay on 10 November 2017 in Warsaw, being substituted shortly before half-time by former Legia Warszawa teammate, Łukasz Fabiański.", "Boruc was at the centre of many controversies during his Celtic tenure. On 25 August 2006, Boruc was cautioned by the Strathclyde Police for a breach of the peace for making gestures in front of Rangers fans before a game earlier that year. According to the \"Sunday Herald\", \"police reports highlighted three hand gestures made by 26-year-old Boruc... a V sign at the crowd, another obscene gesture at the crowd and a blessing.\" The gestures were not caught on video and the caution was issued on the basis of police reports and witness statements. This incident has led to him attaining the nickname \"The Holy Goalie\". The Procurator Fiscal said Boruc \"was seen by members of the public and police officers to bless himself. Witnesses describe him smiling or laughing at a Rangers section of the crowd and making 'come on' gestures. This action appeared to incense a section of the crowd to react in such a way that police officers and security personnel had to become involved to calm the situation. The police reported that it took 10 minutes to restore normality in the crowd.\" According to a cross-party working group of the Scottish Parliament, \"the sign of the cross in itself is an expression of the Roman Catholic faith; however, using it to alarm, upset or provoke others might be a breach of the peace at common law.\" The Catholic Church condemned the legal action, however, expressing regret that \"Scotland seems to have made itself one of the few countries in the world where this simple religious gesture is considered an offence.\" Following extensive press comment, the Crown Office issued a statement on 28 August 2006 stressing that the \"very limited\" action had been taken against Boruc for gestures made toward Rangers supporters rather than for crossing himself, and that it would not take action against individuals for \"acts of religious observance.\" According to BBC News Online, the caution \"brought the issue of sectarianism in Scotland back into sharp focus.\" The Roman Catholic Church welcomed the Crown Office's clarification of the limited action taken against Boruc, particularly the statement that it \"did not in any way refer to the act of blessing himself.\" On 17 December 2006, Boruc again crossed himself during his first Old Firm game since the caution, drawing \"a roar\" from the Rangers fans behind his goal. A spokesman for Celtic defended his gesture, stating \"the police have said they have no problem with Artur Boruc in this regard and neither does Celtic Football Club.\" Boruc courted further controversy in April 2008 when he displayed a T-shirt saying \"God bless the Pope\" and bearing a picture of Pope John Paul II after a game against Rangers, and also in May 2007 when he waved a flag proclaiming Celtic the \"champions\" following a match against Rangers.", "Boruc is a Legia Warsaw fan and attends matches in Poland. On 21 April 2007, he helped a 27-year-old pregnant Polish woman, her sister and brother-in-law, when they were attacked in Glasgow. Boruc's father died in April 2010; his mother Jadwiga died when he was only 20. He has a brother and three sisters. On 11 June 2008, Boruc's then-wife Katarzyna gave birth to their son, Aleksander (\"Aleks\"), in Warsaw. Boruc and his wife separated in 2008, amid reports of his relationship with former \"Polish Idol\" contestant Sara Mannei. Mannei gave birth to daughter Amelia on 9 August 2010 in Poland and the couple married in 2014. In September 2009, \"The Scottish Sun\" published an apology, for claiming Boruc had had an affair with a young woman, shown in a photograph, who was actually his sister. In June 2011, the \"News of the World\" admitted it had published a false report on Boruc, and paid him £70,000, believed to be a record for Scottish libel cases, plus legal expenses.", "Legia Warsaw Celtic AFC Bournemouth Individual" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Family and early life.", "Public life.", "Assassination of Caligula (AD 41).", "As Emperor.", "Expansion of the Empire.", "Judicial and legislative affairs.", "Public works.", "Claudius and the Senate.", "Plots and coup attempts.", "Secretariat and centralization of powers.", "Religious reforms.", "Public games and entertainments.", "Marriages and personal life.", "Plautia Urgulanilla.", "Aelia Paetina.", "Valeria Messalina.", "Agrippina the Younger.", "Claudius' affliction and personality.", "Scholarly works and their impact.", "Death.", "After death.", "Divine honours.", "Views of the new regime.", "Flavian and later perspectives.", "Views of ancient historians.", "In modern literature, film and radio." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Claudius was born on 1 August 10 BC at Lugdunum (modern Lyon, France). He had two older siblings, Germanicus and Livilla. His mother, Antonia, may have had two other children who died young. His maternal grandparents were Mark Antony and Octavia Minor, Augustus' sister, and he was therefore the great-great grandnephew of Gaius Julius Caesar. His paternal grandparents were Livia, Augustus' third wife, and Tiberius Claudius Nero. During his reign, Claudius revived the rumor that his father Drusus was actually the illegitimate son of Augustus, to give the appearance that Augustus was Claudius' paternal grandfather. In 9 BC, his father Drusus unexpectedly died on campaign in Germania, possibly from illness. Claudius was then left to be raised by his mother, who never remarried. When Claudius' disability became evident, the relationship with his family turned sour. Antonia referred to him as a monster, and used him as a standard for stupidity. She seems to have passed her son off to his grandmother Livia for a number of years. Livia was a little kinder, but nevertheless often sent him short, angry letters of reproof. He was put under the care of a \"former mule-driver\" to keep him disciplined, under the logic that his condition was due to laziness and a lack of will-power. However, by the time he reached his teenage years his symptoms apparently waned and his family took some notice of his scholarly interests. In AD 7, Livy was hired to tutor him in history, with the assistance of Sulpicius Flavus. He spent a lot of his time with the latter and the philosopher Athenodorus. Augustus, according to a letter, was surprised at the clarity of Claudius' oratory. Expectations about his future began to increase.", "His work as a budding historian damaged his prospects for advancement in public life. According to Vincent Scramuzza and others, Claudius began work on a history of the Civil Wars that was either too truthful or too critical of Octavian—then reigning as Augustus Caesar. In either case, it was far too early for such an account, and may have only served to remind Augustus that Claudius was Antony's descendant. His mother and grandmother quickly put a stop to it, and", "On 24 January 41, Caligula was assassinated in a broad-based conspiracy involving the Praetorian commander Cassius Chaerea and several senators. There is no evidence that Claudius had a direct hand in the assassination, although it has been argued that he knew about the plot—particularly since he left the scene of the crime shortly before his nephew was murdered. However, after the deaths of Caligula's wife and daughter, it became apparent that Cassius intended to go beyond the terms of the conspiracy and wipe out the Imperial family. In the chaos following the murder, Claudius witnessed the German guard cut down several uninvolved noblemen, including many of his friends. He fled to the palace to hide.", "Claudius took several steps to legitimize his rule against potential usurpers, most of them emphasizing his place within the Julio-Claudian family. He adopted the name \"Caesar\" as a cognomen, as the name still carried great weight with the populace. In order to do so, he dropped the cognomen \"Nero\" which he had adopted as \"paterfamilias\" of the Claudii Nerones when his brother Germanicus was adopted out. As Pharaoh of Egypt, Claudius adopted the royal titulary \"Tiberios Klaudios, Autokrator Heqaheqau Meryasetptah, Kanakht Djediakhshuemakhet\" (\"Tiberius Claudius, Emperor and ruler of rulers, beloved of Isis and Ptah, the strong bull of the stable moon on the horizon\"). While Claudius had never been formally adopted either by Augustus or his successors, he was nevertheless the grandson of Augustus' sister Octavia, and so he felt that he had the right of family. He also adopted the name \"Augustus\" as the two previous emperors had done at their accessions. He kept the honorific \"Germanicus\" to display the connection with his heroic brother. He deified his paternal grandmother Livia to highlight her position as wife of the divine Augustus. Claudius frequently used the term \"filius Drusi\" (son of Drusus) in his titles, in order to remind the people of his legendary father and lay claim to his reputation. Since Claudius was the first Emperor proclaimed on the initiative of the Praetorian Guard instead of the Senate, his repute suffered at the hands of commentators (such as Seneca). Moreover, he was the first Emperor who resorted to bribery as a means to secure army loyalty and rewarded the soldiers of the Praetorian Guard that had elevated him with 15,000 sesterces. Tiberius and Augustus had both left gifts to the army and guard in their wills, and upon Caligula's death the same would have been expected, even if no will existed. Claudius remained grateful to the guard, however, issuing coins with tributes to the Praetorians in the early part of his reign. Pliny the Elder noted, according to the 1938 Loeb Classical Library translation by Harris Rackham, \"... many people do not allow any gems in a signet-ring, and seal with the gold itself; this was a fashion invented when Claudius Cæsar was emperor.\" Claudius restored the status of the peaceful Imperial Roman provinces of Macedonia and Achaea as senatorial provinces.", "Under Claudius, the Empire underwent its first major expansion since the reign of Augustus. The provinces of Thrace, Noricum, Lycia, and Judea were annexed (or put under direct rule) under various circumstances during his term. The annexation of Mauretania, begun under Caligula, was completed after the defeat of rebel forces, and the official division of the former client kingdom into two Imperial provinces. The most far-reaching conquest was that of Britannia. In 43, Claudius sent Aulus Plautius with four legions to Britain (\"Britannia\") after an appeal from an ousted tribal ally. Britain was an attractive target for Rome because of its material wealth – particularly mines and slaves. It was also a haven for Gallic rebels and the like, and so could not be left alone much longer. Claudius himself traveled to the island after the completion of initial offensives, bringing with him reinforcements and elephants. The latter must have made an impression on the Britons when they were displayed in", "Claudius personally judged many of the legal cases tried during his reign. Ancient historians have many complaints about this, stating that his judgments were variable and sometimes did not follow the law. He was also easily swayed. Nevertheless, Claudius paid detailed attention to the operation of the judicial system. He extended the summer court session, as well as the winter term, by shortening the traditional breaks. Claudius also made a law requiring plaintiffs to remain in the city while their cases were pending, as defendants had previously been required to do. These measures had the effect of clearing out the docket. The minimum age for jurors was also raised to 25 in order to ensure a more experienced jury pool. Claudius also settled disputes in the provinces. He freed the island of Rhodes from Roman rule for their good faith and exempted Ilium (Troy) from taxes. Early in his reign, the Greeks and Jews of Alexandria sent him two embassies at once after riots broke out between the two communities. This resulted in the famous \"Letter", "Claudius embarked on many public works throughout his reign, both in the capital and in the provinces. He built two aqueducts, the Aqua Claudia, begun by Caligula, and the Anio Novus. These entered the city in 52 and met at the Porta Maggiore. He also restored a third, the Aqua Virgo. He paid special attention to transportation. Throughout Italy and the provinces he built roads and canals. Among these was a large canal leading from the Rhine to the sea, as well as a road from Italy to Germany – both begun by his father, Drusus. Closer to Rome, he built a navigable canal on the Tiber, leading to Portus, his new port just north of Ostia. This port was constructed in a semicircle with two moles and a lighthouse at its mouth. The construction also had the effect of reducing flooding in Rome. The port at Ostia was part of", "Because of the circumstances of his accession, Claudius took great pains to please the Senate. During regular sessions, the Emperor sat among the Senate body, speaking in turn. When introducing a law, he sat on a bench between the consuls in his position as holder of the power of Tribune (the Emperor could not officially serve as a Tribune of the Plebes as he was a Patrician, but it was a power taken by previous rulers). He refused to accept all his predecessors' titles (including Imperator) at the beginning of his reign, preferring to earn them in due course. He allowed the Senate to issue its own bronze coinage for the first time since Augustus. He also put the Imperial provinces of Macedonia and Achaea back under Senate control. Claudius set about remodeling the Senate into a more efficient, representative body. He chided the senators about their reluctance to debate bills introduced by", "Several coup attempts were made during Claudius' reign, resulting in the deaths of many senators. Appius Silanus was executed early in Claudius' reign under questionable circumstances. Shortly after, a large rebellion was undertaken by the Senator Vinicianus and Scribonianus, the governor of Dalmatia, and gained quite a few senatorial supporters. It ultimately failed because of the reluctance of Scribonianus' troops, which led to the suicide of the main conspirators. Many other senators tried different conspiracies and were condemned. Claudius' son-in-law Pompeius Magnus was executed for his part in a conspiracy with his father Crassus Frugi. Another plot involved the consulars Lusiius Saturninus, Cornelius Lupus, and Pompeius Pedo. In 46, Asinius Gallus, the grandson of Asinius Pollio, and Titus Statilius Taurus", "Claudius was hardly the first emperor to use freedmen to help with the day-to-day running of the Empire. He was, however, forced to increase their role as the powers of the \"princeps\" became more centralized and the burden larger. This was partly due to the ongoing hostility of the Senate, as mentioned above, but also due to his respect for the senators. Claudius did not want free-born magistrates to have to serve under him, as if they were not peers. The secretariat was divided into bureaus, with each being placed under the leadership of one freedman. Narcissus was the secretary of correspondence. Pallas became the secretary of the treasury. Callistus became secretary of justice. There was a fourth bureau for miscellaneous issues, which was put under Polybius until his execution for treason. The", "Claudius, as the author of a treatise on Augustus' religious reforms, felt himself in a good position to institute some of his own. He had strong opinions about the proper form for state religion. He refused the request of Alexandrian Greeks to dedicate a temple to his divinity, saying that only gods may choose new gods. He restored lost days to festivals and got rid of many extraneous celebrations added by Caligula. He re-instituted old observances and archaic language.", "According to Suetonius, Claudius was extraordinarily fond of games. He is said to have risen with the crowd after gladiatorial matches and given unrestrained praise to the fighters. Claudius also presided over many new and original events. Soon after coming into power, Claudius instituted games to be held in honor of his father on the latter's birthday. Annual games were also held in honour of his accession, and took place at the Praetorian camp where Claudius had first been proclaimed Emperor. Claudius organised a performance of the Secular Games, marking the 800th anniversary of the founding of Rome. Augustus had performed the same games less than a", "Suetonius and the other ancient authors accused Claudius of being dominated by women and wives, and of being a womanizer. Claudius married four times, after two failed betrothals. The first betrothal was to his distant cousin Aemilia Lepida, but was broken for political reasons. The second was to Livia Medullina Camilla, which ended with Medullina's sudden death on their wedding day.", "Plautia Urgulanilla was the granddaughter of Livia's confidant Urgulania. During their marriage she gave birth to a son, Claudius Drusus. Drusus died of asphyxiation in his early teens, shortly after becoming engaged to Junilla, the", "Soon after (possibly in 28), Claudius married Aelia Paetina, a relative of Sejanus, if not Sejanus's adoptive sister. During their marriage, Claudius", "Some years after divorcing Aelia Paetina, in 38 or early 39, Claudius married Valeria Messalina, who was his first cousin once removed and closely allied with Caligula's circle. Shortly thereafter, she gave birth to a daughter, Claudia Octavia. A son, first named Tiberius Claudius Germanicus, and later known as Britannicus, was born just after Claudius' accession. This marriage ended in tragedy. The ancient historians allege that Messalina was a nymphomaniac who was regularly unfaithful to Claudius—Tacitus states she went so far as to compete with a prostitute to see who could have the most sexual partners in a night—and manipulated", "Claudius did marry once more. The ancient sources tell that his freedmen put forward three candidates, Caligula's third wife Lollia Paulina, Claudius's divorced second wife Aelia Paetina and Claudius's niece Agrippina the Younger. According to Suetonius, Agrippina won out through her feminine wiles. The truth is probably more political. The attempted coup d'état by Silius and Messalina had probably made Claudius realize the weakness of his position as a member of the Claudian but not the Julian family. This weakness was compounded by the fact that he did not yet have an obvious adult heir, Britannicus being just a boy. Agrippina was one of the few remaining descendants of Augustus, and her son Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus (the future Emperor Nero) was one of the last males of the Imperial family. Coup attempts could rally around the pair and Agrippina was already showing such ambition. It has been suggested that the Senate may have pushed", "The historian Suetonius describes the physical manifestations of Claudius' affliction in relatively good detail. His knees were weak and gave way under him and his head shook. He stammered and his speech was confused. He slobbered and his nose ran when he was excited. The Stoic Seneca states in his \"Apocolocyntosis\" that Claudius' voice belonged to no land animal, and that his hands were weak as well. However, he showed no physical deformity, as Suetonius notes that when calm and seated he was a tall, well-built figure of \"dignitas\". When angered or stressed, his symptoms became worse. Historians agree that this condition improved upon his accession to the throne. Claudius himself claimed that he had exaggerated his ailments to save his life. Modern assessments of his health have changed several times in the past century. Prior", "Claudius wrote copiously throughout his life. Arnaldo Momigliano states that during the reign of Tiberius – which covers the peak of Claudius' literary career – it became impolitic to speak of republican Rome. The trend among the young historians was to either write about the new empire or obscure antiquarian subjects. Claudius was the rare scholar who covered both. Besides the history of Augustus' reign that caused him so much grief, his major works included \"Tyrrhenica\", a twenty-book Etruscan history, and \"Carchedonica\", an eight-volume history of Carthage, as well as an Etruscan dictionary. He also wrote a book on dice-playing. Despite the general avoidance of the Republican era, he penned a defense of Cicero against the charges of Asinius Gallus. Modern historians have used this to determine the nature of his politics and of the aborted chapters of his civil war history. He proposed a reform of the Latin alphabet by the addition of three new letters. He officially instituted the change during his censorship but they did not survive his reign. Claudius also tried to revive the old custom of putting dots between successive words (Classical Latin was written with no spacing). Finally, he wrote an eight-volume autobiography that Suetonius describes as lacking in taste. Since", "The consensus of ancient historians was that Claudius was murdered by poison—possibly contained in mushrooms or on a feather—and died in the early hours of 13 October 54. Nearly all implicate his final wife, Agrippina, as the instigator. Agrippina and Claudius had become more combative in the months leading up to his death. This carried on to the point where Claudius openly lamented his bad wives, and began to comment on Britannicus' approaching manhood with an eye towards restoring his status within the imperial family. Agrippina had motive in ensuring the succession of Nero before Britannicus could gain power. Some implicate either his taster Halotus, his", "", "Already, while alive, he received the widespread private worship of a living \"princeps\" and was worshipped in Britannia in his own temple in Camulodunum. Claudius was deified by Nero and the Senate almost immediately. Those who regard this homage as cynical should note that, cynical or", "Agrippina had sent away Narcissus shortly before Claudius' death, and now murdered the freedman. The last act of this secretary of letters was to burn all of Claudius' correspondence—most likely so it could not be used against him and others in an already hostile new regime. Thus Claudius' private words about his own policies and motives were lost to history. Just as Claudius had criticized his predecessors in", "The Flavians, who had risen to prominence under Claudius, took a different tack. They were in a position where they needed to shore up their legitimacy, but also justify the fall of the Julio-Claudians. They reached back to Claudius in contrast with Nero, to show that they were good associated with good. Commemorative coins were issued of Claudius and his son Britannicus, who had been a friend of the Emperor Titus (Titus was born in 39, Britannicus was born in 41).", "The main ancient historians Tacitus, Suetonius, and Cassius Dio all wrote after the last of the Flavians had gone. All three were senators or \"equites\". They took the side of the Senate in most conflicts with the Princeps, invariably viewing him as being in the wrong. This resulted in biases, both conscious and unconscious. Suetonius lost access to the official archives shortly after beginning his work. He was forced to rely on second-hand accounts when it came to Claudius (with the exception of Augustus' letters, which had been gathered earlier). Suetonius painted Claudius as a ridiculous figure, belittling many of his acts and attributing the objectively good works to his retinue. Tacitus wrote a narrative", "In literature, Claudius and his contemporaries appear in the historical novel \"The Roman\" by Mika Waltari. Canadian-born science fiction writer A. E. van Vogt reimagined Robert Graves' Claudius story, in his two novels, \"Empire of the Atom\" and \"The Wizard of Linn\". The historical novel \"Chariot of the Soul\" by Linda Proud features Claudius as host and mentor of the young Togidubnus, son of King Verica of the Atrebates, during his ten-year stay in Rome. When Togidubnus returns to Britain in advance of the Roman army, it is with a mission given to him by Claudius." ] }