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StivenLancheros

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Marriage and family relationships.", "Reign of Edward IV.", "Estates and titles.", "Exile and return.", "1471 military campaign.", "1475 invasion of France.", "Council of the North.", "War with Scotland.", "King of England.", "Issue.", "Legacy.", "Reputation.", "In culture.", "Discovery of remains.", "Titles, styles, honours and arms.", "Arms." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Richard was born on 2 October 1452 at Fotheringhay Castle in Northamptonshire, the eleventh of the twelve children of Richard, Duke of York, and Cecily Neville, and the youngest to survive infancy. His childhood coincided with the beginning of what has traditionally been labelled the 'Wars of the Roses', a period of political instability and periodic open civil war in England during the second half of the fifteenth century, between the Yorkists, who supported Richard's father (a potential claimant to the throne of King Henry VI from birth), and opposed the regime of Henry VI and his wife, Margaret of Anjou, and the Lancastrians, who were loyal to the crown. In 1459, his father and the Yorkists were forced to flee England, whereupon Richard and his older brother George were placed in the custody of their aunt the Duchess of Buckingham, and possibly of the Archbishop of Canterbury. When their father and elder brother Edmund, Earl of Rutland, were killed at the Battle of Wakefield on 30 December 1460, Richard and George were sent by their mother to the Low Countries. They returned to England following the defeat of the Lancastrians at the Battle of Towton. They participated in the coronation of Richard's eldest brother as King Edward IV on 28 June 1461, when Richard was named Duke of Gloucester and made both a Knight of the Garter and a Knight of the Bath. Edward appointed him the sole Commissioner of Array for the Western Counties in 1464 when he was 11. By the age of 17, he had an independent command. Richard spent several", "Following a decisive Yorkist victory over the Lancastrians at the Battle of Tewkesbury, Richard married Anne Neville, the younger daughter of the Earl of Warwick, on 12 July 1472. By the end of 1470 Anne had previously been wedded to Edward of Westminster, only son of Henry VI, to seal her father's allegiance to the Lancastrian party. Edward died at the Battle of Tewkesbury on 4 May 1471, while Warwick had died at the Battle of Barnet on 14 April 1471. Richard's marriage plans brought him into conflict with his brother George. John Paston's letter of 17 February 1472 makes it clear that George was not happy about the marriage but grudgingly accepted it on the basis that \"he may well have my Lady his sister-in-law, but they shall part no livelihood\". The reason was the inheritance Anne shared with her elder sister Isabel, whom George had married in 1469. It was not only the earldom that was at stake; Richard Neville had inherited it as a result of his marriage to Anne Beauchamp, who was still alive (and outlived both her daughters) and was technically the owner of the substantial Beauchamp estates, her own father having left no male heirs. The Croyland Chronicle records that Richard agreed to a prenuptial contract in the following terms: \"the marriage of the Duke of Gloucester with Anne before-named was to take place, and he was to have such and so much of the earl's lands as should be agreed upon between them through the mediation of arbitrators; while all the rest were to remain in the possession of the Duke of Clarence\". The date of Paston's letter suggests the marriage was still being negotiated in February 1472. In order to win his brother George's final consent to the marriage, Richard renounced most of Warwick's land and property including", "", "Richard was granted the Duchy of Gloucester on 1 November 1461, and on 12 August the next year was awarded large estates in northern England, including the lordships of Richmond in Yorkshire, and Pembroke in Wales. He gained the forfeited lands of the Lancastrian John de Vere, Earl of Oxford, in East Anglia. In 1462, on his birthday, he was made Constable of Gloucester and Corfe Castles and Admiral of England, Ireland and Aquitaine and appointed Governor of the North, becoming the richest", "During the latter part of Edward IV's reign, Richard demonstrated his loyalty to the king, in contrast to their brother George who had allied himself with Warwick when the earl rebelled towards the end of the 1460s. Following Warwick's 1470 rebellion, before which he had made peace with Margaret of Anjou and promised the restoration of Henry VI to the English throne, Richard, William, Lord Hastings and Anthony Woodville, Earl Rivers escaped capture at Doncaster by Warwick's brother, Lord Montague. On 2 October they sailed from King's Lynn in two ships; Edward landed at Marsdiep and Richard at Zeeland. It was said that, having left England in such haste as to possess almost nothing, Edward was forced to", "Once Edward had regained the support of Clarence, he mounted a swift and decisive campaign to regain the Crown through combat; it is believed that Richard was his principal lieutenant as some of the king's earliest support came from members of Richard's affinity, including Sir James Harrington and Sir William Parr, who brought 600 men-at-arms to them at Doncaster. He may have led the vanguard at the Battle", "At least in part resentful of the French king's previous support of his Lancastrian opponents, and possibly in support of his brother-in-law Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, Edward went to parliament in October 1472 for funding a military campaign, and eventually landed in Calais on 4 July 1475. Richard's was the largest private contingent of his army. Although well known to have publicly been against the eventual treaty signed with Louis XI at Picquigny (and", "Richard controlled the north of England until Edward IV's death. There, and especially in the city of York, he was highly regarded; although it has been questioned whether this view was reciprocated by Richard. Edward IV set up the Council of the North as an administrative body in 1472 to improve government control and economic prosperity and benefit the whole of Northern England. Kendall and later historians have suggested that this was with the intention of making Richard the \"Lord of the North\"; Peter Booth, however, has argued that \"instead of allowing his", "Richard's increasing role in the north from the mid-1470s to some extent explains his withdrawal from the royal court. He had been Warden of the West March on the Scottish border since 10 September 1470, and again from May 1471; he used Penrith as a base while 'taking effectual measures' against the Scots, and 'enjoyed the revenues of the estates' of the Forest of Cumberland while doing so. It was at the same time that the duke was appointed sheriff of Cumberland five consecutive years, being described as 'of Penrith Castle' in 1478. By 1480, war with Scotland was looming; on 12 May that year he was appointed Lieutenant-General of the North (a position created for the occasion) as fears of a Scottish invasion grew.", "On the death of Edward IV on 9 April 1483, his 12-year-old son, Edward V, succeeded him. Richard was named Lord Protector of the Realm and at William Hastings' urging, Richard assumed his role and left his base in Yorkshire for London. On 29 April, as previously agreed, Richard and his cousin, the Duke of Buckingham, met Queen Elizabeth's brother, Anthony Woodville, 2nd Earl Rivers, at Northampton. At the queen's request, Earl Rivers was escorting the young king to London with an armed escort of 2000 men, while Richard and Buckingham's joint escort was 600 men. The young king himself had been sent further south to Stony Stratford. At first convivial, Richard had Earl Rivers, his nephew Richard Grey and his associate, Thomas Vaughan, arrested. They were taken to Pontefract Castle, where they were executed on 25 June on the charge of treason against the Lord Protector after appearing before a tribunal led by Henry Percy, 4th Earl of Northumberland. Earl Rivers had appointed Richard as executor of his will. After having Earl Rivers arrested, Richard and Buckingham moved to Stony Stratford, where Richard informed the young king of a plot aimed at denying him his role as protector and whose perpetrators had been dealt with. He proceeded to escort the king to London. They entered the city on 4 May, displaying the carriages of weapons Earl Rivers had taken with his 2000-man army. Richard first accommodated Edward in the Bishop's apartments; then, on Buckingham's suggestion, the king was moved to the royal apartments of the Tower of London, where kings customarily awaited their coronation. Within the year 1483, Richard had moved himself to the grandeur of Crosbyes Place (Crosby Hall) then in Bishopsgate in the City of London. Robert Fabyan, in his ‘The new chronicles of England and of France’, writes that \"the Duke caused the King\" (Edward V) \"to be removed unto the Tower and his broder with hym, and the Duke lodged himselfe in Crosbyes Place in Bisshoppesgate Strete.\" In \"Holinshed's Chronicles\" of England, Scotland, and Ireland, he accounts that \"little by little all folke withdrew from the Tower, and drew unto Crosbies in Bishops gates Street, where the Protector kept his houshold. The Protector had the resort; the King in maner desolate.\" On hearing the news of her brother's 30 April arrest, the dowager queen fled to sanctuary in Westminster Abbey. Joining her were her son by her first marriage, Thomas Grey, 1st Marquess of Dorset; her five daughters; and her youngest son, Richard, Duke of York. On 10/11 June, Richard wrote to Ralph, Lord Neville, the City of York and others asking for their support against \"the Queen, her blood adherents and affinity,\" whom he suspected of plotting his murder. At a council meeting on 13 June at the Tower of London, Richard accused Hastings and others of having conspired against him with the Woodvilles and accusing Jane Shore, lover to both Hastings and Thomas Grey, of acting as a go-between. According to Thomas More, Hastings was taken out of the council chambers and summarily executed in the courtyard, while others, like Lord Thomas Stanley and John Morton, Bishop of Ely, were arrested. Hastings was not attainted and Richard sealed an indenture that placed Hastings' widow, Katherine, directly under his own protection. Bishop Morton was released into the custody of Buckingham. On 16 June, the dowager queen agreed to hand over the Duke of York to the Archbishop of Canterbury so that he might attend his brother Edward's coronation, still planned for 22 June. A clergyman is said to have informed Richard that Edward IV's marriage to Elizabeth Woodville was invalid because of Edward's earlier union with Eleanor Butler, making Edward V and his siblings illegitimate. The identity of the informant, known only through the memoirs of French diplomat Philippe de Commines, was Robert Stillington, the Bishop of Bath and Wells. On 22 June, a sermon was preached outside Old St. Paul's Cathedral declaring Edward IV's children bastards and Richard the rightful king. Shortly after, the citizens of London, both nobles and commons, convened and drew up a petition asking Richard to assume the throne. He accepted on 26 June and was crowned at Westminster Abbey on 6 July. His title to the throne was confirmed by Parliament in January 1484 by the document \"Titulus Regius\". The princes, who were still lodged in the royal residence of the Tower of London at the time of Richard's coronation, disappeared from sight after the summer of 1483. Although after his death Richard III was accused of having Edward and his brother killed, notably by More and in Shakespeare's play, the facts surrounding their disappearance remain unknown. Other culprits have been suggested, including Buckingham and even Henry VII, although Richard remains a suspect. After the coronation ceremony, Richard and Anne set out on a royal progress to meet their subjects. During this journey through the country, the king and queen endowed King's College and Queens' College at Cambridge University, and made grants to the church. Still feeling a strong bond with his northern estates, Richard later planned the establishment of a large chantry chapel in York Minster with over 100 priests. Richard also founded the College of Arms.", "Richard and Anne produced one son, Edward, who was born between 1474 and 1476. He was created Earl of Salisbury on 15 February 1478, and Prince of Wales on 24 August 1483, and died in March 1484, less than two months after he had been formally declared heir apparent. After his son's death, he named his nephew Edward, Earl of Warwick as his heir. After his wife's death, he named his nephew John de la Pole, Earl of Lincoln, the son of his sister Elizabeth as his successor, and commenced negotiations with John II of Portugal to marry John's sister, Joanna, a pious young woman who had already turned down several suitors because of her preference for the religious life. Richard had two acknowledged illegitimate children, John of Gloucester and Katherine Plantagenet. Also known as 'John of Pontefract', John of Gloucester was appointed Captain of Calais in 1485. Katherine married William Herbert, 2nd Earl of Pembroke in 1484. Neither the birth dates nor the names of the mothers of either of the children is known. Katherine was old enough to be wedded in 1484, when the age of consent was twelve, and John was knighted in September 1483 in York Minster, and so most historians agree that they were both fathered when Richard was a teenager. There is no evidence of infidelity on Richard's part after his marriage to Anne Neville in 1472 when he was around 20. This has led to a suggestion by the historian A. L. Rowse that Richard \"had no interest in sex\". Michael Hicks and Josephine Wilkinson have suggested that Katherine's mother may have been Katherine Haute, on the", "Richard's Council of the North, described as his \"one major institutional innovation\", derived from his ducal council following his own viceregal appointment by Edward IV; when Richard himself became king, he maintained the same conciliar structure in his absence. It officially became part of the royal council machinery under the presidency of John de la Pole, Earl of Lincoln in April 1484, based at Sandal Castle in Wakefield. It is considered to have greatly improved conditions for northern England, as it was, in theory at least, intended to keep the peace and punish lawbreakers, as well as resolving land disputes. Bringing regional governance directly under the control of central government, it has been described as the king's \"most enduring monument\", surviving unchanged until 1641. In December 1483, Richard instituted what later became known as the Court of Requests, a court to which poor people who could not afford legal representation could apply for their grievances to be heard. He also improved bail in January 1484, to protect suspected felons from imprisonment before trial and to protect their property from seizure during that time. He founded the College of Arms in 1484, he banned restrictions on the printing and sale of books, and he ordered the translation of the written Laws and Statutes from the traditional French into English. He ended the arbitrary benevolence (a device by which Edward IV raised funds), made it punishable to conceal from a buyer of land that a part of the property had already been disposed of to somebody else, required that land sales be published, laid down property qualifications for jurors, restricted the abusive Courts of Piepowders, regulated cloth sales, instituted certain forms of trade protectionism, prohibited the sale of wine and oil in fraudulent measure, and prohibited fraudulent collection of clergy dues, among others. Churchill implies he improved the law of trusts. Richard's death at Bosworth resulted in the end of the Plantagenet dynasty, which had ruled England since the succession of Henry II in 1154. The last legitimate male Plantagenet, Richard's nephew, Edward, Earl of Warwick (son of Richard III's brother Clarence), was executed by Henry VII in 1499. The only extant direct male line of Plantagenets is the House of Beaufort, headed today by Henry Somerset, 12th Duke of Beaufort, but the Beaufort line was barred from the succession by Henry IV.", "There are numerous contemporary, or near-contemporary, sources of information about the reign of Richard III. These include the \"Croyland Chronicle\", Commines' \"Mémoires\", the report of Dominic Mancini, the Paston Letters, the Chronicles of Robert Fabyan and numerous court and official records, including a few letters by Richard himself. However, the debate about Richard's true character and motives continues, both because of the subjectivity of many of the written sources, reflecting the generally partisan nature of writers of this period, and because of the fact that none was written by men with an intimate knowledge of Richard, even if they had met him in person. During Richard's reign, the historian John Rous praised him as a \"good lord\" who punished \"oppressors of the commons\", adding that he had \"a great heart\". In 1483 the Italian observer Mancini reported that Richard enjoyed a good reputation and that both \"his private life and public activities powerfully attracted the esteem of strangers\". His bond to the City of York, in particular, was such that on hearing of Richard's demise at the battle of Bosworth the City Council officially deplored the King's death, at the risk of facing the victor's wrath. During his lifetime he was the subject of some attacks. Even in the North in 1482 a man was prosecuted for offences against the Duke of Gloucester, saying he did 'nothing but grin at' the city of York. In 1484 the discreditory actions took the form of hostile placards, the only surviving one being William Collingbourne's lampoon of July 1484 \"The Cat,", "Apart from Shakespeare, Richard appears in many other works of literature. Two other plays of the Elizabethan era predated Shakespeare's work. The Latin-language drama \"Richardus Tertius\" (first known performance in 1580) by Thomas Legge is believed to be the first history play written in England. The anonymous play \"The True Tragedy of Richard III\" (c. 1590), performed in the same decade as Shakespeare's work, was probably an influence on Shakespeare. Neither of the two plays places any emphasis on Richard's physical appearance, though the \"True Tragedy\" briefly mentions that he is \"A man ill shaped, crooked backed, lame armed\" adding that he is \"valiantly minded, but tyrannous in authority\". Both portray him as a man motivated by personal ambition, who uses everyone around him to get his way. Ben Jonson is also known to have written a play \"Richard Crookback\" in 1602, but it was never published and", "On 24 August 2012, the University of Leicester and Leicester City Council, in association with the Richard III Society, announced that they had joined forces to begin a search for the remains of King Richard. The search for Richard III was led by Philippa Langley of the Society's \"Looking For Richard\" Project with the archaeological work led by University of Leicester Archaeological Services (ULAS). Experts set out to locate the lost site of the former Greyfriars Church (demolished during Henry VIII's dissolution of the monasteries), and to discover whether his remains were still interred there. By comparing fixed points between maps in a historical sequence, the search located the Church of the Grey Friars, where Richard's body had been hastily buried without pomp in 1485, its foundations identifiable beneath a modern-day city centre car park. On 5 September 2012, the excavators announced that they had identified Greyfriars church and two days later that they had identified the location of Robert Herrick's garden, where the memorial to Richard III stood in the early 17th century. A human skeleton was found beneath the Church's choir. Improbably, the excavators found the remains in the first location in which they dug at the car park. Coincidentally, they lay almost directly under a roughly painted \"R\" on the tarmac. This had existed since the early 2000s to signify a reserved parking space. On 12 September, it was announced that the skeleton discovered during the search might be that of Richard III. Several reasons were given: the body was of an adult male; it was buried beneath the choir of the church; and there was severe scoliosis of the spine, possibly making one shoulder higher than the other (to what extent depended on the severity of the condition). Additionally, there was an object that appeared to be an arrowhead embedded in the spine; and there were perimortem injuries to the skull. These included a relatively shallow orifice, which is most likely to have been caused by a rondel dagger, and a scooping depression to the skull, inflicted by a bladed weapon, most probably a sword. Additionally, the bottom of the skull presented a gaping hole, where a halberd had cut away and entered it. Forensic pathologist Dr Stuart Hamilton stated that this injury would have left the individual's brain visible, and most certainly would have been the cause of death. Dr Jo Appleby, the osteo-archaeologist who excavated the skeleton, concurred and described the latter as \"a mortal battlefield wound in the back of the skull\". The base of the skull also presented another fatal wound in which a bladed weapon had been thrust into it, leaving behind a jagged hole. Closer examination of the interior of the skull revealed a mark opposite this wound, showing that the blade penetrated to a depth of. In total, the skeleton presented ten wounds: four minor injuries on the top of the skull, one dagger blow on the cheekbone, one cut on the lower jaw, two fatal injuries on the base of the skull, one cut on a rib bone, and one final wound on the pelvis, most probably inflicted after death. It is generally accepted that postmortem, Richard's naked body was tied to the back of a horse, with his arms slung over one side and his legs and buttocks over the other. This presented a tempting target for onlookers, and the angle of the blow on the pelvis suggests that one of them stabbed Richard's right buttock with substantial force, as the cut extends from the back all the way to the front of the pelvic bone and was most probably an act of humiliation. It is also possible that Richard suffered other injuries which left no trace on the skeleton. British historian John Ashdown-Hill had used genealogical research in 2004 to trace matrilineal descendants of Anne of York, Richard's elder sister. A British-born woman who emigrated to Canada after the Second World War, Joy Ibsen (), was found to be a 16th-generation great-niece of the king in the same direct maternal line. Joy Ibsen's mitochondrial DNA was tested and belongs to mitochondrial DNA haplogroup J, which by deduction, should also be the mitochondrial DNA haplogroup of Richard III. Joy Ibsen died in 2008. Her son Michael Ibsen gave a mouth-swab sample to the research team on 24 August 2012. His mitochondrial DNA passed down the direct maternal line was compared to samples from the human remains found at the excavation site and used to identify King Richard. On 4 February 2013, the University of Leicester confirmed that the skeleton was beyond reasonable doubt that of King Richard III. This conclusion was based on mitochondrial DNA evidence, soil analysis, and dental tests (there were some molars missing as a result of caries), as well as physical characteristics of the skeleton which are highly consistent with contemporary accounts of Richard's appearance. The team announced that the \"arrowhead\" discovered with the body was a Roman-era nail, probably disturbed when the body was first interred. However, there were numerous perimortem wounds on the body, and part of the skull had been sliced off with a bladed weapon; this would have caused rapid death. The team concluded that it is unlikely that the king was wearing a helmet in his last moments. Soil taken from the remains was found to contain microscopic roundworm eggs. Several eggs were found in samples taken from the pelvis, where the king's intestines were, but not from the skull and only very small numbers were identified in soil surrounding the grave. The findings suggest that the higher concentration of eggs in the pelvic area probably arose from a roundworm infection the King suffered in his life, rather than from human waste dumped in the area at a later date, researchers said. The Mayor of Leicester announced that the king's skeleton would be re-interred at Leicester Cathedral in early 2014, but a judicial review of that decision delayed the reinterment for a year. A museum to Richard III was opened in July 2014 in the Victorian school buildings next to the Greyfriars grave site. The proposal to have King Richard buried in Leicester attracted some controversy. Those who challenged the decision included fifteen \"collateral [non-direct] descendants of Richard III\", represented by the Plantagenet Alliance, who believed that the body should be reburied in York, as they claim the king wished. In August 2013, they filed a court case in order to contest Leicester's claim to re-inter the body within its cathedral, and propose the body be buried in York instead. However, Michael Ibsen, who gave the DNA sample that identified the king, gave his support to Leicester's claim to re-inter the body in their cathedral. On 20 August, a judge ruled that the opponents had the legal standing to contest his burial in Leicester Cathedral, despite a clause in the contract which had authorized the excavations requiring his burial there. He urged the parties, though, to settle out of court in order to \"avoid embarking on the Wars of the Roses, Part Two\". The Plantagenet Alliance, and the supporting fifteen collateral descendants, also faced the challenge that \"Basic maths shows Richard, who had no surviving children but five siblings, could have millions of 'collateral' descendants\" undermining the group's claim to represent \"the only people who can speak on behalf of him\". A ruling in May 2014 decreed that there are \"no public law grounds for the Court interfering with the decisions in question\". The remains were taken to Leicester Cathedral on 22 March 2015 and reinterred on 26 March. On 5 February 2013 Professor Caroline Wilkinson of the University of Dundee conducted a facial reconstruction of Richard III, commissioned by the Richard III Society, based on 3D mappings of his skull. The face is described as \"warm, young, earnest and rather serious\". On 11 February 2014 the University of Leicester announced the project to sequence the entire genome of Richard III and one of his living relatives, Michael Ibsen, whose mitochondrial DNA confirmed the identification of the excavated remains. Richard III thus became the first ancient person of known historical identity to have their genome sequenced. In November 2014, the results of the testing were announced, confirming that the maternal side was as previously thought. The paternal side, however, demonstrated some variance from what had been expected, with the DNA showing no links to the purported descendants of Richard's great-great-grandfather Edward III of England through Henry Somerset, 5th Duke of Beaufort. This could be the result of covert illegitimacy that does not reflect the accepted genealogies between Richard and Edward III or between Edward III and the 5th Duke of Beaufort.", "On 1 November 1461, Richard gained the title of Duke of Gloucester; in late 1461, he was invested as a Knight of the Garter. Following the death of King Edward IV, he was made Lord Protector of England. Richard held this office from 30 April to 26 June 1483, when he made himself king of the realm. As King of England, Richard was styled \"Dei Gratia Rex Angliae et Franciae et Dominus Hiberniae\" (\"by the Grace of God, King of England and France and Lord of Ireland\"). Informally, he may have been known as \"Dickon\", according to a sixteenth-century legend of a note, warning of treachery, that was sent to the Duke of Norfolk on the eve of Bosworth:", "As Duke of Gloucester, Richard used the Royal Arms of England quartered with the Royal Arms of France, differenced by a label argent of three points ermine, on each" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Isomerization.", "Nomenclature.", "Classification.", "Racemases, epimerases.", "Cis-trans isomerases.", "Intramolecular oxidoreductases.", "Intramolecular transferases.", "Intramolecular lyases.", "Mechanisms of isomerases.", "Ring expansion and contraction via tautomers.", "Epimerization.", "Intramolecular transfer.", "Intramolecular oxidoreduction.", "The role of isomerase in human disease.", "Phosphohexose isomerase deficiency.", "Triosephosphate isomerase deficiency.", "Industrial applications.", "Membrane-associated isomerases." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Isomerases catalyze changes within one molecule. They convert one isomer to another, meaning that the end product has the same molecular formula but a different physical structure. Isomers themselves exist in many varieties but can generally be classified as structural isomers or stereoisomers. Structural isomers have a different ordering of bonds and/or different bond connectivity from one another, as in the case of hexane and its four other isomeric forms (2-methylpentane, 3-methylpentane, 2,2-dimethylbutane, and 2,3-dimethylbutane). Stereoisomers have the same ordering of individual bonds and the same connectivity but the three-dimensional arrangement of bonded atoms differ. For example, 2-butene exists in two isomeric forms: \"cis\"-2-butene and \"trans\"-2-butene. The sub-categories of isomerases containing racemases, epimerases and cis-trans isomers are examples of enzymes catalyzing the interconversion of stereoisomers. Intramolecular lyases, oxidoreductases and transferases catalyze the interconversion of structural isomers. The prevalence of each isomer in nature depends in part on the isomerization energy, the difference in energy between isomers. Isomers close in energy can interconvert easily and are often seen in comparable proportions. The isomerization energy, for example, for converting from a stable \"cis\" isomer to the less stable \"trans\" isomer is greater than for the reverse reaction, explaining why in the absence of isomerases or an outside energy source such as ultraviolet radiation a given \"cis\" isomer tends to be present in greater amounts than the \"trans\" isomer. Isomerases can increase the reaction rate by lowering the isomerization energy. Calculating isomerase kinetics from experimental data can be more difficult than for other enzymes because the use of product inhibition experiments is impractical. That is, isomerization is not an irreversible reaction since a reaction vessel will contain one substrate and one product so the typical simplified model for calculating reaction kinetics does not hold. There are also practical difficulties in determining the rate-determining step at high concentrations in a single isomerization. Instead, tracer perturbation can overcome these technical difficulties if there are two forms of the unbound enzyme. This technique uses isotope exchange to measure indirectly the interconversion of the free enzyme between its two forms. The radiolabeled substrate and product diffuse in a time-dependent manner. When the system reaches equilibrium the addition of unlabeled substrate perturbs or unbalances it. As equilibrium is established again, the radiolabeled substrate and product are tracked to determine energetic information. The earliest use of this technique elucidated the kinetics and mechanism underlying the action of phosphoglucomutase, favoring the model of indirect transfer of phosphate with one intermediate and the direct transfer of glucose. This technique was then adopted to study the profile of proline racemase and its two states: the form which isomerizes L-proline and the other for D-proline. At high concentrations it was shown that the transition state in this interconversion is rate-limiting and that these enzyme forms may differ just in the protonation at the acidic and basic groups of the active site.", "Generally, \"the names of isomerases are formed as \"\"substrate\" isomerase\" (for example, enoyl CoA isomerase), or as \"\"substrate\" \"type of isomerase\"\" (for example, phosphoglucomutase).\"", "Enzyme-catalyzed reactions each have a uniquely assigned classification number. Isomerase-catalyzed reactions have their own EC category: EC 5. Isomerases are further classified into six subclasses:", "This category (EC 5.1) includes (racemases) and epimerases). These isomerases invert stereochemistry at the target chiral carbon. Racemases act upon molecules with one chiral carbon for inversion of stereochemistry, whereas epimerases target molecules with multiple chiral carbons and act upon one of them. A molecule with only one chiral carbon has two enantiomeric forms, such as serine having the isoforms D-serine and L-serine differing only in the absolute configuration about the chiral carbon. A molecule with multiple chiral carbons has two forms at each chiral carbon. Isomerization at one chiral carbon of several yields epimers, which differ from one another in absolute configuration at just one chiral carbon. For example, D-glucose and D-mannose differ in configuration at just one chiral carbon. This class is further broken down by the group the enzyme acts upon:", "This category (EC 5.2) includes enzymes that catalyze the isomerization of cis-trans isomers. Alkenes and cycloalkanes may have cis-trans stereoisomers. These isomers are not distinguished by absolute configuration but rather by the position of substituent groups relative to a plane of reference, as across a double bond or relative to a ring structure. \"Cis\" isomers have substituent groups on the same side and \"trans\" isomers have groups on opposite sides. This category is not broken down any further. All entries presently include:", "This category (EC 5.3) includes intramolecular oxidoreductases. These isomerases catalyze the transfer of electrons from one part of the molecule to another. In other words, they catalyze the oxidation of one part of the molecule and the concurrent reduction of another part. Sub-categories of this class are:", "This category (EC 5.4) includes intramolecular transferases (mutases). These isomerases catalyze the transfer of functional groups from one part of a molecule to another. Phosphotransferases (EC 5.4.2) were categorized as transferases (EC 2.7.5) with regeneration of donors until 1983. This sub-class can be broken down according to the functional group the enzyme transfers:", "This category (EC 5.5) includes intramolecular lyases. These enzymes catalyze \"reactions in which a group can be regarded as eliminated from one part of a molecule, leaving a double bond, while remaining covalently attached to the molecule.\" Some of these catalyzed reactions involve the breaking of a ring structure. This category is not broken down any further. All entries presently include:", "", "A classic example of ring opening and contraction is the isomerization of glucose (an aldehyde with a six-membered ring) to fructose (a ketone with a five-membered ring). The conversion of D-glucose-6-phosphate to D-fructose-6-phosphate is catalyzed by glucose-6-phosphate isomerase, an intramolecular oxidoreductase. The overall reaction involves the opening of the ring to form an aldose via acid/base catalysis and the subsequent formation of a cis-endiol intermediate. A ketose is then formed and the ring is closed again. Glucose-6-phosphate first binds to the active site of the isomerase. The isomerase opens the ring: its His388 residue protonates the oxygen on the glucose ring (and thereby breaking the O5-C1 bond) in conjunction with Lys518 deprotonating the C1 hydroxyl oxygen. The ring opens to form a straight-chain aldose with an acidic C2 proton. The C3-C4 bond rotates and Glu357 (assisted by His388) depronates C2 to form a double bond between C1 and C2. A cis-endiol intermediate is created and the C1 oxygen is protonated by the catalytic residue, accompanied by the deprotonation of the endiol C2 oxygen. The straight-chain ketose is formed. To close the fructose ring, the reverse of ring opening occurs and the ketose is protonated.", "An example of epimerization is found in the Calvin cycle when D-ribulose-5-phosphate is converted into D-xylulose-5-phosphate by ribulose-phosphate 3-epimerase. The substrate and product differ only in stereochemistry at the third carbon in the chain. The underlying mechanism involves the deprotonation of that third carbon to form a reactive enolate intermediate. The enzyme's active site contains two Asp residues. After the substrate binds to the enzyme, the first Asp deprotonates the third carbon from one side of the molecule. This leaves a planar sp-hybridized intermediate. The second Asp is located on the opposite side of the active side and it protonates the molecule, effectively adding a proton from the back side. These coupled steps invert stereochemistry at the third carbon.", "Chorismate mutase is an intramolecular transferase and it catalyzes the conversion of chorismate to prephenate, used as a precursor for L-tyrosine and L-phenylalanine in some plants and bacteria. This reaction is a Claisen rearrangement that can proceed with or without the isomerase, though the rate increases 10 fold in the presence of chorismate mutase. The reaction goes through a chair transition state with the substrate in a trans-diaxial position. Experimental evidence indicates that the isomerase selectively binds the chair transition state, though the exact mechanism of catalysis is not known. It is thought that this binding stabilizes the transition state through electrostatic effects, accounting for the dramatic increase in the reaction rate in the presence of the mutase or upon addition of a specifically-placed cation in the active site.", "Isopentenyl-diphosphate delta isomerase type I (also known as IPP isomerase) is seen in cholesterol synthesis and in particular it catalyzes the conversion of isopentenyl diphosphate (IPP) to dimethylallyl diphosphate (DMAPP). In this isomerization reaction a stable carbon-carbon double bond is rearranged top create a highly electrophilic allylic isomer. IPP isomerase catalyzes this reaction by the stereoselective antarafacial transposition of a single proton. The double bond is protonated at C4 to form a tertiary carbocation intermediate at C3. The adjacent carbon, C2, is deprotonated from the opposite face to yield a double bond. In effect, the double bond is shifted over.", "Isomerase plays a role in human disease. Deficiencies of this enzyme can cause disorders in humans.", "Phosphohexose Isomerase Dificiency (PHI) is also known as phosphoglucose isomerase deficiency or Glucose-6-phosphate isomerase deficiency, and is a hereditary enzyme deficiency. PHI is the second most frequent erthoenzyopathy in glycolysis besides pyruvate kinase deficiency, and is associated with non-spherocytic haemolytic anaemia of variable severity. This disease is centered on the glucose-6-phosphate protein. This protein can be found in the secretion of some cancer cells. PHI is the result of a dimeric enzyme that catalyses the reversible interconversion of fructose-6-phosphate and gluose-6-phosphate. PHI is a very rare disease with only 50 cases reported in literature to date. Diagnosis is made on the basis of the clinical picture in association with biochemical studies revealing erythrocyte GPI deficiency (between 7 and 60% of normal) and identification of a mutation in the GPI gene by molecular analysis. The deficiency of phosphohexose isomerase can lead to a condition referred to as hemolytic syndrome. As in humans, the hemolytic syndrome, which is characterized by a diminished erythrocyte number, lower hematocrit, lower hemoglobin, higher number of reticulocytes and plasma bilirubin concentration, as well as increased liver- and spleen-somatic indices, was exclusively manifested in homozygous mutants.", "The disease referred to as triosephosphate isomerase deficiency (TPI), is a severe autosomal recessive inherited multisystem disorder of glycolyic metabolism. It is characterized by hemolytic anemia and neurodegeneration, and is caused by anaerobic metabolic dysfunction. This dysfunction results from a missense mutation that effects the encoded TPI protein. The most common mutation is the substitution of gene, Glu104Asp, which produces the most severe phenotype, and is responsible for approximately 80% of clinical TPI deficiency. TPI deficiency is very rare with less than 50 cases reported in literature. Being an autosomal recessive inherited disease, TPI deficiency has a 25% recurrence risk in the case of heterozygous parents. It is a congenital disease that most often occurs with hemolytic anemia and manifests with jaundice. Most patients with TPI for Glu104Asp mutation or heterozygous for a TPI null allele and Glu104Asp have a life expectancy of infancy to early childhood. TPI patients with other mutations generally show longer life expectancy. To date, there are only two cases of individuals with TPI living beyond the age of 6. These cases involve two brothers from Hungary, one who did not develop neurological symptoms until the age of 12, and the older brother who has no neurological symptoms and suffers from anemia only. Individuals with TPI show obvious symptoms after 6–24 months of age. These symptoms include: dystonia, tremor, dyskinesia, pyramidal tract signs, cardiomyopathy and spinal motor neuron involvement. Patients also show frequent respiratory system bacterial infections. TPI is detected through deficiency of enzymatic activity and the build-up of dihyroxyacetone phosphate(DHAP), which is a toxic substrate, in erythrocytes. This can be detected through physical examination and a series of lab work. In detection, there is generally myopathic changes seen in muscles and chronic axonal neuropathy found in the nerves. Diagnosis of TPI can be confirmed through molecular genetics. Chorionic villus DNA analysis or analysis of fetal red cells can be used to detect TPI in antenatal diagnosis. Treatment for TPI is not specific, but varies according to different cases. Because of the range of symptoms TPI causes, a team of specialist may be needed to provide treatment to a single individual. That team of specialists would consists of pediatricians, cardiologists, neurologists, and other healthcare professionals, that can develop a comprehensive plan of action. Supportive measures such as red cell transfusions in cases of severe anaemia can be taken to treat TPI as well. In some cases, spleen removal (splenectomy) may improve the anaemia. There is no treatment to prevent progressive neurological impairment of any other non-haematological clinical manifestation of the diseases.", "By far the most common use of isomerases in industrial applications is in sugar manufacturing. Glucose isomerase (also known as xylose isomerase) catalyzes the conversion of D-xylose and D-glucose to D-xylulose and D-fructose. Like most sugar isomerases, glucose isomerase catalyzes the interconversion of aldoses and ketoses. The conversion of glucose to fructose is a key component of high-fructose corn syrup production. Isomerization is more specific than older chemical methods of fructose production, resulting in a higher yield of fructose and no side products. The fructose produced from this isomerization reaction is purer with no residual flavors from contaminants. High-fructose corn syrup is preferred by many confectionery and soda manufacturers because of the high sweetening power of fructose (twice that of sucrose), its relatively low cost and its inability to crystallize. Fructose is also used as a sweetener for use by diabetics. Major issues of the use of glucose isomerase involve its inactivation at higher temperatures and the requirement for a high pH (between 7.0 and 9.0) in the reaction environment. Moderately high temperatures, above 70 °C, increase the yield of fructose by at least half in the isomerization step. The enzyme requires a divalent cation such as Co and Mg for peak activity, an additional cost to manufacturers. Glucose isomerase also has a much higher affinity for xylose than for glucose, necessitating a carefully controlled environment. The isomerization of xylose to xylulose has its own commercial applications as interest in biofuels has increased. This reaction is often seen naturally in bacteria that feed on decaying plant matter. Its most common industrial use is in the production of ethanol, achieved by the fermentation of xylulose. The use of hemicellulose as source material is very common. Hemicellulose contains xylan, which itself is composed of xylose in β(1,4) linkages. The use of glucose isomerase very efficiently converts xylose to xylulose, which can then be acted upon by fermenting yeast. Overall, extensive research in genetic engineering has been invested into optimizing glucose isomerase and facilitating its recovery from industrial applications for re-use. Glucose isomerase is able to catalyze the isomerization of a range of other sugars, including D-ribose, D-allose and L-arabinose. The most efficient substrates are those similar to glucose and xylose, having equatorial hydroxyl groups at the third and fourth carbons. The current model for the mechanism of glucose isomerase is that of a hydride shift based on X-ray crystallography and isotope exchange studies.", "Some isomerases associate with biological membranes as peripheral membrane proteins or anchored through a single transmembrane helix, for example isomerases with the thioredoxin domain, and certain prolyl isomerases." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Nomenclature.", "Classification.", "Reactions.", "EC 2.1: single carbon transferases.", "EC 2.2: aldehyde and ketone transferases.", "EC 2.3: acyl transferases.", "EC 2.4: glycosyl, hexosyl, and pentosyl transferases.", "EC 2.5: alkyl and aryl transferases.", "EC 2.6: nitrogenous transferases.", "EC 2.7: phosphorus transferases.", "EC 2.8: sulfur transferases.", "EC 2.9: selenium transferases.", "EC 2.10: metal transferases.", "Role in histo-blood group.", "Deficiencies.", "SCOT deficiency.", "CPT-II deficiency.", "Galactosemia.", "Choline acetyltransferase deficiencies.", "Alzheimer's disease.", "Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS or Lou Gehrig's disease).", "Huntington's disease.", "Schizophrenia.", "Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS).", "Congenital myasthenic syndrome (CMS).", "Uses in biotechnology.", "Terminal transferases.", "Glutathione transferases.", "Rubber transferases.", "Membrane-associated transferases." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Some of the most important discoveries relating to transferases occurred as early as the 1930s. Earliest discoveries of transferase activity occurred in other classifications of enzymes, including Beta-galactosidase, protease, and acid/base phosphatase. Prior to the realization that individual enzymes were capable of such a task, it was believed that two or more enzymes enacted functional group transfers. Transamination, or the transfer of an amine (or NH) group from an amino acid to a keto acid by an aminotransferase (also known as a \"transaminase\"), was first noted in 1930 by D. M. Needham, after observing the disappearance of glutamic acid added to pigeon breast muscle. This observance was later verified by the discovery of its reaction mechanism by Braunstein and Kritzmann in 1937. Their analysis showed that this reversible reaction could be applied to other tissues. This assertion was validated by Rudolf Schoenheimer's work with radioisotopes as tracers in 1937. This in turn would pave the way for the possibility that similar transfers were a primary means of producing most amino acids via amino transfer. Another such example of early transferase research and later reclassification involved the discovery of uridyl transferase. In 1953, the enzyme UDP-glucose pyrophosphorylase was shown to be a transferase, when it was found that it could reversibly produce UTP and G1P from UDP-glucose and an organic pyrophosphate. Another example of historical significance relating to transferase is the discovery of the mechanism of catecholamine breakdown by catechol-O-methyltransferase. This discovery was a large part of the reason for Julius Axelrod’s 1970 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (shared with Sir Bernard Katz and Ulf von Euler). Classification of transferases continues to this day, with new ones being discovered frequently. An example of this is Pipe, a sulfotransferase involved in the dorsal-ventral patterning of \"Drosophilia\". Initially, the exact mechanism of Pipe was unknown, due to a lack of information on its substrate. Research into Pipe's catalytic activity eliminated the likelihood of it being a heparan sulfate glycosaminoglycan. Further research has shown that Pipe targets the ovarian structures for sulfation. Pipe is currently classified as a \"Drosophilia\" heparan sulfate 2-O-sulfotransferase.", "Systematic names of transferases are constructed in the form of \"donor:acceptor grouptransferase.\" For example, methylamine:L-glutamate N-methyltransferase would be the standard naming convention for the transferase methylamine-glutamate N-methyltransferase, where methylamine is the donor, L-glutamate is the acceptor, and methyltransferase is the EC category grouping. This same action by the transferase can be illustrated as follows: However, other accepted names are more frequently used for transferases, and are often formed as \"acceptor grouptransferase\" or \"donor grouptransferase.\" For example, a DNA methyltransferase is a transferase that catalyzes the transfer of a methyl group to a DNA acceptor. In practice, many molecules are not referred to using this terminology due to more prevalent common names. For example, RNA Polymerase is the modern common name for what was formerly known as RNA nucleotidyltransferase, a kind of nucleotidyl transferase that transfers nucleotides to the 3’ end of a growing RNA strand. In the EC system of classification, the accepted name for RNA Polymerase is DNA-directed RNA polymerase.", "Described primarily based on the type of biochemical group transferred, transferases can be divided into ten categories (based on the EC Number classification). These categories comprise over 450 different unique enzymes. In the EC numbering system, transferases have been given a classification of EC2. Hydrogen is not considered a functional group when it comes to transferase targets; instead, hydrogen transfer is included under oxidoreductases, due to electron transfer considerations.", "", "EC 2.1 includes enzymes that transfer single-carbon groups. This category consists of transfers of methyl, hydroxymethyl, formyl, carboxy, carbamoyl, and amido groups. Carbamoyltransferases, as an example, transfer a carbamoyl group from one molecule to another. Carbamoyl groups follow the formula NHCO. In ATCase such a transfer is written as Carbamyl phosphate + L-aspertate formula_3 L-carbamyl aspartate + phosphate.", "Enzymes that transfer aldehyde or ketone groups and included in EC 2.2. This category consists of various transketolases and transaldolases. Transaldolase, the namesake of aldehyde transferases, is an important part of the pentose phosphate pathway. The reaction it catalyzes consists of a transfer of a dihydroxyacetone functional group to Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (also known as G3P). The reaction is as follows: sedoheptulose 7-phosphate + glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate formula_2 erythrose 4-phosphate + fructose 6-phosphate.", "Transfer of acyl groups or acyl groups that become alkyl groups during the process of being transferred are key aspects of EC 2.3. Further, this category also differentiates between amino-acyl and non-amino-acyl groups. Peptidyl transferase is a ribozyme that facilitates formation of peptide bonds during translation. As an aminoacyltransferase, it catalyzes the transfer of a peptide to an aminoacyl-tRNA, following this reaction: peptidyl-tRNA + aminoacyl-tRNA formula_2 tRNA + peptidyl aminoacyl-tRNA.", "EC 2.4 includes enzymes that transfer glycosyl groups, as well as those that transfer hexose and pentose. Glycosyltransferase is a subcategory of EC 2.4 transferases that is involved in biosynthesis of disaccharides and polysaccharides through transfer of monosaccharides to other molecules. An example of a prominent glycosyltransferase is lactose synthase which is a dimer possessing two protein subunits. Its primary action is to produce lactose from glucose and UDP-galactose. This occurs via the following pathway: UDP-β-D-galactose + D-glucose formula_2 UDP + lactose.", "EC 2.5 relates to enzymes that transfer alkyl or aryl groups, but does not include methyl groups. This is in contrast to functional groups that become alkyl groups when transferred, as those are included in EC 2.3. EC 2.5 currently only possesses one sub-class: Alkyl and aryl transferases. Cysteine synthase, for example, catalyzes the formation of acetic acids and cysteine from O-acetyl-L-serine and hydrogen sulfide: O-acetyl-L-serine + HS formula_2 L-cysteine + acetate.", "The grouping consistent with transfer of nitrogenous groups is EC 2.6. This includes enzymes like transaminase (also known as \"aminotransferase\"), and a very small number of oximinotransferases and other nitrogen group transferring enzymes. EC 2.6 previously included amidinotransferase but it has since been reclassified as a subcategory of EC 2.1 (single-carbon transferring enzymes). In the case of aspartate transaminase, which can act on tyrosine, phenylalanine, and tryptophan, it reversibly transfers an amino group from one molecule to the other. The reaction, for example, follows the following order: L-aspartate +2-oxoglutarate formula_2 oxaloacetate + L-glutamate.", "While EC 2.7 includes enzymes that transfer phosphorus-containing groups, it also includes nuclotidyl transferases as well. Sub-category phosphotransferase is divided up in categories based on the type of group that accepts the transfer. Groups that are classified as phosphate acceptors include: alcohols, carboxy groups, nitrogenous groups, and phosphate groups. Further constituents of this subclass of transferases are various kinases. A prominent kinase is cyclin-dependent kinase (or CDK), which comprises a sub-family of protein kinases. As their name implies, CDKs are heavily dependent on specific cyclin molecules for activation. Once combined, the CDK-cyclin complex is capable of enacting its function within the cell cycle. The reaction catalyzed by CDK is as follows: ATP + a target protein formula_3 ADP + a phosphoprotein.", "Transfer of sulfur-containing groups is covered by EC 2.8 and is subdivided into the subcategories of sulfurtransferases, sulfotransferases, and CoA-transferases, as well as enzymes that transfer alkylthio groups. A specific group of sulfotransferases are those that use PAPS as a sulfate group donor. Within this group is alcohol sulfotransferase which has a broad targeting capacity. Due to this, alcohol sulfotransferase is also known by several other names including \"hydroxysteroid sulfotransferase,\" \"steroid sulfokinase,\" and \"estrogen sulfotransferase.\" Decreases in its activity has been linked to human liver disease. This transferase acts via the following reaction: 3'-phosphoadenylyl sulfate + an alcohol formula_2 adenosine 3',5'bisphosphate + an alkyl sulfate.", "EC 2.9 includes enzymes that transfer selenium-containing groups. This category only contains two transferases, and thus is one of the smallest categories of transferase. Selenocysteine synthase, which was first added to the classification system in 1999, converts seryl-tRNA(Sec UCA) into selenocysteyl-tRNA(Sec UCA).", "The category of EC 2.10 includes enzymes that transfer molybdenum or tungsten-containing groups. However, as of 2011, only one enzyme has been added: molybdopterin molybdotransferase. This enzyme is a component of MoCo biosynthesis in \"Escherichia coli\". The reaction it catalyzes is as follows: adenylyl-molybdopterin + molybdate formula_3 molybdenum cofactor + AMP.", "The A and B transferases are the foundation of the human ABO blood group system. Both A and B transferases are glycosyltransferases, meaning they transfer a sugar molecule onto an H-antigen. This allows H-antigen to synthesize the glycoprotein and glycolipid conjugates that are known as the A/B antigens. The full name of A transferase is alpha 1-3-N-acetylgalactosaminyltransferase and its function in the cell is to add N-acetylgalactosamine to H-antigen, creating A-antigen. The full name of B transferase is alpha 1-3-galactosyltransferase, and its function in the cell is to add a galactose molecule to H-antigen, creating B-antigen. It is possible for \"Homo sapiens\" to have any of four different blood types: Type A (express A antigens), Type B (express B antigens), Type AB (express both A and B antigens) and Type O (express neither A nor B antigens). The gene for A and B transferases is located on chromosome 9. The gene contains seven exons and six introns and the gene itself is over 18kb long. The alleles for A and B transferases are extremely similar. The resulting enzymes only differ in 4 amino acid residues. The differing residues are located at positions 176, 235, 266, and 268 in the enzymes.", "Transferase deficiencies are at the root of many common illnesses. The most common result of a transferase deficiency is a buildup of a cellular product.", "Succinyl-CoA:3-ketoacid CoA transferase deficiency (or SCOT deficiency) leads to a buildup of ketones. Ketones are created upon the breakdown of fats in the body and are an important energy source. Inability to utilize ketones leads to intermittent ketoacidosis, which usually first manifests during infancy. Disease sufferers experience nausea, vomiting, inability to feed, and breathing difficulties. In extreme cases, ketoacidosis can lead to coma and death. The deficiency is caused by mutation in the gene OXCT1. Treatments mostly rely on controlling the diet of the patient.", "Carnitine palmitoyltransferase II deficiency (also known as CPT-II deficiency) leads to an excess long chain fatty acids, as the body lacks the ability to transport fatty acids into the mitochondria to be processed as a fuel source. The disease is caused by a defect in the gene CPT2. This deficiency will present in patients in one of three ways: lethal neonatal, severe infantile hepatocardiomuscular, and myopathic form. The myopathic is the least severe form of the deficiency and can manifest at any point in the lifespan of the patient. The other two forms appear in infancy. Common symptoms of the lethal neonatal form and the severe infantile forms are liver failure, heart problems, seizures and death. The myopathic form is characterized by muscle pain and weakness following vigorous exercise. Treatment generally includes dietary modifications and carnitine supplements.", "Galactosemia results from an inability to process galactose, a simple sugar. This deficiency occurs when the gene for galactose-1-phosphate uridylyltransferase (GALT) has any number of mutations, leading to a deficiency in the amount of GALT produced. There are two forms of Galactosemia: classic and Duarte. Duarte galactosemia is generally less severe than classic galactosemia and is caused by a deficiency of galactokinase. Galactosemia renders infants unable to process the sugars in breast milk, which leads to vomiting and anorexia within days of birth. Most symptoms of the disease are caused by a buildup of galactose-1-phosphate in the body. Common symptoms include liver failure, sepsis, failure to grow, and mental impairment, among others. Buildup of a second toxic substance, galactitol, occurs in the lenses of the eyes, causing cataracts. Currently, the only available treatment is early diagnosis followed by adherence to a diet devoid of lactose, and prescription of antibiotics for infections that may develop.", "Choline acetyltransferase (also known as ChAT or CAT) is an important enzyme which produces the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Acetylcholine is involved in many neuropsychic functions such as memory, attention, sleep and arousal. The enzyme is globular in shape and consists of a single amino acid chain. ChAT functions to transfer an acetyl group from acetyl co-enzyme A to choline in the synapses of nerve cells and exists in two forms: soluble and membrane bound. The ChAT gene is located on chromosome 10.", "Decreased expression of ChAT is one of the hallmarks of Alzheimer's disease. Patients with Alzheimer's disease show a 30 to 90% reduction in activity in several regions of the brain, including the temporal lobe, the parietal lobe and the frontal lobe. However, ChAT deficiency is not believed to be the main cause of this disease.", "Patients with ALS show a marked decrease in ChAT activity in motor neurons in the spinal cord and brain. Low levels of ChAT activity are an early indication of the disease and are detectable long before motor neurons begin to die. This can even be detected before the patient is symptomatic.", "Patients with Huntington's also show a marked decrease in ChAT production. Though the specific cause of the reduced production is not clear, it is believed that the death of medium-sized motor neurons with spiny dendrites leads to the lower levels of ChAT production.", "Patients with Schizophrenia also exhibit decreased levels of ChAT, localized to the mesopontine tegment of the brain and the nucleus accumbens, which is believed to correlate with the decreased cognitive functioning experienced by these patients.", "Recent studies have shown that SIDS infants show decreased levels of ChAT in both the hypothalamus and the striatum. SIDS infants also display fewer neurons capable of producing ChAT in the vagus system. These defects in the medulla could lead to an inability to control essential autonomic functions such as the cardiovascular and respiratory systems.", "CMS is a family of diseases that are characterized by defects in neuromuscular transmission which leads to recurrent bouts of apnea (inability to breathe) that can be fatal. ChAT deficiency is implicated in myasthenia syndromes where the transition problem occurs presynaptically. These syndromes are characterized by the patients’ inability to resynthesize acetylcholine.", "", "Terminal transferases are transferases that can be used to label DNA or to produce plasmid vectors. It accomplishes both of these tasks by adding deoxynucleotides in the form of a template to the downstream end or 3' end of an existing DNA molecule. Terminal transferase is one of the few DNA polymerases that can function without an RNA primer.", "The family of glutathione transferases (GST) is extremely diverse, and therefore can be used for a number of biotechnological purposes. Plants use glutathione transferases as a means to segregate toxic metals from the rest of the cell. These glutathione transferases can be used to create biosensors to detect contaminants such as herbicides and insecticides. Glutathione transferases are also used in transgenic plants to increase resistance to both biotic and abiotic stress. Glutathione transferases are currently being explored as targets for anti-cancer medications due to their role in drug resistance. Further, glutathione transferase genes have been investigated due to their ability to prevent oxidative damage and have shown improved resistance in transgenic cultigens.", "Currently the only available commercial source of natural rubber is the Hevea plant (Hevea brasiliensis). Natural rubber is superior to synthetic rubber in a number of commercial uses. Efforts are being made to produce transgenic plants capable of synthesizing natural rubber, including tobacco and sunflower. These efforts are focused on sequencing the subunits of the rubber transferase enzyme complex in order to transfect these genes into other plants.", "Many transferases associate with biological membranes as peripheral membrane proteins or anchored to membranes through a single transmembrane helix, for example numerous glycosyltransferases in Golgi apparatus. Some others are multi-span transmembrane proteins, for example certain Oligosaccharyltransferases or microsomal glutathione S-transferase from MAPEG family." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Subfields and scope.", "History.", "Early history.", "19th century.", "Foundational theories.", "20th century.", "Set theory and paradoxes.", "Symbolic logic.", "Beginnings of the other branches.", "Formal logical systems.", "First-order logic.", "Other classical logics.", "Nonclassical and modal logic.", "Algebraic logic.", "Set theory.", "Model theory.", "Recursion theory.", "Algorithmically unsolvable problems.", "Proof theory and constructive mathematics.", "Applications.", "Connections with computer science.", "Foundations of mathematics." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The \"Handbook of Mathematical Logic\" makes a rough division of contemporary mathematical logic into four areas: Each area has a distinct focus, although many techniques and results are shared among multiple areas. The borderlines amongst these fields, and the lines separating mathematical logic and other fields of mathematics, are not always sharp. Gödel's incompleteness theorem marks not only a milestone in recursion theory and proof theory, but has also led", "Mathematical logic emerged in the mid-19th century as a subfield of mathematics, reflecting the confluence of two traditions: formal philosophical logic and mathematics (Ferreirós 2001, p. 443). \"Mathematical logic, also called 'logistic','symbolic logic', the 'algebra of logic', and, more recently, simply 'formal logic', is the set of logical theories elaborated in the course of the last [nineteenth] century with the aid of an artificial notation and a rigorously deductive method.\" Before this emergence, logic was studied with rhetoric, with \"calculationes\", through the syllogism, and with philosophy. The first half of the 20th century saw an explosion of fundamental results, accompanied by vigorous debate over the foundations of mathematics.", "Theories of logic were developed in many cultures in history, including China, India, Greece and the Islamic world. Greek methods, particularly Aristotelian logic (or term logic) as found in the \"Organon\", found wide application and", "In the middle of the nineteenth century, George Boole and then Augustus De Morgan presented systematic mathematical treatments of logic. Their work, building on work by algebraists such as George Peacock, extended the traditional Aristotelian doctrine of logic into a sufficient framework for the study of foundations of mathematics (Katz 1998, p. 686). Charles Sanders Peirce built upon the work of Boole to develop a logical system for relations and quantifiers, which he published in several papers from 1870 to 1885. Gottlob Frege presented an independent development of logic with quantifiers in his \"Begriffsschrift\", published in 1879, a work generally considered as marking a turning point in the history of logic. Frege's work remained obscure, however, until Bertrand Russell began to promote it near the turn of the century. The two-dimensional notation Frege developed was never widely adopted and is unused in contemporary texts. From 1890 to 1905, Ernst Schröder published \"Vorlesungen über die Algebra der Logik\" in three volumes. This work summarized and extended the work of Boole, De Morgan, and Peirce, and was a comprehensive reference to symbolic logic as it was understood at the end of the 19th century.", "Concerns that mathematics had not been built on a proper foundation led to the development of axiomatic systems for fundamental areas of mathematics such as arithmetic, analysis, and geometry. In logic, the term \"arithmetic\" refers to the theory of the natural numbers. Giuseppe Peano (1889) published a set of axioms for arithmetic that came to bear his name (Peano axioms), using a variation of the logical system of Boole and Schröder but adding quantifiers. Peano was unaware of Frege's work at the time. Around the same time Richard Dedekind showed that the natural numbers are uniquely characterized by their induction properties. Dedekind (1888) proposed a different characterization, which lacked the formal logical character of Peano's axioms. Dedekind's work, however, proved theorems inaccessible in Peano's system, including the uniqueness of the set of natural numbers (up to isomorphism) and the recursive definitions of addition and multiplication from the successor function and mathematical induction. In the mid-19th century, flaws in Euclid's axioms for geometry became known (Katz 1998, p. 774). In addition to the independence of the parallel postulate, established by Nikolai Lobachevsky in 1826 (Lobachevsky 1840), mathematicians discovered that certain theorems taken for granted by Euclid were not in fact provable from his axioms. Among these is the theorem that a line contains at least two points, or that circles of", "In the early decades of the 20th century, the main areas of study were set theory and formal logic. The discovery of paradoxes in informal set theory caused some to wonder whether mathematics itself is inconsistent, and to look for proofs of consistency. In 1900, Hilbert posed a famous list of 23 problems for the next century. The first two of these were to resolve the continuum hypothesis and prove the consistency of elementary arithmetic, respectively; the tenth was to produce a method that could decide whether a multivariate polynomial equation over the integers has a solution. Subsequent work to resolve these problems shaped the direction of mathematical logic, as did the effort to resolve Hilbert's \"Entscheidungsproblem\", posed in 1928. This problem asked for a procedure that would decide, given a formalized mathematical statement, whether the statement is true or false.", "Ernst Zermelo (1904) gave a proof that every set could be well-ordered, a result Georg Cantor had been unable to obtain. To achieve the proof, Zermelo introduced the axiom of choice, which drew heated debate and research among mathematicians and the pioneers of set theory. The immediate criticism of the method led Zermelo to publish a second exposition of his result, directly addressing criticisms of his proof (Zermelo 1908a). This paper led to the general acceptance of the axiom of choice in the mathematics community. Skepticism about the axiom of choice was reinforced by recently discovered paradoxes in naive set theory. Cesare Burali-Forti (1897) was the first to state a paradox: the Burali-Forti paradox shows that the collection of all ordinal numbers cannot form a set. Very soon thereafter, Bertrand Russell discovered Russell's", "Leopold Löwenheim (1915) and Thoralf Skolem (1920) obtained the Löwenheim–Skolem theorem, which says that first-order logic cannot control the cardinalities of infinite structures. Skolem realized that this theorem would apply to first-order formalizations of set theory, and that it implies any such formalization has a countable model. This counterintuitive fact became known as Skolem's paradox. In his doctoral thesis, Kurt Gödel (1929) proved the completeness theorem, which establishes a correspondence between syntax and semantics in first-order logic. Gödel used the completeness theorem to prove the compactness theorem, demonstrating the finitary nature of first-order logical consequence. These results helped establish first-order logic as the dominant logic used by mathematicians. In 1931, Gödel published \"On Formally Undecidable Propositions of Principia Mathematica", "Alfred Tarski developed the basics of model theory. Beginning in 1935, a group of prominent mathematicians collaborated under the pseudonym Nicolas Bourbaki to publish a series of encyclopedic mathematics texts. These texts, written in an austere and axiomatic style, emphasized rigorous presentation and set-theoretic foundations. Terminology coined by these texts, such as the words \"bijection\", \"injection\", and \"surjection\", and the set-theoretic foundations the texts employed, were widely adopted throughout mathematics. The study of computability came to be known as recursion theory, because early formalizations by Gödel and Kleene relied on recursive definitions of functions. When these", "At its core, mathematical logic deals with mathematical concepts expressed using formal logical systems. These systems, though they differ in many details, share the common property of considering only expressions in a fixed formal language. The systems of propositional logic and first-order logic are the most widely studied today, because of their applicability to foundations of mathematics and because of their desirable proof-theoretic properties. Stronger classical logics such as second-order logic or infinitary logic are also studied, along with nonclassical logics such as intuitionistic logic.", "First-order logic is a particular formal system of logic. Its syntax involves only finite expressions as well-formed formulas, while its semantics are characterized by the limitation of all quantifiers to a fixed domain of discourse. Early results from formal logic established limitations of first-order logic. The Löwenheim–Skolem theorem (1919) showed that if a set of sentences in a countable first-order language has an infinite model then it has at least one model of each infinite cardinality. This shows that it is impossible for a set of first-order axioms to characterize the natural numbers, the real numbers, or any other infinite structure up to isomorphism. As the goal of early foundational studies was to produce axiomatic theories for all parts of mathematics, this limitation was particularly stark. Gödel's completeness theorem (Gödel 1929) established the equivalence between semantic and syntactic definitions of logical consequence in first-order logic. It shows that if a particular sentence is true in every model that satisfies a particular set of axioms, then there must be a finite deduction of the sentence from the axioms. The compactness theorem first appeared as a lemma in Gödel's proof of the completeness theorem, and it took", "Many logics besides first-order logic are studied. These include infinitary logics, which allow for formulas to provide an infinite amount of information, and higher-order logics, which include a portion of set theory directly in their semantics. The most well studied infinitary logic is formula_1. In this logic, quantifiers may only be nested to finite depths, as in first-order logic, but formulas may have finite or countably infinite conjunctions and disjunctions within them. Thus, for example, it is possible to say that an object is a whole number using a formula of formula_1 such as Higher-order logics allow for quantification not only of elements of the domain of discourse, but subsets of the domain of discourse, sets of such", "Modal logics include additional modal operators, such as an operator which states that a particular formula is not only true, but necessarily true. Although modal logic is not often used to axiomatize mathematics, it has been used to study the properties of first-order provability (Solovay 1976) and set-theoretic forcing (Hamkins and Löwe 2007). Intuitionistic logic", "Algebraic logic uses the methods of abstract algebra to study the semantics of formal logics. A fundamental example is the use of Boolean algebras to represent", "Set theory is the study of sets, which are abstract collections of objects. Many of the basic notions, such as ordinal and cardinal numbers, were developed informally by Cantor before formal axiomatizations of set theory were developed. The first such axiomatization, due to Zermelo (1908b), was extended slightly to become Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory (ZF), which is now the most widely used foundational theory for mathematics. Other formalizations of set theory have been proposed, including von Neumann–Bernays–Gödel set theory (NBG), Morse–Kelley set theory (MK), and New Foundations (NF). Of these, ZF, NBG, and MK are similar in describing a cumulative hierarchy of sets. New Foundations takes a different approach; it allows objects such as the set of all sets at the cost of restrictions on its set-existence axioms. The system of Kripke–Platek set theory is closely related to generalized recursion theory. Two famous statements in set theory are the axiom of choice and the continuum hypothesis. The axiom of choice, first stated by Zermelo (1904), was proved independent of ZF by Fraenkel (1922), but has come to be widely accepted by mathematicians. It states that given a collection of nonempty sets there is a single set \"C\" that contains exactly one element from each set in the collection. The set \"C\" is said to \"choose\" one element from each set in the collection. While", "Model theory studies the models of various formal theories. Here a theory is a set of formulas in a particular formal logic and signature, while a model is a structure that gives a concrete interpretation of the theory. Model theory is closely related to universal algebra and algebraic geometry, although the methods of model theory focus more on logical considerations than those fields. The set of all models of a particular theory is called an elementary class; classical model theory seeks to determine the properties of models in a particular elementary class, or determine whether certain classes of structures form elementary classes. The method of quantifier", "Recursion theory, also called computability theory, studies the properties of computable functions and the Turing degrees, which divide the uncomputable functions into sets that have the same level of uncomputability. Recursion theory also includes the study of generalized computability and definability. Recursion theory grew from the work of Rózsa Péter, Alonzo Church and Alan Turing in the 1930s, which was greatly extended by Kleene and Post in the 1940s. Classical recursion theory focuses on the computability of functions from the natural numbers to the natural numbers. The fundamental results establish a robust, canonical class of computable functions with numerous independent, equivalent characterizations using Turing machines, λ calculus, and other systems. More advanced results concern the structure of the Turing degrees and the lattice of recursively enumerable sets. Generalized recursion theory extends the ideas of recursion theory to computations that are no longer necessarily finite. It includes the study of computability in higher types as well as areas such as hyperarithmetical theory and α-recursion theory. Contemporary research in recursion theory includes the study of applications such as algorithmic randomness, computable model theory, and reverse mathematics, as well as new results in pure recursion theory.", "An important subfield of recursion theory studies algorithmic unsolvability; a decision problem or function problem is algorithmically unsolvable if there is no possible computable algorithm that returns the correct answer for all legal inputs to the problem. The first results about unsolvability, obtained independently by Church and Turing in 1936, showed that the Entscheidungsproblem is algorithmically unsolvable. Turing proved this by establishing the unsolvability of the halting problem, a result with", "Proof theory is the study of formal proofs in various logical deduction systems. These proofs are represented as formal mathematical objects, facilitating their analysis by mathematical techniques. Several deduction systems are commonly considered, including Hilbert-style deduction systems, systems of natural deduction, and the sequent calculus developed by Gentzen. The study of constructive mathematics, in the context of mathematical logic, includes the study of systems in non-classical logic such as intuitionistic logic, as well as the study of predicative systems. An early proponent of", "\"Mathematical logic has been successfully applied not only to mathematics and its foundations (G. Frege, B. Russell, D. Hilbert, P. Bernays, H. Scholz, R. Carnap, S. Lesniewski, T. Skolem), but also to physics (R. Carnap, A. Dittrich, B. Russell, C. E. Shannon, A. N. Whitehead, H. Reichenbach, P. Fevrier), to biology (J. H. Woodger, A. Tarski), to psychology (F. B.", "The study of computability theory in computer science is closely related to the study of computability in mathematical logic. There is a difference of emphasis, however. Computer scientists often focus on concrete programming languages and feasible computability, while researchers in mathematical logic often focus on computability as a theoretical concept and on noncomputability. The theory of semantics of programming languages is related to model theory, as", "In the 19th century, mathematicians became aware of logical gaps and inconsistencies in their field. It was shown that Euclid's axioms for geometry, which had been taught for centuries as an example of the axiomatic method, were incomplete. The use of infinitesimals, and the very definition of function, came into question in analysis, as pathological examples such as Weierstrass' nowhere-differentiable continuous function were discovered. Cantor's study of arbitrary infinite sets also drew criticism. Leopold Kronecker famously stated \"God made the integers; all else is the work of man,\" endorsing a return to the study of finite, concrete objects in mathematics. Although Kronecker's argument was carried forward by constructivists in the 20th century, the mathematical community as a whole rejected them. David Hilbert argued in favor of the study of the infinite, saying \"No one shall expel us from the Paradise that Cantor has created.\" Mathematicians began to search for axiom systems that could be used to formalize large parts of mathematics. In addition to removing ambiguity from previously naive terms such as function, it was hoped that this axiomatization would allow for consistency proofs. In the 19th century, the main method of proving the consistency of a set of axioms was to provide a model for it. Thus, for example, non-Euclidean geometry can be proved consistent by defining \"point\" to mean a point on a fixed sphere and \"line\" to mean a great circle on the sphere. The resulting structure, a model of elliptic geometry, satisfies the axioms of plane geometry except the parallel postulate. With the development of formal logic, Hilbert asked whether it would be possible to prove that an axiom system is consistent by analyzing the structure of possible proofs in the system, and showing through this analysis that it is impossible to prove a contradiction. This idea led to the study of proof theory. Moreover, Hilbert proposed that the analysis should be entirely concrete, using the term \"finitary\" to refer to the methods he would allow but not precisely defining them. This project, known as Hilbert's program, was seriously affected by Gödel's incompleteness theorems, which show that the consistency of formal theories of arithmetic cannot be established using methods formalizable in those theories. Gentzen showed that it is possible to produce a proof of the consistency of arithmetic in a finitary system augmented with axioms of transfinite induction, and the techniques he developed to do so were seminal in proof theory. A second thread in the history of foundations of mathematics involves nonclassical logics and constructive mathematics. The study of constructive mathematics includes many different programs with various definitions of \"constructive\". At the most accommodating end, proofs in ZF set theory that do not use the axiom of choice are called constructive by many mathematicians. More limited versions of constructivism limit themselves to natural numbers, number-theoretic functions, and sets of natural numbers (which can be used to represent real numbers, facilitating the study of mathematical analysis). A common idea is that a concrete means of computing the values of the function must be known before the function itself can be said to exist. In the early 20th century, Luitzen Egbertus Jan Brouwer founded intuitionism as a philosophy of mathematics. This philosophy, poorly understood at first, stated that in order for a mathematical statement to be true to a mathematician, that person must be able to \"intuit\" the statement, to not only believe its truth but understand the reason for its truth. A consequence of this definition of truth was the rejection of the law of the excluded middle, for there are statements that, according to Brouwer, could not be claimed to be true while their negations also could not be claimed true. Brouwer's philosophy was influential, and the cause of bitter disputes among prominent mathematicians. Later, Kleene and Kreisel would study formalized versions of intuitionistic logic (Brouwer rejected formalization, and presented his work in unformalized natural language). With the advent of the BHK interpretation and Kripke models, intuitionism became easier to reconcile with classical mathematics." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "History.", "Use in construction.", "Behavior of reinforced concrete.", "Materials.", "Key characteristics.", "Mechanism of composite action of reinforcement and concrete.", "Anchorage (bond) in concrete: Codes of specifications.", "Anti-corrosion measures.", "Reinforcement and terminology of beams.", "Prestressed concrete.", "Common failure modes of steel reinforced concrete.", "Mechanical failure.", "Carbonation.", "Chlorides.", "Alkali silica reaction.", "Conversion of high alumina cement.", "Sulphates.", "Steel plate construction.", "Fiber-reinforced concrete.", "Non-steel reinforcement." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Reinforcing schemes are generally designed to resist tensile stresses in particular regions of the concrete that might cause unacceptable cracking and/or structural failure. Modern reinforced concrete can contain varied reinforcing materials made of steel, polymers or alternate composite material in conjunction with", "François Coignet was the first to use iron-reinforced concrete as a technique for constructing building structures. In 1853, Coignet built the first iron reinforced concrete structure, a four-story house at 72 rue Charles Michels in the suburbs of Paris. Coignet's descriptions of reinforcing concrete suggests that he did not do it for means of adding strength to the concrete but for keeping walls in monolithic construction from overturning. In 1854, English builder William B. Wilkinson reinforced the concrete roof and floors in the two-story house he was constructing. His positioning of the reinforcement demonstrated that, unlike his predecessors, he had knowledge of tensile stresses. Joseph Monier was a French gardener of the nineteenth century, a pioneer in the development of structural, prefabricated and reinforced concrete when dissatisfied with existing materials available for making durable flowerpots. He was granted a patent for reinforced flowerpots by means of mixing a wire mesh to a mortar shell. In 1877, Monier was granted another patent for a more advanced technique of reinforcing concrete columns and girders with iron rods placed in a grid pattern. Though Monier undoubtedly knew reinforcing concrete would improve its inner cohesion, it is less known if he even knew how much reinforcing actually improved concrete's tensile strength. Before 1877 the use of concrete construction, though dating back to the Roman Empire, and having been reintroduced in the early 1800s, was not yet a proven scientific technology. American New Yorker Thaddeus Hyatt published a report titled \"An Account of Some Experiments with Portland-Cement-Concrete Combined with Iron as a Building Material, with Reference to Economy of Metal in Construction and for Security against Fire in the Making of Roofs, Floors, and Walking Surfaces\" where he reported his experiments on the behavior of reinforced concrete. His work played a major role", "Many different types of structures and components of structures can be built using reinforced concrete including slabs, walls, beams, columns, foundations, frames and more. Reinforced concrete can be classified as precast or cast-in-place concrete. Designing and", "", "Concrete is a mixture of coarse (stone or brick chips) and fine (generally sand or crushed stone) aggregates with a paste of binder material (usually Portland cement) and water. When cement is mixed with a small amount of water, it hydrates to form microscopic opaque crystal lattices encapsulating and locking the aggregate into a rigid structure. The aggregates used for making concrete should be free from harmful substances like organic impurities, silt, clay, lignite", "Three physical characteristics give reinforced concrete its special properties: As a rule of thumb, only to give an idea on orders of magnitude, steel is protected at pH above ~11 but starts to corrode below ~10 depending on steel characteristics and local physico-chemical conditions when concrete becomes carbonated. Carbonation of concrete along with chloride ingress are amongst the", "The reinforcement in a RC structure, such as a steel bar, has to undergo the same strain or deformation as the surrounding concrete in order to prevent discontinuity, slip or separation of the two materials under load. Maintaining composite action requires", "Because the actual bond stress varies along the length of a bar anchored in a zone of tension, current international codes of specifications use the concept of development length rather than bond stress. The main requirement for safety against bond failure is to provide a sufficient extension of the length of the bar beyond", "In wet and cold climates, reinforced concrete for roads, bridges, parking structures and other structures that may be exposed to deicing salt may benefit from use of corrosion-resistant reinforcement such as uncoated, low carbon/chromium (micro composite), epoxy-coated, hot dip galvanised or stainless steel rebar. Good design and a well-chosen concrete mix will provide additional protection for many applications. Uncoated, low carbon/chromium rebar looks similar to standard carbon steel rebar due to its lack of a coating; its highly corrosion-resistant features are inherent in the steel microstructure. It can be identified by the unique ASTM specified mill marking on its smooth, dark charcoal finish. Epoxy coated rebar can easily be identified by the light green colour of its epoxy coating. Hot dip galvanized rebar may be bright or dull grey depending on length of exposure, and stainless rebar exhibits a typical white metallic sheen that is readily distinguishable from carbon steel reinforcing", "A beam bends under bending moment, resulting in a small curvature. At the outer face (tensile face) of the curvature the concrete experiences tensile stress, while at the inner face (compressive face) it experiences compressive stress. A singly reinforced beam is one in which the concrete element is only reinforced near the tensile face and the reinforcement, called tension steel, is designed to resist the tension. A doubly reinforced beam is one in which besides the tensile reinforcement the concrete element is also reinforced near the compressive face to help the concrete resist compression. The latter reinforcement is called compression steel. When the compression zone of a concrete is inadequate to resist the compressive moment (positive moment), extra reinforcement has to be provided if the architect limits the dimensions of the section. An under-reinforced beam is one in which the tension capacity of the tensile reinforcement is smaller than the combined compression capacity of the concrete and the compression steel (under-reinforced at tensile face). When the reinforced concrete element is subject to increasing bending moment, the tension steel yields while the concrete does not reach its ultimate failure condition. As the tension steel yields and stretches, an \"under-reinforced\" concrete also yields in a ductile manner, exhibiting a large deformation and warning before its ultimate failure. In this case the yield", "Prestressing concrete is a technique that greatly increases the load-bearing strength of concrete beams. The reinforcing steel in the bottom part of the beam, which will be subjected to tensile forces when in service, is placed in tension before the concrete is poured", "Reinforced concrete can fail due to inadequate strength, leading to mechanical failure, or due to a reduction in its durability. Corrosion and freeze/thaw cycles may damage poorly designed or constructed reinforced concrete. When rebar corrodes, the oxidation products (rust) expand and tends to flake, cracking the concrete and unbonding the rebar from the concrete. Typical mechanisms leading to durability problems are discussed below.", "Cracking of the concrete section is nearly impossible to prevent; however, the size and location of cracks can be limited and controlled by appropriate reinforcement, control joints, curing methodology and concrete mix design. Cracking can allow moisture to penetrate and corrode the reinforcement. This is a serviceability failure in limit state design. Cracking is normally the", "Carbonation, or neutralisation, is a chemical reaction between carbon dioxide in the air and calcium hydroxide and hydrated calcium silicate in the concrete. When a concrete structure is designed, it is usual to specify the concrete cover for the rebar (the depth of the rebar within the object). The minimum concrete cover is normally regulated by design or building codes. If the reinforcement is too close to the surface,", "Chlorides, including sodium chloride, can promote the corrosion of embedded steel rebar if present in sufficiently high concentration. Chloride anions induce both localized corrosion (pitting corrosion) and generalized corrosion of steel reinforcements. For this reason, one should only use fresh raw water or potable water for mixing concrete, ensure that the coarse and fine aggregates do not contain chlorides, rather than admixtures which might contain chlorides. It was once common for calcium chloride to be used as an admixture to promote rapid set-up of the concrete. It was also mistakenly believed that it would prevent freezing. However, this practice fell into disfavor once the deleterious effects of chlorides became known. It should be avoided whenever possible. The use of de-icing salts on roadways, used to lower the freezing point of water, is probably one of the primary causes of premature failure of reinforced or prestressed concrete bridge decks, roadways, and", "This a reaction of amorphous silica (chalcedony, chert, siliceous limestone) sometimes present in the aggregates with the hydroxyl ions (OH) from the cement pore solution. Poorly crystallized silica (SiO) dissolves and dissociates at high pH (12.5 - 13.5) in alkaline water. The soluble dissociated silicic acid reacts in the porewater with the calcium hydroxide (portlandite) present in the", "Resistant to weak acids and especially sulfates, this cement cures quickly and has very high durability and strength. It was frequently used after World War II to make precast concrete objects. However, it can", "Sulfates (SO) in the soil or in groundwater, in sufficient concentration, can react with the Portland cement in concrete causing the formation of expansive products, e.g., ettringite or thaumasite, which can lead to early failure of the structure. The most typical attack of this type is on concrete slabs and foundation walls at grades where the sulfate ion, via alternate wetting and drying, can increase in concentration. As the concentration increases, the attack on the Portland cement can begin.", "In steel plate construction, stringers join parallel steel plates. The plate assemblies are fabricated off site, and welded together on-site to form steel walls connected by stringers. The walls become the", "Fiber reinforcement is mainly used in shotcrete, but can also be used in normal concrete. Fiber-reinforced normal concrete is mostly used for on-ground floors and pavements, but can also be considered for a wide range of construction parts (beams, pillars, foundations, etc.), either alone or with hand-tied rebars. Concrete reinforced with fibers (which are usually steel, glass, plastic fibers) or Cellulose polymer fibre is less expensive than hand-tied rebar. The shape, dimension, and length of the fiber are important. A thin and short fiber, for example short, hair-shaped glass fiber, is only effective during the first hours after pouring the concrete (its function is to reduce cracking while the concrete is stiffening), but it will not increase the concrete tensile strength. A normal-size fiber for European shotcrete (1 mm diameter, 45", "There is considerable overlap between the subjects of non-steel reinforcement and fiber-reinforcement of concrete. The introduction of non-steel reinforcement of concrete is relatively recent; it takes two major forms: non-metallic rebar rods, and non-steel (usually also non-metallic) fibres incorporated into the cement matrix. For example, there is increasing interest in glass fiber reinforced concrete (GFRC) and in various applications of polymer fibres incorporated into concrete. Although currently there is not much suggestion that such materials will replace metal rebar, some of them have major advantages in specific applications, and there also are new applications in which metal rebar simply is not an option. However, the design and application of non-steel reinforcing is fraught with challenges. For one thing, concrete is a highly alkaline environment, in which many materials, including most kinds of glass, have a poor service life. Also, the behaviour of such reinforcing materials differs from the behaviour of metals, for instance in terms of shear strength, creep and elasticity. Fibre-reinforced plastic/polymer (FRP) and glass-reinforced plastic (GRP) consist of fibres of polymer, glass, carbon, aramid or other polymers or high-strength fibres set in a resin matrix to form a rebar rod, or grid, or fibres. These rebars are installed in much the same manner as steel rebars. The cost is higher but, suitably applied, the structures have advantages, in particular a dramatic reduction in problems related to corrosion, either by intrinsic concrete alkalinity or by external corrosive fluids that might penetrate the concrete. These structures can be significantly lighter and usually have a longer service life. The cost of these materials has dropped dramatically since their widespread adoption in the aerospace industry and by the military. In particular, FRP rods are useful for structures where the presence of steel would not be acceptable. For example, MRI machines have huge magnets, and accordingly require non-magnetic buildings. Again, toll booths that read radio tags need reinforced concrete that is transparent to radio waves. Also, where the design life of the concrete structure is more important than its initial costs, non-steel reinforcing often has its advantages where corrosion of reinforcing steel is a major cause of failure. In such situations corrosion-proof reinforcing can extend a structure's life substantially, for example in the intertidal zone. FRP rods may also be useful in situations where it is likely that the concrete structure may be compromised in future years, for example the edges of balconies when balustrades are replaced, and bathroom floors in multi-story construction where the service life of the floor structure is likely to be many times the service life of the waterproofing building membrane. Plastic reinforcement often is stronger, or at least has a better strength to weight ratio than reinforcing steels. Also, because it resists corrosion, it does not need a protective concrete cover as thick as steel reinforcement does (typically 30 to 50 mm or more). FRP-reinforced structures therefore can be lighter and last longer. Accordingly, for some applications the whole-life cost will be price-competitive with steel-reinforced concrete. The material properties of FRP or GRP bars differ markedly from steel, so there are differences in the design considerations. FRP or GRP bars have relatively higher tensile strength but lower stiffness, so that deflections are likely to be higher than for equivalent steel-reinforced units. Structures with internal FRP reinforcement typically have an elastic deformability comparable to the plastic deformability (ductility) of steel reinforced structures. Failure in either case is more likely to occur by compression of the concrete than by rupture of the reinforcement. Deflection is always a major design consideration for reinforced concrete. Deflection limits are set to ensure that crack widths in steel-reinforced concrete are controlled to prevent water, air or other aggressive substances reaching the steel and causing corrosion. For FRP-reinforced concrete, aesthetics and possibly water-tightness will be the limiting criteria for crack width control. FRP rods also have relatively lower compressive strengths than steel rebar, and accordingly require different design approaches for reinforced concrete columns. One drawback to the use of FRP reinforcement is their limited fire resistance. Where fire safety is a consideration, structures employing FRP have to maintain their strength and the anchoring of the forces at temperatures to be expected in the event of fire. For purposes of fireproofing, an adequate thickness of cement concrete cover or protective cladding is necessary. The addition of 1 kg/m of polypropylene fibers to concrete has been shown to reduce spalling during a simulated fire. (The improvement is thought to be due to the formation of pathways out of the bulk of the concrete, allowing steam pressure to dissipate.) Another problem is the effectiveness of shear reinforcement. FRP rebar stirrups formed by bending before hardening generally perform relatively poorly in comparison to steel stirrups or to structures with straight fibres. When strained, the zone between the straight and curved regions are subject to strong bending, shear, and longitudinal stresses. Special design techniques are necessary to deal with such problems. There is growing interest in applying external reinforcement to existing structures using advanced materials such as composite (fiberglass, basalt, carbon) rebar, which can impart exceptional strength. Worldwide, there are a number of brands of composite rebar recognized by different countries, such as Aslan, DACOT, V-rod, and ComBar. The number of projects using composite rebar increases day by day around the world, in countries ranging from USA, Russia, and South Korea to Germany." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and career.", "Explorations.", "Vancouver Expedition.", "Further explorations.", "Later life.", "Death.", "Legacy.", "Navigation.", "Indigenous peoples.", "Namesakes.", "Places.", "Memorials.", "250th birthday commemorations.", "Origins of the family name.", "Works by George Vancouver." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "George Vancouver was born in the seaport town of King's Lynn (Norfolk, England) on 22 June 1757 as the sixth, and youngest, child of John Jasper Vancouver, a Dutch-born deputy collector of customs, and Bridget Berners. In 1771, at the age of 13, Vancouver entered the Royal Navy as a \"young gentleman,\" a future candidate for midshipman. He was selected to serve as a midshipman aboard, on James Cook's second voyage (1772–1775) searching for \"Terra Australis\". He also accompanied Cook's third voyage (1776–1780), this time aboard \"Resolution\"s companion ship,, and was present during the first European sighting and exploration of the Hawaiian Islands. Upon his return to Britain in October 1780, Vancouver was commissioned as a lieutenant and posted aboard the sloop initially on escort and patrol duty in the English Channel and North Sea. He accompanied the ship when it left Plymouth on 11 February 1782 for the West Indies. On 7 May 1782 he was appointed fourth lieutenant of the 74-gun ship of the line, which was at the time part of the British West Indies Fleet and assigned to patrolling the French-held Leeward Islands, and subsequently saw action at the Battle of the Saintes, wherein he distinguished himself. Vancouver returned to England in June 1783. In the late 1780s the Spanish Empire commissioned an expedition to the Pacific Northwest. The 1789 the Nootka Crisis developed, and Spain and Britain came close to war over ownership of the Nootka Sound on contemporary Vancouver Island, and of greater importance, the right to colonise and settle the Pacific Northwest coast. Henry Roberts had recently taken command of the survey ship (a new vessel named in honour of the ship on Cook's voyage), which was to be used on another round-the-world voyage, and Roberts selected Vancouver as his first lieutenant, but they were then diverted to other warships due to the crisis. Vancouver went with Joseph Whidbey to the 74-gun ship of the line. When the first Nootka Convention ended the crisis in 1790, Vancouver was given command of \"Discovery\" to take possession of Nootka Sound and to survey the coasts.", "", "Departing England with two ships, HMS \"Discovery\" and, on 1 April 1791, Vancouver commanded an expedition charged with exploring the Pacific region. In its first year the expedition travelled to Cape Town, Australia, New Zealand, Tahiti, and Hawaii, collecting botanical samples and surveying coastlines along the way. He formally claimed at Possession Point, King George Sound Western Australia, now the town of Albany, Western Australia for the British. Proceeding to North America, Vancouver followed the coasts of present-day Oregon and Washington northward. In April 1792 he encountered American Captain Robert Gray off the coast of Oregon just prior to Gray's sailing up the Columbia River. Vancouver entered the Strait of Juan de Fuca, between Vancouver Island and the Washington state mainland, on 29 April 1792. His orders included a survey of every inlet and outlet on the west coast of the mainland, all the way north to Alaska. Most of this work was in small craft propelled by both sail and oar; manoeuvring larger sail-powered vessels in uncharted waters was generally impractical and dangerous. Vancouver named many features for his officers, friends, associates, and his ship \"Discovery\", including: Vancouver was the second European to enter Burrard Inlet on 13 June 1792, naming it for his friend Sir Harry Burrard. It is the present day main harbour area of the City of Vancouver beyond Stanley Park. He surveyed Howe Sound and Jervis Inlet over the next nine days. Then, on his 35th birthday on 22 June 1792, he returned to Point Grey, the present-day location of the University of British Columbia. Here he unexpectedly met a Spanish expedition led by Dionisio Alcalá Galiano and Cayetano Valdés y Flores. Vancouver was \"\"mortified\"\" (\"his word\") to learn they already had a crude chart of the Strait of Georgia based on the 1791 exploratory voyage of José María Narváez the year before, under command of Francisco de Eliza. For three weeks they cooperatively explored the Georgia Strait and the Discovery Islands area before sailing separately towards Nootka Sound. After the summer surveying season ended, in August 1792, Vancouver went to Nootka, then the region's most important harbour, on contemporary Vancouver Island. Here he was to receive any British buildings and lands returned by the Spanish from claims by Francisco de Eliza for the Spanish crown. The Spanish commander, Juan Francisco Bodega y Quadra, was very cordial and he and Vancouver exchanged the maps they had made, but no agreement was reached; they decided to await further instructions. At this time, they decided to name the large island on which Nootka was now proven to be located as \"Quadra and Vancouver Island\". Years later, as Spanish influence declined, the name was shortened to simply Vancouver Island. While at Nootka Sound Vancouver acquired Robert Gray's chart of the lower Columbia River. Gray had entered the river during the summer before sailing to Nootka Sound for repairs. Vancouver realised the importance of verifying Gray's information and conducting a more thorough survey. In October 1792, he sent Lieutenant William Robert Broughton with several boats up the Columbia River. Broughton got as far as the Columbia River Gorge, sighting and naming Mount Hood. Vancouver sailed south along the coast of Spanish Alta California, visiting Chumash villages at Point Conception and near Mission San Buenaventura. Vancouver spent the winter in continuing exploration of the Sandwich Islands, the contemporary islands of Hawaii.", "The next year, 1793, he returned to British Columbia and proceeded further north, unknowingly missing the overland explorer Alexander Mackenzie by only 48 days. He got to 56°30'N, having explored north from Point Menzies in Burke Channel to the northwest coast of Prince of Wales Island. He sailed around the latter island, as well as circumnavigating Revillagigedo Island and charting parts of the coasts of Mitkof, Zarembo, Etolin, Wrangell, Kuiu and Kupreanof Islands. With worsening weather, he sailed south to Alta California, hoping to find Bodega y Quadra and fulfil his territorial mission, but the Spaniard was not there. He again spent the winter in the Sandwich Islands. In 1794, he first went to Cook Inlet, the northernmost point of his exploration, and from there followed the coast south. Boat parties charted the east coasts of Chichagof and Baranof Islands, circumnavigated Admiralty Island, explored to the head of Lynn Canal, and charted the rest of Kuiu Island and nearly all of Kupreanof Island. He then set sail for Great Britain by way of Cape Horn, returning in September 1795, thus completing a circumnavigation of South America.", "Impressed by the view from Richmond Hill, Vancouver retired to Petersham, London. Vancouver faced difficulties when he returned home to England. The accomplished and politically well-connected naturalist Archibald Menzies complained that his servant had been pressed into service during a shipboard emergency; sailing master Joseph Whidbey had a competing claim for pay as expedition astronomer; and Thomas Pitt, 2nd Baron Camelford, whom Vancouver had disciplined for numerous infractions and eventually sent home in disgrace, proceeded to harass him publicly and privately. Pitt's allies, including his cousin, Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger, attacked Vancouver in the press. Thomas Pitt took a more direct approach; on 29 August 1796 he sent Vancouver a letter heaping many insults on the head of his former captain, and challenging him to a duel. Vancouver gravely replied that he was unable \"in a private capacity to answer for his public conduct in his official duty,\" and offered instead to submit to formal examination by flag officers. Pitt chose instead to stalk Vancouver, ultimately assaulting him on a London street corner. The terms of their subsequent legal dispute required both parties to keep the peace, but nothing stopped Vancouver's civilian brother Charles from interposing and giving Pitt blow after blow until onlookers restrained the attacker. Charges and counter-charges flew in the press, with the wealthy Camelford faction having the greater firepower until Vancouver, ailing from his long naval service, died.", "Vancouver, at one time amongst Britain's greatest explorers and navigators, died in obscurity on 10 May 1798 at the age of 40, less than three years after completing his voyages and expeditions. No official cause of death was stated, as the medical records pertaining to Vancouver were destroyed; one doctor named John Naish claimed Vancouver died from kidney failure, while others believed it was a hyperthyroid condition. His grave is in the churchyard of St Peter's Church, Petersham, in the London Borough of Richmond upon Thames, England. The Hudson's Bay Company placed a memorial plaque in the church in 1841. His grave in Portland stone, renovated in the 1960s, is now Grade II listed in view of its historical associations.", "", "Vancouver determined that the Northwest Passage did not exist at the latitudes that had long been suggested. His charts of the North American northwest coast were so extremely accurate that they served as the key reference for coastal navigation for generations. Robin Fisher, the academic Vice-President of Mount Royal University in Calgary and author of two books on Vancouver, states: However, Vancouver failed to discover two of the largest and most important rivers on the Pacific coast, the Fraser River and the Columbia River. He also missed the Skeena River near Prince Rupert in northern British Columbia. Vancouver did eventually learn of the river before he finished his survey—from Robert Gray, captain of the American merchant ship that conducted the first Euroamerican sailing of the Columbia River on 11 May 1792, after first sighting it on an earlier voyage in 1788. However it and the Fraser River never made it onto Vancouver's charts. Stephen R. Bown, noted in \"Mercator's World\" magazine (November/December 1999) that: While it is difficult to comprehend how Vancouver missed the Fraser River, much of this river's delta was subject to flooding and summer freshet which prevented the captain from spotting any of its great channels as he sailed the entire shoreline from Point Roberts, Washington, to Point Grey in 1792. The Spanish expeditions to the Pacific Northwest, with the 1791 Francisco de Eliza expedition preceding Vancouver by a year, had also missed the Fraser River although they knew from its muddy plume that there was a major river located nearby.", "Vancouver generally established a good rapport with both Indigenous peoples and European trappers. Historical records show Vancouver enjoyed good relations with native leaders both in Hawaii – where King Kamehameha I ceded Hawaii to Vancouver in 1794 – as well as the Pacific Northwest and California. Vancouver's journals exhibit a high degree of sensitivity to natives. He wrote of meeting the Chumash people, and of his exploration of a small island on the Californian coast on which an important burial site was marked by a sepulchre of \"peculiar character\" lined with boards and fragments of military instruments lying near a square box covered with mats. Vancouver states: Vancouver also displayed contempt in his journals towards unscrupulous western traders who provided guns to natives by writing: Robin Fisher notes that Vancouver's \"relationships with aboriginal groups were generally peaceful; indeed, his detailed survey would not have been possible if they had been hostile.\" While there were hostile incidents at the end of Vancouver's last season – the most serious of which involved a clash with Tlingits at Behm Canal in southeast Alaska in 1794 – these were the exceptions to Vancouver's exploration of the US and Canadian Northwest coast. Despite a long history of warfare between Britain and Spain, Vancouver maintained excellent relations with his Spanish counterparts and even fêted a Spanish sea captain aboard his ship during his 1792 trip to the Vancouver region.", "", "Many places around the world have been named after George Vancouver, including:", "Many collections were made on the voyage: one was donated by Archibald Menzies to the British Museum 1796; another made by surgeon George Goodman Hewett (1765–1834) was donated by Augustus Wollaston Franks to the British Museum in 1891. An account of these has been published.", "Canada Post issued a $1.55 postage stamp to commemorate the 250th anniversary of Vancouver's birth, on 22 June 2007. The stamp has an embossed image of Vancouver seen from behind as he gazes forward towards a mountainous coastline. This may be the first Canadian stamp not to show the subject's face. The City of Vancouver in Canada organised a celebration to commemorate the 250th anniversary of Vancouver's birth, in June 2007 at the Vancouver Maritime Museum. The one-hour festivities included the presentation of a massive 63 by 114 centimetre carrot cake, the firing of a gun salute by the Royal Canadian Artillery's 15th Field Regiment and a performance by the Vancouver Firefighter's Band. Vancouver's then-mayor, Sam Sullivan, officially declared 22 June 2007 to be \"George Day\". The Musqueam (xwməθkwəy̓əm) Elder sɁəyeɬəq (Larry Grant) attended the festivities and acknowledged that some of his people might disapprove of his presence, but also noted:", "There has been some debate about the origins of the Vancouver name. It is now commonly accepted that the name Vancouver derives from the expression van Coevorden, meaning \"(originating) from Coevorden\", a city in the northeast of the Netherlands. This city is apparently named after the \"Coeverden\" family of the 13th–15th century. In the 16th century, a number of businessmen from the Coevorden area (and the rest of the Netherlands) moved to England. Some of them were known as \"Van Coeverden\". Others adopted the surname Oxford, as in oxen fording (a river), which is approximately the English translation of \"Coevorden\". However, it is not the exact name of the noble family mentioned in the history books that claim Vancouver's noble lineage: that name was Coeverden not Coevorden. In the 1970s, Adrien Mansvelt, a former consul general of the Netherlands based in Vancouver, published a collation of information in both historical and genealogical journals and in the \"Vancouver Sun\" newspaper. Mansvelt's theory was later presented by the city during the Expo 86 World's Fair, as historical fact. The information was then used by historian W. Kaye Lamb in his book \"A Voyage of Discovery to the North Pacific Ocean and Round the World, 1791–1795\" (1984). W. Kaye Lamb, in summarising Mansvelt's 1973 research, observes evidence of close family ties between the Vancouver family of Britain and the Van Coeverden family of the Netherlands as well as George Vancouver's own words from his diaries in referring to his Dutch ancestry: In 2006 John Robson, a librarian at the University of Waikato, conducted his own research into George Vancouver's ancestry, which he published in an article in the \"British Columbia History\" journal. Robson theorises that Vancouver's forebears may have been Flemish rather than Dutch; he believes that Vancouver is descended from the Vangover family of Ipswich and Colchester in Essex. Those towns had a significant Flemish population in the 16th and 17th centuries. George Vancouver named the south point of what is now Couverden Island, Alaska, \"Point Couverden\" during his exploration of the North American Pacific coast, in honour of his family's hometown of Coevorden. It is located at the western point of entry to Lynn Canal in southeastern Alaska.", "The Admiralty instructed Vancouver to publish a narrative of his voyage which he started to write in early 1796 in Petersham. At the time of his death the manuscript covered the period up to mid-1795. The work, \"A Voyage of Discovery to the North Pacific Ocean, and Round the World\", was completed by his brother John and published in three volumes in the autumn of 1798. A second edition was published in 1801 in six volumes. A modern annotated edition (1984) by W. Kaye Lamb was renamed \"The Voyage of George Vancouver 1791–1795\", and published in four volumes by the Hakluyt Society of London, England." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Pre-tensioned concrete.", "Post-tensioned concrete.", "Bonded post-tensioning.", "Unbonded post-tensioning.", "Comparison between bonded and unbonded post-tensioning.", "Tendon durability and corrosion protection.", "Applications.", "Building structures.", "Civil structures.", "Bridges.", "Dams.", "Silos and tanks.", "Nuclear and blast-containment structures.", "Hardstands and pavements.", "Design agencies and regulations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2" ], "content": [ "Pre-tensioned concrete is a variant of prestressed concrete where the tendons are tensioned prior to the concrete being cast. The concrete bonds to the tendons as it cures, following which the end-anchoring of the tendons is released, and the tendon tension forces are transferred to the concrete as compression by static friction. Pre-tensioning is a common prefabrication technique, where the resulting concrete element is manufactured remotely from the final structure location and transported to site once cured. It requires strong, stable end-anchorage points between which the tendons are stretched. These anchorages form the ends of a \"casting bed\" which may be many times the length of the concrete element being fabricated. This allows multiple elements to be constructed end-to-end in the one pre-tensioning operation, allowing significant productivity benefits and economies of scale to be realized. The amount of bond (or adhesion) achievable between the freshly set concrete and the surface of the tendons is critical to the pre-tensioning process, as it determines when the tendon anchorages can be safely released. Higher bond strength in early-age concrete will speed production and allow more economical fabrication. To promote this, pre-tensioned tendons are usually composed of isolated single wires or strands, which provides a greater surface area for bonding than bundled-strand tendons. Unlike those of post-tensioned concrete (see below), the tendons of pre-tensioned concrete elements generally form straight lines between end-anchorages. Where \"profiled\" or \"harped\" tendons are required, one or more intermediate \"deviators\" are located between the ends of the tendon to hold the tendon to the desired non-linear alignment during tensioning. Such deviators usually act against substantial forces, and hence require a robust casting-bed foundation system. Straight tendons are typically used in \"linear\" precast elements, such as shallow beams, hollow-core planks and slabs; whereas profiled tendons are more commonly found in deeper precast bridge beams and girders. Pre-tensioned concrete is most commonly used for the fabrication of structural beams, floor slabs, hollow-core planks, balconies, lintels, driven piles, water tanks and concrete pipes.", "Post-tensioned concrete is a variant of prestressed concrete where the tendons are tensioned after the surrounding concrete structure has been cast. The tendons are not placed in direct contact with the concrete, but are encapsulated within a protective sleeve or duct which is either cast into the concrete structure or placed adjacent to it. At each end of a tendon is an anchorage assembly firmly fixed to the surrounding concrete. Once the concrete has been cast and set, the tendons are tensioned (\"stressed\") by pulling the tendon ends through the anchorages while pressing against the concrete. The large forces required to tension the tendons result in a significant permanent compression being applied to the concrete once the tendon is \"locked-off\" at the anchorage. The method of locking the tendon-ends to the anchorage is dependent upon the tendon composition, with the most common systems being \"button-head\" anchoring (for wire tendons), split-wedge anchoring (for strand tendons), and threaded anchoring (for bar tendons). Tendon encapsulation systems are constructed from plastic or galvanised steel materials, and are classified into two main types: those where the tendon element is subsequently bonded to the surrounding concrete by internal grouting of the duct after stressing (\"bonded\" post-tensioning); and those where the tendon element is permanently \"de\"bonded from the surrounding concrete, usually by means of a greased sheath over the tendon strands (\"unbonded\" post-tensioning). Casting the tendon ducts/sleeves into the concrete before any tensioning occurs allows them to be readily \"profiled\" to any desired shape including incorporating vertical and/or horizontal curvature. When the tendons are tensioned, this profiling results in reaction forces being imparted onto the hardened concrete, and these can be beneficially used to counter any loadings subsequently applied to the structure.", "In bonded post-tensioning, tendons are permanently bonded to the surrounding concrete by the \"in situ\" grouting of their encapsulating ducting (after tendon tensioning). This grouting is undertaken for three main purposes: to protect the tendons against corrosion; to permanently \"lock-in\" the tendon pre-tension, thereby removing the long-term reliance upon the end-anchorage systems; and to improve certain structural behaviors of the final concrete structure. Bonded post-tensioning characteristically uses tendons each comprising bundles of elements (e.g. strands or wires) placed inside a single tendon duct, with the exception of bars which are mostly used unbundled. This bundling makes for more efficient tendon installation and grouting processes, since each complete tendon requires only one set of end-anchorages and one grouting operation. Ducting is fabricated from a durable and corrosion-resistant material such as plastic (e.g. polyethylene) or galvanised steel, and can be either round or rectangular/oval in cross-section. The tendon sizes used are highly dependent upon the application, ranging from building works typically using between 2 and 6 strands per tendon, to specialized dam works using up to 91 strands per tendon. Fabrication of bonded tendons is generally undertaken on-site, commencing with the fitting of end-anchorages to formwork, placing the tendon ducting to the required curvature profiles, and reeving (or threading) the strands or wires through the ducting. Following concreting and tensioning, the ducts are pressure-grouted and the tendon stressing-ends sealed against corrosion.", "Unbonded post-tensioning differs from bonded post-tensioning by allowing the tendons permanent freedom of longitudinal movement relative to the concrete. This is most commonly achieved by encasing each individual tendon element within a plastic sheathing filled with a corrosion-inhibiting grease, usually lithium based. Anchorages at each end of the tendon transfer the tensioning force to the concrete, and are required to reliably perform this role for the life of the structure. Unbonded post-tensioning can take the form of: For individual strand tendons, no additional tendon ducting is used and no post-stressing grouting operation is required, unlike for bonded post-tensioning. Permanent corrosion protection of the strands is provided by the combined layers of grease, plastic sheathing, and surrounding concrete. Where strands are bundled to form a single unbonded tendon, an enveloping duct of plastic or galvanised steel is used and its interior free-spaces grouted after stressing. In this way, additional corrosion protection is provided via the grease, plastic sheathing, grout, external sheathing, and surrounding concrete layers. Individually greased-and-sheathed tendons are usually fabricated off-site by an extrusion process. The bare steel strand is fed into a greasing chamber and then passed to an extrusion unit where molten plastic forms a continuous outer coating. Finished strands can be cut-to-length and fitted with \"dead-end\" anchor assemblies as required for the project.", "Both bonded and unbonded post-tensioning technologies are widely used around the world, and the choice of system is often dictated by regional preferences, contractor experience, or the availability of alternative systems. Either one is capable of delivering code-compliant, durable structures meeting the structural strength and serviceability requirements of the designer. The benefits that bonded post-tensioning can offer over unbonded systems are: The benefits that unbonded post-tensioning can offer over bonded systems are:", "Long-term durability is an essential requirement for prestressed concrete given its widespread use. Research on the durability performance of in-service prestressed structures has been undertaken since the 1960s, and anti-corrosion technologies for tendon protection have been continually improved since the earliest systems were developed. The durability of prestressed concrete is principally determined by the level of corrosion protection provided to any high-strength steel elements within the prestressing tendons. Also critical is the protection afforded to the end-anchorage assemblies of unbonded tendons or cable-stay systems, as the anchorages of both of these are required to retain the prestressing forces. Failure of any of these components can result in the release of prestressing forces, or the physical rupture of stressing tendons. Modern prestressing systems deliver long-term durability by addressing the following areas: Several durability-related events are listed below:", "Prestressed concrete is a highly versatile construction material as a result of it being an almost ideal combination of its two main constituents: high-strength steel, pre-stretched to allow its full strength to be easily realised; and modern concrete, pre-compressed to minimise cracking under tensile forces. Its wide range of application is reflected in its incorporation into the major design codes covering most areas of structural and civil engineering, including buildings, bridges, dams, foundations, pavements, piles, stadiums, silos, and tanks.", "Building structures are typically required to satisfy a broad range of structural, aesthetic and economic requirements. Significant among these include: a minimum number of (intrusive) supporting walls or columns; low structural thickness (depth), allowing space for services, or for additional floors in high-rise construction; fast construction cycles, especially for multi-storey buildings; and a low cost-per-unit-area, to maximise the building owner's return on investment. The prestressing of concrete allows \"load-balancing\" forces to be introduced into the structure to counter in-service loadings. This provides many benefits to building structures: Some notable building structures constructed from prestressed concrete include: Sydney Opera House and World Tower, Sydney; St George Wharf Tower, London; CN Tower, Toronto; Kai Tak Cruise Terminal and International Commerce Centre, Hong Kong; Ocean Heights 2, Dubai; Eureka Tower, Melbourne; Torre Espacio, Madrid; Guoco Tower (Tanjong Pagar Centre), Singapore; Zagreb International Airport, Croatia; and Capital Gate, Abu Dhabi UAE.", "", "Concrete is the most popular structural material for bridges, and prestressed concrete is frequently adopted. When investigated in the 1940s for use on heavy-duty bridges, the advantages of this type of bridge over more traditional designs was that it is quicker to install, more economical and longer-lasting with the bridge being less lively. One of the first bridges built in this way is the Adam Viaduct, a railway bridge constructed 1946 in the UK. By the 1960s, prestressed concrete largely superseded reinforced concrete bridges in the UK, with box girders being the dominant form. In short-span bridges of around, prestressing is commonly employed in the form of precast pre-tensioned girders or planks. Medium-length structures of around, typically use precast-segmental, \"in-situ\" balanced-cantilever and incrementally-launched designs. For the longest bridges, prestressed concrete deck structures often form an integral part of cable-stayed designs.", "Concrete dams have used prestressing to counter uplift and increase their overall stability since the mid-1930s. Prestressing is also frequently retro-fitted as part of dam remediation works, such as for structural strengthening, or when raising crest or spillway heights. Most commonly, dam prestressing takes the form of post-tensioned anchors drilled into the dam's concrete structure and/or the underlying rock strata. Such anchors typically comprise tendons of high-tensile bundled steel strands or individual threaded bars. Tendons are grouted to the concrete or rock at their far (internal) end, and have a significant \"de-bonded\" free-length at their external end which allows the tendon to stretch during tensioning. Tendons may be full-length bonded to the surrounding concrete or rock once tensioned, or (more commonly) have strands permanently encapsulated in corrosion-inhibiting grease over the free-length to permit long-term load monitoring and re-stressability.", "Circular storage structures such as silos and tanks can use prestressing forces to directly resist the outward pressures generated by stored liquids or bulk-solids. Horizontally curved tendons are installed within the concrete wall to form a series of hoops, spaced vertically up the structure. When tensioned, these tendons exert both axial (compressive) and radial (inward) forces onto the structure, which can directly oppose the subsequent storage loadings. If the magnitude of the prestress is designed to always exceed the tensile stresses produced by the loadings, a permanent residual compression will exist in the wall concrete, assisting in maintaining a watertight crack-free structure.", "Prestressed concrete has been established as a reliable construction material for high-pressure containment structures such as nuclear reactor vessels and containment buildings, and petrochemical tank blast-containment walls. Using prestressing to place such structures into an initial state of bi-axial or tri-axial compression increases their resistance to concrete cracking and leakage, while providing a proof-loaded, redundant and monitorable pressure-containment system. Nuclear reactor and containment vessels will commonly employ separate sets of post-tensioned tendons curved horizontally or vertically to completely envelop the reactor core. Blast containment walls, such as for liquid natural gas (LNG) tanks, will normally utilise layers of horizontally-curved hoop tendons for containment in combination with vertically looped tendons for axial wall prestressing.", "Heavily loaded concrete ground-slabs and pavements can be sensitive to cracking and subsequent traffic-driven deterioration. As a result, prestressed concrete is regularly used in such structures as its pre-compression provides the concrete with the ability to resist the crack-inducing tensile stresses generated by in-service loading. This crack-resistance also allows individual slab sections to be constructed in larger pours than for conventionally reinforced concrete, resulting in wider joint spacings, reduced jointing costs and less long-term joint maintenance issues. Initial works have also been successfully conducted on the use of precast prestressed concrete for road pavements, where the speed and quality of the construction has been noted as being beneficial for this technique. Some notable civil structures constructed using prestressed concrete include: Gateway Bridge, Brisbane Australia; Incheon Bridge, South Korea; Roseires Dam, Sudan; Wanapum Dam, Washington, US; LNG tanks, South Hook, Wales; Cement silos, Brevik Norway; Autobahn A73 bridge, Itz Valley, Germany; Ostankino Tower, Moscow, Russia; CN Tower, Toronto, Canada; and Ringhals nuclear reactor, Videbergshamn Sweden.", "Worldwide, many professional organizations exist to promote best practices in the design and construction of prestressed concrete structures. In the United States, such organizations include the Post-Tensioning Institute (PTI) and the Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute (PCI). Similar bodies include the Canadian Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute (CPCI), the UK's Post-Tensioning Association, the Post Tensioning Institute of Australia and the South African Post Tensioning Association. Europe has similar country-based associations and institutions. It is important to note that these organizations are not the authorities of building codes or standards, but rather exist to promote the understanding and development of prestressed concrete design, codes and best practices. Rules and requirements for the detailing of reinforcement and prestressing tendons are specified by individual national codes and standards such as:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Examples.", "Composite materials.", "Products.", "Overview.", "Constituents.", "Matrices.", "Organic.", "Inorganic.", "Reinforcements.", "Fiber.", "Cores.", "Semi-Crystalline Polymers.", "Fabrication methods.", "Mould overview.", "Vacuum bag moulding.", "Pressure bag moulding.", "Autoclave moulding.", "Resin transfer moulding (RTM).", "Light Resin Transfer Molding (LRTM).", "Other fabrication methods.", "Finishing methods.", "Tooling.", "Physical properties.", "Isostrain rule of mixtures.", "Isostress rule of mixtures.", "Mechanical Properties of Composites.", "Particle Reinforcement.", "Continuous Fiber Reinforcement.", "The Effect of Fiber Orientation.", "Types of Fibers and Their Mechanical Properties.", "Mechanical Properties of Aerospace Grade & Commercial Grade Carbon Fiber Composites, Fiberglass Composite, and Aluminum Alloy and Steel.", "Failure.", "Testing." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The earliest synthetic composite materials were made from straw and mud combined to form bricks for building construction. Ancient brick-making was documented by Egyptian tomb paintings. Wattle and daub is one of", "", "Concrete is the most common artificial composite material of all and typically consists of loose stones (aggregate) held with a matrix of cement. Concrete is an inexpensive material, and will not compress or shatter even under quite a large compressive force. However, concrete cannot survive tensile loading(i.e., if stretched it will quickly break apart). Therefore, to give concrete the ability to resist being stretched, steel bars, which can resist high stretching forces, are often added to concrete to form reinforced concrete. Fibre-reinforced polymers (FRP)s include carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) and glass-reinforced plastic (GRP). If classified by matrix then there are thermoplastic composites, short fibre thermoplastics, long fibre thermoplastics or long fibre-reinforced thermoplastics. There", "Fibre-reinforced composite materials have gained popularity (despite their generally high cost) in high-performance products that need to be lightweight, yet strong enough to take harsh loading conditions such as aerospace components (tails, wings, fuselages, propellers), boat and scull hulls, bicycle frames and racing car bodies. Other uses include fishing rods, storage tanks, swimming pool panels, and baseball bats. The Boeing 787 and Airbus A350 structures including the wings and fuselage are composed largely of composites. Composite materials are also becoming more common in the realm of orthopedic surgery, and it is the most common hockey stick material. Carbon composite is a key material in today's launch vehicles and heat shields for the re-entry phase of spacecraft. It is widely used in solar panel substrates, antenna reflectors and yokes of spacecraft. It is also used in payload adapters, inter-stage structures and heat shields of launch vehicles. Furthermore, disk brake systems of airplanes and racing cars are using carbon/carbon material, and the composite material with carbon fibres and silicon carbide matrix has been introduced in luxury vehicles", "Composites are made up of individual materials referred to as constituent materials. There are two main categories of constituent materials: matrix (binder) and reinforcement. At least one portion of each type is required. The matrix material surrounds and supports the reinforcement materials by maintaining their relative positions. The reinforcements impart their special mechanical and physical properties to enhance the matrix properties. A synergism produces material properties unavailable from the individual constituent materials, while the wide variety of matrix and strengthening materials allows the designer of the product or structure to choose an optimum combination. Engineered composite materials must be formed to shape. The matrix material can be introduced to the reinforcement before or after the reinforcement material is placed into the mould cavity or onto the mould surface. The matrix material experiences a melding event, after which the part shape is essentially set. Depending upon the nature of the matrix material, this melding event can occur in various ways such as chemical polymerization", "", "", "Polymers are common matrices (especially used for fibre reinforced plastics). Road surfaces are often made from asphalt concrete which uses bitumen as a matrix. Mud (wattle and daub) has seen extensive use. Typically, most common polymer-based composite materials, including fibreglass, carbon fibre, and Kevlar, include at least two parts, the substrate and the resin. Polyester resin tends to have yellowish tint, and is suitable for most backyard projects. Its weaknesses are that it is UV sensitive and can tend to degrade over time, and thus generally is also coated to help preserve it. It is often used in the making of surfboards and for marine applications. Its hardener is a peroxide, often MEKP (methyl ethyl ketone peroxide). When the peroxide is mixed with the resin, it decomposes to generate free radicals, which initiate the curing reaction. Hardeners in these systems are commonly called catalysts, but since they do not re-appear unchanged at the end of the reaction, they do not fit the strictest chemical definition of a catalyst. Vinyl ester resin tends to have", "Cement (concrete), metals, ceramics, and sometimes glasses are employed. Unusual matrices such as ice are sometime proposed as in pykecrete.", "", "Reinforcement usually adds rigidity and greatly impedes crack propagation. Thin fibers can have very high strength, and provided they are mechanically well attached to the matrix they can greatly improve the composite's overall properties. Fibre-reinforced composite materials can be divided into two main categories normally referred to as short fibre-reinforced materials and continuous fiber-reinforced materials. Continuous reinforced materials will often constitute a layered or laminated structure. The woven and continuous fiber styles are typically available in a variety of forms, being pre-impregnated with the given matrix (resin), dry, uni-directional tapes of various widths, plain weave, harness satins, braided, and stitched. The short and long fibres are typically employed in compression moulding and sheet moulding operations. These come in the form of flakes, chips, and random mate (which can also be made from a continuous fibre laid in random fashion until the desired thickness of the ply / laminate is achieved). Common fibres used for reinforcement include glass fibres, carbon fibres, cellulose (wood/paper fibre and straw) and high strength", "Many composite layup designs also include a co-curing or post-curing of the prepreg with various other media, such as honeycomb or foam. This is commonly called a sandwich structure. This is a more common layup for the manufacture of radomes, doors, cowlings, or non-structural parts. Open- and closed-cell-structured foams like polyvinylchloride, polyurethane, polyethylene or polystyrene foams, balsa wood, syntactic foams, and honeycombs are commonly used core materials. Open- and closed-cell metal foam can also be used as core materials. Recently, 3D graphene structures ( also called graphene foam) have also been employed as core structures. A recent review by Khurram and Xu et al., have provided the summary of the state-of-the-art techniques for fabrication of the 3D structure of graphene, and the examples of the use of these foam like structures as a core for their respective polymer composites.", "Although the two phases are chemically equivalent, semi-crystalline polymers can be described both quantitatively and qualitatively as composite materials. The crystalline portion has a higher elastic modulus and provides reinforcement for the less stiff, amorphous phase. Polymeric materials can range from 0% to 100% crystallinity aka volume fraction depending on molecular structure and thermal history. Different processing techniques can be employed to vary the percent crystallinity in these materials and thus the mechanical properties of these materials as described in the physical properties section. This effect is seen in a variety of places from industrial plastics like polyethylene shopping bags to spiders which can produce silks with different mechanical properties. In many cases these materials act like particle composites with randomly dispersed crystals known as spherulites. However they can also be engineered to be anisotropic and act more like fiber reinforced composites. In the case of spider silk, the properties of the material can even be dependent on the size of the crystals, independent of the volume fraction. Ironically, single component polymeric materials are some of the most easily tunable composite materials known.", "Fabrication of composite materials is accomplished by a wide variety of techniques, including: Composite fabrication usually involves wetting, mixing or saturating the reinforcement with the matrix, and then causing the matrix to bind together (with heat or a chemical reaction) into a rigid structure. The operation is usually done in an open or closed forming mould, but the order and ways of introducing the ingredients varies considerably.", "Within a mould, the reinforcing and matrix materials are combined, compacted, and cured (processed) to undergo a melding event. After the melding event, the part shape is essentially set, although it can deform under certain process conditions. For a thermoset polymer matrix material, the melding event is a curing reaction that is initiated by the application of additional heat or chemical reactivity such as an organic peroxide. For a thermoplastic polymeric matrix material, the melding event is a solidification from the melted state. For a metal matrix material such as titanium foil, the melding event is a fusing at", "Vacuum bag moulding uses a flexible film to enclose the part and seal it from outside air. Vacuum bag material is available in a tube shape or a sheet of material. A vacuum is then drawn on the vacuum bag and atmospheric pressure compresses the part during the cure. When a tube shaped bag is used, the entire part can be enclosed within the bag. When using sheet bagging materials, the edges of the vacuum bag are sealed against the edges of the mould surface to enclose the part against an air-tight mould. When bagged in this way,", "This process is related to vacuum bag molding in exactly the same way as it sounds. A solid female mold is used along with a flexible male mold. The reinforcement is placed inside the female mold with just enough resin to allow the fabric to stick in place (wet lay up). A measured amount of resin is then liberally brushed indiscriminately into", "A process using a two-sided mould set that forms both surfaces of the panel. On the lower side is a rigid mould and on the upper side is a flexible membrane made from silicone or an extruded polymer film such as nylon. Reinforcement materials can be placed manually or robotically. They include continuous fibre forms fashioned into textile", "RTM is a process using a rigid two-sided mould set that forms both surfaces of the panel. The mould is typically constructed from aluminum or steel, but composite molds are sometimes used. The two sides fit together to produce a mould cavity. The distinguishing feature of resin transfer moulding is that the reinforcement materials are placed into this cavity and the mould set is", "Similar to the methods performed in Resin Transfer Molding, Light Resin Transfer Molding (Light RTM) involves a closed mold process. A vacuum holds mold A and mold B together to result in two finished sides with fixed thickness levels. Vacuum rings around", "Other types of fabrication include press moulding, transfer moulding, pultrusion moulding, filament winding, casting, centrifugal casting, braiding (onto a former), continuous casting and slip forming. There are also forming capabilities including CNC filament winding, vacuum infusion, wet lay-up, compression moulding, and thermoplastic moulding, to name a few. The use of curing ovens and paint booths is also needed for some projects.", "The finishing of the composite parts is also critical in the final design. Many of these finishes will include rain-erosion coatings or polyurethane coatings.", "The mould and mould inserts are referred to as \"tooling.\" The mould/tooling can be constructed from a variety of materials. Tooling materials include invar, steel, aluminium, reinforced silicone rubber, nickel, and carbon fibre. Selection", "The physical properties of composite materials are generally not isotropic (independent of direction of applied force) in nature, but they are typically anisotropic (different depending on the direction of the applied force or load). For instance, the stiffness of a composite panel will often depend upon the orientation of the applied forces and/or moments. The strength of a composite is bounded by two loading conditions as shown in the plot to the right.", "If both the fibres and matrix are aligned parallel to the loading direction, the deformation of both phases will be the same (assuming there is no delamination at the fibre-matrix interface). This isostrain condition provides the upper bound for composite strength, and is determined by the rule of mixtures: formula_5 where \"E\" is the effective composite Young's modulus, and \"V\" and \"E\" are the volume fraction and", "The lower bound is dictated by the isostress condition, in which the fibres and matrix are oriented perpendicularly to the loading direction:formula_13and now the strains become a weighted averageformula_14Rewriting Hooke's Law for the individual phasesformula_15formula_16This leads toformula_17From the definition of Hooke's Lawformula_18and in general formula_19 Following the example above, if one had a composite material made up of α and β phases under isostress conditions as shown in the figure to the right, the composition Young's modulus would be:formula_20The isostrain condition implies that under an applied load, both phases experience the same strain but will feel different stress. Comparatively, under isostress conditions both phases will feel the same stress but the strains", "", "In general, particle reinforcement is strengthening the composites less than fiber reinforcement. It is used to enhance the stiffness of the composites while increasing the strength and the toughness. Because of their mechanical properties, they are used in applications in which wear resistance is required. For example, hardness of cement can be increased by reinforcing gravel particles, drastically. Particle reinforcement a highly advantageous method", "In general, continuous fiber reinforcement is implemented by incorporating a fiber as the strong phase into a weak phase, matrix. The reason for the popularity of fiber usage is materials with extraordinary strength can be obtained in their fiber form. Non-metallic fibers are usually showing a very high strength to density ratio compared to metal fibers because of the covalent nature of their bonds. The most famous example of this is carbon fibers that have many applications extending from sports gear to protective equipment to space industries. The stress on the composite can be expressed in terms of the volume fraction of the fiber and the matrix. formula_28 where formula_29 is the stress, V is the volume fraction. The subscripts c, f and m are indicating composite, fiber and matrix, respectively. Although the stress-strain behavior of fiber composites can only be determined by testing, there is an expected trend, three stages of the stress-strain curve. The first stage is the region of the stress-strain curve where both fiber and the matrix are elastically deformed. This linearly elastic region can be expressed in the following form. formula_30 where formula_29 is the stress, formula_32 is the strain, E is the elastic modulus, and V is the volume fraction. The subscripts c, f, and m are indicating composite, fiber, and matrix, respectively. After passing the elastic region for both fiber and the matrix, the second region of the stress-strain curve can be observed. In the second region, the fiber is still elastically deformed while the matrix is plastically deformed since the matrix is the weak phase. The instantaneous modulus can be determined using the slope of the stress-strain curve in the second region. The relationship between stress and strain can be expressed as, formula_33 where formula_29 is the stress, formula_32 is the strain, E is the elastic modulus, and V is the volume fraction. The subscripts c, f, and m are indicating composite,", "The change is in the fiber orientation can affect the mechanical properties of the fiber-reinforced composites especially the tensile strength. The composite tensile strength can be predicted to depending on the formula_56 (0° to 10° angles), the angle between the applied for, and the orientation of the fibers. formula_57 where T.S. is the tensile strength, formula_29 is the parallel stress. Because of the misorientation, the matrix of the composite experiences a shear force. The tensile strength of composites", "The most common types of fibers used in industry are glass fibers, carbon fibers, and kevlar due to their ease of production and availability. Their mechanical properties are very important to know, therefore the table of their mechanical properties is given below to compare them with S97 steel. The angle of fiber orientation is very important because of the anisotropy of fiber composites (please see the section \"Physical Properties\" for a more detailed explanation). The mechanical properties of the composites can be tested using standard mechanical testing methods by positioning the samples at various angles (the standard angles are 0°, 45°, and 90°) with respect to the orientation of fibers within the composites. In general, 0° axial alignment makes composites resistant to longitudinal bending and axial tension/compression, 90° hoop alignment is used to obtain resistance to internal/external pressure, and ± 45° is the ideal choice to obtain resistance against pure torsion.", "This table is demonstrating one of the most important features and advantage of fiber composites over metal, that is specific strength and specific stiffness. Although the steel and the aluminum alloy have comparable strength and stiffness with fiber composites, the specific strength and stiffness of composites are around 9 - 10 times higher than steel and the aluminum alloy.", "Shock, impact, or repeated cyclic stresses can cause the laminate to separate at the interface between two layers, a condition known as delamination. Individual fibres can separate from the matrix e.g. fibre pull-out. Composites can fail on the microscopic or macroscopic scale. Compression failures can occur at both the macro scale or at each individual reinforcing fibre in compression buckling. Tension failures can be net section failures of the part or degradation of the composite at a microscopic scale where one or more of the layers in the composite fail in tension", "To aid in predicting and preventing failures, composites are tested before and after construction. Pre-construction testing may use finite element analysis (FEA) for ply-by-ply analysis of curved surfaces and predicting" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "In popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Jan-Ove Waldner was born in Stockholm on 3 October 1965. His athletic potential was recognized at an early age and was displayed in 1982 when, as a 16-year-old, he reached the final of the European Championships, losing to distinguished left-handed teammate Mikael Appelgren, who was perceived then as the logical successor to the original Swedish World Champion, Stellan Bengtsson. While still developing his game, Waldner, along with several other Swedish players, traveled to a national-level training camp held in China, and was reportedly amazed by the dedication and solidarity of the Chinese players. He has claimed ever since that he learned much during his stay, and thereafter first began to regard his opportunity to succeed in table tennis as paramount. In China, a country that adores table tennis, he is undisputedly the best-known Swedish person, and still one of the most well-known sports personalities. In the 1990s, he was more recognizable in China than then President of the United States Bill Clinton. His venerable status and long career has led to his being nicknamed \"the evergreen tree\" (Chang Qing Shu) in Mandarin. He is considered by many to be the most technically complete player of all time, and is almost inarguably the most successful non-Chinese player who has ever lived. He received the Svenska Dagbladet Gold Medal in 1992. In 2010 Waldner won his ninth Swedish championship against Pär Gerell, who was born the same year Waldner became Swedish national champion for the first time. He played for TTC Rhön-Sprudel Fulda-Maberzell in the German Bundesliga until May 2012. In May 2012 Stefan Frauenholz, Fulda-Maberzell's President, confirmed that Jan-Ove Waldner finished his contract with the club. Timo Boll: \"Was yesterday's match against us the last one for Jan-Ove Waldner?\" referring to the Bundesliga semifinal between Borussia Düsseldorf and Fulda-Maberzell. This ended his career at the international elite level, at the age of 46 years. In 2012 he began playing for Spårvägens BTK. On 11 February 2016, Waldner played his last game in the Swedish first league for Ängby/Spårvägen and officially announced his retirement as a player. When he retired, Waldner had been playing international elite level table tennis for more than thirty years, which is somewhat unusual in the table tennis world given that hand–eye coordination and quick reactions are essential. Some young Chinese players whom he has recently played against were trained by those he played against in the 1990s, who were in turn trained by others he played in the 1980s. He is one of the seven table tennis players who competed at the first five Olympic Games table tennis tournaments since the sport's introduction at the Games in 1988. The others are Swede Jörgen Persson, Croatian Zoran Primorac, Belgian Jean-Michel Saive, Hungarian Csilla Bátorfi, Serbian-American Ilija Lupulesku, and German Jörg Roßkopf. He is also one of only five male players in the history of table tennis to achieve a career grand slam (World Champion and World Cup winner in singles, Olympic gold medal in singles) (in 1992). The others are: Liu Guoliang, China (in 1999), Kong Linghui, China (in 2000), Zhang Jike, China (in 2012), and Ma Long, China (in 2016).", "In the US TV series \"The Office\", the character Dwight mentions Waldner as one of his heroes in The Deposition episode. Waldner is also mentioned in season 2 episode 10 of the Netflix original series Bojack Horseman." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "1709–1739 Origins and education.", "1740–1747 Vize-Kapellmeister in Kempten.", "1747–1768 Singer and \"Cammercompositeur\" in Mannheim.", "1769–1789 Maitre de Chapelle de Notre-Dame de Strasbourg.", "1770 Richter meets Marie Antoinette.", "1778 Richter meets Mozart.", "Early Symphony." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Franz Xaver Richter was probably born in Holleschau, now Holešov), Moravia (then part of the Habsburg Monarchy, now the Czech Republic), although this is not entirely certain. There is no record of his birth in the Holleschau church register. In his employment contract with the Prince Abbot of Kempten it says that he hailed from Bohemia. The musicologist Friedrich Wilhelm Marpurg has Richter being from Hungarian descent and on his Strasbourg death certificate it says: \"ex Kratz oriundus\". Although his whereabouts until 1740 are nowhere documented, it is clear that Richter got a very thorough training in counterpoint and that this took place using the influential counterpoint treatise \"Gradus ad Parnassum\" by Johann Josef Fux; Richter may even have been Fux's pupil in Vienna. Richter's lifelong mastery of the strict church style which is particularly evident in his liturgical works but also shines through in his symphonies and chamber music, is testimony to his roots in the Austrian and south German Baroque music.", "On April 2, 1740 Richter was appointed deputy Kapellmeister (\"Vize-Kapellmeister\") to the Prince-Abbot Anselm von Reichlin-Meldeg of Kempten in Allgäu. Reichlin Meldeg as Prince Abbot presided over the Fürststift Kempten, a large Benedictine Monastery in what is now south-western Bavaria. The monastery certainly would have had a choir and probably a small orchestra (rather a \"band\", as it was called then), as well, but this must have been a small affair. Richter stayed in Kempten for six years but it is hard to imagine that a man of his education and talents would have liked the idea of spending the rest of his life in this scenically beautiful but otherwise completely parochial town. In February 1743 Richter married Maria Anna Josepha Moz, who was probably from Kempten. Twelve of Richter's symphonies for strings were published in Paris in the year 1744. It is assumed that Richter left Kempten already before the death of Reichlin-Meldeg in December 1747.", "Just how much Richter must have disliked Kempten can be deduced from the fact that in 1747 his name appears among the court musicians of the Prince elector Charles Theodore in Mannheim – but not as music director or in any other leading function but as a simple singer (bass). Obviously Richter preferred being one among many (singers and orchestra combine numbered more than 70 persons) in Mannheim to acting deputy Kapellmeister in a small town like Kempten. Because of his old fashioned, even reactionary music style Richter was not popular in Mannheim. The title awarded to him in 1768 as \"Cammercompositeur\" (chamber composer) seems to have been merely an honorary one. He was slightly more successful as a composer of sacred music and as music theoretician. In 1748 the Elector commissioned him to compose an oratorio for Good Friday, \"La deposizione dalla croce\". It is sometimes concluded that this oratorio was not a success as there was only one performance and Richter was never commissioned to write another one. Richter was also a respected teacher of composition. Between 1761 and 1767 he wrote a treatise on composition (\"Harmonische Belehrungen oder gründliche Anweisung zu der musikalischen Ton-Kunst oder regulären Komposition\"), based on Fux's \"Gradus ad Parnassum\" – the only representative of the Mannheim School to do so. The lengthy work in three tomes is dedicated to Charles Theodore. Among his more notable pupils were Joseph Martin Kraus, probably Carl Stamitz and Ferdinand Fränzl. After 1768 Richter's name disappears from the lists of court singers. During his Mannheim years Richter made tours to the Oettingen-Wallerstein court in 1754 and later to France, the Netherlands and England where his compositions found a ready market with publishers. It seems clear from Richter's compositions that he did not really fit in at the Mannheim court. Whereas his colleagues in the orchestra were interested in lively, energetic, homophonic music that focused on drive, brilliancy and sparkling orchestral effects gained from stock devices, Richter, rooted in the Austrian Baroque tradition, wrote music that was in a way reminiscent of Handel and his teacher Fux. Thus, when in 1769 an opening at Strasbourg's cathedral became known Richter seems to have applied right away.", "In April 1769 he succeeded Joseph Garnier as Kapellmeister at Strasbourg Cathedral, where both his performing and composing activities turned increasingly to sacred music. He was by then recognized as a leading contrapuntist and church composer. Johann Sebastian Bach's first biographer, composer and musicologist Johann Nikolaus Forkel, wrote about Richter in 1782: In Strasbourg Richter also had to direct the concerts at the Episcopal court (today Palais Rohan); in addition to that he was for a time also in charge of the town concerts which were held at regular intervals. The main part of Richter's sacred music was composed during his Strasbourg years. He was active as a composer until his last year. During his last years Haydn's favourite pupil Ignaz Pleyel served as his assistant at the cathedral. In 1787 he visited Munich, where he met Mozart's father Leopold one last time. In Munich he met most of his former colleagues of the Mannheim court orchestra who by then had moved to Munich to where the court had been transferred. From 1783 on, and due to Richter's advanced age and declining health, Joseph Haydn's favourite pupil Ignaz Pleyel served as his assistant. He would succeed him at the post after his death. Richter died, aged 79, at Strasbourg, in the year of the French Revolution. Thus he did not have to witness his deputy Ignaz Pleyel being forced to write hymns to praise the supreme being and the death by guillotine of Jean-Frédéric Edelmann, a gifted composer from Strasbourg.", "In 1770 Marie Antoinette, future queen of France, on her way from Vienna to Paris passed through the Alsatian capital, where she stayed at the Episcopal Palace, the Palais Rohan. Richter, who almost certainly directed the church music when Marie Antoinette went to mass the next day, witnessed the earliest stages of historical events that would later contribute to the downfall of the French monarchy. The prelate who greeted Marie Antoinette on the steps of the cathedral, probably in Richter's presence, was the same Louis Rohan who would later, duped by a prostitute impersonating Marie Antoinette, trigger the Affair of the Diamond Necklace. Several historians and writers think that this bizarre episode undermined the trust of the French in their queen and thus hastened the onset of the French Revolution. But Richter did not live to see this. What he saw was Strasbourg all dressed up to greet the Dauphiness:", "Both Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and his father Leopold knew Richter. Mozart would have met him still as a boy on his Family Grand tour in 1763 when the Mozart family came through Schwetzingen, the summer residence of the Elector Palatinate. Mozart met him once again in 1778 on his way back from Paris when he was headed for the unloved Salzburg after his plans to gain permanent employment in Mannheim or Paris had come to naught. In a letter to his father, dated November 2, 1778, Mozart seems to suggest that the by then elderly Richter was something of an alcoholic: However, Mozart was not one to laud lightly. The epithet \"charmingly written\" can be taken at face value and from someone like Mozart this was high praise indeed.", "The Adagio and Fugue in G minor for Strings (1760) is one of Franz Xaver Richter's symphonies, which features the learned style in 18th century orchestral works. His experience in churches also contributes to his sophisticated contrapuntal style in his orchestral works. The first movement begins with the tonic key, G minor, entitled Adagio and fugue, and it distinguishes from later sonata form by Haydn and Mozart. The opening material is quite different from the primary theme in symphonies by Mozart and Haydn. First, the opening material is not highly melodically recognizable and easy to grasp for the audience. One could call it primary key area instead of the primary theme. It is in highly learned style with a lot of sequential passages. The music progresses until m. 23 when it reaches a structural V chord in the first section after an augmented sixth chord (m. 25) is emphasized (Example A). Again the music is still in the tonic key area when the fugue begins. The fugue subject is in g minor, and the answer is in d minor. The music goes to B-flat major for the first time in m. 60 after a V–I motion. The B-flat major passage starts another sequence until m. 67. The third tonal area in this piece is C major, starting after a French augmented sixth chord resolving to a dominant chord (G-B-D) in m. 120. A cadence on C major is elided in m. 217, the bass progresses to a D-G motion, sitting on the tonic key G minor in m. 222. Overall, the first movement includes two sections, Adagio (which can be seen as an introduction to fugue) and a fugue (in fugue form), which is very different from the sonata-allegro form composed by Mozart and Haydn. As Jochen Reutter acclaims, Franz Xaver Richter's compositional idiom \"changed from a late Baroque sound to a tonal language which reached the threshold of the Classical style. He was influenced by the 18th-century learned style and he adapted the Mannheim symphonic style with his own differentiated instrumentation.\" Also according to Reutter, \"his [Richter's] works from this period include such conservative traits as fugal techniques, Baroque sequences and the frequent use of minor tonality.\" As shown in this work Adagio and Fugue in G minor for Strings, the first movement is almost entirely based on various kinds of sequences and fugal style. This early symphony makes an intriguing subject for a scholarly study of early symphonies." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geographical features.", "Historical background.", "Education." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Niulakita is a reef island. There are four ponds or lakes and the village has a maneapa (a community hall) in Tuvalu, which provides meeting and recreational functions as well. The isle has an oval outline, with the longer axis running east–west (about 1 km long). This island features highest point of Tuvalu ( above sea level). A fringing reef surrounds the whole island, which makes local fishing and transport into and out of the island difficult.", "The discovery of Niulakita is claimed by travellers from Nui, led by Kaunatu who was taking people home to Vaitupu, however their canoe drifted off course to the south and they arrived at Niulakita. There was only saltbrush (\"Atriplex\") and \"pukavai\" trees (\"Pisonia grandis\") on the islands. Kaeula, one of the passengers, died and was buried with the last of their coconuts planted at the head of his grave. The island was named by Kaunatu after a place of that name on Nui. The first sighting recorded by Europeans of Niulakita was on 29 August 1595 by the Spanish navigator Alvaro de Mendaña during his second expedition encountered Niulakita. The island was charted as La Solitaria (Lonesome in Spanish). An attempt was made to find a port with two small vessels in its southern part but the bottom was uneven and rocky and they abandoned their attempts. In 1821 Captain George Barrett, of the Nantucket whaler \"Independence II\", visited Niulakita, which he named Rocky (Group). This name was never much used, but Independence Island, after Barrett's ship, was one of the several names which came into general use for Niulakita during the 19th century. Niulakita was also known as Sophia. In about 1879 the elders of Vaitupu were interested in Niulakita and send a working party to plant coconuts on the island. However, in 1880 they were informed that J. C. Godeffroy und Sohn of Hamburg (operating out of Samoa) claimed ownership of the island. Notwithstanding this claim in 1884 the Vaitupu elders transferred their claim to Niulakita to H. M. Ruge and Company, a German trading firm that operated from Apia, for $400 in part payment of a debt of $13,000 to Ruge & Co. Ruge & Co became insolvent in about 1888. On 15 April 1889 Niulakita was sold for $1,000 to Mr H. J. Moors, an American citizen living in Apia, Samoa. On 16 September 1896 Captain Gibson R.N., of HMS \"Curacoa\", recorded in his journal that six men and six women, natives of various islands, were living on Niulakita working for Moors. Captain Gibson determined that the island was not under American protection so he hoisted the Union Jack and delivered the flag, with a copy of the Declaration of British Protectorate, to the headman of the working party. In August 1896, the sailing ship \"Seladon\" of Stavanger was wrecked on the coral reef of Starbuck Island. The crew of 16 men were in the lifeboats with little food and water for 30 days, until they arrived at Niulakita. The crew were stranded for ten months until rescued by a passing steam ship. It was bought by the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony administration in 1944. The administration gave people from Vaitupu permission to settle Niulakita. However, in 1949 a later administration decided to have Niulakita settled by the community from Niutao, which was considered to be overpopulated. The removal of the Vaitupuans was controversial. The United States asserted a claim to Niulakita under the Guano Islands Act of 1856; this claim was renounced under the 1983 treaty of friendship between Tuvalu and the United States.", "Niulakita's junior school is Lotoalofa Primary School." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Report.", "Race." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The front runners got off the line cleanly, with Michael Schumacher maintaining first place after starting on pole for the first time in 1999. Jarno Trulli, starting ninth, went off the track trying to pass Heinz-Harald Frentzen up the inside into turn one. Trulli spun across turn one, collecting Jean Alesi and Rubens Barrichello. Trulli and Alesi retired, and the safety car was deployed. Alexander Wurz also retired with transmission problems. Ricardo Zonta retired on lap 3 after spinning into the wall at turn 13. He stopped just off the track, missing his right rear wheel, which brought the safety car out again. Zonta was the first of four drivers to hit the \"Wall of Champions\" in this race. On lap 15, Damon Hill became the second driver to hit the turn 13 wall. Hill was able to pull off the track in a safe location, and the safety car was not deployed. Michael Schumacher hit the wall on lap 30, giving the lead to Mika Häkkinen. The fourth and final driver to hit to wall was Jacques Villeneuve on lap 35, bringing the safety car out for the third time. Hill, Schumacher, and Villeneuve were three of the four Formula 1 Drivers' Champions competing in the race. On the lap 41 restart following Villeneuve's crash, David Coulthard tried to go around the outside of Eddie Irvine into turn one, then the inside on turn two. They touched, and both spun off. Both were able to rejoin, though Coulthard had to pit for a new nose. The fourth and final safety car of race came out on lap 66 after Heinz-Harald Frentzen, running in second place, suffered a brake failure and had a massive crash. He was uninjured. The safety car pulled in at the end of the final lap, and Mika Häkkinen won the race. Eddie Irvine scored his first fastest lap and finished third behind Giancarlo Fisichella." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Toponymy.", "History.", "Ancient times.", "Roman and Byzantine times.", "Medieval times.", "Ottoman rule.", "British administration.", "Independence and division.", "Geography.", "Climate.", "Cityscape.", "South of the Green Line.", "North of the Green Line.", "Politics and administration.", "Governance of the metropolitan area.", "Nicosia Municipality.", "Nicosia Turkish Municipality.", "Other municipalities in Greater Nicosia.", "Administrative divisions and demographics.", "Culture.", "Education.", "Economy.", "Transport.", "Sports.", "International relations.", "Twin towns and sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "The earliest mention of Nicosia is in the clay prism of the Assyrian king Esarhaddon in 672 BC. This is a mention to the city-state of Ledra located on the site of Nicosia, and the city is named \"Lidir\". The name Ledra and variations (such as Ledroi) remained in use as late as 392 AD, when", "", "Nicosia has been in continuous habitation since the beginning of the Bronze Age 2500 years BC, when the first inhabitants settled in the fertile plain of Mesaoria. Nicosia later became a city-state known as Ledra or Ledrae, one of the twelve kingdoms of ancient Cyprus built by Achaeans after the end of the Trojan War. Remains of old Ledra today can be found in the Ayia Paraskevi hill", "In Byzantine times, the town was also referred to as Λευκωσία (Lefkosia) or as Καλληνίκησις (Kallenikesis). In the 4th century AD, the town became the seat of bishopric, with bishop Saint Tryphillius (Trifillios), a student of Saint Spyridon. Archaeological evidence indicates that the town regained much of its earlier significance in the early Christian period, and the presence of two or three basilicas with \"opus sectile\" decorations, along with marbles decorated with high relief indicate the presence of a relatively prosperous and sophisticated Christian society. After the destruction of Salamis, the existing capital of Cyprus, by Arab raids in 647, along with extensive damage to other coastal settlements, the economy of the island became much more inward-looking and inland towns gained relative significance. Nicosia benefited from this and functioned as an", "On his way to the Holy Land during the Third Crusade in 1187, Richard I of England's fleet was plagued by storms. He himself stopped first at Crete and then at Rhodes. Three ships continued on, one of which was carrying Joan of England, Queen of Sicily and Berengaria of Navarre, Richard's bride-to-be. Two of the ships were wrecked off Cyprus, but the ship bearing Joan and Berengaria made it safely to Limassol. Joan refused to come ashore, fearing she would be captured and held hostage by Isaac Komnenos of Cyprus, who hated all Franks. Her ship sat at anchor for a full week before Richard finally arrived on 8 May. Outraged at the treatment of his sister and his future bride, Richard invaded. Richard laid siege to Nicosia, finally met and defeated Isaac Komnenos at Tremetousia and became ruler of the island, but sold it to the Knights Templar. The Frankish rule of Cyprus started from 1192 and lasted until 1489. During this time, Nicosia was the capital of the medieval Kingdom of Cyprus, the seat of Lusignan kings, the Latin Church", "On 1 July 1570, the Ottomans invaded the island. On 22 July, Piyale Pasha having captured Paphos, Limassol and Larnaca marched his army towards Nicosia and laid siege to the city. The city managed to last 40 days under siege until its fall on 9 September 1570. The story of the Cypriot martyr Arnaude de Rocas dates from the fall of Nicosia. Some 20,000 residents died during the siege and every church, public building, and palace was looted. Nicosia had an estimated population of 21,000 before the Ottoman conquest, and based on the Ottoman census data of 1572, the population had been reduced to 1,100–1,200. The devastation of the city was so extensive that for the few years after the conquest, a number of villages in the island had a larger population than Nicosia. The main Latin churches were converted into mosques, such as the conversion of the Saint Sophia Cathedral. Nicosia was the seat of the Pasha,", "Nicosia came under the rule of the United Kingdom on 5 July 1878 in consequence of the Cyprus Convention. The old Ottoman administrative headquarters (the Saray) was replaced in 1904 by a new building containing Law Courts, the Land Registry, and the Forestry, Customs, and Nicosia Commissioner's Offices. Adjacent was the Nicosia Police headquarters, while opposite were the General Post Office and the Telegraph Office. A Venetian Column, previously in a fenced courtyard near the Saray, was restored on a new site in the summer of 1915 in the middle of Saray Square. The Nicosia column was presumably erected in compliment to the reigning Doge Francesco Donati about the year 1550. Just after the British Occupation a Municipal Council was constituted in Nicosia in 1882 for the general administration of public affairs", "In 1960 Nicosia became the capital of the Republic of Cyprus, a state established by the Greek and Turkish Cypriots. In 1963, the Greek Cypriot side proposed amendments to the constitution, which were rejected by the Turkish Cypriot community. During the aftermath of this crisis, on 21 December 1963, intercommunal violence broke out between Greek and Turkish Cypriots. Nicosia was divided into Greek and Turkish Cypriot quarters with the Green Line, named after the colour of the pen used by the United Nations officer to draw the line on a map of the city. This resulted in Turkish Cypriots withdrawing from the government, and following more intercommunal violence in 1964, a number of Turkish Cypriots moved to the Turkish quarter of Nicosia, causing serious overcrowding. On 15 July 1974, there was an attempted coup d'état led by the Greek military junta to unite the island with Greece. The coup ousted president Makarios III and replaced him with pro-enosis", "", "Nicosia has a hot semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classification \"BSh\") due to its low annual precipitation totals and annual temperature range. The city experiences long, hot, dry summers, and cool to mild winters, with most of", "", "Ledra Street is in the middle of the walled city. The street has historically been the busiest shopping street of the capital and adjacent streets lead to the most lively part of the old city with narrow streets, boutiques, bars and art-cafés. The street today is a historic monument on its own. It is about long and connects the south and north parts of the old city. During the EOKA struggle that ran from 1955 to 1959, the street acquired the informal nickname \"The Murder Mile\" in reference to the frequent targeting of the British colonialists by nationalist fighters", "At the center of the walled city lies the Sarayönü Square. The square has been dubbed as \"the heart of Nicosia\" and historically has been the cultural center of the Turkish Cypriot community. In the middle of the square stands the Venetian Column, known simply as \"the Obelisk\" (\"Dikiltaş\") to the locals and symbolic of the country's government. The column was brought from the ancient city of Salamis by the Venetians in 1550. The Girne Avenue connects Sarayönü to the Kyrenia Gate and the İnönü Square in front of it. The avenue has been described as \"the symbol of the walled city\", and is filled with numerous shops and restaurants. Next to the Ledra Street checkpoint is the Arasta area. The area was pedestrianized in 2013 and is home to a network of historic shopping streets, reflecting an eastern shopping tradition with food and traditional items. Nearby Büyük Han, the largest caravanserai in the island and considered to be", "", "Greater Nicosia is administered by several municipalities. In the centre is the city municipality of Nicosia itself (see below). Other municipalities are Strovolos, Lakatamia, Latsia, Aglandjia, Engomi, Agios Dhometios and the newly formed () Yeri & Tseri. The population of the conurbation is 300,000 (2011 census, plus Turkish Cypriot administered census of 2006) of which 100,000 live within the Nicosia municipal area. Because Nicosia municipality has separate communal municipal administrations, the population of Strovolos (67,904 (2011 Census)) is actually the largest of all the local authorities in Greater Nicosia. Within Nicosia municipality, most of the population resides in the more recently annexed outlying areas of Kaimakli, Pallouriotissa, Omorfita and Ayii Omoloyites. There is no metropolitan authority as such for Greater Nicosia and various roles, responsibilities and functions for the wider area are undertaken by the Nicosia District administration, bodies such as the Nicosia Water Board and, to some extent, Nicosia municipality. The Nicosia Water Board supplies water to the following municipalities: Nicosia, Strovolos,", "The Nicosia Municipality is responsible for all the municipal duties within the walled city and the immediately adjacent areas. The Constitution states that various main government buildings and headquarters must be situated within the Nicosia municipal boundaries. However separate municipalities are prescribed by the constitution for in the five largest towns, including Nicosia, and in the case of Nicosia the separate administration was established in 1958.", "The first attempt to establish a Nicosia Turkish Municipality was made in 1958. In October 1959, the British Colonial Administration passed the Turkish Municipality Committees law. In 1960 with the declaration of independence of Cyprus, the Constitution of the Republic of Cyprus gave Turkish Cypriots the right to", "Until 1986 there were no suburban municipalities. Then, following the procedures in the Municipal Law 111/1985, Strovolos, Engomi, Ay. Dometios, Aglandjia, Latsia and Lakatamia were erected", "Nicosia within the city limits is divided into 29 administrative units, according to the latest census. This unit is termed in English as \"quarter, neighbourhood, parish, enoria\" or \"mahalla\". These units are: Ayios Andreas(formerly Tophane), Trypiotis, Nebethane, Tabakhane, Phaneromeni, Ayios Savvas, Omerie, Ayios Antonios (St. Anthony), St. John, Taht-el-kale, Chrysaliniotissa, Ayios Kassianos (Kafesli), Kaïmakli, Panayia, St Constantine & Helen, Ayioi Omoloyites, Arab Ahmet, Yeni Jami, Omorfita, Ibrahim Pasha, Mahmut Pasha, Abu Kavouk, St. Luke, Abdi Chavush, Iplik Pazar and Korkut Effendi, Ayia Sophia, Haydar Pasha, Karamanzade, and Yenişehir/Neapolis.", "The Cyprus Museum in Nicosia is the largest and oldest archaeological museum in Cyprus. In old Nicosia, the Ethnological Museum (Hadjigeorgakis Kornesios Mansion) is the most important example of urban architecture of the last century of Ottoman domination which survives in old Nicosia. Today, the mansion which was awarded the Europa Nostra prize for its exemplary renovation work, functions as a museum where a collection of artifacts from the Byzantine, Medieval and Ottoman periods are displayed. Other museums in Nicosia include the Cyprus Museum of Natural History and the Leventis Municipal Museum of Nicosia and Von World Pens Hall in the south. In", "Nicosia has a large student community as it is the seat of eight universities, the University of Cyprus", "Nicosia is the financial and business heart of Cyprus. The city hosts the headquarters of all Cypriot banks namely the former Cyprus Popular Bank (also known as Laiki Bank), Bank of Cyprus, the Hellenic Bank. Further, the Central Bank of Cyprus is located in the Acropolis area of the Cypriot capital. A number of international businesses base their Cypriot headquarters", "Nicosia is linked with other major cities in Cyprus via a modern motorway network. The A1 connects Nicosia with Limassol in the south with the A6 going from Limassol onto Paphos. The A2 links Nicosia with the south eastern city of Larnaca with the A3 going from Larnaca to Ayia Napa. The A9 connects Nicosia to the west Nicosia district villages and the Troodos mountains. The capital is also linked to the 2 international airports: Larnaca International Airport and Paphos International Airport. (Nicosia International Airport ceased commercial operations in 1974; it is located within the Green Line buffer zone, and is currently used as the headquarters of the United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus.) Public transport within the city", "Football is the most popular sport in Cyprus, and Nicosia is home of three major teams of the island; APOEL, Omonia and Olympiakos. APOEL and Omonia are dominant in Cypriot football. There are also many other football clubs in Nicosia and the suburbs. The city also hosts Çetinkaya, Yenicami, Küçük Kaymaklı and Gönyeli, four of the major Turkish Cypriot clubs. Nicosia is also home to Ararat FC, the island's only Armenian FC. Nicosia is also the home for many clubs for basketball, handball and other sports. APOEL and Omonia have basketball and volleyball sections and Keravnos is one of the major basketball teams of the island. The Gymnastic Club Pancypria (GSP), the owner of the Neo GSP Stadium, is one of the major athletics clubs of the island. Also, all teams in", "", "" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Types of vivaria.", "Size and materials.", "Environmental controls.", "Lighting.", "Temperature.", "Humidity.", "Ventilation and openings." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "There are various forms of vivarium, including:", "A vivarium is usually made from clear container (often plastic or glass). Unless it is an aquarium, it does not need to withstand the pressure of water, so it can also be made out of wood or metal, with at least one transparent side. Modern vivariums can be as simple as a bottle (see Bottle garden) and are sometimes constructed from epoxy-coated plywood and fitted with sliding glass doors. Coating the inside of a plywood vivarium helps to retain the natural effect of the environment. Epoxy-coated plywood vivariums retain heat better than glass or plastic enclosures and are able to withstand high degrees of humidity. They may be cubical, spherical, cuboidal, or other shapes. The choice of materials depends on the desired size and weight of the entire ensemble, resistance to high humidity, the cost and the desired quality. The floor of a vivarium must have sufficient surface area for the species living inside. The height can also be important for the larger plants, climbing plants, or for tree climbing animal species. The width must be great enough to create the sensation of depth, both for the pleasure of the spectator and the good of the species inside. The most commonly used substrates are common soil, small pebbles, sand, peat, chips of various trees, wood mulch, vegetable fibres (of coconut, for example), or a combination of these. The choice of the substrate depends on the needs of the plants or of the animals, moisture, the risks involved and aesthetic aspects. Sterile vivariums, sometimes used to ensure high levels of hygiene (especially during quarantine periods), generally have very straightforward, easily removable substrates such as paper tissue, wood chips and even newspaper. Typically, a low-nutrient, high-drainage substrate is placed on top of a false bottom or layer of LECA or stones, which retains humidity without saturating the substrate surface.", "", "A lighting system is necessary, always adapted to the requirements of the animal and plant species. For example, certain reptiles in their natural environment need to heat themselves by the sun, so various bulbs may be necessary to simulate this in a terrarium. Also, certain plants or diurnal animals need a source of UV to help synthesize Vitamin D and assimilate calcium. Such UV can be provided by specialized fluorescent tubes or daylight bulbs, which recreate the reptiles' natural environment and emit a more natural sunlight effect compared to the blue glow of a fluorescent tube. A day/night regulator might be needed to simulate with accuracy the alternation of light and dark periods. The duration of the simulated day and night depends on the conditions in the natural habitat of the species and the season desired.", "The temperature can be a very important parameter for species that cannot adapt to other conditions than those found in their natural habitat. Heating can be provided by several means, all of which are usually controlled by a thermostat: heating lamps or infrared lamps, hot plates and heat mats, providing heat at the base or sides of a terrarium, heating cords or heat mats placed beneath the substrate, heat rocks, or more complex equipment generating or producing hot air to the inside of the vivarium. Similar to lighting, a decrease in temperature might be needed for the simulated night periods, thus keeping living species healthy. Such variation need to be coherent to those found in the natural habitats of the species. Thermo-control systems are often used to regulate light cycles and heating, as well as humidity (coupled to built-in misting or rain systems). Light-dependent resistors or photo-diodes connected to the lighting are frequently used to simulate daytime, evening and nighttime light cycles, as well as timers to switch lighting and heating on and off when necessary.", "Many plants and animals have quite limited tolerance to the variation of moisture. The regulation of humidity can be done by several means: regular water pulverization, water evaporation inside (from a basin, or circulation of water), or automated pulverization systems and humidifiers.", "Access inside the vivarium is required for the purpose of maintenance, to take care of the plants and animals, or for the addition and withdrawal of food. In the case of some animals, a frontal opening is preferable because accessing a vivarium from the top is associated by some species with the presence of predators and can therefore cause unnecessary stress. Ventilation is not just important for circulating air, but also for preventing the growth of mold and development and spread of harmful bacteria. This is especially important in warm, humid vivariums. The traditional method consists of placing a suction fan (or ventilation slits) at a low level and another exhaust fan at a higher level, which allows the continual circulation of fresh air." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Formation and early years.", "Hiatus.", "Breakup.", "Subsequent activities.", "Copyright issues.", "\"Major Threat\".", "\"Salad Days\".", "Wheelhouse Pickles.", "Urban Outfitters." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Prior to forming Minor Threat in 1980, vocalist Ian MacKaye and drummer Jeff Nelson had played bass and drums respectively in the Teen Idles while attending Wilson High School. During their two-year career within the flourishing Washington D.C. hardcore punk scene, the Teen Idles had gained a following of around one hundred fans (a sizable amount at the time), and were seen as only second within the scene to the contemporary Bad Brains. MacKaye and Nelson were strong believers in the DIY mentality and an independent, underground music scene. After the breakup of the Teen Idles, they used the money earned through the band to create Dischord Records, an independent record label that would host the releases of the Teen Idles, Minor Threat, and numerous other D.C. punk bands. Eager to start a new band after the Teen Idles, MacKaye and Nelson recruited guitarist Lyle Preslar and bassist Brian Baker. They played their first performance in December 1980 to fifty people in a basement, opening for Bad Brains, The Untouchables, Black Market Baby and S.O.A., all D.C. bands. The band's first 7\" EPs, \"Minor Threat\" and \"In My Eyes\", were released in 1981. The group became popular regionally and toured the east coast and Midwest. \"Straight Edge,\" a song from the band's first EP, helped to inspire the straight edge movement. The lyrics of the song relay MacKaye's first-person perspective of his personal choice of abstinence from alcohol and other drugs, a novel ideology for rock musicians which initially found a small but dedicated following. Other prominent groups that subsequently advocated the straight edge stance include SS Decontrol and 7 Seconds. Although the original song was not written as a manifesto or a \"set of rules,\" many later bands inspired by this idea used it as such, and over the years since its release, the song and the term \"straight edge\" became the zeitgeist for an entire subculture, and indeed the basis for a paradigm shift that has persisted and grown consistently throughout the world. The term comes as the point of the story -- he doesn't want to do drugs or drink, so therefore the writer has an edge over those who do -- a straight edge. \"Out of Step\", A Minor Threat song from their second EP, further demonstrates the said belief: \"Don't smoke/Don't drink/Don't fuck/At least I can fucking think/I can't keep up/I'm out of step with the world.\" The \"I\" in the lyrics was usually only implied, mainly because it did not quite fit the rhythm of the song. Some of the other members of Minor Threat, Jeff Nelson in particular, took exception to what they saw as MacKaye's imperious attitude on the song. The song was later re-recorded, and the updated version of the song on the 1983 album \"Out of Step\", which is slower so the first-person use of \"I\" would be clearer, included a bridge where MacKaye explains his personal beliefs, explaining that his ideals, which at the time were not yet known as what became a collective philosophy, or in fact, known as \"straight edge,\" \"is not a set of rules; I'm not telling you what to do. All I'm saying is there are three things, that are like so important to the whole world that I don't happen to find much importance in, whether it's fucking, or whether it's playing golf, because of that, I feel... I can't keep up... (full chorus)\". Minor Threat's song \"Guilty of Being White\" led to some accusations of racism, but MacKaye has strongly denied such intentions and said that some listeners misinterpreted his words. He claims that his experiences attending Wilson High School, whose student population was 70 percent black, inspired the song. There, many students bullied MacKaye and his friends. In an interview, MacKaye stated that he was offended that some perceived racist overtones in the lyrics, saying, \"To me, at the time and now, it seemed clear it's an anti-racist song. Of course, it didn't occur to me at the time I wrote it that anybody outside of my twenty or thirty friends who I was singing to would ever have to actually ponder the lyrics or even consider them.\" Thrash metal band Slayer later covered the song, with the last iteration of the lyric \"guilty of being white\" changed to \"guilty of being right.\"", "In the time between the release of the band's second seven-inch EP and the \"Out of Step\" record, the band briefly split when guitarist Lyle Preslar moved to Illinois to attend college for a semester at Northwestern University. Preslar was a member of Big Black for a few tempestuous rehearsals. During that period, MacKaye and Nelson put together a studio-only project called Skewbald/Grand Union; in a reflection of the slowly increasing disagreements between the two musicians, they were unable to decide on one name. The group recorded three untitled songs, which would be released posthumously as Dischord's 50th release. During Minor Threat's inactive period, Brian Baker also briefly played guitar for Government Issue and appeared on the \"Make an Effort\" EP. In March 1982, at the urging of Bad Brains' H.R., Preslar left college to reform Minor Threat. The reunited band featured an expanded lineup: Steve Hansgen joined as the band's bassist and Baker switched to second guitar. Some in Minor Threat, particularly drummer Jeff Nelson, took exception to what they saw as MacKaye's imperious attitude on the song \"Out of Step.\" When the song was re-recorded for the LP \"Out of Step,\" MacKaye clearly sang \"I don't drink/smoke/fuck\" (as was the intent of his words all along). The band also inserted an overdubbed spoken section into the instrumental break before the last chorus with MacKaye stating, \"This is not a set of rules, I'm not telling you what to do...\" Recording engineer Don Zientara had inadvertently recorded an argument between drummer Nelson and lyricist/singer MacKaye that captured the message perfectly, so this was used. According to Mark Andersen and Mark Jenkins' \"Dance of Days: Two Decades of Punk in the Nation's Capital\", this argument was over exactly what would be said in the message that Nelson wanted MacKaye to record, stating essentially what he said without knowing it was being recorded. An ideological door had already been opened, however, and by 1983, some straight-edge punks, such as followers of the band SS Decontrol, were swatting beers out of people's hands at clubs.", "Minor Threat broke up in 1983. A contributing factor was disagreement over musical direction. MacKaye was allegedly skipping rehearsal sessions towards the end of the band's career, and he wrote the lyrics to the songs on the \"Salad Days\" EP in the studio. That was quite a contrast with the earlier recordings, as he had written and co-written the music for much of the band's early material. Minor Threat, which had returned to being a four-piece group with the departure of Hansgen, played its final show on September 23, 1983, at the Lansburgh Cultural Center in Washington, D.C., sharing the bill with go-go band Trouble Funk, and Austin, Texas punk funk act the Big Boys. In a meaningful way, Minor Threat ended their final set with \"Last Song\", a tune whose name was also the original title of the band's song \"Salad Days\". Following the breakup, MacKaye stated that he did not \"check out\" on hardcore, but in fact hardcore \"checked out.\" Explaining this, he stated that at a 1984 Minutemen show, a fan struck MacKaye's younger brother Alec in the face, and he punched the fan back, then realizing that the violence was \"stupid,\" and that he saw his role in the stupidity. MacKaye claimed that immediately after this he decided to leave the hardcore scene.", "In March 1984, six months after the band broke up, the EPs \"Minor Threat\" and \"In My Eyes\" were compiled together and re-released as the \"Minor Threat\" album. MacKaye went on to found Embrace with former members of the Faith, Egg Hunt with Jeff Nelson, and later Fugazi and the Evens, as well as collaborating on Pailhead. Baker went on to play in Junkyard, the Meatmen, Dag Nasty and Government Issue. Since 1994, Baker has been a member of Bad Religion. Preslar was briefly a member of Glenn Danzig's Samhain, and his playing appears on a few songs on the band's first record. He joined The Meatmen in 1984, along with fellow Minor Threat member Brian Baker. He later ran Caroline Records, signing and working with (among others) Peter Gabriel, Ben Folds, Chemical Brothers, and Idaho, and ran marketing for Sire Records. He graduated from Rutgers University School of Law and lives in New Jersey. Nelson played less-frantic alternative rock with Three and The High-Back Chairs before retiring from live performance. He runs his own label, Adult Swim Records, distributed by Dischord, and is a graphic artist and a political activist in Toledo, Ohio. The band's own Dischord Records released material by many bands from the Washington, D.C., area, such as Government Issue, Void, Scream, Fugazi, Artificial Peace, Rites of Spring, Gray Matter, and Dag Nasty, and has become a respected independent record label. Hansgen formed Second Wind with Rich Moore, a former Minor Threat roadie and drummer for the Untouchables. In 1992, he worked as a producer on the first Tool EP \"Opiate\".", "", "In 2005, a mock-up of the cover of Minor Threat's first EP (also used on the \"Minor Threat\" LP and \"Complete Discography\" CD) was copied by athletic footwear manufacturer Nike for use on a promotional poster for a skateboarding tour called \"Major Threat\". Nike also altered Minor Threat's logo (designed by Jeff Nelson) for the same campaign, as well as featuring Nike shoes in the new picture, rather than the combat boots worn by Ian MacKaye's younger brother Alec on the original. MacKaye issued a press statement condemning Nike's actions and said that he would discuss legal options with the other members of the band. Meanwhile, fans, at the encouragement of Dischord, organized a letter-writing campaign protesting Nike's infringement. On June 27, 2005, Nike issued a statement apologizing to Minor Threat, Dischord Records, and their fans for the \"Major Threat\" campaign and said that all promotional artwork (print and digital) that they could acquire were destroyed.", "On October 29, 2005, Fox played the first few seconds of Minor Threat's \"Salad Days\" during an NFL broadcast. Use of the song was not cleared by Dischord Records or any of the members of Minor Threat. Fox claimed that the clip was too short to have violated any copyrights.", "In 2007, Brooklyn-based company Wheelhouse Pickles marketed a pepper sauce named \"Minor Threat Sauce\". Requesting only that the original label design (which was based on the \"Bottled Violence\" artwork) be amended, Ian MacKaye gave the product his endorsement. A small mention of this was made in music magazine \"Revolver\", where MacKaye commented \"I don't really like hot sauce but I like the Minor Threat stuff\".", "In 2013, Minor Threat shirts began appearing in Urban Outfitters stores. Ian MacKaye confirmed that the shirts were officially licensed. Having spent what he described as \"a complete waste of time\" trying to track down bootlegged Minor Threat merchandise, MacKaye and Dischord made arrangements with a merchandise company in California to manage licensing of the band's shirts, as well as working to ensure that bootleg manufacturers of the shirts were curtailed. In comments that appeared in \"Rolling Stone\", MacKaye called it \"absurd\" for the shirts to be sold for $28 but concluded that \"my time is better spent doing other things\" than dealing with shirts. Dischord had previously taken action against Forever 21 in 2009 for marketing unlicensed Minor Threat shirts." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Roster.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Influenced by existing labels like Dangerhouse Records, MacKaye and Nelson took up residence in the now known \"Dischord House\" and ran the label out of its premises. Dischord's first release was \"Minor Disturbance\" by Teen Idles released in 1980.The band members cut, folded, and glued the record packaging themselves to keep costs down. The label's first split 12\" was \"Faith / Void Split\" by the bands The Faith and Void. Dischord limits itself to bands from the D.C. scene. The label offers the same basic deal to all artists: Dischord fronts a certain amount of money to record and manufacture and once those costs are recouped, the label's distributor takes 30 percent of the profit band and the label split the remainder of the profits. Jeff Nelson has claimed the venture was never intended to be profit-making but was instead simply a way to get their friends albums in fans hands. In spite of criticism over the years about how the label is run, MacKaye claims everything works and will continue to operate in the same fashion of no contracts or lawyers. In 2017, they put their catalog on Bandcamp for free streaming or purchase.", "Bands such as Minor Threat, Government Issue, The Faith, Void, Iron Cross, Embrace, Rites of Spring, Nation of Ulysses, Scream, Soulside, S.O.A., the Teen Idles, Gray Matter, Jawbox, Marginal Man, Shudder to Think, Dag Nasty, Lungfish and Fugazi have released records on Dischord. Additions to the Dischord roster as of the late 1990s and 2000s include Q and Not U, Beauty Pill, Antelope, Soccer Team, French Toast, Faraquet, Black Eyes, The Aquarium, Title Tracks, Edie Sedgwick, Slant 6, and Andalusians. Many of these acts, notably Q and Not U and Black Eyes, are both influential and experimental post-hardcore bands.", "Dischord Records influenced many other labels such as Simple Machines and DeSoto Records." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Notation.", "Decimal expansion and recurrence sequence.", "Every rational number is either a terminating or repeating decimal.", "Every repeating or terminating decimal is a rational number.", "Table of values.", "Fractions with prime denominators.", "Cyclic numbers.", "Other reciprocals of primes.", "Totient rule.", "Reciprocals of composite integers coprime to 10.", "Reciprocals of integers not co-prime to 10.", "Converting repeating decimals to fractions.", "A shortcut.", "Repeating decimals as infinite series.", "Multiplication and cyclic permutation.", "Other properties of repetend lengths.", "Extension to other bases.", "Algorithm for positive bases.", "Applications to cryptography." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "There are several notational conventions for representing repeating decimals. None of them are accepted universally. In English, there are various ways to read repeating decimals aloud. For example, 1.2 may be read \"one point two repeating three four\", \"one point two repeated three four\", \"one point two recurring three four\", \"one point two repetend three four\" or \"one point two into infinity three four\".", "In order to convert a rational number represented as a fraction into decimal form, one may use long division. For example, consider the rational number : etc. Observe that at each step we have a remainder; the successive remainders displayed above are 56, 42, 50. When we arrive at 50 as the remainder, and bring down the \"0\", we find ourselves dividing 500 by 74, which is the same problem we began with. Therefore, the decimal repeats:...", "For any given divisor, only finitely many different remainders can occur. In the example above, the 74 possible remainders are 0, 1, 2,..., 73. If at any point in the division the remainder is 0, the expansion terminates at that point. Then the length of the repetend, also called “period”, is defined to be 0. If 0 never occurs as a remainder, then the division process continues forever, and eventually a remainder must occur that has occurred before. The next step in the division will yield the same new digit in the quotient, and the same new remainder, as the previous time the remainder was the same. Therefore, the following division will repeat the same results. The repeating sequence of digits is called “repetend” which has a certain length greater than 0, also called “period”.", "Each repeating decimal number satisfies a linear equation with integer coefficients, and its unique solution is a rational number. To illustrate the latter point, the number above satisfies the equation, whose solution is. The process of how to find these integer coefficients is described below.", "Thereby \"L\" is the length of the repetend. The repetend lengths of, \"n\" = 1, 2, 3,..., are: The repetends of, \"n\" = 1, 2, 3,..., are: The repetend lengths of, \"p\" = 2, 3, 5,... (\"n\"th prime), are: The least primes \"p\" for which has repetend length \"n\", \"n\" = 1, 2, 3,..., are: The least primes \"p\" for which has \"n\" different cycles (), \"n\" = 1, 2, 3,..., are:", "A fraction in lowest terms with a prime denominator other than 2 or 5 (i.e. coprime to 10) always produces a repeating decimal. The length of the repetend (period of the repeating decimal segment) of is equal to the order of 10 modulo \"p\". If 10 is a primitive root modulo \"p\", the repetend length is equal to \"p\" − 1; if not, the repetend length is a factor of \"p\" − 1. This result can be deduced from Fermat's little theorem, which states that. The base-10 repetend of the reciprocal of any prime number greater than 5 is divisible by 9. If the repetend length of for prime \"p\" is equal to \"p\" − 1 then the repetend, expressed as an integer, is called a cyclic number.", "Examples of fractions belonging to this group are: The list can go on to include the fractions,,,,,,,, etc.. Every \"proper\" multiple of a cyclic number (that is, a multiple having the same number of digits) is a rotation: The reason for the cyclic behavior is apparent from an arithmetic exercise of long division of : the sequential remainders are the cyclic sequence. See also the article 142,857 for more properties of this cyclic number. A fraction which is cyclic thus has a recurring decimal of even length that divides into two sequences in nines' complement form. For example starts '142' and is followed by '857' while (by rotation) starts '857' followed by \"its\" nines' complement '142'. A \"proper prime\" is a prime \"p\" which ends in the digit 1 in base 10 and whose reciprocal in base 10 has a repetend with length \"p\" − 1. In such primes, each digit 0, 1..., 9 appears in the repeating sequence the same number of times as does each other digit (namely, times). They are: A prime is a proper prime if and only if it is a full reptend prime and congruent to 1 mod 10. If a prime \"p\" is both full reptend prime and safe prime, then will produce a stream of \"p\" − 1 pseudo-random digits. Those primes are", "Some reciprocals of primes that do not generate cyclic numbers are: The reason is that 3 is a divisor of 9, 11 is a divisor of 99, 41 is a divisor of 99999, etc. To find the period of, we can check whether the prime \"p\" divides some number 999...999 in which the number of digits divides \"p\" − 1. Since the period is never greater than \"p\" − 1, we can obtain this by calculating. For example, for 11 we get and then by inspection find the repetend 09 and period of 2. Those reciprocals of primes can be associated with several sequences of repeating decimals. For example, the multiples of can be divided into two sets, with different repetends. The first set is: where the repetend of each fraction is a cyclic re-arrangement of 076923. The second set is: where the repetend of each fraction is a cyclic re-arrangement of 153846. In general, the set of proper multiples of reciprocals of a prime \"p\" consists of \"n\" subsets, each with repetend length \"k\", where \"nk\" = \"p\" − 1.", "For an arbitrary integer \"n\", the length \"λ\"(\"n\") of the repetend of divides \"φ\"(\"n\"), where \"φ\" is the totient function. The length is equal to \"φ\"(\"n\") if and only if 10 is a primitive root modulo \"n\". In particular, it follows that if and only if \"p\" is a prime and 10 is a primitive root modulo \"p\". Then, the decimal expansions of for \"n\" = 1, 2,..., \"p\" − 1, all have period \"p\" − 1 and differ only by a cyclic permutation. Such numbers \"p\" are called full repetend primes.", "If \"p\" is a prime other than 2 or 5, the decimal representation of the fraction repeats: The period (repetend length) must be a factor of \"λ\"(49) = 42, where \"λ\"(\"n\") is known as the Carmichael function. This follows from Carmichael's theorem which states that if \"n\" is a positive integer then \"λ\"(\"n\") is the smallest integer \"m\" such that for every integer \"a\" that is coprime to \"n\". The period of is usually \"pT\", where \"T\" is the period of. There are three known primes for which this is not true, and for those the period of is the same as the period of because \"p\" divides 10−1. These three primes are 3, 487, and 56598313. Similarly, the period of is usually \"p\"\"T\" If \"p\" and \"q\" are primes other than 2 or 5, the decimal representation of the fraction repeats. An example is : where LCM denotes the least common multiple. The period \"T\" of is a factor of \"λ\"(\"pq\") and it happens to be 48 in this case: The period \"T\" of is LCM(\"T\", \"T\"), where \"T\" is the period of and \"T\" is the period of. If \"p\", \"q\", \"r\", etc. are primes other than 2 or 5, and \"k\", \"l\", \"m\", etc. are positive integers, then is a repeating decimal with a period of where \"T\", \"T\", \"T\"... are respectively the period of the repeating decimals,,... as defined above.", "An integer that is not co-prime to 10 but has a prime factor other than 2 or 5 has a reciprocal that is eventually periodic, but with a non-repeating sequence of digits that precede the repeating part. The reciprocal can be expressed as: where \"a\" and \"b\" are not both zero. This fraction can also be expressed as: if \"a\" > \"b\", or as if \"b\" > \"a\", or as if \"a\" = \"b\". The decimal has: For example = 0.03:", "Given a repeating decimal, it is possible to calculate the fraction that produced it. For example: Another example:", "The procedure below can be applied in particular if the repetend has \"n\" digits, all of which are 0 except the final one which is 1. For instance for \"n\" = 7: So this particular repeating decimal corresponds to the fraction, where the denominator is the number written as \"n\" digits 9. Knowing just that, a general repeating decimal can be expressed as a fraction without having to solve an equation. For example, one could reason: It is possible to get a general formula expressing a repeating decimal with an \"n\"-digit period (repetend length), beginning right after the decimal point, as a fraction: More explicitly, one gets the following cases: If the repeating decimal is between 0 and 1, and the repeating block is \"n\" digits long, first occurring right after the decimal point, then the fraction (not necessarily reduced) will be the integer number represented by the \"n\"-digit block divided by the one represented by \"n\" digits 9. For example, If the repeating decimal is as above, except that there are \"k\" (extra) digits 0 between the decimal point and the repeating \"n\"-digit block, then one can simply add \"k\" digits 0 after the \"n\" digits 9 of the denominator (and, as before, the fraction may subsequently be simplified). For example, Any repeating decimal not of the form described above can be written as a sum of a terminating decimal and a repeating decimal of one of the two above types (actually the first type suffices, but that could require the terminating decimal to be negative). For example, An even faster method is to ignore the decimal point completely and go like this It follows that any repeating decimal with period \"n\", and \"k\" digits after the decimal point that do not belong to the repeating part, can be written as a (not necessarily reduced) fraction whose denominator is (10 − 1)10. Conversely the period of the repeating decimal of a fraction will be (at most) the smallest number \"n\" such that 10 − 1 is divisible by \"d\". For example, the fraction has \"d\" = 7, and the smallest \"k\" that makes 10 − 1 divisible by 7 is \"k\" = 6, because 999999 = 7 × 142857. The period of the fraction is therefore 6.", "A repeating decimal can also be expressed as an infinite series. That is, a repeating decimal can be regarded as the sum of an infinite number of rational numbers. To take the simplest example, The above series is a geometric series with the first term as and the common factor. Because the absolute value of the common factor is less than 1, we can say that the geometric series converges and find the exact value in the form of a fraction by using the following formula where \"a\" is the first term of the series and \"r\" is the common factor. Similarly,", "The cyclic behavior of repeating decimals in multiplication also leads to the construction of integers which are cyclically permuted when multiplied by certain numbers. For example,. 102564 is the repetend of and 410256 the repetend of.", "Various properties of repetend lengths (periods) are given by Mitchell and Dickson. For some other properties of repetends, see also.", "Various features of repeating decimals extend to the representation of numbers in all other integer bases, not just base 10: For example, in duodecimal, = 0.6, = 0.4, = 0.3 and = 0.2 all terminate; = 0. repeats with period length 4, in contrast with the equivalent decimal expansion of 0.2; = 0. has period 6 in duodecimal, just as it does in decimal. If \"b\" is an integer base and \"k\" is an integer, For example in duodecimal: which is 0. (base 12). 10 (base 12) is 12 (base 10), 10 (base 12) is 144 (base 10), 21 (base 12) is 25 (base 10), ᘔ5 (base 12) is 125 (base 10),...", "For a rational (and base ) there is the following algorithm producing the repetend together with its length: function b_adic(b,p,q) // b ≥ 2; 0 < p < q begin end function The first line highlighted yellow calculates the digit \"z\". The subsequent line calculates the new remainder \"p′\" of the division modulo the denominator \"q\". As a consequence of the floor function codice_1 we have thus and Because all these remainders \"p\" are non-negative integers less than \"q\", there can be only a finite number of them with the consequence that they must recur in the codice_2 loop. Such a recurrence is detected by the associative array codice_3. The new digit \"z\" is formed in the yellow line, where \"p\" is the only non-constant. The length \"L\" of the repetend equals the number of the remainders (see also section Every rational number is either a terminating or repeating decimal).", "Repeating decimals (also called decimal sequences) have found cryptographic and error-correction coding applications. In these applications repeating decimals to base 2 are generally used which gives rise to binary sequences. The maximum length binary sequence for (when 2 is a primitive root of \"p\") is given by: These sequences of period \"p\" − 1 have an autocorrelation function that has a negative peak of −1 for shift of. The randomness of these sequences has been examined by diehard tests." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Variety.", "Characteristics.", "Ecology.", "Diversity.", "Human uses.", "Systematics.", "Phylogeny." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Mustelids vary greatly in size and behaviour. The least weasel can be under a foot in length, while the giant otter of Amazonian South America can measure up to and sea otters can exceed in weight. The wolverine can crush bones as thick as the femur of a moose to get at the marrow, and has been seen attempting to drive bears away from their kills. The sea otter uses rocks to break open shellfish to eat. The marten is largely arboreal, while the European badger digs extensive networks of tunnels, called setts. Some mustelids have been domesticated: the ferret and the tayra are kept as pets (although the tayra requires a Dangerous Wild Animals licence in the UK), or as working animals for hunting or vermin control. Others have been important in the fur trade—the mink is often raised for its fur. As well as being one of the most species-rich families in the order Carnivora, the family Mustelidae is one of the oldest. Mustelid-like forms first appeared about 40 million years ago, roughly coinciding with the appearance of rodents. The direct ancestors of the modern mustelids first appeared about 15 million years ago.", "Within a large range of variation, the mustelids exhibit some common characteristics. They are typically small animals with elongated bodies, short legs, short, round ears, and thick fur. Most mustelids are solitary, nocturnal animals, and are active year-round. With the exception of the sea otter, they have anal scent glands that produce a strong-smelling secretion the animals use for sexual signaling and for marking territory. Most mustelid reproduction involves embryonic diapause. The embryo does not immediately implant in the uterus, but remains dormant for some time. No development takes place as long as the embryo remains unattached to the uterine lining. As a result, the normal gestation period is extended, sometimes up to a year. This allows the young to be born under more favorable environmental conditions. Reproduction has a large energy cost and it is to a female's benefit to have available food and mild weather. The young are more likely to survive if birth occurs after previous offspring have been weaned. Mustelids are predominantly carnivorous, although some eat vegetable matter at times. While not all mustelids share an identical dentition, they all possess teeth adapted for eating flesh, including the presence of shearing carnassials. With variation between species, the most common dental formula is.", "The martens, fisher and tayra are partially arboreal, while badgers are fossorial. A number of mustelids have aquatic lifestyles, ranging from semiaquatic minks and the several species of river otters to the fully aquatic sea otter. The sea otter is one of the few non-primate mammals known to use a tool while foraging. It uses \"anvil\" stones to crack open the shellfish that form a significant part of its diet. It is a \"keystone species\", keeping its prey populations in balance so some do not outcompete the others and destroy the kelp in which they live. The black-footed ferret is entirely dependent on another keystone species, the prairie dog. A family of four ferrets eats 250 prairie dogs in a year; this requires a stable population of prairie dogs from an area of some. The skunks were formerly included as a subfamily of the mustelids, but are now regarded as a separate family (Mephitidae). The mongoose and the meerkat bear a striking resemblance to many mustelids, but belong to a distinctly different suborder—the Feliformia (all those carnivores sharing more recent origins with the cats) and not the Caniformia (those sharing more recent origins with the dogs). Because the mongooses and the mustelids occupy similar ecological niches, convergent evolution has led to similarity in form and behavior.", "The oldest known mustelid from North America is \"Corumictis wolsani\" from the early and late Oligocene (early and late Arikareean, Ar1–Ar3) of Oregon. Middle Oligocene \"Mustelictis\" from Europe might be a mustelid as well. Other early fossils of the mustelids were dated at the end of the Oligocene to the beginning of the Miocene. “There is debate regarding which fossils from these epochs represent possible ancestral forms that led to Mustelidae and which fossils represent the first modern mustelids.”(Wund, M. 2005. \"Mustelidae\" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web.) From the fossil record we can see that Mustelids appeared in the late Oligocene period (33 mya) in Eurasia and migrated throughout the continents. They inhabit every continent except Antarctica and Australia. They migrated all throughout the continents that were connected during the early Miocene. They made their way to North and South America via the Bering land bridge.", "Several mustelids, including the mink, the sable (a type of marten) and the stoat (ermine), boast exquisite and valuable furs, and have been accordingly hunted since prehistoric times. From the early Middle Ages, the trade in furs was of great economic importance for northern and eastern European nations with large native populations of fur-bearing mustelids, and was a major economic impetus behind Russian expansion into Siberia and French and English expansion in North America. In recent centuries, fur farming, notably of mink, has also become widespread and provides the majority of the fur brought to market. One species, the sea mink (\"Neovison macrodon\") of New England and Canada, was driven to extinction by fur trappers. Its appearance and habits are almost unknown today because no complete specimens can be found and no systematic contemporary studies were conducted. The sea otter, which has the densest fur of any animal, narrowly escaped the fate of the sea mink. The discovery of large populations in the North Pacific was the major economic driving force behind Russian expansion into Kamchatka, the Aleutian Islands, and Alaska, as well as a cause for conflict with Japan and foreign hunters in the Kuril Islands. Together with widespread hunting in California and British Columbia, the species was brought to the brink of extinction until an international moratorium came into effect in 1911. Today, some mustelids are threatened for other reasons. Sea otters are vulnerable to oil spills and the indirect effects of overfishing; the black-footed ferret, a relative of the European polecat, suffers from the loss of American prairie; and wolverine populations are slowly declining because of habitat destruction and persecution. The rare European mink \"Mustela lutreola\" is one of the most endangered mustelid species. One mustelid, the ferret, has been domesticated and is a fairly common pet.", "The 56 living mustelids are classified into eight subfamilies in 22 genera. Subfamily Taxidiinae Subfamily Mellivorinae Subfamily Melinae Subfamily Helictidinae Subfamily Guloninae Subfamily Ictonychinae Subfamily Lutrinae (otters) Subfamily Mustelinae Fossil mustelids Extinct genera of the family Mustelidae include:", "Multigene phylogenies constructed by Koepfli et al. (2008) and Law et al. (2018) found that Mustelidae comprises eight subfamilies. The early mustelids appear to have undergone two rapid bursts of diversification in Eurasia, with the resulting species only spreading to other continents later. Mustelid species diversity is often attributed to an adaptive radiation coinciding with the Mid-Miocene Climate Transition. Contrary to expectations, Law et al. (2018) found no evidence for rapid bursts of lineage diversification at the origin of Mustelidae, and further analyses of lineage diversification rates using molecular and fossil-based methods did not find associations between rates of lineage diversification and Mid-Miocene Climate Transition as previously hypothesized." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Original 802.11 MAC.", "Distributed Coordination Function (DCF).", "Point Coordination Function (PCF).", "802.11e MAC protocol operation.", "Enhanced distributed channel access (EDCA).", "HCF Controlled Channel Access (HCCA).", "Other 802.11e specifications.", "Automatic power save delivery.", "Block acknowledgments.", "NoAck.", "Direct Link Setup." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The basic 802.11 MAC layer uses the distributed coordination function (DCF) to share the medium between multiple stations. (DCF) relies on CSMA/CA and optional 802.11 RTS/CTS to share the medium between stations. This has several limitations:", "The original 802.11 MAC defines another coordination function called the point coordination function (PCF). This is available only in \"infrastructure\" mode, where stations are connected to the network through an Access Point (AP). This mode is optional, and only very few APs or Wi-Fi adapters actually implement it. APs send \"beacon\" frames at regular intervals (usually every 0.1024 second). Between these \"beacon\" frames, PCF defines two periods: the Contention Free Period (CFP) and the Contention Period (CP). In the CP, DCF is used. In the CFP, the AP sends Contention-Free-Poll (CF-Poll) packets to each station, one at a time, to give them the right to send a packet. The AP is the coordinator. Although this allows for a better management of QoS, PCF does not define classes of traffic as is common with other QoS systems (e.g. 802.1p and DiffServ).", "The 802.11e enhances the DCF and the PCF, through a new coordination function: the hybrid coordination function (HCF). Within the HCF, there are two methods of channel accessed, similar to those defined in the legacy 802.11 MAC: HCF Controlled Channel Access (HCCA) and Enhanced Distributed Channel Access (EDCA). Both EDCA and HCCA define Traffic Categories (TC). For example, emails could be assigned to a low priority class, and Voice over Wireless LAN (VoWLAN) could be assigned to a high priority class.", "With EDCA, high-priority traffic has a higher chance of being sent than low-priority traffic: a station with high priority traffic waits a little less before it sends its packet, on average, than a station with low priority traffic. This is accomplished through the TCMA protocol, which is a variation of CSMA/CA using a shorter arbitration inter-frame space (AIFS) for higher priority packets. The exact values depend on the physical layer that is used to transmit the data. In addition, EDCA provides contention-free access to the channel for a period called a Transmit Opportunity (TXOP). A TXOP is a bounded time interval during which a station can send as many frames as possible (as long as the duration of the transmissions does not extend beyond the maximum duration of the TXOP). If a frame is too large to be transmitted in a single TXOP, it should be fragmented into smaller frames. The use of TXOPs reduces the problem of low rate stations gaining an inordinate amount of channel time in the legacy 802.11 DCF MAC. A TXOP time interval of 0 means it is limited to a single MAC service data unit (MSDU) or MAC management protocol data unit (MMPDU). The levels of priority in EDCA are called access categories (ACs). The contention window (CW) can be set according to the traffic expected in each access category, with a wider window needed for categories with heavier traffic. The CWmin and CWmax values are calculated from aCWmin and aCWmax values, respectively, that are defined for each physical layer supported by 802.11e. For a typical of aCWmin=15 and aCWmax=1023, as used, for example, by OFDM (802.11a) and MIMO (802.11n), the resulting values are as following: ACs map directly from Ethernet-level class of service (CoS) priority levels: The primary purpose of QoS is to protect high priority data from low priority data. There are also scenarios in which the data needs to be protected from other data of the same class. Admission Control in EDCA address these type of problems. The AP publishes the available bandwidth in beacons. Clients can check the available bandwidth before adding more traffic. Wi-Fi Multimedia (WMM) is the Wi-Fi Alliance specification which is a subset of IEEE 802.11e. Certified APs must be enabled for EDCA and TXOP. All other enhancements of 802.11e are optional.", "The HCF (hybrid coordination function) controlled channel access (HCCA) works a lot like PCF. However, in contrast to PCF, in which the interval between two beacon frames is divided into two periods of CFP and CP, the HCCA allows for CFPs being initiated at almost anytime during a CP. This kind of CFP is called a Controlled Access Phase (CAP) in 802.11e. A CAP is initiated by the AP whenever it wants to send a frame to a station or receive a frame from a station in a contention-free manner. In fact, the CFP is a CAP too. During a CAP, the Hybrid Coordinator (HC)—which is also the AP—controls the access to the medium. During the CP, all stations function in EDCA. The other difference with the PCF is that Traffic Class (TC) and Traffic Streams (TS) are defined. This means that the HC is not limited to per-station queuing and can provide a kind of per-session service. Also, the HC can coordinate these streams or sessions in any fashion it chooses (not just round-robin). Moreover, the stations give info about the lengths of their queues for each Traffic Class (TC). The HC can use this info to give priority to one station over another, or better adjust its scheduling mechanism. Another difference is that stations are given a TXOP: they may send multiple packets in a row, for a given time period selected by the HC. During the CFP, the HC allows stations to send data by sending CF-Poll frames. HCCA is generally considered the most advanced (and complex) coordination function. With the HCCA, QoS can be configured with great precision. QoS-enabled stations have the ability to request specific transmission parameters (data rate, jitter, etc.) which should allow advanced applications like VoIP and video streaming to work more effectively on a Wi-Fi network. HCCA support is not mandatory for 802.11e APs. In fact, few (if any) APs currently available are enabled for HCCA. Implementing the HCCA on end stations uses the existing DCF mechanism for channel access (no change to DCF or EDCA operation is needed). Stations only need to be able to respond to poll messages. On the AP side, a scheduler and queuing mechanism is needed.", "In addition to HCCA, EDCA and TXOP, 802.11e specifies additional optional protocols for enhanced 802.11 MAC layer QoS:", "In addition to the Power Save Polling mechanism, which was available pre-802.11e, new power save delivery and notification mechanisms have been introduced in 802.11e. APSD (automatic power save delivery) provides two ways to start delivery: ‘scheduled APSD’ (S-APSD) and ‘unscheduled APSD’ (U-APSD). With APSD, multiple frames may be transmitted together by the access point to a power-saving device during a service period. After the end of a service period, the device enters a doze state until next service period. With S-APSD, service periods start according to a predetermined schedule known to the power-saving device, thus allowing the Access Point to transmit its buffered traffic without the need for any signaling. With U-APSD, whenever a frame is sent to the Access Point, a service period is triggered, which allows the access point to send buffered frames in the other direction. U-APSD can take a ‘full’ U-APSD or ‘hybrid’ U-APSD form. With Full U-APSD, all types of frames use U-APSD independently of their priority. With Hybrid U-APSD, either U-APSD or the legacy Power Save Polling mechanism is used, depending on the access category. S-APSD is available for both channel access mechanisms, EDCA and HCCA, while U-APSD is available only for EDCA. APSD is a more efficient power management method than legacy 802.11 Power Save Polling, leading to lower power consumption, as it reduces both the signaling traffic that would otherwise be needed for delivery of buffered frames to power-saving devices by an AP and the collision rate among power-save polls, typically transmitted immediately after the beacon TIM. S-APSD is more efficient than U-APSD because scheduled service periods reduce contention and because transmission between the access point and a power-saving device starts without the need for any signaling. A power-saving device using U-APSD must generate signaling frames to retrieve buffered traffic in the absence of uplink traffic, as for instance in the case of audio, video, or best effort traffic applications found in today's smartphones. U-APSD is attractive for VoIP phones, as data rates are roughly the same in both directions, thus requiring no extra signaling—an uplink voice frame can trigger a service period for the transmission of a downlink voice frame. Hybrid U-APSD is less efficient than Full U-APSD because the Power Save Polling mechanism it employs for some access categories is less efficient than APSD, as explained above. The relative advantages of the various power-save mechanisms have been confirmed independently by simulations. Most newer 802.11 stations already support a power management mechanism similar to APSD.", "Block acknowledgments allow an entire TXOP to be acknowledged in a single frame. This will provide less protocol overhead when longer TXOPs are specified.", "In QoS mode, service class for frames to send can have two values: QosAck and QosNoAck. Frames with QosNoAck are not acknowledged. This avoids retransmission of highly time-critical data.", "Direct Link Setup allows direct station-to-station frame transfer within a basic service set. This is designed primarily for consumer use, where station-to-station transfer is more commonly used. For example, when streaming video to a television across the living room, or printing to a wireless printer in the same room, it can be more efficient to send Wi-Fi frames directly between the two communicating devices, instead of using the standard technique of always sending everything via the AP, which involves two radio hops instead of one. Also, If the AP is far away in some distant part of the home, sending all the frames to the AP and back may require them to be sent at a lower transmission rate. However, DLS requires participation from the AP to facilitate the more efficient direct communication, and few, if any, APs have the necessary support for this. Tunnelled Direct Link Setup was published as 802.11z (TDLS), allowing devices to perform more efficient direct station-to-station frame transfers without support from the AP. Both DLS and TLDS require that stations be associated with the same AP. Both DLS and TLDS improve the speed and efficiency of communications between members of a basic service set, but they do not facilitate communication between devices that are near to each other but not associated with the same AP. Nearby communication between devices not associated with the same AP can be performed using technologies like Wi-Fi Direct, but so far Wi-Fi Direct has not seen widespread adoption. Microsoft's Virtual Wi-Fi initiative was designed to accomplish the same goal as DLS. Virtual Wi-Fi allows gamers to connect wireless while accessing the Internet through an AP by allowing station adapters to have multiple MAC addresses." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biology.", "Anatomy.", "Reproduction.", "Growth and development.", "Commercial importance.", "Taxonomy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Most species of Scyphozoa have two life history phases, including the planktonic medusa or jellyfish form, which is most evident in the warm summer months, and an inconspicuous, but longer-lived, bottom-dwelling polyp, which seasonally gives rise to new medusae. Most of the large, often colorful, and conspicuous jellyfish found in coastal waters throughout the world are Scyphozoa. They typically range from in diameter, but the largest species, \"Cyanea capillata\" can reach across. Scyphomedusae are found throughout the world's oceans, from the surface to great depths; no Scyphozoa occur in freshwater (or on land). As medusae, they eat a variety of crustaceans and fish, which they capture using stinging cells called nematocysts. The nematocysts are located throughout the tentacles that radiate downward from the edge of the umbrella dome, and also cover the four or eight oral arms that hang down from the central mouth. Some species, however, are instead filter feeders, using their tentacles to strain plankton from the water.", "Scyphozoans usually display a four-part symmetry and have an internal gelatinous material called mesoglea, which provides the same structural integrity as a skeleton. The mesoglea includes mobile amoeboid cells originating from the epidermis. Scyphozoans have no durable hard parts, including no head, no skeleton, and no specialized organs for respiration or excretion. Marine jellyfish can consist of as much as 98% water, so are rarely found in fossil form. Unlike the hydrozoan jellyfish, Hydromedusae, Scyphomedusae lack a vellum, which is a circular membrane beneath the umbrella that helps propel the (usually smaller) Hydromedusae through the water. However, a ring of muscle fibres is present within the mesoglea around the rim of the dome, and the jellyfish swims by alternately contracting and relaxing these muscles. The periodic contracting and relaxing propels the jellyfish through the water, allowing it to escape predation or catch its prey. The mouth opens into a central stomach, from which four interconnected diverticula radiate outwards. In many species, this is further elaborated by a system of radial canals, with or without an additional ring canal towards the edge of the dome. Some genera, such as \"Cassiopea\", even have additional, smaller mouths in the oral arms. The lining of the digestive system includes further stinging nematocysts, along with cells that secrete digestive enzymes. The nervous system usually consists of a distributed net of cells, although some species possess more organised nerve rings. In species lacking nerve rings, the nerve cells are instead concentrated into small structures called \"rhopalia\". There are between four and sixteen of these small lobes arranged around the rim of the umbrella, where they coordinate the muscular action allowing the animal to move. Each rhopalium is typically associated with a pair of sensory pits, a statocyst, and sometimes a pigment-cup ocellus.", "Most species appear to be gonochorists, with separate male and female individuals. The gonads are located in the stomach lining, and the mature gametes are expelled through the mouth. After fertilization, some species brood their young in pouches on the oral arms, but they are more commonly planktonic.", "The fertilized egg produces a planular larva which, in most species, quickly attaches itself to the sea bottom. The larva develops into the hydroid stage of the lifecycle, a tiny sessile polyp called a scyphistoma. The scyphistoma reproduces asexually, producing similar polyps by budding, and then either transforming into a medusa, or budding several medusae off from its upper surface via a process called strobilation. The medusae are initially microscopic, and may take years to reach sexual maturity.", "Scyphozoa include the moon jelly \"Aurelia aurita\", in the order Semaeostomeae, and the enormous \"Nemopilema nomurai\", in the order Rhizostomeae, found between Japan and China and which in some years causes major fisheries disruptions. The jellyfish fished commercially for food are Scyphomedusae in the order Rhizostomeae. Most rhizostome jellyfish live in warm water.", "Although the Scyphozoa were formerly considered to include the animals now referred to as the classes Cubozoa and Staurozoa, they now include just three extant orders (two of which are in Discomedusae, a subclass of Scyphozoa). About 200 extant species are recognized at present, but the true diversity is likely to be at least 400 species. Class Scyphozoa" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "A 'typical' American high school.", "A typical day.", "Focus.", "Curriculum.", "Appraisal.", "Physical Education Requirements.", "Governance.", "Media." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The first institution labeled as a \"high school\" was Edinburgh's Royal High School in Scotland, which was founded in 1505. The Royal High School was used as a model for the first public high school in the United States, Boston Latin School, founded in Boston, Massachusetts in 1635. Boston Latin School was initially a private school, so although it did become the first public high school, a school system in Dedham, Massachusetts was the first to be supported by public taxation. The schools prepared boys for the law or the church. The length of the school day varied with the seasons, but there was a shortage of Latin speakers available to become teachers because the job was unattractive due to low status and low pay. The colony ordered in the English Protestant Tutor, retitled as The New England Primer, to be used as a textbook, and the tuition was written by and had a Calvinist tone. This was the start of a secondary education system. In 1642, the Massachusetts Bay Colony was able to pass a law to require parents to make sure that their children were able to read, which required some form of elementary education. In 1647, Massachusetts again passed a law that required communities to establish some type of public schooling system. Elementary schools were to be formed in every town with 50 or more families, and every town with at least 100 families would have to provide a Latin Grammar School. In 1785, before the U.S. Constitution was ratified, the Continental Congress passed a law calling for a survey of the Northwest Territory, which included what was to become the state of Ohio. The law created townships, reserving a portion of each township for a local school. Under the constitution, education was relegated to individual states. The Pennsylvania state constitution, written in 1790, calls for free public education, but only for poor children, assuming that the rich will pay for their own children's schooling. In 1805, the New York Public School Society was formed by the wealthy to provide education to the poor. These schools were run on the Lancasterian system, in which one \"master\" taught hundreds of students in a single room. The masters would give rote lessons to the older students, who would then pass it down to the younger students. Society was moving from an agrarian model with small independent plots to an industrial one, where workers needed to be literate and numerate. Lancastrian schools emphasized discipline and obedience: qualities that factory owners needed in their workers. An 1817 Boston Town Meeting petitioned for the establishment of a system of free public primary schools. The main support came from local merchants, businessmen, and wealthier artisans, while many wage earners opposed it because they knew they would be paying for it through income taxation. In spite of this, Boston Latin School became public in 1820. This was the first public high school in the United States. Seven years later, a state law in Massachusetts made all grades of public school open to all pupils, free of charge. However, in the slave-owning states, things were different. Even after public schools were being opened up to all ages in Massachusetts, in the 1830s, it was illegal in southern states to teach black children to read. High schools were out of the question. After many years of advocacy, in 1957, federal court ordered the integration of Little Rock, Arkansas public schools. The governor sent in troops to physically prevent nine African American students from enrolling at all-white Central High School. Though, this decision was overturned by the president. The same delay in equality in public high schools can be accounted for the general regarding of other groups as minorities in the US.", "While there is no set standard for American high schools, some generalizations can be made about the majority. Schools are managed by local, elected school districts. There is a range in quality from basic education to more intellectually-stimulating environments for students aged approximately 14 to 18 years of age. Pupils (students) enter around the age of 14 and pass through four years: School years are normally around nine months long (from August or September to May or June), and are broken up into quarters or semesters. College entry is controlled by many factors including Grade Point Average (GPA), and an elective SAT or ACT exam run by two non-profit organizations: the College Board and the ACT, respectively. Smaller schools can educate fewer than 200 pupils in total, while some teach over 4,000 at any given time.", "The typical high school day includes:", "The high school's emphasis determined by the community and school district (is):", "A high school curriculum is defined in terms of Carnegie Units, which approximate to 120 class contact hours within a year. This is one hour a day, five days a week for twenty-four weeks. Students who satisfactorily complete a unit are awarded a credit. No two schools will be the same, and no two students will have the same classes. There are some general principles, however. Students can also be on different programs within the same school with Advanced/Honors, CP (College Preparatory), AP (Advanced Placement), and IB (International Baccalaureate) classes. Students typically do four years of study, with eight core subjects and electives, both of which vary by school. Passing a course earns credit and students must earn at least 30 credits to graduate, among other requirements. Study halls are sometimes offered, which don't contribute to GPA or number of credits earned.", "Appraisals start with a teacher's evaluation of a student's assigned work product (e.g, a test or essay). The assignment evaluations can be expressed as a percentage score or a letter grade. For percentage scores, the typical practice is to start at 100% and deduct points for deficiences. The relationship between percentage scores and letter grades depends on the method of grading. In the absence of national grading standards, some high schools use norm-referenced grading (commonly called \"grading on a curve\") which allocates grades across the distribution of scores based on a predetermined formula. Most high schools, though, use criterion-referenced grading which corresponds percentages to letter grades according to a fixed scale: For each course, the student's assignment scores or grades across the term are averaged according to weights established by the teacher. This produces the course grade. A report card lists all of the student's course grades for the term, translates these to grade point equivalents, and calculates a Grade Point Average (GPA) weighted by the number of credits earned for each class. A transcript lists the course grades received during the student's entire tenure at the school and compiles them into a cumulative GPA.", "2014 recommended federal standards for Physical Education are at least 225 minutes of P.E. week for middle school and high school. The standards involve:", "Amenities, experiences, extracurriculars, and breadth of available courses is dependent on funding. This is made up of:", "High schools are depicted in many teenage-orientated films and television soap operas. Almost universally, these films fall into the comedy or social issues/drama genre categories. Due to Californian labor laws, the actors used are young adults. Since sex between even alleged teenagers runs the risk of being considered child pornography, teenage sex, pregnancy, and STDs are barely covered and then only indirectly. High school films from Hollywood rarely discuss the economic disparities between the social classes where the poor gravitate to the lower esteemed courses." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early years.", "1960s–1980s.", "The Kinks' early years.", "Mid-period (1965–1975).", "Later sound (1976–1984).", "1990s–present.", "Musicals.", "Personal life.", "Solo discography.", "Chart singles written by Davies." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Davies was born at 6 Denmark Terrace, Fortis Green, north London, England. He is the seventh of eight children born to working-class parents, including six older sisters and younger brother Dave Davies. Ray's father, Frederick Davies (b. 1905) was a slaughterhouse worker of Welsh descent. He liked to hang out in pubs and was considered a ladies' man. His own father, Harry, was also a slaughterman, in the Rhondda Valley, Wales. Ray's mother is of Irish descent. Fred moved to London as a young man, where he took up his father's occupation and married a Londoner, Anne Willmore (b. 1905). Anne came from a \"sprawling family\", and she in turn gave birth to one. She had a sharp tongue and could be crude and forceful. When Davies was still a small child, one of his older sisters became a star of the dance halls, and soon had a child out of wedlock by an African man - an illegal immigrant who subsequently disappeared from her life. The child, a daughter, was ultimately raised by Ray's mother. Davies attended William Grimshaw Secondary Modern School (now called Fortismere School).", "", "Davies was an art student at Hornsey College of Art in London in 1962–63. In late 1962 he became increasingly interested in music; at a Hornsey College Christmas dance he sought advice from Alexis Korner who was playing at the dance with Blues Incorporated and Korner introduced him to Giorgio Gomelsky, a promoter and future manager of the Yardbirds. Gomelsky arranged for Davies to play at his Piccadilly Club with the Dave Hunt Rhythm & Blues Band, and on New Year's Eve the Ray Davies Quartet opened for Cyril Stapleton at the Lyceum Ballroom. A few days later he became the permanent guitarist for the Dave Hunt Band, an engagement that would only last about six weeks. The band were the house band at Gomelsky's new venture, the Crawdaddy Club in Richmond-upon-Thames; when the Dave Hunt band were snowed in during the coldest winter since 1740, Gomelsky offered a gig to a new band called the Rolling Stones, who had previously supported Hunt at the Piccadilly and would take over the residency. Davies then joined the Hamilton King Band until June 1963; the Kinks (then known as the Ramrods) spent the summer supporting Rick Wayne on a tour of US airbases. After the Kinks obtained a recording contract in early 1964, Davies emerged as the chief songwriter and \"de facto\" leader of the band, especially after the band's breakthrough success with his early composition \"You Really Got Me\", which was released as the band's third single in August of that year. Davies led the Kinks through a period of musical experimentation between 1966 and 1975, with notable artistic achievements and commercial success. The Kinks' early recordings of 1964 ranged from covers of R&B standards like \"Long Tall Sally\" and \"Got Love If You Want It\" to the chiming, melodic beat music of Ray Davies' earliest original compositions for the band, \"You Still Want Me\" and \"Something Better Beginning\", to the more influential proto-metal, protopunk, power chord-based hard rock of the band's first two hit singles, \"You Really Got Me\" and \"All Day and All of the Night\". However, by 1965, this raucous, hard-driving early style had gradually given way to the softer and more introspective sound of \"Tired of Waiting for You\", \"Nothin' in the World Can Stop Me Worryin' 'Bout That Girl\", \"Set Me Free\", \"I Go to Sleep\" and \"Ring the Bells\". With the eerie, droning \"See My Friends\"—inspired by the untimely death of the Davies brothers' older sister Rene in June 1957—the band began to show signs of expanding their musical palette even further. A rare foray into early psychedelic rock, \"See My Friends\" is credited by Jonathan Bellman as the first Western pop song to integrate Indian raga sounds—released six months before the Beatles' \"Norwegian Wood (This Bird Has Flown)\".", "Beginning with \"A Well Respected Man\" and \"Where Have All the Good Times Gone\" (both recorded in the summer of 1965), Davies' lyrics assumed a new sociological character. He began to explore the aspirations and frustrations of common working-class people, with particular emphasis on the psychological effects of the British class system. \"Face to Face\" (1966), the first Kinks album composed solely of original material, was a creative breakthrough. As the band began to experiment with theatrical sound effects and baroque musical arrangements (Nicky Hopkins played harpsichord on several tracks), Davies' songwriting fully acquired its distinctive elements of narrative, observation and wry social commentary. His topical songs took aim at the complacency and indolence of wealthy playboys and the upper class (\"A House in the Country\", \"Sunny Afternoon\"), the heedless ostentation of a self-indulgent spendthrift \"nouveau riche\" (\"Most Exclusive Residence For Sale\"), and even the mercenary nature of the music business itself (\"Session Man\"). By late 1966, Davies was addressing the bleakness of life at the lower end of the social spectrum: released together as the complementary A-B sides of a single, \"Dead End Street\" and \"Big Black Smoke\" were powerful neo-Dickensian sketches of urban poverty. Other songs like \"Situation Vacant\" (1967) and \"Shangri-La\" (1969) hinted at the helpless sense of insecurity and emptiness underlying the materialistic values adopted by the English working class. In a similar vein, \"Dedicated Follower of Fashion\" (1966) wittily satirized the consumerism and celebrity worship of Carnaby Street and 'Swinging London', while \"David Watts\" (1967) humorously expressed the wounded feelings of a plain schoolboy who envies the grace and privileges enjoyed by a charismatic upper class student. The Kinks have been called \"the most adamantly British of the Brit Invasion bands\" on account of Ray Davies' abiding fascination with England's imperial past and his tender, bittersweet evocations of \"a vanishing, romanticized world of village greens, pubs and public schools\". During the band's mid-period, he wrote many cheerfully eccentric—and often ironic—celebrations of traditional English culture and living: \"Village Green\" (1966), \"Afternoon Tea\" and \"Autumn Almanac\" (both 1967), \"The Last of the Steam-Powered Trains\" (1968), \"Victoria\" (1969), \"Have a Cuppa Tea\" (1971) and \"Cricket\" (1973). In other songs, Davies revived the style of British music hall, vaudeville and trad jazz: \"Dedicated Follower of Fashion\", \"Sunny Afternoon\", \"Dandy\" and \"Little Miss Queen of Darkness\" (all 1966); \"Mister Pleasant\" and \"End of the Season\" (both 1967); \"Sitting By the Riverside\" and \"All of My Friends Were There\" (both 1968); \"She's Bought a Hat Like Princess Marina\" (1969); \"Acute Schizophrenia Paranoia Blues\" and \"Alcohol\" (both 1971); \"Look a Little on the Sunny Side\" (1972); and \"Holiday Romance\" (1975). Occasionally, he varied the group's sound with more disparate musical influences, such as raga (\"Fancy\", 1966), bossa nova (\"No Return\", 1967) and calypso (\"I'm on an Island\", 1965; \"Monica\", 1968; \"Apeman\", 1970; \"Supersonic Rocket Ship\", 1972). Davies is often at his most affecting when he sings of giving up worldly ambition for the simple rewards of love and domesticity (\"This is Where I Belong\", 1966; \"Two Sisters\", 1967; \"The Way Love Used to Be\", 1971; \"Sweet Lady Genevieve\", 1973; \"You Make It All Worthwhile\", 1974), or when he extols the consolations of friendship and memory (\"Days\", 1968; \"Do You Remember Walter?\", 1968; \"Picture Book\", 1968; \"Young and Innocent Days\", 1969; \"Moments\", 1971; \"Schooldays\", 1975). Yet another perennial Ray Davies theme is the championing of individualistic personalities and lifestyles (\"I'm Not Like Everybody Else\", 1966; \"Johnny Thunder\", 1968; \"Monica\", 1968; \"Lola\", 1970; \"Celluloid Heroes\", 1972; \"Where Are They Now?\", 1973; \"Sitting in the Midday Sun\", 1973). On his 1967 song \"Waterloo Sunset\", the singer finds a fleeting sense of contentment in the midst of urban drabness and solitude. Davies' mid-period work for the Kinks also showed signs of an emerging social conscience. For example, \"Holiday in Waikiki\" (1966) deplored the vulgar commercialization of a once unspoiled indigenous culture. Similarly, \"God's Children\" and \"Apeman\" (both 1970), and the songs \"20th Century Man\", \"Complicated Life\" and \"Here Come the People in Grey\" from \"Muswell Hillbillies\" (1971), passionately decried industrialization and bureaucracy in favour of simple pastoral living. Perhaps most significantly, the band's acclaimed 1968 concept album \"The Kinks are the Village Green Preservation Society\" gave an affectionate embrace to \"Merry England\" nostalgia and advocated for the preservation of traditional English country village and hamlet life. A definitive testament to Davies' reputation as a songwriter of insight, empathy and wit can be heard on the Kinks' landmark 1969 album \"Arthur (or the Decline and Fall of the British Empire)\". Originally conceived as the soundtrack to a television play that was never produced, the band's first rock opera affectionately chronicled the trials and tribulations of a working class everyman and his family from the very end of the Victorian era through the First World War and Second World War, the postwar austerity years, and up to the 1960s. The overall theme of the record was partly inspired by the life of Ray and Dave Davies' brother-in-law, Arthur Anning, who had married their older sister, Rose—herself the subject of an earlier Kinks song, \"Rosie Won't You Please Come Home\" (1966)—and had emigrated to Australia after the war. Over the course of a dozen evocative songs, \"Arthur\" fulfils its ambitious subtitle as Davies embellishes an intimate family chronicle with satirical observations about the shifting mores of the English working class in response to the declining fortunes of the British Empire. This period on the RCA label (1971–75) produced \"Muswell Hillbillies\", \"Everybody's in Show-Biz\", \"Preservation Act 1\" and \"Act 2\", \"Soap Opera\" and \"Schoolboys in Disgrace\".", "When the Kinks changed record labels from RCA to Arista in 1976, Davies abandoned his then-recent propensity for ambitious, theatrical concept albums and rock operas (see above), and returned to writing more basic, straightforward songs. The group would also employ newer production techniques to achieve a more refined studio sound on the albums \"Sleepwalker\" (1977) and \"Misfits\" (1978), as Davies' focus shifted to wistful ballads of restless alienation (\"Life on the Road\", \"Misfits\"), meditations on the inner lives of obsessed pop fans (\"Juke Box Music\", \"A Rock 'n' Roll Fantasy\"), and exhortations of \"carpe diem\" (\"Life Goes On\", \"Live Life\", \"Get Up\"). A notable single from late 1977 reflected the contemporary influence of punk rock: \"Father Christmas\" (A-side) and \"Prince of the Punks\" (B-side—inspired by Davies' troubled collaboration with Tom Robinson). By the early 80s, the Kinks revived their commercial fortunes considerably by adopting a much more mainstream arena rock style; and the band's four remaining studio albums for Arista—\"Low Budget\" (1979), \"Give the People What They Want\" (1981), \"State of Confusion\" (1983) and \"Word of Mouth\" (1984)—showcased a decidedly canny and opportunistic approach. On \"(Wish I Could Fly Like) Superman\", Davies vented his existential angst about the 1979 energy crisis over a thumping disco beat; on \"A Gallon of Gas\", he addressed the same concern over a traditional acoustic twelve-bar blues shuffle. In contrast, \"Better Things\" (1981), \"Come Dancing\" (1982), \"Don't Forget to Dance\" (1983) and \"Good Day\" (1984) were sentimental songs of hope and nostalgia for the aging Air Raid Generation. However, with \"Catch Me Now I'm Falling\" (1979), \"Destroyer\" (1981), \"Clichés of the World (B Movie)\" (1983) and \"Do It Again\" (1984), the Davies brothers cranked out strident, heavy-riffing hard rock that conveyed an attitude of bitter cynicism and world weary disillusionment.", "Aside from the lengthy Kinks discography, Davies has released six solo albums: the 1985 release \"Return to Waterloo\" (which accompanied a television film he wrote and directed), the 1998 release \"The Storyteller\", \"Other People's Lives\" in early 2006, \"Working Man's Café\" in October 2007, \"The Kinks Choral Collection\" in June 2009, and \"Americana\" in April 2017. In 1986 he contributed the track \"Quiet Life\" to the soundtrack of the Julien Temple film \"Absolute Beginners\" that is a musical film adapted from Colin MacInnes' book of the same name about life in late 1950s London. The song was released as a single. Davies appeared in the film, in which he also sang \"Quiet Life.\" In 1990, Davies was inducted, with the Kinks, into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and, in 2005, into the UK Music Hall of Fame. Davies published his \"unauthorised autobiography\", \"X-Ray\", in 1994. In 1997, he published a book of short stories entitled \"Waterloo Sunset\". He has made three films, \"Return to Waterloo\" in 1985, \"Weird Nightmare\" (a documentary about Charles Mingus) in 1991, and \"Americana\". On 4 January 2004, Davies was shot in the leg while chasing thieves who had snatched the purse of his companion as they walked in the French Quarter of New Orleans, Louisiana. The shooting came less than a week after Davies was named a Commander of the Order of the British Empire by Queen Elizabeth II. In 2005, Davies released \"The Tourist\", a four-song EP, in the UK; and \"Thanksgiving Day\", a five-song EP, in the US. A choral album, \"The Kinks Choral Collection\", on which Davies had been collaborating with the Crouch End Festival Chorus since 2007, was released in the UK in June 2009 and in the US in November 2009. The album was re-released as a special extended edition including Davies' charity Christmas single \"Postcard From London\" featuring Davies' former girlfriend and leader of the Pretenders, Chrissie Hynde. The video for the single was directed by Julien Temple and features London landmarks including Waterloo Bridge, Carnaby Street, the statue of Eros steps and the Charlie Chaplin statue in Leicester Square. The duet was originally recorded with Kate Nash. His first choice had been Dame Vera Lynn. In October 2009, Davies performed \"All Day and All of the Night\" with Metallica at the 25th Anniversary Rock & Roll Hall of Fame Concert. Davies was a judge for the 3rd (in 2004) and 7th (in 2008) annual Independent Music Awards to support independent artists' careers. Davies played at Glastonbury Festival 2010 where he dedicated several songs to the late Kinks' bassist, Pete Quaife. A collaborations album, \"See My Friends\", was released in November 2010 with a US release to follow in early 2011. 2011 also marked Davies' return to New Orleans, Louisiana, to play the Voodoo Experience Music festival. His setlist included material by the Kinks and solo material. That autumn, he toured with the 88 as his backing band. In August 2012, Davies performed 'Waterloo Sunset' as part of the closing ceremony of the London 2012 Summer Olympics, watched by over 24 million viewers in the UK, but which was subsequently cut by NBC from the US broadcast in favour of a failed marketing attempt for its upcoming show \"Animal Practice\". On 18 December 2015, Ray joined his brother Dave for an encore at London's Islington Assembly Hall. The two performed \"You Really Got Me\", marking the first time in nearly 20 years that the brothers had appeared and performed together. In April 2017, Davies released the album \"Americana\". Based on his experiences in the US it follows on from the short DVD, \"Americana — a work in progress\" (found on the deluxe CD \"Working Man's Cafe\" from 2007), and his biographical book \"Americana\" from 2013. A second volume \"Our Country - Americana Act II\" was released in June 2018. For his backing band on \"Americana\" Davies chose The Jayhawks an alt-country/country-rock band from Minnesota. He was knighted in the 2017 New Year Honours for services to the arts.", "In 1981, Davies collaborated with Barrie Keeffe in writing his first stage musical, \"Chorus Girls\", which opened at the Theatre Royal Stratford East, London, starring Marc Sinden, and had a supporting cast of Michael Elphick, Anita Dobson, Kate Williams and Charlotte Cornwell. Directed by Adrian Shergold, the choreography was by Charles Augins and Jim Rodford played bass with the theatre's \"house band\". Davies wrote songs for a musical version of Jules Verne's \"Around the World in 80 Days\"; the show, \"80 Days\", had a book by playwright Snoo Wilson. It was directed by Des McAnuff and ran at the La Jolla Playhouse's Mandell Weiss Theatre in San Diego from 23 August to 9 October 1988. The musical received mixed responses from the critics. Davies' multi-faceted music, McAnuff's directing, and the acting, however, were well received, with the show winning the \"Best Musical\" award from the San Diego Theatre Critics Circle. Davies' musical \"Come Dancing\", based partly on his 1983 hit single with 20 new songs, ran at the Theatre Royal Stratford East, London in September–November 2008. \"Sunny Afternoon\", a musical based on Ray Davies's early life and featuring Kinks songs opened to critical acclaim at Hampstead Theatre. The musical moved to the Harold Pinter Theatre in London's West End in October 2014. The musical won four awards at the 2015 Olivier Awards, including one for Ray Davies: the Autograph Sound Award for Outstanding Achievement in Music.", "Davies is bisexual. Ray Davies has been married three times and has four daughters. Two of them, Louisa Davies and Victoria Davies, are from his first marriage in 1964 to Rasa Dicpetris. In 1973, Davies attempted suicide by a drug overdose following the breakup of his first marriage. He was later diagnosed with bipolar disorder. Davies' second marriage was in 1974 to Yvonne Gunner. The couple had no children. Davies had a relationship with Chrissie Hynde of The Pretenders during the 1980s, and their daughter is named Natalie Rae Hynde. His third marriage was to Irish ballet dancer Patricia Crosbie, with whom he had a daughter, Eva Davies. Ray Davies has had a tempestuous relationship with younger brother Dave, the Kinks' lead guitarist, which \"dominated\" the Kinks' career as a band and has kept a full reunion from taking place. On 4 January 2004, Davies was shot in the leg while chasing thieves who had snatched the purse of his companion as they walked in the French Quarter of New Orleans, Louisiana. An accomplice was arrested, but charges were dropped because Davies was in London and did not return for the trial. In 2011, Davies was \"grounded\" on doctor's orders for six months following discovery of blood clots in his lungs.", "", "The following is a list of Davies compositions that were chart hits for artists other than The Kinks. (See \"The Kinks discography\" for hits by The Kinks.)" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Introduction.", "The Standard Model.", "The problem of gauge boson mass.", "Symmetry breaking.", "Higgs mechanism.", "Higgs field.", "The \"central problem\".", "Search and discovery.", "Interpretation.", "Overview of properties.", "Significance.", "Particle physics.", "Validation of the Standard Model.", "Symmetry breaking of the electroweak interaction.", "Particle mass acquisition.", "Scalar fields and extension of the Standard Model.", "Cosmology.", "Inflaton.", "Nature of the universe, and its possible fates.", "Vacuum energy and the cosmological constant.", "Practical and technological impact.", "History.", "Theorisation.", "Experimental search.", "Theoretical issues.", "Theoretical need for the Higgs.", "Alternative models.", "Further theoretical issues and hierarchy problem.", "Properties.", "Properties of the Higgs field.", "Properties of the Higgs boson.", "Production.", "Decay.", "Public discussion.", "Naming.", "Names used by physicists.", "Nickname.", "Other proposals.", "Educational explanations and analogies.", "Recognition and awards.", "Technical aspects and mathematical formulation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Physicists explain the properties of forces between elementary particles in terms of the Standard Model a widely accepted framework for understanding almost everything in physics in the known", "Field theories had been used with great success in understanding the electromagnetic field and the strong force, but by around 1960 all attempts to create a \"gauge invariant\" theory for the weak force (and its combination with fundamental force electromagnetism, the electroweak interaction) had consistently failed, with gauge theories thereby starting to fall into disrepute as a result. The problem", "In the late 1950s, Yoichiro Nambu recognised that spontaneous symmetry breaking, a process where a symmetric system ends up in an asymmetric state, could occur under certain conditions. In 1962 physicist Philip", "Following the 1962 and 1963 papers, three groups of researchers independently published the 1964 PRL symmetry breaking papers with similar conclusions and for all cases, not just some limited cases. They showed that the conditions for electroweak symmetry would be \"broken\" if an unusual type of field existed throughout the universe, and indeed, some fundamental particles would acquire mass. The field required for this to happen (which was purely hypothetical at the time) became known as the \"Higgs field\" (after Peter Higgs, one of the researchers) and the mechanism by which it led to symmetry breaking, known", "The Standard Model includes a field of the kind needed to \"break\" electroweak symmetry and give particles their correct mass. This field, called the \"Higgs Field\", exists throughout space, and it breaks some symmetry laws of the electroweak interaction, triggering the Higgs mechanism. It therefore causes the W and Z gauge bosons of the weak force to be", "There was not yet any direct evidence that the Higgs field existed, but even without proof of the field, the accuracy of its predictions led scientists to believe the theory might be true. By the 1980s the question of whether or not the Higgs field existed, and therefore whether or not the entire Standard Model was correct, had come to be regarded as one of the most important unanswered questions in particle physics. For many decades, scientists had no way to determine whether or not the Higgs field existed, because the technology needed for", "Although the Higgs field exists everywhere, proving its existence was far from easy. In principle, it can be proved to exist by detecting its excitations, which manifest as Higgs particles (the \"Higgs boson\"), but these are extremely difficult to produce and detect, due to the energy required to produce them and their very rare production even if the energy is sufficient. It was therefore several decades before the first evidence of the Higgs boson was found. Particle colliders, detectors, and computers capable of looking for Higgs bosons took more than 30 years to develop. The importance of this fundamental question led to a 40-year search, and the construction of one of the world's most expensive and complex experimental facilities to date, CERN's Large Hadron Collider, in an attempt to create Higgs bosons and other particles for observation and study. On 4 July 2012, the discovery of a new particle with a", "Various analogies have been used to describe the Higgs field and boson, including analogies with well-known symmetry-breaking effects such as the rainbow and prism, electric fields, and ripples on the surface of water.", "In the Standard Model, the Higgs particle is a massive scalar boson with zero spin, no electric charge, and no colour charge. It is also very unstable, decaying into other particles almost immediately. The Higgs field is a scalar field, with two neutral and two electrically charged components that form a complex doublet of the weak isospin SU(2) symmetry. The Higgs field is a scalar field with a \"Mexican hat-shaped\" potential. In its ground state, this", "Evidence of the Higgs field and its properties has been extremely significant for many reasons. The importance of the Higgs boson is largely that it is able to be examined using existing knowledge and experimental technology, as a way to confirm and study the entire Higgs field theory. Conversely, proof that the Higgs field and boson do \"not\" exist would have also been significant.", "", "The Higgs boson validates the Standard Model through the mechanism of mass generation. As more precise measurements of its properties are made, more advanced extensions may be suggested or excluded. As experimental means to measure the field's behaviours and interactions are developed, this fundamental field may be better understood. If the Higgs field had not been discovered, the", "Below an extremely high temperature, electroweak symmetry breaking causes the electroweak interaction to manifest in part as the short-ranged weak force, which is carried by massive gauge bosons. In the history of the universe, electroweak symmetry", "The Higgs field is pivotal in generating the masses of quarks and charged leptons (through Yukawa coupling) and the W and Z gauge bosons (through the Higgs mechanism). It is worth noting that the Higgs field does not \"create\" mass out of nothing (which would violate the law of conservation of energy), nor is the Higgs field responsible for", "The Higgs field is the only scalar (spin 0) field to be detected; all the other fields in the Standard Model are spin 1⁄2 fermions or spin 1 bosons. According to Rolf-Dieter Heuer, director general of CERN when the Higgs boson was discovered, this existence proof of a scalar field is almost as important as the Higgs's role in determining the mass of other particles. It suggests that other hypothetical scalar fields suggested by other theories, from the inflaton to quintessence, could perhaps exist as well.", "", "There has been considerable scientific research on possible links between the Higgs field and the inflaton a hypothetical field suggested as the explanation for the expansion of space during the first fraction of a second of the universe (known as the \"inflationary epoch\"). Some theories suggest that a fundamental scalar field might be responsible for this", "In the Standard Model, there exists the possibility that the underlying state of our universe – known as the \"vacuum\" – is long-lived, but not completely stable. In this scenario, the universe as we know it could effectively be destroyed by collapsing into a more stable vacuum state. This was sometimes misreported as the Higgs boson \"ending\" the universe. If the masses of the Higgs boson and top quark are known more precisely, and the Standard Model provides an accurate description of particle physics up to extreme energies of the Planck scale, then it is possible to calculate whether the vacuum is", "More speculatively, the Higgs field has also been proposed as the energy of the vacuum, which at the extreme energies of the first moments of the Big Bang caused the universe to be a kind of featureless symmetry of undifferentiated, extremely high energy. In this kind of speculation, the single unified field of a Grand Unified Theory is identified as (or modelled upon) the Higgs field, and it is through successive symmetry breakings of the Higgs field, or some similar field, at phase transitions that the presently known forces and fields of the universe arise. The relationship (if any) between the Higgs field and the presently observed vacuum energy density of the universe has also come under scientific study. As observed, the present vacuum energy density is extremely close to zero, but the energy density expected from the Higgs field, supersymmetry, and other current theories are typically many orders of magnitude larger. It is unclear how these should be reconciled. This cosmological constant problem remains a major unanswered problem in physics.", "As yet, there are no known immediate technological benefits of finding the Higgs particle. However, a common pattern for fundamental discoveries is for practical applications to follow later, and once the discovery has been explored further, perhaps becoming the basis for", "", "Particle physicists study matter made from fundamental particles whose interactions are mediated by exchange particles gauge bosons acting as force carriers. At the beginning of the 1960s a number of these particles had been discovered or proposed, along with theories suggesting how they relate to each other, some of which had already been reformulated as field theories in which the objects of study are not particles and forces, but quantum fields and their symmetries. However, attempts to produce quantum field models for two of the four known fundamental forces – the electromagnetic force and the weak nuclear force – and then to unify these interactions, were still unsuccessful. One known problem was that gauge invariant approaches, including non-abelian models such as Yang–Mills theory (1954), which held great promise for unified theories, also seemed to predict known massive particles as massless. Goldstone's theorem, relating to continuous symmetries within some theories, also appeared to rule out many obvious solutions, since it appeared to show that zero-mass particles also would have to exist that simply were \"not seen\". According to Guralnik, physicists had \"no understanding\" how these problems could be overcome. Particle physicist and mathematician Peter Woit summarised the state of research at the time: The Higgs mechanism is a process by which vector bosons can acquire rest mass \"without\" explicitly breaking gauge invariance, as a byproduct of spontaneous symmetry breaking. Initially, the mathematical theory behind spontaneous symmetry breaking was conceived and published within particle physics by Yoichiro Nambu in 1960, and the concept that such a mechanism could offer a possible solution for the \"mass problem\" was originally suggested in 1962 by Philip Anderson (who had previously written papers on broken symmetry and its outcomes in superconductivity. Anderson concluded in his 1963 paper on the Yang-Mills theory, that \"considering the superconducting analog... [t]hese two types of bosons seem capable of canceling each other out... leaving finite mass bosons\"), and in March 1964, Abraham Klein and Benjamin Lee showed that Goldstone's theorem could be avoided this way in at least some non-relativistic cases, and speculated it might be possible in truly relativistic cases. These approaches were quickly developed into a full relativistic model, independently and almost simultaneously, by three groups of", "To produce Higgs bosons, two beams of particles are accelerated to very high energies and allowed to collide within a particle detector. Occasionally, although rarely, a Higgs boson will be created fleetingly as part of the collision byproducts. Because the Higgs boson decays very quickly, particle detectors cannot detect it directly. Instead the detectors register all the decay products (the \"decay signature\") and from the data the decay process is reconstructed. If the observed decay products match a possible decay process (known as a \"decay channel\") of a Higgs boson, this indicates that a Higgs boson may have been created. In practice, many processes may produce similar decay signatures. Fortunately, the Standard Model precisely predicts the likelihood of each of these, and each known process, occurring. So, if the detector detects more decay signatures consistently matching a Higgs boson than would otherwise be expected if Higgs bosons did not exist, then this would be strong evidence that the Higgs boson exists. Because Higgs boson production in a particle collision is likely to be very rare (1 in 10 billion at the LHC), and many other possible collision", "", "Gauge invariance is an important property of modern particle theories such as the Standard Model, partly due to its success in other areas of fundamental physics such as electromagnetism and the strong interaction (quantum chromodynamics). However, before Sheldon L. Glashow extended the electroweak unification models in 1961, there were great difficulties in developing gauge theories for the weak nuclear force or a possible unified electroweak interaction. Fermions with a mass term would violate gauge symmetry and therefore cannot be gauge invariant. (This can be seen by examining the Dirac Lagrangian for a fermion", "The Minimal Standard Model as described above is the simplest known model for the Higgs mechanism with just one Higgs field. However, an extended Higgs sector with additional Higgs particle doublets or triplets is also possible, and many extensions of the Standard Model have this feature. The non-minimal Higgs sector favoured by theory are the two-Higgs-doublet models (2HDM), which predict the existence of a quintet of scalar particles: two CP-even neutral Higgs bosons h and H, a CP-odd neutral Higgs boson A, and two charged Higgs particles H. Supersymmetry (\"SUSY\") also predicts relations between the Higgs-boson masses and the masses of the gauge bosons, and could accommodate a neutral Higgs boson. The key method to distinguish between these different", "The Standard Model leaves the mass of the Higgs boson as a parameter to be measured, rather than a value to be calculated. This is seen as theoretically unsatisfactory, particularly as quantum corrections (related to interactions with virtual particles) should apparently cause the Higgs particle to have a mass immensely higher than that observed, but at the same time the Standard Model requires a mass of the order of 100 to 1000 GeV to ensure unitarity (in this case, to unitarise longitudinal vector boson scattering). Reconciling these points appears to require explaining why there is an almost-perfect cancellation resulting in the visible mass of ~ 125 GeV, and it is not clear how to do this. Because the weak force is about 10 times stronger than gravity, and (linked to this) the Higgs", "", "In the Standard Model, the Higgs field is a scalar tachyonic field \"scalar\" meaning it does not transform under Lorentz transformations, and \"tachyonic\" meaning the field (but not the particle) has imaginary mass, and in certain configurations must undergo symmetry breaking. It consists of four components: Two neutral ones and two charged component fields. Both of the charged components and one of the neutral fields are Goldstone bosons, which act as the longitudinal third-polarisation components of the massive W, W, and Z bosons. The quantum of the remaining neutral component corresponds to (and is theoretically realised as) the massive Higgs boson. This component can interact with fermions via Yukawa coupling to give them mass as well. Mathematically, the Higgs field has imaginary mass and is therefore a \"tachyonic\" field. While tachyons (particles that move faster than light) are a purely hypothetical concept, \"fields\" with imaginary mass", "Since the Higgs field is scalar, the Higgs boson has no spin. The Higgs boson is also its own antiparticle, is CP-even, and has zero electric and colour charge. The Standard Model does not predict the mass of the Higgs boson. If that mass is between 115 and (consistent with empirical observations of ), then the Standard Model can be valid at energy scales all the way up to the Planck scale (10 GeV). Many theorists expect new physics beyond the Standard Model to emerge at the TeV-scale, based on unsatisfactory properties of the Standard Model. The highest possible mass scale allowed for the Higgs boson (or some other electroweak symmetry", "If Higgs particle theories are valid, then a Higgs particle can be produced much like other particles that are studied, in a particle collider. This involves accelerating a large number of particles to extremely high energies and extremely close to the speed of light, then allowing them to smash together. Protons and lead ions (the bare nuclei of lead atoms) are used at the LHC. In the extreme energies of these collisions,", "Quantum mechanics predicts that if it is possible for a particle to decay into a set of lighter particles, then it will eventually do so. This is also true for the Higgs boson. The likelihood with which this happens depends on a variety of factors including: the difference in mass, the strength of the interactions, etc. Most of these factors are fixed by the Standard Model, except for the mass of the Higgs boson itself. For a Higgs boson with a mass of the SM predicts a mean life time of about", "", "", "The name most strongly associated with the particle and field is the Higgs boson and Higgs field. For some time the particle was known by a combination of its PRL author names (including at times Anderson), for example the Brout–Englert–Higgs particle, the Anderson-Higgs particle, or the Englert–Brout–Higgs–Guralnik–Hagen–Kibble mechanism, and these are still used at times. Fuelled in part by the issue of recognition and a potential shared Nobel Prize, the most appropriate name was still occasionally a topic of debate until 2013. Higgs himself prefers to call the particle either by an acronym of all those involved, or \"the scalar boson\", or \"the so-called Higgs particle\". A considerable amount has been written on how Higgs' name came to be exclusively used. Two main explanations are offered. The first is that Higgs undertook a step which was either unique, clearer or more explicit in his paper in formally predicting and examining the particle. Of the PRL papers' authors, only the paper by Higgs \"explicitly\" offered as a prediction that a massive particle would exist and calculated some of its properties; he was therefore \"the first to postulate the existence of a massive particle\" according", "The Higgs boson is often referred to as the \"God particle\" in popular media outside the scientific community. The nickname comes from the title of the 1993 book on the Higgs boson and particle physics, \"\" by Physics Nobel Prize winner and Fermilab director Leon Lederman. Lederman wrote it in the context of failing US government support for the Superconducting Super Collider, a partially constructed titanic competitor to the Large Hadron Collider with planned collision energies of that was championed by Lederman since its 1983 inception and shut down in 1993. The book sought in part to promote awareness of the significance and need for such a project in the face of its possible loss of funding. Lederman, a leading researcher in the field, writes that he wanted to title his book \"The Goddamn Particle: If the Universe is the Answer, What is the Question?\" Lederman's editor decided that the title was too controversial and convinced him to change the title to \"The God Particle: If the Universe is the Answer, What is the Question?\" While media use", "A renaming competition by British newspaper \"The Guardian\" in 2009 resulted in their science correspondent choosing the name \"the champagne bottle boson\" as the best submission: \"The bottom of a champagne bottle is in the shape of the Higgs potential and is often used as an illustration in physics lectures. So it's not an embarrassingly grandiose name, it is memorable, and [it] has some physics connection too.\" The name \"Higgson\" was suggested as well, in an opinion piece in the Institute of Physics' online publication \"physicsworld.com\".", "There has been considerable public discussion of analogies and explanations for the Higgs particle and how the field creates mass, including coverage of explanatory attempts in their own right and a competition in 1993 for the best popular explanation by then-UK Minister for Science Sir William Waldegrave and articles in newspapers worldwide. An educational collaboration involving an LHC physicist and a High School Teachers at CERN educator suggests that dispersion of light responsible for the rainbow and dispersive prism is a useful analogy for the Higgs field's symmetry breaking and mass-causing effect.", "There was considerable discussion prior to late 2013 of how to allocate the credit if the Higgs boson is proven, made more pointed as a Nobel prize had been expected, and the very wide basis of people entitled to consideration. These include a range of theoreticians who made the Higgs mechanism theory possible, the theoreticians of the 1964 PRL papers (including Higgs himself), the theoreticians who derived from these a working electroweak theory and the Standard Model itself, and also the experimentalists at CERN and other institutions who made possible the proof of the Higgs", "In the Standard Model, the Higgs field is a four-component scalar field that forms a complex doublet of the weak isospin SU(2) symmetry: while the field has charge +1⁄2 under the weak hypercharge U(1) symmetry. The Higgs part of the Lagrangian is where formula_4 and formula_5 are the gauge bosons of the SU(2) and U(1) symmetries, formula_6 and formula_7 their respective coupling constants, formula_8 are the Pauli matrices (a complete set generators of the SU(2) symmetry), and formula_9 and formula_10, so that the ground state breaks the SU(2) symmetry (see figure). The ground state of the Higgs field (the bottom of the potential) is degenerate with different ground states related to each other by a SU(2) gauge transformation. It is always possible to pick a gauge such that in the ground state formula_11. The expectation value of formula_12 in the ground state (the vacuum expectation value or VEV) is then formula_13, where formula_14. The measured value of this parameter is ~. It has units of mass, and is the only free parameter of the Standard Model that is not a dimensionless number. Quadratic terms in formula_15 and formula_16 arise, which give masses to the W and Z bosons: with their ratio determining the Weinberg angle, formula_19, and leave a massless U(1) photon, formula_20. The mass of the Higgs boson itself is given by The quarks and the leptons interact with the Higgs field through Yukawa interaction terms: where formula_23 are left-handed and right-handed quarks and leptons of the th generation, formula_24 are matrices of Yukawa couplings where h.c. denotes the hermitian conjugate of all the preceding terms. In the symmetry breaking ground state, only the terms containing formula_12 remain, giving rise to mass terms for the fermions. Rotating the quark and lepton fields to the basis where the matrices of Yukawa couplings are diagonal, one gets where the masses of the fermions are formula_27, and formula_28 denote the eigenvalues of the Yukawa matrices." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Career.", "CD design.", "Performance.", "Views on reparations.", "Death.", "Misattributions.", "Legacy.", "In popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Trahan was born in Moss Bluff, Louisiana in 1938 to Homer Trahan and Elizabeth Breaux Taylor.", "Trahan first recorded songs under the Johnny Rebel name in the mid-1960s at J. D. \"Jay\" Miller's recording studio in Crowley, Louisiana. Miller produced the sessions and issued the recordings on his Reb Rebel label. Trahan's first release—the fifth for the Reb Rebel label—was a 45 RPM single of \"Lookin' for a Handout\" and \"Kajun Ku Klux Klan\". He then recorded more singles for the label: \"Nigger, Nigger\", \"Coon Town\", \"Who Likes a Nigger?\", \"Nigger Hatin' Me\", \"Still Looking for a Handout\", \"Some Niggers Never Die (They Just Smell That Way)\", \"Stay Away from Dixie\", and \"Move Them Niggers North\". Few of Trahan's songs concern topics other than race. These exceptions include \"Keep a-Workin' Big Jim\", about the efforts of Louisiana district attorney Jim Garrison to solve the Assassination of John F. Kennedy, and \"(Federal Aid Hell!) The Money Belongs to Us\", a song critical of U.S. federal aid programs. Two of these songs were eventually issued in album format by Reb Rebel Records under the title \"For Segregationists Only\". In 1974, Trahan's song \"Lâche pas la patate\" (also known as \"The Potato Song\"), sung by Jimmy C. Newman was released in Canada. After the September 11 attacks, Trahan noticed a resurgence in interest in his music. He then recorded and released a new song titled \"Infidel Anthem\", describing the \"whipping\" America should lay on Osama bin Laden. His new manager, a fan, booked him on \"The Howard Stern Show\", where he promoted the song. This led to increased interest in his music.", "A CD compilation of his works simply shows a hooded member of the Ku Klux Klan together with a depiction of the Confederate Battle Flag. The cover of the album \"It's the Attitude, Stupid!\" shows a hooded Klansman, holding what appears to be either a Walkman or an MP3 player with a confederate flag texture, and wearing headphones.", "According to Trahan, he only performed a Johnny Rebel song once. Trahan states he was playing country music in the town of Kaplan, when someone in the crowd requested a Rebel song, and obliged after making sure they were no blacks in the audience.", "Trahan did have an issue with reparations for slavery, saying \"Blacks develop an attitude towards the whites, and they won't let it go. They won't let go of what happened. Why should we pay reparations for things that happened 200 years ago? I was run out of my country... my ancestors were run out of Nova Scotia.\"", "Trahan died on September 3, 2016.", "Johnny Rebel is often misidentified as the pseudonym of David Allan Coe, an American outlaw country singer who achieved popularity during the 1970s and 1980s. The confusion stems in part from the song \"Nigger Fucker\", which appears on Coe's \"Underground Album\". Coe has been quoted as saying that \"anyone that hears \"[Underground Album]\" and says I'm a racist is full of shit.\" Some of Johnny Rebel's songs have also been misattributed to Johnny Horton, an American country music and rockabilly singer who died in 1960. The confusion appears to stem from a song by Horton called \"Johnny Reb\".", "Johnny Rebel's songs have been covered by other singers such as Big Reb and the German neo-Nazi band Landser, which covered Rebel's \"Coon Town\" as \"Kreuzberg\", the 9th song on its 1997 album, \"Deutsche Wut/Rock gegen Oben\". In 2003, the website of Resistance Records, a white supremacist label, listed Johnny Rebel's \"Klassic Klan Kompositions\" as its no. 2 seller, second only to the video game \"Ethnic Cleansing\". The Anti-Defamation League reported that \"Since the 1960s, when racist country singer Johnny Rebel recorded songs such as \"N-- Hatin' Me,\" more than 500 hate rock bands have formed worldwide\".", "The television series \"The Boondocks\" parodied Johnny Rebel's music in one of its episodes (entitled \"The Story of Jimmy Rebel\"). The episode portrays a recording artist who is ostensibly Johnny Rebel. In 2005, the Johnny Rebel song \"Some Niggers Never Die (They Just Smell That Way)\" was used in the film \"What Is It?\", directed by Crispin Glover." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Discovery.", "Haplontic life cycle.", "Diplontic life cycle.", "Haplodiplontic life cycle.", "Vegetative meiosis.", "Parasitic life cycle.", "Evolution." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The study of reproduction and development in organisms was carried out by many botanists and zoologists. Wilhelm Hofmeister demonstrated that alternation of generations is a feature that unites plants, and published this result in 1851 (see plant sexuality). Some terms (haplobiont and diplobiont) used for the description of life cycles were proposed initially for algae by Nils Svedelius, and then became used for other organisms. Other terms (autogamy and gamontogamy) used in protist life cycles were introduced by Karl Gottlieb Grell. The description of the complex life cycles of various organisms contributed to the disproof of the ideas of spontaneous generation in the 1840s and 1850s.", "A zygotic meiosis is a meiosis of a zygote immediately after karyogamy, which is the fusion of two cell nuclei. This way, the organism ends its diploid phase and produces several haploid cells. These cells divide mitotically to form either larger, multicellular individuals, or more haploid cells. Two opposite types of gametes (e.g., male and female) from these individuals or cells fuse to become a zygote. In the whole cycle, zygotes are the only diploid cell; mitosis occurs only in the haploid phase. The individuals or cells as a result of mitosis are haplonts, hence this life cycle is also called haplontic life cycle. Haplonts are:", "In gametic meiosis, instead of immediately dividing \"meiotically\" to produce haploid cells, the zygote divides \"mitotically\" to produce a multicellular diploid individual or a group of more unicellular diploid cells. Cells from the diploid individuals then undergo meiosis to produce haploid cells or gametes. Haploid cells may divide again (by mitosis) to form more haploid cells, as in many yeasts, but the haploid phase is not the predominant life cycle phase. In most diplonts, mitosis occurs only in the diploid phase, i.e. gametes usually form quickly and fuse to produce diploid zygotes. In the whole cycle, gametes are usually the only haploid cells, and mitosis usually occurs only in the diploid phase. The diploid multicellular individual is a diplont, hence a gametic meiosis is also called a diplontic life cycle. Diplonts are:", "In sporic meiosis (also commonly known as intermediary meiosis), the zygote divides mitotically to produce a multicellular diploid sporophyte. The sporophyte creates spores via meiosis which \"also\" then divide mitotically producing haploid individuals called gametophytes. The gametophytes produce gametes via mitosis. In some plants the gametophyte is not only small-sized but also short-lived; in other plants and many algae, the gametophyte is the \"dominant\" stage of the life cycle. Haplodiplonts are: Some animals have a sex-determination system called haplodiploid, but this is not related to the haplodiplontic life cycle.", "Some red algae (such as \"Bonnemaisonia\" and \"Lemanea\") and green algae (such as \"Prasiola\") have vegetative meiosis, also called somatic meiosis, which is a rare phenomenon. Vegetative meiosis can occur in haplodiplontic and also in diplontic life cycles. The gametophytes remain attached to and part of the sporophyte. Vegetative (non-reproductive) diploid cells undergo meiosis, generating vegetative haploid cells. These undergo many mitosis, and produces gametes. A different phenomenon, called vegetative diploidization, a type of apomixis, occurs in some brown algae (e.g., \"Elachista stellaris\"). Cells in a haploid part of the plant spontaneously duplicate their chromosomes to produce diploid tissue.", "Parasites depend on the exploitation of one or more hosts. Those that must infect more than one host species to complete their life cycles are said to have complex or indirect life cycles, while those that infect a single species have direct life cycles. If a parasite has to infect a given host in order to complete its life cycle, then it is said to be an obligate parasite of that host; sometimes, infection is facultative—the parasite can survive and complete its life cycle without infecting that particular host species. Parasites sometimes infect hosts in which they cannot complete their life cycles; these are accidental hosts. A host in which parasites reproduce sexually is known as the definitive, final or primary host. In intermediate hosts, parasites either do not reproduce or do so asexually, but the parasite always develops to a new stage in this type of host. In some cases a parasite will infect a host, but not undergo any development, these hosts are known as paratenic or transport hosts. The paratenic host can be useful in raising the chance that the parasite will be transmitted to the definitive host. For example, the cat lungworm (\"Aelurostrongylus abstrusus\") uses a slug or snail as an intermediate host; the first stage larva enters the mollusk and develops to the third stage larva, which is infectious to the definitive host—the cat. If a mouse eats the slug, the third stage larva will enter the mouse's tissues, but will not undergo any development.", "The primitive type of life cycle probably had haploid individuals with asexual reproduction. Bacteria and archaea exhibit a life cycle like this, and some eukaryotes apparently do too (e.g., Cryptophyta, Choanoflagellata, many Euglenozoa, many Amoebozoa, some red algae, some green algae, the imperfect fungi, some rotifers and many other groups, not necessarily haploid). However, these eukaryotes probably are not primitively asexual, but have lost their sexual reproduction, or it just was not observed yet. Many eukaryotes (including animals and plants) exhibit asexual reproduction, which may be facultative or obligate in the life cycle, with sexual reproduction occurring more or less frequently." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geographic distribution.", "Official status.", "Dialects of Tatar.", "Central or Middle.", "Mişär.", "Siberian Tatar.", "Phonology.", "Vowels.", "Historical shifts.", "Consonants.", "Palatalization.", "Syllables.", "Prosody.", "Phonetic alterations.", "Grammar.", "Writing system.", "History.", "Examples." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "3", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Tatar language is spoken in Russia (about 5.3 million people), Ukraine, China, Finland, Turkey, Uzbekistan, the United States of America, Romania, Azerbaijan, Israel, Kazakhstan, Georgia, Lithuania, Latvia and other countries. There are more than 7 million speakers of Tatar in the world. Tatar is also native for several thousand Maris. Mordva's Qaratay group also speak a variant of Kazan Tatar. In the 2010 census, 69% of Russian Tatars who responded to the question about language ability claimed a knowledge of the Tatar language. In Tatarstan, 93% of Tatars and 3.6% of Russians did so. In neighbouring Bashkortostan, 67% of Tatars, 27% of Bashkirs, and 1.3% of Russians did.", "Tatar, along with Russian, is the official language of the Republic of Tatarstan. The official script of Tatar language is based on the Cyrillic script with some additional letters. The Republic of Tatarstan passed a law in 1999, which came into force in 2001, establishing an official Tatar Latin alphabet. A Russian federal law overrode it in 2002, making Cyrillic the sole official script in Tatarstan since. Unofficially, other scripts are used as well, mostly Latin and Arabic. All official sources in Tatarstan must use Cyrillic on their websites and in publishing. In other cases, where Tatar has no official status, the use of a specific alphabet depends on the preference of the author. The Tatar language was made a \"de facto\" official language in Russia in 1917, but only within the Tatar Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. Tatar is also considered to have been the official language in the short-lived Idel-Ural State, briefly formed during the Russian Civil War. The usage of Tatar declined from during the 20th century. By the 1980s, the study and teaching of Tatar in the public education system was limited to rural schools. However, Tatar-speaking pupils had little chance of entering university because higher education was available in Russian almost exclusively. As of 2001 Tatar was considered a potentially endangered language while Siberian Tatar received \"endangered\" and \"seriously endangered\" statuses, respectively. Higher education in Tatar can only be found in Tatarstan, and is restricted to the humanities. In other regions Tatar is primarily a spoken language and the number of speakers as well as their proficiency tends to decrease. Tatar is popular as a written language only in Tatar-speaking areas where schools with Tatar language lessons are situated. On the other hand, Tatar is the only language in use in rural districts of Tatarstan. Since 2017, Tatar language classes are no longer mandatory in the schools of Tatarstan. According to the opponents of this change, it will further endanger the Tatar language and is a violation of the Tatarstan Constitution which stipulates the equality of Russian and Tatar languages in the republic.", "There are two main dialects of Tatar: All of these dialects also have subdivisions. Significant contributions to the study of the Tatar language and its dialects, were made by a scientist Gabdulkhay Akhatov, who is considered to be the founder of the modern Tatar dialectological school. Spoken idioms of Siberian Tatars, which differ significantly from the above two, are often considered as the third dialect group of Tatar by some, but as an independent language on its own by others.", "The Central or Middle dialectal group is spoken in Kazan and most of Tatarstan and is the basis of the standard literary Tatar language.", "In the Western (Mişär) dialect \"ç\" is pronounced (southern or Lambir Mişärs) and as (northern Mişärs or Nizhgars). \"C\" is pronounced. There are no differences between \"v\" and \"w\", \"q\" and \"k\", \"g\" and \"ğ\" in the Mişär dialect. (The Cyrillic alphabet doesn't have special letters for \"q\", \"ğ\" and \"w\", so Mişär speakers have no difficulty reading Tatar written in Cyrillic.) This is the dialect spoken by the Tatar minority of Finland.", "Two main isoglosses that characterize Siberian Tatar are \"ç\" as and \"c\" as, corresponding to standard and. There are also grammatical differences within the dialect, scattered across Siberia. Many linguists claim the origins of Siberian Tatar dialects are actually independent of Volga–Ural Tatar; these dialects are quite remote both from Standard Tatar and from each other, often preventing mutual comprehension. The claim that this language is part of the modern Tatar language is typically supported by linguists in Kazan, Moscow and by Siberian Tatars linguists and denounced by some Russian and Tatar ethnographs. Over time, some of these dialects were given distinct names and recognized as separate languages (e.g. the Chulym language) after detailed linguistic study. However, the Chulym language was never classified as a dialect of Tatar language. Confusion arose because of the endoethnonym \"Tatars\" used by the Chulyms. The question of classifying the Chulym language as a dialect of the Khakass language was debatable. A brief linguistic analysis shows that many of these dialects exhibit features which are quite different from the Volga–Ural Tatar varieties, and should be classified as Turkic varieties belonging to several sub-groups of the Turkic languages, distinct from Kipchak languages to which Volga–Ural Tatar belongs.", "", "There exist several interpretations of the Tatar vowel phonemic inventory. In total Tatar has nine or ten native vowels, and three or four loaned vowels (mainly in Russian loanwords). According to Baskakov (1988) Tatar has only two vowel heights, high and low. There are two low vowels, front and back, while there are eight high vowels: front and back, round (R+) and unround (R-), normal and short (or reduced). Poppe (1963) proposed a similar yet slightly different scheme with a third, higher mid, height, and with nine vowels. According to Makhmutova (1969) Tatar has three vowel heights: high, mid and low, and four tongue positions: front, front-central, front-back and back. The mid back unrounded vowel \"\"ë\" is usually transcribed as \"ı\", though it differs from the corresponding Turkish vowel. The tenth vowel \"ï\" is realized as the diphthong \"ëy\" (), which only occurs word-finally, but it has been argued to be an independent phoneme. Phonetically, the native vowels are approximately thus (with the Cyrillic letters and the usual Latin romanization in angle brackets): In polysyllabic words, the front-back distinction is lost in reduced vowels: all become mid-central. The mid reduced vowels in an unstressed position are frequently elided, as in кеше \"keşe\" > 'person', or кышы \"qışı\" > '(his) winter'. Low back is rounded in the first syllable and after, but not in the last, as in бала \"bala\" 'child', балаларга \"balalarğa\" 'to children'. In Russian loans there are also,,, and, written the same as the native vowels: ы, е/э, о, а respectively.", "Historically, the Old Turkic mid vowels have raised from mid to high, whereas the Old Turkic high vowels have become the Tatar reduced mid series. (The same shifts have also happened in Bashkir.)", "", "Tatar consonants usually undergo slight palatalization before front vowels. However, this allophony is not significant and does not constitute a phonemic status. This differs from Russian where palatalized consonants are not allophones but phonemes on their own. There are a number of Russian loanwords which have a palatalized consonants in Russian and thus written the same in Tatar (often with the \"soft sign\" ь). The Tatar standard pronunciation also requires palatalization in such loanwords, however, some Tatar may pronounce them non-palatalized.", "In native words there are six types of syllables (Consonant, Vowel, Sonorant): Loanwords allow other types: CSV (gra-mota), CSVC (käs-trül), etc.", "Stress is usually on the final syllable. However, some suffixes cannot be stressed, so the stress shifts to the syllable before that suffix, even if the stressed syllable is the third or fourth from the end. A number of Tatar words and grammatical forms have the natural stress on the first syllable. Loanwords, mainly from Russian, usually preserve their original stress (unless the original stress is on the last syllable, in such a case the stress in Tatar shifts to suffixes as usual, e.g. \"sovét\" > \"sovetlár\" > \"sovetlarğá\").", "Tatar phonotactics dictate many pronunciation changes which are not reflected in the orthography.", "Like other Turkic languages, Tatar is an agglutinative language. Grammatical case: Plural:", "During its history, Tatar has been written in Arabic, Latin and Cyrillic scripts. Before 1928, Tatar was mostly written with in Arabic script (Иске имля/İske imlâ, \"Old orthography\", to 1920; Яңа имла/Yaña imlâ, \"New orthography\", 1920–1928). During the 19th century Russian Christian missionary Nikolay Ilminsky devised the first Cyrillic alphabet for Tatar. This alphabet is still used by Christian Tatars (Kryashens). In the Soviet Union after 1928, Tatar was written with a Latin alphabet called Jaᶇalif. In 1939, in Tatarstan and all other parts of the Soviet Union, a Cyrillic script was adopted and is still used to write Tatar. It is also used in Kazakhstan. The Republic of Tatarstan passed a law in 1999 that came into force in 2001 establishing an official Tatar Latin alphabet. A Russian federal law overrode it in 2002, making Cyrillic the sole official script in Tatarstan since. In 2004, an attempt to introduce a Latin-based alphabet for Tatar was further abandoned when the Constitutional Court ruled that the federal law of 15 November 2002 mandating the use of Cyrillic for the state languages of the republics of the Russian Federation does not contradict the Russian constitution. In accordance with this Constitutional Court ruling, on 28 December 2004, the Tatar Supreme Court overturned the Tatarstani law that made the Latin alphabet official. In 2012 the Tatarstan government adopted a new Latin alphabet but with the limited usage (mostly for Romanization).", "Tatar's ancestors are the extinct Bulgar and Kipchak languages. The literary Tatar language is based on the Middle Tatar dialect and on the Old Tatar language (\"İske Tatar Tele\"). Both are members of the Volga-Ural subgroup of the Kipchak group of Turkic languages, although they also partly derive from the ancient Volga Bulgar language. Most of the Uralic languages in the Volga River area have strongly influenced the Tatar language, as have the Arabic, Persian and Russian languages. Crimean Tatar, although similar by name, belongs to another subgroup of the Kipchak languages, usually called Pontic, Cuman or Polovtsian. Unlike Kazan Tatar, Crimean Tatar is heavily influenced by Turkish.", "Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Article 1: Барлык кешеләр дә азат һәм үз абруйлары һәм хокуклары ягыннан тиң булып туалар. Аларга акыл һәм вөҗдан бирелгән һәм бер-берсенә карата туганнарча мөнасәбәттә булырга тиешләр. Barlıq keşelär dä azat häm üz abruyları häm xoquqları yağınnan tiñ bulıp tualar. Alarğa aqıl häm wöcdan birelgän häm ber-bersenä qarata tuğannarça mönasäbättä bulırğa tieşlär" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "The son of the mathematician George David Birkhoff, Garrett was born in Princeton, New Jersey. He began the Harvard University BA course in 1928 after less than seven years of prior formal education. Upon completing his Harvard BA in 1932, he went to Cambridge University in England to study mathematical physics but switched to studying abstract algebra under Philip Hall. While visiting the University of Munich, he met Carathéodory who pointed him towards two important texts, Van der Waerden on abstract algebra and Speiser on group theory. Birkhoff held no Ph.D., a qualification British higher education did not emphasize at that time, and did not even bother obtaining an M.A. Nevertheless, after being a member of Harvard's Society of Fellows, 1933–36, he spent the rest of his career teaching at Harvard. From these facts can be inferred the number and quality of Birkhoff's papers published by his 25th year. During the 1930s, Birkhoff, along with his Harvard colleagues Marshall Stone and Saunders Mac Lane, substantially advanced American teaching and research in abstract algebra. In 1941 he and Mac Lane published \"A Survey of Modern Algebra\", the second undergraduate textbook in English on the subject (Cyrus Colton MacDuffee's \"An Introduction to Abstract Algebra\" was published in 1940). Mac Lane and Birkhoff's \"Algebra\" (1967) is a more advanced text on abstract algebra. A number of papers he wrote in the 1930s, culminating in his monograph, \"Lattice Theory\" (1940; the third edition remains in print), turned lattice theory into a major branch of abstract algebra. His 1935 paper, \"On the Structure of Abstract Algebras\" founded a new branch of mathematics, universal algebra. Birkhoff's approach to this development of universal algebra and lattice theory acknowledged prior ideas of Charles Sanders Peirce, Ernst Schröder, and Alfred North Whitehead; in fact, Whitehead had written an 1898 monograph entitled \"Universal Algebra\". Further, in 1935, Birkhoff showed that any equivalence between expressions that holds for all possible forms of operator subject to some equational axioms must have a finite proof using certain underlying rules about equality. However, frequently it remains undecidable whether or not a particular equivalence holds (for the reason that the proofs can become very long). During and after World War II, Birkhoff's interests gravitated towards what he called \"engineering\" mathematics. During the war, he worked on radar aiming and ballistics, including the bazooka. In the development of weapons, mathematical questions arose, some of which had not yet been addressed by the literature on fluid dynamics. Birkhoff's research was presented in his texts on fluid dynamics, \"Hydrodynamics\" (1950) and \"Jets, Wakes and Cavities\" (1957). Birkhoff, a friend of John von Neumann, took a close interest in the rise of the electronic computer. Birkhoff supervised the Ph.D. thesis of David M. Young on the numerical solution of the partial differential equation of Poisson, in which Young proposed the successive over-relaxation (SOR) method. Birkhoff then worked with Richard S. Varga, a former student, who was employed at Bettis Atomic Power Laboratory of the Westinghouse Electronic Corporation in Pittsburgh and was helping to design nuclear reactors. Extending the results of Young, the Birkhoff–Varga collaboration led to many publications on positive operators and iterative methods for \"p\"-cyclic matrices. Birkhoff's research and consulting work (notably for General Motors) developed computational methods besides numerical linear algebra, notably the representation of smooth curves via cubic splines. Birkhoff published more than 200 papers and supervised more than 50 Ph.D.s. He was a member of the National Academy of Sciences and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. He was a Guggenheim Fellow for the academic year 1948–1949 and the president of the Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics for 1966–1968. He won a Lester R. Ford Award in 1974." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and career.", "World War II.", "Early aerial combat.", "Fighting techniques.", "Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross.", "Diamonds to the Knight's Cross.", "Last combat missions.", "Prisoner of war.", "War crimes charges.", "Post-war years.", "In popular culture.", "Summary of career.", "Aerial victory claims.", "Decorations.", "Dates of rank." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Erich Hartmann was born on 19 April 1922 in Weissach, Württemberg, to Doctor Alfred Erich Hartmann and his wife, Elisabeth Wilhelmine Machtholf. The economic depression that followed World War I in Germany prompted Doctor Hartmann to find work in China, and Erich spent his early childhood there. The family was forced to return to Germany in 1928, when the Chinese Civil War broke out. During World War II, Hartmann's younger brother, Alfred, also joined the Luftwaffe, serving as a gunner on a Junkers Ju 87 in North Africa. Alfred Hartmann was captured by the British and spent four years as a prisoner of war. Hartmann was educated at the \"Volksschule\" in Weil im Schönbuch (April 1928–April 1932), the Gymnasium in Böblingen (April 1932–April 1936), the National Political Institutes of Education (Nazi Secondary Education School) in Rottweil (April 1936–April 1937), and the Gymnasium in Korntal (April 1937–April 1940), from which he received his Abitur.It was at Korntal that he met his wife-to-be, Ursula \"Usch\" Paetsch. Hartmann's flying career began when he joined the glider training program of the fledgling Luftwaffe and was taught to fly by his mother, one of the first female glider pilots in Germany. The Hartmanns also owned a light aircraft but were forced to sell it in 1932 as the German economy collapsed. The rise to power of the Nazi Party in 1933 resulted in government support for gliding, and, in 1936, Elisabeth Hartmann established the glider club in Weil im Schönbuch for locals and served as instructress. The 14-year-old", "In October 1942, Hartmann was assigned to fighter wing \"Jagdgeschwader\" 52 (JG 52), based at Maykop on the Eastern Front in the Soviet Union. The wing was equipped with the Messerschmitt Bf 109G, but Hartmann and several other pilots were initially given the task of ferrying Junkers Ju 87 Stukas down to Mariupol. His first flight ended with brake failure, causing the Stuka to crash into and destroy the controller's hut. Hartmann was assigned to III./JG 52, led by \"Gruppenkommandeur\" Major Hubertus von Bonin, and placed under the experienced \"Oberfeldwebel\" Edmund \"Paule\" Roßmann, although he also flew with such experienced pilots as Alfred Grislawski, Hans Dammers and Josef Zwernemann. After a few days of intensive mock combats and practice flights, Grislawski conceded that, although Hartmann had much to learn regarding combat tactics, he was quite a talented pilot. Hartmann was placed as wingman to Paule Roßmann, who acted as his teacher, and one of the factors that enabled Hartmann's success. Grislawski also gave Hartmann pointers on where to aim. Hartmann eventually adopted the tactic \"See – Decide – Attack – Break\". The tactics were learned from Roßmann who had been injured in one arm and was not able to fly in physically demanding dogfights. Roßmann's solution was to \"stand off\", evaluate the situation, then select a target that was not taking evasive action and destroy it at close range.", "Hartmann flew his first combat mission on 14 October 1942 as Roßmann's wingman. When they encountered 10 enemy aircraft below, an impatient Hartmann opened full throttle and separated from Roßmann. He engaged an enemy fighter, but failed to score any hits and nearly collided with it. He then ran for cover in low cloud, and his mission subsequently ended with a crash landing after his aircraft ran out of fuel. Hartmann had violated almost every rule of air-to-air combat, and von Bonin sentenced him to three days of working with the ground crew. Twenty-two days later, Hartmann claimed his first victory, an Ilyushin Il-2 \"Sturmovik\" of the 7th Guards Ground Attack Aviation Regiment, but by the end of 1942, he had added only one more victory to his tally. As with many", "In contrast to Hans-Joachim Marseille, who was a marksman and expert in the art of deflection shooting, Hartmann was a master of stalk-and-ambush tactics, preferring to ambush and fire at close range rather than dogfight. When the decorated British test pilot Captain Eric Brown asked Hartmann how he had accomplished his total, Hartmann remarked, that along with firing at close range, inadequate Soviet defensive armament and manoeuvre tactics allowed him to claim a victim in every attack. His preferred method of attack was to hold fire until extremely close ( or less), then unleash a short burst at point-blank range—a technique he learned while flying as wingman of his former commander, Walter Krupinski, who favoured this approach. This technique, as opposed to", "The demands on fighter pilots increased after Kursk. In early August Hartmann flew 20 missions totalling 18 hours and 29 minutes in six days. By late August 1943, Hartmann had 90 aerial victories. On 20 August, in combat with Il-2s, his Bf 109 G-6 (\"Werknummer\" 20485—factory number) was damaged by debris, and he was forced to land behind Soviet lines at 06:20 in the vicinity of Artemivsk. Hartmann's \"Geschwaderkommodore\", Dietrich Hrabak, had given orders to Hartmann's unit to support the dive bombers of \"Sturzkampfgeschwader 2\", led by Hans-Ulrich Rudel in a counter-attack. The flight of eight German fighters engaged a mass of Soviet Yakovlev Yak-9 and Lavochkin La-5 fighter aircraft. Hartmann claimed two enemy aircraft before his fighter was hit by debris", "In April and May 1944, 9./JG 52 resisted the Soviet Crimean Offensive. In April Hartmann claimed five victories. In May, Hartmann filed claims number 208 to 231 which included six on the 6 May. On 8 May 1944, JG 52 fled the region as the German defence collapsed. JG 52 subsequently took part in the fighting on the Romanian border. On 21 May 1944, Hartmann engaged United States Army Air Forces aircraft in \"Reichsverteidigung\" for the first time in defence of", "From 1–14 February 1945, Hartmann briefly led I. \"Gruppe\" of \"Jagdgeschwader\" 53 as acting \"Gruppenkommandeur\" until he was replaced by Helmut Lipfert. In March 1945, Hartmann, his score now standing at 336 aerial victories, was asked a second time by General Adolf Galland to join the Me 262 units forming to fly the new jet fighter. Hartmann attended the jet conversion program led by Heinrich Bär. Galland also intended Hartmann to fly with \"Jagdverband\" 44. Hartmann declined the offer, preferring to remain with JG 52. Some sources report that Hartmann's decision to stay with his unit was due to a request via telegram made by \"Oberstleutnant\" Hermann Graf. Now \"Gruppenkommandeur\" of I./JG 52, Erich Hartmann claimed his 350th", "After his capture, the U.S. Army handed Hartmann, his pilots, and ground crew over to the Soviet Union on 14 May, where he was imprisoned in accordance with the Yalta Agreements, which stated that airmen and soldiers fighting Soviet forces had to surrender directly to them. Hartmann and his unit were led by the Americans to a large open-air compound to await the transfer. In Hartmann's account, the Soviets attempted to convince him to cooperate with them. He was asked to spy on fellow officers, but refused and was given ten days' solitary confinement in a four-by-nine-by-six-foot chamber. He slept on a concrete floor and was given only bread and water. On another occasion, according to Hartmann, the Soviets threatened to kidnap and murder his wife (the death of his son was kept from Hartmann). During similar interrogations about his knowledge of the Me 262, Hartmann was struck by a Soviet officer using a cane, prompting Hartmann to hit the assailant with a chair, knocking him out. Expecting to be shot, he was transferred back to the small bunker. Hartmann, not ashamed of his war service, opted to go on a hunger strike and starve rather than fold to \"Soviet will\", as he called it. The Soviets allowed the hunger strike to go on for four days before force-feeding him. More subtle efforts by the Soviet authorities to convert Hartmann to communism also failed. He was offered a post in the East German Air Force, which he refused: If, after I am home in the West, you make me a normal contract offer, a business deal such as people sign every day all over the world, and I like your offer, then I will come back and work with you in accordance with the contract. But if you try to put me to work under coercion of any kind, then I will resist to my dying gasp.", "During his captivity Hartmann was first arrested on 24 December 1949, and three days later, he was sentenced to 20 years in prison. The sentence was carried out by the Ministry of Internal Affairs in the district Ivanovo. The preliminary criminal investigation was carried out only formally. He was condemned for atrocities against Soviet citizens, the attack on military objects and the destruction of Soviet aircraft and thus having significantly damaged the Soviet economy. Hartmann protested multiple times against this judgement. In June 1951, he was charged for a second time as an alleged member of an anti-Soviet group. This tribunal was carried out under military authority in the military district of Rostov-on-Don. Hartmann was charged with war crimes, specifically the \"deliberate shooting of 780 Soviet civilians\" in the village of Briansk, attacking a \"bread factory\" on 23 May 1943, and destroying", "During his long imprisonment, Hartmann's son, Erich-Peter, was born in 1945 and died as a three-year-old in 1948, without his father ever having seen him. Hartmann later had a daughter, Ursula Isabel, born on 23 February 1957. When Hartmann returned to West Germany, he reentered military service in the \"Bundeswehr\" and became an officer in the West German Air Force, where he commanded West Germany's first all-jet unit from 6 June 1959 to 29 May 1962, \"Jagdgeschwader 71\" \"Richthofen\". This unit was equipped initially with Canadair Sabres and later with Lockheed F-104 Starfighters. Hartmann also made several trips to the United States, where he was trained on U.S. Air Force equipment. In 1957 Hartmann began training with American instructors. The German pilots were trained at Luke Air Force Base in", "Hartmann was the subject of a biography by the American authors Trevor J. Constable and Raymond F. Toliver, under the title \"The Blond Knight of Germany\". Originally released in the United States in 1970, it was published in Germany the next year, as \"Holt Hartmann vom Himmel!\" (\"\"Shoot Hartmann down!\"\"). \"The Blond Knight\" was a commercial success and enjoyed a wide readership among both the American and the German public. The book has been criticised by some", "", "Matthews and Foreman, authors of \"Luftwaffe Aces – Biographies and Victory Claims\", researched the German Federal Archives and found records for 352 aerial victory claims, plus two further unconfirmed claims. This number includes two claims over United States Army Air Forces flown P-51 Mustangs, and 350 Soviet Air Forces piloted", "Hartmann had kept the whereabouts of his Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross secret from his captors during his time as a prisoner of war, claiming that he", "Hartmann joined the military service in \"Wehrmacht\" on 1 October 1940. His" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Analog television systems.", "Frames.", "Viewing technology.", "Hidden signaling.", "Overscan.", "Interlacing.", "Image polarity.", "Modulation.", "Audio.", "Evolution.", "List of analog television systems.", "Pre–World War II systems.", "ITU standards.", "Digital television systems.", "ATSC.", "DTMB.", "DVB.", "ISDB.", "Line count.", "Conversion from one system to another system.", "See also." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "All but one analog television system began as black-and-white systems. Each country, faced with local political, technical, and economic issues, adopted a color television system which was grafted onto an existing monochrome system, using gaps in the video spectrum (explained below) to allow color transmission information to fit in the existing channels allotted. The grafting of the color transmission standards onto existing monochrome systems permitted existing monochrome television receivers predating the changeover to color television to continue to be operated as monochrome television. Because of this compatibility requirement, color standards added a second signal to the basic monochrome signal, which carries the color information. The color information is called chrominance with the symbol C, while the black and white information is called the luminance with the symbol Y. Monochrome television receivers only display the luminance, while color receivers process both signals. Though in theory any monochrome system could be adopted to a color system, in practice some of the original monochrome systems proved impractical to adapt to color and were abandoned when the switch to color broadcasting was made. All countries used one of three color systems: NTSC, PAL, or SECAM.", "Ignoring color, all television systems work in essentially the same manner. The monochrome image seen by a camera (later, the luminance component of a color image) is divided into horizontal \"scan lines\", some number of which make up a single image or \"frame\". A monochrome image is theoretically continuous, and thus unlimited in horizontal resolution, but to make television practical, a limit had to be placed on the bandwidth of the television signal, which puts an ultimate limit on the horizontal resolution possible. When color was introduced, this necessity of limit became fixed. All analog television systems are \"interlaced\": alternate rows of the frame are transmitted in sequence, followed by the remaining rows in their sequence. Each half of the frame is called a \"video field\", and the rate at which field are transmitted is one of the fundamental parameters of a video system. It is related to the utility frequency at which the electricity distribution system operates, to avoid flicker resulting from the beat between the television screen deflection system and nearby mains generated magnetic fields. All digital, or \"fixed pixel,\" displays have progressive scanning and must deinterlace an interlaced source. Use of inexpensive deinterlacing hardware is a typical difference between lower- vs. higher-priced flat panel displays (Plasma display, LCD, etc.). All films and other filmed material shot at 24 frames per second must be transferred to video frame rates using a telecine in order to prevent severe motion jitter effects. Typically, for 25 frame/s formats (European among other countries with 50 Hz mains supply), the content is PAL speedup, while a technique known as \"\" is used for 30 frame/s formats (North America among other countries with 60 Hz mains supply) to match the film frame rate to the video frame rate without speeding up the play back.", "Analog television signal standards are designed to be displayed on a cathode ray tube (CRT), and so the physics of these devices necessarily controls the format of the video signal. The image on a CRT is painted by a moving beam of electrons which hits a phosphor coating on the front of the tube. This electron beam is steered by a magnetic field generated by powerful electromagnets close to the source of the electron beam. In order to reorient this magnetic steering mechanism, a certain amount of time is required due to the inductance of the magnets; the greater the change, the greater the time it takes for the electron beam to settle in the new spot. For this reason, it is necessary to shut off the electron beam (corresponding to a video signal of zero luminance) during the time it takes to reorient the beam from the end of one line to the beginning of the next (\"horizontal retrace\") and from the bottom of the screen to the top (\"vertical retrace\" or \"vertical blanking interval\"). The horizontal retrace is accounted for in the time allotted to each scan line, but the vertical retrace is accounted for as \"phantom lines\" which are never displayed but which are included in the number of lines per frame defined for each video system. Since the electron beam must be turned off in any case, the result is gaps in the television signal, which can be used to transmit other information, such as test signals or color identification signals. The temporal gaps translate into a comb-like frequency spectrum for the signal, where the teeth are spaced at line frequency and concentrate most of the energy; the space between the teeth can be used to insert a color subcarrier.", "Broadcasters later developed mechanisms to transmit digital information on the phantom lines, used mostly for teletext and closed captioning:", "Television images are unique in that they must incorporate regions of the picture with reasonable-quality content, that will never be seen by some viewers.", "In a purely analog system, field order is merely a matter of convention. For digitally recorded material it becomes necessary to rearrange the field order when conversion takes place from one standard to another.", "Another parameter of analog television systems, minor by comparison, is the choice of whether vision modulation is positive or negative. Some of the earliest electronic television systems such as the British 405-line (system A) used positive modulation. It was also used in the two Belgian systems (system C, 625 lines, and System F, 819 lines) and the two French systems (system E, 819 lines, and system L, 625 lines). In positive modulation systems, as in the earlier white facsimile transmission standard, the maximum luminance value is represented by the maximum carrier power; in negative modulation, the maximum luminance value is represented by zero carrier power. All newer analog video systems use negative modulation with the exception of the French System L. Impulsive noise, especially from older automotive ignition systems, caused white spots to appear on the screens of television receivers using positive modulation but they could use simple synchronization circuits. Impulsive noise in negative modulation systems appears as dark spots that are less visible, but picture synchronization was seriously degraded when using simple synchronization. The synchronization problem was overcome with the invention of phase-locked synchronization circuits. When these first appeared in Britain in the early 1950s one name used to describe them was \"flywheel synchronisation.\" Older televisions for positive modulation systems were sometimes equipped with a peak video signal inverter that would turn the white interference spots dark. This was usually user-adjustable with a control on the rear of the television labeled \"White Spot Limiter\" in Britain or \"Antiparasite\" in France. If adjusted incorrectly it would turn bright white picture content dark. Most of the positive modulation television systems ceased operation by the mid-1980s. The French System L continued on up to the transition to digital broadcasting. Positive modulation was one of several unique technical features that originally protected the French electronics and broadcasting industry from foreign competition and rendered French TV sets incapable of receiving broadcasts from neighboring countries. Another advantage of negative modulation is that, since the synchronizing pulses represent maximum carrier power, it is relatively easy to arrange the receiver automatic gain control to only operate during sync pulses and thus get a constant amplitude video signal to drive the rest of the TV set. This was not possible for many years with positive modulation as the peak carrier power varied depending on picture content. Modern digital processing circuits have achieved a similar effect but using the front porch of the video signal.", "Given all of these parameters, the result is a mostly-continuous analog signal which can be modulated onto a radio-frequency carrier and transmitted through an antenna. All analog television systems use vestigial sideband modulation, a form of amplitude modulation in which one sideband is partially removed. This reduces the bandwidth of the transmitted signal, enabling narrower channels to be used.", "In analog television, the analog audio portion of a broadcast is invariably modulated separately from the video. Most commonly, the audio and video are combined at the transmitter before being presented to the antenna, but separate aural and visual antennas can be used. In all cases where negative video is used, FM is used for the standard monaural audio; systems with positive video use AM sound and intercarrier receiver technology cannot be incorporated. Stereo, or more generally multi-channel, audio is encoded using a number of schemes which (except in the French systems) are independent of the video system. The principal systems are NICAM, which uses a digital audio encoding; double-FM (known under a variety of names, notably Zweikanalton, A2 Stereo, West German Stereo, German Stereo or IGR Stereo), in which case each audio channel is separately modulated in FM and added to the broadcast signal; and BTSC (also known as MTS), which multiplexes additional audio channels into the FM audio carrier. All three systems are compatible with monaural FM audio, but only NICAM may be used with the French AM audio systems.", "For historical reasons, some countries use a different video system on UHF than they do on the VHF bands. In a few countries, most notably the United Kingdom, television broadcasting on VHF has been entirely shut down. Note that the British 405-line system A, unlike all the other systems, suppressed the upper sideband rather than the lower—befitting its status as the oldest operating television system to survive into the color era (although was never officially broadcast with color encoding). System A was tested with all three color systems, and production equipment was designed and ready to be built; System A might have survived, as NTSC-A, had the British government not decided to harmonize with the rest of Europe on a 625-line video standard, implemented in Britain as PAL-I on UHF only. The French 819 line system E was a post-war effort to advance France's standing in television technology. Its 819 lines were almost high definition even by today's standards. Like the British system A, it was VHF only and remained black & white until its shutdown in 1984 in France and 1985 in Monaco. It was tested with SECAM in the early stages, but later the decision was made to adopt color in 625-lines. Thus France adopted system L on UHF only and abandoned system E. In many parts of the world, analog television broadcasting has been shut down completely, or in process of shutdown; see Digital television transition for a timeline of the analog shutdown.", "", "A number of experimental and broadcast pre-WW2 systems were tested. The first ones were mechanically based and of very low resolution, sometimes with no sound. Later TV systems were electronic.", "On an international conference in Stockholm in 1961, the International Telecommunication Union designated standards for broadcast television systems. Each standard is designated a letter (A-M); in combination with a color system (NTSC, PAL, SECAM), this completely specifies all of the monaural analog television systems in the world (for example, PAL-B, NTSC-M, etc.). The following table gives the principal characteristics of each standard. Defunct TV systems are shown in grey text, previous ones never designated by ITU are not yet shown. Except for lines and frame rates, other units are megahertz (MHz).", "The situation with worldwide digital television is much simpler by comparison. Most digital television systems are based on the MPEG transport stream standard, and use the H.262/MPEG-2 Part 2 video codec. They differ significantly in the details of how the transport stream is converted into a broadcast signal, in the video format prior to encoding (or alternatively, after decoding), and in the audio format. This has not prevented the creation of an international standard that includes both major systems, even though they are incompatible in almost every respect. The two principal digital broadcasting systems are ATSC standards, developed by the Advanced Television Systems Committee and adopted as a standard in most of North America, and DVB-T, the Digital Video Broadcast – Terrestrial system used in most of the rest of the world. DVB-T was designed for format compatibility with existing direct broadcast satellite services in Europe (which use the DVB-S standard, and also sees some use in direct-to-home satellite dish providers in North America), and there is also a DVB-C version for cable television. While the ATSC standard also includes support for satellite and cable television systems, operators of those systems have chosen other technologies (principally DVB-S or proprietary systems for satellite and 256QAM replacing VSB for cable). Japan uses a third system, closely related to DVB-T, called ISDB-T, which is compatible with Brazil's SBTVD. The People's Republic of China has developed a fourth system, named DMB-T/H.", "The terrestrial ATSC system (unofficially ATSC-T) uses a proprietary Zenith-developed modulation called 8-VSB; as the name implies, it is a vestigial sideband technique. Essentially, analog VSB is to regular amplitude modulation as 8VSB is to eight-way quadrature amplitude modulation. This system was chosen specifically to provide for maximum spectral compatibility between existing analog TV and new digital stations in the United States' already-crowded television allocations system, although it is inferior to the other digital systems in dealing with multipath interference; however, it is better at dealing with impulse noise which is especially present on the VHF bands that other countries have discontinued from TV use, but are still used in the U.S. There is also no hierarchical modulation. After demodulation and error-correction, the 8-VSB modulation supports a digital data stream of about 19.39 Mbit/s, enough for one high-definition video stream or several standard-definition services. See Digital subchannel: Technical considerations for more information. On November 17, 2017, the FCC voted 3-2 in favor of authorizing voluntary deployments of ATSC 3.0, which was designed as the successor to the original ATSC \"1.0\", and issued a Report and Order to that effect. Full-power stations will be required to maintain a simulcast of their channels on an ATSC 1.0-compatible signal if they decide to deploy an ATSC 3.0 service. On cable, ATSC usually uses 256QAM, although some use 16VSB. Both of these double the throughput to 38.78 Mbit/s within the same 6 MHz bandwidth. ATSC is also used over satellite. While these are logically called ATSC-C and ATSC-S, these terms were never officially defined.", "DTMB is the digital television broadcasting standard of the People's Republic of China, Hong Kong and Macau. This is a fusion system, which is a compromise of different competing proposing standards from different Chinese Universities, which incorporates elements from DMB-T, ADTB-T and TiMi 3.", "DVB-T uses coded orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (COFDM), which uses as many as 8000 independent carriers, each transmitting data at a comparatively low rate. This system was designed to provide superior immunity from multipath interference, and has a choice of system variants which allow data rates from 4 MBit/s up to 24 MBit/s. One US broadcaster, Sinclair Broadcasting, petitioned the Federal Communications Commission to permit the use of COFDM instead of 8-VSB, on the theory that this would improve prospects for digital TV reception by households without outside antennas (a majority in the US), but this request was denied. (However, one US digital station, WNYE-DT in New York, was temporarily converted to COFDM modulation on an emergency basis for datacasting information to emergency services personnel in lower Manhattan in the aftermath of the September 11 terrorist attacks). DVB-S is the original Digital Video Broadcasting forward error coding and modulation standard for satellite television and dates back to 1995. It is used via satellites serving every continent of the world, including North America. DVB-S is used in both MCPC and SCPC modes for broadcast network feeds, as well as for direct broadcast satellite services like Sky and Freesat in the British Isles, Sky Deutschland and HD+ in Germany and Austria, TNT SAT/FRANSAT and CanalSat in France, Dish Network in the US, and Bell TV in Canada. The MPEG transport stream delivered by DVB-S is mandated as MPEG-2. DVB-C stands for Digital Video Broadcasting - Cable and it is the DVB European consortium standard for the broadcast transmission of digital television over cable. This system transmits an MPEG-2 family digital audio/video stream, using a QAM modulation with channel coding.", "ISDB is very similar to DVB, however it is broken into 13 subchannels. Twelve are used for TV, while the last serves either as a guard band, or for the 1seg (ISDB-H) service. Like the other DTV systems, the ISDB types differ mainly in the modulations used, due to the requirements of different frequency bands. The 12 GHz band ISDB-S uses PSK modulation, 2.6 GHz band digital sound broadcasting uses CDM and ISDB-T (in VHF and/or UHF band) uses COFDM with PSK/QAM. It was developed in Japan with MPEG-2, and is now used in Brazil with MPEG-4. Unlike other digital broadcast systems, ISDB includes digital rights management to restrict recording of programming.", "As interlaced systems require accurate positioning of scanning lines, it is important to make sure that the horizontal and vertical timebase are in a precise ratio. This is accomplished by passing the one through a series of electronic divider circuits to produce the other. Each division is by a prime number. Therefore, there has to be a straightforward mathematical relationship between the line and field frequencies, the latter being derived by dividing down from the former. Technology constraints of the 1930s meant that this division process could only be done using small integers, preferably no greater than 7, for good stability. The number of lines was odd because of 2:1 interlace. The 405 line system used a vertical frequency of 50 Hz (Standard AC mains supply frequency in Britain) and a horizontal one of 10,125 Hz (50 × 405 ÷ 2)", "Converting between different numbers of lines and different frequencies of fields/frames in video pictures is not an easy task. Perhaps the most technically challenging conversion to make is from any of the 625-line, 25-frame/s systems to system M, which has 525-lines at 29.97 frames per second. Historically this required a frame store to hold those parts of the picture not actually being output (since the scanning of any point was not time coincident). In more recent times, conversion of standards is a relatively easy task for a computer. Aside from the line count being different, it's easy to see that generating 59.94 fields every second from a format that has only 50 fields might pose some interesting problems. Every second, an additional 10 fields must be generated seemingly from nothing. The conversion has to create new frames (from the existing input) in real time. There are several methods used to do this, depending on the desired cost and conversion quality. The simplest possible converters simply drop every 5th line from every frame (when converting from 625 to 525) or duplicate every 4th line (when converting from 525 to 625), and then duplicate or drop some of those frames to make up the difference in frame rate. More complex systems include inter-field interpolation, adaptive interpolation, and phase correlation.", "Transmission technology standards Defunct analog systems Analog television systems Analog television system audio Digital television systems History" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Style/Equipment.", "Awards." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Wang is the type who changes his playing equipment often. He has perhaps used more than 10 different model of rackets, some of them for a longer period of time, e.g. The Butterfly Timo Boll Spirit, Stiga Clipper CR, Offensive CR, Rosewood V, DHS Hurricane King II, III, and some Nittaku's models. His main forehand rubber is DHS Hurricane II, III, TG III. It is said that he had used Nittaku Hammond, the Tenergy series, and many other rubbers for his backhand. Wang Liqin uses the shakehand grip. He plays a forehand dominated style with the occasional backhand loop to open a topspin rally. His above average height allows him additional leverage for acceleration and momentum, creating more powerful shots. Many often describe him as possessing one of the most unusual and powerful forehand shots.", "Wang won the gold medal in doubles at the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney, Australia, and the bronze medal in singles at the 2004 Summer Olympics held in Athens, Greece, as well as at the 2008 Summer Olympics held in Beijing, China. At the 2008 Summer Olympics Wang won gold medal in team competition with Ma Lin and Wang Hao. For most of 2004–6, he ranked as the world's best table tennis player. Wang Liqin won his first World Championship in Osaka, Japan in 2001. In 2003, Wang made it to the quarter-finals of the World Table Tennis Championships. He has since won two more World Championships – 48th WTTC 2005 in Shanghai, China and 49th WTTC 2007 in Zagreb, Croatia. Wang Liqin is ranked #12 in the world for Men's Singles, based on the ITTF World Ranking page as of January 2014(www.ittf.com). Pro Tour winner (×21): Lebabon Open (1998), Swedish Open (1999), USA Open, China Open, Japan Open, Denmark Open (2000), China Open, England Open, Sweden Open (2001), China Open (2002). Germany Open, Swedish Open (2003), China Open, Korean Open, Singapore Open (2004), Qatar Open, China Open (Shenzen), China Open (Harbin) (2005), Qatar Open, Japan Open (2006), Qatar Open (2010) Runner-up (×10): Qatar Open, Japan Open (1997), France Open (1999), China Open (Kunshan), China Open (Guangzhou) (2006), Qatar (2007), China Open (2007), China Open (2008), China Open (2009), China Open (2012) Men's Doubles Pro Tour winner (23): France Open (1996), Yugoslavian Open (1997), Japan Open (1997), Qatar Open (1998), China Open (1999), China Open (2000). Sweden Open, China Open (2001), Denmark Open, Qatar Open (2002), Japan Open (2004), China Open (2005), Qatar Open, China Open (Kunshan), China Open (Shenzen) (2006), Hungarian Open, Japan Open, German Open (2007), Korea Open (2008), England Open (2009), Sweden Open, Qatar Open (2011), China Open (2012) Runner-up (23) Sweden Open, Japan Open, Austrian Open, Brazil Open (1997), Malaysia Open, China Open, Australia Open (1998), USA Open, Denmark Open, Brazil Open (2000), China Open (2002), Japan Open (2003), Japan Open, Singapore Open (2006), China Open (2007), Qatar Open (2009), China Open, Kuwait Open, Qatar Open (2010), UAE Open (2011) He is included in ITTF hall of fame. Currently he is serving as a coach of his Shanghai team at Chinese super league." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early and personal life.", "Career history.", "Formula Two.", "Formula One.", "CART.", "Later career." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Emerson Fittipaldi was born in São Paulo, Brazil. He is the younger son of prominent Italian-Brazilian motorsports journalist and radio commentator Wilson Fittipaldi Sr and his wife Józefa \"Juzy\" Wojciechowska, an immigrant from Saint Petersburg of Polish and Russian descent. His grandfather, Ivan Wojciechowski, was an officer in the Tsarist army. He was named after American author and philosopher, Ralph Waldo Emerson. Both his parents had raced production cars shortly after the Second World War and Wilson Sr was also responsible for the first Mil Milhas race in 1956, in São Paulo, having been inspired by the 1949 Italian Mille Miglia. Emerson, along with his brother Wilson, became motorsports enthusiasts as young children. Fittipaldi is the younger brother of former Formula One driver and team owner Wilson Fittipaldi. He is the uncle of TUDOR United Sports Car Championship driver Christian Fittipaldi. He was married to Maria Helena from 1970-82. They had three children. He was married a second time, to Teresa, in the mid-1980s. They have two children. In early December 2012 he married economist Rossana Fanucchi in São Paulo after a partnership of eleven years. They have a son, Emerson, born in 2007, and daughter Vittoria, born in early 2012. His two grandchildren Pietro and Enzo Fittipaldi are also racing drivers, with Enzo being announced as a member of the Ferrari Driver Academy in December 2016. In his youth in Brazil, Emerson was known as 'Rato' - mouse, which contrasts with 'Tigrão' - big tiger - for his brother. In September 1997, while recovering from injuries in a crash at Michigan International Speedway a year earlier, he was flying his private plane across his orange tree farm in the state of São Paulo. The plane lost power and plunged to the ground, leaving him with serious back injuries. Though Fittipaldi had converted to Christianity the year prior, his beliefs were reinforced after the crash. Fittipaldi is a Protestant in the Presbyterian tradition. He was a friend of Beatles guitarist George Harrison and was with him shortly before Harrison died in November 2001. In 2016, Fittipaldi established Fittipaldi Motors, and along with Pininfarina and HWA AG, created his first sports car project, the Fittipaldi EF7.", "At age 14, Fittipaldi was racing motorcycles, and at 16, hydrofoils. While racing one day, his brother Wilson took off at and landed upside down. Afterwards, the brothers mutually agreed to no longer race hydrofoils and return to dry-land racing. Did win in 1967 at the age of 20 the 6 hours of Interlagos in a Volkswagen Karmann Ghia a year later the 12 hours of Porto Alegre. The pair moved to racing Formula Vees, and built up a company with their parents. In his second season in single-seaters, Fittipaldi won the Brazilian Formula Vee title at age 21. He left for Europe in 1969, with the ambition to convince team owners of his talent in three months. After some podiums and his first victories in Formula Ford, Fittipaldi was first trained and then subsequently engaged by the Jim Russell Driving School Formula Three team. He won nine F3 races on the Jim Russell Lotus 59 in the MCD Lombard Championship to become the 1969 champion.", "For 1970, Fittipaldi moved up to F2 by joining the Lotus semi-works Team Bardahl campaigning Lotus 59B. With six finishes in the points and four on the podium, he ended the eight-race season in third place behind Clay Regazzoni and Derek Bell. While this result was very impressive for the newcomer to the series, the spotlight was on Fittipaldi that year because of his activities in Formula One instead.", "Based on the success of Cosworth DFV and Lotus 49/49B in 1968, Team Lotus was enjoying the reputation as one of the top F1 teams with the inflow of sponsorship money, and Colin Chapman used the third seat on the team for championship races as the testing ground for younger drivers. This was in contrast to the team's tradition to use non-championship F1 events for the purpose. The third seat was given to Alex Soler-Roig in the early 1970, and then to Fittipaldi starting with the British GP in July, with Jochen Rindt and John Miles as the regular seat holders. Fittipaldi scored a fourth place as the No. 3 driver at the next German GP where the No. 1 Jochen Rindt won, and the No. 2 John Miles retired. Team Lotus plans for the season drastically changed when Jochen Rindt was killed at Monza in September and became the only driver to win the championship posthumously. John Miles also left the team, and Fittipaldi was promoted to be the Lotus No. 1 driver on his fifth F1 race at the United States GP with Reine Wisell and Pete Lovely as the teammates. Fittipaldi proved up to the task and won this first post-Rindt race for Lotus. In his first full year as Lotus's lead driver in 1971, Fittipaldi finished sixth in the Drivers' Championship as the team further developed the previous season's Lotus 72. Armed with what was arguably the greatest Formula one design of all time, the Lotus 72D, Fittipaldi proved dominant in 1972 as he won five of 11 races and claimed the F1 Drivers' Championship. At 25 he was then the youngest champion in F1 history. It appeared he might do it again in 1973. But after three wins in four attempts with the 72D, he began to struggle in the new 72E that was unveiled mid-year. It resulted in the reverse of the previous year, with Stewart beating Fittipaldi for the Drivers' Championship. Fittipaldi left Lotus to sign with the promising McLaren team. Driving the highly efficient McLaren M23, he had three victories in 1974, reached the podium four other times, and beat out Clay Regazzoni in a close battle for his second championship. The following season, he notched two more victories and four other podiums, but was second to a dominant Niki Lauda. However, at the height of his F1 success, Fittipaldi shocked everyone by leaving McLaren to race for older brother Wilson Fittipaldi's Copersucar-sponsored Fittipaldi Automotive team. He remained with the team for five seasons but only managed a best finish of second. Fittipaldi decided to retire from racing at the end of 1980. He has since said that his last two years in Formula One were very unhappy: \"I was too involved in the problems of trying to make the team work, and I neglected my marriage and my personal life\", although at the time he cited the deaths of many of his colleagues as his reason. He was only 33, but had been racing in Formula One for a decade. He had failed to finish seven of the last ten races that year and had several times been outpaced by his Finnish teammate Keke Rosberg (a future champion himself). He moved into the management of the team alongside his brother. The team struggled on for another two years with minimal sponsorship, going into receivership at the end of 1982.", "After leaving F1 in 1980, Fittipaldi took time out from major racing for four years, returning in 1984 in CART. The 38-year-old spent his first season acclimatising to IndyCars, driving for two teams before joining Patrick Racing as an injury replacement. He stayed five years with the team, recording six victories and solid finishes in the overall standings. In 1989 he had five wins and finished in the top five in every race he completed, giving him a CART championship. Among his wins was a dominant performance in the 1989 Indianapolis 500 where he led 158 of 200 laps and won by two laps, but only after a dramatic duel with Al Unser, Jr. in the closing laps of the race. Unser ran down Fittipaldi after a late-race restart and passed him for the lead on lap 196. Three laps later, Fittipaldi used lapped traffic to his advantage to pull alongside Unser on the backstretch. Neither driver would give way, and the two cars touched wheels as they went through turn three side by side. Unser's car spun out of control to hit the outside wall, while Fittipaldi was able to maintain sufficient control to keep his car moving straight. In spite of the altercation, Unser saluted Fittipaldi from the infield as Fittipaldi passed by on the final lap. Roger Penske hired Fittipaldi for his racing team in 1990 and he continued to be among the top drivers in CART, winning at least one race with Penske for six straight years. But for bad luck he might have won three consecutive Indianapolis 500s, suffering blistered tires in 1990 and a gearbox failure in 1991, both while leading. In 1993 he added a second Indianapolis 500 victory by taking the lead from defending Formula One World Champion Nigel Mansell on lap 185 and holding it for the remainder. The race saw him break Indianapolis victory lane tradition when he drank a celebratory bottle of orange juice instead of the traditional bottle of milk. He was only the second driver to not drink milk at Indianapolis since the tradition was founded in 1936 (and firmly established in 1956). Fittipaldi owned several orange groves in his native Brazil, and wanted to promote the citrus industry. Fan reaction was negative to the break in tradition despite the fact that Fittipaldi chased the juice with milk. As a result of drinking the juice, Fittipaldi forfeited $5,000 from the winner's purse and publicly apologized to the American Dairy Association. Fan reaction to the milk snub was highly negative, and he was booed a week later at Milwaukee, a center of the American dairy industry. In the years that followed, many fans continued to hold the action against him. In interviews since, Fittipaldi explained his action, and apologised for the wave of negativity that followed. Fittipaldi returned to Indianapolis to drive the Chevrolet Corvette Pace Car for the 2008 Indianapolis 500. Despite the passage of 15 years, he was again booed and heckled by some fans during the parade laps. In May 1994, Fittipaldi skipped a practice session for the Indianapolis 500 after his close friend and fellow Brazilian world champion Ayrton Senna died during a Formula 1 crash. Fittipaldi was one of the pallbearers during Senna's funeral, alongside Jackie Stewart, Alain Prost and several other F1 world champions. Fittipaldi nearly won his third 500 but clipped the turn 4 wall with 15 laps to go while he was holding a nearly full lap lead over teammate Unser Jr. Approaching 50, he was still with CART in 1996 when an injury at the Michigan International Speedway ended his career. Fittipaldi did not return to the series as a driver after the injury. Fittipaldi finished his CART career with 22 wins. In 2003 he made a return to CART as a team owner.", "Fittipaldi was the acting team principal for the Brazilian A1 GP entry. In 2005 Fittipaldi made a surprise return to competitive racing in the Grand Prix Masters event held at Kyalami in South Africa, finishing second behind fellow F1 driver Nigel Mansell. In 2008, Emerson and his brother Wilson entered the Brazilian GT3 Championship, driving a Porsche 997 GT3 for the WB Motorsports team. In 2011, he started embracing social media and became a Chairman of Motorsport.com. In 2013 he began writing a regular monthly blog column on the official website of McLaren." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Formation.", "Regions of Valles Marineris.", "Noctis Labyrinthus.", "Ius and Tithonium chasmata.", "Melas, Candor and Ophir chasmata.", "Coprates Chasma.", "Eos and Ganges chasmata.", "Chryse region." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "There have been many different theories about the formation of Valles Marineris that have changed over the years. Ideas in the 1970s were erosion by water or thermokarst activity, which is the melting of permafrost in glacial climes. Thermokarst activity may contribute, but erosion by water is a problematic mechanism because liquid water cannot exist in most current Martian surface conditions, which typically experience about 1% of Earth's atmospheric pressure and a temperature range of to. Many scientists agree that there was liquid water flowing on the Martian surface in the past. Valles Marineris may have been enlarged by flowing water at this time. Another hypothesis by McCauley in 1972 was that the canyons formed by withdrawal of subsurface magma. Around 1989, a theory of formation by tensional fracturing was proposed. The most agreed upon theory today is that Valles Marineris was formed by rift faults like the East African Rift, later made bigger by erosion and collapsing of the rift walls. It has also been proposed that Valles Marineris was formed by flowing lava. The formation of Valles Marineris is thought to be closely tied with the formation of the Tharsis Bulge. The Tharsis Bulge was formed from the Noachian to Late Hesperian period of Mars, in three stages. The first stage consisted of a combination of volcanism and isostatic uplift; soon, however, the volcanism loaded the crust to a point at which the crust could no longer support the added weight of Tharsis, leading to widespread graben formation in the elevated regions of Tharsis. Stage two consisted of more volcanism and a loss of isostatic equilibrium; the source regions of the volcanism no longer resided underneath Tharsis, creating a very large load. Finally, the crust failed to hold up Tharsis and radial fractures formed, including at Valles Marineris. Stage three mainly consisted of more volcanism and asteroid impacts. The crust, having already reached its failure point, just stayed in place and younger volcanoes formed. Tharsis volcanism involved very low viscosity magma, forming shield volcanoes similar to those of the Hawaiian Island chain, but, because there is minor or no current active plate tectonics on Mars, the hotspot activity led to very long histories of repeated volcanic eruptions at the same spots, creating some of the largest volcanoes in the solar system, including the biggest, Olympus Mons. Landslides have left numerous deposits on the floor of Valles Marineris and contributed to widening it. Possible triggers of landslides are quakes caused by tectonic activity or impact events. Both types of events release seismic waves that accelerate the ground at and below the surface. Mars is much less tectonically active than Earth, and marsquakes are unlikely to have provided seismic waves of the required magnitude. Most sizable craters on Mars date to the Late Heavy Bombardment, 4.1 to 3.8 billion years ago (the Noachian period), and are older than the landslide deposits in Valles Marineris. However, three craters (including the crater Oudemans) have been identified, on the basis of their proximity and later dates, as ones whose formation may have caused some of the landslides.", "", "Noctis Labyrinthus, on the western edge of the Valles Marineris Rift System, north of the Syria Planum and east of Pavonis Mons, is a jumbled terrain composed of huge blocks which are heavily fractured. Also it contains canyons that run in different directions surrounding large blocks of older terrain. Most of the upper parts of the blocks are composed of younger fractured material thought to be of volcanic origin associated with the Tharsis bulge. The other tops are composed of older fractured material thought also to be volcanic in origin, but differentiated from the younger material by more ruggedness and more impact craters. The sides of the blocks are composed of undivided material thought to be basement rock. The space between the blocks is composed mainly of either rough or smooth floor material. The rough floor material tends to be in the eastern portion of the Noctis Labyrinthus and is thought to be debris from the walls or maybe eolian features covering rough topography and landslides. The smooth floor material is thought to be composed of fluvial or basaltic material and/or eolian features covering an otherwise rough and jumbled terrain. Terrains such as Noctis Labyrinthus are commonly found at the head of outflow channels, like the one explored by the Pathfinder mission and its Sojourner rover. They are interpreted to be a place of downward block faulting associated with the removal of ground fluid in catastrophic flood sequences. The fluid could be either carbon-dioxide ice and gas, water or lava. The hypothesis of lava involvement is associated with a proposal that Noctis Labyrinthus is directly connected to lava tubes on the slope of Pavonis Mons.", "Further to the east from Oudemans, Ius and Tithonium chasmata are located parallel to each other, Ius to the south and Tithonium to the north. Ius is the wider of the two, leading to Melas Chasma. Ius has a ridge down the center of it by the name of Geryon Montes, composed of the undivided basement rock. The floor of Ius Chasma is mostly composed of pristine landslide material, not much degraded by cratering or erosion. The southern wall of Ius, and to a lesser extent the northern wall, has many short valleys stretching off roughly perpendicular to the line of the chasmas. These valleys have a stubby theater-headed leading edge very much like features seen on the Colorado Plateau near the Grand Canyon that appear from groundwater sapping. (Theater-headed means that, from above, the head of the valley is a well-defined U-shape). The valley is propagated by the continued erosion and the collapse of the wall. Tithonium Chasma is very similar to Ius, except it is lacking the sapping features on the south side and contains a small portion of material that is similar to the smooth floor features except that it appears to be an ash fall that has been eroded by the wind. Between the two canyons, the surface is composed of younger fractured material - lava flows and faults from crustal extension of the Tharsis Bulge.", "The next portion of Valles Marineris to the east are three chasmata, that from south to north are Melas, Candor and Ophir chasmata. Melas is east of Ius, Candor is east of Tithonium and Ophir appears as an oval that runs into Candor. All three chasmata are connected. The floor of Melas Chasma is about 70% younger massive material that is thought to be volcanic ash whipped up by the wind into eolian features. It also contains rough floor material from the erosion of the canyon walls. Also, in these central chasmata there is a portion of the floor that is higher than the rest of the floor, most likely left by the continued dropping of the other floor material. Around the edges of Melas is also a lot of slide material as seen in Ius and Tithonium chasmata. The material of the floor of the canyon system between Candor and Melas chasmata is grooved. This is interpreted to be alluvial deposits and/or material that has collapsed or contracted by the removal of ice or water. There are also portions of older and younger massive floor material of volcaniclastic origin - only separated in age by crater distribution. Also there is etched massive floor material that is like the younger and older massive material except that it has wind erosion features on it. There are also a few spires of undivided material composed of the same material as the canyon walls.", "Further to the east, the canyon system runs into Coprates Chasma, which is very similar to Ius and Tithonium chasmata. Coprates differs from Ius in the eastern end which contains alluvial deposits and eolian material and like Ius, has layered deposits, although the deposits in the Coprates Chasma are much more well defined. These deposits pre-date the Valles Marineris system, suggesting erosion and sedimentary processes later cut by the Valles Marineris system. Newer data from Mars Global Surveyor suggest that the origin of this layering is either just a succession of landslides, one over another, volcanic in origin, or it may be the bottom of a basin of either liquid or solid water ice suggesting that the peripheral canyons of the Valles Marineris system could have been at one time isolated lakes formed from erosional collapse. Another possible source of the layered deposits could be wind-blown, but the diversity of the layers suggests that this material is not dominant. Note that only the upper layers are thin, while the bottom layers are very big, suggesting that the lower layers were composed of mass wasted rock and the upper layers come from another source. Some of this layering may have been transferred to the floor by landslides in which the layers are kept semi-intact, yet the layered section looks highly deformed with thickening and thinning beds that have multitudes of folds in them as seen in MOC image #8405. This complex terrain could also be just eroded sediment from an ancient Martian lake-bed and appear complex because all that we have is an aerial view like a geologic map and not enough elevation data to see if the beds are horizontal. Near 60° W is the deepest point of the Valles Marineris system (as well as its lowest point by elevation) at below the surrounding plateau. Eastward from here there is about a 0.03 degree slope upward before reaching the outflow channels, which means that if you poured fluid into this part of the canyon, it would form a lake with a depth of before spilling over towards the northern plains. A field of more than 100 pitted cones on the floor of Coprates Chasma has been interpreted as a set of small igneous cinder or tuff cones, with associated lava flows. Crater dating indicates they are of Middle to Late Amazonian age, about 200 to 400 million years old.", "Further to the east lie Eos and Ganges chasmata. Eos Chasma's western floor is mainly composed of an etched massive material composed of either volcanic or eolian deposits later eroded by the Martian wind. The eastern end of the Eos chasma has a large area of streamlined bars and longitudinal striations. This is interpreted to be stream-carved plateau deposits and material transported and deposited by flowing fluid. Gangis Chasma is an offshoot chasma of Eos in a general east–west trend. The floor of Gangis is mainly composed of alluvial deposits from the canyon walls.", "East of Eos and Ganges, Valles Marineris empties out into the Chryse region of the northern plains of Mars at an elevation only above the deepest point of Valles Marineris in Melas Chasma. The outflow regions of the northern plains are similar to the terrain seen at the Mars Pathfinder landing site. A terrestrial counterpart of these outflow channels on Earth would be the scablands of eastern Washington. The eastern Washington scablands are a result of repeated catastrophic flooding due to the build-up of an ice dam at the head of Lake Missoula in the Late Pleistocene. The ice dam would block the water for a while, but when it broke, the ice would float on top of the ensuing flood and vast areas would be stripped of topsoil and vegetation, leaving a large barren area of 'teardrop' islands, longitudinal grooves and terraced margins. Many of these features are also seen in Martian outflow channels, but on a larger scale. The outflow occurs successively through several regions of chaotic terrain, Aurorae Chaos and Hydraotes Chaos, and finally through Simud Valles and Tiu Valles into Chryse Planitia." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Types.", "Cause.", "Pathophysiology.", "Diagnosis.", "Prevention.", "Disinfection.", "Treatment.", "Medication.", "Alternative medicine.", "History." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "A range of types of wart have been identified, varying in shape and site affected, as well as the type of human papillomavirus involved. These include:", "Warts are caused by the human papilloma virus (HPV). There are about 130 known types of human papilloma viruses. HPV infects the squamous epithelium, usually of the skin or genitals, but each HPV type is typically only able to infect a few specific areas on the body. Many HPV types can produce a benign growth, often called a \"wart\" or \"papilloma\", in the area they infect. Many of the more common HPV and wart types are listed below.", "Common warts have a characteristic appearance under the microscope. They have thickening of the stratum corneum (hyperkeratosis), thickening of the stratum spinosum (acanthosis), thickening of the stratum granulosum, rete ridge elongation, and large blood vessels at the dermoepidermal junction.", "On dermatoscopic examination warts will commonly have fingerlike or knoblike extensions.", "Gardasil 6 is an HPV vaccine aimed at preventing cervical cancers and genital warts. Gardasil is designed to prevent infection with HPV types 16, 18, 6, and 11. HPV types 16 and 18 currently cause about 70% of cervical cancer cases, and also cause some vulvar, vaginal, penile and anal cancers. HPV types 6 and 11 are responsible for 90% of documented cases of genital warts. Gardasil 9, approved in 2014 protects against HPV types 6, 11, 16, 18, 31, 33, 45, 52, and 58. HPV vaccines do not currently protect against the virus strains responsible for plantar warts (verrucae).", "The virus is relatively hardy and immune to many common disinfectants. Exposure to 90% ethanol for at least 1 minute, 2% glutaraldehyde, 30% Savlon, and/or 1% sodium hypochlorite can disinfect the pathogen. The virus is resistant to drying and heat, but killed by and ultraviolet radiation.", "There are many treatments and procedures associated with wart removal. A review of various skin wart treatments concluded that topical treatments containing salicylic acid were more effective than placebo. Cryotherapy appears to be as effective as salicylic acid, but there have been fewer trials.", "Another product available over-the-counter that can aid in wart removal is silver nitrate in the form of a caustic pencil, which is also available at drug stores. In a placebo-controlled study of 70 patients, silver nitrate given over nine days resulted in clearance of all warts in 43% and improvement in warts in 26% one month after treatment compared to 11% and 14%, respectively, in the placebo group. The instructions must be followed to minimize staining of skin and clothing. Occasionally pigmented scars may develop.", "Daily application of the latex of Chelidonium majus is a traditional treatment.", "According to English folk belief, touching toads causes warts; according to a German belief, touching a toad under a full moon cures warts. The most common Northern Hemisphere toads have glands that protrude from their skin that superficially resemble warts. Warts are caused by a virus, and toads do not harbor it. A variety of traditional folk remedies and rituals claim to be able to remove warts. The acrid yellow sap of Greater Celandine is used as a traditional wart remedy. The sap can be applied directly to the wart in a similar manner to concentrated salicylic acid solution, but in more modest quantities. In \"The Adventures of Tom Sawyer\", Mark Twain has his characters discuss a variety of such remedies. Tom Sawyer proposes \"spunk-water\" (or \"stump-water\", the water collecting in the hollow of a tree stump) as a remedy for warts on the hand. You put your hand into the water at midnight and say: You then \"walk away quick, eleven steps, with your eyes shut, and then turn around three times and walk home without speaking to anybody. Because if you speak the charm's busted.\" This is held to be superior to Huckleberry Finn's preferred remedy which involved throwing a dead cat into a graveyard. Another remedy involved splitting a bean, drawing blood from the wart and putting it on one of the halves, and burying that half at a crossroads at midnight. The theory of operation is that the blood on the buried bean will draw away the wart. Twain is recognized as an early collector and recorder of genuine American folklore. Similar practices are recorded elsewhere. In Louisiana, one remedy for warts involves rubbing the wart with a potato, which is then buried; when the \"buried potato dries up, the wart will be cured\". Another remedy similar to Twain's is reported from Northern Ireland, where water from a specific well on Rathlin Island is credited with the power to cure warts." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Overview.", "\"r\"-selection.", "\"K\"-selection.", "Continuous spectrum.", "Ecological succession.", "Application.", "Status." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In \"r\"/\"K\" selection theory, selective pressures are hypothesised to drive evolution in one of two generalized directions: \"r\"- or \"K\"-selection. These terms, \"r\" and \"K\", are drawn from standard ecological algebra as illustrated in the simplified of population dynamics: formula_1 where \"N\" is the population, \"r\" is the maximum growth rate, \"K\" is the carrying capacity of the local environment, and \"dN/dt\", the derivative of \"N\" with respect to time \"t\", is the rate of change in population with time. Thus, the equation relates the growth rate of the population \"N\" to the current population size, incorporating the effect of the two constant parameters \"r\" and \"K\". (Note that decrease is negative growth.) The choice of the letter \"K\" came from the German \"Kapazitätsgrenze\" (capacity limit), while \"r\" came from \"rate\".", "\"r\"-selected species are those that emphasize high growth rates, typically exploit less-crowded ecological niches, and produce many offspring, each of which has a relatively low probability of surviving to adulthood (i.e., high \"r\", low \"K\"). A typical \"r\" species is the dandelion (genus \"Taraxacum\"). In unstable or unpredictable environments, \"r\"-selection predominates due to the ability to reproduce rapidly. There is little advantage in adaptations that permit successful competition with other organisms, because the environment is likely to change again. Among the traits that are thought to characterize \"r\"-selection are high fecundity, small body size, early maturity onset, short generation time, and the ability to disperse offspring widely. Organisms whose life history is subject to \"r\"-selection are often referred to as \"r\"-strategists or \"r\"-selected. Organisms that exhibit \"r\"-selected traits can range from bacteria and diatoms, to insects and grasses, to various semelparous cephalopods and small mammals, particularly rodents. As with \"K\"-selection, below, the \"r\"/\"K\" paradigm (Differential K theory) has controversially been associated with human behavior and separately evolved populations.", "By contrast, \"K\"-selected species display traits associated with living at densities close to carrying capacity and typically are strong competitors in such crowded niches, that invest more heavily in fewer offspring, each of which has a relatively high probability of surviving to adulthood (i.e., low \"r\", high \"K\"). In scientific literature, \"r\"-selected species are occasionally referred to as \"opportunistic\" whereas \"K\"-selected species are described as \"equilibrium\". In stable or predictable environments, \"K\"-selection predominates as the ability to compete successfully for limited resources is crucial and populations of \"K\"-selected organisms typically are very constant in number and close to the maximum that the environment can bear (unlike \"r\"-selected populations, where population sizes can change much more rapidly). Traits that are thought to be characteristic of \"K\"-selection include large body size, long life expectancy, and the production of fewer offspring, which often require extensive parental care until they mature. Organisms whose life history is subject to \"K\"-selection are often referred to as \"K\"-strategists or \"K\"-selected. Organisms with \"K\"-selected traits include large organisms such as elephants, humans, and whales, but also smaller, long-lived organisms such as Arctic terns, parrots and eagles.", "Although some organisms are identified as primarily \"r\"- or \"K\"-strategists, the majority of organisms do not follow this pattern. For instance, trees have traits such as longevity and strong competitiveness that characterise them as \"K\"-strategists. In reproduction, however, trees typically produce thousands of offspring and disperse them widely, traits characteristic of \"r\"-strategists. Similarly, reptiles such as sea turtles display both \"r\"- and \"K\"-traits: although sea turtles are large organisms with long lifespans (provided they reach adulthood), they produce large numbers of unnurtured offspring. The \"r\"/\"K\" dichotomy can be re-expressed as a continuous spectrum using the economic concept of discounted future returns, with \"r\"-selection corresponding to large discount rates and \"K\"-selection corresponding to small discount rates.", "In areas of major ecological disruption or sterilisation (such as after a major volcanic eruption, as at Krakatoa or Mount Saint Helens), \"r\"- and \"K\"-strategists play distinct roles in the ecological succession that regenerates the ecosystem. Because of their higher reproductive rates and ecological opportunism, primary colonisers typically are \"r\"-strategists and they are followed by a succession of increasingly competitive flora and fauna. The ability of an environment to increase energetic content, through photosynthetic capture of solar energy, increases with the increase in complex biodiversity as \"r\" species proliferate to reach a peak possible with \"K\" strategies. Eventually a new equilibrium is approached (sometimes referred to as a climax community), with \"r\"-strategists gradually being replaced by \"K\"-strategists which are more competitive and better adapted to the emerging micro-environmental characteristics of the landscape. Traditionally, biodiversity was considered maximized at this stage, with introductions of new species resulting in the replacement and local extinction of endemic species. However, the Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis posits that intermediate levels of disturbance in a landscape create patches at different levels of succession, promoting coexistence of colonizers and competitors at the regional scale.", "While usually applied at the level of species, \"r\"/\"K\" selection theory is also useful in studying the evolution of ecological and life history differences between subspecies, for instance the African honey bee, \"A. m. scutellata\", and the Italian bee, \"A. m. ligustica\". At the other end of the scale, it has also been used to study the evolutionary ecology of whole groups of organisms, such as bacteriophages. Some researchers, such as Lee Ellis, J. Philippe Rushton, and Aurelio José Figueredo, have applied \"r\"/\"K\" selection theory to various human behaviors, including crime, sexual promiscuity, fertility, IQ, and other traits related to life history theory. Rushton's work resulted in him developing \"differential \"K\" theory\" to attempt to explain many variations in human behavior across geographic areas, a theory which has been criticized by many other researchers. Other researchers have proposed that the evolution of human inflammatory responses is related to \"r\"/\"K\" selection.", "Although \"r\"/\"K\" selection theory became widely used during the 1970s, it also began to attract more critical attention. In particular, a review by the ecologist Stephen C. Stearns drew attention to gaps in the theory, and to ambiguities in the interpretation of empirical data for testing it. In 1981, a review of the \"r\"/\"K\" selection literature by Parry demonstrated that there was no agreement among researchers using the theory about the definition of \"r\"- and \"K\"-selection, which led him to question whether the assumption of a relation between reproductive expenditure and packaging of offspring was justified. A 1982 study by Templeton and Johnson showed that in a population of \"Drosophila mercatorum\" under \"K\"-selection the population actually produced a higher frequency of traits typically associated with \"r\"-selection. Several other studies contradicting the predictions of \"r\"/\"K\" selection theory were also published between 1977 and 1994. When Stearns reviewed the status of the theory in 1992, he noted that from 1977 to 1982 there was an average of 42 references to the theory per year in the BIOSIS literature search service, but from 1984 to 1989 the average dropped to 16 per year and continued to decline. He concluded that \"r\"/\"K\" theory was a once useful heuristic that no longer serves a purpose in life history theory. More recently, the panarchy theories of adaptive capacity and resilience promoted by C. S. Holling and Lance Gunderson have revived interest in the theory, and use it as a way of integrating social systems, economics and ecology. Writing in 2002, Reznick and colleagues reviewed the controversy regarding \"r\"/\"K\" selection theory and concluded that: Alternative approaches are now available both for studying life history evolution (e.g. Leslie matrix for an age-structured population) and for density-dependent selection (e.g. variable density lottery model)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "First bands (1979–1987).", "Pink Cream 69 (1987–1993).", "Helloween and solo career (1993–present).", "Personal life." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Andi was born in Karlsruhe, Germany, and started to sing in his first band, called Paranoid, when he was 15. Two years later they changed the band's name to Nameless. In Nameless, Deris stayed along with his school friend, drummer Ralf Maurer, who also played on both Andi's solo albums. In late 1984 Andi Deris joined a band called Dragon with the two brothers Bruno and Oscar Di Blasio (Di Blasio BrOs) on guitar and Bernd and Stefan Lüddemann (bass & drums). After playing live concerts in the Karlsruhe area, they went to Edo Zanki's Studio in Karlsdorf and to Arco Studio, München to record their first demo with producer Tony Monn. The following songs were recorded: \"I Was Made to Be With You\", \"Call Me Up\", \"Woman\", \"I Hear the Angels Singing\", \"Ballade of Glory\" and \"Rock Your Body Down\". During the production of the demo, drummer Bodo Schopf (ex-Michael Schenker Group) recorded some drum-parts. In 1986, when Bruno & Oscar Di Blasio together with Andi Deris (who had just finished military service) met the Italian bass player Daniel De Niro, KYMERA was born. Ralf Maurer alias \"Ralph Mason\" was again recruited as the new drummer of the band. Soon after, KYMERA went to the Katapult-Tonstudio in Karlsruhe to record new songs for Francis, Day & Hunter GmbH Publishing- Hamburg. The following songs were recorded: \"Hello U.S.A.\", \"Hot Looking Romeo\", \"Send Me a Letter\" and rearranged versions of \"I Was Made To Be With You\", \"Call Me Up\" and \"Woman\". After a few concerts, Maurer quit KYMERA to go to University and was replaced by a young Kosta Zafiriou, and the line-up of KYMERA was complete again. Soon, the band went to a Studio in Mainz to record \"Shadows Are Falling\", \"Lonely Would Be Loving You\" and a new version of \"Ballade Of Glory\" and played many live dates in Germany until the end of 1986. In the beginning of 1987, Andi Deris and Kosta Zafiriou left KYMERA to form the band Pink Cream 69. Andi was hired for the recording sessions for \"No Mercy\", a band-project based in Appenweier/Offenburg – South Germany, founded by three locals: Bobby Benz (Bass), Rüdiger Föll (Drums), and Uwe Ulm (Lead Guitar). He also played two gigs with No Mercy. On the second and last gig, Pink Cream 69 played as a support band for No Mercy; on that evening Andi was the lead singer for both bands and hit the stage twice, opening with the very first line up of Pink Cream 69.", "In 1987, when Andi was 22, Pink Cream 69 was officially formed, with the original lineup of Dennis Ward, Kosta Zafiriou, Alfred Koffler and Deris. They signed with CBS (now known as Sony Music). Pink Cream toured in Europe, America and Japan and recorded 3 albums with Andi Deris on vocal duties. In 1992 they released a live video titled \"Size it up – Live in Japan\", This hour-long concert is also featured on Pink Cream 69's 2009 live DVD release \"Past and Present\" along with all videos starring Andi as well.", "In 1993, Helloween was undergoing lineup changes. Gone was Ingo Schwichtenberg, replaced by ex-Gamma Ray drummer Uli Kusch, and Michael Kiske, replaced by Deris. The new lineup recorded \"Master of the Rings\". Deris immediately became a songwriter for the band, resulting in tunes like \"Why?\", \"Perfect Gentleman\" and \"In the Middle of a Heartbeat\". \"The Time of the Oath\" in 1996 further lifted up the band's album sales, culminating in a world tour and a concert DVD along with double-CD live album, \"High Live\", set from 3 concerts in Spain and Italy. While Helloween would go on a break, Deris would record his first solo album \"Come in from the Rain\". Deris sang and played guitar, accompanied by Peter Idera (guitar), Ralph Maison (drums and back-vocals) and Gisbert Royder (bass). In 1998, Helloween recorded \"Better Than Raw\" in Tenerife, Canary Islands (Spain), where he currently lives. In 1999, Helloween released a cover album \"Metal Jukebox\", and Andi's second solo album, \"Done by Mirrors\", released in Japan (released 2000 in other parts of the world due to record company conflicts), featuring Deris once again on vocals and guitars, Don Pupillo on lead guitar, Maison and Royder. Helloween's \"The Dark Ride\" also came in 2000. After the supporting tour for \"The Dark Ride\", Helloween fired Roland Grapow & Uli Kusch. \"Rabbit Don't Come Easy\" would be released in 2003, featuring the band's first tour in the United States since 1989. In 2005, \"\" was released. First single and video was Deris's song \"Mrs. God\". For the first time in the band's history there was a duet, with Candice Night of Blackmore's Night, in \"Light the Universe\". It was the second single and the second video for the album. A live double DVD video with documentary and live double CD was released in February 2007. Helloween completed their twelfth studio album \"Gambling with the Devil\", released on 23 October 2007. \"As Long as I Fall\", the first single, was released in early September and available only via download (save for Japan, where it was released on CD). The video for the song is available on their official site. Since then, Helloween also released \"Unarmed - Best of 25th Anniversary\", 2009, \"7 Sinners\", 2010, \"Straight Out of Hell\", 2013, and \"My God-Given Right\", 2015, which has a title inspired by something Deris's father told him when he finished school. A new solo album was also released, called \"Million-Dollar Haircuts on Ten-Cent Heads\", in November 2013.", "Andi Deris has a son born on 1990 or 1991. Since the late 1990s, he has resided in Tenerife, but intends to move to the Seychelles one day. Commenting on the differences between Tenerife and Germany, he said:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and career.", "Formula One career.", "Jordan (1993–1995).", "1993.", "1994.", "1995.", "Ferrari (1996–1999).", "1996.", "1997.", "1998.", "1999.", "Jaguar (2000–2002).", "2000.", "2001.", "2002.", "Post-Formula One (2003–present).", "Nationality.", "Personal life.", "Racing record.", "Complete Formula One Grand Prix results." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Irvine was born on 10 November 1965 in Newtownards, County Down in Northern Ireland, to Edmund Sr. and Kathleen. He grew up in the village of Conlig and was educated at Regent House Grammar School in Newtownards. He has one older sister, Sonia, who acted as Irvine's physiotherapist until 1999. Irvine's first taste of motorsport came when his family spent their holidays attending the British Grand Prix. His father also raced in single-seaters for fun. His childhood hero was countryman John Watson. Irvine began to compete with racing cars in 1983. He was initially interested in motorcycle racing, but his parents thought the sport too dangerous and was encouraged by his father to race in Formula Ford. Irvine worked unpaid in his father's scrapyard, in return for which, his father funded his racing hobby. He won his first race at Brands Hatch in 1984, and an award for best driver. In 1987 he joined the Van Diemen team and won the Esso Formula Ford series, the RAC Formula Ford series, and the Formula Ford Festival. In the winter of 1987, Marlboro organised a test in which the fastest driver would be offered a drive for the following British Formula 3 season. Irvine was that driver and joined West Surrey Racing for 1988. It was a season without any success and Irvine ended it in fifth place. He raced at the Macau Grand Prix for the first time and started the race from pole position, but failed to finish. In 1989 Irvine competed in the International Formula 3000 Championship with Pacific Racing. Irvine finished the season in ninth place, ahead of teammate JJ Lehto in thirteenth, who was then considered to be a promising young driver. In 1990 he joined the Jordan Formula 3000 team. He won in Germany and ended the season in third place, beating his teammates Heinz-Harald Frentzen and Emanuele Naspetti. Irvine finished on the podium at both the Macau Grand Prix and the Fuji F3 Cup. At the end of the season Irvine moved to Japan to compete in Formula Nippon. In 1991 he raced for Cerumo Racing and won one race and amassed 14 points to finish seventh in the Drivers' Championship. Irvine's first race at the 24 Hours of Le Mans was in 1992 driving a SARD Toyota Group C car alongside Roland Ratzenberger and Eje Elgh. The team finished ninth overall and came second in the Group C class.", "", "", "Irvine made his Formula One debut at the Japanese Grand Prix, partnering Rubens Barrichello at the Jordan Grand Prix team. He made an immediate impact, not only by scoring a point with sixth place, but by unlapping himself against race leader, and subsequent winner, Ayrton Senna. After the race, Senna, angry at what he perceived to be \"unprofessional\" driving, approached Irvine in the Jordan hospitality unit, and following an altercation, threw a punch at Irvine, for which he received a suspended two-race ban. Irvine retired from the final race in Australia with accident damage. After two races, Irvine finished 22nd in the Drivers' Championship with his sole point. Irvine raced at the 24 Hours of Le Mans for the second time, driving a Toyota Group C car alongside Toshio Suzuki and Masanori Sekiya. The team finished fourth overall.", "Irvine remained at Jordan for 1994 and was again partnered by Barrichello. At the opening round in Brazil, Irvine was involved in a four car crash. He later received a one-race ban and a $10,000 fine by the race stewards. Irvine appealed to the FIA against the decision, but his appeal was rejected on 6 April, and the penalty increased to a three-race ban. His seat was filled by Aguri Suzuki for the following Pacific Grand Prix, and Andrea de Cesaris for the races in San Marino and Monaco. Irvine returned for the Spanish Grand Prix where he scored his first points of the season with sixth place. Five consecutive retirements followed, and he was unable to finish the Belgian Grand Prix due to an alternator failure, although he was classified 13th due to having completed over 90% of the race distance. Irvine retired from the Italian Grand Prix due to an engine failure and was later given a one-race ban, suspended for three races, for an incident with Team Lotus driver Johnny Herbert on the opening lap. Irvine garnered further controversy during the first qualifying session of the Portuguese Grand Prix when he clipped Williams driver Damon Hill. Irvine was warned a similar incident would see his Super Licence revoked. He finished seventh in the race and took consecutive points scoring finishes in the next two races—fourth at the European Grand Prix and fifth at the Japanese Grand Prix. Irvine retired from the season closing race in Australia when he spun off. He finished the year 16th in the Drivers' Championship, with 6 points. Outside of Formula One, Irvine participated in his third consecutive 24 Hours of Le Mans as a substitute for the late Roland Ratzenberger, who died after crashing in qualifying for the 1994 San Marino Grand Prix, driving for SARD alongside Mauro Martini and Jeff Krosnoff. The team were leading with 90 minutes to go when a gearbox issue forced the car to slow, costing them victory. They finished second overall and first in the LMP1/C90 class.", "Irvine remained at Jordan for and was again partnered by Barrichello. It was a bad start: Irvine was forced into retirement at the opening race, in Brazil, due to a gearbox actuator problem. In the following race in Argentina he was involved in a first-lap collision with McLaren driver Mika Häkkinen, and retired with an engine failure after only six laps. He finished eighth at the San Marino Grand Prix, and scored points with a fifth-place finish in Spain. After retiring from the Monaco Grand Prix, Irvine secured the first podium of his Formula One career with third place in Canada. At the Belgian Grand Prix, Irvine's car caught fire during a pitstop as the fuel valve was jammed open, and although uninjured, he was forced to retire from the race. In the week before the European Grand Prix, Jordan announced that Irvine would be retained on a two-year contract. However, Ferrari then announced that it had bought out Irvine's contract, and that he would be partnering Michael Schumacher at the team for 1996. He fared well in the race by finishing sixth, although he finished outside the points in the Pacific Grand Prix. Irvine scored his final points of the season with a fifth in Japan, and finished the season with a retirement in Australia, due to pneumatic pressure. He finished the year 12th in the Drivers' Championship with 10 points.", "", "At the season opener in Australia, Irvine finished in third place, where he started, after out-qualifying new teammate, and then double World Champion, Michael Schumacher. At the following race in Brazil he finished outside the points in seventh position, and took fifth in Argentina. At the European Grand Prix he was involved in an incident with Olivier Panis, resulting in both drivers retiring from the race. Fourth place in the San Marino Grand Prix preceded eight consecutive retirements, due to unreliability or being involved in racing incidents. Irvine finished the Portuguese Grand Prix in fifth, but retired again from the final race of the season at Suzuka. Irvine finished tenth in the Drivers' Championship with 11 points.", "The first race of the season in Australia saw Irvine involved in a race ending first lap crash with Williams driver Jacques Villeneuve. At the next race in Brazil, he could only manage sixteenth place, having found his car difficult to drive. Two weeks later he finished a career high second place in Argentina, where Irvine challenged Villeneuve for the lead, who was suffering with a stomach ailment, and his car with brake problems. The result ended demands in the Italian press for Irvine to be sacked. A third place at the next race in San Marino, and another in Monaco two weeks later, gave Irvine his best string of finishes to date. At the Spanish Grand Prix Irvine finished only twelfth and was given a 10-second stop-go penalty, after he held up Olivier Panis and Jean Alesi when running a lap down. At the Canadian Grand Prix Irvine was involved in another first lap incident, this time with McLaren driver Mika Häkkinen. He was back on the podium with third place at the French Grand Prix, before a run of seven races where he was either out of the points or out of the race. During the summer, it was announced that Irvine would remain at Ferrari for 1998. His run of poor results ended with a third-place finish at the Japanese Grand Prix, and he concluded the season with a fifth place at the European Grand Prix. Irvine finished seventh in the Drivers' Championship with 24 points.", "Irvine remained at Ferrari for and was again partnered with Schumacher. Irvine's fitness level was placed in doubt when he suffered from back pain. To combat the issue, a new seat was installed in his car. Irvine had very little running in the new Ferrari F300 during pre-season testing, and was concerned with the tyre war between Goodyear, Ferrari's tyre supplier, and Bridgestone, but was nevertheless confident about his chances over the coming season. At the first race of the season in Australia Irvine finished in fourth, and in the following race in Brazil, outside the points in eighth place. Irvine finished on the podium six times in the next seven races, including a second-place finish in France, behind teammate Schumacher, which was the first one-two finish for Ferrari in eight years. In July, it was announced Irvine had signed a two-year extension to his contract. The contract stipulated that Irvine was permitted to choose his own strategy and setup, although he would remain in a supporting role to Schumacher. After two retirements in the next three races, Irvine finished second in Italy, and fourth position at the Luxembourg Grand Prix. He closed off the season with a second-place finish at the Japanese Grand Prix. Irvine finished the season fourth in the Drivers' Championship with 47 points.", "For 1999, Irvine was confident heading into the season, saying: \"After last year's results where I got my best ever championship finish with 4th place overall, now, for this year, I want to do even better\". His season got off to a good start: after 81 Grand Prix, Irvine scored his maiden Formula One victory at the season opening round in Australia, giving him the lead of the World Drivers' Championship for the first time. In the following race in Brazil an unscheduled pitstop, due to blocked radiators, cost Irvine a podium finish, and he ultimately finished fifth. Three weeks later in the San Marino Grand Prix, Irvine would miss out on another podium finish, after his car suffered an engine failure on lap 47 (of 62) while in a comfortable third place, losing him the lead of the Drivers' Championship to teammate Schumacher. Irvine finished second at Monaco, behind Schumacher, giving Ferrari its first one-two finish of the season, and first ever in the Principality. At the next round in Canada, Irvine set fastest lap (his career one and only) and survived a collision with McLaren driver David Coulthard on the way to a third-place finish. On the first lap of the British Grand Prix, which Irvine finished in second place, Schumacher broke his right leg in a crash at the high-speed Stowe Corner when his car's rear brakes failed. Irvine assumed the role of team leader and was partnered by Finnish driver Mika Salo for the next six races. Irvine won the next race in Austria and was gifted the win by Mika Salo a week later in Germany, helping him to regain the lead of the Drivers' Championship. A further podium finish in Hungary followed, where he struggled with oversteer. In September it was announced that Irvine would move to the Jaguar team, which had purchased Stewart Grand Prix in June, and would be partnered by Johnny Herbert. Irvine finished out of the points in seventh place at the European Grand Prix after enduring an embarrassing 48-second pitstop while his mechanics searched for a missing tyre as they only had three ready for him when he came in. Schumacher returned from injury at the penultimate race of the season, in Malaysia, and in a remarkable display, helped Irvine to win his fourth race of the season and head another Ferrari one-two, ahead of Häkkinen. Both Ferraris were later disqualified as it was discovered their car's bargeboards did not comply with Formula One's technical regulations. Ferrari appealed to the FIA, and it was held five days after the race, on 22 October. The following day, it was announced that the Court of Appeal overturned the decision, ensuring a Championship showdown at Suzuka. At the final race of the season in Japan, Irvine struggled in qualifying and crashed heavily, managing only fifth place; in the race he finished third, over a minute and a half behind Schumacher in second, and race winner Häkkinen. Irvine lost the Drivers' Championship to Häkkinen by just 2 points, but Irvine's efforts during the season helped Ferrari to clinch their first World Constructors' Championship in 16 years. Irvine was awarded the Hawthorn Memorial Trophy, an annual award given to the most successful British or Commonwealth driver in Formula One over the course of one season. He was also named Autosport's British Competition Driver of the Year for 1999.", "", "Former British racing driver Stirling Moss aired doubts over Irvine's hopes to be a championship contender at Jaguar over the coming season. Former British World Drivers' Champion Jackie Stewart, said: \"He really has come together. He's been in the shadow of a number one driver at Ferrari. I think it was time that he shed that shadow and went on to race for himself.\" Irvine endured a torrid start: At the opening two races held in Australia and Brazil, Irvine suffered consecutive retirements due to spinning out. However, he later managed to finish in the next three races, albeit outside of the points scoring positions. He retired from the European Grand Prix from a collision with Williams driver Ralf Schumacher after spinning from being overtaken by Arrows driver Jos Verstappen. At the next race in Monaco, Irvine scored Jaguar's first points with fourth place. He was forced to withdraw from the Austrian Grand Prix due to abdominal pains caused by a bout of appendicitis although he participated in the event's first free practice session. He was replaced by the team's test driver Luciano Burti. Irvine was passed fit for the German Grand Prix, where he secured tenth position despite a spin. He was unable to score further points in the next five races, which included a retirement in Italy when he collided with Salo on the first lap. He finished off the season by finishing the final three races which included a points scoring finish at the season closing Malaysian Grand Prix where he finished sixth. Irvine finished the season 13th in the Drivers' Championship and scored four points. Outside of Formula One, Irvine took part in the Belfast City Open and Direct Millennium Motorsport Festival driving a Jaguar sportscar to celebrate the marque's participation in the Tourist Trophy.", "Irvine remained at Jaguar for 2001 and was partnered by Luciano Burti. Despite his vocal frustrations, Jaguar team principal Bobby Rahal backed Irvine for the upcoming season, although Irvine was not confident citing his uncertainty about his team becoming competitive which he has made vocal. Rahal became concerned over Irvine's attitude when the team's car, the Jaguar R2, was underperforming during pre-season testing. Irvine supported the view of being sacked at the end of the season if his performances did not satisfy the team. Irvine clinched 11th place in the first round in Australia and failed to finish in the next four consecutive races. Before the Spanish Grand Prix, Burti left Jaguar to join the Prost team so Irvine was partnered with Pedro de la Rosa. Irvine managed to finish the Austrian Grand Prix in seventh position and took Jaguar's first podium finish with third place in the following round in Monaco. In June, it was confirmed that Irvine and de la Rosa would be retained by Jaguar for 2002. Despite this success, Irvine failed to finish five of the next eight races. He suffered from a neck strain at a test session at Silverstone and took time resting during the summer break. During this period, Rahal attempted to sell Irvine to the Jordan team with an additional $10 million to Irvine's salary. Irvine rejected the contract as he wanted to help Jaguar become more competitive. The contract, originally mooted by Rahal as a joke, led to his sacking and he was replaced by Austrian World Champion Niki Lauda. At the Belgian Grand Prix, Irvine was involved in a collision with Burti who was trying to overtake him. Burti crashed at over 240 km/h and absolved any blame placed upon Irvine. Irvine managed to clinch his final points of the season with fifth in the United States and ended the season by retiring from the Japanese Grand Prix from a failure of his car's power generators on the fuel rig. Irvine finished the season 12th in the Drivers' Championship having scored six points.", "Irvine remained at Jaguar for 2002 and was again partnered by de la Rosa. In preparation for the upcoming season, Irvine undertook a fitness examination and recorded a high score. However, he was cautious about his team's prospects going into the year, saying: \"We've just got to wait and see what happens with this car, that's the question mark\". At the opening round in Australia, Irvine finished fourth; and in the following race in Malaysia, he was forced to retire with an hydraulics problem. Irvine later managed to clinch seventh place in the Brazilian Grand Prix, before he suffered consecutive retirements in the next three races. He later finished the Monaco Grand Prix in ninth position, which was followed up with further consecutive retirements in the seven races. However, this marked a turning point as Irvine managed to finish in all of the remaining races. He was in the points scoring positions twice in this period—a sixth-place finish in Belgium and took his final career podium with third in Italy. He finished the season ninth in the Drivers' Championship, with eight points. During the season, friction developed between Irvine and his team due to his vocal frustration at the lack of development of his car. In an effort to retain Irvine, Jaguar offered him a $6 million reduction in his salary, however no agreement was reached. He considered a return to his former team Jordan for the 2003 season, with no agreement reached due to the team's financial problems. Irvine also denied rumours that he would move into either the CART World Series or the IndyCar Series.", "In 2002, Irvine successfully sued TalkSport Radio for \"passing off\" his image in a print advertisement, as if he had personally endorsed the station. Eight years later, Irvine fronted a half-hour programme on the station, the LG Grand Prix Show, alongside regular Sunday evening presenter Andy Goldstein. On 24 July 2003, Irvine was arrested after being caught driving a scooter over 30 mph through Hyde Park without a licence or insurance. He was to be sentenced at Bow Street Magistrates but Irvine did not attend. An arrest warrant with bail was issued. Irvine played himself in the 2004 comedy \"The Prince and Me\", which starred Julia Stiles. He was executive producer of a film produced about Paddy Mayne. In late 2006 he launched a new television programme on the Sky One channel, with two teams of celebrity racing drivers competing against each other. David Coulthard was captain and coach of the \"girls\" team, and Irvine of the \"boys\". Ultimately, despite some impressive performances by both teams, Irvine's team won by some margin. In May 2005, Irvine was rumoured to be heading a consortium to buy the Jordan Grand Prix team, and stated his interest in running the team. He was later linked to a possible sale of the Minardi team and held talks with team principal Paul Stoddart. He was a millionaire through property investment before reaching Formula One. Outside of F1, Irvine is said to have built up a multi-million pound property portfolio, owning around forty properties throughout the world. According to the Sunday Times Rich List, published in April 2006, Irvine was the fifth richest person of Northern Ireland at that time, having increased his personal fortune to approximately £160 million. He is also the owner of \"Eddie Irvine Sports\", a snooker, pool, kart racing, paintballing, and football facility in Bangor, close to his native Conlig. Before pulling out because of a leg injury, Irvine was due to be one of the celebrities taking part in the 2006 ITV \"Soccer Aid\". In aid of UNICEF, this television show featured an England vs the rest of the world football match, with teams made up of a mix of celebrities and ex-professionals. On 9 January 2014, Irvine was sentenced to six months in prison after being found guilty of \"mutual injury\" following a brawl in a night club in Milan, Italy with Gabriele Moratti, son of former mayor of Milan Letizia Moratti. Moratti's lawyer Vincenzo Saponara told the media that the sentence was likely to be suspended and that neither man would go to jail.", "By virtue of being from Northern Ireland, a constituent country of the United Kingdom, Irvine was a British citizen throughout his career. He also held a racing licence issued by the National Sporting Authority of the Republic of Ireland (drivers are not compelled to obtain their licence from their home country). The FIA's International Sporting Regulations state that drivers competing in FIA World Championships shall compete under the nationality of their passport, rather than that of the National Sporting Authority that issued their racing licence, as is the case in other racing series. Relating to Irvine's nationality, the FIA repeatedly mistakenly issued official entry lists that claimed Irvine was competing under the Irish nationality (e.g. entry list for the 1995 and 1996 season). This situation created some confusion as to Irvine's nationality when he appeared at podium ceremonies in the Formula One World Championship. On several occasions (e.g. the 1995 Canadian Grand Prix, 1996 Australian Grand Prix, 1997 Argentine Grand Prix and 1997 Monaco Grand Prix), an Irish Tricolour was mistakenly flown by the race organisers. After the 1997 Argentine Grand Prix his family received threatening phone calls. Irvine then requested that at subsequent races, a politically neutral shamrock flag be flown, and the non-sectarian Londonderry Air be played to mark a victory. An FIA spokesman said: Irvine has self-identified as being Irish:", "Irvine named his biggest influence as his former girlfriend Maria Drummond, whom he met at the Macau Grand Prix in 1988. The pair remained friends for a year, staying in regular contact, until the relationship became deeper when Drummond split up from her boyfriend. From the relationship Irvine has a daughter, Zoe. He said that the birth of his daughter was the best moment of his life, despite not being a natural lover of babies. Irvine is seen by many as a playboy in the mould of James Hunt, in contrast to the sport's modern stars, most of whom are seen as staid and less flamboyant. Irvine is also remembered for his tendency to speak his mind, often to the irritation of some. Despite this, Irvine does not consider himself to be a playboy stating his life is \"90% work\". He was nicknamed \"Irv the Swerve\" and later \"Fast Eddie\". Irvine is a supporter of the Scottish club Rangers F.C.", "", "Driver did not finish the Grand Prix, but was classified as they had completed over 90% of the race distance." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Personal and early life.", "Career.", "Pre-Formula One.", "Formula One.", "Brabham (1992).", "Williams (1993–96).", "Arrows (1997).", "Jordan (1998–99).", "After racing.", "Broadcaster.", "Music career.", "Racing record.", "Complete Formula One results.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Hill was born in Hampstead, London, to Graham and Bette Hill. Graham Hill was a racing driver in the international Formula One series. He won the world Drivers' Championship in 1962 and 1968 and became a well-known personality in the United Kingdom. Graham Hill's career provided a comfortable living. Bette (née Shubrook) was a former rower and medalist at the European Rowing Championships. By 1975 the family lived in a \"25-room country mansion\" in Hertfordshire and Damon attended the independent The Haberdashers' Aske's Boys' School. The death of his father in an aeroplane crash in 1975 left the 15-year-old Hill, his mother, and sisters Samantha and Brigitte in drastically reduced circumstances. Hill worked as a labourer and a motorcycle courier to support his further education. Hill is married to Susan George ('Georgie' – born 29 April 1961) and they have four children: Oliver (born 4 March 1989), Joshua (born 9 January 1991), Tabitha (born 19 July 1995) and Rosie (born 1 February 1998). Oliver was born with Down syndrome and Hill and Georgie are both patrons of the Down's Syndrome Association. In 2008, Hill also became the first patron of St. Joseph's Specialist School and College, a school for children with severe learning disabilities and autism in Cranleigh, Surrey. Joshua started racing in 2008, competing in the British Formula Renault Championship in 2011. On 9 July 2013 Joshua announced his retirement from motor racing. Hill is a supporter of Arsenal FC.", "", "Hill started his motorsport career in motorcycle racing in 1981. He used the same simple, easily identifiable helmet design as his father: eight white oar blades arranged vertically around the upper surface of a dark blue helmet. The device and colours represent the London Rowing Club for which Graham Hill rowed in the early 1950s. Although he won a 350 cc clubman's championship at the Brands Hatch circuit, his racing budget came from working as a building labourer and he \"didn't really look destined for great things\" according to \"Motorcycle News\" reporter Rob McDonnell. He also worked as a dispatch rider for Special Delivery, a London motorcycle dispatch company and was provided TZ350 racing bikes by them. His mother, who was concerned about the dangers of racing motorcycles, persuaded him to take a racing car course at the Winfield Racing School in France in 1983. Although he showed \"above-average aptitude\", Hill had only sporadic single-seater races until the end of 1984. He graduated through British Formula Ford, winning six races driving a Van Diemen for Manadient Racing in 1985, his first full season in cars, and finishing third and fifth in the two UK national championships. He also took third place in the final of the 1985 Formula Ford Festival, helping the UK to win the team prize. For 1986, Hill planned to move up to the British Formula Three Championship with title-winning team West Surrey Racing. The loss of sponsorship from Ricoh, and then the death of his proposed teammate Bertrand Fabi in a testing accident, ended Hill's proposed drive. Hill says \"When Bert was killed, I took the conscious decision that I wasn't going to stop doing that sort of thing. It's not just competing, it's doing something more exciting. I'm at my fullest skiing, racing or whatever. And I'm more frightened of letting it all slip and reaching 60 and finding I've done nothing.\" Hill borrowed £100,000 to finance his racing and had a steady first season for Murray Taylor Racing in 1986 before taking a brace of wins in each of the following years for Intersport. He finished third in the 1988 championship. In Europe in the 1990s, a successful driver would usually progress from Formula Three either directly to Formula One, the pinnacle of the sport, or to the International Formula 3000 championship. However, Hill did not have enough sponsorship available to fund a drive in F3000. He says \"I ended up having to reappraise my career a bit. The first thing was to realise how lucky I was to be driving anything. I made the decision that whatever I drove I would do it to the best of my ability and see where it led.\" He took a one-off drive in the lower level British F3000 championship and shared a Porsche 962 at Le Mans for Richard Lloyd Racing, where the engine failed after 228 laps. He also competed in one race in the British Touring Car Championship at Donington Park, driving a Ford Sierra RS500. Midway through the season, an opportunity arose at the uncompetitive Mooncraft F3000 team. The team tested Hill and Perry McCarthy. Their performances were comparable but according to the team manager, John Wickham, the team sponsors preferred the Hill name. Although his best result was a 15th place, Hill's race performances for Mooncraft led to an offer to drive a Lola chassis for Middlebridge Racing in 1990. He took three pole positions and led five races in 1990, but did not win a race during his Formula 3000 career.", "", "Hill started his Grand Prix career during the 1991 season as a test driver with the championship-winning Williams team while still competing in the F3000 series. However, midway through 1992 Hill broke into Grand Prix racing as a driver with the dying Brabham team. The formerly competitive team was in serious financial difficulties. Hill started the season only after three races, replacing Giovanna Amati after her sponsorship had failed to materialise. Amati had been unable to get the car through qualifying but Hill matched his teammate, Eric van de Poele, by qualifying for two races, the mid-season British and Hungarian Grands Prix. Hill continued to test for the Williams team that year and the British Grand Prix saw Nigel Mansell win the race for Williams, while he finished last in the Brabham. The Brabham team collapsed after the Hungarian Grand Prix and did not complete the season.", "When Mansell's teammate Riccardo Patrese left Williams to drive for Benetton in 1993, Hill was unexpectedly promoted to the race team alongside triple world champion Alain Prost ahead of more experienced candidates such as Martin Brundle and Mika Häkkinen. Traditionally, the reigning driver's world champion carried the number \"1\" on his car and his teammate took the number \"2\". Because Mansell, the 1992 champion, was not racing in Formula One in 1993, his Williams team were given numbers \"0\" and \"2\". As the junior partner to Prost, Hill took \"0\", the second man in Formula One history to do so, after Jody Scheckter in 1973. The season did not start well when Hill spun out of second place shortly after the start of the South African Grand Prix and failed to finish the race after colliding with Alessandro Zanardi on lap 17. At the Brazilian Grand Prix, Hill qualified and spent the early stages of the race running second behind Prost, and then took the lead when Prost crashed, but was relegated back to second by another three-time world champion, Ayrton Senna. Nevertheless, the race still gave Hill his first podium finish. In the next round in Europe, Hill again finished second behind Senna and ahead of a lapped Prost. In his first full season, Hill benefited from the experience of his veteran French teammate. He continued to impress as the season went on, and in San Marino Hill took the lead at the start, though he was passed by Prost and Senna and ultimately retired with a spin due to a brake failure. Mechanical problems returned in Spain where he kept pace with Prost for most of the race only for his engine to fail. After strong podiums in Monaco and Canada, Hill took his first career pole in France, finishing second to Prost after team orders prevented him from seriously challenging for the win. He looked set to win the British Grand Prix before another engine failure put him out and led the German Grand Prix comfortably only to suffer a puncture with two laps left, handing the win to Prost. At the Hungarian race, Hill did take his first career win after leading from start to finish. In doing so he became the first son of a Formula One Grand Prix winner to take victory himself, and he followed it with two more wins, first at Spa where he took the lead following a pit stop problem for Prost, and then at the Italian Grand Prix where Prost's engine failed towards the end. His third consecutive win clinched the Constructors' Championship for Williams and moved him temporarily to second in the Drivers' standings. At the Portuguese Grand Prix Hill came from the back of the grid to third, having stalled on the warm up lap from pole. He finished the season by finishing fourth in Japan and third in Australia, though he lost second in the Drivers' Championship to Ayrton Senna, who passed Hill by winning the last two races. In 1994, Ayrton Senna joined Hill at Williams. As the reigning champion, this time Prost, was again no longer racing, Hill retained his number '0'. The pre-season betting was that Senna would coast to the title, but the Benetton team and Michael Schumacher initially proved more competitive and won the first three races. At the San Marino Grand Prix on 1 May, Senna died after his car crashed into a concrete barrier while he was leading. With the team undergoing investigation from the Italian authorities on manslaughter charges, Hill found himself team leader with only one season's experience in the top flight. It was widely reported at the time that the Williams car's steering column had failed, though Hill told BBC Sport in 2004 that he believed Senna simply took the corner too fast for the conditions, referring to the fact that the car had just restarted the race with cold tyres after being slowed down by a safety car. Hill represented Williams alone at the next race, the Monaco Grand Prix. His race ended early in a collision involving several cars on the opening lap of the race. For the following race, the Spanish Grand Prix, Williams's test driver David Coulthard was promoted to the race team alongside Hill, who won the race just four weeks after Senna's death. Twenty-six years earlier Graham Hill had won in Spain under similar circumstances for Lotus after the death of his teammate Jim Clark. Schumacher led by 66 points to 29 by the midpoint of the season. At the French Grand Prix, Frank Williams brought back Nigel Mansell, for the French, European, Japanese and Australian Grands Prix with Coulthard doing the majority of the 1994 season. Mansell earned approximately £900,000 for each of his four races, while Hill was paid £300,000 for the entire season, though Hill's position as lead driver remained unquestioned. Hill came back into contention for the title after winning the British Grand Prix, a race his father had never won. Schumacher was disqualified from that race and banned for two further races for overtaking Hill during the formation lap and ignoring the subsequent black flag. Four more victories for Hill, three of which were in races where Schumacher was excluded or disqualified, took the title battle to the final event at Adelaide. At Schumacher's first race since his ban, the European Grand Prix, he suggested that Hill (who was eight years his senior) was not a world-class driver. However, during the penultimate race at the Japanese Grand Prix, Hill took victory ahead of Schumacher in a rain-soaked event. This put Hill just one point behind the German before the last race of the season. Neither Hill nor Schumacher finished the season-closing Australian Grand Prix, after a controversial collision which gave the title to Schumacher. Schumacher ran off the track hitting the wall with the right-hand side of his Benetton while leading. Coming into the sixth corner Hill moved to pass the Benetton and the two collided, breaking the Williams's front left suspension wishbone, and forcing both drivers' retirement from the race. BBC Formula One commentator Murray Walker, has often maintained that Schumacher did not cause the crash intentionally, but Williams co-owner Patrick Head felt differently. In 2006 he said that at the time of the incident \"Williams were already 100% certain that Michael was guilty of foul play\" but did not protest Schumacher's title because the team was still dealing with the death of Ayrton Senna. In 2007, Hill explicitly accused Schumacher of causing the collision deliberately. Hill's season earned him the 1994 BBC Sports Personality of the Year. Coming into the 1995 season, Hill was one of the title favourites. The Williams team were reigning Constructors' Champions, having beaten Benetton in 1994, and with young David Coulthard, who was embarking on his first full season in Formula One, as teammate, Hill was the clear number one driver. The year seemed to start well with pole position in Brazil, although a spin while in the lead due to a mechanical problem handed the lead to Schumacher. But wins in the next two races put him in the championship lead. However, Schumacher won seven of the next twelve races, and took his second title with two races to spare, while Benetton took the Constructors' Championship. Schumacher and Hill had several on-track incidents during the season, two of which led to suspended one-race bans for both. Schumacher's penalty was for blocking and forcing Hill off the road at the Belgian Grand Prix; Hill's was for colliding with Schumacher under braking at the Italian Grand Prix. Hill's season finished positively when he won the Australian Grand Prix by finishing two laps ahead of the runner-up, Olivier Panis in a Ligier. In 1996 the Williams car was clearly the quickest in Formula One and Hill went on to win the title ahead of his teammate, reigning Indycar champion Jacques Villeneuve, becoming the first son of a Formula One champion to win the championship himself. Taking eight wins and never qualifying off the front row, Hill enjoyed by far his most successful season. At Monaco, where his father had won five times in the 1960s, he led until his engine failed, curtailing his race and allowing Olivier Panis to take his only Formula One win. Near the end of the season, Villeneuve began to mount a title challenge and took pole in the Japanese Grand Prix, the final race of the year. However, Hill took the lead at the start and won both the race and the championship while the Canadian retired. Hill equalled the record for starting all 16 races of the season from the front row, matching Ayrton Senna in and Alain Prost in. Despite winning the title, Hill learned before the season's close that he was to be dropped by Williams in favour of Heinz-Harald Frentzen for the following season. Hill left Williams as the team's second most successful driver in terms of race victories, with 21, second only to Mansell. Hill's 1996 world championship earned him his second BBC Sports Personality of the Year Award, making him one of only three people to receive the award twice – the others being boxer Henry Cooper and Mansell. Hill was also awarded the Segrave Trophy by the Royal Automobile Club. The trophy is awarded to the British national who accomplishes the most outstanding demonstration of the possibilities of transport by land, sea, air, or water.", "Hill became the fourth driver in nine years to win the World Drivers' Championship for Williams and not drive for the team the following season, as occurred with Nelson Piquet ( champion – driver for Lotus), Nigel Mansell ( champion – 1993 driver in the US-based Indy Car World Series instead of F1) and Alain Prost (1993 champion – retired in 1994). As world champion, Hill was in high demand and had offers for a race seat from McLaren, Benetton and Ferrari but not adequately financially valued despite his status. As a consequence, he opted to sign for Arrows, a team which had never won a race in its 20-year history and had scored only a single point the previous year. Hill's title defence in 1997 proved unsuccessful, getting off to a poor start when he only narrowly qualified for the Australian Grand Prix and then retired on the parade lap. The Arrows car, which used tyres from series debutant Bridgestone and previously unproven Yamaha engines, was generally uncompetitive, and Hill did not score his first point for the team until the British Grand Prix at Silverstone in July. His best result for the year then came at the Hungarian Grand Prix. On a day when the Bridgestone tyres had a competitive edge over their Goodyear rivals, Hill qualified third in a car that had not previously placed higher than 9th on the grid. During the race, he passed his rival and new championship contender, Michael Schumacher, on the track and was leading late in the race, 35 seconds ahead of the eventual 1997 World Champion, Villeneuve, until a hydraulic problem drastically slowed the Arrows. Villeneuve thus passed Hill, who finished second and achieved the team's first podium since the 1995 Australian Grand Prix. This new podium ultimately turned out to be Arrows' last ever podium finish.", "Only after one year with Arrows, Hill came close to signing a deal with Alain Prost's team, before deciding to instead signup with the Jordan team for the 1998 season. His new teammate was Ralf Schumacher, younger brother of Michael. In the first half of the season, the Jordan 198 car was off the pace and unreliable until improvements in performance from the Canadian Grand Prix. During that race, Hill moved up to second place as others retired or pitted for fuel. On lap 38, Michael Schumacher, who was delayed by a stop-and-go penalty after forcing Frentzen's Williams off the track, caught Hill on the home straight; Hill moved across the track three times to block Schumacher, who took the place by running over the kerbs at the last chicane. Hill then ran fourth after his only pit stop before retiring due to an electrical failure. After the race, Schumacher accused Hill of dangerous driving. Hill responded by stating that Schumacher \"cannot claim anyone drives badly when you look at the things he's been up to in his career. He took Frentzen out completely.\" At the German Grand Prix, Hill scored his first point of the year and at the Belgian Grand Prix, in very wet conditions, he took the Jordan team's first ever win. At that race, Hill was leading late in the race, with teammate Schumacher closing rapidly, when he asked the team whether they would be allowed to race each other. Team principal Eddie Jordan ordered Ralf Schumacher to hold position instead of risking losing a 1–2 finish. In all, only eight drivers finished the race. The victory was his first since being dropped by the Williams team, which won no races that season. Hill finished the year with a last lap move on Frentzen at the Japanese Grand Prix, which earned him fourth place in the race and Jordan fourth position in that year's Constructors' Championship. Hopes were high for 1999, but Hill did not enjoy a good season. Struggling with the newly introduced four-grooved tyres, he was outpaced by his new teammate, Heinz-Harald Frentzen, who was Hill's replacement at Williams two years prior. After a crash at the Canadian Grand Prix, Hill announced plans to retire from the sport at the end of the year, but after failing to finish the French Grand Prix that Frentzen won, he considered quitting the sport immediately. Jordan persuaded Hill to at least stay for the British Grand Prix. Going into that race weekend, Hill announced he would retire after the Grand Prix, leading Jordan to test Jos Verstappen in case Hill had to be quickly replaced. Following a strong fifth place at his home event, however, Hill changed his mind and decided to see out the year. His best result for the remainder of the season was sixth place, which he achieved in both Hungary and Belgium. With three races of 1999 to go, there were rumours that the Prost Grand Prix team would release Jarno Trulli early after he signed for Jordan's 2000 campaign as Hill's replacement. At the same time, his teammate, Frentzen, became a title contender going into the final few races of the season and, eventually, finished third in the championship. In so doing, both Hill and Frentzen helped Jordan to achieve its best-ever finish with a third position in the Constructors' Championship. Hill's last race was the Japanese Grand Prix where he spun off the track and pulled into the pits citing mental fatigue.", "In retirement Hill has continued to be involved with cars and motorsport. He founded the Prestige and Super Car Private Members Club P1 International with Michael Breen in 2000; Breen bought Hill out in October 2006. Hill also became involved in a BMW dealership, just outside Royal Leamington Spa, that bore his name and an Audi dealership in Exeter. In April 2006, Hill succeeded Jackie Stewart as President of the British Racing Drivers' Club (BRDC). In 2009 he received an Honorary Fellowship from the University of Northampton recognising his successful career and his connection with Northampton through Silverstone and the BRDC. Hill also made a UK television advert with F1 commentator Murray Walker for Pizza Hut, in which Walker commentated on Hill's meal as if it were a race. Hill has also appeared on many British television programmes, including \"Top Gear\", \"This is Your Life\", \"TFI Friday\", \"Shooting Stars\" and \"Bang Bang, It's Reeves and Mortimer\". Hill has raced both cars and motorcycles at the Goodwood Festival of Speed and in 2005 he tested the new GP2 Series car. Hill was back behind the wheel of a single-seater race car in the summer of 2006, when he took a Grand Prix Masters machine for a test run around the Silverstone circuit. Hill said that he enjoyed the experience and \"I wouldn't rule [a return to racing] out, but I can't honestly say that right now I need to race. That is the bit that is missing. I love driving, I love pushing the limit and all the rest of it but racing for me... I don't have an ambition to do it and I think that's an important part of the equation.\" Hill served as the driver representative on the stewards panel at the 2010 Monaco Grand Prix where he and the rest of the panel decided to relegate former rival Michael Schumacher for overtaking under yellow flag conditions. The decision led to Hill receiving hate mail. Between 18 and 19 May 2012, Hill along with Mark Blundell, Perry McCarthy, Martin Donnelly and Julian Bailey participated in the first round of the VW Scirocco R-Cup at Brands Hatch to raise funds for the Halow Charity. Hill completed seven laps of the circuit before retiring. On 7 October 2012, Hill drove his father Graham Hill's BRM in celebration of winning the 1962 F1 World Championship, where Graham became the first British driver to win the Drivers' World Championship with a British team. In June 2018, Hill became the President of the Brooklands Trust Members who are the support group for Brooklands Museum.", "Hill has also regularly appeared in the British media. In June 1975 he appeared alongside his father, Graham Hill, on the popular television programme \"Jim'll Fix It\". He again appeared on the programme in January 1995, marking the twentieth anniversary of the show. He has contributed many articles to \"F1 Racing\" magazine and has twice appeared in ITV F1's commentary box, covering for Martin Brundle at the 2007 and 2008 Hungarian Grands Prix. In January 2012, British Sky Broadcasting announced that they had signed Hill to join their F1 presentation team on Sky Sports F1 as a pundit for the 2012 Formula One season.", "Hill was interested in music from an early age and formed the punk band \"Sex Hitler and the Hormones\" with some friends while at school. After achieving success in Formula One, he was able to play guitar with several famous musicians, including his friend George Harrison, and appeared on \"Demolition Man\", the opening track of Def Leppard's 1999 album \"Euphoria\". Hill also made a regular appearance at the British Grand Prix alongside other Formula One musicians such as Eddie Jordan. After his retirement at the end of the 1999 season, Hill devoted more time to music and played with celebrity bands including Spike Edney's SAS band, and Pat Cash's Wild Colonial Boys. Hill also formed his own band, The Conrods, which was active between 1999 and 2003 and played cover versions of well-known songs from The Rolling Stones, The Beatles and The Kinks. Since becoming president of the BRDC in 2006, Hill says he has abandoned the guitar, being \"too busy doing school runs and looking after pets.\"", "", "Did not finish, but was classified as he had completed more than 90% of the race distance.", "Citations Bibliography" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Equipment." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Weikath was born in Hamburg, Germany and was musical from a very early age. As a four to five-year-old, he would lie in the grass, looking at the sky, and come up with melodies in his head. He began taking a serious interest in music in 1971 and spent much of his time as a child at the tube stereo set of his parents, listening to all the stations available at the time. The first album he owned was \"1962-1966\" by The Beatles. In 1974, Weikath started playing the guitar and later on began rehearsing with his friends. He formed his first band, Powerfool, in 1978. Prior to forming Helloween, he worked for a record mail order company. In 1982, he served heavy social duty as an alternative to military service. The main bands that have had an influence on him are The Beatles, Deep Purple, Scorpions, UFO, Van Halen, Led Zeppelin, the Sex Pistols, and Wishbone Ash. The guitarists that influenced him when he started playing were Eric Clapton, Jimi Hendrix, Ritchie Blackmore, Uli Jon Roth, and Eddie Van Halen. Weikath is one of the founding members of Helloween, along with Kai Hansen (vocals/guitar), Markus Grosskopf (bass), and Ingo Schwichtenberg (drums). He is one of only two original members still active in the band, the other being Markus Grosskopf. Weikath integrated the first Helloween line up in 1982. By 1984, the band had signed a deal with Noise Records and recorded two songs for a Noise compilation record called \"Death Metal\". On that album, he was responsible for the song \"Oernst of Life.\" In a 1998 interview with Weikath, \"Chaotic Critiques\" webzine pointed out the occasional spiritual themes and uplifting melodies on songs such as \"Hey Lord!\" and asked if the band was somewhat spiritual. Weikath replied that all the band, except Uli Kusch, were Christian. Weikath stated that he himself is Catholic. Today, he resides in Puerto de la Cruz, Tenerife, Spain.", "Like fellow Helloween guitarist Sascha Gerstner, Weikath is using a \"DigiTech GSP1101\" preamp with a \"Marshall JVM410H\" amplifier for live performances." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Battle.", "Aftermath." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester, had gained a dominant position in the government of the Kingdom of England after his victory at the Battle of Lewes a year earlier. He also held the King, Prince Edward, and the King's brother Richard of Cornwall in his custody. However, his sphere of influence began to shrink rapidly, owing to loss of key allies. In February, Robert de Ferrers, Earl of Derby was arrested and imprisoned in the Tower. An even more important collaborator, Gilbert de Clare, the Earl of Gloucester, deserted to the side of the King in May of the same year. With Gloucester's assistance, Prince Edward escaped from de Montfort's captivity. With the Lords of the Welsh Marches now in rebellion, de Montfort solicited the aid of Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, the Prince of Wales. Llywelyn agreed to help, in return for full recognition of his title and the promise that he could keep all military gains. Whatever benefits this alliance might have brought de Montfort, the large concessions cost him popularity at home. Meanwhile, Edward laid siege to the town of Gloucester, which fell on 29 June. De Montfort's goal now became to unite with the forces of his son Simon the Younger, and engage with the royal army, but the younger Simon moved much too slowly westwards from London. Eventually de Montfort made it to the baronial stronghold of Kenilworth, but Edward managed to inflict great losses on his forces, many of whom were quartered outside the castle walls. From there the prince moved south, where on 4 August, using many banners captured at Kenilworth to deceive de Montfort into thinking his reinforcements were arriving, he managed to trap the older de Montfort in a loop of the Avon, blocking off the only bridge and thereby forcing de Montfort to fight without his son's reinforcements. When de Montfort realised this, he allegedly commented: \"How skilfully they are advancing. Our bodies are theirs, our souls are God's.\"", "Heeding a lesson learned at the Battle of Lewes, the royals took position on the high ground. Along a ridge called Green Hill, just north of Evesham, Edward set up his forces on the left, with Gloucester commanding the right. At about eight in the morning, de Montfort left the town of Evesham as a great thunderstorm began to rage. At Lewes, the baronial forces had gained confidence to win the day by a sense of divine destiny, reinforced by white crosses on their uniforms. This time the royal army had taken their lead, and wore a red cross as their distinguishing mark. According to the chronicler William Rishanger, when de Montfort saw the advance of the royal troops, he exclaimed that \"They have not learned that for themselves, but were taught it by me.\" The respective forces of the baronial and royal armies have been estimated to be 5,000 and 10,000 strong. De Montfort, facing such unfavourable numbers, decided to concentrate his forces on the centre of the enemy's front, hoping to drive a wedge through the line. Though the tactics were initially successful, the baronial forces soon lost the initiative, especially as the Welsh infantry provided by Llywelyn ap Gruffudd had proved unreliable, and deserted at an early point. The flanks of the royal army closed in on de Montfort's, surrounding them. With de Montfort confronted by a force twice the size of his own, on unfavourable ground, the battle rapidly turned into a massacre. With their defeat at Lewes still fresh in memory, the royalists fought with a strong sense of bitterness and resentment. As a result, and despite attempts to surrender, most of the baronial rebels were killed on the battlefield rather than taken prisoner and ransomed, as was the common custom and practice. In what has been referred to as \"an episode of noble bloodletting unprecedented since the Conquest\", de Montfort's son Henry was killed first, then Simon himself lost his horse and died fighting. His body was mutilated; his head, hands, feet and testicles cut off. King Henry himself, who had been in the custody of de Montfort and dressed up in his colours, was barely rescued from the mêlée by Roger de Leybourne, a converted rebel.", "The royals were eager to settle scores after de Montfort's defeat. At the Parliament at Winchester in September the same year, all those who had taken part in the rebellion were disinherited. Yet even though the uprising of the younger Simon de Montfort in Lincolnshire was over by Christmas, scattered resistance remained. The main problem was the garrison encamped at the virtually impregnable Kenilworth Castle, and a siege started in the summer of 1266 seemed futile. By the end of October, the royals drew up the so-called Dictum of Kenilworth, whereby rebels were allowed to buy back their land at prices dependent on their level of involvement in the rebellion. The defenders of the castle turned down the offer at first, but by the end of the year conditions had become intolerable, and in 1267 the Dictum was agreed upon. As far as wide-scale confrontations went, the Battle of Evesham and its aftermath marked the end of baronial opposition in the reign of Henry III. The kingdom now entered into a period of unity and progress that lasted until the early 1290s." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Work.", "Exhibitions.", "Solo exhibitions.", "Collections." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Jan Saudek and his twin brother Karel (also known as Kája) were born to a Slavic (Czech) mother and Jewish father in Prague in 1935. Their mother's family came to Prague from Bohemia, and their father from the city of Děčín in the northwest part of that area. During World War II and after the invasion of the German Nazis, both sides of his family were racially persecuted by the invaders. Many of his Jewish relatives died in Theresienstadt concentration camp during the war. Jan and his brother Karel were sent to a children's concentration camp for Mischlinge (mixed-blood in German, as Nazis classified Jews as a race distinct from \"Aryans\"), located in Silesia near the present Polish-Czech border. Their father Gustav was deported to Theresienstadt concentration camp in February 1945. Although their mother and many other relatives died, both sons and father survived the war. A Communist-dominated government gained power after the war to rule the country, enforced by the Soviet Union and considered to be behind the Iron Curtain. According to Saudek's biography, he acquired his first camera, a Kodak Baby Brownie, in 1950. He apprenticed to a photographer, and in 1952 started working in a print shop; he was restricted to this work by the Communist government until 1983. In 1959, he started using the more advanced Flexaret 6x6 camera, and also engaged in painting and drawing. After completing his military service, he was inspired in 1963 by the catalogue for American photographer Edward Steichen's \"The Family of Man\" exhibition, and began to work to become a serious art photographer. In 1969, Saudek traveled to the United States, where he was encouraged in his work by curator Hugh Edwards of the Art Institute of Chicago. Returning to Prague, Saudek had to work at his photography clandestinely in a cellar, to avoid the attentions of the secret police. With his work turning to themes of personal erotic freedom, he used implicitly political symbols of corruption and innocence. From the late 1970s, he became recognized in the West as the leading Czech photographer, and also developed a following among photographers in his own country. In 1983, the first book of Saudek's work was published in the English-speaking world. The same year, he became a freelance photographer; the Czech Communist authorities allowed him to stop working in the print shop, and gave him permission to apply for a permit to work as an artist. In 1987, the archives of his negatives were seized by the police, but later returned. Saudek lives and works in Prague. His brother Kája Saudek was also an artist, the best-known Czech graphic novelist.", "His best-known work is notable for its hand-tinted portrayal of painterly dream worlds, often inhabited by nude or semi-nude figures surrounded by bare plaster walls or painted backdrops. He frequently re-uses elements (for instance, a clouded sky or a view of Prague's Charles Bridge). In this his photographs suggest the studio and tableaux works of mid-19th century erotic photographers, as well as the works of the 20th-century painter Balthus, and of Bernard Faucon. Saudek's early art photography is noted for its evocation of childhood. His later works often portrayed the evolution from child to adult (re-photographing the same composition/pose, and with the same subjects, over many years). Religious motifs and the ambiguity between man and woman have also been some of Saudek's recurring themes. During the 1990s, his work at times generated censorship attempts in the West because of its provocative sexual content. Saudek's imagery has sometimes had a mixed reception internationally. He gained early shows in 1969 and 1970 in the United States and in Australia. In 1970 his work was shown at the Australian Centre for Photography and was welcomed by curator Jennie Boddington at the National Gallery of Victoria. Decades later, by contrast, his photograph \"Black Sheep & White Crow,\" which features a semi-naked pre-pubescent girl, was removed from the Ballarat International Foto Biennale in Victoria, Australia just before the opening on 21 August 2011; objections had been made related to allegations of child prostitution for his subject. Saudek's photographs have been featured as covers for the albums of Anorexia Nervosa (\"New Obscurantis Order\"), Soul Asylum (\"Grave Dancers Union\"), Daniel Lanois (\"For the Beauty of Wynona\"), Rorschach (\"Remain Sedate\"), and Beautiful South (\"Welcome to the Beautiful South\").", "", "2015 Valeria Rabbit Hole Art Room, Warsaw, Poland", "Saudek's work is held in the following permanent collections:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Properties of equilibrium.", "Example: competitive equilibrium.", "Example: Nash equilibrium.", "Normative evaluation.", "Interpretations.", "Solving for the competitive equilibrium price.", "Influences changing price.", "Dynamic equilibrium.", "Disequilibrium." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Three basic properties of equilibrium in general have been proposed by Huw Dixon. These are: Equilibrium property P1: The behavior of agents is consistent. Equilibrium property P2: No agent has an incentive to change its behavior. Equilibrium property P3: Equilibrium is the outcome of some dynamic process (stability).", "In a competitive equilibrium, supply equals demand. Property P1 is satisfied, because at the equilibrium price the amount supplied is equal to the amount demanded. Property P2 is also satisfied. Demand is chosen to maximize utility given the market price: no one on the demand side has any incentive to demand more or less at the prevailing price. Likewise supply is determined by firms maximizing their profits at the market price: no firm will want to supply any more or less at the equilibrium price. Hence, agents on neither the demand side nor the supply side will have any incentive to alter their actions. To see whether Property P3 is satisfied, consider what happens when the price is above the equilibrium. In this case there is an excess supply, with the quantity supplied exceeding that demanded. This will tend to put downward pressure on the price to make it return to equilibrium. Likewise where the price is below the equilibrium point there is a shortage in supply leading to an increase in prices back to equilibrium. Not all equilibria are \"stable\" in the sense of equilibrium property P3. It is possible to have competitive equilibria that are unstable. However, if an equilibrium is unstable, it raises the question of reaching it. Even if it satisfies properties P1 and P2, the absence of P3 means that the market can only be in the unstable equilibrium if it starts off there. In most simple microeconomic stories of supply and demand a static equilibrium is observed in a market; however, economic equilibrium can be also dynamic. Equilibrium may also be economy-wide or general, as opposed to the partial equilibrium of a single market. Equilibrium can change if there is a change in demand or supply conditions. For example, an increase in supply will disrupt the equilibrium, leading to lower prices. Eventually, a new equilibrium will be attained in most markets. Then, there will be no change in price or the amount of output bought and sold — until there is an exogenous shift in supply or demand (such as changes in technology or tastes). That is, there are no endogenous forces leading to the price or the quantity.", "The Nash equilibrium is widely used in economics as the main alternative to competitive equilibrium. It is used whenever there is a strategic element to the behavior of agents and the \"price taking\" assumption of competitive equilibrium is inappropriate. The first use of the Nash equilibrium was in the Cournot duopoly as developed by Antoine Augustin Cournot in his 1838 book. Both firms produce a homogenous product: given the total amount supplied by the two firms, the (single) industry price is determined using the demand curve. This determines the revenues of each firm (the industry price times the quantity supplied by the firm). The profit of each firm is then this revenue minus the cost of producing the output. Clearly, there is a \"strategic interdependence\" between the two firms. If one firm varies its output, this will in turn affect the market price and so the revenue and profits of the other firm. We can define the payoff function which gives the profit of each firm as a function of the two outputs chosen by the firms. Cournot assumed that each firm chooses its own output to maximize its profits given the output of the other firm. The Nash equilibrium occurs when both firms are producing the outputs which maximize their own profit given the output of the other firm. In terms of the equilibrium properties, we can see that P2 is satisfied: in a Nash equilibrium, neither firm has an incentive to deviate from the Nash equilibrium given the output of the other firm. P1 is satisfied since the payoff function ensures that the market price is consistent with the outputs supplied and that each firms profits equal revenue minus cost at this output. Is the equilibrium stable as required by P3? Cournot himself argued that it was stable using the stability concept implied by best response dynamics. The reaction function for each firm gives the output which maximizes profits (best response) in terms of output for a firm in terms of a given output of the other firm. In the standard Cournot model this is downward sloping: if the other firm produces a higher output, the best response involves producing less. Best response dynamics involves firms starting from some arbitrary position and then adjusting output to their best-response to the previous output of the other firm. So long as the reaction functions have a slope of less than -1, this will converge to the Nash equilibrium. However, this stability story is open to much criticism. As Dixon argues: \"\"The crucial weakness is that, at each step, the firms behave myopically: they choose their output to maximize their current profits given the output of the other firm, but ignore the fact that the process specifies that the other firm will adjust its output\"...\". There are other concepts of stability that have been put forward for the Nash equilibrium, evolutionary stability for example.", "Most economists, for example Paul Samuelson, caution against attaching a normative meaning (value judgement) to the equilibrium price. For example, food markets may be in equilibrium at the same time that people are starving (because they cannot afford to pay the high equilibrium price). Indeed, this occurred during the Great Famine in Ireland in 1845–52, where food was exported though people were starving, due to the greater profits in selling to the English – the equilibrium price of the Irish-British market for potatoes was above the price that Irish farmers could afford, and thus (among other reasons) they starved.", "In most interpretations, classical economists such as Adam Smith maintained that the free market would tend towards economic equilibrium through the price mechanism. That is, any excess supply (market surplus or glut) would lead to \"price cuts\", which decrease the quantity supplied (by reducing the incentive to produce and sell the product) and increase the quantity demanded (by offering consumers bargains), automatically abolishing the glut. Similarly, in an unfettered market, any excess demand (or shortage) would lead to \"price increases\", reducing the quantity demanded (as customers are priced out of the market) and increasing in the quantity supplied (as the incentive to produce and sell a product rises). As before, the disequilibrium (here, the shortage) disappears. This automatic abolition of non-market-clearing situations distinguishes markets from central planning schemes, which often have a difficult time getting prices right and suffer from persistent shortages of goods and services. This view came under attack from at least two viewpoints. Modern mainstream economics points to cases where equilibrium does not correspond to market clearing (but instead to unemployment), as with the efficiency wage hypothesis in labor economics. In some ways parallel is the phenomenon of credit rationing, in which banks hold interest rates low to create an excess demand for loans, so they can pick and choose whom to lend to. Further, economic equilibrium can correspond with monopoly, where the monopolistic firm maintains an artificial shortage to prop up prices and to maximize profits. Finally, Keynesian macroeconomics points to underemployment equilibrium, where a surplus of labor (i.e., cyclical unemployment) co-exists for a long time with a shortage of aggregate demand.", "To find the equilibrium price, one must either plot the supply and demand curves, or solve for the expressions for supply and demand being equal. An example may be: In the diagram, depicting simple set of supply and demand curves, the quantity demanded and supplied at price P are equal. At any price above P supply exceeds demand, while at a price below P the quantity demanded exceeds that supplied. In other words, prices where demand and supply are out of balance are termed points of disequilibrium, creating shortages and oversupply. Changes in the conditions of demand or supply will shift the demand or supply curves. This will cause changes in the equilibrium price and quantity in the market. Consider the following demand and supply schedule: When there is a shortage in the market we see that, to correct this disequilibrium, the price of the good will be increased back to a price of $5.00, thus lessening the quantity demanded and increasing the quantity supplied thus that the market is in balance. When there is an oversupply of a good, such as when price is above $6.00, then we see that producers will decrease the price to increase the quantity demanded for the good, thus eliminating the excess and taking the market back to equilibrium.", "A change in equilibrium price may occur through a change in either the supply or demand schedules. For instance, starting from the above supply-demand configuration, an increased level of disposable income may produce a new demand schedule, such as the following: Here we see that an increase in disposable income would increase the quantity demanded of the good by 2,000 units at each price. This increase in demand would have the effect of shifting the demand curve rightward. The result is a change in the price at which quantity supplied equals quantity demanded. In this case we see that the two now equal each other at an increased price of $6.00. Note that a decrease in disposable income would have the exact opposite effect on the market equilibrium. We will also see similar behaviour in price when there is a change in the supply schedule, occurring through technological changes, or through changes in business costs. An increase in technological usage or know-how or a decrease in costs would have the effect of increasing the quantity supplied at each price, thus reducing the equilibrium price. On the other hand, a decrease in technology or increase in business costs will decrease the quantity supplied at each price, thus increasing equilibrium price. The process of comparing two static equilibria to each other, as in the above example, is known as comparative statics. For example, since a rise in consumers' income leads to a higher price (and a decline in consumers' income leads to a fall in the price — in each case the two things change in the same direction), we say that the comparative static effect of consumer income on the price is positive. This is another way of saying that the total derivative of price with respect to consumer income is greater than zero.", "Whereas in a static equilibrium all quantities have unchanging values, in a dynamic equilibrium various quantities may all be growing at the same rate, leaving their ratios unchanging. For example, in the neoclassical growth model, the working population is growing at a rate which is exogenous (determined outside the model, by non-economic forces). In dynamic equilibrium, output and the physical capital stock also grow at that same rate, with output per worker and the capital stock per worker unchanging. Similarly, in models of inflation a dynamic equilibrium would involve the price level, the nominal money supply, nominal wage rates, and all other nominal values growing at a single common rate, while all real values are unchanging, as is the inflation rate. The process of comparing two dynamic equilibria to each other is known as comparative dynamics. For example, in the neoclassical growth model, starting from one dynamic equilibrium based in part on one particular saving rate, a permanent increase in the saving rate leads to a new dynamic equilibrium in which there are permanently higher capital per worker and productivity per worker, but an unchanged growth rate of output; so it is said that in this model the comparative dynamic effect of the saving rate on capital per worker is positive but the comparative dynamic effect of the saving rate on the output growth rate is zero.", "Disequilibrium characterizes a market that is not in equilibrium. Disequilibrium can occur extremely briefly or over an extended period of time. Typically in financial markets it either never occurs or only momentarily occurs, because trading takes place continuously and the prices of financial assets can adjust instantaneously with each trade to equilibrate supply and demand. At the other extreme, many economists view labor markets as being in a state of disequilibrium—specifically one of excess supply—over extended periods of time. Goods markets are somewhere in between: prices of some goods, while sluggish in adjusting due to menu costs, long-term contracts, and other impediments, do not stay at disequilibrium levels indefinitely, and many goods markets such as commodity markets are highly organised and liquid and have essentially instantaneous adjustment of their prices to equilibrium levels." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geographical prevalence.", "Ingredients and drinking.", "Aconite as a (potentially fatal) additive.", "Myth.", "Social correlates." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Chhaang is consumed by ethnically Nepalese and Tibetan people, and to a lesser degree, by the neighboring nations of India and Bhutan. It is usually drunk at room temperature in summer, but is often served piping-hot in brass bowls or wooden mugs when the weather is colder. The Limbu people of eastern Nepal call the drink Tongba.", "\"Chhaang\" is a relative of beer. Barley, millet (finger-millet) or rice grains are used to brew the drink. Semi-fermented seeds of millet are served, stuffed in a barrel of bamboo called a \"dhungro\". Boiling water is then poured in and sipped through a narrow-bore bamboo tube called a \"pipsing\". When the boiled barley has cooled, some yeast or dried barm is added and it is left to stand for two or three days after fermentation begins. This concoction is called \"glum\". The barm consists of flour and, in Balti, often has ginger and aconite added to it. After fermentation is complete, water is added to the brew and it is then ready for consumption. In Lahaul the \"glum\" is pressed out by hand instead of by filtering, yielding a rather cloudy drink. The residue of malt can be pressed through a strainer and then mixed with water or milk and used in baking bread or cakes. Near Mt. Everest of Nepal, \"chhaang\" is made by passing hot water through fermenting barley, and is then served in a large pot and drunk through a wooden straw. This beverage is similar to the traditional drink of the Limbus, \"mandokpenaa thee\". Nepalese \"jand\" refers to the turbid liquor which is obtained by leaching out the extract with water from the fermented mash. Unlike \"chhang\" or \"tongba\", \"jand\" is served in large mugs. These alcoholic beverages are generated using a traditional starter called \"murcha\". \"Murcha\" itself is prepared by using yeast and mold flora of wild herbs in cereal flours. The brew tastes like ale. The alcohol content is quite low, but it produces an intense feeling of warmth and well-being, ideal for enduring the temperatures which go well below freezing in winter.", "The plant name Aconite may refer to two plant genera in the family Ranunculaceae, namely \"Aconitum\" and \"Eranthis\", although Eranthis is known more usually as \"Winter Aconite\". The plants used in the brewing of \"Chhaang\" in Baltistan and Ladakh are, however, almost certainly referable to \"Aconitum\" species, which have a long history of use in the folk medicinal systems of Asia. Aconitum species are amongst the most virulently poisonous plants known, containing a variety of extremely toxic alkaloids, including aconitine and pseudaconitine. The use of \"Aconitum\" as an additive in beer-brewing is therefore a practice fraught with the danger of fatal poisoning and should on no account be undertaken by any individual attempting to replicate a traditional \"Chhaang\" recipe. Although individual \"Aconitum\" species vary somewhat in the degree of their toxicity, all are poisonous and, when used in traditional herbal medicine, are invariably pre-treated in various ways intended to minimise their toxicity, while retaining their assumed therapeutic properties. Nevertheless, numerous fatalities have occurred resulting from such medicinal use e.g. in certain Chinese medicinal soups consumed for their supposed tonic effects, which include augmenting physical strength, boosting the immune system, and dispelling 'wind' and 'dampness'.", "Chhaang is said to be the best remedy to ward off the severe cold of the mountains. It reputedly has many healing properties for conditions like the common cold, fevers, allergic rhinitis, and alcoholism among others. According to legend, chhaang is also popular with the Yeti, or Himalayan Snowmen, who often raid isolated mountain villages to drink it.", "Drinking and making offerings of chhaang are part of many pan-Tibetan social and religious occasions, including settling disputes, welcoming guests, and wooing." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "Hydroelectric Developments.", "Operating Hydroelectric Facilities.", "Proposed Hydroelectric Facilities.", "Fish species.", "History.", "In popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "It is formed in central Saskatchewan, approximately east of Prince Albert, by the confluence of its two major branches, the North Saskatchewan and the South Saskatchewan, at the Saskatchewan River Forks. Both source rivers originate from glaciers in the Alberta Rockies. The St. Mary River, draining the Hudson Bay Divide region of Glacier National Park, also empties into the Saskatchewan River via the south fork. The combined stream flows east-northeast, into Codette Lake formed by the Francois Finlay Dam at Nipawin then into Tobin Lake, formed by the E.B. Campbell Dam. It then flows northeast, passing through a region of marshes, where it is joined from the northwest by the Torch River and the Mossy River. At the northern edge of the marshes it flows east, twisting between a series of small lakes into west-central Manitoba to The Pas, where it is joined from the southwest by the Carrot River. Southeast of The Pas, it forms several streams in a delta on the northwest side of Cedar Lake, then exiting the lake on its southeast end and flowing approximately to Lake Winnipeg, entering on the northwest shore north of Long Point. The waters of Lake Winnipeg eventually drain into Hudson Bay, via the Nelson River. The river, like the province of Saskatchewan, takes its name from the Cree word \"kisiskāciwani-sīpiy\", meaning \"swift flowing river\". The river and its tributaries provided an important route of transportation for First Nations and early European trappers.", "", "In Saskatchewan, SaskPower owns and operates E.B. Campbell (289MW, formerly Squaw Rapids) and Nipawin (255MW) Hydroelectric Stations. In Manitoba, Manitoba Hydro owns and operates Grand Rapids Generating Station (479MW).", "The Choiceland Generating Station would be located 32 miles upstream of the Nipawin site. It would consist of four 150MW generating units, providing 300MW of baseload power, and an additional 300MW of peaking power. The Forks Generating Station would be located 11 miles downstream of the North and South Saskatchewan River Forks, and would be approximately the same size as the Nipawin Station (255MW of baseload power, and 420MW of peak power). In 2019, James Smith Cree Nation began developing the project with AECOM and Tesla Energy.", "Fish species include: walleye, sauger, yellow perch, northern pike, lake whitefish, mooneye, goldeye, white sucker, longnose sucker, shorthead redhorse, burbot, rainbow trout, brown trout and lake sturgeon. In 2008 the presence of reproducing Prussian carp were found in the Red Deer River drainage basin which flows into the Saskatchewan River. Illegal introductions of non native species can have serious wide-ranging negative impacts on the ecosystem. While the exact species is not yet determined the genus is Carassius. The Blue Ribbon Bow River Trout fishery may be at risk as a result of this introduction. Illegal introductions of Carassius can be very harmful.", "The river, labeled as the \"Kish-stock-ewen\" is identified on a Hudson's Bay Company map of 1760, produced from oral information from a First Nations man named Attickasish who had been Anthony Henday's guide. Another map from 1774 shows a fairly accurate course of the river. The Saskatchewan River and its two major tributaries formed an important transportation route during the precontact, fur trade, and early settlement periods in the Canadian West. In early fur trading days the South Saskatchewan tributary was known as \"La Fourche des Gros Ventres\" (\"Fork of the Great Gorges\") and the North Saskatchewan was known as \"Rivière du Pas\". First Nations inhabiting the area of the rivers included at one time or another the Atsina, Cree, Saulteaux, Blackfoot Confederacy, Assiniboine, and Sioux. Henry Kelsey penetrated the area in the 1690s for the Hudson's Bay Company, and Louis de la Corne, Chevalier de la Corne, established the farthest western post of the French Empire in America (See New France) just east of the Saskatchewan River Forks at Fort de la Corne. In addition to this the Hudson's Bay Company and North West Company both ran numerous fur posts up the river and its two branches throughout the late 18th to late 19th centuries. York boats and canoes formed the primary means of travel during the fur trade period. In the mid-19th century Metis settlements became important along stretches of the rivers (notably at the Southbranch Settlement, Prince Albert, Saskatchewan, and St. Albert, Alberta). Riverboats were introduced from the Red River of the North in the 19th century and remained an important means of transportation until the 1890s and the coming of railways to the area. The earliest settlements in Saskatchewan and Alberta generally were established around the rivers. Examples include Fort Edmonton (Edmonton, Alberta), Fort Battleford (Battleford, Saskatchewan), Prince Albert, Saskatchewan, and Cumberland House, Saskatchewan. Fur trade on the lower river: The first European to ascend the river as far as the forks was Louis-Joseph Gaultier de La Vérendrye in spring 1739. The main posts on the river were (landmarks in parentheses): (Saskatchewan River Forks) Fort Le Jonquière (?), Fort de la Corne, Cumberland House, Saskatchewan, (The Pas):second Fort Paskoya, (inflow to Cedar Lake:) first Fort Paskoya and second Fort Bourbon, (Cedar Lake), (inflow to Lake Winnipeg:) Grand Rapids, Manitoba, and first Fort Bourbon. There were also a number of temporary posts that have left few records. By far the most important post was Cumberland House which was the depot for the route northwest to the rich Athabasca country. To the west, the North Saskatchewan had the greatest number of posts.", "The Saskatchewan River is featured in The Arrogant Worms' song \"The Last Saskatchewan Pirate\", which implies incorrectly that it flows past Regina, Saskatchewan." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Divisions.", "Utility.", "Status in academic departments.", "Associated mathematical sciences.", "Scientific computing.", "Computer science.", "Operations research and management science.", "Statistics.", "Actuarial science.", "Mathematical economics.", "Applicable mathematics.", "Other disciplines." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Historically, applied mathematics consisted principally of applied analysis, most notably differential equations; approximation theory (broadly construed, to include representations, asymptotic methods, variational methods, and numerical analysis); and applied probability. These areas of mathematics related directly to the development of Newtonian physics, and in fact, the distinction between mathematicians and physicists was not sharply drawn before the mid-19th century. This history left a pedagogical legacy in the United States: until the early 20th century, subjects such as classical mechanics were often taught in applied mathematics departments at American universities rather than in physics departments, and fluid mechanics may still be taught in applied mathematics departments. Quantitative finance is now taught in mathematics departments across universities and mathematical finance is considered a full branch of applied mathematics. Engineering and computer science departments have traditionally made use of applied mathematics.", "Today, the term \"applied mathematics\" is used in a broader sense. It includes the classical areas noted above as well as other areas that have become increasingly important in applications. Even fields such as number theory that are part of pure mathematics are now important in applications (such as cryptography), though they are not generally considered to be part of the field of applied mathematics \"per se\". Sometimes, the term \"applicable mathematics\" is used to distinguish between the traditional applied mathematics that developed alongside physics and the many areas of mathematics that are applicable to real-world problems today. There is no consensus as to what the various branches of applied mathematics are. Such categorizations are made difficult by the way mathematics and science change over time, and also by the way universities organize departments, courses, and degrees. Many mathematicians distinguish between \"applied mathematics”, which is concerned with mathematical methods, and the \"applications of mathematics\" within science and engineering. A biologist using a population model and applying known mathematics would not be \"doing\" applied mathematics, but rather \"using\" it; however, mathematical biologists have posed problems that have stimulated the growth of pure mathematics. Mathematicians such as Poincaré and Arnold deny the existence of \"applied mathematics\" and claim that there are only \"applications of mathematics.\" Similarly, non-mathematicians blend applied mathematics and applications of mathematics. The use and development of mathematics to solve industrial problems is also called \"industrial mathematics\". The success of modern numerical mathematical methods and software has led to the emergence of computational mathematics, computational science, and computational engineering, which use high-performance computing for the simulation of phenomena and the solution of problems in the sciences and engineering. These are often considered interdisciplinary.", "Historically, mathematics was most important in the natural sciences and engineering. However, since World War II, fields outside the physical sciences have spawned the creation of new areas of mathematics, such as game theory and social choice theory, which grew out of economic considerations. The advent of the computer has enabled new applications: studying and using the new computer technology itself (computer science) to study problems arising in other areas of science (computational science) as well as the mathematics of computation (for example, theoretical computer science, computer algebra, numerical analysis). Statistics is probably the most widespread mathematical science used in the social sciences, but other areas of mathematics, most notably economics, are proving increasingly useful in these disciplines.", "Academic institutions are not consistent in the way they group and label courses, programs, and degrees in applied mathematics. At some schools, there is a single mathematics department, whereas others have separate departments for Applied Mathematics and (Pure) Mathematics. It is very common for Statistics departments to be separated at schools with graduate programs, but many undergraduate-only institutions include statistics under the mathematics department. Many applied mathematics programs (as opposed to departments) consist of primarily cross-listed courses and jointly appointed faculty in departments representing applications. Some Ph.D. programs in applied mathematics require little or no coursework outside mathematics, while others require substantial coursework in a specific area of application. In some respects this difference reflects the distinction between \"application of mathematics\" and \"applied mathematics\". Some universities in the UK host departments of \"Applied Mathematics and Theoretical Physics\", but it is now much less common to have separate departments of pure and applied mathematics. A notable exception to this is the Department of Applied Mathematics and Theoretical Physics at the University of Cambridge, housing the Lucasian Professor of Mathematics whose past holders include Isaac Newton, Charles Babbage, James Lighthill, Paul Dirac and Stephen Hawking. Schools with separate applied mathematics departments range from Brown University, which has a large Division of Applied Mathematics that offers degrees through the doctorate, to Santa Clara University, which offers only the M.S. in applied mathematics. Research universities dividing their mathematics department into pure and applied sections include MIT. Brigham Young University also has an Applied and Computational Emphasis (ACME), a program that allows student to graduate with a Mathematics degree, with an emphasis in Applied Math. Students in this program also learn another skill (Computer Science, Engineering, Physics, Pure Math, etc.) to supplement their applied math skills.", "Applied mathematics is closely related to other mathematical sciences.", "Scientific computing includes applied mathematics (especially numerical analysis), computing science (especially high-performance computing), and mathematical modelling in a scientific discipline.", "Computer science relies on logic, algebra, graph theory, and combinatorics.", "Operations research and management science are often taught in faculties of engineering, business, and public policy.", "Applied mathematics has substantial overlap with the discipline of statistics. Statistical theorists study and improve statistical procedures with mathematics, and statistical research often raises mathematical questions. Statistical theory relies on probability and decision theory, and makes extensive use of scientific computing, analysis, and optimization; for the design of experiments, statisticians use algebra and combinatorial design. Applied mathematicians and statisticians often work in a department of mathematical sciences (particularly at colleges and small universities).", "Actuarial science applies probability, statistics, and economic theory to assess risk in insurance, finance and other industries and professions.", "Mathematical economics is the application of mathematical methods to represent theories and analyze problems in economics. The applied methods usually refer to nontrivial mathematical techniques or approaches. Mathematical economics is based on statistics, probability, mathematical programming (as well as other computational methods), operations research, game theory, and some methods from mathematical analysis. In this regard, it resembles (but is distinct from) financial mathematics, another part of applied mathematics. According to the Mathematics Subject Classification (MSC), mathematical economics falls into the Applied mathematics/other classification of category 91: with MSC2010 classifications for 'Game theory' at codes 91Axx and for 'Mathematical economics' at codes 91Bxx.", "Applicable mathematics is a subdiscipline of applied mathematics, although there is no consensus as to a precise definition. Sometimes the term \"applicable mathematics\" is used to distinguish between the traditional applied mathematics that developed alongside physics and the many areas of mathematics that are applicable to real-world problems today. Mathematicians often distinguish between \"applied mathematics\" on the one hand, and the \"applications of mathematics\" or \"applicable mathematics\" both within and outside of science and engineering, on the other. Some mathematicians emphasize the term applicable mathematics to separate or delineate the traditional applied areas from new applications arising from fields that were previously seen as pure mathematics. For example, from this viewpoint, an ecologist or geographer using population models and applying known mathematics would not be doing applied, but rather applicable, mathematics. Even fields such as number theory that are part of pure mathematics are now important in applications (such as cryptography), though they are not generally considered to be part of the field of applied mathematics \"per se\". Such descriptions can lead to \"applicable mathematics\" being seen as a collection of mathematical methods such as real analysis, linear algebra, mathematical modelling, optimisation, combinatorics, probability and statistics, which are useful in areas outside traditional mathematics and not specific to mathematical physics. Other authors prefer describing \"applicable mathematics\" as a union of \"new\" mathematical applications with the traditional fields of applied mathematics. With this outlook, the terms applied mathematics and applicable mathematics are thus interchangeable.", "The line between applied mathematics and specific areas of application is often blurred. Many universities teach mathematical and statistical courses outside the respective departments, in departments and areas including business, engineering, physics, chemistry, psychology, biology, computer science, scientific computation, and mathematical physics." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Types." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In 1870, the idea for the feather duster was conceived in a broom factory in Jones County, Iowa, U.S. A farmer brought a bundle of turkey feathers into the factory asking if they could be used to assembly a brush. E. E. Hoag split them with a pocket knife and mounted them on a short broomstick. But the result was too stiff for use. In 1874, the Hoag Duster Company was founded in Iowa. In 1874, Susan Hibbard of Geneva Lake, Wisconsin, U.S. used discarded turkey feathers in a feather duster. Hibbard filed a patent (U.S. patent #177,939) on November 13, 1874 which was issued on May 30, 1876. After a hard-fought legal battle against her husband George, and the National Feather Duster Company in December 1881, the United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit in Chicago ruled in favor of Susan giving her priority of invention of the feather duster. The Chicago Feather Duster Company was established in 1875. It received a patent for cuff on December 22, 1906, and for the head on September 17, 1907. South African ostrich feather dusters were developed in Johannesburg in 1903 by Harry S. Beckner, a missionary and broom factory manager. He felt that ostrich feathers made a convenient tool for cleaning machines at the factory. His first ostrich feather dusters were wound on broom handles using the same foot-powered kick winders and wire used to attach broom straw. The first ostrich feather duster company in the United States was formed in 1913 by brothers Harry and George Beckner in Athol, Massachusetts and is now run by George's great granddaughter, Margret Fish Rempher. The largest manufacturer of ostrich feather dusters is Klein Karoo International (Feathers) in Oudtshoorn, South Africa.", "There are several types of feathers used in feather dusters, but ostrich feathers are most often used. Feathers for dusters are the ostrich family's most valuable industrial commodity. Black ostrich feathers come from the male and are very soft with feathers that are more \"stringy\" in nature. Gray ostrich feathers are more stark than the black feathers and are often sold at grocery stores. Floss ostrich feathers are the most soft and delicate feathers and come from underneath the bird's wings. Floss ostrich feathers are more expensive. Chick feathers are more pointed and stark than ostrich feathers, are usually sold at very low prices. In China and Thailand, feather dusters are normally made of chicken feathers. They are attached to a length of bamboo, and feathers are commonly present along most of the stick." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Ancient Greece.", "19th century.", "20th century.", "Generality and abstraction.", "Pure vs. applied mathematics." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Ancient Greek mathematicians were among the earliest to make a distinction between pure and applied mathematics. Plato helped to create the gap between \"arithmetic\", now called number theory, and \"logistic\", now called arithmetic. Plato regarded logistic (arithmetic) as appropriate for businessmen and men of war who \"must learn the art of numbers or [they] will not know how to array [their] troops\" and arithmetic (number theory) as appropriate for philosophers \"because [they have] to arise out of the sea of change and lay hold of true being.\" Euclid of Alexandria, when asked by one of his students of what use was the study of geometry, asked his slave to give the student threepence, \"since he must make gain of what he learns.\" The Greek mathematician Apollonius of Perga was asked about the usefulness of some of his theorems in Book IV of \"Conics\" to which he proudly asserted, They are worthy of acceptance for the sake of the demonstrations themselves, in the same way as we accept many other things in mathematics for this and for no other reason. And since many of his results were not applicable to the science or engineering of his day, Apollonius further argued in the preface of the fifth book of \"Conics\" that the subject is one of those that \"...seem worthy of study for their own sake.\"", "The term itself is enshrined in the full title of the Sadleirian Chair, Sadleirian Professor of Pure Mathematics, founded (as a professorship) in the mid-nineteenth century. The idea of a separate discipline of \"pure\" mathematics may have emerged at that time. The generation of Gauss made no sweeping distinction of the kind, between \"pure\" and \"applied\". In the following years, specialisation and professionalisation (particularly in the Weierstrass approach to mathematical analysis) started to make a rift more apparent.", "At the start of the twentieth century mathematicians took up the axiomatic method, strongly influenced by David Hilbert's example. The logical formulation of pure mathematics suggested by Bertrand Russell in terms of a quantifier structure of propositions seemed more and more plausible, as large parts of mathematics became axiomatised and thus subject to the simple criteria of \"rigorous proof\". Pure mathematics, according to a view that can be ascribed to the Bourbaki group, is what is proved. Pure mathematician became a recognized vocation, achievable through training. The case was made that pure mathematics is useful in engineering education:", "One central concept in pure mathematics is the idea of generality; pure mathematics often exhibits a trend towards increased generality. Uses and advantages of generality include the following: Generality's impact on intuition is both dependent on the subject and a matter of personal preference or learning style. Often generality is seen as a hindrance to intuition, although it can certainly function as an aid to it, especially when it provides analogies to material for which one already has good intuition. As a prime example of generality, the Erlangen program involved an expansion of geometry to accommodate non-Euclidean geometries as well as the field of topology, and other forms of geometry, by viewing geometry as the study of a space together with a group of transformations. The study of numbers, called algebra at the beginning undergraduate level, extends to abstract algebra at a more advanced level; and the study of functions, called calculus at the college freshman level becomes mathematical analysis and functional analysis at a more advanced level. Each of these branches of more \"abstract\" mathematics have many sub-specialties, and there are in fact many connections between pure mathematics and applied mathematics disciplines. A steep rise in abstraction was seen mid 20th century. In practice, however, these developments led to a sharp divergence from physics, particularly from 1950 to 1983. Later this was criticised, for example by Vladimir Arnold, as too much Hilbert, not enough Poincaré. The point does not yet seem to be settled, in that string theory pulls one way, while discrete mathematics pulls back towards proof as central.", "Mathematicians have always had differing opinions regarding the distinction between pure and applied mathematics. One of the most famous (but perhaps misunderstood) modern examples of this debate can be found in G.H. Hardy's \"A Mathematician's Apology\". It is widely believed that Hardy considered applied mathematics to be ugly and dull. Although it is true that Hardy preferred pure mathematics, which he often compared to painting and poetry, Hardy saw the distinction between pure and applied mathematics to be simply that applied mathematics sought to express \"physical\" truth in a mathematical framework, whereas pure mathematics expressed truths that were independent of the physical world. Hardy made a separate distinction in mathematics between what he called \"real\" mathematics, \"which has permanent aesthetic value\", and \"the dull and elementary parts of mathematics\" that have practical use. Hardy considered some physicists, such as Einstein, and Dirac, to be among the \"real\" mathematicians, but at the time that he was writing the \"Apology\" he also considered general relativity and quantum mechanics to be \"useless\", which allowed him to hold the opinion that only \"dull\" mathematics was useful. Moreover, Hardy briefly admitted that—just as the application of matrix theory and group theory to physics had come unexpectedly—the time may come where some kinds of beautiful, \"real\" mathematics may be useful as well. Another insightful view is offered by Magid:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Formula One career.", "Minor teams: 1978–1981.", "The sharp end – Williams: 1982–1985.", "The final year – McLaren: 1986.", "After Formula One.", "Manager of new talent.", "Helmet.", "Racing record.", "Complete Formula One World Championship results.", "In popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Rosberg was born on 6 December 1948 in Solna, Stockholm County in Sweden, where his father studied veterinary science. Rosberg's father Lars Rosberg and mother Lea Lautala were both natives of Hamina, Finland. The family moved back to Finland in the spring of 1950, originally settling in Lapinjärvi and later moving to Hamina, Oulu and Iisalmi.", "", "Rosberg had a relatively late start to his F1 career, debuting at the age of 29 after stints in Formula Vee, Formula Atlantic and its antipodean counterpart Formula Pacific and Formula Two, then \"feeder\" series to Formula One. He raced for Fred Opert, his American patron. His first Formula One drive was with the Theodore team during the 1978 season. He immediately caught the attention of the Formula One paddock with a superb drive in the non-Championship BRDC International Trophy at Silverstone in just his second race with the team, emerging victorious after many of the big names had been caught out by a tremendous downpour. Rosberg was not able to qualify for a race afterwards, and was signed by another uncompetitive team, ATS, for three races after the Theodore team scrapped its unreliable car design. He returned to Theodore after they acquired chassis from the Wolf Formula One team, but these were also uncompetitive and Rosberg returned to ATS to end the season. He next emerged with the Wolf team, midway through the 1979 season. However, the team was having difficulty staying solvent, and Rosberg had problems in finishing races. Rosberg soon had to change teams again when Wolf left Formula One, and signed with Fittipaldi Automotive which had bought the remains of Walter Wolf's squad. He secured his first two point-scoring results in the 1980 season, including a sensational podium at the season-opening race at Buenos Aires, but the uncompetitiveness of the Fittipaldi car meant that Rosberg often failed to finish or qualify. 1981 was worse as he failed to score at all.", "Despite this, Williams was interested in Rosberg, with the retirement of World Champion Alan Jones leaving a seat open for the 1982 season. Given a competitive car, Rosberg had a highly successful year. He consistently scored points and earned his first victory in the Swiss Grand Prix at Dijon-Prenois late that year (despite being called the \"Swiss Grand Prix\", the race was held in France due to Switzerland's ban on motor racing in effect since the 1955 Le Mans disaster). Rosberg's first memorable season came in a year where no driver won more than two races. With Ferrari's season marred by the death of Gilles Villeneuve at Zolder, the career-ending injuries to Didier Pironi at Hockenheim and the turbocharged Brabham-BMW and Renault cars suffering from poor reliability (and not helped by Brabham continually changing between the Ford V8 and the BMW turbo), consistency won Rosberg the Drivers' Championship, despite his Williams FW07C using the normally aspirated Ford DFY V8 engine which was considered outdated and out-matched against the vastly more powerful turbo cars. Rosberg won the championship with a five-point gap to Didier Pironi, with the latter missing the last four races of the championship due to injuries sustained at the German Grand Prix. Rosberg's 1982 Championship proved to be the last World Championship win for the old Cosworth DFV engine which had been introduced to F1 by Lotus in (the DFY was a development of the DFV). To celebrate the victory, Frank Williams gave Rosberg two days off from testing and allowed him to smoke in the team mobile home. Rosberg's post-championship years would be hamstrung by both uncompetitive chassis from Williams, and the powerful but unreliable Honda turbo engine. For his title defense in, Rosberg was again using the reliable Ford DFY V8. However, by this time, Ferrari, Renault and BMW had got their act together and the reliability of their turbo engines was starting to match their speed and power output. Rosberg still put his Williams FW08 on pole for the opening race of the season in Brazil (where he was disqualified from 2nd place because he was push started in the pits after he was forced to abandon his car in his pit bay due to a fuel vapor fire), and then won both the non-championship Race of Champions at Brands Hatch and in Monaco thanks to a choice of slicks at the start when all others started on wets, but it was increasingly obvious that without a turbo charged engine, results would be scarce. To that end, Frank Williams concluded a deal to run the Honda V6 turbo engine in his cars. Honda had come back into Formula One that year with the Spirit team and results had been slow with unreliability, but they were enthusiastic about joining Williams who had a reputation as a Championship-winning team. Rosberg and teammate Jacques Laffite first got their Honda turbos in the season ending South African Grand Prix at Kyalami and immediately the new Williams FW09 was on the pace. Rosberg finished in 5th place to give him 5th place in the championship. During the year, Rosberg earned the title \"King of the atmospherics\". Despite good power from the Honda engines, Williams and Rosberg struggled in mostly due to the FW09B chassis not being rigid enough to handle the power delivery of the V6. The Finn managed to tame both the car and engine long enough to win the Dallas Grand Prix, but his only other podium for the year was a second at the season opener in Brazil (the 3rd time in succession he finished second in Brazil, but the only one from which he was not disqualified). After a frustrating year he finished the championship in eighth place with 20.5 points. In November 1984 following the F1 season, Rosberg, along with fellow F1 drivers Niki Lauda (the 1984 World Champion), Andrea de Cesaris and François Hesnault, travelled to Australia for the non-championship 1984 Australian Grand Prix at the Calder Park Raceway in Melbourne. Rosberg managed to qualify 4th in his Ralt RT4 Ford despite spending most of the day with fellow aviation enthusiast Lauda (his teammate for the race) attending an air show at the nearby Essendon Airport. After an early race dice with Lauda and a clash with Terry Ryan while lapping the young Australian which put him off the short 1.609 km (1.000 mi) circuit, Rosberg went on to finish 2nd behind the Ralt RT4 Ford of Brazilian driver Roberto Moreno who won his 3rd Australian Grand Prix in 4 years (having also won in 1981 and 1983). Keke Rosberg's fifth and final Grand Prix victory came at the 1985 Australian Grand Prix on the brand new Adelaide Street Circuit. As it was the final race of the season, it was also Rosberg's final race for Williams. Keke gave the winners trophy to his race engineer, Frank Dernie. The win enhanced Rosberg's reputation as a \"street fighter\" as four of his five championship Grand Prix wins (Monaco, Dallas, Detroit and Adelaide) had all come on street circuits. Rosberg handled the 35°C heat better than most and won by 43 seconds from the Ligier Renaults of Jacques Laffite and Philippe Streiff. Just as the Honda engine began producing regular results, Rosberg decided to leave Williams at the end of 1985 and signed for McLaren, winners of the 1984 and 1985 Drivers' and Constructors' championships. The Williams-Honda team would go on to dominate Grand Prix racing in and through.", "At the time, Rosberg's move to McLaren for the 1986 season had seemed a master stroke as they were the championship team of the previous two seasons, having done so (especially in 1984) in dominating fashion. However, the 1986 McLaren was now somewhat underpowered compared to its rivals, and Rosberg, was soundly beaten by teammate, 1985 World Champion Alain Prost (the McLaren MP4/2C had been designed by John Barnard to suit the smoother style of Niki Lauda and Alain Prost, while Rosberg had never shed the ground effects style of late braking and throwing the car into a corner. It was not until it became known Barnard was leaving for Ferrari that the designer allowed Rosberg to fundamentally change his cars set up to suit his style. Ironically this coincided with Rosberg's only pole position of the season in Germany). On top of that, the fatal crash of Rosberg's close friend Elio de Angelis while testing a Brabham at the Paul Ricard circuit in France in May 1986 deeply affected him and he retired at the end of the season. He would later claim that he retired \"too soon\". Keke Rosberg dominated the final race of his Formula One career, the 1986 Australian Grand Prix, though he did not win. While holding a 30-second lead over Nelson Piquet (his replacement at Williams), he had a rear tyre let go on lap 62. Thinking the noise from the back of his McLaren was engine related, he shut the engine off and pulled off the circuit, only to find when he got out and checked that all he needed to do was drive back to the pits to change tyres. However, he later revealed that he would never have won anyway, that he planned to give best to Alain Prost in the Frenchman's bid for back-to-back World Championships (Prost needed to win the race with Nigel Mansell finishing no better than 4th to claim the championship, while Rosberg had dropped out of title contention some races before). As it turned out, Prost won the race and the title, and a lap after Rosberg's retirement Mansell suffered the same fate as his former teammate, though in much more spectacular fashion. Rosberg, who had made up his mind in mid-1984 that he would only race for two more years (but did not announce it publicly until Germany 1986), had no regrets about leaving Williams and joining McLaren at a time when the Honda engine was starting to come on strong, while the Porsche built TAG engine (and the 3 season old MP4/2) was starting to show its age. In an interview following his retirement announcement, Rosberg said that he was glad he left Williams when he did, stating that had he stayed with them he might have quit Formula One early in the 1986 season after Frank Williams' pre-season accident (in which he suffered a spinal cord injury which left him a tetraplegic) had left someone in a position of authority within the team who he said was one of the reasons he had decided to leave Williams, adding \"We simply could not stand each other\". While Rosberg did not name the person, it was generally believed to be Williams head designer and Technical Director Patrick Head, who had taken over the day-to-day running of the team while Frank Williams recovered from his accident.", "In 1989 Rosberg made his comeback in the Spa 24 Hours in a Ferrari Mondial run by Moneytron (cf. Jean-Pierre Van Rossem and Onyx), the same team that gave Rosberg's protégé JJ Lehto his debut in Formula One. Rosberg was a key element of Peugeot's extremely competitive sportscar squad in the early 1990s. But after two years with the marque and varied successes (two victories and a failed attempt at the 24 Hours of Le Mans), he moved on to the German Touring Car Championship, the DTM, driving for Mercedes-Benz and Opel. Here he set up his own team, Team Rosberg, in 1995 and at the end of that year withdrew from driving to concentrate on running it. Team Rosberg ran for another year in the DTM, until the series collapsed, and has been present in Formula BMW, German Formula Three, the Formula Three Euroseries and A1 GP since. Team Rosberg returned to the revived DTM in 2000, entering two Mercedes. Success, or even just scoring points, became harder with each passing season and Team Rosberg quit the series after their 2004 campaign, only to return in 2006, this time with Audi.", "Rosberg later spent a long time managing his countrymen JJ Lehto and future world champion Mika Häkkinen. Until 2008, he also managed his son Nico who entered Formula One in 2006 driving for Williams F1. In 2013 he and Nico became the first father and son to both win at Monaco, 30 years apart from each other. In 2016, he and Nico became the second father son duo to both win Formula One World Championships, after Graham Hill and Damon Hill had won the Championships of 1962 & 1968 and 1996 respectively.", "In his karting years, Rosberg had a white helmet with a blue stripe, then, in F1, Sid Mosca (who designed helmets for Brazilian drivers including Ayrton Senna, Rubens Barrichello and Emerson Fittipaldi) painted Rosberg's helmet white with a blue circle on the top and the stripe was divided in a big blue rectangle covering the visor area with some blue rectangles behind (similar to Didier Pironi's helmet design). In 1984, the rectangles were replaced by a yellow trapezium. His son Nico used a design that had similarities to Keke's helmet earlier in his F1 career, with grey replacing blue and with flame motifs, before changing to a new design in 2014.", "", "Did not finish, but was classified as he had completed more than 90% of the race distance.<br>", "In level 7 game 11 of the popular video game \"Angry Birds\" created by the Finnish company Rovio there is a caricature of Rosberg in a racing car sitting on the year '1982'. In 1985, renowned Finnish actor Matti Pellonpää and his band released a song called \"\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Dust Mites.", "Atmospheric.", "Middle East.", "Roads.", "Coal.", "Control.", "Atmospheric.", "Domestic.", "Dust resistant surfaces.", "Outer space." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "House dust mites are present indoors wherever humans live. Positive tests for dust mite allergies are extremely common among people with asthma. Dust mites are microscopic arachnids whose primary food is dead human skin cells, but they do not live on living people. They and their feces and other allergens which they produce are major constituents of house dust, but because they are so heavy they are not suspended for long in the air. They are generally found on the floor and other surfaces until disturbed (by walking, for example). It could take somewhere between twenty minutes and two hours for dust mites to settle back down out of the air. Dust mites are a nesting species that prefers a dark, warm, and humid climate. They flourish in mattresses, bedding, upholstered furniture, and carpets. Their feces include enzymes that are released upon contact with a moist surface, which can happen when a person inhales, and these enzymes can kill cells within the human body. House dust mites did not become a problem until humans began to use textiles, such as western style blankets and clothing.", "Atmospheric or wind-borne fugitive dust, also known as \"aeolian dust\", comes from arid and dry regions where high velocity winds are able to remove mostly silt-sized material, deflating susceptible surfaces. This includes areas where grazing, ploughing, vehicle use, and other human activities have further destabilized the land, though not all source areas have been largely affected by anthropogenic impacts. One-third of the global land area is covered by dust-producing surfaces, made up of hyper-arid regions like the Sahara which covers 0.9 billion hectares, and drylands which occupy 5.2 billion hectares. Dust in the atmosphere is produced by saltation and sandblasting of sand-sized grains, and it is transported through the troposphere. This airborne dust is considered an aerosol and once in the atmosphere, it can produce strong local radiative forcing. Saharan dust in particular can be transported and deposited as far as the Caribbean and the Amazon basin, and may affect air temperatures, cause ocean cooling, and alter rainfall amounts.", "Dust in the Middle East has been a historic phenomenon. Recently, because of climate change and the escalating process of desertification, the problem has worsened dramatically. As a multi-factor phenomenon, there is not yet a clear consensus on the sources or potential solutions to the problem. In Iran, the dust is already affecting more than 5 million people directly, and has emerged as a serious government issue in recent years. In the province of Khuzestan it has led to the severe reduction of air quality. The amount of pollutants in the air has surpassed more than 50 times the normal level several times in a year. Recently, initiatives such as Project-Dust have been established to directly study dust in the Middle East.", "Dust kicked up by vehicles traveling on roads may make up 33% of air pollution. Road dust consists of deposits of vehicle exhausts and industrial exhausts, particles from tire and brake wear, dust from paved roads or potholes, and dust from construction sites. Road dust is a significant source contributing to the generation and release of particulate matter into the atmosphere. Control of road dust is a significant challenge in urban areas, and also in other locations with high levels of vehicular traffic upon unsealed roads, such as mines and landfill dumps. Road dust may be suppressed by mechanical methods like street sweeper vehicles equipped with vacuum cleaners, vegetable oil sprays, or with water sprayers. Improvements in automotive engineering have reduced the amount of PM10s produced by road traffic; the proportion representing re-suspension of existing particulates has increased as a result.", "Coal dust is responsible for the lung disease known as pneumoconiosis, including black lung disease that occurs among coal miners. The danger of coal dust resulted in environmental legislation regulating work place air quality in some jurisdictions. In addition, if enough coal dust is dispersed within the air in a given area, in very rare circumstances, it can create an explosion hazard under certain circumstances. These circumstances are typically within confined spaces.", "", "Most governmental EPAs, including the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) mandate that facilities that generate fugitive dust, minimize or mitigate the production of dust in their operation. The most frequent dust control violations occur at new residential housing developments in urban areas. United States Federal law requires that construction sites obtain permits to conduct earth moving, clearing of areas, to include plans to control dust emissions when the work is being carried out. Control measures include such simple practices as spraying construction and demolition sites with water, and preventing the tracking of dust onto adjacent roads. Some of the issues include: US federal laws require dust control on sources such as vacant lots, unpaved parking lots, and unpaved roads. Dust in such places may be suppressed by mechanical methods, including paving or laying down gravel, or stabilizing the surface with water, vegetable oils or other dust suppressants, or by using water misters to suppress dust that is already airborne.", "Dust control is the suppression of solid particles with diameters less than 500 micrometers. Dust poses a health threat to children, older people, and those with respiratory illnesses. House dust can become airborne easily. Care is required when removing dust to avoid causing the dust to become airborne. A feather duster tends to agitate the dust so it lands elsewhere. Certified HEPA (tested to MIL STD 282) can effectively trap 99.97% of dust at 0.3 micrometers. Not all HEPA (type/media) filters can effectively stop dust; while vacuum cleaners with HEPA (type/media) filters, water, or cyclones may filter more effectively than without, they may still exhaust millions of particles per cubic foot of air circulated. Central vacuum cleaners can be effective in removing dust, especially if they are exhausted directly to the outdoors. Air filtering appliances differ greatly in their effectiveness. Laser particle counters are an effective way to measure filter effectiveness, medical grade instruments can test for particles as small as 0.3 micrometers. In order to test for dust in the air, there are several options available. Pre weighted filter and matched weight filters made from polyvinyl chloride or mixed cellulose ester are suitable for respirable dust (less than 10 micrometers in diameter).", "A dust resistant surface is a state of prevention against dust contamination or damage, by a design or treatment of materials and items in manufacturing or through a repair process. A reduced tacticity of a synthetic layer or covering can protect surfaces and release small molecules that could have remained attached. A panel, container or enclosure with seams may feature types of strengthened rigidity or sealant to vulnerable edges and joins.", "Cosmic dust is widely present in space, where gas and dust clouds are the primary precursors for planetary systems. The zodiacal light, as seen in a dark night sky, is produced by sunlight reflected from particles of dust in orbit around the Sun. The tails of comets are produced by emissions of dust and ionized gas from the body of the comet. Dust also covers solid planetary bodies, and vast dust storms can occur on Mars which cover almost the entire planet. Interstellar dust is found between the stars, and high concentrations produce diffuse nebulae and reflection nebulae. Dust is widely present in the galaxy. Ambient radiation heats dust and re-emits radiation into the microwave band, which may distort the cosmic microwave background power spectrum. Dust in this regime has a complicated emission spectrum, and includes both thermal dust emission and spinning dust emission. Dust samples returned from outer space may provide information about conditions in the early solar system. Several spacecraft have sought to gather samples of dust and other materials. Among these craft was Stardust, which flew past Comet Wild 2 in 2004, and returned a capsule of the comet's remains to Earth in January 2006. In 2010 the Japanese Hayabusa spacecraft returned samples of dust from the surface of an asteroid." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "Duke Juryj Ivanavič Illinič () began construction of the castle near the village of Mir after the turn of the 16th century in the Polish Gothic style. Five towers surrounded the courtyard of the citadel, the walls of which formed a square of on each side. In 1568, when the Ilyinich dynasty died out, the Mir Castle passed into the hands of Mikołaj Krzysztof \"the Orphan\" Radziwiłł, who refitted it with a two-winged, three-story stately residence along the eastern and northern inner walls of the castle. Plastered facades were decorated with limestone portals, plates, balconies and porches in the Renaissance style. In 1817, after the castle had been abandoned for nearly a century and had suffered severe damage in the Battle of Mir (1812), owner Dominik Hieronim Radziwiłł died of battle injuries and the castle passed to his daughter Stefania, who married Ludwig zu Sayn-Wittgenstein-Berleburg. Later the castle became a possession of their daughter Maria, who married Prince Chlodwig Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst. Their son, Maurice Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst, sold the castle to Mikalaj Sviatapolk-Mirski, of the Bialynia clan, in 1895. Nikolai's son Michael began to rebuild the castle according to the plans of architect Teodor Bursze. The Sviatapolk-Mirski family owned the castle until 1939, when the Soviet Union occupied eastern Poland. When German forces invaded the Soviet Union in 1941, they occupied the castle and converted it to a ghetto for the local Jewish population, prior to their murders. Between 1944 and 1956, the castle was used as a housing facility, resulting in damage to the castle's interior. In December 2000, the Mir Castle was listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name.", "Course.", "Hazards.", "Bridges.", "Geography and ecology.", "Fisheries." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The name \"Yukon\", or \"ųųg han\", is a contraction of the words in the Gwich'in phrase \"chųų gąįį han\", which means \"white water river\" and refers to \"the pale colour\" of glacial runoff in the Yukon River. The contraction is \"Ųųg Han\", if the /ųų/ remains nasalized, or \"Yuk Han\", if there is no vowel nasalization. In 1843, the Holikachuks had told the Russian-American Company that their name for the river was \"Yukkhana\" and that this name meant \"big river\". However, \"Yukkhana\" does not literally correspond to a Holikachuk phrase that means \"big river\". Then, two years later, the Gwich'ins told the Hudson's Bay Company that their name for the river was \"Yukon\" and that the name meant \"white water river\". \"White water river\" in fact corresponds to Gwich'in words that can be shortened to form \"Yukon\". Because the Gwich’ins had been trading regularly with the Holikachuks, and because the Holikachuks had also been trading regularly with Yup'iks, the Holikachuks had been in a position to borrow the Gwich'in contraction and to conflate its meaning with the meaning of \"Kuigpak\" [River-big], which is the Yup'ik name for the same river. For that reason, the documentary evidence reflects that the Holikachuks had borrowed the contraction \"Ųųg Han\" [White Water River] from Gwich'in, and erroneously assumed that this contraction had the same literal meaning as the corresponding Yup'ik name \"Kuigpak\" [River-big]. The Lewes River is the former name of the upper course of the Yukon, from Marsh Lake to the confluence of the Pelly River at Fort Selkirk.", "The generally accepted source of the Yukon River is the Llewellyn Glacier at the southern end of Atlin Lake in British Columbia. Others suggest that the source is Lake Lindeman at the northern end of the Chilkoot Trail. Either way, Atlin Lake flows into Tagish Lake (via the Atlin River), as eventually does Lake Lindeman after flowing into Bennett Lake. Tagish Lake then flows into Marsh Lake (via the Tagish River). The Yukon River proper starts at the northern end of Marsh Lake, just south of Whitehorse. Some argue that the source of the Yukon River should really be Teslin Lake and the Teslin River, which has a larger flow when it reaches the Yukon at Hootalinqua. The upper end of the Yukon River was originally known as the Lewes River until it was established that it actually was the Yukon. North of Whitehorse, the Yukon River widens into Lake Laberge, made famous by Robert W. Service's \"The Cremation of Sam McGee\". Other large lakes that are part of the Yukon River system include Kusawa Lake (into the Takhini River) and Kluane Lake (into the Kluane and then White River). The river passes through the communities of Whitehorse, Carmacks, (just before the Five Finger Rapids) and Dawson City in Yukon, and crossing Alaska into Eagle, Circle, Fort Yukon, Stevens Village, Rampart, Tanana, Ruby, Galena, Nulato, Grayling, Holy Cross, Russian Mission, Marshall, Pilot Station, St. Marys (which is accessible from the Yukon at Pitkas Point), and Mountain Village. After Mountain Village, the main Yukon channel frays into many channels, sprawling across the delta. There are a number of communities after the \"head of passes,\" as the channel division is called locally: Nunum Iqua, Alakanuk, Emmonak, and Kotlik. Of those delta communities, Emmonak is the largest with roughly 760 people in the 2000 census. Emmonak's gravel airstrip is the regional hub for flights.", "Navigational obstacles on the Yukon River are the Five Finger Rapids and Rink Rapids downstream from Carmacks.", "Despite its length, there are only four vehicle-carrying bridges across the river: A car ferry crosses the river at Dawson City in the summer; it is replaced by an ice bridge over the frozen river during the winter. Plans to build a permanent bridge were announced in March 2004, although they are currently on hold because bids came in much higher than budgeted. There are also two pedestrian-only bridges in Whitehorse, as well as a dam across the river and a hydroelectric generating station. The construction of the dam flooded the White Horse Rapids, which gave the city its name, and created Schwatka Lake. The river flows into several parklands and refuges including:", "Some of the upper slopes of this watershed (e.g. Nulato Hills) are forested by Black Spruce. This locale near the Seward Peninsula represents the near westernmost limit of the Black Spruce, \"Picea mariana\", one of the most widespread conifers in northern North America.", "The Yukon River is home to one of the longest salmon runs in the world. Each year Chinook, coho, and chum salmon return to their terminal streams in Alaska, the Yukon Territories, and British Columbia. The Chinook have the longest journey, with an estimated 35–50% bound for Canada. As salmon do not eat during their spawning migration, Yukon River salmon must have great reserves of fat and energy to fuel their thousands-mile long journey. As a result, Yukon River salmon are noted for their especially rich and oily meat. The villages along the Yukon have historically relied on and continue to rely on salmon for their cultural, subsistence, and commercial needs. Salmon are traditionally dried, smoked, and frozen for both human and sled-dog consumption. Common methods of fishing on the Yukon include set gillnets, drift nets, dip nets, and fish wheels. The preference of certain gear is largely dependent on the river's varied characteristics in different areas. Some parts of the river do not have eddies to make set-nets successful, whereas in other places the tributaries are small enough to make drifting impractical. Over the last 20 years salmon recruitment, the number of returning adults, has taken several shocks. The late 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s have been marked by radically reduced runs for various salmon species. The United States Department of Commerce issued a Federal Disaster Declaration for the 2008 and 2009 Commercial Chinook Yukon River fisheries, calling for the complete closure of commercial fishing along with restrictions on subsistence fishing. The root cause of these poor returns remains debated, with questions about the effects of climate change on ocean food-supply & disease prevalence in returning adults, the methods of fishing used on the river, and the effects of the Bering Sea Pollock trawl fleet on food supply and salmon bycatch. In 2010, the Alaska Department of Fish & Game's Board of Fisheries issued the first-ever restriction for net mesh size on the Yukon, reducing it to. Various organizations are involved to protect healthy salmon runs into the future. The Yukon River Drainage Fisheries Association was formed in 1990 by consensus of fishers representing the entire drainage in response to recent disaster years. Its organizational goals include giving voice to the village fishers that have traditionally managed these resources, enabling communication between fishers and fishery managers, and helping to preserve the ecological integrity of salmon runs and local cultures' Traditional Ecological Knowledge In March 2001, the U.S. & Canadian governments passed the Yukon River Salmon Agreement to better manage an internationally shared resource and ensure that more Canadian-originated salmon return across the border. The agreement is implemented through the Yukon River Panel, an international body of 12 members, equal-parts American and Canadian, that advises managers of Yukon River fisheries concerning restoration, conservation, and coordinated management. Tribal organizations such as Association of Village Council Presidents (AVCP), Council of Athabascan Tribal Governments (CATG), and Tanana Chiefs Conference (TCC) work to sustain Yukon River salmon to promote healthy people, cultures, and communities." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot.", "Summary.", "Characters.", "Allusions.", "\"Faust\".", "Shakespeare.", "Joris-Karl Huysmans.", "Literary significance.", "Possible Disraeli influence.", "Publication history.", "Preface.", "Criticism.", "Textual revisions." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Dorian Gray is the subject of a full-length portrait in oil by Basil Hallward, an artist impressed and infatuated by Dorian's beauty; he believes that Dorian's beauty is responsible for the new mood in his art as a painter. Through Basil, Dorian meets Lord Henry Wotton, and he soon is enthralled by the aristocrat's hedonistic world view: that beauty and sensual fulfilment are the only things worth pursuing in life. Newly understanding that his beauty will fade, Dorian expresses the desire to sell his soul, to ensure that the picture, rather than he, will age and fade. The wish is granted, and Dorian pursues a libertine life of varied amoral experiences while staying young and beautiful; all the while, his portrait ages and records every sin.", "\"The Picture of Dorian Gray\" begins on a beautiful summer day in Victorian England, where Lord Henry Wotton, an opinionated man, is observing the sensitive artist Basil Hallward painting the portrait of Dorian Gray, a handsome young man who is Basil's ultimate muse. While sitting for the painting, Dorian listens to Lord Henry espousing his hedonistic world view and begins to think that beauty is the only aspect of life worth pursuing, prompting Dorian to wish that his portrait would age instead of himself. Under Lord Henry's hedonistic influence, Dorian fully explores his sensuality. He discovers the actress Sibyl Vane, who performs Shakespeare plays in a dingy, working-class theatre. Dorian approaches and courts her, and soon proposes marriage. The enamoured Sibyl calls him \"Prince Charming\", and swoons with the happiness of being loved, but her protective brother, James, warns that if \"Prince Charming\" harms her, he will murder him. Dorian invites Basil and Lord Henry to see Sibyl perform in \"Romeo and Juliet\". Sibyl, too enamoured with Dorian to act, performs poorly, which makes both Basil and Lord Henry think Dorian has fallen in love with Sibyl because of her beauty instead of her acting talent. Embarrassed, Dorian rejects Sibyl, telling her that acting was her beauty; without that, she no longer interests him. On returning home, Dorian notices that the portrait has changed; his wish has come true, and the man in the portrait bears a subtle sneer of cruelty. Conscience-stricken and lonely, Dorian decides to reconcile with Sibyl, but he is too late, as Lord Henry informs him that Sibyl has killed herself. Dorian then understands that, where his life is headed, lust and beauty shall suffice. Dorian locks the portrait up, and over the following eighteen years, he experiments with every vice, influenced by a morally poisonous French novel that Lord Henry Wotton gave him. One night, before leaving for Paris, Basil goes to Dorian's house to ask him about rumours of his self-indulgent sensualism. Dorian does not deny his debauchery, and takes Basil to see the portrait. The portrait has become so hideous that Basil is only able to identify it as his by the signature he affixes to all of his portraits. Basil is horrified, and beseeches Dorian to pray for salvation. In anger, Dorian blames his fate on Basil and stabs him to death. Dorian then calmly blackmails an old friend, the scientist Alan Campbell, into using his knowledge of chemistry to destroy the body of Basil Hallward. Alan later kills himself. To escape the guilt of his crime, Dorian goes to an opium den, where James Vane is unknowingly present. James had been seeking vengeance upon Dorian ever since Sibyl killed herself, but had no leads to pursue as the only thing he knew about Dorian was the name Sibyl called him, \"Prince Charming\". In the opium den, however, he hears someone refer to Dorian as \"Prince Charming\", and he accosts Dorian. Dorian deceives James into believing that he is too young to have known Sibyl, who killed herself eighteen years earlier, as his face is still that of a young man. James relents and releases Dorian, but is then approached by a woman from the opium den who reproaches James for not killing Dorian. She confirms that the man was Dorian Gray and explains that he has not aged in eighteen years. James runs after Dorian, but he has gone. James then begins to stalk Dorian, causing Dorian to fear for his life. However, during a shooting party, a hunter accidentally kills James Vane, who was lurking in a thicket. On returning to London, Dorian tells Lord Henry that he will live righteously from now on. His new probity begins with deliberately not breaking the heart of the naïve Hetty Merton, his current romantic interest. Dorian wonders if his newly-found goodness has rescinded the corruption in the picture but when he looks at it, he sees only an even uglier image of himself. From that, Dorian understands that his true motives for the self-sacrifice of moral reformation were the vanity and curiosity of his quest for new experiences, along with the desire to restore beauty to the picture. Deciding that only full confession will absolve him of wrongdoing, Dorian decides to destroy the last vestige of his conscience and the only piece of evidence remaining of his crimes; the picture. In a rage, he takes the knife with which he murdered Basil Hallward and stabs the picture. The servants of the house awaken on hearing a cry from the locked room; on the street, a passerby who also heard the cry, calls the police. On entering the locked room, the servants find an unknown old man stabbed in the heart, his figure withered and decrepit. The servants identify the disfigured corpse by the rings on its fingers, which belonged to Dorian Gray. Beside him, the portrait is now restored to its former appearance of beauty.", "Oscar Wilde said that, in the novel \"The Picture of Dorian Gray\" (1891), three of the characters were reflections of himself:", "", "About the literary hero, the author Oscar Wilde said, \"in every first novel the hero is the author as Christ or Faust.\" As in the legend of \"Faust\", in \"The Picture of Dorian Gray\" a temptation (ageless beauty) is placed before the protagonist, which he indulges. In each story, the protagonist entices a beautiful woman to love him, and then destroys her life. In the preface to the novel (1891), Wilde said that the notion behind the tale is \"old in the history of literature\", but was a thematic subject to which he had \"given a new form\". Unlike the academic \"Faust\", the gentleman Dorian makes no deal with the Devil, who is represented by the cynical hedonist Lord Henry, who presents the temptation that will corrupt the virtue and innocence that Dorian possesses at the start of the story. Throughout, Lord Henry appears unaware of the effect of his actions upon the young man; and so frivolously advises Dorian, that \"the only way to get rid of a temptation is to yield to it. Resist it, and your soul grows sick with longing.\" As such, the devilish Lord Henry is \"leading Dorian into an unholy pact, by manipulating his innocence and insecurity.\"", "In the preface to \"The Picture of Dorian Gray\" (1891), Wilde speaks of the sub-human Caliban character from \"The Tempest\". In chapter five, he writes: \"He felt as if he had come to look for Miranda and had been met by Caliban\". When Dorian tells Lord Henry about his new love Sibyl Vane, he mentions the Shakespeare plays in which she has acted, and refers to her by the name of the heroine of each play. Later, Dorian speaks of his life by quoting Hamlet, a privileged character who impels his potential suitor (Ophelia) to suicide, and prompts her brother (Laertes) to swear mortal revenge.", "The anonymous \"poisonous French novel\" that leads Dorian to his fall is a thematic variant of \"À rebours\" (1884), by Joris-Karl Huysmans. In the biography \"Oscar Wilde\" (1989), the literary critic Richard Ellmann said: Wilde does not name the book, but at his trial he conceded that it was, or almost [was], Huysmans's \"À rebours\"... to a correspondent, he wrote that he had played a \"fantastic variation\" upon \"À rebours\", and someday must write it down. The references in \"Dorian Gray\" to specific chapters are deliberately inaccurate.", "", "Some commentators have suggested that \"The Picture of Dorian Gray\" was influenced by the British Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli's (anonymously published) first novel \"Vivian Grey\" (1826) as, \"a kind of homage from one outsider to another.\" The name of Dorian Gray's love interest, Sibyl Vane, may be a modified fusion of the title of Disraeli's best known novel (\"Sybil\") and Vivian Grey's love interest Violet Fane, who, like Sibyl Vane, dies tragically. There is also a scene in \"Vivian Grey\" in which the eyes in the portrait of a \"beautiful being\" move when its subject dies.", "\"The Picture of Dorian Gray\" originally was a novella submitted to \"Lippincott's Monthly Magazine\" for serial publication. In 1889, J. M. Stoddart, an editor for Lippincott, was in London to solicit novellas to publish in the magazine. On 30 August 1889, Stoddart dined with Oscar Wilde, Sir Arthur Conan Doyle and T. P. Gill at the Langham Hotel, and commissioned novellas from each writer. Conan Doyle promptly submitted \"The Sign of the Four\" (1890) to Stoddart, but Wilde was more dilatory; Conan Doyle's second Sherlock Holmes novel was published in the February 1890 edition of \"Lippincott's Monthly Magazine\", yet Stoddart did not receive Wilde's manuscript for \"The Picture of Dorian Gray\" until 7 April 1890, nine months after having commissioned the novel from him. The literary merits of \"The Picture of Dorian Gray\" impressed Stoddart, but, as an editor, he told the publisher, George Lippincott, \"in its present condition there are a number of things an innocent woman would make an exception to....\" Among the pre-publication deletions that Stoddart and his editors made to the text of Wilde's original manuscript were: (i) passages alluding to homosexuality and to homosexual desire; (ii) all references to the fictional book title \"Le Secret de Raoul\" and its author, Catulle Sarrazin; and (iii) all \"mistress\" references to Gray's lovers, Sibyl Vane and Hetty Merton. \"The Picture of Dorian Gray\" was published on 20 June 1890, in the July issue of \"Lippincott's Monthly Magazine\". British reviewers condemned the novel's immorality, and said condemnation was so controversial that the W H Smith publishing house withdrew every copy of the July 1890 issue of \"Lippincott's Monthly Magazine\" from its bookstalls in railway stations. Consequent to the harsh criticism of the 1890 magazine edition, Wilde ameliorated the homoerotic references, to simplify the moral message of the story. In the magazine edition (1890), Basil tells Lord Henry how he \"worships\" Dorian, and begs him not to \"take away the one person that makes my life absolutely lovely to me.\" In the magazine edition, Basil concentrates upon love, whereas, in the book edition (1891), Basil concentrates upon his art, saying to Lord Henry, \"the one person who gives my art whatever charm it may possess: my life as an artist depends on him.\" The magazine edition of \"The Picture of Dorian Gray\" (1890) was expanded from thirteen to twenty chapters; and the magazine edition's final chapter was divided into two chapters, the nineteenth and twentieth chapters of the book edition of \"The Picture of Dorian Gray\" (1891). Wilde's textual additions were about \"fleshing out of Dorian as a character\" and providing details of his ancestry that made his \"psychological collapse more prolonged and more convincing.\" The introduction of the James Vane character to the story develops the socio-economic background of the Sibyl Vane character, thus emphasising Dorian's selfishness and foreshadowing James's accurate perception of the essentially immoral character of Dorian Gray; thus, he correctly deduced Dorian's dishonourable intent towards Sibyl. The sub-plot about James Vane's dislike of Dorian gives the novel a Victorian tinge of class struggle. With such textual changes, Oscar Wilde meant to diminish the moralistic controversy about the novel \"The Picture of Dorian Gray\".", "Consequent to the harsh criticism of the magazine edition of the novel, the textual revisions to \"The Picture of Dorian Gray\" included a preface in which Wilde addressed the criticisms and defended the reputation of his novel. To communicate how the novel should be read, in the preface, Wilde explains the role of the artist in society, the purpose of art, and the value of beauty. It traces Wilde's cultural exposure to Taoism and to the philosophy of Chuang Tsǔ (Zhuang Zhou). Earlier, before writing the preface, Wilde had written a book review of Herbert Giles's translation of the work of Zhuang Zhou. The preface was first published in the 1891 edition of the novel; nonetheless, by June 1891, Wilde was defending \"The Picture of Dorian Gray\" against accusations that it was a bad book. In the essay \"The Artist as Critic\", Oscar Wilde said:", "In the 19th century, the critical reception of the novel \"The Picture of Dorian Gray\" (1890) was poor. The book critic of \"The Irish Times\" said, \"The Picture of Dorian Gray\" was \"first published to some scandal.\" Such book reviews achieved for the novel a \"certain notoriety for being'mawkish and nauseous', 'unclean', 'effeminate' and 'contaminating'.\" Such moralistic scandal arose from the novel's homoeroticism, which offended the sensibilities (social, literary, and aesthetic) of Victorian book critics. Yet, most of the criticism was personal, attacking Wilde for being a hedonist with a distorted view of conventional morality of Victorian Britain. In the 30 June 1890 issue of the \"Daily Chronicle\", the book critic said that Wilde's novel contains \"one element... which will taint every young mind that comes in contact with it.\" In the 5 July 1890 issue of the \"Scots Observer\", a reviewer asked \"Why must Oscar Wilde 'go grubbing in muck-heaps?'\" In response to such criticism, Wilde obscured the homoeroticism of the story and expanded the personal background of the characters.", "After the initial publication of the magazine edition of \"The Picture of Dorian Gray\" (1890), Wilde expanded the text from 13 to 20 chapters and obscured the homoerotic themes of the story. In the novel version of \"The Picture of Dorian Gray\" (1891), chapters 3, 5, and 15 to 18, inclusive, are new; and chapter 13 of the magazine edition was divided, and became chapters 19 and 20 of the novel edition. In 1895, at his trials, Oscar Wilde said he revised the text of \"The Picture of Dorian Gray\" because of letters sent to him by the cultural critic Walter Pater. Passages revised for the novel Passages added to the novel The uncensored edition In 2011, the Belknap Press published \"The Picture of Dorian Gray: An Annotated, Uncensored Edition\". The edition includes text that was deleted by J. M. Stoddart, the story's initial editor, before its publication in \"Lippincott's Monthly Magazine\" in 1890." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Personal life.", "Schooling.", "Work.", "Research.", "Career and polymer science.", "The Flory convention.", "Awards.", "Published books." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Born in Sterling, Illinois on June 19, 1910 was scientist Paul Flory. He was raised by Ezra Flory and Nee Martha Brumbaugh. His father worked as a clergyman-educator, and his mother was a school teacher. He first gained his interest in science from Carl W Holl, who was a professor in chemistry. Holl was employed in Indiana at Manchester College as a chemistry professor. In 1936, he married Emily Catherine Tabor. He and Emily had three children together; Susan Springer, Melinda Groom and Paul John Flory jr. They also had four grandchildren. All of his children pursued careers in the field of science. After graduating from Elgin High School in Elgin, Illinois in 1927, Flory received a bachelor's degree from Manchester College (Indiana) (now Manchester University) in 1931 and a Ph.D. from the Ohio State University in 1934. His first position was at DuPont with Wallace Carothers. He was posthumously inducted into the Alpha Chi Sigma Hall of Fame in 2002. Flory died on September 8, 1985 due to a massive heart attack. His wife Emily died in 2006 aged 94.", "Flory attended graduate school at the Ohio State University. He originally entered the University under the major of just physical science. The research for his work included the studies of photochemistry and spectroscopy. He completed his Ph.D at Ohio State University in 1934. Durings his studies at Ohio State University, he discovered the understanding that as temperature decreases, the polymer ends up contracting. This leads to the establishment of forces balancing one another's temperature. He ended up with receiving a master's degree in organic chemistry. He received his masters in organic chemistry, rather than physics due to insecurity. After facing his fear, he was able to graduate in 1934 with his doctorate in physical chemistry. While receiving his doctorate, he was supervised by Herriacc Johnston with his thesis on photochemistry of nitric oxide. In 1934, after receiving his Ph.D, he joined the Central Department of Dupont and Company. Throughout this organization he gained an interest in the fundamentals of polymerization and polymeric systems. Flory discovered that polymers that are valid objects of scientific were proved contagious. He proved the hypothesis by Staudinger and Carothers, “polymers are in fact covalently linked macromolecules”. After the death of Carother in 1937, Flory was involved for two years at the Research Laboratory located in the University of Cincinnati.", "During the time of World War II, there was a need for research having to do with the development of synthetic rubber. Flory became reinvolved with the industry work. The first industry we worked from 1940 to 1943 was Standard Oil Development Company. Which is located in Linden, NJ. Working here helped with his development of mechanical statistical theory of polymer mixtures. During 1943 to 1948 was the Research Laboratory of the Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company. In fact, he was the director of research at the Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company, leading the team for studies on polymers. After working in the industry, Flory left to work at Cornell University for a lectureship. The lectureship was with the George Fisher Baker Non-Residents. During the lectureship, Flory was able to study and understand a way to treat the effect of the excluded volume. According the nobelprize.org polymers, “would be nonasymptotic with the length of the chain, that is the fear of the contribution by the exclusion of the segment of the chain from the space occupied would increase without a limit as the chain is lengthened. This was the volume on the configuration of polymer chains. In 1957, Flory and his family decided to make the move to Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. The reason he and his family moved from New York to Pennsylvania was for him to be able to develop a program of basic research in chemistry at the Carnegie Mellon Institute. After his work at the Carnegie Mellon Institute, he accepted a professorship position at Stanford University in the department of chemistry. While he was at Stanford University, he changed his direction of research. The change of view in his studies has to do with the spatial configuration having to do with chain molecules. This have to do with configuration treatments having to do with chain molecules. The treatment is the dependent properties through mathematical methods. Not only is mathematical methods the only treatment but so is the thermodynamics of solutions. After his retirement he Flory remained still very active in the world of chemistry. He was a consultant for Dupont and IBM, not long after he retired. Flory also was involved with the study of the foundations in the Soviet Union started off by the professor MV Volkenstein and his collaborators. He also worked with the late professor of Kazuo Nagai in Japan. He felt the need to fight for scientists who were oppressed in various countries. In addition, he also spoke as the “Voice of America”, during a broadcast in Eastern Europe as well as Soviet Union. Flory also worked for the “Committee on Human Rights” which is known as the National Academy of Sciences from 1979 to 1984. During 1980, he worked as a delegate at the scientific forum in Hamburg.", "After receiving his doctorate in 1934, he dealt with a variety of issues with physical chemistry. This having to do with the kinetics and mechanisms of polymeric substances. Having to do with the distribution of molar mass, solution of thermodynamics and hydrodynamics. In addition, during 1934, he also was able to discover that when polymeric chains will keep growing if they are mixed with other molecules when present. Flory also discovered the understanding of the term ‘theta.’ In other words, is the constant of hydrodynamic. With the theta point that is the neutral volumes interactions. In conclusion to the development of the theta point it has been confirmed and studied in a variety of laboratories by many scientists. Both natural and synthetic polymers have been studied throughout the theta point. Throughout this a better understanding of macromolecules was provided. It helped with the creation of basis under rational interpretations of physical measurements. The measurements have relations to both the solutions of polymers and quantitative characteristics. Some work completed by Paul Flory during his time includes the development in the quantitative correlations between the chain molecules and chemical structure of properties. This has to do with the way polymers are composed and what are composed of polymers. One piece of material formed through polymers is plastic. In the mid 1930s, Flory discovered how polymers are dissolved in a solvent. Leading to becoming outstretches which is caused by the forces of both polymers and solvent parts. He even had part finding a solution to polymers.", "Flory's earliest work in polymer science was in the area of polymerization kinetics at the DuPont Experimental Station. In condensation polymerization, he challenged the assumption that the reactivity of the end group decreased as the macromolecule grew, and by arguing that the reactivity was independent of the size, he was able to derive the result that the number of chains present decreased with size exponentially. In addition polymerization, he introduced the important concept of chain transfer to improve the kinetic equations and remove difficulties in understanding the polymer size distribution. In 1938, after Carothers' death, Flory moved to the Basic Science Research Laboratory at the University of Cincinnati. There he developed a mathematical theory for the polymerization of compounds with more than two functional groups and the theory of polymer networks or gels. This led to the Flory-Stockmayer theory of gelation, which equivalent to percolation on the Bethe lattice and in fact represents the first paper in the percolation field. In 1940 he joined the Linden, NJ laboratory of the Standard Oil Development Company where he developed a statistical mechanical theory for polymer mixtures. In 1943 he left to join the research laboratories of Goodyear as head of a group on polymer fundamentals. In the Spring of 1948 Peter Debye, then chairman of the chemistry department at Cornell University, invited Flory to give the annual Baker Lectures. He then was offered a position with the faculty in the Fall of the same year. He was initiated into the Tau chapter of Alpha Chi Sigma at Cornell in 1949. At Cornell he elaborated and refined his Baker Lectures into his magnum opus, \"Principles of Polymer Chemistry\" which was published in 1953 by Cornell University Press. This quickly became a standard text for all workers in the field of polymers, and is still widely used to this day. Flory introduced the concept of excluded volume, coined by Werner Kuhn in 1934, to polymers. Excluded volume refers to the idea that one part of a long chain molecule can not occupy space that is already occupied by another part of the same molecule. Excluded volume causes the ends of a polymer chain in a solution to be further apart (on average) than they would be were there no excluded volume. The recognition that excluded volume was an important factor in analyzing long-chain molecules in solutions provided an important conceptual breakthrough, and led to the explanation of several puzzling experimental results of the day. It also led to the concept of the theta point, the set of conditions at which an experiment can be conducted that causes the excluded volume effect to be neutralized. At the theta point, the chain reverts to ideal chain characteristics – the long-range interactions arising from excluded volume are eliminated, allowing the experimenter to more easily measure short-range features such as structural geometry, bond rotation potentials, and steric interactions between near-neighboring groups. Flory correctly identified that the chain dimension in polymer melts would have the size computed for a chain in ideal solution if excluded volume interactions were neutralized by experimenting at the theta point. Among his accomplishments are an original method for computing the probable size of a polymer in good solution, the Flory-Huggins Solution Theory, and the derivation of the Flory exponent, which helps characterize the movement of polymers in solution.", "In modeling the position vectors of atoms in macromolecules it is often necessary to convert from Cartesian coordinates (x,y,z) to generalized coordinates. The Flory convention for defining the variables involved is usually employed. For an example, a peptide bond can be described by the x,y,z positions of every atom in this bond or the Flory convention can be used. Here one must know the bond lengths formula_1, bond angles formula_2, and the dihedral angles formula_3. Applying a vector conversion from the Cartesian coordinates to the generalized coordinates will describe the same three-dimensional structure using the Flory convention.", "In 1968, he received the Charles Goodyear Medal. He also received the Priestley Medal and the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement in 1974. Flory received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1974 \"for his fundamental achievements both theoretical and experimental, in the physical chemistry of the macromolecules.\" Additionally in 1974 Flory was awarded the National Medal of Science in Physical Sciences. The medal was presented to him by President Gerald Ford. This award was given to him because of his research on the \"formation and structure of polymeric substances\".", "With over 300 writings, both published and unpublished, throughout his lectureship at the University with the research and teaching led to his first published book. The book published by Cornell University was called the “Principles of Polymer Chemistry.” The book was then the basis use of information for undergrad students. It was the standard principle for many decades, used by many professors. Another book which was published by Flory was “Statical Mechanics of Chain Molecules.” The book was published in 1969, worked to summarize different parts both molecules theories and applications. In 1985, the book written by Paul Flory called, “Selected Works of Paul Flory.” This summarized much of his work and studies." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography.", "History." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Songhua rises south of Heaven Lake, near the China-North Korea border. From there it flows north, to be interrupted by the Baishan, Hongshi and Fengman hydroelectric dams. The Fengman Dam forms a lake that stretches for. Below the dam, the Second Songhua flows north through Jilin, then northwest until it is joined by its largest tributary, the Nen River, near Da'an, to create the Songhua proper. The Songhua turns east through Harbin, and after the city, it is joined from the south by the Ashi River, and then by the Hulan River from the north. A new dam was constructed in 2007 near Bayan (50 km north-east of Harbin), creating the Dadingshan Reservoir, which is named after the scenic area on the south bank (). The river flows onward through Jiamusi and south of the Lesser Xing'an Range, to eventually join the Amur at Tongjiang, Heilongjiang. The river freezes from late November until March. It has its highest flows when the mountain snow melts during the spring thaw. The river is navigable up to Harbin by medium-sized ships. Smaller craft can navigate the Songhua up to Jilin and the Nen River up to Qiqihar. Cities along the river include:", "In November 2005, the river was contaminated with benzene, leading to a shutdown of Harbin's water supply. The spill stretched and eventually reached the Amur (Heilong) River on the China–Russia border. On July 28, 2010, several thousand barrels from two chemical plants in China's Jilin City were washed away by floods. Some of them contained of explosive material like trimethylsilyl chloride and hexamethyldisiloxane. In 2016, the part near the city of Jilin was affected by a minor flood." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Production.", "Teas.", "Shapes and use.", "Materials used.", "Controversies regarding the use of plastic in teabags.", "Non biodegradability.", "Release of microplastics.", "Coffee bags.", "Tea bag-related activities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "4", "4", "3", "2" ], "content": [ "Tea bag patents date from 1903, and the first modern tea bags were hand-sewn fabric bags. Appearing commercially around 1904, tea bags were successfully marketed in about 1908 by Thomas Sullivan, a tea and coffee importer from New York, who shipped his silk tea bags around the world. The loose tea was intended to be removed from the bags by customers, but they found it easier to brew the tea with the tea leaves still enclosed in the porous bags. The first tea bag packing machine was invented in 1929 by Adolf Rambold for the German company Teekanne. The heat-sealed paper fiber tea bag was patented in 1930 by William Hermanson. The now-common rectangular tea bag was not invented until 1944. Prior to that, tea bags resembled small sacks.", "", "A broad variety of teas as well as other infusions like herbal teas, are available in tea bags. Typically, tea bags use fannings, the left-overs after larger leaf pieces are gathered for sale as loose tea, but some companies sell teabags containing whole-leaf tea.", "Traditionally, tea bags have been square or rectangular in shape. More recently circular and tetrahedral bags have come on the market and are often claimed by their manufacturers to improve the quality of the brew. Environmentalists prefer silk to nylon because of health and biodegradability issues. Another material for tea bags is Soilon (PLA mesh), made from corn starch. Empty tea bags are also available for consumers to fill with tea leaves themselves. These are typically open-ended pouches with long flaps. The pouch is filled with an appropriate quantity of leaf tea and the flap is closed into the pouch to retain the tea. Such tea bags combine the ease of use of a commercially produced tea bag with the wider tea choice and better quality control of loose leaf tea.", "Tea bag paper is related to paper found in milk and coffee filters and is a blend of wood and vegetable fibers. The latter is bleach pulp abaca hemp, a plantation banana plant grown for its fiber, mostly in the Philippines and Colombia. Some bags have a heat-sealable thermoplastic such as PVC or polypropylene as a component fiber on the inner tea bag surface, and other bags are made from nylon. Paper tea bags are commonly sealed using polypropylene.", "", "In 2017, Mike Armitage, a gardener in Wrexham, UK, found that tea bags left a plastic residue after being composted. He started a petition urging Unilever to remove plastic from bag production. In January 2018, Co-op Food announced that they were removing plastic from their own brand 99 tea bags in conjunction with their supplier Typhoo. In February 2018, PG Tips announced that their pyramid bags now use corn starch adhesive in place of polypropylene.", "Even before composting, microplastics may be found in the tea meant for human consumption. A 2019 study showed that \"steeping a single plastic teabag at brewing temperature (95 °C) releases approximately 11.6 billion microplastics and 3.1 billion nanoplastics into a single cup of the beverage\".", "The concept of pre-measured portions to be infused in disposable bags has also been applied to coffee in the form of the coffee bag, although this has not achieved such wide acceptance as the tea bag.", "Decorative tea bags have become the basis for large collections and many collectors collect tea bags from around the world. Tea bag collector clubs are widely spread around the world and members consist of people interested in items related to teas. Online collector clubs often include catalogs of tea bags, as well as collection tracking tools. In addition, tea bag collectors often collect other tea-related items such as labels. These websites also provide forums for discussions and trade arrangements between collectors. Teabag folding began in the Netherlands and is often credited to Tiny van der Plas. It is a form of origami in which identical squares of patterned paper (cut from the front of tea bag wrappers) are folded, and then arranged in rosettes. These rosettes are usually used to decorate gift cards and it has become a popular craft in both the US and UK since 2000. Soil scientists used standardized tea bags to measure the decomposition rate of organic materials in different soils." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Predynastic period.", "Early Dynastic Period (c. 3050–2686 BC).", "Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC).", "First Intermediate Period (2181–1991 BC).", "Middle Kingdom (2134–1690 BC).", "Second Intermediate Period (1674–1549 BC) and the Hyksos.", "New Kingdom (1549–1069 BC).", "Third Intermediate Period (1069–653 BC).", "Late Period (672–332 BC).", "Ptolemaic period (332–30 BC).", "Roman period (30 BC–641 AD).", "Government and economy.", "Administration and commerce.", "Social status.", "Legal system.", "Agriculture.", "Animals.", "Natural resources.", "Trade.", "Language.", "Historical development.", "Sounds and grammar.", "Writing.", "Literature.", "Culture.", "Daily life.", "Cuisine.", "Architecture.", "Art.", "Religious beliefs.", "Burial customs.", "Military.", "Technology, medicine, and mathematics.", "Technology.", "Faience and glass.", "Medicine.", "Maritime technology.", "Mathematics.", "Population.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Nile has been the lifeline of its region for much of human history. The fertile floodplain of the Nile gave humans the opportunity to develop a settled agricultural economy and a more sophisticated, centralized society that became a cornerstone in the history of human civilization. Nomadic modern human hunter-gatherers began living in the Nile valley through the end of the Middle Pleistocene some 120,000 years ago. By the late Paleolithic period, the arid climate of Northern Africa became increasingly hot and dry, forcing the populations of the area to concentrate along the river region.", "In Predynastic and Early Dynastic times, the Egyptian climate was much less arid than it is today. Large regions of Egypt were covered in treed savanna and traversed by herds of grazing ungulates. Foliage and fauna were far more prolific in all environs and the Nile region supported large populations of waterfowl. Hunting would have been common for Egyptians, and this is also the period when many animals were first domesticated. By about 5500 BC, small tribes living in the Nile valley had developed into a series of cultures demonstrating firm control of agriculture and animal husbandry, and identifiable by their pottery and personal items, such as combs, bracelets, and beads. The largest of these early cultures in upper (Southern) Egypt was the Badarian culture, which probably originated in the Western Desert; it was known for its high quality ceramics, stone tools, and its use of copper. The Badari was followed by the Naqada culture: the Amratian (Naqada I), the Gerzeh (Naqada II), and", "The Early Dynastic Period was approximately contemporary to the early Sumerian-Akkadian civilisation of Mesopotamia and of ancient Elam. The third-centuryBC Egyptian priest Manetho grouped the long line of kings from Menes to his own time into 30 dynasties, a system still used today. He began his official history with the king named \"Meni\" (or \"Menes\" in Greek) who was believed to have united the two kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt. The transition to a unified state happened more gradually than ancient Egyptian writers represented, and there is no contemporary record of Menes. Some scholars now believe, however,", "Major advances in architecture, art, and technology were made during the Old Kingdom, fueled by the increased agricultural productivity and resulting population, made possible by a well-developed central administration. Some of ancient Egypt's crowning achievements, the Giza pyramids and Great Sphinx, were constructed during the Old Kingdom. Under the direction of the vizier, state officials collected taxes, coordinated irrigation projects to improve crop yield, drafted peasants to work on construction projects, and established a justice system to maintain peace and order. With the rising importance of central", "After Egypt's central government collapsed at the end of the Old Kingdom, the administration could no longer support or stabilize the country's economy. Regional governors could not rely on the king for help in times of crisis, and the ensuing food shortages and political disputes escalated into famines and small-scale civil wars. Yet despite difficult problems, local leaders, owing no tribute to the king, used their new-found independence to establish a thriving culture in the provinces. Once in control of their own resources, the provinces became economically richer—which was demonstrated by larger and better", "The kings of the Middle Kingdom restored the country's stability and prosperity, thereby stimulating a resurgence of art, literature, and monumental building projects. Mentuhotep II and his Eleventh Dynasty successors ruled from Thebes, but the vizier Amenemhat I, upon assuming the kingship at the beginning of the Twelfth Dynasty around 1985BC, shifted the kingdom's capital to the city of Itjtawy, located in Faiyum. From Itjtawy, the kings of the Twelfth Dynasty undertook a far-sighted land reclamation and irrigation scheme to increase agricultural output in the region. Moreover, the military reconquered territory in Nubia that was rich in quarries and gold mines, while laborers built a defensive structure in the Eastern Delta, called the \"Walls-of-the-Ruler\", to defend against foreign attack.", "Around 1785BC, as the power of the Middle Kingdom kings weakened, a Western Asian people called the Hyksos, who had already settled in the Delta, seized control of Egypt and established their capital at Avaris, forcing the former central government to retreat to Thebes. The king was treated as a vassal and expected to pay tribute. The Hyksos (\"foreign rulers\") retained Egyptian models of government and identified as kings, thereby integrating Egyptian elements into their culture. They and other invaders introduced new tools of warfare into Egypt, most notably the composite bow", "The New Kingdom pharaohs established a period of unprecedented prosperity by securing their borders and strengthening diplomatic ties with their neighbours, including the Mitanni Empire, Assyria, and Canaan. Military campaigns waged under Tuthmosis I and his grandson Tuthmosis III extended the influence of the pharaohs to the largest empire Egypt had ever seen. Beginning with Merneptah the rulers of Egypt adopted the title of pharaoh. Between their reigns, Hatshepsut, a queen who established herself as pharaoh, launched many building projects, including restoration of temples damaged by the Hyksos, and sent trading expeditions to Punt and the Sinai. When Tuthmosis III died in 1425BC, Egypt had an empire extending from Niya in north west Syria to the Fourth Cataract of the Nile in Nubia, cementing loyalties and opening access to critical imports such as bronze and wood. The New Kingdom pharaohs began a large-scale building campaign to promote the god Amun, whose growing cult was based in Karnak. They also constructed monuments to glorify their own achievements, both real and imagined. The Karnak temple is the largest Egyptian temple ever built. Around 1350BC, the stability of the New", "Following the death of Ramesses XI in 1078BC, Smendes assumed authority over the northern part of Egypt, ruling from the city of Tanis. The south was effectively controlled by the High Priests of Amun at Thebes, who recognized Smendes in name only. During this time, Libyans had been settling in the western delta, and chieftains of these settlers began increasing their autonomy. Libyan princes took control of the delta under Shoshenq I in 945BC, founding the so-called Libyan or Bubastite dynasty that would rule for some 200 years. Shoshenq also gained", "The Assyrians left control of Egypt to a series of vassals who became known as the Saite kings of the Twenty-Sixth Dynasty. By 653BC, the Saite king Psamtik I was able to oust the Assyrians with the help of Greek mercenaries, who were recruited to form Egypt's first navy. Greek influence expanded greatly as the city-state of Naukratis became the home of Greeks in the Nile Delta. The Saite kings based in the new capital of Sais witnessed a brief but spirited resurgence in the economy and culture, but in 525BC, the powerful Persians, led by Cambyses II, began their conquest of Egypt, eventually capturing the", "In 332BC, Alexander the Great conquered Egypt with little resistance from the Persians and was welcomed by the Egyptians as a deliverer. The administration established by Alexander's successors, the Macedonian Ptolemaic Kingdom, was based on an Egyptian model and based in the new capital city of Alexandria. The city showcased the power and prestige of Hellenistic rule, and became a seat of learning and culture, centered at the famous Library of Alexandria. The Lighthouse of Alexandria lit the way for the many ships that kept trade flowing through the city—as the Ptolemies made commerce and revenue-generating enterprises, such as papyrus manufacturing, their top", "Egypt became a province of the Roman Empire in 30BC, following the defeat of Marc Antony and Ptolemaic Queen Cleopatra VII by Octavian (later Emperor Augustus) in the Battle of Actium. The Romans relied heavily on grain shipments from Egypt, and the Roman army, under the control of a prefect appointed by the Emperor, quelled rebellions, strictly enforced the collection of heavy taxes, and prevented attacks by bandits, which had become a notorious problem during the period. Alexandria became an increasingly important center on the trade route with the orient, as exotic luxuries were in high demand in Rome. Although the Romans had a more hostile attitude than the Greeks towards the Egyptians, some traditions such as mummification and worship of the traditional gods continued. The art of mummy portraiture flourished, and some Roman emperors had themselves depicted as pharaohs, though not to the extent that the Ptolemies had. The former lived outside Egypt and", "", "The pharaoh was the absolute monarch of the country and, at least in theory, wielded complete control of the land and its resources. The king was the supreme military commander and head of the government, who relied on a bureaucracy of officials to manage his affairs. In charge of the administration was his second in command, the vizier, who acted as the king's representative and coordinated land surveys, the treasury, building projects, the legal system, and the archives. At a regional level, the country was divided into as many as 42 administrative regions called nomes each governed by a nomarch, who was accountable to the vizier for his jurisdiction. The temples formed the backbone of the economy. Not only were they houses of worship, but", "Egyptian society was highly stratified, and social status was expressly displayed. Farmers made up the bulk of the population, but agricultural produce was owned directly by the state, temple, or noble family that owned the land. Farmers were also subject to a labor tax and were required to work on irrigation or construction projects in a corvée system. Artists and craftsmen were of higher status than farmers, but they were also under state control, working in the shops attached to the temples and paid directly from the state treasury. Scribes and officials formed the upper class in ancient Egypt, known as the \"white kilt class\" in reference to the bleached linen garments that served as a mark of their rank. The upper class prominently displayed their social status in art and literature. Below the nobility were the priests, physicians, and engineers with specialized training in their field. It is unclear whether", "The head of the legal system was officially the pharaoh, who was responsible for enacting laws, delivering justice, and maintaining law and order, a concept the ancient Egyptians referred to as Ma'at. Although no legal codes from ancient Egypt survive, court documents show that Egyptian law was based on a common-sense view of right and wrong that emphasized reaching agreements and resolving conflicts rather than strictly adhering to a complicated set of statutes. Local councils of elders, known as \"Kenbet\" in the New Kingdom, were responsible for ruling in court cases involving small claims and minor disputes. More serious cases involving murder, major land transactions, and tomb robbery were referred to the \"Great Kenbet\", over which the vizier or pharaoh presided. Plaintiffs and defendants were expected to represent themselves and were", "A combination of favorable geographical features contributed to the success of ancient Egyptian culture, the most important of which was the rich fertile soil resulting from annual inundations of the Nile River. The ancient Egyptians were thus able to produce an abundance of food, allowing the population to devote more time and resources to cultural, technological, and artistic pursuits. Land management was crucial in ancient Egypt because taxes were assessed based on the amount of land a person owned. Farming in Egypt was dependent on the cycle of the Nile River. The Egyptians recognized three seasons: \"Akhet\" (flooding), \"Peret\" (planting), and \"Shemu\" (harvesting). The flooding season lasted from June to September, depositing on the river's banks a layer of mineral-rich silt ideal for growing crops. After the floodwaters had receded, the growing season lasted from", "The Egyptians believed that a balanced relationship between people and animals was an essential element of the cosmic order; thus humans, animals and plants were believed to be members of a single whole. Animals, both domesticated and wild, were therefore a critical source of spirituality, companionship, and sustenance to the ancient Egyptians. Cattle were the most important livestock; the administration collected taxes on livestock in regular censuses, and the size of a herd reflected the prestige and importance of the estate or temple that owned them. In addition to cattle, the ancient Egyptians kept sheep, goats, and pigs. Poultry, such as ducks, geese, and pigeons, were captured in nets and bred on farms, where they were force-fed with dough to fatten them. The Nile provided a plentiful source of fish.", "Egypt is rich in building and decorative stone, copper and lead ores, gold, and semiprecious stones. These natural resources allowed the ancient Egyptians to build monuments, sculpt statues, make tools, and fashion jewelry. Embalmers used salts from the Wadi Natrun for mummification, which also provided the gypsum needed to make plaster. Ore-bearing rock formations were found in distant, inhospitable wadis in the eastern desert and the Sinai, requiring large, state-controlled expeditions to obtain natural resources found there. There were extensive gold mines in Nubia, and one of the first maps known is of a gold mine in this region. The Wadi Hammamat was a notable source of granite, greywacke, and gold. Flint was the first mineral collected and used to make tools, and flint handaxes are the earliest pieces of evidence of habitation", "The ancient Egyptians engaged in trade with their foreign neighbors to obtain rare, exotic goods not found in Egypt. In the Predynastic Period, they established trade with Nubia to obtain gold and incense. They also established trade with Palestine, as evidenced by Palestinian-style oil jugs found in the burials of the First Dynasty pharaohs. An Egyptian colony stationed in southern Canaan dates to slightly before the First Dynasty. Narmer had Egyptian pottery produced in Canaan and exported back to Egypt. By the Second Dynasty at", "", "The Egyptian language is a northern Afro-Asiatic language closely related to the Berber and Semitic languages. It has the second longest known history of any language (after Sumerian), having been written from c. 3200BC to the Middle Ages and remaining as a spoken language for longer. The phases of ancient Egyptian are Old Egyptian, Middle Egyptian (Classical Egyptian), Late Egyptian, Demotic and Coptic. Egyptian writings", "Ancient Egyptian has 25 consonants similar to those of other Afro-Asiatic languages. These include pharyngeal and emphatic consonants, voiced and voiceless stops, voiceless fricatives and voiced and voiceless affricates. It has three long and three short vowels, which expanded in Late Egyptian to about nine. The basic word in Egyptian, similar to Semitic and Berber, is a triliteral or biliteral root of consonants and semiconsonants. Suffixes are added to form words. The verb conjugation corresponds to the person. For example, the triconsonantal", "Hieroglyphic writing dates from c. 3000BC, and is composed of hundreds of symbols. A hieroglyph can represent a word, a sound, or a silent determinative; and the same symbol can serve different purposes in different contexts. Hieroglyphs were a formal script, used on stone monuments and in tombs, that could be as detailed as individual works of art. In day-to-day writing, scribes used a cursive form of writing, called hieratic, which was quicker and easier. While formal hieroglyphs may be read in rows or columns in either direction (though typically written from right to left), hieratic was always", "Writing first appeared in association with kingship on labels and tags for items found in royal tombs. It was primarily an occupation of the scribes, who worked out of the \"Per Ankh\" institution or the House of Life. The latter comprised offices, libraries (called House of Books), laboratories and observatories. Some of the best-known pieces of ancient Egyptian literature, such as the Pyramid and Coffin Texts, were written in Classical Egyptian, which continued to be the language of writing until about 1300BC. Late Egyptian was spoken from the New Kingdom onward and is represented in Ramesside administrative documents, love poetry and tales, as well as in Demotic and Coptic texts. During this period, the tradition of writing had evolved into the tomb autobiography, such as those of Harkhuf and Weni. The genre", "", "Most ancient Egyptians were farmers tied to the land. Their dwellings were restricted to immediate family members, and were constructed of mud-brick designed to remain cool in the heat of the day. Each home had a kitchen with an open roof, which contained a grindstone for milling grain and a small oven for baking the bread. Walls were painted white and could be covered with dyed linen wall hangings. Floors were covered with reed mats, while wooden stools, beds raised from the floor and individual tables comprised the furniture. The ancient Egyptians placed a great value on hygiene and appearance. Most bathed in the Nile and used a pasty soap made from animal fat and chalk. Men shaved their entire bodies for cleanliness; perfumes and aromatic ointments covered bad odors and soothed skin. Clothing was made from simple linen sheets that were bleached white, and both men and women of the upper classes wore wigs, jewelry, and cosmetics. Children went without clothing until maturity, at about age 12, and at this age males were circumcised", "Egyptian cuisine remained remarkably stable over time; indeed, the cuisine of modern Egypt retains some striking similarities to the cuisine of the ancients. The staple diet consisted of bread and beer, supplemented with vegetables", "The architecture of ancient Egypt includes some of the most famous structures in the world: the Great Pyramids of Giza and the temples at Thebes. Building projects were organized and funded by the state for religious and commemorative purposes, but also to reinforce the wide-ranging power of the pharaoh. The ancient Egyptians were skilled builders; using only simple but effective tools and sighting instruments, architects could build large stone structures with great accuracy and precision that is still envied today. The domestic dwellings of elite and ordinary Egyptians alike were constructed from perishable materials such as mud bricks and wood, and have not survived. Peasants lived in simple homes, while the palaces of the elite and the pharaoh were more elaborate structures. A few surviving New Kingdom palaces, such as those in Malkata and Amarna, show", "The ancient Egyptians produced art to serve functional purposes. For over 3500 years, artists adhered to artistic forms and iconography that were developed during the Old Kingdom, following a strict set of principles that resisted foreign influence and internal change. These artistic standards—simple lines, shapes, and flat areas of color combined with the characteristic flat projection of figures with no indication of spatial depth—created a sense of order and balance within a composition. Images and text were intimately interwoven on tomb and temple walls, coffins, stelae, and even statues. The Narmer Palette, for example, displays figures that can also be read as hieroglyphs. Because of the rigid rules that governed its highly stylized and symbolic appearance, ancient Egyptian art served its political and religious purposes with precision and clarity. Ancient Egyptian artisans used stone as a medium for carving statues and fine reliefs, but used wood as a cheap and easily", "Beliefs in the divine and in the afterlife were ingrained in ancient Egyptian civilization from its inception; pharaonic rule was based on the divine right of kings. The Egyptian pantheon was populated by gods who had supernatural powers and were called on for help or protection. However, the gods were not always viewed as benevolent, and Egyptians believed they had to be appeased with offerings and prayers. The structure of this pantheon changed continually as new deities were promoted in the hierarchy, but priests made no effort to organize the diverse and sometimes conflicting myths and stories into a coherent system. These various conceptions of divinity were not considered contradictory but rather layers in the multiple facets of reality. Gods were worshiped in cult temples administered by priests acting on the king's behalf. At the center of the temple was the cult statue in a shrine. Temples were not places of public worship or congregation, and only on select feast days and celebrations was a shrine carrying the statue of the", "The ancient Egyptians maintained an elaborate set of burial customs that they believed were necessary to ensure immortality after death. These customs involved preserving the body by mummification, performing burial ceremonies, and interring with the body goods the deceased would use in the afterlife. Before the Old Kingdom, bodies buried in desert pits were naturally preserved by desiccation. The arid, desert conditions were a boon throughout the history of ancient Egypt for burials of the poor, who could not afford the elaborate burial preparations available to the elite. Wealthier Egyptians began to bury their dead in stone tombs and use artificial mummification, which involved removing the internal organs, wrapping the body in linen, and burying it in a rectangular stone sarcophagus or wooden coffin. Beginning in the Fourth Dynasty,", "The ancient Egyptian military was responsible for defending Egypt against foreign invasion, and for maintaining Egypt's domination in the ancient Near East. The military protected mining expeditions to the Sinai during the Old Kingdom and fought civil wars during the First and Second Intermediate Periods. The military was responsible for maintaining fortifications along important trade routes, such as those found at the city of Buhen on the way to Nubia. Forts also were constructed to serve as military bases, such as the fortress at Sile, which was a base of operations for expeditions to the Levant. In the New Kingdom, a series of pharaohs used the standing Egyptian army to attack and conquer", "", "In technology, medicine, and mathematics, ancient Egypt achieved a relatively high standard of productivity and sophistication. Traditional", "Even before the Old Kingdom, the ancient Egyptians had developed a glassy material known as faience, which they treated as a type of artificial semi-precious stone. Faience is a non-clay ceramic made of silica, small amounts of lime and soda, and a colorant, typically copper. The material was used to make beads, tiles, figurines, and small wares. Several methods can be used to create faience, but typically production involved application of the powdered materials in the form of a paste over a clay core, which was then fired. By a related technique,", "The medical problems of the ancient Egyptians stemmed directly from their environment. Living and working close to the Nile brought hazards from malaria and debilitating schistosomiasis parasites, which caused liver and intestinal damage. Dangerous wildlife such as crocodiles and hippos were also a common threat. The lifelong labors of farming and building put stress on the spine and joints, and traumatic injuries from construction and warfare all took a significant toll on the body. The grit and sand from stone-ground flour abraded teeth, leaving them susceptible to abscesses (though caries were rare). The diets of the wealthy were rich in sugars, which promoted periodontal disease. Despite the flattering physiques portrayed on tomb walls, the overweight mummies of many of the upper class show the effects of a life of overindulgence. Adult life expectancy was about 35 for men and 30 for women, but reaching adulthood was difficult as about one-third", "Early Egyptians knew how to assemble planks of wood into a ship hull and had mastered advanced forms of shipbuilding as early as 3000BC. The Archaeological Institute of America reports that the oldest planked ships known are the Abydos boats. A group of 14 discovered ships in Abydos were constructed of wooden planks \"sewn\" together. Discovered by Egyptologist David O'Connor of New York University, woven straps were found to have been used to lash the planks together, and reeds or grass stuffed between the planks helped to seal the seams. Because the ships are all buried together and near a mortuary belonging to Pharaoh Khasekhemwy, originally they were all thought to have belonged to him, but one of the 14 ships dates to 3000BC, and the associated pottery jars buried with the vessels also suggest earlier dating. The ship dating to 3000BC was long and is now thought to perhaps have belonged to an earlier pharaoh, perhaps one as early as Hor-Aha. Early Egyptians also knew how to assemble planks of wood with treenails to fasten them together, using pitch for caulking the seams. The \"Khufu ship\", a vessel sealed into a pit in the Giza pyramid complex at", "The earliest attested examples of mathematical calculations date to the predynastic Naqada period, and show a fully developed numeral system. The importance of mathematics to an educated Egyptian is suggested by a New Kingdom fictional letter in which the writer proposes a scholarly competition between himself and another scribe regarding everyday calculation tasks such as accounting of land, labor, and grain. Texts such as the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus and the Moscow Mathematical Papyrus show that the ancient Egyptians could perform the four basic mathematical operations—addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division—use fractions, calculate the areas of rectangles, triangles, and circles and compute the volumes of boxes, columns and pyramids. They understood basic concepts of algebra and geometry, and could solve simple sets of simultaneous equations. Mathematical notation was decimal, and based on hieroglyphic signs for each power of ten up to one million.", "A team led by Johannes Krause managed the first reliable sequencing of the genomes of 90 mummified individuals in 2017 from northern Egypt (buried near modern-day Cairo), which constituted \"the first reliable data set obtained from ancient Egyptians using high-throughput DNA sequencing methods.\" Whilst not conclusive, because of the non-exhaustive time frame and restricted location that the mummies represent, their study nevertheless showed that these ancient Egyptians \"closely resembled ancient and modern Near Eastern", "The culture and monuments of ancient Egypt have left a lasting legacy on the world. The cult of the goddess Isis, for example, became popular in the Roman Empire, as obelisks and other relics were transported back to Rome. The Romans also imported building materials from Egypt to erect Egyptian-style structures. Early historians such as Herodotus, Strabo, and Diodorus Siculus studied and wrote about the land, which Romans came to view as a place of mystery. During the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, Egyptian pagan culture was in decline after the rise of Christianity and later Islam, but interest in Egyptian antiquity continued in the writings of medieval scholars such as Dhul-Nun al-Misri and al-Maqrizi. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, European travelers and tourists brought back antiquities and wrote stories of their journeys, leading to a wave of Egyptomania across Europe. This renewed interest sent collectors to Egypt, who took, purchased, or were given many important antiquities. Although the European colonial occupation of Egypt destroyed a significant portion of the country's historical legacy, some foreigners left more positive marks. Napoleon, for example, arranged the first studies in Egyptology when he brought some 150 scientists and artists to study and document Egypt's natural history, which was published in the \"Description de l'Égypte\". In the 20th century, the Egyptian Government and archaeologists alike recognized the importance of cultural respect and integrity in excavations. The Supreme Council of Antiquities now approves and oversees all excavations, which are aimed at finding information rather than treasure. The council also supervises museums and monument reconstruction programs designed to preserve the historical legacy of Egypt." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Musical characteristics.", "History.", "Origins.", "Popularity and evolution." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The term has been attributed mainly to African-American slang, in which it holds various meanings. It most commonly refers to the verb phrase \"to crank up\". It is theorized that the use of the term came from a past-tense form of \"crank\", which was sometimes conjugated as \"crunk\" in the South, such that if a person, event, or party was hyped-up, i.e. energetic – \"cranked\" or \"cranked up\" – it was said to be \"crunk\". In publications, \"crunk\" can be traced back to 1972 in the Dr. Seuss book \"Marvin K. Mooney Will You Please Go Now!\". He uses the term \"Crunk-Car\" without any given definition. The term has also been traced to usage in the 1980s coming out of Atlanta, Georgia nightclubs and meaning being \"full of energy\" or \"hyped\". In the mid-1990s, crunk was variously defined either as \"hype\", \"phat\", or \"pumped up\". \"Rolling Stone\" magazine published \"glossary of Dirty South slang\", where \"to crunk\" was defined as \"to get excited\". Outkast has been attributed as the first artist to use the term in mainstream music, in the 1993 track \"Player's Ball\". A seminal year for the genre was 1996, with the releases of Three 6 Mafia album \"\" (featuring \"Gette'm Crunk\"), and Memphis-based underground hip hop artist Tommy Wright III's album \"On the Run\", which featured the Project Pimp track \"Getting Crunk\". Artist Lil Jon was instrumental in bringing the term further into the mainstream with his 1997 album titled \"\". He later released other songs and albums using the term, and has been credited by other artists and musicians as galvanizing use of the term as well as mainstreaming the music genre itself. Lil Jon further popularized the word with his 2004 album \"Crunk Juice\", and has been credited with inventing the potent alcoholic cocktail by that name. This use of \"crunk\" became synonymous with the meaning \"crazy drunk\". Non-alcoholic drinks, to which alcohol could be added, were manufactured and marketed under the Crunk brand name, with Lil Jon as spokesman. The term has continued to evolve, taking on a negative stigma with police, parents and the media. In 2011, the company which manufactured \"Crunk\" drink brought out an alcoholic version named \"Crunk Juice\". This drink was allegedly marketed towards 19- to 21-year-olds – those under the US legal drinking age – resulting in Crunk Juice drinking being blamed as a cause of crime or becoming a victim of crime. The mainstream media began publishing stories in which the term \"crunk\" was used to refer to \"crazy and drunk\" criminals.", "Musically, crunk borrows heavily from bass music and 1980s-era call-and-response hip hop. Heavy use of synthesized instruments and sparse, truncated 808 handclaps are staples of the crunk sound. Looped, stripped-down drum machine rhythms are usually used. The Roland TR-808 and 909 are among the most popular. The drum machines are usually accompanied by simple, repeated synthesizer melodies in the form of ostinato, to create a hypnotic effect, and heavy bass stabs. The tempo of the music is somewhat slower than hip hop, around the speed of reggaeton. The focal point of crunk is more often the beats and music than the lyrics therein. Crunk rappers, such as Lil Jon, however, often shout and scream their lyrics, creating a heavy, aggressive style of hip hop. These lyrics can often be isolated to simple chants (\"Where you from?\" and \"You can't fuck with me\" are common examples). While other subgenres of hip hop address sociopolitical or personal concerns, crunk is almost exclusively party music, favoring call and response slogans in lieu of more substantive approaches.", "", "Crunk music arose from Miami bass music before 1996 in the southern United States, particularly in African American strip clubs of Memphis, Tennessee. Memphis-based hip hop group Three 6 Mafia were \"instrumental for the emergence of the crunk style\" in the mid-to-late 1990s. Two mixtape DJs from Memphis, DJ Paul and Juicy J, started making their original music, which was distinctive with its \"spare, low-BPM rhythms, simplistic chants... and narcotically repetitive, slasher-flick textures\". This duo soon became known as Three 6 Mafia. Frequently featuring rappers such as Project Pat, Lord Infamous, and Gangsta Boo on their releases, they became instrumental in the formation of crunk music. In 1997, in Atlanta, Lil Jon, with his group The East Side Boyz, released their first album titled \"\". These were the first of six albums released by Lil Jon and The East Side Boyz. Lil Jon states that they were first to use the word \"crunk\" in a song hook; he claimed that they had started to call themselves a \"crunk group\" due to this album. However, \"The New York Times\" denied that \"Get Crunk, Who Are You With\" was the first crunk album ever. He was one of the key figures in popularizing crunk during 1998 and 1999, and produced two gold records independently, before signing to TVT Records in 2001. After being named the \"King of Crunk\", Lil Jon went on to make collaborations with many popular artist such as Snoop Dogg, Ice Cube, Ludacris and Britney Spears. Nevertheless, crunk was not exclusively associated with Lil Jon and Three 6 Mafia. In its early stages, such artists as Ying Yang Twins, White Dawg, Bone Crusher, Lil Scrappy, Trillville, Youngbloodz and Pastor Troy from Atlanta, and David Banner from Mississippi also helped to popularize crunk music.", "In the early to mid-2000s, some crunk music hits like \"Get Low\", \"Goodies\", \"Yeah!\", and \"Freek-a-Leek\" produced by Lil Jon climbed to the Top 10 of the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 charts. Other hits produced by Lil Jon included \"Okay\", \"Cyclone\", \"Girlfight\", \"U and Dat\", and \"Touch\". \"Yeah!\" and \"Goodies\" were the first tracks to introduce the substyle of crunk music and contemporary R&B, called crunk&B, to the public. Those two tracks (performed by Usher and Ciara, respectively) were mainstream hits of 2004. Since then, crunk&B has been one of the most popular genres of sung African-American music, along with electropop, the genre that replaced crunk and crunk&B in the charts by 2008. The song \"Get Low\" (2003), performed by Lil Jon & the East Side Boyz with the Ying Yang Twins, is credited as the track which put crunk music into the national spotlight. \"Get Low\" reached the number two position on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 music chart; overall, it spent more than 21 weeks in the charts. Though rappers not from Dixie had tended to avoid being associated with Southern hip hop music before, Busta Rhymes and Nelly accepted offers to perform on remixes of \"Get Low\". Lil Jon's album, titled \"Kings of Crunk\", which contains \"Get Low\", became double platinum. In 2004, independent label Crunk Incorporated signed a major distribution deal with Reprise/Warner Brothers Records for the crunk group Crime Mob, who released the platinum single \"Knuck If You Buck\". They followed this with their 2006 hit, \"Rock Yo Hips\". In March 2004, R&B singer Houston released his crunk&B hit \"I Like That\", which reached number 11 on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100. In 2005, crunk&B reached the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 number one position with the song \"Run It!\", performed by Chris Brown. In 2005 and 2006, crunk and crunk&B conquered the American R&B charts (and other charts specializing in music with rapping) and replaced hip hop and older styles of contemporary R&B. Atlanta R&B group Cherish also gained prominence with their summer 2006 song \"Do It to It\" where the song debuted at number 86 on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 for the week of May 20, 2006, later peaking at number 12 for the week of September 2, 2006 and staying on the charts for 21 weeks. The growing interest in crunk music among music producers outside the Southern hip hop scene led to the development of various subgenres of crunk, including Eurocrunk, crunkcore, crunkczar, aquacrunk, acid crunk and most recently, trap music. By the end of 2009, crunk has seen a relative decline in mainstream American music, mostly due to the rising popularity of the trap and drill music subgenres during the 2010s. In 2015, American singer Tinashe incorporated crunk elements in her single \"All Hands on Deck\" featuring Iggy Azalea. The song contains themes of girl power and self empowerment. In 2019, rapper Saweetie sampled Petey Pablo's 2004 crunk hit \"Freek-a-Leek\" for her song \"My Type\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Introduction.", "Definition.", "Discrete case.", "General case.", "Non-atomic case.", "Complete probability space.", "Examples.", "Discrete examples.", "Example 1.", "Example 2." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3" ], "content": [ "A probability space is a mathematical triplet formula_1 that presents a model for a particular class of real-world situations. As with other models, its author ultimately defines which elements formula_2, formula_3, and formula_15 will contain. Not every subset of the sample space formula_2 must necessarily be considered an event: some of the subsets are simply not of interest, others cannot be \"measured\". This is not so obvious in a case like a coin toss. In a different example, one could consider javelin throw lengths, where the events typically are intervals like \"between 60 and 65 meters\" and unions of such intervals, but not sets like the \"irrational numbers between 60 and 65 meters\".", "In short, a probability space is a measure space such that the measure of the whole space is equal to one. The expanded definition is the following: a probability space is a triple formula_36 consisting of:", "Discrete probability theory needs only at most countable sample spaces formula_2. Probabilities can be ascribed to points of formula_2 by the probability mass function formula_60 such that formula_61. All subsets of formula_2 can be treated as events (thus, formula_63 is the power set). The probability measure takes the simple form formula_64 The greatest σ-algebra formula_63 describes the complete information. In general, a σ-algebra formula_38 corresponds to a finite or countable partition formula_67, the general form of an event formula_43 being formula_69. See also the examples. The case formula_70 is permitted by the definition, but rarely used, since such formula_11 can safely be excluded from the sample space.", "If Ω is uncountable, still, it may happen that \"p\"(\"ω\") ≠ 0 for some \"ω\"; such \"ω\" are called atoms. They are an at most countable (maybe empty) set, whose probability is the sum of probabilities of all atoms. If this sum is equal to 1 then all other points can safely be excluded from the sample space, returning us to the discrete case. Otherwise, if the sum of probabilities of all atoms is between 0 and 1, then the probability space decomposes into a discrete (atomic) part (maybe empty) and a non-atomic part.", "If \"p\"(\"ω\") = 0 for all \"ω\"∈Ω (in this case, Ω must be uncountable, because otherwise P(Ω)=1 could not be satisfied), then equation (∗) fails: the probability of a set is not necessarily the sum over the probabilities of its elements, as summation is only defined for countable numbers of elements. This makes the probability space theory much more technical. A formulation stronger than summation, measure theory is applicable. Initially the probabilities are ascribed to some “generator” sets (see the examples). Then a limiting procedure allows assigning probabilities to sets that are limits of sequences of generator sets, or limits of limits, and so on. All these sets are the σ-algebra formula_72. For technical details see Carathéodory's extension theorem. Sets belonging to formula_72 are called measurable. In general they are much more complicated than generator sets, but much better than non-measurable sets.", "A probability space formula_74 is said to be a complete probability space if for all formula_75 with formula_76 and all formula_77 one has formula_78. Often, the study of probability spaces is restricted to complete probability spaces.", "", "", "If the experiment consists of just one flip of a fair coin, then the outcome is either heads or tails: formula_79. The σ-algebra formula_80 contains formula_81 events, namely: formula_82 (“heads”), formula_83 (“tails”), formula_84 (“neither heads nor tails”), and formula_85 (“either heads or tails”); in other words, formula_86. There is a fifty percent chance of tossing heads and fifty percent for tails, so the probability measure in this example is formula_87, formula_88, formula_89, formula_90.", "The fair coin is tossed three times. There are 8 possible outcomes: Ω = {HHH, HHT, HTH, HTT, THH, THT, TTH, TTT} (here “HTH” for example means that first time the coin landed heads, the second time tails, and the last time heads again). The complete information is described by the σ-algebra formula_72 = 2 of 2 = 256 events, where each of the events is a subset of Ω. Alice knows the outcome of the second toss only. Thus her incomplete information is described by the partition Ω = A ⊔ A = {HHH, HHT, THH, THT} ⊔ {HTH, HTT, TTH, TTT}, where ⊔ is the \"disjoint union\", and the corresponding σ-algebra formula_72 = <nowiki" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Gameplay.", "Development.", "Ports.", "Cover art.", "Soundtrack.", "Reception." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "\"Grand Theft Auto\" is made up of six levels split between three main cities; each city is based on a real-life city in the United States, with an alternative name: Liberty City (New York City); Vice City (Miami); and San Andreas (San Francisco), with completing a level unlocking the next one in the chain. Players begin a game choosing a character from amongst eight—four in the PlayStation version—and naming them, though the choice is purely aesthetical, and doesn't affect overall gameplay. In each level, the player's ultimate objective is to reach a target number of points, which starts at $1,000,000, but becomes higher in the later levels, and then reach the level's \"goal\" to complete the stage. The player is free to do whatever they want, but have limited lives upon doing so. Points can be gained from anything, such as causing death and destruction amid the traffic in the city, completing special challenges, or stealing and selling cars for profit. However, the more typical means to achieve their target is to perform tasks for the level's local crime syndicate. Jobs can be initiated by visiting and touching a ringing telephone box, with each level's set of jobs on offer being unique. Jobs can be completed in any order, and each has some level of freedom to how it is successfully completed, though destinations in each are fixed. Successful completion of a job awards the player points, unlocks harder missions with greater rewards, and provides a \"multiplier\"—a bonus that increases the value of points earned from completing jobs and actions. Failing a job by not completing objectives, being arrested or dying, secures no points and can seal off other tasks in the chain. Players can find equipment across the level's map to help them with jobs and making points, including weapons and body armour, the latter increasing the player's survival against attacks from enemies. If the player is killed (referred to in the game as \"Wasted\"), they lose a life, lose all their current equipment, and have their multiplier bonus reset; losing all their lives will result in players having to restart a level. Law enforcement is present in each level, and doing criminal actions will cause the player to raise their notoriety with police; the higher the level, the tougher the response. If the player is arrested, they forfeit all equipment, and have their multiplier bonus halved. PC versions of the game were released with networked multiplayer gameplay using the IPX protocol.", "The development of \"Grand Theft Auto\" began on 4 April 1995 at DMA Design in Dundee. It originally had a protracted four-year development, which included a title change and numerous attempts to halt development. The game was originally titled \"Race'n'Chase\". It was originally planned to be released on MS-DOS, Windows 95, PlayStation, Sega Saturn and the Nintendo 64. However, it was never released for the two latter consoles. During the development of \"Grand Theft Auto\", many people overseeing the game's progress attempted to halt the development, which led the crew at DMA Design to have to convince them to allow them to continue. There were specific milestones planned for \"Grand Theft Auto\", none of which were met: An original design document, dated 22 March 1995, was posted online by Mike Dailly on 22 March 2011. The credited author of the document is K.R. Hamilton, and the released version is 1.05. It contained information about elements of the game discussed in various meetings held from 23 January 1995 to the writing of the document which also contains many similarities to the 1986 Commodore 64 \"Miami Vice\". According to the original design document, the introduction to \"Grand Theft Auto\" is a pre-drawn/rendered animation. The Windows 95 version was developed using Visual C++ v2.0. The DOS version was developed using Watcom C/C++ v10, Microsoft MASM 6.1 and Rational Systems DOS extender (DOS4GW) v 1.97. The program used to make \"Grand Theft Auto\" was said to produce \"a 3D array which can [be] used by both the perspective and the isometric engines\". It was said to consist of \"a grid editor which is used to place blocks on a grid, with a [separate] grid for each level\", and \"allow any block to be placed at any level\". It was said that the world may have had to be 256×256×6 blocks. The original concept of \"Grand Theft Auto\" was \"to produce a fun, addictive and fast multi-player car racing and crashing game which uses a novel graphics method\". David Jones, the game's producer, cited \"Pac-Man\" as an influence. He noted that the player runs over pedestrians and gets chased by police in a similar manner to \"Pac-Man\". Gary Penn, creative director of DMA at the time, cited \"Elite\" as a major influence, \"But I'd been working on Frontier, which is very different and there were definitely other people on the team who had things like Syndicate, Mercenary and Elite very much in their minds as well. That combination definitely led to the more open plan structure there is now. The game as it stands now is basically \"Elite\" in a city, but without quite the same sense of taking on the jobs. You take on the jobs in a slightly different way, but incredibly similar structurally. It's just a much more acceptable real world setting. The game was cops and robbers and then that evolved fairly quickly—nobody wants to be the cop, it's more fun to be bad. And then that evolved into \"Grand Theft Auto\"\". In an early 1997 interview, project leader Keith Hamilton commented, \"\"GTA\" was harder than we thought. We're rewriting the handling of the cars at the moment. We've got the time as we're changing the graphics to 24-bit.\"", "The original \"Grand Theft Auto\" was developed for MS-DOS, but then later ported to Microsoft Windows (using SciTech MGL), PlayStation (developed by Visual Sciences using their \"ViSOS\" framework), and Game Boy Color. The Game Boy Color version was technologically unabridged, which was quite a technical achievement due to the sheer size of the cities, converted tile-for-tile from the PC original, making them many times larger than most Game Boy Color game worlds were because of the handheld's limited hardware. To cater for the target younger generation, however, the game was heavily censored, with gore and swearing removed. The PC version comes in several different executables for DOS and MS-Windows, which use a single set of data files (except for the 8-bit colour DOS version which uses different but similar graphics). It was previously available as a free download as part of the Rockstar Classics (alongside \"Wild Metal\" and \"Grand Theft Auto 2\"), however the free download service is currently unavailable. \"Grand Theft Auto\" was to be released on the Sega Saturn, but due to the console's rapid decline in popularity before development was finished, the project was halted and the game was never released. After the PlayStation's successful release, development began on \"Grand Theft Auto 64\", a port of the game for the Nintendo 64, rumoured to have graphical enhancements and new missions. However, development was cancelled without ever having a public appearance.", "The cover art for \"Grand Theft Auto\" is a photograph of a New York Police Department 1980s Plymouth Gran Fury rushing through the intersection of Fifth Avenue and 56th Street, with Trump Tower in the background of the picture. The same cover art was also an alternative cover for \"Grand Theft Auto 2\" in selected markets. There was also a cover featuring a yellow Buick GSX. There are other covers, but the one shown above is the most common.", "\"Grand Theft Auto\" has seven \"radio stations\", plus a police band track, which can be heard once the player enters a car; however, each vehicle can only receive a limited number of these radio stations. In the PlayStation port each car only had two stations. PC players can remove the CD once the game is loaded and replace it with an audio CD. The next time the character enters a vehicle, a song from the CD will randomly play. This can also be done in the PlayStation port. The game's main theme is \"Gangster Friday\" by Craig Conner, credited to the fictitious band Slumpussy, and is played on N-CT FM. With the exception of Head Radio FM, the names of songs or the radio station names are never mentioned in-game. However, the soundtrack is listed in the booklet which comes with the game. The Collector's Edition of the PC version included the soundtrack on a separate CD. The track-listing gives the names of the fictional radio stations, bands and their tracks, and for some of them the fictional album that they are from.", "The game was a best-seller in the UK. By November 1998, global shipments to retailers of \"Grand Theft Auto\" computer and PlayStation versions had surpassed 1 million units combined. At the 1999 Milia festival in Cannes, it took home a \"Gold\" prize for revenues above €17 million in the European Union during 1998. The game was a commercial success, though it received mixed reviews upon release. \"GameSpot\" 1998 review for \"Grand Theft Auto\" said that, although the graphics may look \"a little plain\", the music and sound effects are the opposite, praising the radio stations and the sound effects used to open and close vehicles. They also praised the freedom of the game, favouring it over other games that make the player follow a specific rule set and complete specific missions in a specific order. \"IGN\" were critical of the graphics which were said to be \"really quite shoddy\" and dated. They were also unimpressed by the \"fast-food programming and careless design\", including the controls. Overall the game was considered to be fun but with problems which could have been fixed. \"Next Generation\" reviewed the PC version of the game, rating it four stars out of five, and stated that \"It is quite easy to accuse \"Grand Theft Auto\" of being all style and no substance, but the charge doesn't stick. Of course, we don't condone the acts within, but there is no denying that the game itself is well-executed and quite enjoyable.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Examples.", "Formal definition.", "Properties." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Consider the function \"f\", piecewise defined by: formula_1 This function is upper semi-continuous at \"x\" = 0, but not lower semi-continuous. The indicator function of a closed set is upper semi-continuous, whereas the indicator function of an open set is lower semi-continuous. The floor function formula_2, which returns the greatest integer less than or equal to a given real number \"x\", is everywhere upper semi-continuous. Similarly, the ceiling function formula_3 is lower semi-continuous. A function may be upper or lower semi-continuous without being either left or right continuous. For example, the function is upper semi-continuous at \"x\" = 1, since its value there is higher than its value in its neighborhood. However, it is neither left nor right continuous: The limit from the left is equal to 1 and the limit from the right is equal to 1/2, both of which are different from the function value of 2. If \"f\" is modified e.g. by setting \"f\"(1) = 0, then it is lower semi-continuous Similarly the function is upper semi-continuous at \"x\" = 0 while the function limits from the left or right at zero do not even exist. If formula_6 is a Euclidean space (or more generally, a metric space) and formula_7 is the space of curves in formula_8 (with the supremum distance formula_9, then the length functional formula_10, which assigns to each curve formula_11 its length formula_12, is lower semicontinuous. Let formula_13 be a measure space and let formula_14 denote the set of positive measurable functions endowed with the topology of convergence in measure with respect to formula_15. Then by Fatou's lemma the integral, seen as an operator from formula_14 to formula_17 is lower semi-continuous.", "Suppose formula_8 is a topological space, formula_19 is a point in formula_8 and formula_21 is an extended real-valued function. We say that formula_22 is upper semi-continuous at formula_19 if for every formula_24 there exists a neighborhood formula_25 of formula_19 such that formula_27 for all formula_28. For the particular case of a metric space, this can be expressed as where lim sup is the limit superior (of the function formula_22 at point formula_19). (For non-metric spaces, an equivalent definition using nets may be stated.) The function formula_22 is called upper semi-continuous if it is upper semi-continuous at every point of its domain. A function is upper semi-continuous if and only if formula_33 is an open set for every formula_34. We say that formula_22 is lower semi-continuous at formula_19 if for every formula_37 there exists a neighborhood formula_25 of formula_19 such that formula_40 for all formula_41 in formula_25. Equivalently, in the case of a metric space, this can be expressed as where formula_44 is the limit inferior (of the function formula_22 at point formula_19). The function formula_22 is called lower semi-continuous if it is lower semi-continuous at every point of its domain. A function is lower semi-continuous if and only if formula_48 is an open set for every formula_34; alternatively, a function is lower semi-continuous if and only if all of its lower level sets formula_50 are closed. Lower level sets are also called \"sublevel sets\" or \"trenches\".", "A function is continuous at \"x\" if and only if it is both upper and lower semi-continuous there. Therefore, semi-continuity can be used to prove continuity. If \"f\" and \"g\" are two real-valued functions which are both upper semi-continuous at \"x\", then so is \"f\" + \"g\". If both functions are non-negative, then the product function \"fg\" will also be upper semi-continuous at \"x\". The same holds for functions lower semi-continuous at \"x\". The composition \"f\"∘\"g\" of upper semi-continuous functions \"f\" and \"g\" is not necessarily upper semi-continuous, but if \"f\" is also non-decreasing, then \"f\"∘\"g\" is upper semi-continuous. Multiplying a positive upper semi-continuous function with a negative number turns it into a lower semi-continuous function. If \"C\" is a compact space (for instance a closed, bounded interval [\"a\", \"b\"]) and \"f\" : \"C\" → [–∞,∞) is upper semi-continuous, then \"f\" has a maximum on \"C\". The analogous statement for (–∞,∞]-valued lower semi-continuous functions and minima is also true. (See the article on the extreme value theorem for a proof.) Suppose \"f\" : \"X\" → [–∞,∞] is a lower semi-continuous function for every index \"i\" in a nonempty set \"I\", and define \"f\" as pointwise supremum, i.e., Then \"f\" is lower semi-continuous. Even if all the \"f\" are continuous, \"f\" need not be continuous: indeed every lower semi-continuous function on a uniform space (e.g. a metric space) arises as the supremum of a sequence of continuous functions. Likewise, the pointwise infimum of an arbitrary collection of upper semicontinuous functions is upper semicontinuous. The indicator function of any open set is lower semicontinuous. The indicator function of a closed set is upper semicontinuous. However, in convex analysis, the term \"indicator function\" often refers to the characteristic function, and the characteristic function of any \"closed\" set is lower semicontinuous, and the characteristic function of any \"open\" set is upper semicontinuous. A function \"f\" : R→R is lower semicontinuous if and only if its epigraph (the set of points lying on or above its graph) is closed. A function \"f\" : \"X\"→R, for some topological space \"X\", is lower semicontinuous if and only if it is continuous with respect to the Scott topology on R. Any upper semicontinuous function \"f\" : \"X\"→N on an arbitrary topological space \"X\" is locally constant on some dense open subset of \"X\". The maximum and minimum of finitely many upper semicontinuous functions is upper semicontinuous, and the same holds true of lower semicontinuous functions." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Gameplay.", "Aliens.", "Humans.", "Development.", "Derivatives.", "Reception." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "\"Tremulous\" is an asymmetric team-based first-person shooter with elements of real time strategy. Each team may construct and defend a base, consisting of structures which aid the players in some way. Players spawn from a spawn structure. During a match, players may attack the enemy, or maintain the base and construct new structures. Humans utilize various weapons, armor and other upgrades, while aliens may evolve into more powerful classes, each of which possesses unique abilities. The teams do not have access to all possible upgrades and buildings at the beginning of the game. Each team must reach a threshold of frags in order to advance to the next developmental stage. The point at which a stage change occurs varies dynamically depending on the number of players on each team. Each new stage brings more upgrades for the humans and more classes for the aliens. In addition to requiring a certain stage, each human item or alien class must be purchased using currency earned in game. The aliens are awarded \"frags\" for killing their foes which may be used to evolve (these points are commonly called \"evolution points\" or \"evos\" by players). The Humans gain \"credits\". Players earn currency by killing enemy players or by destroying enemy spawn or power structures (\"Reactor\" and \"Overmind\"); the amount of received currency depends on what class the opponent was (or what structure was destroyed) and how much of the target's total damage was dealt by the killing player. As a mechanism to encourage builders, who naturally don't engage in combat, players are also rewarded currency every two minutes by simply staying alive. Builders are responsible for construction of new buildings and base maintenance. Each building takes up a certain number of build points available to each team. The number of build points can vary from map to map and server to server, limiting how large bases can become. To reduce the likelihood of the match ending in a tie, most games enter a \"sudden death\" mode ten to fifteen minutes before the draw/tie time limit. This is a period during which the building of most or all structures is prohibited, allowing attackers to more easily overwhelm the defenders.", "The alien base is centered on a structure called the \"Overmind\", which is needed for their other structures to function and new structures to be built. Unlike the Human team structures, aliens may build on walls and ceilings to tactically build. Eggs provide a \"creep\" which allows nearby alien structures to live and be built, allowing for aliens to easily build offensive forward bases. Without a creep, alien structures will self destruct. Aliens spawn from \"Eggs\" which work even when the Overmind is dead, but new eggs cannot be built without it. As they earn \"frags\", alien players can evolve into a new form in order to upgrade their health and gain new abilities. As the vast majority of alien attacks are melee attacks, most of these creatures depend on agility and special movement techniques such as wall-walk, wall-jump, charging and pouncing over long distances to close the distance between themselves and their enemy. Alien players and structures automatically regenerate over time.", "Humans spawn from structures called \"Telenodes\", which function in much the same way as aliens' eggs. At the core of the human base is the \"Reactor\", responsible for powering nearly all other base equipment. If it is destroyed, the \"Reactor\" will explode unless \"deconstructed\" (removed by a builder), often critically damaging or eliminating nearby players and structures and leaving automated defenses and upgrade structures unpowered; if it is not immediately replaced the human team is usually defeated. Humans do not have different classes; instead they can buy and sell upgrades at a structure called the \"Armory\". These upgrades include armor, jet packs, and weaponry. Human players do not automatically regenerate health over time, however they are equipped with a one-time use medkit which heals the remaining health at the time of activation over a period of time, and can be replenished at a medical station.", "Tremulous' development by the Dark Legion group commenced in early 2000 as a modification for the commercial computer game Quake III Arena. The gameplay is generally inspired by the Quake II modification \"Gloom\", which also features alien vs human teams with distinct user classes. Although, Tremulous shares no content with Gloom or other similar themed games from around the same time. Another game with features similar to Tremulous was \"Natural Selection\", but Tremulous developers say it is neither based on it nor inspired by it. According to the developers, development on the game began long before NS became publicly available. Following the release of the Quake III Arena source code under the GPL on August 19, 2005, the developers decided to rework Tremulous into a standalone, free and open source game. Tremulous is licensed under the GPL, although it includes code from other projects that was released under other GPL-compatible licenses. Most of the game media is licensed under the CC BY-SA 2.5 Creative Commons license. Its initial standalone version 1.0.0 was released on August 11, 2005. With the stable version 1.1.0 released on March 31, 2006 the game change its game engine to ioquake3, a modified id Tech 3 engine. In 2008, Tony J. White of the ETPub mod for, contributed an administrative system and a backported client that were soon incorporated into the official Subversion repository. The latest public build version on the icculus repository is 1.2 beta \"Gameplay Preview\" (aka GPP), released on December 4, 2009 with the latest updates released on November 8, 2011. A Tremulous continuation from Dark Legion has its source code repository migrated to GitHub and is not under active development (last commit June 2016).", "Unvanquished is a \"Tremulous\"-based FPS with another engine (Daemon), which was first released publicly in 2012 and is under active development. It includes many original maps and is able to run Tremulous maps with some distributed in a community pack. Some Unvanquished official maps were community maps for Tremulous. Murnatan, currently in development by the Czech development team, AAA Games. The game is based on a \"Tremulous\" server modification which was worked on by the same lead developer of AAA Games, but due to licensing problems, has had some changes away from its previous title \"Tremulous 2\" and concept work, many of which was already completed. The title was approved for Steam Greenlight within 7 days.", "Joe Barr of NewsForge called \"Tremulous\" his favorite free software FPS game. \"Tremulous\" was voted \"Player's Choice Standalone Game of the Year\" in Mod Database's \"Mod of the Year\" 2006 competition. \"Tremulous\" later came in first in a \"Best free game based on GPL Quake source?\" poll on the Planet Quake website. At the beginning of 2007, \"Tremulous\" also took first place in the Mod Database \"Mod of the Year\" 2006 competition under the category of \"Player's Choice Standalone Game of the Year\" as well as honorable mentions in \"Genre Award: Action\" and \"Editor's Choice Standalone Game of the Year\". Tremulous was also mentioned in Games for Windows (formerly Computer Gaming World): 101 Free Games Issue for 2007. \"Tremulous\" was selected in March 2010 as \"HotPick\" by Linux Format. Tremulous has had over 3.3 million downloads between 2003 and March 2017 alone via sourceforge.net." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and family.", "Military career.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Born the son of, a minor samurai in the service of the Matsudaira (later Tokugawa) clan. He would later earn the nickname because of the fearless tactics he displayed in his operations; this is to distinguish him from Watanabe Hanzo (Watanabe Moritsuna), who is nicknamed. Though Hanzō was born in Mikawa Province (now Iga-chō, Okazaki, Aichi), he often returned to Iga Province, home of the Hattori family. He fought his first battle, a nighttime attack on Udo Castle 1557, at the age of sixteen; made a successful hostage rescue of Tokugawa's daughters in Kaminogō Castle in 1562; and went on to lay siege to Kakegawa Castle in 1569. He served with distinction at the battles of Anegawa (1570) and Mikatagahara (1572). According to the \"Kansei Chōshū Shokafu\", a genealogy of major samurai completed in 1812 by the Tokugawa shogunate, Hattori Hanzō rendered meritorious service during the Battle of Mikatagahara and became commander of an Iga unit consisting of one hundred fifty men. He captured a Takeda spy named Chikuan, and when Takeda's troops invaded Totomi, Hanzō counterattacked with only thirty men at the Tenryū River.", "Masanari had a great contribution to Tokugawa Ieyasu's rise to power, helping the future Shogun bring down the Imagawa after Imagawa Ujizane had held Ieyasu's wife and son as hostages in 1561. His most valuable contribution came in 1582 following Oda Nobunaga's death, when he led the future \"shōgun\" Tokugawa Ieyasu to safety in Mikawa Province across Iga territory with the help of remnants of the local Iga ji-zamurai clans as well as the neighboring local samurai families in the nearby Koka region. According to some sources, Hanzō also helped in rescuing the captured family of Ieyasu. Hattori served during the siege of Odawara and was awarded 8,000 \"koku\". By the time Ieyasu entered Kantō, he was awarded an additional 8,000 \"koku\" and had 30 yoriki and 200 public officials for his services. Ieyasu was said to have also begun to employ more Iga ninja with Hanzō as their leader. Hanzō was known as an expert tactician and a master of sword fighting. Historical sources say he lived the last several years of his life as a monk under the name \"Sainen\" and built the temple Sainenji, which was named after him and mainly built to commemorate Tokugawa Ieyasu's elder son, Nobuyasu. Nobuyasu was accused of treason and conspiracy by Oda Nobunaga and was then ordered to commit seppuku by his father, Ieyasu. Hanzo was called in to act as the official second to end Nobuyasu's suffering, but he refused to take the sword on the blood of his own lord. Ieyasu valued his loyalty after hearing of Hanzo's ordeal and said, \"Even a demon can shed tears.\" He died at the age of 54.", "Tales of Hattori's exploits often attributed various supernatural abilities, such as teleportation, psychokinesis, and precognition, and these attributions contribute to his continued prominence in popular culture. After his death on 4 November 1596, Hattori Hanzō was succeeded by his son, whose name was also Masanari, though written with different kanji. He was given the title of Iwami no Kami and his Iga men would act as guards of Edo Castle, the headquarters of the government of united Japan. Hanzō is actually a name passed down through the leaders of the Hattori family meaning his father was also called Hanzō and so was his successor. Indeed, there are five people known as Hattori Hanzō throughout history To this day, artifacts of Hanzō's legacy remain. Tokyo Imperial Palace (formerly the \"shōgun\"s palace) still has a gate called Hanzō's Gate (Hanzōmon), and the Hanzōmon subway line which runs from Hanzōmon Station in central Tokyo to the southwestern suburbs is named after the gate, where his house was once located. The neighborhood outside Hanzō's Gate is known as Wakaba, but before 1943 was named Iga-chō (\"Iga Town\"). Hanzō's remains now rest in the Sainen-ji temple cemetery in Yotsuya, Tokyo. The temple also holds his favorite spear and his ceremonial battle helmet. The spear, originally long and given to him by Ieyasu, was donated to the temple by Hanzō as a votive offering, but was damaged during the bombing of Tokyo in 1945. Hattori Hanzō makes frequent appearance in popular culture, both within Japan and abroad. In modern popular culture he is most often portrayed as involved with the Iga ninja clansmen." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Club career.", "Dynamo Kyiv.", "A.C. Milan.", "Chelsea.", "Loan to A.C. Milan.", "Return to Dynamo Kyiv.", "International career.", "Style of play.", "Coaching and managerial career.", "Political career.", "Personal life.", "Name.", "Media.", "Career statistics.", "Club.", "Honours." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Shevchenko was born in Dvirkivshchyna, Ukrainian SSR. He was born in the family of \"Praporshchik\" Mykola Hryhorovych Shevchenko. In 1979, his family moved to the newly built neighbourhood in Kiev – Obolon (Minsk District was created in 1975). In Kiev, Shevchenko went to the 216th City School and in 1986 (aged 9) enrolled into the football section coached by Oleksandr Shpakov. Because of the accident at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant, together with his sport group he was evacuated temporarily from the city. At an early age, he also was a competitive boxer in the LLWI Ukrainian junior league, but eventually he elected to move on to football.", "", "In 1986, Shevchenko failed a dribbling test for entrance to a specialist sports school in Kiev, but happened to catch the eye of a Dynamo Kyiv scout while playing in a youth tournament, and was thus brought to the club. Four years later, Shevchenko was on the Dynamo under-14 team for the Ian Rush Cup (now the Welsh Super Cup); he finished as the tournament's top scorer and was awarded a pair of Rush's boots as a prize by the then-Liverpool player. Shevchenko started out his professional career at age 16 when he came on for only 12 minutes as a substitute in a 0–2 home loss to the Odessa second team Chornomorets-2 Odessa on 5 May 1993. He was a substitute for the last six home games of the 1992–93 Ukrainian First League and did not score any goals. The next 1993–94 season at the second tier, Shevchenko was the top goal scorer for Dynamo-2 with 12 goals, and he made his first appearance in the starting XI. Shevchenko scored his first goal against Krystal Chortkiv at the home 1–1 draw on 7 October 1993. During the same season, he recorded his first hat-trick in a home game against Artania Ochakiv on 21 November 1993 which Dynamo-2 won 4–1. Shevchenko stayed with Dynamo-2 until the end of 1994 and once again he was called up for one game in late 1996. He made his Vyshcha Liha debut for Dynamo squad on 8 November 1994 in an away game against Shakhtar Donetsk when he was 18. It was actually his second game for the senior squad overall after he played a home game of National Cup competition on 5 November 1994 against Skala Stryi. That year Shevchenko became a national champion and became a cup holder with Dynamo. He won his second league title the next season, scoring 6 goals in 20 matches, and scored a hat-trick in the first half of a 1997–98 UEFA Champions League road match against Barcelona, which Dynamo won 4–0. His 19 goals in 23 league matches and six goals in ten Champions League matches (including a hat-trick over two legs against Real Madrid) were followed by 28 total goals in all competitions in 1998–99. He won the domestic league title with Dynamo in each of his five seasons with the club.", "In 1999, Shevchenko joined Italian club A.C. Milan for a then-record transfer fee of $25 million. He made his league debut on 28 August 1999 in a 2–2 draw with Lecce. Alongside five other players – Michel Platini, John Charles, Gunnar Nordahl, István Nyers, and Ferenc Hirzer – he managed, as a foreign player, to win the Serie A scoring title in his debut season, finishing with 24 goals in 32 matches. Shevchenko maintained his excellent form into the 2000–01 season, scoring 24 goals in 34 matches, including nine goals in 14 Champions League games. During the same season, he also reunited with Kakha Kaladze as teammates when Milan signed the Georgian defender from Dynamo Kyiv in January 2001. Despite netting only five times in 24 matches, mainly due to injuries, Shevchenko became the first Ukrainian-born player to win the Champions League after Milan lifted their sixth trophy in 2002–03. He scored the crucial away goal against rivals Inter Milan in the semi-final, and then scored the winning penalty in the shoot out against Juventus in the final, which had ended goalless after extra time. Following Milan winning the Champions League, Shevchenko flew to Kiev to put his medal by the grave of Valeriy Lobanovskyi (who he was managed by when he was at Dynamo), who died in 2002. He finished top goalscorer in Serie A in 2003–04 for the second time in his career, scoring 24 goals in 32 matches as Milan won the \"Scudetto\" for the first time in five years. He also scored the winning goal in the UEFA Super Cup victory over Porto, leading to Milan's second trophy of the season. In August 2004, he scored three goals against Lazio as Milan won the Supercoppa Italiana. Shevchenko capped off the year by being named the 2004 European Player of the Year, becoming the third Ukrainian player ever to win the award after Oleg Blokhin and Igor Belanov. In the same year, Shevchenko was also inducted into the FIFA 100. He scored 17 goals in the 2004–05 season after missing several games with a fractured cheekbone. Shevchenko made Champions League history the following season; on 23 November 2005, he scored all four goals in Milan's 4–0 group stage drubbing of Fenerbahçe, becoming only the fifth player to accomplish this feat; his company includes Marco van Basten, Simone Inzaghi, Dado Pršo and Ruud van Nistelrooy (while Lionel Messi joined that group in the 2009–10 season and Robert Lewandowski in 2012–13 and 2019–20), and the only one to have done it in an away game. Milan eventually lost the tournament when Shevchenko missed the crucial penalty in the final against Liverpool. In the 2005–06 Champions League, he scored his last Milan goal in the second leg of the quarter-final as they eliminated Lyon after a last-minute comeback in a 3–1 victory. In the semi-final, Milan lost to eventual winners Barcelona 1–0, a match where Shevchenko controversially had a last minute equaliser denied by the referee. Despite this, he still ended up being the top scorer of the whole competition with 9 goals in 12 games. On 8 February 2006, Shevchenko became Milan's second highest all-time goalscorer, behind Gunnar Nordahl, after netting against Treviso. He finished the season as joint fourth-top scorer with 19 goals in 28 games. Shevchenko ended his seven-year stint with Milan with 175 goals in 296 games.", "During the summer of 2005, there were persistent reports that Chelsea owner Roman Abramovich offered a record sum €73 million and striker Hernán Crespo to Milan in exchange for Shevchenko. Milan refused the monetary offer but took Crespo on loan. Chelsea chief executive Peter Kenyon was quoted as saying, \"I think Shevchenko is the type of player we would like. At the end of the day to improve what we have got, it has to be a great player and Shevchenko certainly comes into that class.\" Shevchenko cited that the persistence of Abramovich was a key factor in his move. Milan, desperate to keep the striker, offered Shevchenko a six-year contract extension. On 28 May 2006, Shevchenko left Milan for Chelsea for £30.8 million (€43.875million), topping Michael Essien's transfer fee from the previous year and also breaking the record for a player signed by an English club. He received the number seven shirt, as Chelsea manager José Mourinho said that Shevchenko could continue wearing it. Shevchenko made his debut for Chelsea on 13 August 2006 in the FA Community Shield, scoring his side's goal in a 2–1 loss to Liverpool. On 23 August, he scored his first Premier League goal – and his 300th in top-flight and international football – in a 2–1 loss to Middlesbrough. He scored goals sporadically throughout the season, including equalisers against Porto and Valencia in the 2006–07 Champions League and another against London rival club Tottenham Hotspur in the FA Cup to help take his side into the semi-final. He finished with a total of 14 from 51 games. During the campaign, he netted his 57th career goal in European competitions, leaving him second behind Gerd Müller on the all-time European goalscorers list, before Filippo Inzaghi made the record his own in the 2007–08 Champions League. Shevchenko's 2006–07 season was cut short due to injury and a hernia operation. He missed the Champions League semi-final against Liverpool and the FA Cup final against Manchester United at the new Wembley Stadium on 19 May 2007. He did, however, start for Chelsea in the 2007 League Cup final victory over Arsenal in which he hit the bar which would have given Chelsea a 3–1 lead. Shevchenko was handed his first start of the 2007–08 season against Blackburn Rovers at home to cover for the injured Didier Drogba, but the game finished goalless. His first goal of the season came three days later, equalising for Chelsea in a match against Rosenborg, which turned out to be José Mourinho's last game as manager of Chelsea. Throughout the season, Shevchenko was in and out of the starting line-up because of injuries and the appointment of Avram Grant following the departure of Mourinho. During the Christmas period, however, Shevchenko enjoyed a good run of form. He scored the first goal in Chelsea's 2–0 win over Sunderland, and he was named man of the match in Chelsea's 4–4 draw against Aston Villa at Stamford Bridge, scoring twice (including a stunning 25-yard shot into the top left hand corner) and assisting Alex to make the score 3–2 in Chelsea's favour. Shevchenko scored his last goal in the 2007–08 season in a 1–1 draw with Bolton Wanderers. He finished the season with five league goals in 17 games. Shevchenko also played a part in a pre-season match which was against his former team, Milan.", "Shevchenko was not used very often in the starting line-up at Chelsea, and with the appointment of Luiz Felipe Scolari, he was deemed surplus to requirements. Due to this, Milan vice-president Adriano Galliani offered to take Shevchenko back to the San Siro and Shevchenko was loaned back to his old club for the 2008–09 season. Shevchenko's second spell was considered unsuccessful, as he failed to score any league goals and only scored 2 goals in 26 appearances, starting only nine of those games. At the end of the season, Milan confirmed that Shevchenko would be returning to Chelsea for the final year of his four-year contract. At the end of that season, it was also announced that Milan's manager, Carlo Ancelotti, would also be leaving to join Chelsea. Shevchenko was not even on the bench for Chelsea's penalty shoot-out victory over Manchester United at Wembley at the weekend in the season-opening Community Shield. After making a late appearance for Chelsea in their second game of the 2009–10 season, Ancelotti announced that Shevchenko would be likely to leave Chelsea before the summer transfer window closed. Despite this, Ancelotti said it had nothing to do with his decision to leave Shevchenko out of Chelsea's 2009–10 Champions League squad, but just to continue playing first-team football.", "On 28 August 2009, Shevchenko signed a two-year deal at his former club Dynamo Kyiv and scored a penalty-goal in his first game upon returning to his former club against Metalurh Donetsk in Dynamo's 3–1 victory on 31 August 2009. He was mostly used as a left winger, and was named left winger in the 2009 team of the season. On 16 September 2009, Shevchenko played his first Champions League match after returning to Dynamo, against Rubin Kazan, in Dynamo's first game of the 2009–10 season. In October 2009, he was named the best player of the Ukrainian Premier League. On 4 November 2009, he scored a goal in the game against Inter, cross-city rivals of his former club Milan, in the fourth game of the Champions League season. It was the 15th goal he had scored against Inter in his career. On 25 August 2010, he scored a penalty against Ajax in the second game against two teams in qualifications level for 2010–11 Champions League. On 28 July 2012, Shevchenko announced that he was quitting football for politics.", "Shevchenko achieved 111 caps and scored 48 goals for the Ukrainian national team, whom he represented at the 2006 FIFA World Cup and UEFA Euro 2012. He earned his first cap in 1995 and scored his first international goal in May 1996 in a friendly against Turkey. During qualification for the 1998 World Cup, Shevchenko scored three times as Ukraine finished second in Group G to earn a place in the play-offs. Ukraine were knocked out 3–1 on aggregate by Croatia, the team who would go on to finish third in the finals, with Shevchenko scoring Ukraine's goal in the home leg. Ukraine performed similarly impressively in UEFA Euro 2000 qualifying, again making the play-offs after finishing one point behind World Champions France in Group 4. However, the team again failed at the play-off stage, losing to underdogs Slovenia. Overall, Shevchenko scored four times for Ukraine during their Euro 2000 qualifying campaign. In March 2000, Dynamo manager Valeri Lobanovsky became Ukraine's coach, with the aim to qualify for the 2002 World Cup finals. Shevchenko scored ten goals in the qualifiers, but Ukraine again failed to qualify after losing a play-off, this time against Germany. He then scored a total of three goals in Ukraine's Euro 2004 qualifying round, but the team failed to qualify for the play-offs, finishing below Greece and Spain in third place in Group 6. Shevchenko scored six goals in qualifying for the 2006 World Cup, to take his country to its first ever major tournament. He captained the team at the finals and scored in Ukraine's first ever World Cup win, a 4–0 defeat of Saudi Arabia. He then scored the winning goal from a penalty kick as Ukraine beat Tunisia 1–0 to qualify for the second round where, despite Shevchenko failing with their first kick, Ukraine knocked out Switzerland on penalties. Ukraine were then beaten 3–0 by eventual champions Italy at the quarter-final stage. After only playing two games for Milan in the 2008–09 season, Shevcehnko was still the first choice for Ukraine, and he scored an equaliser in an 2010 World Cup qualifying match against England at Wembley Stadium. Ukraine, however, went on to lose the game 2–1 after his former Chelsea teammate John Terry scored from a free kick delivered by David Beckham. In a 21 December 2009 interview with UEFA, Shevchenko declared that he was keen to play in his home country at Euro 2012. \"After a disappointing 2010 World Cup qualifying campaign, that is my new challenge, or even dream. I will do everything to achieve that.\" In May 2012, Shevchenko was named in the Ukrainian squad for Euro 2012. In Ukraine's opening game, Shevchenko scored two headers to beat Sweden 2–1 in Group D. In Ukraine's final game, against England, Marko Dević scored a \"ghost goal\" in the second half, with Ukraine losing 1–0 to a Wayne Rooney goal. Dević's shot was hooked clear from behind the England goal-line by Shevchenko's former Chelsea teammate John Terry under the eyes of the additional assistant referee standing beside the goal (as confirmed by video replays). The incident reopened football's goal-line technology debate. Replays, however, also showed Artem Milevskiy should have been ruled offside before Dević's shot. After this game, Shevchenko announced he would retire from international football, having been Ukraine's youngest and oldest goalscorer and record marksman with 48 goals in 111 appearances. In November 2012, Shevchenko refused to accept Football Federation of Ukraine's proposal to become head coach of the Ukraine national team.", "A fast, hardworking, energetic, and well-rounded striker, Shevchenko was a prolific and highly opportunistic goalscorer, who was usually deployed as an out-and-out striker in a centre-forward role, although he was capable of operating anywhere along the front line, and often played in a free role, in which he could attack from the left wing, and get past opposing defenders with his runs into the penalty area, courtesy of his pace and movement off the ball. He also occupied a wider position as an outright winger on the left flank at times, in particular at the beginning of his career, and also during his second stint with Dynamo Kyiv during his later years; he was also capable of playing on the right. Shevchenko was also effective from set-pieces, and was an accurate penalty taker. A strong and physical striker with an eye for goal, he was primarily known for his excellent positional sense, movement off the ball, and finishing ability inside the box, as well as his composure in front of goal; moreover, he possessed a powerful and accurate shot with either foot, from both inside and outside the area. Although he was not known to take part in aerial duels frequently, he was also good in the air, due to his heading ability. Often compared by pundits to fellow former Milan striker Marco van Basten, although he was not as elegant as the Dutch forward, he also possessed good technique; furthermore, despite mainly being a goalscorer, he was capable of playing off of his teammates, in addition to scoring goals himself, due to his link-up play.", "From 16 February 2016 to 15 July 2016, Shevchenko served as the assistant manager of the Ukraine national team. On 15 July 2016, Shevchenko was appointed as manager of the Ukraine national team. The 39-year-old replaced Mykhaylo Fomenko, whose four-year spell ended with elimination at the group stage of Euro 2016. He signed a two-year contract with the possibility of another two-year extension. Former Italy and Milan defender Mauro Tassotti, who was assistant coach when Shevchenko was at Milan, joined his coaching staff, as did former Dynamo coach Raúl Riancho, and former Milan Youth System coach Andrea Maldera. On 14 October 2019, Shevchenko led Ukraine to qualify for Euro 2020 with a 2–1 home win over reigning European champions Portugal.", "In the late 1990s, Shevchenko and other teammates of Dynamo Kyiv publicly backed the Social Democratic Party of Ukraine (united). During the 2004 Ukrainian presidential election, Shevchenko publicly endorsed candidate Viktor Yanukovych. After his retirement in June 2012, Shevchenko immediately joined Ukraine – Forward! (formerly known as Ukrainian Social Democratic Party) and took second place on the party list for the October 2012 Ukrainian parliamentary election. This was in spite of him stating a month earlier that he wanted to coach after his playing career: \"This is the world I understand, the world I want to stay in.\" In the election his party won 1.58% of the national votes and no constituencies and thus failed to win parliamentary representation.", "Shevchenko is married to American model Kristen Pazik. The couple met at a Giorgio Armani afterparty in 2002, and married on 14 July 2004 in a private ceremony on a golf course in Washington, D.C. They communicate with each other in Italian, though Shevchenko had previously made public his desire to learn English. After his return to Dynamo Kyiv in August 2009, the couple declared that they want their children to learn Ukrainian. The couple have four sons: Jordan, born on 29 October 2004, Kristian, born on 10 November 2006, Alexander, born on 1 October 2012 and Rider Gabriel, born on 6 April 2014. Shevchenko commemorated Jordan's birth by scoring against Sampdoria the following day (Milan won 1–0). Milan owner and former Prime Minister of Italy Silvio Berlusconi is the godfather of Shevchenko's first son, Jordan. The day after Kristian's birth, Shevchenko scored in a 4–0 Chelsea victory over Watford and he and several of his teammates gathered and performed the popular \"rock-the-baby\" goal celebration as a tribute. Shevchenko is a close friend of fashion designer Giorgio Armani, and has modelled for Armani and opened two boutiques with him in Kiev. With his wife, he has started an e-commerce Web site called Ikkon.com, dedicated to men's fashion and lifestyle. In June 2005, he became an ambassador for the SOS Children's Villages charity. Shevchenko also has a foundation to support orphaned children. Shevchenko, an avid golfer, participated in his first professional golf tournament, the Kharkov Superior Cup, in September 2013. Shevchenko represented the Rest of the World team against England for Soccer Aid on 8 June 2014.", "Shevchenko's first name ( in Ukrainian) has multiple ways of being transliterated from its original spelling in the Ukrainian Cyrillic alphabet into the Latin alphabet. \"Andriy\" is the spelling used throughout the player's official web site. It has also been adopted by UEFA and FIFA and is the preferred spelling in most English publications (although \"Andrii\" is used by \"World Soccer\" magazine and \"Andrei\" by Sky Sports).", "Shevchenko features in EA Sports' \"FIFA\" video game series; he was on the cover of \"FIFA 2005\", and was introduced as one of the Ultimate Team Legends in \"FIFA 14\" and has been an Ultimate Team Legend in every FIFA game since.", "", "\"*Other tournaments include Supercoppa Italiana, Community Shield, Football League Cup and Intercontinental Cup\"", "Dynamo Kyiv A.C. Milan Chelsea Individual" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Economic history.", "Climate.", "Uşak carpets." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The first known organized states to have ruled over the region of present-day Uşak were the Phrygians in the eastern portion and the Lydians in the west during the seventh century BC. The Karun Treasure, discovered by clandestine treasure hunters in Uşak in 1965, and whose smuggling outside Turkey and subsequent retrieval decades later from New York City's Metropolitan Museum of Art made international headlines, gives an indication of the high degree of civilization attained by these Anatolian states. The region of Lydia was later taken over by the Persian Empire in the 6th century BC and by Alexander the Great and his successors as of the 4th century. Thereafter, Uşak was ruled successively by the Roman Empire, the Byzantine Empire, the Germiyanids and finally the Ottoman Empire (as of 1429). Throughout classical times, until the Byzantine period, the city was called Ousakeion (Ουσάκειον) in Greek. Later, following Turkish conquest and domination over the area, the city became known by its Turkish name of \"Uşşak\"; which could mean \"lovers\" and \"minstrels\" simultaneously. Tradition privileges the second derivation, which could be a reference to the region's rich folk literature. Uşak was occupied by the Greek army between 28 August 1920 and 1 September 1922. During the Greek retreat, Greek general Nikolaos Trikoupis was captured near Uşak at the village of Göğem, today buried under a dam reservoir. Uşak was a district center within Kütahya Province until 1953, when Uşak Province was constituted and Uşak became its provincial capital.", "At least since the 17th century there was trade between Uşak and the Dutch republic as reflected in the rug shown thrown over the bannister in Vermeer's painting \"The Procuress.\" The rug was probably produced in Uşak, covers a third of the painting and shows medaillons and leaves. In the early 20th century, mercury was discovered in Uşak. The town also manufactured carpet. Among other district centers in Uşak Province, Banaz is the largest and is notable for its varied agricultural production as well as for its forests, while Ulubey's canyon is a natural site attracting many visitors.", "Uşak has a continental Mediterranean climate with cold, wet and regularly snowy winters and hot, long and dry summers.", "In pre-industrial times, Uşak was already a major center of production and export, particularly of Ushak carpets. Ushak carpets are also called Holbein carpets in reference to the 16th century painter Hans Holbein the Younger who depicted them in minute detail in his paintings, reflecting their popularity in European markets. The level of international popularity attained by Uşak's carpets became such that the word \"Ushak\" is considered an English word of Turkic origin. Although Uşak's carpet patterns have evolved since then, large-scale weaving still continues and the name of the city still has an important presence in the market for carpets, both hand-woven and industrial. On the other hand, the district of Eşme, which is also in Uşak Province, is famous for its \"kilims\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Small size parameter approximation.", "From molecules.", "Effect of fluctuations.", "Cause of the blue color of the sky.", "In optical fibers.", "In porous materials." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In 1869, while attempting to determine whether any contaminants remained in the purified air he used for infrared experiments, John Tyndall discovered that bright light scattering off nanoscopic particulates was faintly blue-tinted. He conjectured that a similar scattering of sunlight gave the sky its blue hue, but he could not explain the preference for blue light, nor could atmospheric dust explain the intensity of the sky's color. In 1871, Lord Rayleigh published two papers on the color and polarization of skylight to quantify Tyndall's effect in water droplets in terms of the tiny particulates' volumes and refractive indices. In 1881 with the benefit of James Clerk Maxwell's 1865 proof of the electromagnetic nature of light, he showed that his equations followed from electromagnetism. In 1899, he showed that they applied to individual molecules, with terms containing particulate volumes and refractive indices replaced with terms for molecular polarizability.", "The size of a scattering particle is often parameterized by the ratio formula_1 where \"r\" is the particle's radius, \"λ\" is the wavelength of the light and \"x\" is a dimensionless parameter that characterizes the particle's interaction with the incident radiation such that: Objects with x ≫ 1 act as geometric shapes, scattering light according to their projected area. At the intermediate x ≃ 1 of Mie scattering, interference effects develop through phase variations over the object's surface. Rayleigh scattering applies to the case when the scattering particle is very small (x ≪ 1, with a particle size < 1 /10 wavelength) and the whole surface re-radiates with the same phase. Because the particles are randomly positioned, the scattered light arrives at a particular point with a random collection of phases; it is incoherent and the resulting intensity is just the sum of the squares of the amplitudes from each particle and therefore proportional to the inverse fourth power of the wavelength and the sixth power of its size. The wavelength dependence is characteristic of dipole scattering and the volume dependence will apply to any scattering mechanism. In detail, the intensity \"I\" of light scattered by any one of the small spheres of diameter \"d\" and refractive index n from a beam of unpolarized light of wavelength \"λ\" and intensity \"I\" is given by formula_2 where \"R\" is the distance to the particle and \"θ\" is the scattering angle. Averaging this over all angles gives the Rayleigh scattering cross-section formula_3 The fraction of light scattered by a group of scattering particles is the number of particles per unit volume \"N\" times the cross-section. For example, the major constituent of the atmosphere, nitrogen, has a Rayleigh cross section of at a wavelength of 532 nm (green light). This means that at atmospheric pressure, where there are about molecules per cubic meter, about a fraction 10 of the light will be scattered for every meter of travel. The strong wavelength dependence of the scattering (~\"λ\") means that shorter (blue) wavelengths are scattered more strongly than longer (red) wavelengths.", "The expression above can also be written in terms of individual molecules by expressing the dependence on refractive index in terms of the molecular polarizability \"α\", proportional to the dipole moment induced by the electric field of the light. In this case, the Rayleigh scattering intensity for a single particle is given in CGS-units by formula_4", "When the dielectric constant formula_5 of a certain region of volume formula_6 is different from the average dielectric constant of the medium formula_7, then any incident light will be scattered according to the following equation formula_8where formula_9 represents the variance of the fluctuation in the dielectric constant formula_5.", "The strong wavelength dependence of the scattering (~\"λ\") means that shorter (blue) wavelengths are scattered more strongly than longer (red) wavelengths. This results in the indirect blue light coming from all regions of the sky. Rayleigh scattering is a good approximation of the manner in which light scattering occurs within various media for which scattering particles have a small size (parameter). A portion of the beam of light coming from the sun scatters off molecules of gas and other small particles in the atmosphere. Here, Rayleigh scattering primarily occurs through sunlight's interaction with randomly located air molecules. It is this scattered light that gives the surrounding sky its brightness and its color. As previously stated, Rayleigh scattering is inversely proportional to the fourth power of wavelength, so that shorter wavelength violet and blue light will scatter more than the longer wavelengths (yellow and especially red light). However, the Sun, like any star, has its own spectrum and so \"I\" in the scattering formula above is not constant but falls away in the violet. In addition the oxygen in the Earth's atmosphere absorbs wavelengths at the edge of the ultra-violet region of the spectrum. The resulting color, which appears like a pale blue, actually is a mixture of all the scattered colors, mainly blue and green. Conversely, glancing toward the sun, the colors that were not scattered away — the longer wavelengths such as red and yellow light — are directly visible, giving the sun itself a slightly yellowish hue. Viewed from space, however, the sky is black and the sun is white. The reddening of the sun is intensified when it is near the horizon because the light being received directly from it must pass through more of the atmosphere. The effect is further increased because the sunlight must pass through a greater proportion of the atmosphere nearer the earth's surface, where it is denser. This removes a significant proportion of the shorter wavelength (blue) and medium wavelength (green) light from the direct path to the observer. The remaining unscattered light is therefore mostly of longer wavelengths and appears more red. Some of the scattering can also be from sulfate particles. For years after large Plinian eruptions, the blue cast of the sky is notably brightened by the persistent sulfate load of the stratospheric gases. Some works of the artist J. M. W. Turner may owe their vivid red colours to the eruption of Mount Tambora in his lifetime. In locations with little light pollution, the moonlit night sky is also blue, because moonlight is reflected sunlight, with a slightly lower color temperature due to the brownish color of the moon. The moonlit sky is not perceived as blue, however, because at low light levels human vision comes mainly from rod cells that do not produce any color perception (Purkinje effect).", "Rayleigh scattering is an important component of the scattering of optical signals in optical fibers. Silica fibers are glasses, disordered materials with microscopic variations of density and refractive index. These give rise to energy losses due to the scattered light, with the following coefficient: formula_11 where \"n\" is the refraction index, \"p\" is the photoelastic coefficient of the glass, \"k\" is the Boltzmann constant, and \"β\" is the isothermal compressibility. \"T\" is a \"fictive temperature\", representing the temperature at which the density fluctuations are \"frozen\" in the material.", "Rayleigh-type \"λ\" scattering can also be exhibited by porous materials. An example is the strong optical scattering by nanoporous materials. The strong contrast in refractive index between pores and solid parts of sintered alumina results in very strong scattering, with light completely changing direction each five micrometers on average. The \"λ\"-type scattering is caused by the nanoporous structure (a narrow pore size distribution around ~70 nm) obtained by sintering monodispersive alumina powder." ] }

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{ "title": [ "First generation (\"Typ\" 1U; 1996–2010).", "Engines.", "Motorsport.", "Second generation (\"Typ\" 1Z; 2004–2013).", "Engines.", "Trim levels.", "Facelift.", "Third generation (\"Typ\" 5E; 2012–2020).", "Engines.", "Facelift.", "Fourth generation (2020–present)." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The first generation Octavia was released in November 1996 and was built at the modernised Škoda factory in Mladá Boleslav, Czech Republic. This generation was made available in sedan or estate styles only. In the United Kingdom, sales began in 1998 and the mid-size car was a success, nearing the success of established large family car favourites such as the Ford Mondeo and Vauxhall Vectra. The first generation Octavia had a facelift in 2000, and was still manufactured and marketed in some markets, even after the second generation was introduced in 2004. In Germany, and other parts of West Europe, as well as Asia, the first generation model was marketed as the Octavia Tour, while the newer model is marketed as the Octavia. In some markets, the first generation Octavia was still known as Octavia, and the newer model was referred to as the new Octavia, Octavia5 (Greece) or Laura (India). In India, Octavia was launched in 2002 and was an instant hit with Indians for its frugal engines and solid build. It became a huge success in India, selling 44,900 units. Revisions to the facelifted model included independent rear suspension and revised interior. The facelifted Octavia featured a 4x4 wheel drive version both for the estate and more popular sedan models, and used the Haldex Traction clutch, like other Volkswagen Group A platform based cars (Golf IV, Audi A3 and Seat Leon Cupra R4). It had higher ground clearance and a bigger fuel tank carrying compared to the standard front wheel drive versions. The 4x4 option was only available with the 1.8 T petrol engine, the 1.9 TDI diesel engine, or the 2.0 L petrol engine, all coupled with a 5-speed manual gearbox, and with the 1.9 TDI-PD (Pumpe-Düse) diesel engine which came with a 6-speed manual gearbox. The other 6-speed manual model was the 1.9 TDI-PD, only available with front-wheel-drive. The vRS was the top-level and quickest specification and used a 1.8-litre straight-4 turbocharged engine which produced. Škoda made a limited number of 100 WRC Replica Cars worldwide in 2002. These differ from normal vRS Octavias, as they are produced in white, have rally decals and have additional accessories as standard (such as ESP, xenon lights, heated front seats).", "The engines used are the same as for many other cars in the Volkswagen Group:", "The Škoda Octavia has been used in the European Touring Car Championship, the World Rally Championship and the FIA 2-Litre World Rally Cup.", "The second-generation Octavia was introduced in March 2004, based on the Volkswagen Group A5 (PQ35) platform also used by other Volkswagen Group cars, such as the Audi A3 Mk2, Volkswagen Golf Mk5, Volkswagen Jetta Mk5, SEAT León Mk2, etc. Responsible for the design were Thomas Ingenlath and Peter Wouda. Along with a new internal-combustion engine range, also shared with other models of the Volkswagen Group, body changes included more legroom for rear-seat passengers (a weak point in the original model) and increased ground clearance at front and rear to reduce the risk of grounding on steep ramps or facing kerbs. In addition to the Czech factories in Mladá Boleslav and Vrchlabi, from 2008, the Octavia has also been produced at a factory in Bratislava, Slovakia, and in Shanghai, China, under the joint venture of Shanghai Volkswagen. In Russia, the Octavia is assembled at the Volkswagen plant in Kaluga. In India, the second-generation Octavia was marketed as the Laura to distinguish it from the first generation. The car was marketed in a higher-income segment, and was sold alongside the previous-generation Octavia. However, the first generation ended production in India in 2010, and as of 2012, the Laura's price was reduced and was competing in its predecessor's segment. Two four-wheel drive versions of the Octavia are made: the 4x4 and the Scout, both featuring a Haldex Traction four-wheel drive system, based on a computer-controlled clutch centre coupling. The two models both have higher ground clearance than the standard Octavia, increased by for the 4x4 and by for the Scout. The Scout, announced in 2006, is only available with the estate body style, and has several crossover-style exterior modifications, such as larger bumpers. In August 2011, a special Škoda Octavia vRS hit the world record on the American Bonneville Speedway and became the fastest car in the world with an up to two-litre engine, when it hit.", "Several engine options are available. All engines are inline-four cylinder designs, water-cooled and use multipoint fuel injection. All diesel engines are turbocharged direct injection (TDI) engines. Notes:", "In the United Kingdom, the Octavia is available in these trim levels: Classic (now called S), Ambiente (now called SE), 4x4 (estate only), Elegance, Laurin & Klement, Scout 4x4 (estate only), and vRS. All models come with four airbags, electric front windows, air conditioning, central locking and antilock braking system. In some markets, including British and Czech, a version aimed to lower fuel consumption called Greenline is also available. As of September 2011, trim levels have been renamed to Active (Classic) and Ambition (Ambiente).", "A facelifted version was launched in 2009, after being formally unveiled at the 2008 Paris Motor Show. The modifications of the facelifted version include aesthetic exterior changes, mechanical changes, and interior features. Externally, the designs of the headlights and bumpers were revised. Some changes were made to the range of available engines and manual and automatic gearboxes, with the 1.4 TSI and 1.8 TSI engines and the seven-speed direct-shift gearbox transmission available for the first time. Inside the car, the stereo and steering wheels were revised, along with some of the interior trim.", "The third-generation Octavia was revealed on 11 December 2012, at the Škoda museum in Mladá Boleslav. The car began to appear in showrooms in key European markets in February 2013. Previously, photos of the car covered in light camouflage were released to the media in late October 2012, after other pre-production cars had already been spotted on several occasions during the same month. It was once again spotted, this time without camouflage, on 18 November 2012, in Santiago, Chile, in both sedan and estate body styles, during the filming of a TV advertisement. The car, designed by Jozef Kabaň, recalls the VisionD concept car presented in 2011. The new model is longer and wider than the second generation and the wheelbase lengthened by. It is also up to 102 kg lighter than the previous model. The interior length of the third-generation ŠKODA Octavia has grown - in comparison to its predecessor - by to, while the legroom for the backseat passengers grew by to now. The headroom in the back was increased to (Octavia II: ). The elbow width was also increased, in the front by to, and in the rear by to. Similarly, the shoulder room was optimised, in the front to by adding, and in the rear to, a plus of. The luggage compartment volume is a class leading, slightly more than the of the previous generation model or of the larger Volkswagen Passat. From May 2013, Octavia customers wishing to carry more can opt for the Combi (estate) version with its luggage capacity. The third-generation Octavia is the first Škoda car to feature front radar and a multifunction camera. The radar sensor in the front bumper monitors the area in front of the vehicle and continually evaluates the distance, direction, and speed of all nearby objects (not only traffic). This radar provides data for two assistants in the Octavia: Front Assistant (forward collision warning and emergency braking) and Adaptive Cruise Assistant (adaptive cruise control). A monochromatic fixed-focus multifunction camera is mounted on the windscreen in front of the rear mirror, and allows function of Lane Assistant (lane keeping system), Intelligent Light Assistant (automatic control of the high beams) and Traffic Sign Recognition (recognises and shows traffic signs on displays of both on-board computer and satellite navigation). Added to this are assists, whose functionality is based on evaluating data provided by ESC or steering sensors: Crew Protect Assistant (proactive passenger protection), and Driver Activity Assistant (fatigue detection). The Octavia features numerous so-called ‘Simply Clever‘ details, i.e. an ice scraper inside the fuel filler flap, a rubbish bin inside the door panel, and a double-sided (rubber/textile) floor mat in the boot. A tilting/sliding panoramic sunroof is available as an option – single-piece for the Octavia sedan and two-piece for the Octavia Combi. The Bolero, Amundsen, and Columbus car radios are protected against theft by the physical separation of the central display and the multimedia system’s own central unit. The Octavia also offers a Phone Box, a storage compartment for the mobile phone with planar antenna in the bottom of the compartment, which permits a so-called inductive exterior antenna connection. For the front-wheel Octavia, engine outputs are offered of 63–132 kW (86–179 PS) on petrol/gasoline cars and 66–110 kW (90–150 PS) for the diesel engines. The two environmentally friendly versions of the Octavia are: the GreenLine version with 1.6-litre diesel produces only 85 grams of CO per km; the G-TEC is fitted with 1.4-litre TSI engine running on CNG and emitting 97 grams of CO per km. The all-wheel drive Octavia Combi can be powered by one petrol (1.8 TSI/132 kW) and three diesel engines (ranging from 77-135 kW). The Octavia RS, available in both the sedan and estate body styles, was premiered at the Goodwood Festival of Speed 2013. It features the 162 kW (220 PS) 2.0 TSI engine from the newly launched Golf 7 GTI and the 135 kW (184 PS) 2.0 TDI engine from the Golf 7 GTD. With a top speed of, the Octavia RS with petrol engine and manual gearbox was acclaimed to be the fastest production Octavia ever. In comparison with standard car, the sports Octavia features progressive steering (variable-ratio steering), sports chassis, electronic differential lock (XDS) and so-called ‘Performance Sound Generator‘, that enhances sporty sound of the engine. The source of sound vibrations is the electromagnetic pulse generator placed in the area under/in front of the windshield. The sound vibrations are spreading into the car’s cabin through the body and the windshield. The frequency and intensity of the sound is dependent not only on the profile chosen, but also the engine revolutions, driving speed and engine load (the throttle pedal position). The generated sound is directed inside the cabin, especially to the front seat area. Škoda used the 2015 Geneva Motor Show to shine the spotlight on its new and more powerful Octavia RS 230. The car has 230 PS (10 PS more than stock) and this helps it shave a tenth off its benchmark sprint time and adds 2 km/h to the car’s top speed which increases to 250 km/h (155 mph); it also gets a standard electronic differential in this version and lower, stiffer springs. In early 2014, Škoda revealed the Scout; it has raised suspension, plastic cladding, and four-wheel drive. In early 2017, the third-generation facelift Octavia arrived in the showrooms, with the main visible difference being the split front headlights.", "Overview of engines available for the third-generation Octavia (A7, Typ 5E) with front-wheel drive, including vRS version. Petrol engines Diesel engines (*)CNG consumption in m3/100 km. Consumption of 1 m3 of CNG is adequate to 1 l of petrol. Overview of engines available for the 3rd-generation Octavia Combi 4x4 (A7, Typ 5E) with all-wheel drive, incl. the Scout version. Petrol engines Diesel engines", "On 10 January 2017 in Vienna, Škoda presented the third-generation Octavia facelift. The main changes brought mainly split front headlights, solid centre section on the front grille and a new system for predictive pedestrian protection. Plastic (exterior) side door mouldings were absent on the facelift Scout model. The first cars were delivered to customers before spring.", "The fourth generation Octavia was revealed in Prague on 11 November 2019. It was scheduled to be delivered to customers starting from June 2020, but was postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Academic career.", "Work.", "Criticism.", "Awards and distinctions.", "Personal life." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Davies was born to Richard and Elizabeth Davies in Bolton, Lancashire. He is of Welsh descent. He studied in Grenoble, France, from 1957 to 1958 and then under A. J. P. Taylor at Magdalen College, Oxford, where he earned a BA in history in 1962. He was awarded an MA at the University of Sussex in 1966 and also studied in Perugia, Italy. Davies intended to study for a PhD in the Soviet Union but was denied an entry visa, so instead he went to Kraków, Poland, to study at the Jagiellonian University and did research on the Polish–Soviet War. As this war was denied in the official communist Polish historiography of that time, he was obliged to change the title of his dissertation to \"The British Foreign Policy towards Poland, 1919–20\". After he obtained his PhD in Kraków in 1968, the English text was published in 1972 under the title \"White Eagle, Red Star. The Polish–Soviet War 1919–20\". From 1971, Davies taught Polish history at the School of Slavonic and East European Studies of University College London, where he was professor from 1985 to 1996, when he retired. He subsequently became Supernumerary Fellow at Wolfson College, Oxford, from 1997 to 2006. Throughout his career, Davies has lectured in many countries, including the United States, Canada, Australia, Japan, China, Poland and in most of the rest of Europe as well. Stanford University's history department denied Davies a tenured faculty position in 1986 (on an 11 against, 10 for and 1 abstaining, vote). The decision was described as \"the closest, most acrimonious tenure decision of recent years\". After failing to arrange a formal review hearing of the decision, Davies filed a lawsuit against History Professor Harold Kahn and 29 other Stanford professors. This case was dismissed when Davies was unable to depose Kahn. Davies subsequently sought to obtain $3 million in damages from the university, arguing he had been the victim of discrimination on the grounds of his political views (with the claim being \"defamation,\" \"breach of contract\" and \"tortious interference\" with a business). The court ruled that because of California's right of privacy \"even if we assume that... a candidate may be denied tenure for improper\" [e.g., defamatory] \"reasons, we are of the opinion that the right of a faculty member to discuss with his colleagues the candidate's qualifications thoroughly and candidly, in confidence and without fear of compelled disclosure, is of such paramount value that it ought not to be impaired.\" The court upheld the university's right to decide on faculty appointments on the basis of any criteria. Davies is a visiting professor at the Collège d'Europe.", "Davies' first book, \"White Eagle, Red Star: The Polish-Soviet War, 1919–20\" was published in 1972. His 1981 book \"God's Playground\", a comprehensive overview of Polish history, was published officially in Poland only after the fall of communism. In 1984, Davies published \"Heart of Europe\", a briefer history of Poland, in which the chapters are arranged in reverse chronological order. In the 1990s, Davies published \"\" (1996) and \"\" (1999), about Europe and the islands of Great Britain and Ireland, respectively. Each book is a narrative interlarded with numerous sidepanel discussions of microtopics. In 2000, Davies' Polish publishers \"Znak\" published a collection of his essays and articles under the title \"Smok wawelski nad Tamizą\" (\"The Wawel Dragon on the Thames\"). In 2002, at the suggestion of the city's mayor, Bogdan Zdrojewski, Davies and his former research assistant, Roger Moorhouse, co-wrote a history of Wrocław / Breslau, a Silesian city. Titled \"\", the book was published simultaneously in English, Polish and German, and was later translated to Czech, French and Italian. Davies also writes essays and articles for the mass media. Among others, he has worked for the BBC as well as British and American magazines and newspapers, such as \"The Times\", \"The New York Review of Books\" and \"The Independent\". In Poland, his articles appeared in the liberal Catholic weekly \"Tygodnik Powszechny\". Davies' book \"Rising '44. The Battle for Warsaw\" describes the Warsaw Uprising. It was followed by \"Europe at War 1939–1945: No Simple Victory\" (2006). In 2008 Davies participated in the documentary film \"The Soviet Story\".", "Historian Lucy Dawidowicz and writer Abraham Brumberg objected to Davies' historical treatment of the Holocaust in Nazi-occupied Poland. They accused him of minimising historic antisemitism, and of promoting an idea that academic views of the Holocaust in international historiography largely overlook the suffering of non-Jewish Poles. Davies himself argues that \"Holocaust scholars need have no fears that rational comparisons might threaten that uniqueness. Quite the opposite.\" and that \"one needs to re-construct mentally the fuller picture in order to comprehend the true enormity of Poland's wartime cataclysm, and then to say with absolute conviction 'Never Again'.\" Davies' \"manner and substance of academic interpretation\" of the Holocaust was cited as a factor in a controversy at Stanford University in which Davies was denied a tenured faculty position for \"scientific flaws\".", "Davies holds a number of honorary titles and memberships, including honorary doctorates from the universities of the Jagiellonian University (since 2003), Lublin, Gdańsk and Warsaw (since 2007), memberships in the Polish Academy of Learning (PAU), the Academia Scientiarum et Artium Europaea, and the International Honorary Council of the European Academy of Diplomacy, and fellowships of the British Academy and the Royal Historical Society. Davies received an honorary DLitt degree from his alma mater the University of Sussex. Davies is also an honorary citizen of Polish cities of Warsaw, Wrocław, Lublin and Kraków. He is a member of the committee for the Order of the Smile. Edward Bernard Raczyński, President of the Polish government-in-exile, decorated Davies with the Order of Polonia Restituta. On 22 December 1998 President of Poland Aleksander Kwaśniewski awarded him the Grand Cross (1st class) of the Order of Merit of the Republic of Poland. Finally, on 11 November 2012, Davies was decorated with the Order of the White Eagle, Poland's highest civilian award. In 2001, Davies was made a companion of the Order of Saint Michael and Saint George for service to Central European history. Davies has been appointed to the Advisory Board of the European Association of History Educators—EUROCLIO. In 2008, he was awarded the Order of the Cross of St Mary's Land 3rd Class by the Republic of Estonia. Davies also received Knight of Freedom Award in 2006 for his promotion of Polish history and the values represented by General Casimir Pulaski. In 2012, he received the Aleksander Gieysztor Prize for his promotion of Polish cultural heritage abroad. In 2019 he was accepted by Swedish Academy to the list of literature Nobel Prize candidates. The information was announced during author's meeting in Gniezno, Poland.", "Davies married Maria Korzeniewicz, a Polish scholar born in Dąbrowa Tarnowska. He lives in Oxford and Kraków, and has two sons. His uncle Donny died in the Munich air disaster." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Canada.", "Republic of Ireland.", "United Kingdom.", "England and Wales.", "Aggravated theft.", "Aggravated robbery.", "\"Steals\".", "Actual or threatened force against a person.", "Threat.", "Mode of trial.", "Sentence.", "History.", "Common law.", "Statute.", "Assault with intent to rob.", "Mode of trial and sentence.", "Northern Ireland.", "United States.", "California.", "Robbery statistics.", "Robberies by country.", "In popular culture.", "In video games." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "4", "4", "3", "4", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "In Canada, the Criminal Code makes robbery an indictable offence, subject to a maximum penalty of life imprisonment. If the accused uses a restricted or prohibited firearm to commit robbery, there is a mandatory minimum sentence of five years for the first offence, and seven years for subsequent offences.", "Robbery is a statutory offence in the Republic of Ireland. It is created by section 14(1) of the Criminal Justice (Theft and Fraud Offences) Act, 2001, which provides:", "", "Robbery is a statutory offence in England and Wales. It is created by section 8(1) of the Theft Act 1968 which reads:", "Robbery is the only offence of aggravated theft.", "There are no offences of aggravated robbery.", "This requires evidence to show a theft as set out in section 1(1) of the Theft Act 1968. In \"R v Robinson\" the defendant threatened the victim with a knife in order to recover money which he was actually owed. His conviction for robbery was quashed on the basis that Robinson had an honest, although unreasonable, belief (under Section 2(1)(a) of the Act) in his legal right to the money. See also \"R v Skivington\" [1968] 1 QB 166, [1967] 2 WLR 655, 131 JP 265, 111 SJ 72, [1967] 1 All ER 483, 51 Cr App R 167, CA. In \"R v Hale\" (1978) the application of force and the stealing took place in different locations, and it was not possible to establish the timing; it was held that the appropriation necessary to prove theft was a continuing act, and the jury could correctly convict of robbery. This approach was followed in \"R v Lockley\" (1995) when the force was applied to a shopkeeper after property had been taken. It was argued that the theft should be regarded as complete by this time, and \"R v Gomez\" (1993), should apply; the court disagreed, preferring to follow \"R v Hale\".", "The threat or use of force must take place immediately before or at the time of the theft. Force used after the theft is complete will not turn the theft into a robbery. The words \"or immediately after\" that appeared in section 23(1)(b) of the Larceny Act 1916 were deliberately omitted from section 8(1). The book \"Archbold\" said that the facts in \"R v Harman\", which did not amount to robbery in 1620, would not amount to robbery now. It was held in \"R v Dawson and James\" (1978) that \"force\" is an ordinary English word and its meaning should be left to the jury. This approach was confirmed in \"R v Clouden\" (1985) and \"Corcoran v Anderton\" (1980), both handbag-snatching cases. Stealing may involve a young child who is not aware that taking other persons' property is not in order.", "The victim must be placed in apprehension or fear that force would be used immediately before or at the time of the taking of the property. A threat is not immediate if the wrongdoer threatens to use force of violence some future time. Robbery occurs if an aggressor forcibly snatched a mobile phone or if they used a knife to make an implied threat of violence to the holder and then took the phone. The person being threatened does not need to be the owner of the property. It is not necessary that the victim was actually frightened, but the defendant must have put or sought to put the victim or some other person in fear of immediate force. The force or threat may be directed against a third party, for example a customer in a jeweller's shop. Theft accompanied by a threat to damage property will not constitute robbery, but it may disclose an offence of blackmail. Dishonestly dealing with property stolen during a robbery will constitute an offence of handling.", "Robbery is an indictable-only offence.", "Under current sentencing guidelines, the punishment for robbery is affected by a variety of aggravating and mitigating factors. Particularly important is how much harm was caused to the victim and how much culpability the offender had (e.g. carrying a weapon or leading a group effort implies high culpability). Robbery is divided into three categories which are, in increasing order of seriousness: street or less sophisticated commercial; dwelling; and professionally planned commercial. Robbery generally results in a custodial sentence. Only a low-harm, low-culpability robbery with other mitigating factors would result in an alternative punishment, in the form of a high level community order. The maximum legal punishment is imprisonment for life. It is also subject to the mandatory sentencing regime under the Criminal Justice Act 2003. Current sentencing guidelines advise that the sentence should be no longer than 20 years, for a high-harm, high-culpability robbery with other aggravating factors. The \"starting point\" sentences are: An offender may also serve a longer sentence if they are convicted of other offences alongside the robbery, such as assault and grievous bodily harm.", "", "Robbery was an offence under the common law of England. Matthew Hale provided the following definition: See the statutes 23 Hen 8 c 1 and 5 & 6 Edw 6 c 9 as to benefit of clergy. And also 25 Hen 8 c 3 and 1 Edw 6 c 12. And also 29 Eliz c 15 and 3 & 4 W & M c 9. The common law offence of robbery was abolished for all purposes not relating to offences committed before 1 January 1969 by section 32(1)(a) of the Theft Act 1968.", "See sections 40 to 43 of the Larceny Act 1861. Section 23 of the Larceny Act 1916 read: This section provided maximum penalties for a number of offences of robbery and aggravated robbery. The following cases relate to the use of force:", "If a robbery is foiled before it can be completed, an alternative offence (with the same penalty, given by section 8(2) of the 1968 Act) is assault; any act which intentionally or recklessly causes another to fear the immediate and unlawful use of force, with an intent to rob, will suffice. The following cases are relevant:", "Assault with intent to rob is an indictable-only offence. It is punishable with imprisonment for life or for any shorter term. Assault with intent to rob is also subject to the mandatory sentencing regime under the Criminal Justice Act 2003.", "Robbery is a statutory offence in Northern Ireland. It is created by section 8 of the Theft Act (Northern Ireland) 1969.", "In the United States, robbery is generally treated as an aggravated form of common law larceny. Specific elements and definitions differ from state to state. The common elements of robbery are: The first six elements are the same as common law larceny. It is the last two elements that aggravate the crime to common law robbery. from the person or presence of the victim – robbery requires that the property be taken directly from the person of the victim or from their presence. This is different from larceny which simply requires that property be taken from the victim's possession, actual or constructive. Property is \"on the victim's person\" if the victim is actually holding the property, or the property is contained within clothing the victim is wearing or is attached to a victim's body such as a watch or earrings. Property is in a person's presence when it is within the area of their immediate control. The property has to be close enough to the victim's person that the victim could have prevented its taking if he/she had not been placed in fear or intimidation. by force or threat of force – the use of force or threat of force is the defining element of robbery. For there to be robbery there must be \"force or fear\" in perpetrating the theft. Questions concerning the degree of force necessary for robbery have been the subject of much litigation. Merely snatching the property from the victim's person is not sufficient force unless the victim resists or one of the items is attached or carried in such a way that a significant amount of force must be used to free the item from the victim's person. For robbery the victim must be placed in \"fear\" of immediate harm by threat or intimidation. The threat need not be directed at the victim personally. Threats to third parties are sufficient. The threat must be one of present rather than future personal harm. Fear does not mean \"fright\", it means apprehension – an awareness of the danger of immediate bodily harm.", "The maximum sentence for robbery in California is 9 years, according to Penal Code section 213(a)(1)(A). The threat or use of force does not have to take place immediately before or at the time of the theft. Force used after the theft will turn the theft into a robbery unless the theft is complete. The theft is considered completed when the perpetrator reaches a place of temporary safety with the property.", "", "The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime notes \"that when using the figures, any cross-national comparisons should be conducted with caution because of the differences that exist between the legal definitions of offences in countries, or the different methods of offence counting and recording\". Also not every single crime is reported, meaning two things; (1) robbery rates are going to appear lower than they actually are and; (2) the percentage of crime that is not reported is going to be higher in some countries then others, for example – in one country 86% of the robberies were reported, whereas in another country only 67% of the robberies were reported. The last thing to note is that crime will vary by certain neighborhoods or areas in each country, so, just because a nationwide rate is a specified rate, does not mean that everywhere in that country retains the same amount of danger or safety.", "Robberies have been depicted, sometimes graphically, in various forms of media, and several robbers have become pop icons, such as Bonnie and Clyde and John Dillinger. Examples of media works focused on robberies include:", "Video games \"\" and \"Payday 2\" are both games by Overkill Software where one of the main objectives is to steal items of monetary value at places such as banks, art galleries, armored trucks, and more." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Types and placement of colours.", "Single aspects.", "Dual aspects.", "Three or more aspects & positioning of aspects.", "Traffic signal cycles.", "Variations.", "Use of traffic signals in waterways, on railroads for rail traffic.", "Pedestrian and cyclist crossing lights.", "Australia and New Zealand.", "Asia.", "Europe.", "North America.", "Auditory and tactile signals for impaired people.", "Lights for public transport.", "Turning signals and rules.", "Lane control.", "Speed sign.", "Special provisions.", "Dummy lights.", "Technology.", "Optics and lighting.", "Programmable visibility signals.", "Conventional lighting systems.", "Light design.", "Technological advancements.", "Control and coordination.", "Mounting.", "Effects.", "Justification.", "United States.", "Legal implications.", "In other contexts.", "Racing.", "As a rating mechanism.", "In Unicode." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Before traffic lights, traffic police controlled the flow of traffic. A well-documented example is that on London Bridge in 1722. Three men were given the task of directing traffic coming in and out of either London or Southwark. Each officer would help direct traffic coming out of Southwark into London and he made sure all traffic stayed on the west end of the bridge. A second officer would direct traffic on the east end of the bridge to control the flow of people leaving London and going into Southwark. On 9 December 1868, the first non-electric gas-lit traffic lights were installed outside the Houses of Parliament in London to control the traffic in Bridge Street, Great George Street, and Parliament Street. They were proposed by the railway engineer J. P. Knight of Nottingham who had adapted this idea from his design of railway signalling systems and constructed by the railway signal engineers of Saxby & Farmer. The main reason for the traffic light was that there was an overflow of horse-drawn traffic over Westminster Bridge which forced thousands of pedestrians to walk next to the Houses of Parliament. The design combined three semaphore arms with red and green gas lamps for night-time use, on a pillar, operated by a police constable. The gas lantern was manually turned by a traffic police officer with a lever at its base so that the appropriate light faced traffic. The signal was high. The light was called the semaphore and had arms that would extend horizontally that commanded drivers to \"Stop\" and then the arms would lower to a 45 degrees angle to tell drivers to proceed with \"Caution\". At night a red light would command \"Stop\" and a green light would mean use \"Caution\". Although it was said to be successful at controlling traffic, its operational life was brief. It exploded on 2 January 1869 as a result of a leak in one of the gas lines underneath the pavement and injured the policeman who was operating it. In the first two decades of the 20th century, semaphore traffic signals like the one in London were in use all over the United States with each state having its own design of the device. One example was from Toledo, Ohio in 1908. The words \"Stop\" and \"Go\" were in white on a green background and the lights had red and green lenses illuminated by kerosene lamps for night travelers and the arms were above ground. It was controlled by a traffic officer who would blow a whistle before changing the commands on this signal to help alert travelers of the change. The design was also used in Philadelphia and Detroit. The example in Ohio was the first time America tried to use a more visible form of traffic control that evolved the use of semaphore. The device that was used in Ohio was designed based on the use of railroad signals. In 1912, a traffic control device was placed on top a tower in Paris at the Rue Montmartre and Grande Boulevard. This tower signal was manned by a police woman and she operated a revolving four-sided metal box on top of a glass showcase where the word \"Stop\" was painted in red and the word \"Go\" painted in white. An electric traffic light was developed in 1912 by Lester Wire, a policeman in Salt Lake City, Utah, who also used red-green lights. On 5 August 1914, the American Traffic Signal Company installed a traffic signal system on the corner of East 105th Street and Euclid Avenue in Cleveland, Ohio. It had two colours, red and green, and a buzzer, based on the design of James Hoge, to provide a warning for colour changes. The design by James Hoge allowed police and fire stations to control the signals in case of emergency. The first four-way, three-colour traffic light was created by police officer William Potts in Detroit, Michigan in 1920. Ashville, Ohio claims to be the home", "A typical vertical traffic signal has three aspects, or lights, facing the oncoming traffic, red on top, amber below, and green below that. Generally one aspect is illuminated at a time. In some cases, a fourth aspect, for a turn arrow for example, is below the three lights or aspects in more complicated road traffic intersections.", "The simplest traffic light comprises either a single or a pair of coloured aspects that warns any user of the shared", "These have two lights, usually mounted vertically. They are often seen at railway crossings, fire stations, and intersections of streets. They flash amber or white when cross traffic is not expected, and turn red to stop", "The standard traffic signal is the red light above the green, with amber between. When the traffic signal with three aspects is arranged horizontally or sideways, the arrangement depends on the rule of the road.", "Generally, at least one direction of traffic at an intersection has the green lights (green aspect) at any moment in the cycle. In some jurisdictions, for a brief time, all signals at an intersection show red at the same time, to clear any traffic in the intersection. The delay can depend on traffic, road conditions,", "In the Canadian province of Quebec and the Maritime provinces, lights are often arranged horizontally, but each aspect is a different shape: red is a square (larger than the normal circle) and usually in pairs at either end of the fixture, amber is a diamond, and green is a circle. In many southern and southwestern U.S. states, most traffic signals are similarly horizontal in order to ease wind resistance during storms and hurricanes. Japanese traffic signals mostly follow the same rule except that", "The three-aspect standard is also used at locks on the Upper Mississippi River. Red means that another vessel is passing through. Amber means that the lock chamber is being emptied or filled to match the level of the", "", "In Australia and New Zealand, the light sequence is : Some traffic lights in the capital cities (e.g. Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth and Adelaide) have countdown timers for pedestrian crossing lights, usually a countdown from 30 when the red flashing man appeared. Countdown timers have been installed on some pedestrian crossing lights in Auckland and Christchurch counting down from 15 seconds. Some traffic-light controlled junctions have a light sequence that stops all vehicular traffic at the junction at the same time, and gives pedestrians exclusive access to the intersection so that they can cross in", "Chinese light sequence is: Japan light sequence", "The European approach to a signalized crossing is to use dual or, more rarely, a triple aspect with a blackened out lens of a pictogram pedestrian. For cyclists, the same approach is used, with the lens blackened out for a bicycle frame. It is not uncommon to see lenses with both symbols on them. Most European countries use orange instead of amber for the middle light. The light sequence is: In Germany, the Czech Republic and some other Central European countries, a combination of red and orange lights is illuminated just before the green phase. The light sequence is as follows: The light is blackened out with a pedestrian pictogram. Ampelmännchen", "In the United States, the most common aspect is the written 'walk' or 'don't walk.' In Canada, the white walking person is almost always used. Increasingly for retrofits of dual aspects and newer installations, the lower aspect formerly used for the \"walk\" signal (a walking person) is being replaced with a timer countdown. The raised hand pictogram first appeared in the city of Westmount,", "In some jurisdictions such as Australia, New Zealand, and Ireland pedestrian lights are associated with a sound device, for the benefit of blind and visually impaired pedestrians. These make a slow beeping sound when the pedestrian lights are red and a continuous buzzing sound when the lights are green. In the Australian States of Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria and Western Australia, the sound is produced in the same unit as the push buttons. This system of assistive technology is also widely used at busy intersections in Canadian cities. In the United Kingdom, the Puffin crossings and their predecessor, the Pelican crossing, will make a fast", "Traffic lights for public transport often use signals that are distinct from those for private traffic. They can be letters, arrows or bars of white or coloured light. In Portland, Oregon, the tram signals feature an orange horizontal bar and a white vertical bar. Some systems use the letter B for buses, and T for trams. In some European countries and Russia, dedicated traffic signals for public transport (tram, as well any that is using a dedicated lane) four white lights that form the letter T. If the three top lamps are lit, this means \"stop\". If the bottom lamp and some lamps on the top row are lit, this means permission to go in a direction shown. In case of a tram signal, if there are no tram junctions or turns on an intersection, a simpler system of one amber signal in the form of letter T is used instead; the tram must proceed only when the signal is lit. In North European countries, the tram signals feature white lights of different forms: \"S\" for \"stop\", \"—\" for \"caution\" and arrows to permit passage in a given direction. The Netherlands use a distinctive \"negenoog\" (nine-eyed) design shown on the top row of the diagram; bottom row signals are used in Belgium, Luxembourg, France and Germany. The signals mean (from left to right): \"go straight ahead\", \"go left\", \"go right\", \"go in any direction\" (like the \"green\" of a normal traffic light), \"stop, unless the emergency brake is needed\" (equal to \"amber\"), and \"stop\" (equal to \"red\"). The METRO light rail system in Minneapolis, Minnesota, the Valley Metro Rail in Phoenix, Arizona, and the RTA Streetcar System in New Orleans use a simplified variant of the Belgian/French system in the respective city's central business district where only the \"go\" and \"stop\" configurations are used. A third signal equal to amber is accomplished by flashing the \"go\" signal. In Japan, tram signals are under the regular vehicle signal; however, the colour of the signal intended for trams is orange. In Hong Kong Island, Hong Kong, an amber T-signal is used for trams, in place of the green signal. Addition to that, at any tramway junction, another set of signals is available to indicate the direction of the tracks. In Australia and New Zealand, a white \"B\" or \"T\" sometimes replaces the green light indicating that buses or trams (respectively) have right of way.", "In some instances, traffic may turn left (in left-driving jurisdictions) or right (in right-driving jurisdictions) after stopping at a red light, providing they give way to the pedestrians and other vehicles. In some places that generally disallow this, a sign next to the traffic light indicates that it is allowed at a particular intersection. Conversely, jurisdictions that generally allow this might forbid it at a particular intersection with a \"no turn on red\" sign, or put a green arrow to indicate specifically when a turn is allowed without having to yield to pedestrians (this is usually when traffic from the perpendicular street is making a turn onto one's street and thus no pedestrians are allowed in the intersection anyway). Some jurisdictions allow turning on red in the opposite direction (left in right-driving countries; right in left-driving countries) from a one-way road onto another one-way road; some of these even allow these turns from a two-way road onto a one-way road. Also differing is whether a red arrow prohibits turns; some jurisdictions require a \"no turn on red\" sign in these cases. A study in the State of Illinois (a right-driving jurisdiction) concluded that allowing drivers to proceed straight on red after stopping, at specially posted T-intersections where the intersecting road went left only, was dangerous. Proceeding straight on red at T-intersections where the intersecting road went left only used to be legal in Mainland China, with right-hand traffic provided that such movement would not interfere with other traffic, but when the Road Traffic Safety Law of the People's Republic of China took effect on 1 May 2004, such movement was outlawed. In some other countries, the permission is indicated by a flashing amber arrow (cars do not have to stop but must give way to other cars and pedestrians) in Western Europe, or by a green arrow at the same height as the full red light (whether cars have to stop depends on the country) in Central Europe. Another distinction is between intersections that have dedicated signals for turning across the flow of opposing traffic and those that do not. Such signals are called dedicated left-turn lights in the United States and Canada (since opposing traffic is on the left). With dedicated left turn signals, a left-pointing arrow turns green when traffic may turn left without opposing traffic and pedestrian conflict, and turns red or disappears otherwise. Such a signal is referred to as a \"protected\" signal if it has its own red phase; a \"permissive\" signal does not have such a feature. Three standard versions of the permissive signal exist: One version is a horizontal bar with five lights – the green and amber arrows are located between the standard green and amber lights. A vertical five-light bar holds the arrows underneath the standard green light (in this arrangement, the amber arrow is sometimes omitted, leaving only the green arrow below the steady green light, or possibly an LED based device capable of showing both green and amber arrows within a single lamp housing). Some newer LED turn arrows seen in parts of Canada are capable of multicoloured animation. Such lights will often display a flashing and animated green or amber arrow when the dedicated turn is allowed, but then transform into a red arrow on a white background with a red line through it, emphasising that the turn is no longer allowed. These lights will also often have the words \"no turn\" displayed, or an explanatory reason why the turn is not allowed, such as \"train\" in the case of a rail or light rail crossing. A third type is known as a \"doghouse\" or \"cluster head\" – a vertical column with the two normal lights is on the right side of the signal, a vertical column with the two arrows is located on the left, and the normal red signal is in the middle above the two", "Lane-control lights are a specific type of traffic light used to manage traffic on a multi-way road, highway or tollway. Typically, these lights allow or forbid traffic to use one or more of the available lanes by the use of green lights or arrows (to permit) or by red lights or crosses (to prohibit). In the US, lane-control lights are often used to control and/or direct the flow of traffic through toll plazas and highway tunnels, such as during unusually-heavy traffic flow when more lanes may be required in one direction than in the other direction, or during a hurricane evacuation, when the lane signals for most or all lanes will show green for one direction to assist in more rapid traffic flow from the evacuation site. Lane-control lights are also used at highway weigh stations to direct tractor-trailers and other heavy or oversized vehicles into the proper lanes for weighing, inspection or exit. In the US, most notably the Southeastern, there often is a", "A speed sign is a special traffic light, variable traffic sign or variable-message sign giving drivers", "Traffic light failure in most jurisdictions in both drive-on-the-left Australia and some states of the mainly drive-on-the-right Europe must be handled by drivers as a priority-to-the-right intersection, or an all-way stop elsewhere, pending the arrival of a police officer to direct traffic. In Armenia, Belarus, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Czech Republic, Estonia, France, Georgia, Germany, Greece, Iceland, Italy, Kazakhstan, Kosovo, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Moldova, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Sweden, Switzerland (and Liechtenstein), Turkey, and Ukraine, traffic lights may have additional right-of-way signs mounted", "In an era when intersections were often controlled by a single traffic signal head, many signals were installed on pedestals in the centers of intersections. Often referred to as \"dummy lights,\" these installations often replaced beacons or \"mushrooms\" that denoted the centers of intersections and separated opposing traffic, with the infrastructure used for the beacons and mushrooms serving the new \"stop and go\" type signals. There are a handful of operational dummy lights still in service. Three are located in New York State: Beacon, Canajoharie and Croton-on-Hudson. After a dummy light was knocked down by a truck in 2010, the city of Coleman, Texas decided to preserve and refurbish its last two", "", "Traditionally, incandescent and halogen bulbs were used. Because of the low efficiency of light output and a single point of failure (filament burnout) municipalities are increasingly retrofitting traffic signals with LED arrays that consume less power, have increased light output, last significantly longer, and in the event of an individual LED failure, still operate albeit with a reduced light output. With the", "Signals such as the 3M High Visibility Signal and McCain Programmable Visibility signal utilize light-diffusing optics and a Fresnel lens to create the signal indication. The light from a 150 W PAR46 sealed-beam lamp in these \"programmable visibility\" signals passes through a set of two glass lenses at the back of the signal. The first lens, a frosted glass diffusing lens, diffuses the light into a uniform ball of light around five inches in diameter. The light then passes through a nearly identical lens known as an optical limiter (3M's definition of the lens itself), also known as a \"programming lens\", also five inches in diameter. Using a special aluminum foil-based adhesive tape, these signals are \"masked\" or programmed by the programming lens so that only certain lanes of traffic will view the indication. At the front of these programmable visibility signals is a 12\" Fresnel lens, each lens tinted to meet United States Institute of Transportation Engineers (ITE) chromaticity and luminance standards.", "Conventional traffic signal lighting, still common in some areas, utilizes a standard light bulb. Typically, a 67, 69, or 115 watt medium-base (household lamp in the US) light bulb provides the illumination. Light then bounces off a mirrored glass", "In the United States, traffic lights are currently designed with lights approximately in diameter. Previously the standard had been ; however, those are slowly being phased out in favor of the larger and more visible 12 inch lights. Variations used have also included a hybrid design, which had one or more 12 inch lights along with one or more lights of on the same light. For example, these \"12-8-8\" (along with 8-8-8) lights are standard in most jurisdictions in Ontario, Manitoba, and British Columbia (that, is, the red light is 12 and others 8, making the red more prominent). In the United Kingdom, 12 inch lights were implemented only with Mellor Design Signal heads designed by David Mellor. These were designed for symbolic optics to compensate for the light loss caused by the symbol. However, following a study sponsored by the UK Highways Agency and completed by Aston University, Birmingham, UK, an enhanced optical design", "With technologies in developed countries continuing to advance, there is now an increasing move to develop and implement smart traffic lights on the roads. These are systems that adapt to information that is received from a central computer about the position, speed and direction", "The normal function of traffic lights requires sophisticated control and coordination to ensure", "There are significant differences from place to place in how traffic lights are mounted or positioned so that they are visible to drivers. Depending upon the location, traffic lights may be mounted on poles situated on street corners, hung from horizontal poles or wires strung over the roadway, or installed within large horizontal gantries that extend out from the corner and over the right-of-way. In the last case, such poles or gantries often have a lit sign with the name of the cross-street. In some locations, lights are mounted with their multiple faces arranged horizontally, often with supplemental vertical signals on the side, while", "Traffic lights can have both positive and negative effects on traffic safety and traffic flow. The separation of conflicting streams of traffic in time can reduce the chances of right-angle collisions by turning traffic and cross traffic, but they can increase the frequency of rear-end crashes by up to 50%. Since right-angled and turn-against-traffic collisions are more likely to result in injuries, this is often an acceptable trade-off. They can also adversely affect the safety of bicycle and pedestrian traffic. Traffic lights can increase the traffic capacity at intersections", "Criteria have been developed to help ensure that new traffic lights are installed only where they will do more good than harm, and to justify the removal of existing traffic lights where they are not warranted.", "In the United States, the criteria for installation of a traffic control signal are prescribed by the Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD), which defines the criteria in nine \"warrants\": An intersection is usually required to meet one or more of these warrants before a signal is installed. However, meeting one or more warrants does not require the installation of", "In virtually all jurisdictions in which they are used, it is an offence for motorists (and other road users) to deliberately disregard the instructions of traffic lights (or other traffic control devices). Exceptionally, it is not an offence for pedestrians to cross against a red light in the United Kingdom, where pedestrian lights officially give advice, rather than an instruction, although UK pedestrians do commit an offence if they cross a road against the signals of a police officer controlling traffic. Perhaps the most obvious common traffic-light related offence is failing to stop for a red light (in some jurisdictions, running an amber light may also incur a penalty). Enforcement of traffic lights varies from jurisdiction to jurisdiction; some places are extremely strict, while other locales are known for traffic lights being routinely ignored by motorists, with no serious attempts by law enforcement to alter the situation. In some jurisdictions (such as Toronto, Washington, D.C., New York City, and California), there are ordinances or by-laws against \"gridlocking\". A motorist entering an intersection (even if on a green light) but unable to proceed and who gets stranded in the intersection (when traffic ahead fails to proceed), and who remains after the light turns red (thus blocking traffic from other directions) may be cited. The definition of the intersection area is that square where the two streets overlap marked by the inner lines of each crosswalk. (Occupying the space inside the crosswalk lines is itself a traffic infraction, but different from gridlocking). This gives the meaning to the anti-gridlock slogan \"don't block the box\". This is sometimes used as a justification for making a turn across the opposing travel lanes on a red light at a busy intersection, by pulling partway into the intersection at a green light waiting to perform the turn, and, if oncoming traffic is not abated before the light changes to red, proceeding to turn once the light has turned red and opposing traffic has stopped. This means that at busy junctions without a protected green arrow for turning traffic, one turns after the light turns red. This maneuver is commonly referred to as \"occupying the intersection\" or \"being legally allowed to complete one's turn\". In some jurisdictions, including most American states, a vehicle already in the intersection when the light turns red legally has the right of way, and vehicles who have green must yield to the vehicle in the intersection. In Sackville, New Brunswick, it is customary for through traffic to voluntarily yield to the first oncoming left-turning vehicle to allow it to perform a \"Pittsburgh left\". This is similar to a hook turn performed in Melbourne, Australia, which is legal at signed intersections. Enforcement of traffic lights is done in one of several ways:", "The symbolism of a traffic light (and the meanings of the three primary colours used in traffic lights) are frequently found in many other contexts. Since they are often used as single spots of colour without the context of vertical position, they are typically not comprehensible to up to one in ten males who are colour blind. Traffic lights have also been used in computer software, such as the macOS user interface, and in pieces of artwork, particularly the Traffic Light tree in London, UK.", "Automobile racing circuits can also use standard traffic signals to indicate to racing car drivers the status of racing. On an oval track, four sets may be used, two facing a straight-away and two facing the middle of the 180-degree turn between straight-away. Green would indicate racing is under way, while amber would indicate to slow or while following a pace car; red would indicate to stop, probably for emergency reasons. Scuderia Ferrari, a Formula One racing team, formerly used a traffic light system during their pit stops to signal to their drivers to when to leave the pits. The red light was on when the tires were being changed and fuel was being added, amber was on when the tires were changed, and green was on when all work was completed. The system is (usually) completely automatic. However, the system was withdrawn after the 2008 Singapore Grand Prix, due to the fact that it heavily delayed Felipe Massa during the race, when he was in the lead. Usually, the system was automatic, but heavy", "The colours red, amber and green are often used as a simple-to-understand rating system for products", "In Unicode, the symbol for and." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Manufacturing.", "Electronics research and development.", "Television.", "Blumlein and radar.", "Photomultipliers.", "Computers and CT scanner.", "Emihus.", "Music.", "Aftermath of demerger from Thorn.", "Terra Firma takeover.", "Citigroup ownership.", "Sony/Universal/Warner sale.", "Operations.", "EMI Leisure.", "EMI Music Publishing.", "Criticism.", "CD price fixing." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Electric and Musical Industries Ltd was formed in March 1931 by the merger of the Columbia Graphophone Company and the Gramophone Company, with its \"His Master's Voice\" record label, firms that have a history extending back to the origins of recorded sound. The new vertically integrated company produced sound recordings as well as recording and playback equipment.", "The company's gramophone manufacturing led to forty years of success with larger-scale electronics and electrical engineering.", "", "In 1934, the company developed the electronic Marconi-EMI system for television broadcasting, which quickly replaced Baird's electro-mechanical system following its introduction in 1936. After the war, the company resumed its involvement in making broadcasting equipment, notably providing the BBC's second television transmitter at Sutton Coldfield. It also manufactured broadcast television cameras for British television production companies as well as for the BBC. The commercial television ITV companies also used them alongside cameras made by Pye and Marconi. Their best-remembered piece of broadcast television equipment was the EMI 2001 colour television camera, which became the mainstay of much of the British television industry from the end of the 1960s until the early 1990s. Exports of this piece of equipment were low, however, and EMI left this area of product manufacture.", "Alan Blumlein, an engineer employed by EMI, conducted a great deal of pioneering research into stereo sound recording many years prior to the practical implementation of the technique in the early 1950s. He was killed in 1942 whilst conducting flight trials on an experimental H2S radar set. During and after World War II, the EMI Laboratories in Hayes, Hillingdon developed radar equipment (including the receiver section of the British Army's GL-II anti-aircraft fire-control radar), microwave devices such as the reflex klystron oscillator (having played a crucial role in the development of early production types following on from the British Admiralty Signal School's pioneering NR89, the so-called \"Sutton tube\"), electro-optic devices such as infra-red image converters, and eventually guided missiles employing analogue computers.", "The company was also for many years an internationally respected manufacturer of photomultipliers. This part of the business was transferred to Thorn as part of Thorn-EMI, then later became the independent concern Electron Tubes Ltd.", "The EMI Electronic Business Machine, a valve and magnetic drum memory computer, was built in the 1950s to process the British Motor Corporation payroll. In 1958 the EMIDEC 1100, the UK's first commercially available all-transistor computer, was developed at Hayes under the leadership of Godfrey Hounsfield, an electrical engineer at EMI. In the early 1970s, with financial support by the UK Department of Health and Social Security as well as EMI research investment, Hounsfield developed the first CT scanner, a device which revolutionised medical imaging. In 1973 EMI was awarded a prestigious Queen's Award for Technological Innovation for what was then called the \"EMI scanner\", and in 1979 Hounsfield won the Nobel Prize for his accomplishment. After brief, but brilliant, success in the medical imaging field, EMI's manufacturing activities were sold off to other companies, notably Thorn (see Thorn EMI). Subsequently, development and manufacturing activities were sold off to other companies and work moved to other towns such as Crawley and Wells.", "Emihus Electronics, based in Glenrothes, Scotland, was owned 51% by Hughes Aircraft, of California, US, and 49% by EMI. It manufactured integrated circuits electrolytic capacitors and, for a short period in the mid-1970s, hand-held calculators under the Gemini name.", "Early in its life, the Gramophone Company established subsidiary operations in a number of other countries in the British Commonwealth, including India, Australia and New Zealand. Gramophone's (later EMI's) Australian and New Zealand subsidiaries dominated the popular music industries in those countries from the 1920s until the 1960s, when other locally owned labels (such as Festival Records) began to challenge the near monopoly of EMI. Over 150,000 78-rpm recordings from around the world are held in EMI's temperature-controlled archive in Hayes, some of which have been released on CD since 2008 by Honest Jon's Records. In 1931, the year the company was formed, it opened the legendary recording studios at Abbey Road, London. During the 1930s and 1940s, its roster of artists included Arturo Toscanini, Sir Edward Elgar, and Otto Klemperer, among many others. During this time EMI appointed its first A&R managers. These included George Martin, who later brought the Beatles into the EMI fold. When the Gramophone Company merged with the Columbia Graphophone Company (including Columbia's subsidiary label Parlophone) in 1931, the new Anglo-American group was incorporated as Electric & Musical Industries Ltd. At this point, the Radio Corporation of America had a majority shareholding in the new company due to RCA purchasing the Victor Talking Machine Company in 1929. Victor owned 50% of the British affiliated Gramophone Company, giving RCA chairman David Sarnoff a seat on the EMI board. However, EMI was subsequently forced to sell Columbia USA due to anti-trust action taken by its American competitors. By this time the record industry had been hit hard by the Depression and in 1934 a much-diminished Columbia USA was purchased for just US$70,500 by ARC-BRC (American Record Corporation–Brunswick Record Company), which also acquired the OKeh label. RCA sold its stake in EMI in 1935, but due to its 1929 takeover of Victor, RCA retained the North and South American rights to the \"His Master's Voice\" trademark. In other countries, the Nipper logo was used by the EMI subsidiary label HMV, even though the \"His Master's Voice\" slogan itself would be retained by RCA along with the logo. In 1938 ARC-Brunswick was taken over by CBS, which then sold the American Brunswick label to American Decca Records, which along with its other properties, Vocalion Records and Aeolian Vocalion Records, used it as a subsidiary budget label afterward. CBS then operated Columbia as its flagship label in both the United States and Canada. EMI retained the rights to the Columbia name in most other territories including the UK, Australia and New Zealand. It continued to operate the label with moderate success until 1973, when it was retired and replaced by the EMI Records imprint, making records with the Columbia Records label manufactured outside North America between 1972 and 1992 rare. In 1990, following a series of major takeovers that saw CBS Records acquired by the Sony Corporation of Japan, EMI sold its remaining rights to the Columbia name to Sony and the label is now operated exclusively throughout the world by Sony Music Entertainment; except in Japan where the trade mark is owned by Columbia Music Entertainment. EMI released its first LPs in 1952 and its first stereophonic recordings in 1955 (first on reel-to-reel tape and then LPs, beginning in 1958). In 1957, to replace the loss of its long-established licensing arrangements with RCA Victor and Columbia Records (Columbia USA cut its ties with EMI in 1951), EMI entered the American market by acquiring 96% of the stock for Capitol Records USA. From 1960 to 1995 their \"EMI House\" corporate headquarters was located at 20 Manchester Square London, England, the stairwell from which was featured on the cover of the Beatles' \"Please Please Me\" album. In addition, an unused shot from the \"Please Please Me\" photo session, featuring the boys in short hair and cleancut attire, was used for the cover of the Beatles' first double-disc greatest-hits compilation entitled \"1962–1966\" (aka \"The Red Album\"). In 1969, Angus McBean took a matching group photograph featuring the boys in long hair and beards to contrast with the earlier cleancut image to show that the boys could have appeal across a wide range of audiences. This photo was originally intended for the \"Get Back\" album which later was entitled \"Let It Be\". The photo was used instead for the cover of the Beatles' second greatest-hits double-disc compilation entitled \"1967–1970\" (aka \"The Blue Album\"). (The two compilations were released in 1973.) EMI's classical artists of the period were largely limited to the prestigious British orchestras, such as the Philharmonia Orchestra and London Symphony Orchestra as well as the Choir of King's College, Cambridge. During the era of the long-playing record (LP), very few US orchestras had their principal recording contracts with EMI, one notable exception being that of the Pittsburgh Symphony Orchestra, especially during the tenure of William Steinberg. From the late 1950s to the early 1970s, the company enjoyed huge success in the popular music field under the management of Sir Joseph Lockwood. The strong combination of EMI and its subsidiary labels (including Parlophone, HMV, Columbia and Capitol Records) along with a roster of stellar groups such as the Hollies, the Shadows, the Beach Boys and the Beatles along with hit solo performers such as Frank Sinatra, Cliff Richard, and Nat 'King' Cole, made EMI the best-known and most successful recording company in the world at that time. In 1967, while shifting their pop and rock music roster to Columbia and Parlophone, EMI converted HMV solely to a classical music label exclusively. For the emerging progressive rock genre including Pink Floyd, who had debuted on Columbia, EMI established a new subsidiary label, Harvest Records, two years later. In 1971, Electric & Musical Industries changed its name to EMI Ltd. and on 1 January 1973 EMI phased out most of its heritage labels and replacing them with the EMI imprint. On 1 July 1973 the Gramophone Company subsidiary (The Gramophone Co. Ltd.) was renamed EMI Records Ltd as well, and in February 1979, EMI Ltd acquired United Artists Records and with it their subsidiary labels Liberty Records and Imperial Records. Eight months later, Thorn Electrical Industries merged with EMI Ltd. to form Thorn EMI. Ten years later in 1989, Thorn EMI bought a 50% interest in Chrysalis Records, completing the buyout two years later. Six months after completing the buyout of Chrysalis, Thorn EMI bought Virgin Records from Richard Branson in one of its highest-profile and most expensive acquisitions in record music history. In 1992, Thorn EMI entered the Christian music market by acquiring Sparrow Records.", "Due to the increasing divergence of business models, Thorn EMI shareholders voted in favour of demerger proposals on 16 August 1996. The resulting media company was now known as EMI Group PLC. Since the 1930s, the Baak Doi label headquartered in Shanghai had been published under the EMI banner and since then, EMI had also been the dominant label in the cantopop market in Hong Kong until the genre's decline in the mid-1980s. Between the years 2004–2006, EMI then completely and totally divested itself from the c-pop market, and after that, all Hong Kong music artists previously associated with EMI have had their music published by Gold Label, a concern unaffiliated with EMI and with which EMI does not hold any interest. On 21 November 2000, Streamwaves and EMI signed a deal licensing EMI's catalogue in a digital format for their online streaming music service. This was the first time EMI had licensed any of its catalogue to a streaming music website. Pop star Robbie Williams signed a six-album deal in 2002 paying him over £80 million ($157 million), which was not only the biggest recording contract in British music history at the time, but also the second biggest in music history behind that of Michael Jackson. Apple Records, the record label representing The Beatles, launched a suit against EMI for non-payment of royalties on 15 December 2005. The suit alleged that EMI had withheld $50 million from the record label; however, an EMI spokesman noted that audits of record label accounts are not that unusual, confirming at least two hundred such audits performed on the label, but that these audits rarely result in legal action. A legal settlement was announced on 12 April 2007 and terms were undisclosed. On 2 April 2007, EMI announced it would be releasing its music in DRM-free formats. These were to be issued in AAC format, which gave higher quality for the same bitrate compared with the ubiquitous MP3 format. The music would be distributed via Apple's iTunes Store (under the iTunes Plus category). Tracks were to cost $1.29/€1.29/£0.99. Legacy tracks with FairPlay DRM would still be available for $0.99/€0.99/£0.79 – albeit with lower quality sound and DRM restrictions still in place. Users would be able to 'upgrade' the EMI tracks that they had already bought for $0.30/€0.30/£0.20. Albums were also to be available at the same price as their lower quality, DRM counterparts and music videos from EMI would also be DRM-free. The higher-quality, DRM-free files became available worldwide on iTunes on 30 May 2007, and were expected to appear on other music download services soon thereafter. Following this decision, Universal Music Group also announced sales of DRM-free music (which was described as an experiment). In May 2006, EMI attempted to buy Warner Music Group, which would have reduced the world's four largest record companies (Big Four) to three; however, the bid was rejected. Warner Music Group launched a Pac-Man defense, offering to buy EMI. EMI rejected the $4.6bn offer.", "After a decline in the British market share from 16% to 9%, and the announcement that it had sustained a loss of £260 million in 2006/2007, in August 2007 EMI was acquired by Terra Firma Capital Partners, which purchased it for £4.2 billion. Following the transition, several artists including Radiohead left EMI, while other artists such as Paul McCartney had left ahead of the takeover. At the same time, the Rolling Stones signed a one-album deal with Interscope Records/Universal Music Group outside its contract with EMI, which expired in February 2008, and then in July 2008 signed a new long-term deal with Universal Music Group. The Terra Firma takeover is also reported to have been the catalyst behind a lawsuit filed by Pink Floyd over unpaid royalties. In January 2011 Pink Floyd signed a new global agreement with EMI. Around the same time, Guy Hands, CEO of Terra Firma Capital Partners, came to EMI with restructuring plans to cut between 1,500 and 2,000 jobs and to reduce costs by £200 million a year. As a result, the UK chief executive Tony Wadsworth left EMI after 25 years in January 2008. The cuts were planned to take effect over the year 2008, and would affect up to a third of EMI's 5,500 staff. Thirty Seconds to Mars tried to exit their contract with EMI following the layoff of its staff and due to unpaid royalties, prompting the label to file a lawsuit for $30 million citing breach of contract. The suit was later settled following a defence based on a contract case involving actress Olivia de Havilland decades before. Jared Leto explained, \"The California Appeals Court ruled that no service contract in California is valid after seven years, and it became known as the De Havilland Law after she used it to get out of her contract with Warner Bros.\" Many industry watchers viewed the suit as a punitive harassment meant to scare other musicians. The band's troubles with the label resonate through their third studio album \"This Is War\" (2009) and were the subject of the 2012 documentary \"Artifact\". Another EMI singer Joss Stone battled the label, and offered to forfeit £2 million to be released from her contract. In an interview with BBC 6music, Róisín Murphy clearly stated that she left the label as well because of similar disagreements. She also commented on the difficulties she had while recording her second solo album \"Overpowered\". In 2008, EMI withdrew from the South-East Asian market entirely, forcing its large roster of acts to search out contracts with other unaffiliated labels. As a result, the South-East Asian market was the only region in the world where EMI was not in operation, although the record label continued to operate in Hong Kong and Indonesia (which is currently named Arka Music Indonesia). The Chinese and Taiwanese operation of EMI as well as the Hong Kong branch of Gold Label, was sold to Typhoon Group and reformed as Gold Typhoon. The Philippine branch of EMI changed its name to PolyEast Records, and is now a joint venture between EMI itself and Pied Piper Records Corporation. The physical audio and video products of the label have been distributed in South-East Asia by Warner Music Group since December 2008, while new EMI releases in China and Taiwan, were distributed under Gold Typhoon which was previously known as EMI Music China and EMI Music Taiwan, respectively. Meanwhile, the Korean branch of EMI (known as EMI Korea Limited) had its physical releases distributed by Warner Music Korea. EMI Music Japan, the Japanese EMI branch, remains unchanged from the reflection of Toshiba's divestiture to the business by EMI buying the whole branch way back July 2007, making it a full subsidiary. In July 2009, there were reports that EMI would not sell CDs to independent album retailers in a bid to cut costs, but in fact only a handful of small physical retailers were affected.", "In February 2010, EMI Group reported pre-tax losses of £1.75 billion for the year ended March 2009, including write-downs on the value of its music catalogue. In addition, KPMG issued a going concern warning on the holding company's accounts regarding an ability to remain solvent. Citigroup (which held $4 billion in debt) took 100% ownership of EMI Group from Terra Firma Capital Partners on 1 February 2011, writing off £2.2 billion of debt and reducing EMI's debt load by 65%. The group was put up for sale and final bids were due by 5 October 2011.", "On 12 November 2011, it was announced that EMI would sell its recorded music operations to Universal Music Group (UMG) for £1.2 billion ($1.9 billion) and its music publishing operations to Sony/ATV Music Publishing-for $2.2 billion. Among the other companies that had competed for the recorded music business was Warner Music Group which was reported to have made a $2 billion bid. However, IMPALA has said that it would fight the merger. In March 2012, the European Union opened an investigation into Universal's purchase of EMI's recorded music division and had asked rivals and consumer groups whether the deal will result in higher prices and shut out competitors. On 21 September 2012, the sale of EMI to UMG was approved in both Europe and the United States by the European Commission and the Federal Trade Commission respectively. The European Commission approved the deal, however, under the condition that the merged company divest itself of one third of its total operations to other companies with a proven track record in the music industry. To comply with this condition, UMG divested V2 Records, Parlophone Records, Sanctuary Records, Chrysalis Records, Mute Records, EMI Classics, Virgin Classics, Vivendi Visual Entertainment, the 2CD Originals Series and EMI's regional labels across Europe. These labels were operated separately under the name \"Parlophone Label Group\", pending their sale. Universal would, however, retain its ownership of the Beatles' library (moved to the newly formed Calderstone Productions) and Robbie Williams' Chrysalis recordings (moved to the Island Records label). Universal Music Group completed its acquisition of EMI on 28 September 2012, followed by worldwide compliance and complete rebranding by 1 April 2013. In compliance the conditions of the European Commission, on 22 December 2012, Universal Music Group sold the Mute catalogue, previously property of EMI, to German-based music rights company BMG. In turn, Vivendi Visual Entertainment was acquired by Gaiam and renamed Gaiam Vivendi Entertainment. On 8 February 2013, Warner Music Group signed an agreement to acquire Parlophone, Chrysalis Records, EMI Classics, Virgin Classics the 2CD Originals Series and some of EMI's regional labels across Europe for US$765 million (£487 million). Regulatory approval was received on 15 May 2013. Universal retained European regional labels in Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, Germany, Switzerland, and Austria. Universal Music has continued to operate EMI entities it is retaining using the EMI name and has formed Virgin EMI Records as a UMG label unit in the UK. The former EMI Records Ltd. was renamed Parlophone Records Ltd. in 2013, when Warner Music Group acquired Parlophone Music Group which has the rights to the old EMI Records catalogue. Warner Music incorporated EMI Classics and Virgin Classics into its Warner Classics unit with the EMI Classics artist roster and catalogue absorbed into the Warner Classics label and the Virgin Classics artist roster and catalogue absorbed into the revived Erato Records label. On 14 November 2013, EMI's Middle Eastern branch was folded into Universal Music, causing the distribution of Warner Music Group's releases in that region to be moved to Universal Music. On 30 June 2014, Universal Music Group re-established EMI's Taiwanese division, with A-Mei, Rainie Yang and Show Lo signing first to the label. In May 2016, an independent company, Blue Raincoat Music, bought most of Chrysalis's British catalogue from Warner Music, making Chrysalis an independent label again. However, the remainder of Chrysalis's British catalogue, namely other past artists Spandau Ballet, Jethro Tull, The Ramones and The Proclaimers, stayed with Parlophone in the UK and (excluding The Ramones) Rhino Entertainment in the US. The Ramones' American back catalogue remained with Island's sister label Geffen Records, the successor of MCA Records, which previously distributed the band's releases on Radioactive Records, and is licensed to Universal Music Enterprises. Additionally, the majority of Chrysalis's American catalogue also remained with Capitol Music Group, parent of Island's and Geffen's sister label Capitol Records, and is currently distributed by that label. The other non-American Chrysalis artists' catalogues, plus the rights to ten artists not originally signed to the label are owned by Blue Raincoat and distributed by Kobalt Label Services. Also in May 2016 the history of the record label was examined in the hour-long BBC documentary \"EMI: The Inside Story\".", "", "EMI Leisure, formed in April 1974, was, by the late 1970s, a prominent operator of cinemas, hotels and restaurants, with its leisure business contributing 15% of group revenues. This business was the subject of a management buy-out in 1982 led by Lord Delfont.", "As well as the well-known record label the group also owned EMI Music Publishing, which was the largest music publisher in the world. EMI Music Publishing has won the \"Music Week\" Award for Publisher of the Year every year for over 10 years; in 2009, for the first time in history the award was shared jointly with Universal Music Publishing. As is often the case in the music industry, the publishing arm and record label are very separate businesses. EMI administered the publishing rights of over 1.3 million songs, headlined by Queen, Carole King, The Police, the Motown catalog, Kanye West, Alicia Keys, Drake, Sia, P!nk, Pharrell Williams, and Calvin Harris. EMI also owns the recorded catalogue of Philles Records, with distribution handled by Sony's Legacy Recordings. EMI's music publishing operations were sold to a consortium led by Sony/ATV Music Publishing in 2012; BMG acquired the music publishing libraries of Virgin Music (which EMI held) and Famous Music UK (which Sony/ATV held).", "", "Between 1995 and 2000 music companies were found to have used illegal marketing agreements such as minimum advertised pricing to artificially inflate prices of compact discs in order to end price wars by discounters such as Best Buy and Target in the early 1990s. A settlement in 2002 included the music publishers and distributors; Sony Music, Warner Music, Bertelsmann Music Group, EMI and Universal Music. In restitution for price fixing they agreed to pay a $67.4 million fine and distribute $75.7 million in CDs to public and non-profit groups but admitted no wrongdoing. It is estimated customers were overcharged by nearly $500 million and up to $5 per album. On Internet Freedom Day in January 2013, EMI evoked controversy after the removal of Martin Luther King Jr's \"I Have a Dream\" speech from Vimeo due to a copyright violation." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Mythology.", "Members of the Charites.", "Role in mythology.", "Cult.", "In visual art.", "Notes." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The name and number of goddesses associated with the Charites varied, although they usually numbered three. Alternate names to Aglaea, Euphrosyne, and Thalia given in literature included: Damia (\"Earth Mother\"), Auxesia (Spring Growth\"), Cleta (\"Renowned\"), Phaenna (\"Bright\"), Hegemone (\"Leader\"), Peitho (\"Persuasion\"), Paregoros (\"Consolation\"), Pasithea (\"Relaxation\") Charis (\"Grace\"), and Kale (\"Beauty\"). Alternatively, an ancient vase painting attests the following names as: Antheia (\"Blossoms\"), Eudaimonia (\"Happiness\"), Euthymia (\"Good Mood\"), Eutychia (\"Good Luck\"), Paidia (\"Play\"), Pandaisia (\"Banquet\"), and Pannychis (\"Night Festivities\"), all refer to the Charites as patronesses of amusement and festivities. Pausanias interrupts his \"Description of Greece\" (Book 9.35.1–7) to expand upon the various conceptions of the Charites that developed in different parts of mainland Greece and Ionia: Nonnus gives their three names as Pasithea, Peitho and Aglaia. Sostratus gives the names as Pasithea, Cale (\"Beauty\") and Euphrosyne; Pasithea for Aglaia and Cale for Thalia, Euphrosyne is unchanged.", "The Charites major mythological role was to attend the other Olympians. They attended Aphrodite by bathing and anointing her in Paphos before her seduction of Ankhises and after she left Olympus when her affair with Ares is found out. Additionally, they are said to weave or dye her peplos. Along with Peitho, they presented Pandora with necklaces to make her more enticing. Pindar stated the Charites arranged feasts and dances for the Olympians. They also danced in celebration of the birth of Apollo with Aphrodite, Hebe, and Harmonia. They were often referenced as dancing and singing with Apollo and the Muses. Pindar also referred to them as the guardians of the ancient Minyans and the queens of Orchomenus who have their thrones beside Apollo's. The Charites appear to have a connection to Hera, where some ancient authors reference her as their nurse. In the Iliad, as part of her plan to seduce Zeus to distract him from the Trojan War, she offers to arrange Hypnos’s marriage to Pasithea, who is referred to as one of the younger Charites. Aglaea or Charis had a role as the wife of the smith god Hephaestus. In the Iliad, Aglaea invites Thetis into their shared home on Olympus so that the latter may ask for Hephaestus to forge armor for her son Achilles. Some scholars have interpreted this marriage as occurring after Hephaestus’s divorce from Aphrodite due to her affair with Ares being exposed. Notably, however, some scholars, such as Walter Burkert, support that the marriage of Hephaestus and Aphrodite as an invention of the Odyssey, since it is not represented within other Archaic or Classical era literature or arts, and it does not appear to have a connection to cult.", "The cult of the Charites is very old, with their name appearing to be of Pelasgian, or pre-Greek, origin rather than being brought to Greece by Proto-Indo-Europeans. The purpose of their cult appears to be similar to that of nymphs, primary based around fertility and nature with a particular connection to springs and rivers. The one of earliest centres of worship for the Charites was the Cycladic Islands including Paros, with epigraphical evidence for a cult to the Charites dating to the 6 century B.C.E. on the island of Thera. Scholars have interpreted them as chthronic deities connected to fertility due to the absence of wreaths and flutes in ceremonies. An aetiological explanation for the lack of music and garlands was from a myth involving Minos. He was said to have been sacrificing to the Charites on the island of Paros when he learned of his son’s death in Athens and stopped the music and ripped off his garlands in grief. Dance, however, appears to be strongly connected with their cult, which is similar to the cults of Dionysus and Artemis. Although the Charites were most commonly depicted in the sanctuaries of other gods, there were at least four temples exclusively dedicated to them in Greece. The temple regarded as their perhaps most important was that in Orkhomenos in Boeotia, where their cult was thought to have originated. There were also temples to the Charites in Hermione, Sparta, and Elis. A temple was dedicated to the Charites near the Tiasa river in Amyclae, Laconia that was reportedly founded by the ancient King of Sparta, Lacedaemon. In Orkhomenos, the goddesses were worshipped at a very ancient site with a trio of stones, which is similar to other Boiotian cults to Eros and Herakles. The local river Kephisos and the Akidalia (or Argaphia) spring was sacred to the three goddesses. Orkhomenos was an agriculturally prosperous city because of the marshy Kopaic plain, and the Charites were offered a portion of the produce. Regarding the foundation of the their cult in Orkhomenos, Strabo wrote: In cult, the Charites were particularly connected with Apollo and appear to be connect to his cult on Delos, however, this connection is not present in other cults to Apollo. In the Classical era and beyond, the Charites were associated with Aphrodite in connection to civic matters.", "The earliest representation of these goddesses was found in a temple of Apollo in Thermon dated to the 7 to 6 century B.C.E. It is possible, however, that the Charites are represented on a Mycenean golden seal ring that depicts two female figures dancing in the presence of a male figure, who has been interpreted as Hermes or Dionysus. Another early representation of the Charites, from a relief at the Paros colony of Thasos dated to the beginning of the 5 century, shows the Charites with Hermes and either Aphrodite or Peitho, which marked the entrance to the old city. The opposite side of the relief shows Apollo being crowned by Artemis with nymphs in the background. At the entrance of the Akropolis, there was a famous Classical era relief of the Charities and Hermes, and the popular belief was that the sculptor was Sokrates, although this is very unlikely. Despite the Charites often being depicted naked in entwined in an embrace, this appears to be a later development as in Archaic depictions they are finely dressed. On the representation of the Graces, second-century C.E. geographer Pausanias wrote: During the Renaissance, the Roman statue group of the three graces in the Piccolomini library in Duomo di Siena inspired most themes. The Charites are depicted together with several other mythological figures in Sandro Botticelli's painting \"Primavera\". Raphael also pictured them in a painting now housed in Chantilly in France. Among other artistic depictions, they are the subject of famous sculptures by Antonio Canova and Bertel Thorvaldsen. A group of three trees in the Calaveras Big Trees State Park are named \"The Three Graces\" after the Charites.", "\"(The Imagebase links are all broken)\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Ancient.", "Modern.", "Design.", "Automation.", "Countermeasures.", "Crew.", "Mobility.", "Networking.", "Weaponry." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The chariot is a type of carriage using animals (almost always horses) to provide rapid motive power. Chariots were used for war as \"battle taxis\" and mobile archery platforms, as well as other pursuits such as hunting or racing for sport, and as a chief vehicle of many ancient peoples, when speed of travel was desired rather than how much weight could be carried. The original chariot was a fast, light, open, two-wheeled conveyance drawn by two or more horses that were hitched side by side. The car was little more than a floor with a waist-high semicircular guard in front. The chariot, driven by a charioteer, was used for ancient warfare during the bronze and the iron ages. Armor was limited to a shield.", "In modern times, combat vehicles are protected by strong armour and armed with weapons, which combines operational mobility, tactical offensive, and defensive capabilities.", "", "The automation of human tasks endeavors to reduce the required crew size with improvements in robotics. Enhancements to automation can help achieve operational effectiveness with a smaller, more economical, combat vehicle force. The automation of combat vehicles has proved to be difficult due to the time latency between the operator controlling the vehicle and the signal being received. Unlike air forces, ground forces must navigate the terrain and plan around obstacles. The rapid tactical implications of operating a weaponized vehicle in a combat environment are great.", "Use of titanium armor on combat vehicles is increasing. The use of titanium can lighten the vehicle's weight. Appliqué armor can be quickly applied to vehicles and has been utilized on the U.S. Army's M8 Armored Gun System. Contemporary combat vehicles may incorporate a fire-suppression system to mitigate damage from fire. Systems can be employed in the engine and crew compartments and portable systems may be mounted inside and outside the vehicle as well. Automatic fire suppression systems activate instantaneously upon the detection of fire and have been shown to significantly improve crew survivability. Halon fire suppression systems quickly inundate an affected fire breach with a flood of halon to extinguish leaking fuel. Halon remains necessary for crew compartment fire suppression due to space and weight constraints, and toxicity concerns. Nitrogen systems take up about twice as much space as a comparable halon unit. Germany uses this system as a replacement for its halon system. Some systems, such as Germany's previous extinguisher, have a second shot of suppressant to mitigate re-ignition or the effects of a second hit. Though not as instantaneous, portable crew-operable extinguishers are also used inside and outside the vehicle. Typically, portable extinguishers use a CO agent instead of the halon agents used in the past. CO can become lethal to vehicle occupants if it accumulates into a deadly concentration. The U.S. Army has adopted a replacement formula consisting of 50% water, 50% potassium acetate. Alternatives such as powder formulas also exist.", "Hygiene upkeep is difficult when operating a combat vehicle.", "Tracked combat vehicles are suited for heavy combat and rough terrain. Wheeled combat vehicles offer improved logistical mobility and optimized speeds on smooth terrain. Silent watch is becoming an increasingly important combat vehicle application. It is a role that requires that all mission requirements be met while keeping acoustic and infrared signature levels to a minimum. For this reason, silent watch often requires the vehicle to operate without use of the main engine and sometimes even auxiliary engines. Many modern combat vehicles often have electronic equipment that cannot be supported solely with auxiliary batteries alone. Auxiliary fuel cells are a potential solution for covert operations.", "Force trackers are not as prevalent as in the air force but are still essential components of combat vehicles. In the mid-'90s, U.S. weapon developers envisioned a sophisticated communication network where positions of enemy and friendly forces could be relayed to command vehicles and other friendly vehicles. Friendly vehicles could transmit enemy positions to friendly combat vehicles in combat range for efficient annihilation of the enemy. Logistics support could also monitor front-line combat vehicle fuel and ammunition statuses and move in to resupply depleted vehicles.", "Combat vehicles weapons are primarily designed for engaging other vehicles at long distances and are not optimized for destroying non-traditional targets like car bombs." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Scotland, 1700–1725.", "London, 1725–1727.", "Later life, 1728–1748.", "Memorials." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "James Thomson was born in Ednam in Roxburghshire around 11 September 1700 and baptised on 15 September. He was the fourth of nine children of Thomas Thomson and Beatrix Thomson (née Trotter). Beatrix Thomson was born in Fogo, Berwickshire and was a distant relation of the house of Hume. Thomas Thomson was the Presbyterian minister of Ednam until eight weeks after Thomson's birth, when he was admitted as minister of Southdean, where Thomson spent most of his early years. Thomson may have attended the parish school of Southdean before going to the grammar school in Jedburgh in 1712. He failed to distinguish himself there. Shiels, his earliest biographer, writes: 'far from appearing to possess a sprightly genius, [Thomson] was considered by his schoolmaster, and those which directed his education, as being really without a common share of parts'. He was, however, encouraged to write poetry by (1691–1769), a farmer, poet and Presbyterian minister; and Sir William Bennet (d. 1729), a whig laird who was a patron of Allan Ramsay. While some early poems by Thomson survive, he burned most of them on New Year's Day each year. Thomson entered the College of Edinburgh in autumn 1715, destined for the Presbyterian ministry. At Edinburgh he studied metaphysics, Logic, Ethics, Greek, Latin and Natural Philosophy. He completed his arts course in 1719 but chose not to graduate, instead entering Divinity Hall to become a minister. In 1716 Thomas Thomson died, with local legend saying that he was killed whilst performing an exorcism. At Edinburgh Thomson became a member of the Grotesque Club, a literary group, and he met his lifelong friend David Mallet. After the successful publication of some of his poems in the \"Edinburgh Miscellany\" Thomson followed Mallet to London in February 1725 in an effort to publish his verse.", "In London, Thomson became a tutor to the son of Charles Hamilton, Lord Binning, through connections on his mother's side of the family. Through David Mallet, by 1724 a published poet, Thomson met the great English poets of the day including Richard Savage, Aaron Hill and Alexander Pope. Thomson's mother died on 12 May 1725, around the time of his writing ‘Winter’, the first poem of ‘‘The Seasons’’. ‘Winter’ was first published in 1726 by John Millian, with a second edition being released (with revisions, additions and a preface) later the same year. By 1727, Thomson was working on \"Summer\", published in February, and was working at Watt's Academy, a school for young gentlemen and a bastion of Newtonian science. In the same year Millian published a poem by Thomson titled ‘A Poem to the Memory of Sir Isaac Newton’ (who had died in March). Leaving Watt's academy, Thomson hoped to earn a living through his poetry, helped by his acquiring several wealthy patrons including Thomas Rundle, the countess of Hertford and Charles Talbot, 1st Baron Talbot.", "He wrote \"Spring\" in 1728 and finally \"Autumn\" in 1730, when the set of four was published together as \"The Seasons\". During this period he also wrote other poems, such as \"to the Memory of Sir Isaac Newton\", and his first play, \"The Tragedy of Sophonisba\" (1729). The latter is best known today for its mention in Samuel Johnson's \"Lives of the English Poets\", where Johnson records that one 'feeble' line of the poem – \"O, Sophonisba, Sophonisba, O!\" was parodied by the wags of the theatre as, \"O, Jemmy Thomson, Jemmy Thomson, O!\". In 1730, he became tutor to the son of Sir Charles Talbot, then Solicitor-General, and spent nearly two years in the company of the young man on a tour of Europe. On his return Talbot arranged for him to become a secretary in chancery, which gave him financial security until Talbot's death in 1737. Meanwhile, there appeared his next major work, \"Liberty\" (1734). This is a lengthy monologue by the \"Goddess of Liberty\", describing her travels through the ancient world, and then English and British history, before the resolution of the Glorious Revolution of 1688. In 1740, he collaborated with Mallet on the masque \"Alfred\" which was first performed at Cliveden, the country home of Frederick, Prince of Wales. Thomson's words for \"Rule Britannia\", written as part of that masque and set to music by Thomas Arne, became one of the best-known British patriotic songs – quite apart from the masque which is now virtually forgotten. The Prince gave him a pension of £100 per annum. He had also introduced him to George Lyttelton, who became his friend and patron. In later years, Thomson lived in Richmond upon Thames, and it was there that he wrote his final work \"The Castle of Indolence\", which was published just before his untimely death on 27 August 1748. Johnson writes about Thomson's death, \"by taking cold on the water between London and Kew, he caught a disorder, which, with some careless exasperation, ended in a fever that put end to his life\". He is buried in St. Mary Magdalene church in Richmond. A dispute over the publishing rights to one of his works, \"The Seasons\", gave rise to two important legal decisions (\"Millar v. Taylor\"; \"Donaldson v. Beckett\") in the history of copyright. Thomson's \"The Seasons\" was translated into German by Barthold Heinrich Brockes (1745). This translation formed the basis for a work with the same title by Gottfried van Swieten, which became the libretto for Haydn's oratorio \"The Seasons\".", "Thomson is one of the sixteen Scottish poets and writers appearing on the Scott Monument on Princes Street in Edinburgh. He appears on the right side of the east face. Thomson has a large memorial in Poets' Corner of Westminster Abbey next to William Shakespeare and underneath his countryman, Robert Burns." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Discovery and identification.", "Species.", "Description.", "Size.", "Skull.", "Postcranial skeleton.", "Classification.", "Paleobiology.", "Dentition and diet.", "Functions of the horns and frill.", "Growth and ontogeny.", "\"Torosaurus\" as growth stage of \"Triceratops\".", "Other genera as growth stages of \"Triceratops\".", "Paleoecology.", "Depiction in popular media." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The first named specimen now attributed to \"Triceratops\" is a pair of brow horns attached to a skull roof, found by George Lyman Cannon near Denver, Colorado in the spring of 1887. This specimen was sent to American paleontologist Othniel Charles Marsh, who believed that the formation from which it came dated from the Pliocene, and that the bones belonged to a particularly large and unusual bison, which he named \"Bison alticornis\". He realized that there were horned dinosaurs by the next year, which saw his publication of the genus \"Ceratops\" from fragmentary remains, but he still believed \"B. alticornis\" to be a Pliocene mammal. It took a third and much more complete skull to change his mind. The specimen, collected in 1888 by John Bell Hatcher from the Lance Formation of Wyoming, was initially described as another species of \"Ceratops\". Cowboy Edmund B. Wilson had been startled by the sight of a monstrous skull poking out of the side of a ravine. He tried to recover it by throwing a lasso around one of the horns. When it broke off, the skull tumbling to the bottom of the cleft, Wilson brought the horn to his boss, the rancher and avid fossil collector Charles Arthur Guernsey, who happened to show it to Hatcher. Marsh subsequently ordered Hatcher to locate and salvage the skull. This is the holotype YPM 1820. It was first named \"Ceratops horridus\". When further preparation uncovered the third, nose, horn, Marsh changed his mind and gave the piece the generic name \"Triceratops\", \"three horn face\", accepting his \"Bison alticornis\" as another species of \"Ceratops\" (it would later be added to \"Triceratops\"). The sturdy nature of the animal's skull has ensured that many examples have been preserved as fossils, allowing variations between species and individuals to be studied. \"Triceratops\" remains have subsequently been found in the American states of Montana and South Dakota (in addition to Colorado and Wyoming), and in the provinces of Saskatchewan and Alberta, Canada. An earlier specimen, also recovered from the Lance Formation, was named \"Agathaumas sylvestris\" by Edward Drinker Cope in 1872. Originally identified as a hadrosaur, this specimen consists only of post-cranial remains and is only provisionally considered an example of \"Triceratops\".", "After \"Triceratops\" was described, between 1889 and 1891 Hatcher with great effort collected another thirty-one of its skulls. The first species had been named \"Triceratops horridus\" by Marsh. Its specific name was derived from the Latin \"horridus\"; \"rough, rugose\", perhaps suggesting the roughened texture of those bones belonging to the type specimen, later identified as an aged individual. The additional skulls varied to a lesser or greater degree from the original \"Triceratops\" specimen. This variation is unsurprising, given that \"Triceratops\" skulls are large three-dimensional objects, coming from individuals of different ages and both sexes, and which were subjected to different amounts and directions of pressure during fossilization. However, not a single one of these skulls was referred to \"T. horridus\" by Marsh who instead named eight further species and eventually even a new genus \"Sterrholophus\". In 1889, he named two species. \"Triceratops flabellatus\", the \"fan-shaped\", was based on skull YPM 1821. \"Triceratops galeus\", \"the helmeted one\", was exceptionally based on a specimen not found by Hatcher, USNM 2410, a horn and frill excavated by George Homans Eldridge in Colorado in the Laramie Formation. In December 1889, Marsh published the first illustration ever of a \"Triceratops\" skull, that of \"T. flabellatus\". In January 1890, two additional species were added. \"Triceratops serratus\", \"the serrated one\", was based on skull YPM 1823, and \"Triceratops prorsus\", \"pointing forward\", on specimen YPM 1822, a nose horn. In May 1890, \"Triceratops sulcatus\" was added, named \"the one with troughs\" because of grooves on the horns, based on the fragmentary skull USNM 4276. On this occasion, Marsh reported a natural brain cast, that he considered remarkably small. In February 1891, Marsh published additional images, for the first time concluding that the animal walked on all fours: initially he had assumed it was a bipedal form, brought to the brink of extinction by its overly heavy skull. A full skeletal restoration followed in April, together with one of \"Brontosaurus\" in the same publication, the first for Mesozoic dinosaurs ever drawn. The same year he renamed \"T. flabellatus\" into the separate genus \"Sterrholophus\", the \"stiffly crested\". In September, he named \"Triceratops elatus\", \"the raised one\", based on specimen YPM 1201, an enormous skull with an upwards pointing low nose horn found on 23 October 1890 by Hatcher. Marsh named his", "", "Individual \"Triceratops\" are estimated to have reached about in length, in height, and in weight. The most distinctive feature is their large skull, among the largest of all land animals. The largest-known skull (specimen MWC 7584, formerly BYU 12183) is estimated", "Like all chasmosaurines, \"Triceratops\" had a large skull relative to its body size. The front of the head was equipped with a large beak in front of the teeth. The core of the top beak was formed by a special rostral bone. Behind it, the premaxillae bones were located, embayed from behind by very large circular nostrils. In chasmosaurines, the premaxillae met on their midline in a complex bone plate, the rear edge of which was reinforced by the \"narial strut\". From the base of this strut, a triangular process jutted out into the nostril. \"Triceratops\" differs from most relatives in that this process was hollowed out on the outer side. Behind the toothless premaxilla, the maxilla bore thirty-six to forty tooth positions, in which three to five teeth per position were vertically stacked. The teeth were closely appressed, forming a \"dental battery\" curving to the inside. The skull bore a single horn on the snout, above the nostrils. In \"Triceratops\", the nose horn is sometimes recognisable as a separate ossification, the epinasal. The skull also featured a pair of \"brow\" or supraorbital horns approximately long, with", "Chasmosaurines showed little variation in their postcranial skeleton. The skeleton of \"Triceratops\" is markedly robust. Both \"Triceratops\" species possessed a sturdy build, with strong limbs, short hands with three hooves each, and short feet with four hooves each. The vertebral column consisted of ten neck, twelve back, ten sacral and about forty-five tail vertebrae. The front neck vertebrae were fused into a syncervical. Traditionally, this was assumed to have incorporated the first three vertebrae which would imply that the frontmost atlas was very large and sported a neural spine. Later", "\"Triceratops\" is the best-known genus of the Ceratopsidae, a family of large, mostly North American horned dinosaurs. The exact location of \"Triceratops\" among the ceratopsids has been debated over the years. Confusion stemmed mainly from the combination of a short, solid frill (similar to that of Centrosaurinae), with long brow horns (more akin to Chasmosaurinae). In the first overview of horned dinosaurs, R. S. Lull hypothesized the existence of two lineages, one of \"Monoclonius\" and \"Centrosaurus\" leading to \"Triceratops\", the other with \"Ceratops\" and \"Torosaurus\", making \"Triceratops\" a centrosaurine as the group is understood today. Later revisions supported this view, Lawrence Lambe in 1915 formally describing the first, short-frilled group as the Centrosaurinae (including \"Triceratops\"), and the second, long-frilled group as the Chasmosaurinae. In 1949, Charles M. Sternberg was the first to question this position, proposing instead that \"Triceratops\" was more closely related to \"Arrhinoceratops\" and \"Chasmosaurus\" based on skull and horn features, making \"Triceratops\" a chasmosaurine (\"ceratopsine\" in his usage) genus. He was largely ignored, with John Ostrom, and later David Norman placing \"Triceratops\" within the Centrosaurinae. Subsequent discoveries and analyses, however, proved the", "Although \"Triceratops\" are commonly portrayed as herding animals, there is currently little evidence that they lived in herds. While several other genera of horned dinosaurs are known from bonebeds preserving bones from two to hundreds or thousands of individuals, to date there is only one documented bonebed dominated by \"Triceratops\" bones: a site in southeastern Montana with the remains of three juveniles. It may be significant that only juveniles were present. In 2012, a group of three \"Triceratops\" in relatively complete condition, each of varying sizes from a full-grown adult to a small juvenile, were found in Wyoming, near Newcastle. The remains are currently under excavation by paleontologist Peter Larson and a team from the Black Hills Institute. It is believed that the animals were traveling as a family unit, but it remains unknown if the group consists of a mated pair and their offspring, or two females and a juvenile they were caring for. The remains also show signs of predation or scavenging from \"Tyrannosaurus\", particularly on the largest specimen, with the bones of the front limbs showing breakage and puncture wounds from \"Tyrannosaurus\" teeth. New evidence presented in 2020 by Illies and Fowler \"et al.,\" suggests that \"Triceratops\" lived in small groups of perhaps between five to ten individuals based on fossils collected in the previous decade. For many years, \"Triceratops\" finds were known only from solitary individuals. These remains are very common; for example, Bruce Erickson, a paleontologist of the Science Museum of Minnesota, has reported having seen 200 specimens of \"T. prorsus\" in the Hell Creek Formation of Montana. Similarly, Barnum Brown claimed to have seen over 500 skulls in the field. Because \"Triceratops\" teeth, horn fragments, frill fragments, and other skull fragments are such abundant fossils in the Lancian faunal stage of the late Maastrichtian (late Cretaceous, 66 mya) Period of western North America, it is regarded as among the dominant herbivores of the time, if not the most dominant herbivore. In 1986, Robert Bakker estimated it as making up five sixths of the large dinosaur fauna at the end of the Cretaceous. Unlike most animals, skull fossils are far more common than postcranial bones for \"Triceratops\", suggesting that the skull had an unusually high preservation potential.", "\"Triceratops\" were herbivorous, and because of their low head, their primary food was probably low growth, although they may have been able to knock down taller plants with their horns, beak, and bulk. The jaws were tipped with a deep, narrow beak, believed to have been better at grasping and plucking than biting. \"Triceratops\" teeth were arranged in groups called batteries, of 36 to 40", "There has been much speculation over the functions of \"Triceratops\" head adornments. The two main theories have revolved around use in combat and in courtship display, with the latter now thought to be the most likely primary function. Early on, Lull postulated that the frills may have served as anchor points for the jaw muscles to aid chewing by allowing increased size and thus power for the muscles. This has been put forward by other authors over the years, but later studies do not find evidence of large muscle attachments on the frill bones. \"Triceratops\" were long thought to have used their horns and frills in combat with predators such as", "In 2006, the first extensive ontogenetic study of \"Triceratops\" was published in the journal Proceedings of the Royal Society. The study, by John R. Horner and Mark Goodwin, found that individuals of \"Triceratops\" could be divided into four general ontogenetic groups, babies, juveniles, subadults, and adults. With a total number of 28 skulls studied, the youngest was only long. Ten of the 28 skulls could be placed in order in a growth series with one representing each age. Each of the four growth stages were found to have identifying features. Multiple ontogenetic trends were discovered, including the size reduction of the epoccipitals, development and reorientation of postorbital horns, and hollowing out of the horns.", "\"Torosaurus\" is a ceratopsid genus first identified from a pair of skulls in 1891, two years after the identification of \"Triceratops\". The genus \"Torosaurus\" resembles \"Triceratops\" in geological age, distribution, anatomy and size and it has been recognised as a close relative. Its distinguishing features are an elongated skull and the presence of two fenestrae, or holes, in the frill. Paleontologists investigating dinosaur ontogeny (growth and development of individuals over the life span) in the Hell Creek Formation, Montana, US, have recently presented evidence that the two represent a single genus. John Scannella, in a paper presented in Bristol, UK at the conference of the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology (25 September 2009) reclassified \"Torosaurus\" as especially mature \"Triceratops\" individuals, perhaps representing a single sex. Jack Horner, Scannella's mentor at Bozeman Campus, Montana State University, noted that ceratopsian skulls consist of metaplastic bone. A characteristic of metaplastic bone is that it lengthens and shortens over time, extending and resorbing to form new shapes. Significant variety is seen even in those skulls already identified as \"Triceratops\", Horner said, \"where the horn orientation", "Opinion has varied on the validity of a separate genus for \"Nedoceratops\". John Scannella and Jack Horner regarded it as an intermediate growth stage between \"Triceratops\" and \"Torosaurus\". Andrew Farke, in his 2011 redescription of the only known skull, concluded that it was an aged individual of its own valid taxon, \"Nedoceratops hatcheri\". Nicholas Longrich and Daniel Fields also did not consider it a transition between \"Torosaurus\" and \"Triceratops\", suggesting that the frill holes were pathological. As described above, John Scannella had argued in 2010 that \"Nedoceratops\" should be considered a synonym of \"Triceratops\". Andrew Farke (2011) maintained that it represents a valid distinct genus. Nick Longrich agreed with Scannella about \"Nedoceratops\" and made a further suggestion: that the recently described \"Ojoceratops\" was likewise a synonym. The fossils, he argued, are indistinguishable from the \"T. horridus\" specimens that were previously attributed to the defunct species \"T. serratus\". Longrich observed that another newly described genus, \"Tatankaceratops\", displayed a strange mix of characteristics already found in adult and juvenile \"Triceratops\". Rather than representing a distinct genus, \"Tatankaceratops\" could as easily represent a dwarf \"Triceratops\" or a \"Triceratops\" individual with a developmental disorder that caused it to stop growing prematurely.", "\"Triceratops\" lived during the Late Cretaceous of North America, its fossils coming from the Evanston Formation, Scollard Formation, Laramie Formation, Lance Formation, Denver Formation, and Hell Creek Formation. These fossil formations date back to the time of the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, which has been dated to 66 ± 0.07 million years ago. Many animals and plants have been found in these formations, but mostly from the Lance Formation and Hell Creek Formation. \"Triceratops\" was one of the last ceratopsian genera to appear before the end of the Mesozoic. The related \"Torosaurus\", and the more distantly related diminutive \"Leptoceratops\", were also present, though their remains have been rarely encountered. Theropods from these formations include genera of tyrannosaurids, ornithomimids, troodontids, avialans, caenagnathids, and dromaeosaurids. \"Acheroraptor\" and \"Dakotaraptor\" are dromaeosaurids from the Hell Creek Formation. Indeterminate dromaeosaurs are known from other fossil formations. Common teeth previously referred to \"Dromaeosaurus\" and \"Saurornitholestes\" later were considered to be \"Acheroraptor\". The tyrannosaurids from the formation are \"Nanotyrannus\" and \"Tyrannosaurus\", although the former might be a junior synonym of the latter. Among ornithomimids are the genera \"Struthiomimus\" as well as \"Ornithomimus\"; an undescribed animal named \"Orcomimus\" could be from the formation. Troodontids are only represented by \"Pectinodon\" and \"Paronychodon\" in the Hell Creek", "\"Triceratops\" is the official state fossil of South Dakota, and the official state dinosaur of Wyoming. In 1942, Charles R. Knight painted a mural incorporating a confrontation between a Tyrannosaurus and a Triceratops in the Field Museum of Natural History for the National Geographic Society, establishing them as enemies in the popular imagination. Paleontologist Bob Bakker said of the imagined rivalry between \"Tyrannosaurus\" and \"Triceratops\", \"No matchup between predator and prey has ever been more dramatic. It's somehow fitting that those two massive antagonists lived out their co-evolutionary belligerence through the very last days of the very last epoch of the Age of Dinosaurs.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Pre–1500.", "1501–present.", "July 30, 2004 explosions.", "Transportation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Archeological records show the existence of several Gallo-Roman settlements in the Ath area. The origin of the city of Ath, however, dates from around 1160, when Count Baudouin IV of Hainaut, bought some territory from his liegeman, Gilles de Trazegnies. A few years later, Baldwin built the Burbant Tower – which can still be seen today – to protect his new acquisition. The new city was soon given privileges and its newly built (1325) market hall on the \"Grand-Place\" began to attract residents. Ath was the setting of the \"Peace of Ath\", signed on June4, 1357, to end the question of the Brabant succession. By then, the weekly Ath market, which took place – and still takes place – on Thursdays, had started attracting sellers from a much larger region. The production of linen, cloth, hide, and luxury items such as gold ware, cabinets, and sculptures was growing fast. The population growth necessitated the building of a second wall, which was completed at the end of the 14th century. In 1416, the city built a school for the study of Latin, which Justus Lipsius attended. The city counted then about 5,000 people.", "In 1667, Ath was conquered in a single day by the army of Louis XIV and became the first French city of the Spanish Netherlands. Soon after, Vauban built new fortifications, which included eight bastions. The city suffered again at the hands of the French army in 1745. At the end of the 18th century, Ath counted about 7,300 inhabitants but the population count decreased in the first half of the 19th century. In 1816, two military engineering surveys concluded that Ath defences should be improved, the British survey recommended a garrison of 3,000 troops and the building cost would be £143,599. The Dutch wished to spend an additional £266,000. The Duke of Wellington agreed to the Dutch plan. The funding was paid for by England (30%), Holland (30%) and by French war reparations (40%). In 1824, the Dutch under King William I, built the Féron Fort, and the city once more gained strategic value. A treaty drafted in London on 15 November 1831, which the Netherlands refused to sign, was followed by the Treaty of London (1839), which created the Kingdom of Belgium. Part of the terms of the treaty required the fort, amongst others, to be dismantled. The freed up land assisted the town for the activities of a growing population. A new growth period took place between 1850 and 1914 driven by the forestry, agricultural (breweries, mills) and textile industries. In the 20th century, most of these industries went into decline and were replaced by commercial, administrative and educational activities. In the last 30 years, several neighbourhoods have been revitalized and developed, and the city's monuments renovated or restored.", "The Ghislenghien industrial park near Ath was the scene of one of Belgium's worst ever industrial disasters on July 30, 2004. Around 8:30 am local time, workers constructing a new factory for abrasives firm Diamant Boart (a subsidiary of the Electrolux Group) reported a strong smell of gas. It is believed the gas was escaping from a high-pressure underground pipeline conveying natural gas from Zeebrugge to France, operated by gas transportation company Fluxys. Firefighters were soon on the scene and were attempting to clear the area when at least two explosions occurred at around 9:00 am. The strongest of these demolished the partly built Diamant Boart structure, and fires were started in several other buildings. The official death-toll has risen to 23, with over 120 injured. Five volunteer firemen and one police officer were among the dead. The cause of the leak has not yet been ascertained. After the explosion, signs of damage by a construction machine were discovered on the exploded part of the pipeline and the adjacent parts. Probably these were the result of construction works a few weeks before the explosion. The pipeline probably ruptured completely on July 30, 2004, when operator Fluxys raised the pressure.", "Ath is located along the N56 road." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Marriage and children." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Děpolt II was the only son of Děpolt I (son of Duke Vladislav I of Bohemia) and of his wife Gertrude (daughter of Albert the Bear of Brandenburg). He was first mentioned after the death of his father. He had a good relationship with the Duke Frederick of Bohemia (Czech: Bedřich), his cousin. After 1182 he was in dispute with his other cousin Bishop of Prague Jindřich Břetislav (Henry Bretislaus, later known as Duke Bretislaus III of Bohemia). The bishop imposed an interdict on Děpolt's land (the regions of Čáslav, Chrudim and Vraclav). In 1187 he emigrated and came back in 1189 when Conrad II became the new duke of Bohemia. In 1189 Conrad II appointed Děpolt I to lead the Bohemian troop in the Third Crusade. The Bohemian troop joined the crusaders led by the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa in Esztergom, Hungary. Many of the Bohemian soldiers were former prisoners who were freed just to participate the crusade (8 of them were executed by Frederick Barbarossa because of their violence and robbery already in Serbia). After the death of Frederick Barbarossa in the Saleph River on 10 June 1190 Děpolt II decided to stay in the Holy Land and to continue under the command of Frederick VI, Duke of Swabia. He took part in the siege of Acre in autumn 1190. There he also died on 21 November 1190, maybe because of a war injury or plague. The surviving rest of his troop then probably became a part of the troop of King Richard I of England.", "Děpolt II was married to Adéla/Adelajda Zbysława of Silesia, the daughter of Bolesław I the Tall. They had:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and education.", "Collecting Scottish Gaelic poetry.", "Ossian.", "Later works.", "Time in Parliament.", "Death.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Macpherson was born at Ruthven in the parish of Kingussie in Badenoch, Inverness-shire. This was a Gaelic speaking area but near the Barracks of the British Army, established in 1719 to enforce the rule from London after the Jacobite uprising of 1715. Macpherson's uncle, Ewen Macpherson joined the Jacobite army in the 1745 march south, when Macpherson was nine years old and after the Battle of Culloden, had had to remain hidden from capture for nine years. In the 1752-3 session, Macpherson was sent to King's College, Aberdeen, moving two years later to Marischal College (the two institutions later became the University of Aberdeen), reading Caesar's \"Commentaries\" on the relationships between the 'primitive' Germanic tribes and the 'enlightened' Roman imperial army; it is also believed that he attended classes at the University of Edinburgh as a divinity student in 1755–56. During his years as a student, he ostensibly wrote over 4,000 lines of verse, some of which was later published, notably \"The Highlander\" (1758), a six-canto epic poem, which he attempted to suppress sometime after its publication.", "On leaving college, he returned to Ruthven to teach in the school there, and then became a private tutor. At Moffat he met John Home, the author of \"Douglas\", for whom he recited some Gaelic verses from memory. He also showed him manuscripts of Gaelic poetry, supposed to have been picked up in the Scottish Highlands and the Western Isles, one was called \"The Death of Oscar\". In 1760, Macpherson visited North Uist and met with John MacCodrum, the official Bard to the Chief of Clan MacDonald of Sleat. As a result of their encounter, MacCodrum made, according to John Lorne Campbell, \"a brief appearance in the Ossianic controversy which is not without it's humorous side.\" When Macpherson met MacCodrum, he asked, \"\"A bheil dad agaibh air an Fheinne?\"\" Macpherson believed himself to have asked, \"Do you know anything of the Fianna?\" He had actually said, however, \"Do the Fianna owe you anything?\" In reply, MacCodrum quipped, \"\"Cha n-eil agus ge do bhiodh cha ruiginn a leas iarraidh a nis\"\", or in English, \"No, and if they did it would be useless to ask for it now.\" According to Campbell, this, \"dialogue... illustrates at once Macpherson's imperfect Gaelic and MacCodrum's quickness of reply.\" Encouraged by Home and others, Macpherson produced 15 pieces, all laments for fallen warriors, translated from the Scottish Gaelic, despite his limitations in that tongue, which he was induced to publish at Edinburgh in 1760, including the \"Death of Oscar,\" in a pamphlet: \"Fragments of Ancient Poetry collected in the Highlands of Scotland\". Extracts were then published in \"The Scots Magazine\" and \"The Gentleman's Magazine\" which were popular and the notion of these fragments as glimpses of an unrecorded Gaelic epic began. Hugh Blair, who was a firm believer in the authenticity of the poems, raised a subscription to allow Macpherson to pursue his Gaelic researches. In the autumn,1760, Macpherson set out to visit western Inverness-shire, the islands of Skye, North Uist, South Uist and Benbecula. Allegedly, Macpherson obtained manuscripts which he translated with the assistance of a Captain Morrison and the Rev. Gallie. Later he made an expedition to the Isle of Mull, where he claimed to obtain other manuscripts.", "In 1761, Macpherson announced the discovery of an epic on the subject of \"Fingal\" (related to the Irish mythological character Fionn mac Cumhaill/Finn McCool) written by Ossian (based on Fionn's son Oisín), and in December he published \"Fingal, an Ancient Epic Poem in Six Books, together with Several Other Poems composed by Ossian, the Son of Fingal, translated from the Gaelic Language\", written in the musical measured prose of which he had made use in his earlier volume. \"Temora\" followed in 1763, and a collected edition, \"The Works of Ossian\", in 1765. The name Fingal or \"Fionnghall\" means \"white stranger\", and it is suggested that the name was rendered as Fingal through a derivation of the name which in old Gaelic would appear as Finn. The authenticity of these so-called translations from the works of a 3rd-century bard was immediately challenged by Irish historians, especially Charles O'Conor, who noted technical errors in chronology and in the forming of Gaelic names, and commented on the implausibility of many of Macpherson's claims, none of which Macpherson was able to substantiate. More forceful denunciations were later made by Samuel Johnson, who asserted (in \"A Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland\", 1775) that Macpherson had found fragments of poems and stories, and then woven them into a romance of his own composition. Further challenges and defences were made well into the nineteenth century, but the issue was moot by then. Macpherson's manuscript Gaelic \"originals\" were published posthumously in 1807; Ludwig Christian Stern was sure they were in fact back-translations from his English version.", "In 1764, Macpherson was made secretary to the colonial governor George Johnstone at Pensacola, Florida. He returned to Great Britain two years later, and, despite a quarrel with Johnstone, was allowed to retain his salary as a pension. Macpherson went on to write several historical works, the most important of which was \"Original Papers, containing the Secret History of Great Britain from the Restoration to the Accession of the House of Hanover\", to which are prefixed \"Extracts from the Life of James II\", as written by himself (1775). He enjoyed a salary for defending the policy of Lord North's government, and held the lucrative post of London agent to the Nawab of Arcot. He entered parliament in 1780, as Member of Parliament for Camelford and continued to sit for the remainder of his life.", "Despite his Jacobite roots, and in line with his Hanovarian sympathies, for a time Macpherson had desired a seat in Parliament and he finally received it in the 1780 general election. On 11 September 1780, he became junior member for Camelford. Later he became the senior member in the results of the April 1784 election. He stayed in this position until his death. Although there is not a lot recorded about his time in parliament, his name is in a list of confidential parliamentary pensions which suggest that his undocumented work was more of an under-the-table government scheme. This suggestion is more or less backed by letters corresponding with other suggested government scammers of the time such as Paul Benfield. In 1783 he also held a position as an agent working with Sir Nathaniel Wraxall, and was noted since this time for being very wealthy, probably from his secret parliamentary pensions he was receiving.", "In his later years he bought an estate, to which he gave the name Belville or Balavil, in his native Inverness-shire, where he died at the age of 59. Macpherson's remains were carried from Scotland and interred in the Abbey Church of Westminster. The Highland MP and antiquarian, Charles Fraser-Mackintosh, appears to enviously comment on the success of James Macpherson in his second series of \"\"Antiquarian Notes\"\" (Inverness 1897, pp 369 et seq, public domain) as follows:\"Mr James Macpherson of Ossianic fame, who acquired Phoiness, Etterish, and Invernahaven, began this wretched business and did it so thoroughly that not much remained for his successors...Every place James Macpherson acquired was cleared, and he also had a craze for changing and obliterating the old names... [including]... Raitts into Belville. Upon this point it may be noticed that Mac Ossian, in making an entail and calling four of his numerous bastards [this comment has no support] in the first instance to the succession, declares an irritancy if any of the heirs uses any other designation than that of Macpherson of Belville.\" After calling Macpherson's children bastards, Fraser-Mackintosh also jealously asserts that Macpherson bought the right to be buried in Westminster Abbey. If it was for sale, why not? Recent commentators suggest Macpherson has became known as 'a descendent of a Jacobite clan who became a sycophantic Hanovarian toady, a man for the main chance'.", "After Macpherson's death, Malcolm Laing, in an appendix to his \"History of Scotland\" (1800), concluded that the so-called Ossianic poems were altogether modern in origin, and that Macpherson's authorities were practically non-existent. Despite the above, some critics claim that Macpherson nonetheless produced a work of art which by its deep appreciation of natural beauty and the melancholy tenderness of its treatment of the ancient legend did more than any single work to bring about the romantic movement in European, and especially in German, literature. It was speedily translated into many European languages, and Herder and Goethe (in his earlier period) were among its profound admirers. Goethe incorporated his translation of a part of the work into his novel \"The Sorrows of Young Werther\". Melchiore Cesarotti's Italian translation was reputedly a favourite of Napoleon. Macpherson's legacy indirectly includes the naming of Fingal's Cave on the island of Staffa. The original Gaelic name is \"An Uamh Bhin\" (\"the melodious cave\"), but it was renamed by Sir Joseph Banks in 1772 at the height of Macpherson's popularity." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Development.", "Design.", "Operational history." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In the late 1950s, the Soviet Air Force commenced a search for a suitable jet-powered replacement for its fleet of piston-engined trainers; over time, this requirement was progressively broadened towards the goal of developing a trainer aircraft that could be adopted and in widespread use throughout the national air forces of the Eastern Bloc countries. Around the same time, the nation of Czechoslovakia had also been independently developing its own requirements for a suitable jet successor to its current propeller-powered trainer aircraft. In response to these demands, Aero decided to develop its own aircraft design; the effort was headed by a pair of aerospace engineers, Z. Rublič and K. Tomáš. Their work was centered upon the desire to produce a single design that would be suitable both performing basic and advanced levels of the training regime, carrying pilots straight through to being prepared to operate frontline combat aircraft. The basic design concept was to produce a straightforward, easy-to-build and operate aircraft. Accordingly, both simplicity and ruggedness were stressed in the development process, leading to the adoption of manual flight controls, large flaps, and the incorporation of perforated airbrakes positioned on the fuselage sides. Aerodynamically, the L-29 was intentionally designed to possess stable and docile flight characteristics; this decision contributed to an enviable safety record for the type. The sturdy L-29 was able to operate under austere conditions, including performing take-offs from grass, sand or unprepared fields. On 5 April 1959, the prototype XL-29 conducted its maiden flight, powered by a British Bristol Siddeley Viper turbojet engine. The second prototype, which flew shortly thereafter, was instead powered by the Czech-designed M701 engine. The M-701 engine which was used in all subsequent aircraft. During 1961, a small pre-production batch of L-29s were evaluated against the Polish PZL TS-11 Iskra and the Russian Yakovlev Yak-30, the main rival submissions for the Warsaw Pact's standardised trainer. Shortly after the completion of the fly-offs, it was announced that the L-29 had been selected as the winner; according to aviation author John C. Fredrikson, this outcome had been highly unexpected and surprising to several observers. Regardless of the result, Poland chose to continue to pursue the development and procurement of the TS-11; however, all of the other Warsaw Pact countries decided to adopt the Delfin under the agreements of COMECON. During April 1963, full-scale production of the L-29 commenced; 3,600 aircraft were manufactured over a production run of 11 years. During its production life, several derivatives of the L-29 were developed, such as a dedicated, single-seat, aerobatic version, which was designated as the L-29A \"Akrobat\". Another model, an armed reconnaissance version complete with multiple downwards-looking cameras installed in the rear cockpit position, referred to as the L-29R, was also under development; however, during 1965, the L-29R project was terminated. Optional armaments could be installed upon some models, consisting of either a detachable gun pod or a pod containing up to four unguided missiles, which could be set upon hardpoints underneath each wing.", "The Aero L-29 Delfín was a jet-powered trainer aircraft, known for its straightforward and simplistic design and construction. In terms of its basic configuration, it used a mid-wing matched with a T-tail arrangement; the wings were unswept and accommodated air intakes for the engines within the wing roots. The undercarriage was reinforced and capable of withstanding considerable stresses. According to Fredriksen, the L-29 was relatively underpowered, yet exhibited several favourable characteristics in its flight performance, such as its ease of handling. The primary flying controls are manually operated; both the flaps and airbrakes were actuated via hydraulic systems. Production aircraft were powered by the Czech-designed Motorlet M-701 turbojet engine, which was capable of generating up to 1,960lbf of thrust. Between 1961 and 1968, approximately 9,250 engines were completed; according to reports, no fewer than 5,000 of these engines were manufactured in support of the Delfin programme. The student pilot and their instructor were placed in a tandem seating layout underneath separate canopies, the instructor being placed in a slightly elevated position to better oversee the student. Both the student and instructor were provisioned with ejection seats; these were intentionally interlinked to fire in a synchronised manner if either seat was deployed as to eliminate any possibility of a mid-air collision between the two ejector seats occurring. During their late life, many L-29s were resold onto private operators and have seen use in the civil sector. It has become common for various modifications to be carried out to convert the type for such use; these changes would commonly include the removal of military-orientated equipment (such as the gun sight), the replacement of the metric altimeters with Western counterparts, the addition of alternative radio systems, and new ejection seats. It was also routine for several subsystems, such as the oxygen system, to be disabled rather than removed.", "In excess of 2,000 L-29 Delfins were ultimately supplied to the Soviet Air Force. Like the majority of Soviet-operated aircraft, it acquired its own NATO reporting name, \"Maya.\" In the trainer role, the L-29 enabled air forces to adopt an \"all-through\" training regime using only jet-powered aircraft, entirely replacing earlier piston-engined types. The Delfin served in basic, intermediate and weapons training roles. For this latter mission, they were equipped with hardpoints to carry gunpods, bombs or rockets; according to Fredrikson, the L-29 functioned as a relatively good ground-attack aircraft when deployed as such. It saw several uses in this active combat role, such as when a number of Egyptian L-29s were dispatched on attack missions against Israeli ground forces during the Yom Kippur War of 1973. The type was also used in anger during the Nigerian Civil War of the late 1960s. On 16 July 1975, a Czechoslovak Air Force L-29 reportedly shot down a Polish civilian biplane piloted by Dionizy Bielański, who had been attempting to defect to the West. The L-29 was supplanted in the inventory of many of its operators by the Aero L-39 Albatros. The L-29 which was commonly used alongside the newer L-39 for a time. The type was used extensively to conduct ground attack missions in the Nagorno-Karabakh War by Azeri forces. At least 14 were shot down by Armenian air-defences, out of the total inventory of 18 L-29s; the Azeri Air Force lost large amounts of its air force due to anti aircraft fire. On 2 October 2007, an unmodified L-29 was used for the world's first jet flight powered solely by 100 per cent biodiesel fuel. Pilots Carol Sugars and Douglas Rodante flew their Delphin Jet from Stead Airport, Reno, Nevada to Leesburg International Airport, Leesburg, Florida in order to promote environmentally friendly fuels in aviation. The L-29, much like its L-39 successor, has found use in air racing, some of which have been re-engined with the British Armstrong Siddeley Viper turbojet engine. From 10 September to 14 September 2008, a pair of L-29s took first and second place at the Reno Air Races. Both L-29s consistently posted laps at or above 500 miles per hour; former Astronaut Curt Brown took first place in \"Viper,\" followed by Red Bull racer Mike Mangold in \"Euroburner.\" Russia has claimed that it destroyed a pair of Georgian L-29s during the 2008 South Ossetia war. On 18 January 2015, separatist forces in the War in Donbass claimed that they possessed an operational L-29." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name.", "Etymology.", "Meaning and variants.", "Origins.", "Epithets.", "Worship and festivals in Greece.", "Dionysia.", "Bacchic mysteries.", "Eleusinian mysteries.", "Orphism.", "Worship and festivals in Rome.", "Liber and importation to Rome.", "Bacchanalia.", "Post-classical worship.", "Late Antiquity.", "Worship from the Middle Ages to the Modern period.", "Identification with other gods.", "Osiris.", "Hades.", "Sabazios and Yahweh.", "Mythology.", "First birth.", "Second birth.", "Infancy.", "Travels and invention of wine.", "Return to Greece.", "Captivity and escape.", "Descent to the underworld.", "Secondary myths.", "Midas' golden touch.", "Other myths.", "Lovers and offspring.", "Iconography.", "Symbols.", "In classical art.", "Post-classical culture.", "Art from the Renaissance on.", "Modern literature and philosophy.", "Modern film and performance art.", "Parallels with Christianity.", "Death and resurrection.", "Trial.", "Sacred food and drink.", "Other parallels." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The \"dio-\" prefix in Ancient Greek (Diṓnusos; /di.ó.nyː.sos/) has been associated since antiquity with \"Zeus\" (genitive \"Dios\"), and the variants of the name seem to point to an original \"*Dios-nysos\". The earliest attestation is the Mycenaean Greek dative form \"(di-wo-nu-so)\", featured on two tablets that had been found at Mycenaean Pylos and dated to the twelfth or thirteenth century BC. At that time, there could be no certainty on whether this was indeed a theonym, but the 1989–90 Greek-Swedish Excavations at Kastelli Hill, Chania, unearthed, \"inter alia\", four artefacts bearing Linear B inscriptions; among them, the inscription on item KH Gq 5 is thought to confirm Dionysus's early worship.The second element is of unknown origin. It is perhaps associated with Mount Nysa, the birthplace of the god in Greek mythology, where he was nursed by nymphs (the Nysiads),", "Later variants include and in Boeotia; in Thessaly; and in Ionia; and in Aeolia, besides other variants. A prefix is found in other names, such as that of the Dioscures, and may derive from \"Dios\", the genitive of the name of Zeus. Nonnus, in his \"Dionysiaca\", writes that the name Dionysus means \"Zeus-limp\" and that Hermes named the new", "Academics in the nineteenth century, using study of philology and comparative mythology, often regarded Dionysus as a foreign deity who was only reluctantly accepted into the standard Greek pantheon at a relatively late date, based on his myths which often involve this theme – a god who spends much of his time on earth abroad, and struggles for acceptance when he returns to Greece. However, more recent evidence has shown that Dionysus was in fact one of the earliest gods attested in mainland Greek culture. The earliest written records of Dionysus worship come from Mycenaean Greece, specifically in and around the Palace of Nestor in Pylos, dated to around 1300 BC. The details of any religion surrounding Dionysus in this period are scant, and most evidence comes in the form only of his name, written as \"di-wo-nu-su-jo\" (\"Dionysoio\") in Linear B, preserved on fragments of clay tablets that indicate a connection to offerings or payments of wine, which was described as being \"of Dionysoio\". References have also been uncovered to \"women of Oinoa\", the \"place of wine\", who may correspond to the Dionysian women of later periods. Other Mycenaean records from Pylos record the worship", "Dionysus was variably known with the following epithets: Acratophorus, (\"giver of unmixed wine\"), at Phigaleia in Arcadia. Acroreites at Sicyon. Adoneus, a rare archaism in Roman literature, a Latinised form of Adonis, used as epithet for Bacchus. Aegobolus (\"Goat-shooter\") at Potniae, in Boeotia. Aesymnetes (\"ruler\" or \"lord\") at Aroë and Patrae in Achaea. Agrios (\"wild\"), in Macedonia. Bassareus, a Thracian name for Dionysus, which derives from \"bassaris\" or \"fox-skin\", which item was worn by his cultists in their mysteries. Briseus (\"he who prevails\") in Smyrna. Bromios (\"Roaring\" as of the wind, primarily relating to the central death/resurrection element of the myth, but also the god's transformations into lion and bull, and the boisterousness of those who drink alcohol. Also cognate with the \"roar of thunder\", which refers to Dionysus' father, Zeus \"the thunderer\".) Choiropsalas \"χοιροψάλας\" (\"pig-plucker\": Greek \"χοῖρος\" = \"pig,\" also used as a slang term for the female genitalia). A reference to Dionysus's role as a fertility deity. Chthonios (\"the subterranean\") Dendrites (\"he of the trees\"), as a fertility god. Dithyrambos, used at his festivals,", "Dionysus worship became firmly established by the seventh century BC. He may have been worshiped as early as c. 1500–1100 BC by Mycenaean Greeks; and traces of Dionysian-type cult have also been found in ancient Minoan Crete.", "The Dionysia and Lenaia festivals were dedicated to Dionysus. The Rural Dionysia (or Lesser Dionysia) was one of the oldest festivals dedicated to Dionysus, begun in Attica, and probably celebrated the cultivation of vines. It was held during the winter month of Poseideon (the time surrounding the winter solstice, modern December or January). The Rural Dionysia centered on a procession, during which participants carried phalluses, long loaves of bread, jars of water and wine as well as other offerings, and young girls carried baskets.", "The central religious cult of Dionysus is known as the Bacchic or Dionysian Mysteries. The exact origin of this religion is unknown, though Orpheus was said to have invented the mysteries of Dionysus. Evidence suggests that many sources and rituals typically considered to be part of the similar Orphic Mysteries actually belong to Dionysian mysteries. Some scholars have suggested that, additionally, there is no difference between the Dionysian mysteries and the mysteries of Persephone, but that these were all facets of the same mystery religion, and that Dionysus and Persephone both had important roles in it. Previously considered to have been a primarily rural and fringe part of Greek religion, the major urban center of Athens played a major role in the", "As early as the fifth century BC, Dionysus became identified with Iacchus, a minor deity from the tradition of the Eleusinian mysteries. This association may have arisen because of the homophony of the names Iacchus and Bacchus. Two black-figure lekythoi (c. 500 BC), possibly represent the earliest evidence for such an association. The nearly-identical vases, one in Berlin, the other in Rome, depict Dionysus, along with the inscription \"IAKXNE\", a possible miswriting of \"IAKXE\". More early evidence can be found in the works of the fifth-century BC", "In the Orphic tradition, the \"first Dionysus\" was the son of Zeus and Persephone, and was dismembered by the Titans before being reborn. Dionysus was the patron god of the Orphics, who they connected to death and immortality, and he symbolized the one who guides the process of reincarnation. The Orphic Dionysus is sometimes referred to with the alternate name Zagreus (). The earliest mentions of this name in literature describe him as a partner of Gaia and call him the highest god. Aeschylus linked Zagreus with Hades, as either Hades' son or Hades himself. Noting \"Hades' identity as Zeus' \"katachthonios\" alter ego\", Timothy Gantz thought it likely that Zagreus, originally, perhaps, the", "", "The mystery cult of Bacchus was brought to Rome from the Greek culture of southern Italy or by way of Greek-influenced Etruria. It was established around 200 BC in the Aventine grove of Stimula by a priestess from Campania, near the temple where Liber Pater (\"the Free Father\") had a State-sanctioned, popular cult. Liber was a native Roman god of wine, fertility, and prophecy, patron of Rome's plebeians (citizen-commoners), and one of the members of the Aventine Triad, along with his mother Ceres and sister or consort Libera. A temple to the Triad was erected on the Aventine Hill in 493 BC, along with the institution of celebrating the festival of Liberalia. The worship of the Triad gradually took on more and more Greek influence, and by 205 BC, Liber and Libera had been formally identified with Bacchus and Proserpina. Liber was often interchangeably identified with Dionysus and his", "In Rome, the most well-known festivals of Bacchus were the Bacchanalia, based on the earlier Greek Dionysia festivals. These Bacchic rituals were said to have included omophagic practices, such as pulling live animals apart and eating the whole of them raw. This practice served not only as a reenactment of the infant death and rebirth of Bacchus, but also as a means by which Bacchic practitioners produced \"enthusiasm\": etymologically, to let a god enter the practitioner's body or to have her become one with Bacchus. In Livy's account, the Bacchic mysteries were a novelty at Rome; originally restricted to women and held only three times a year, they were corrupted by an Etruscan-Greek version, and thereafter drunken, disinhibited men and women of all ages and social classes cavorted in a sexual free-for-all five times a month. Livy relates their various outrages against Rome's civil and religious laws and traditional morality (\"mos maiorum\"); a", "", "In the Neoplatonist philosophy and religion of Late Antiquity, the Olympian gods were sometimes considered to number 12 based on their spheres of influence. For example, according to Sallustius, \"Jupiter, Neptune, and Vulcan fabricate the world; Ceres, Juno, and Diana animate it; Mercury, Venus, and Apollo harmonize it; and, lastly, Vesta, Minerva, and Mars preside over it with a guarding power.\" The multitude of", "Though the last known worshippers of the Greek and Roman gods were converted before 1000 AD, there were several isolated instances of revived worship of Dionysus during the Medieval and early modern periods. With the rise of modern neopaganism, worship of the god has once again been revived. According to the Lanercost chronicle, during Easter in 1282 in Scotland, the parish priest of Inverkeithing led young women in a dance in honor of Priapus and Father Liber, commonly identified with Dionysus. The priest danced and sang at the front, carrying a representation of the phallus on a pole. He was killed by a Christian mob later that year. Historian C. S. Watkins believes that Richard of Durham, the author of the chronicle, identified an occurrence of apotropaic magic with his knowledge of ancient Greek religion, rather than recording an actual case of survival of pagan rituals. The", "", "In the Greek interpretation of the Egyptian pantheon, Dionysus was often identified with Osiris. Stories of the dismemberment of Osiris and the re-assembly and resurrection by Isis closely parallel those of the Orphic Dionysus and Demeter. According to Diodorus Siculus, as early as the fifth century BC, the two gods had been syncretized as a single deity known as Dionysus-Osiris. The most notable record of this belief is found in Herodotus' 'Histories'. Plutarch also described his belief that Osiris and Dionysus were identical, stating that anyone familiar with the secret rituals associated with both gods would recognize obvious parallels, and that their dismemberment myths and associated public symbols are enough additional evidence that they are the same god worshiped by two different cultures. Other syncretic Greco-Egyptian deities arose out", "The fifth–fourth century BC philosopher Heraclitus, unifying opposites, declared that Hades and Dionysus, the very essence of indestructible life \"(zoë)\", are the same god. Among other evidence, Karl Kerényi notes in his book that the Homeric Hymn \"To Demeter\", votive marble images and epithets all link Hades to being Dionysus. He also notes that the grieving goddess Demeter refused to drink wine, as she states that it would be against \"themis\" for her to drink wine, which is the gift of Dionysus, after Persephone's abduction, because of this association; indicating", "The Phrygian god Sabazios was alternately identified with Zeus or with Dionysus. The Byzantine Greek encyclopedia, \"Suda\" (c. tenth century), stated: Sabazios... is the same as Dionysos. He acquired this form of address from the rite pertaining to him; for the barbarians call the bacchic cry \"sabazein\". Hence some of the Greeks too follow suit and call the cry \"sabasmos\"; thereby Dionysos [becomes] Sabazios. They also used to call \"saboi\" those places that had been dedicated to him and his Bacchantes... Demosthenes [in the speech] \"On Behalf of Ktesiphon\" [mentions them]. Some say that Saboi is the term for those who are dedicated to Sabazios, that is to Dionysos, just as those [dedicated] to Bakkhos [are] Bakkhoi. They say that Sabazios and Dionysos are the same. Thus some also say that the Greeks call the Bakkhoi Saboi. Strabo, in the first century, linked Sabazios with Zagreus among Phrygian ministers and attendants of the sacred rites of Rhea and Dionysos. Strabo's Sicilian contemporary, Diodorus Siculus, conflated Sabazios with the secret Dionysus, born of Zeus and Persephone, However,", "Various different accounts and traditions existed in the ancient world regarding the parentage, birth, and life of Dionysus on earth, complicated by his several rebirths. By the first century BC, some mythographers had attempted to harmonize the various accounts of Dionysus' birth into a single narrative involving not only multiple births, but two or three distinct manifestations of the god on earth throughout history in different lifetimes. The historian Diodorus Siculus said that according to \"some writers of myths\" there were two gods named Dionysus, an older one, who was the son of Zeus and Persephone, but that the \"younger one also inherited the deeds of the older, and so the men of later times, being unaware of the truth and being deceived because of the identity of their names thought there had been but one Dionysus.\" He also said that Dionysus \"was thought to have two forms...the ancient one having a long beard, because all men in early times wore long beards, the younger one being youthful and effeminate and young.\" Though the varying genealogy of Dionysus was mentioned in many works of classical literature, only a few contain the actual narrative myths surrounding the events of his multiple births. These include the first century BC \"Bibliotheca historica\" by Greek historian Diodorus, which describes the birth and deeds of the three incarnations of Dionysus; the brief birth narrative given by the first century AD Roman author Hyginus, which describes a double birth for Dionysus; and a longer account in the form of Greek poet Nonnus's epic \"Dionysiaca\", which discusses three incarnations of Dionysus similar to Diodorus' account, but which focuses on the life of the third Dionysus, born to Zeus and Semele.", "Though Diodorus mentions some traditions which state an older, Indian or Egyptian Dionysus existed who invented wine, no narratives are given of his birth or life among mortals, and most traditions ascribe the invention of wine and travels through India to the last Dionysus. According to Diodorus, Dionysus was originally the son of Zeus and Persephone (or alternately, Zeus and Demeter). This is the same horned Dionysus described by Hyginus and Nonnus in later accounts, and the Dionysus worshiped by the Orphics, who was dismembered by the Titans and then reborn. Nonnus calls this Dionysus Zagreus, while Diodorus says he is also considered identical with Sabazius. However, unlike Hyginus and Nonnus, Diodorus does not provide a birth narrative for this incarnation of the god. It was this Dionysus who was said to have taught mortals how use use oxen to plow the fields, rather than doing so by hand. His worshipers were said to have honored him for this by depicting him with horns. The Greek poet Nonnus gives a birth narrative for Dionysus in his late fourth or early fifth century AD epic \"Dionysiaca\". In it, he described how Zeus \"intended to make a new Dionysos grow up, a bullshaped copy of the older Dionysos\" who was the Egyptian god Osiris. (Dionysiaca 4)", "The birth narrative given by Gaius Julius Hyginus (c. 64 BC – 17 AD) in \"Fabulae\" 167, agrees with the Orphic tradition that Liber (Dionysus) was originally the son of Jove (Zeus) and Proserpine (Persephone). Hyginus writes that Liber was torn apart by the Titans, so Jove took the fragments of his heart and put them into a drink which he gave to Semele, the daughter of Harmonia and Cadmus, king and founder of Thebes. This resulted in Semele becoming pregnant. Juno appeared to Semele in the form of her nurse, Beroe, and told her: \"Daughter, ask Jove to come to you as he comes to Juno, so you may know what pleasure it is to sleep with a god.\" When Semele requested that Jove do so, she was killed by a thunderbolt. Jove then took the infant Liber from her womb, and put him in the care of Nysus. Hyginus states that \"for this reason he is called Dionysus, and also the one with two mothers\" (\"dimētōr\"). Nonnus describes how, when life was rejuvenated after the flood, it was lacking in revelry in the absence of Dionysus. \"The Seasons, those daughters of the lichtgang, still joyless, plaited garlands for the gods only of meadow-grass. For Wine was lacking. Without Bacchos to inspire the dance, its grace was only half complete and quite without profit; it charmed only the eyes of the company, when the circling dancer moved in twists and turns with a tumult of footsteps, having only nods for words, hand for mouth, fingers for voice.\" Zeus declared that he would send his son Dionysus to teach mortals how to grow grapes and make wine, to alleviate their toil, war, and suffering. After he became protector of humanity, Zeus promises, Dionysus would struggle on earth, but be received \"by the bright upper air to shine beside Zeus and to share the courses of the stars.\" (Dionysiaca 7). The mortal princess Semele then had a dream, in which Zeus destroyed a fruit tree with a bolt of lightning, but did not harm the fruit. He sent a bird to bring him one of the fruits, and sewed it into his thigh, so that he", "According to Nonnus, Zeus gave the infant Dionysus to the care of Hermes. Hermes gave Dionysus to the Lamides, or daughters of Lamos, who were river nymphs. But Hera drove the Lamides mad, and caused them to attack Dionysus, who was rescued by Hermes. Hermes next brought the infant to Ino for fostering by her attendant Mystis, who taught him the rites of the mysteries (Dionysiaca 9). In Apollodorus' account, Hermes instructed Ino to raise Dionysus as a girl, in order to hide him from Hera's wrath. However, Hera found him, and vowed to destroy the house with a flood; however, Hermes again rescued Dionysus, this time bringing him to the mountains of Lydia. Hermes adopted the form of Phanes, most ancient of the gods, and so Hera bowed before him and let him pass. Hermes gave the infant to the", "When Dionysus grew up, he discovered the culture of the vine and the mode of extracting its precious juice, being the first to do so; but Hera struck him with madness, and drove him forth a wanderer through various parts of the earth. In Phrygia the goddess Cybele, better known to the Greeks as Rhea, cured him and taught him her religious rites, and he set out on a progress through Asia teaching the people the cultivation of the vine. The most famous part of his wanderings is his expedition to India, which is said to have lasted", "Returning in triumph to Greece after his travels in Asia, Dionysus came to be considered the founder of the triumphal procession. He undertook efforts to introduce his religion into Greece, but was opposed by rulers who feared it, on account of the disorders and madness it brought with it. In one myth, adapted in Euripides' play \"The Bacchae\", Dionysus returns to his birthplace, Thebes, which is ruled by his cousin Pentheus. Pentheus, as well as his mother Agave and his aunts Ino and Autonoe, disbelieve Dionysus' divine birth. Despite the warnings of the blind prophet Tiresias, they deny him worship and denounce him for inspiring the women of Thebes to madness. Dionysus uses his divine powers to drive Pentheus insane, then invites him to spy on the ecstatic rituals of the Maenads, in the woods of Mount Cithaeron. Pentheus, hoping to witness a sexual orgy, hides himself in a", "The \"Homeric Hymn 7 to Dionysus\" recounts how, while he sat on the seashore, some sailors spotted him, believing him a prince. They attempted to kidnap him and sail away to sell him for ransom or into slavery. No rope would bind him. The god turned into a fierce lion and unleashed a bear on board, killing all in his path. Those who jumped ship were mercifully turned into dolphins. The only survivor was the helmsman, Acoetes, who recognized the god and tried to stop his sailors from the start. In a similar story, Dionysus hired a Tyrrhenian pirate ship to sail from Icaria to Naxos. When he was aboard, they sailed not to Naxos but to Asia, intending to", "Pausanias, in book II of his \"Description of Greece\", describes two variant traditions regarding Dionysus' katabasis, or descent into the underworld. Both describe how Dionysus entered into the afterlife to rescue his mother Semele, and bring her to her rightful place on Olympus. To do so, he had to contend with the hell dog Cerberus, which was restrained for him by Heracles. After retrieving Semele, Dionysus emerged with her from the unfathomable waters of a lagoon on the coast of the Argolid near the prehistoric site of Lerna, according to the local tradition. This mythic event was commemorated with a yearly nighttime festival, the details of which were held secret by the local religion. According to Paola Corrente, the emergence of Dionysus from the waters of the lagoon may signify a form of rebirth for both him and Semele as they reemerged from the underworld. A variant of this myth forms the basis of Aristophanes' comedy \"The Frogs\". According", "", "Dionysus discovered that his old school master and foster father, Silenus, had gone missing. The old man had wandered away drunk, and was found by some peasants who carried him to their king Midas (alternatively, he passed out in Midas' rose garden). The king recognized him hospitably, feasting him for ten days and nights while Silenus entertained with stories and songs. On the eleventh day, Midas brought Silenus back to Dionysus. Dionysus offered the king his choice of reward. Midas asked that whatever he might", "When Hephaestus bound Hera to a magical chair, Dionysus got him drunk and brought him back to Olympus after he passed out. When Theseus abandoned Ariadne sleeping on Naxos, Dionysus found and married her. She bore him a son named Oenopion, but he committed suicide or was killed by Perseus. In some variants, he had her crown put into the heavens as the constellation Corona; in others, he descended into Hades to restore her to the gods on Olympus. Another account claims Dionysus ordered Theseus to abandon Ariadne on the island of Naxos,", "Aphrodite Ariadne Aura Alexirrhoe Alphesiboea Althaea Araethyrea", "", "The earliest cult images of Dionysus show a mature male, bearded and robed. He holds a fennel staff, tipped with a pine-cone and known as a \"thyrsus\". Later images show him as a beardless, sensuous, naked or half-naked androgynous youth: the literature describes him as womanly or \"man-womanish\". In its fully developed form, his central cult imagery shows his triumphant, disorderly arrival or return, as if from some place beyond the borders of the known and civilized. His procession \"(thiasus)\" is made up of wild female followers (maenads) and bearded", "The god, and still more often his followers, were commonly depicted in the painted pottery of Ancient Greece, much of which made to hold wine. But, apart from some reliefs of maenads, Dionysian subjects rarely appeared in large sculpture before the Hellenistic period, when they became common. In these, the treatment of the god himself ranged from severe archaising or Neo Attic types such as the Dionysus Sardanapalus to types showing him as an indolent and androgynous young man, often nude.", "", "Bacchic subjects in art resumed in the Italian Renaissance, and soon became almost as popular as in antiquity, but his \"strong association with feminine spirituality and power almost disappeared\", as did \"the idea that the destructive and creative powers of the god were indissolubly linked\". In Michelangelo's statue (1496–97) \"madness has become merriment\". The statue aspires to suggest both drunken incapacity and an elevated consciousness, but this was perhaps lost on later viewers, and typically the two aspects were thereafter split, with a clearly drunk Silenus representing the former, and a youthful Bacchus often shown with wings, because he carries the mind to higher places. Titian's \"Bacchus and Ariadne\" (1522–23) and \"The Bacchanal of the Andrians\" (1523–26), both painted for the same room, offer an influential heroic pastoral,", "Dionysus has remained an inspiration to artists, philosophers and writers into the modern era. In \"The Birth of Tragedy\" (1872), the German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche proposed that a tension between Apollonian and Dionysian aesthetic principles underlay the development of Greek tragedy; Dionysus represented what was unrestrained chaotic and irrational, while Apollo represented the rational and ordered. This concept of a rivalry or opposition between Dionysus and Apollo has been characterized as a \"modern myth\", as it is the invention of modern thinkers like Nietzsche and Johann Joachim Winckelmann, and is not found in classical sources. However, the acceptance and popularity of this theme in Western culture has been so great, that its undercurrent has influenced the conclusions of classical scholarship. Nietzsche also claimed that the oldest forms of Greek Tragedy were entirely based upon the suffering Dionysus. In Nietzsche's 1886 work \"Beyond Good and Evil\", and later \"The Twilight of the Idols\", \"The Antichrist\" and \"Ecce Homo\", Dionysus is conceived as the embodiment of the unrestrained will", "Walt Disney depicted Bacchus in the \"Pastoral\" segment of the animated film \"Fantasia\", as a Silenus-like character. In 1969, an adaption of \"The Bacchae\" was performed, called \"Dionysus in '69\". A film was made of the same performance. The production was notable for involving audience participation, nudity, and theatrical innovations. In 1974, Stephen Sondheim and Burt Shevelove adapted Aristophanes' comedy \"The Frogs\" into a modern musical, which hit broadway in 2004 and was revived in London in 2017. The musical keeps the descent of Dionysus into Hades to bring back a playwright; however, the playwrights are updated to modern times, and Dionysus is forced to choose between George Bernard Shaw and William Shakespeare. In 2018, the Australian musical project Dead Can Dance released an album entitled \"Dionysus\". Musician Brendan Perry described the inspiration for the album as a trance-like, \"Dionysian\" experience he had at a festival during a trip to rural Spain. \"It's the spring", "Numerous scholars have compared narratives surrounding the Christian figure of Jesus with those associated with Dionysus.", "Some scholars of comparative mythology identify both Dionysus and Jesus with the dying-and-rising god mythological archetype. On the other hand, it has been noted that the details of Dionysus' death and rebirth are starkly different both", "Another parallel can be seen in \"The Bacchae\" where Dionysus appears before King Pentheus on charges of claiming divinity, which is compared to the New Testament scene of Jesus being interrogated by Pontius Pilate. However, a number of scholars dispute this parallel, since the confrontation between", "Other elements, such as the celebration by a ritual meal of bread and wine, also have parallels. The omophagia was the Dionysian act of eating raw flesh and drinking wine to consume the god. Within Orphism, it", "E. Kessler has argued that the Dionysian cult developed into strict monotheism by the fouth century AD; together with Mithraism and other sects, the cult formed an instance of \"pagan monotheism\" in direct competition with Early Christianity during Late Antiquity. Scholars from the sixteenth century onwards, especially Gerard Vossius, also discussed the parallels between the biographies of Dionysus/Bacchus and Moses (Vossius named his sons Dionysius and Isaac). Such comparisons surface in details of paintings by Poussin. Tacitus, John the Lydian, and Cornelius Labeo all identify Yahweh with the Greek god Dionysus. Jews themselves frequently used symbols that were also associated with" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Olympic record.", "2008 Summer Olympics Women's Table Tennis Singles results.", "2008 Summer Olympics Opening Ceremony." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Zhang Yining held the ITTF #1 ranking continuously from 2003 to 2009, except two months in 2008, remaining as a dominant figure in women's table tennis, with four Olympic gold medals, ten World Championships, and four World Cup wins. During the 2008 Beijing Olympics, she was often referred to by commentators as \"The Yellow Beast\", denoting her dominance in the sport. She uses a specially made Zhang Yining ZLC for her blade made by butterfly, and tenergy 05 for forehand and tenergy 64 for her backhand. Zhang is a graduate from Beijing Shichahai Sports School, where Li Jiawei of Singapore studied as well. Zhang was married in October 2009 and has not been present in table tennis tournaments since then. She announced her retirement from international play in 2011 and she went to the United States to study at the University of Wisconsin–Madison and learn to better speak English. This makes her one of few players to retire whilst holding both the World and Olympic titles for singles and team event in table tennis. Zhang also said she would like to introduce to Americans the sport of table tennis. Since 2010, Zhang serves as the assistant president of the China Table Tennis College in Shanghai.", "", "Zhang participated in the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, winning gold in both the women's singles and women's team competition. Zhang successfully defended her singles Olympic gold medal, defeating compatriot Wang Nan in the finals 8-11, 13–11, 11–8, 11–8, 11–3. She was also the women's doubles gold medal winner at the 2004 Summer Olympics. The following table shows the scores of the women's singles table tennis matches that Zhang Yining played during the Beijing 2008 Olympic Games: Click here to see further details regarding the 2008 Summer Olympics Table Tennis competition results.", "At the opening ceremony of the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, Zhang took the Olympic Oath on behalf of all competitors at the Games." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Naming.", "Course.", "Discharge.", "History.", "Uses.", "Fishing.", "Flooding.", "1948 flood.", "Causes.", "Later flooding.", "Tributaries." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "3", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The river is named after Simon Fraser, who led an expedition in 1808 on behalf of the North West Company from the site of present-day Prince George almost to the mouth of the river. The river's name in the Halqemeylem (Upriver Halkomelem) language is ', often seen archaically as Staulo, and has been adopted by the Halkomelem-speaking peoples of the Lower Mainland as their collective name,. The river's name in the Dakelh language is '. The \"Tsilhqot'in\" name for the river, not dissimilar to the \"Dakelh\" name, is, meaning Sturgeon \"()\" River \"()\".", "The Fraser drains a area. Its source is a dripping spring at Fraser Pass. The river then flows north to the Yellowhead Highway and west past Mount Robson to the Rocky Mountain Trench and the Robson Valley near Valemount. After running northwest past 54° north, it makes a sharp turn to the south at Giscome Portage, meeting the Nechako River at the city of Prince George, then continuing south, progressively cutting deeper into the Fraser Plateau to form the Fraser Canyon from roughly the confluence of the Chilcotin River, near the city of Williams Lake, southwards. It is joined by the Bridge and Seton Rivers at the town of Lillooet, then by the Thompson River at Lytton, where it proceeds south until it is approximately north of the 49th parallel, which is Canada's border with the United States. From Lytton southwards it runs through a progressively deeper canyon between the Lillooet Ranges of the Coast Mountains on its west and the Cascade Range on its east. Hell's Gate, located immediately downstream of the town of Boston Bar, is a famous portion of the canyon where the walls narrow dramatically, forcing the entire volume of the river through a gap only 35 metres (115 feet) wide. An aerial tramway takes visitors out over the river. Hells Gate is visible from the Trans-Canada Highway 1 about south of the tramway. Simon Fraser was forced to portage the gorge on his trip through the canyon in June 1808. At Yale, at the head of navigation on the river, the canyon opens up and the river is wider, though without much adjoining lowland until Hope, where the river then turns west and southwest into a lush lowland valley, known as the Fraser Valley, past Chilliwack and the confluence of the Harrison and Sumas Rivers, bending northwest at Abbotsford and Mission, turning southwest again just east of New Westminster, where it splits into the North Arm, which is the southern boundary of the City of Vancouver, and the South Arm, which divides the City of Richmond from the City of Delta. Richmond is on the largest island in the Fraser, Lulu Island and also on Sea Island, which is the location of Vancouver International Airport; the eastern end of Lulu Island is within the City of New Westminster and is called Queensborough. Also in the lowermost Fraser, among other smaller islands, is Annacis Island, an important industrial and port area, which lies to the southeast of the eastern end of Lulu Island (Sea, Lulu and Annacis Islands lie between the North and South Arms). Other notable islands in the lower Fraser are Barnston Island, Matsqui Island, Nicomen Island and Sea Bird Island. Other islands lie on the outer side of the estuary, most notably Westham Island, a wildfowl preserve, and Iona Island, the location of the main sewage plant for the City of Vancouver. After 100 kilometres (about 60 mi), it forms a delta where it empties into the Strait of Georgia between the mainland and Vancouver Island. The lands south of the City of Vancouver, including the cities of Richmond and Delta, sit on the flat flood plain. The islands of the delta include Iona Island, Sea Island, Lulu Island, Annacis Island, and a number of smaller islands. While the vast majority of the river's drainage basin lies within British Columbia, a small portion in the drainage basin lies across the international border in Washington in the United States, namely the upper reaches of the tributary Chilliwack and Sumas rivers. Most of lowland Whatcom County, Washington is part of the Fraser Lowland and was formed also by sediment deposited from the Fraser, though most of the county is not in the Fraser drainage basin. Similar to the Columbia River Gorge east of Portland, Oregon, the Fraser exploits a topographic cleft between two mountain ranges separating a more continental climate (in this case, that of the British Columbia Interior) from a milder climate near the coast. When an Arctic high-pressure area moves into the British Columbia Interior and a relatively low-pressure area builds over the general Puget Sound and Strait of Georgia region, the cold Arctic air accelerates southwest through the Fraser Canyon. These outflow winds can gust up to and have at times exceeded. Such winds frequently reach Bellingham and the San Juan Islands, gaining strength over the open water of the Strait of Juan de Fuca. The estuary at the river's mouth is a site of hemispheric importance in the Western Hemisphere Shorebird Reserve Network.", "The Water Survey of Canada currently operates 17 gauge stations that measure discharge and water level along the majority of the mainstem from Red Pass just downstream of Moose Lake in the Mount Robson Provincial Park, to Steveston in Vancouver at the river mouth. With an average flow at the mouth of about, the Fraser is the largest river by discharge flowing into the Pacific seaboard of Canada and the fifth largest in the country. The average flow is highly seasonal; summer discharge rates can be ten times larger than the flow during the winter. The Fraser's highest recorded flow, in June 1894, is estimated to have been at Hope. It was calculated using high-water marks near the hydrometric station at Hope and various statistical methods. In 1948 the Fraser River Board adopted the estimate for the 1894 flood. It remains the value specified by regulatory agencies for all flood control work on the river. Further studies and hydraulic models have estimated the maximum discharge of the Fraser River, at Hope during the 1894 flood, as within a range of about.", "On June 14, 1792, the Spanish explorers Dionisio Alcalá Galiano and Cayetano Valdés entered and anchored in the North Arm of the Fraser River, becoming the first Europeans to find and enter it. The existence of the river, but not its location, had been deduced during the 1791 voyage of José María Narváez, under Francisco de Eliza. The upper reaches of the Fraser River were first explored by Sir Alexander Mackenzie in 1793, and fully traced by Simon Fraser in 1808, who confirmed that it was not connected with the Columbia River. In 1828 George Simpson visited the river, mainly to examine Fort Langley and determine whether it would be suitable as the Hudson's Bay Company's main Pacific depot. Simpson had believed the Fraser River might be navigable throughout its length, even though Simon Fraser had described it as non-navigable. Simpson journeyed down the river and through the Fraser Canyon and afterwards wrote \"I should consider the passage down, to be certain Death, in nine attempts out of Ten. I shall therefore no longer talk about it as a navigable stream\". His trip down the river convinced him that Fort Langley could not replace Fort Vancouver as the company's main depot on the Pacific coast. Much of British Columbia's history has been bound to the Fraser, partly because it was the essential route between the Interior and the Lower Coast after the loss of the lands south of the 49th Parallel with the Oregon Treaty of 1846. It was the site of its first recorded settlements of Aboriginal people (\"see\" Musqueam,, St'at'imc, Secwepemc and Nlaka'pamux), the route of multitudes of prospectors during the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush and the main vehicle of the province's early commerce and industry. In 1998, the river was designated as a Canadian Heritage River for its natural and human heritage. It remains the longest river with that designation.", "The Fraser is heavily exploited by human activities, especially in its lower reaches. Its banks are rich farmland, its water is used by pulp mills, and a few dams on some tributaries provide hydroelectric power. The main flow of the Fraser has never been dammed partly because its high level of sediment flows would result in a short dam lifespan, but mostly because of strong opposition from fisheries and other environmental concerns. In 1858, the Fraser River and surrounding areas were occupied when the gold rush came to the Fraser Canyon and the Fraser River. It is also a popular fishing location for residents of the Lower Mainland. The delta of the river, especially in the Boundary Bay area, is an important stopover location for migrating shorebirds. The Fraser Herald, a regional position within the Canadian Heraldic Authority is named after the river.", "The Fraser River is known for the fishing of white sturgeon, all five species of Pacific salmon (chinook, coho, chum, pink, sockeye), as well as steelhead trout. A typical white sturgeon catch can average about. A large white sturgeon weighing an estimated and measuring was caught and released on the Fraser River in July 2012, but it was reportedly measured nose to tip of tail, not nose to fork as is the officially recognized method for accurate measurement of this species. Thus the \"reported\" length of this fish, and its estimated weight, were likely greater than what its actual measurements would have been if standard data collection had been utilized in this case. Regardless of this discrepancy, landing large sturgeon like this is reasonably uncommon, however fish nearing or achieving this size are caught on rod and reel in the Fraser river virtually every year, and reports of even larger fish being lost occur with fair regularity. A variety of guiding outfits throughout the Fraser valley and lower mainland offer services to pursue this magnificent sportfish.", "After European settlement, the first disastrous flood in the Fraser Valley occurred in 1894. With no protection against the rising waters of the Fraser River, Fraser Valley communities from Chilliwack downstream were inundated with water. In the 1894 floods, the water mark at Mission reached. After the 1894 flood, a dyking system was constructed throughout the Fraser Valley. The dyking and drainage projects greatly improved the flood problems, but unfortunately over time, the dykes were allowed to fall into disrepair and became overgrown with brush and trees. With some dykes constructed of a wooden frame, they gave way in 1948 in several locations, marking the second disastrous flood. Flooding since 1948 has been minor in comparison.", "1948 saw massive flooding in Chilliwack and other areas along the Fraser River. The high-water mark at Mission rose to. The peak flow was about 15,600 cubic meters per second.", "Cool temperatures in March, April, and early May had delayed the melting of the heavy snowpack that had accumulated over the winter season. Several days of hot weather and warm rains over the holiday weekend in late May hastened the thawing of the snowpack. Rivers and streams quickly swelled with spring runoff, reaching heights surpassed only in 1894. Finally, the poorly maintained dike systems failed to contain the water. At the height of the 1948 flood, stood under water. Dykes broke at Agassiz, Chiliwack, Nicomen Island, Glen Valley and Matsqui. When the flood waters receded a month later, 16,000 people had been evacuated, with damages totaling $20 million, about $210 million in 2010 dollars.", "Due to record snowpacks on the mountains in the Fraser River catch basin which began melting, combined with heavy rainfall, water levels on the Fraser River rose in 2007 to a level not reached since 1972. Low-lying land in areas upriver such as Prince George suffered minor flooding. Evacuation alerts were given for the low-lying areas not protected by dikes in the Lower Mainland. However, the water levels did not breach the dikes, and major flooding was averted.", "Tributaries are listed from the mouth of the Fraser and going up river." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and education.", "Election to Georgian Parliament.", "In the United National Movement.", "First presidency.", "Second presidency.", "2008 presidential election.", "Changes in the Cabinet.", "Russo-Georgian War.", "2009 opposition demonstrations and armed mutiny.", "Prison conditions.", "End of presidency.", "Legal prosecution (in Georgia) since the end of presidency.", "Ukraine.", "Governor of Odessa.", "Movement of New Forces.", "Stripping of Ukrainian citizenship.", "Legal prosecution (in Ukraine).", "Return to Ukraine.", "Personal life.", "Criticism and approbation.", "Electoral history." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Saakashvili was born to a Georgian family in Tbilisi on 21 December 1967, capital of the then Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic in the Soviet Union. His father, Nikoloz Saakashvili, is a physician who practices medicine in Tbilisi and directs a local Balneological Center. His mother, Giuli Alasania, is a historian who lectures at Tbilisi State University. During university, he served his shortened military service in 1989–1990 with the Soviet Border Troops' checkpoint unit in the Boryspil Airport in Ukraine (then as Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic also a part of the Soviet Union). Saakashvili graduated", "He interned at the United Nations. After graduation, while on internship in the New York law firm of Patterson Belknap Webb & Tyler in early 1995, Saakashvili was approached by Zurab Zhvania, an old friend from Georgia who was working on behalf of President Eduard Shevardnadze to enter politics. He stood in the December 1995 elections along with Zhvania, and both men won seats in parliament, standing for the Union of Citizens of Georgia, Shevardnadze's party. Saakashvili was chairman of the parliamentary committee which was in charge of creating a new electoral system, an independent judiciary and a non-political police force. Opinion surveys recognised him to be the second most popular person in", "Having resigned from the government and quit the Shevardnadze-run Union of Citizens of Georgia party, Saakashvili founded the United National Movement (UNM) in October 2001, a center-right political party with a touch of nationalism, to provide a focus for part of the Georgian reformists leaders. In June 2002, he was elected as the Chairman of the Tbilisi Assembly (\"Sakrebulo\") following an agreement between the United National Movement and the Georgian Labour Party. This gave him a powerful new platform from which to criticize the government. Georgia held parliamentary elections on 2 November 2003 which were denounced by local and international observers as being grossly rigged. Saakashvilli claimed that he had won the elections (a claim supported by independent exit polls), and urged Georgians to demonstrate against Shevardnadze's government and engage in nonviolent civil disobedience against the authorities. Saakashvili's UNM and Burdjanadze-Democrats united to demand the ouster of Shevardnadze and", "The 2004 presidential election were carried out on 4 January 2004. The election was an outcome of the bloodless Rose Revolution and a consequent resignation of President Eduard Shevardnadze. It is well known for a very high level of electoral turnout and also for the number of votes cast for one particular presidential candidate – Mikheil Saakashvili (96%). All other candidates received less than 2% of the votes. In total, 1,763,000 eligible voters participated in the election. On 4 January 2004 Mikheil Saakashvili won the presidential elections in Georgia with more than 96% of the votes cast, making him the youngest national president in Europe. On a platform of opposing corruption and improving pay and pensions he has promised to improve relations with the outside world. Although he is strongly pro-Western and intends to seek Georgian membership of NATO and the European Union, he has also spoken of the importance of better relations with Russia. He faced major problems, however, particularly Georgia's difficult economic situation and the still unresolved question of separatism in the regions of Abkhazia and South Ossetia. Abkhazia regards itself as independent of Georgia and did not take part in the elections, while South Ossetia favours union with its northern counterpart in Russia. Saakashvili was sworn in as President in Tbilisi on 25 January 2004. Immediately after the ceremony he signed a decree establishing a new state flag. On 26 January, in a ceremony held at the Tbilisi Kashueti Church of Saint George, he promulgated a decree granting permission for the return of the body of the first President of Georgia, Zviad Gamsakhurdia, from Grozny (Chechen Republic) to Tbilisi and renaming a major road in the capital after Gamsakhurdia. He also released 32 Gamsakhurdia supporters (political prisoners) imprisoned by the Shevardnadze government in 1993–94. In the first months of his presidency, Saakashvili faced a major political crisis in the southwestern Autonomous Republic of Adjara run by an authoritarian regional leader, Aslan Abashidze, who largely ignored the central Georgian government and was viewed by many as a pro-Russian politician. The crisis threatened to develop into an armed confrontation, but Saakashvili's government managed to resolve the conflict peacefully, forcing Abashidze to resign on 6 May 2004. Success in Adjara encouraged the new president to intensify his efforts towards bringing the breakaway South Ossetia back under the Georgian jurisdiction. The separatist authorities responded with intense militarization in the region, that led to armed clashes in August 2004. A stalemate ensued, and despite a peace plan proposed by the Georgian government in 2005, the conflict remains unresolved. In late July 2006, Saakashvili's government dealt successfully with another major crisis, this time in Abkhazia's Kodori Gorge where Georgia's police forces disarmed a defiant militia led by a local warlord Emzar Kvitsiani. In his foreign policy, Saakashvili maintained close ties with the U.S., as well as other NATO countries, and remains one of the key partners of the GUAM organisation. The Saakashvili-led Rose Revolution has been described by the White House as one of the most powerful movements in the modern history that has inspired others to seek freedom.", "", "On 5 January 2008, an early presidential election was held nationwide, with the exception of the highland village of Shatili, where the polling station was not opened due to high levels of snowfall. In a televised address, President Saakashvili had proposed to", "Saakashvili publicly announced his plans of modernising the Cabinet of Georgia well before Georgian presidential elections. Shortly after being re-elected, the president formally re-appointed the Prime Minister of Georgia Lado Gurgenidze and asked him to present a renewed cabinet to the Parliament of Georgia for final approval. Gurgenidze changed most ministers, leaving Ivane Merabishvili, controversial Minister for Home Affairs, Defence Minister David Kezerashvili and Minister of Finance Nika Gilauri on their former positions. Gia Nodia was appointed as the Minister of Education and Science. Zaza Gamcemlidze, former director of Tbilisi Botanic Garden, took over the position of the Minister of Natural Resources", "On 22 February 2008 Saakashvili held an official meeting with the President of Russia Vladimir Putin, in his residence in Novo-Ogaryovo. The presidents discussed the issues of aviation regulations between the two countries. This was Putin's last meeting in his second term as the President of Russia, being succeeded by Dimitry Medvedev shortly thereafter. However, after a series of clashes between Georgians and South Ossetians, Russian military forces intervened on the side of the South Ossetian separatists in response to the Georgian attack on Tskhinvali and invaded Gori in Shida Kartli. The two counterparts were led to a ceasefire agreement and a six-point peace plan, due to the French President's mediation. On 26 August the Russian", "The pressure against Saakashvili intensified in 2009, when the opposition launched mass demonstrations against Saakashvili's rule. On 5 May 2009, Georgian police said large-scale disorders were planned in", "In September 2012, during Saakashvili's presidency, a video taken inside Tbilisi prison Gldani No. 8 showing prisoners being beaten and sodomized was released to the public.", "On 2 October 2012, Saakashvili admitted defeat in Georgia's parliamentary election against Bidzina Ivanishvili in the election the day before. He was barred from", "On 23 March 2014, when Saakashvili was summoned to give testimony to the main prosecutor's office of Georgia, the office planned to interrogate him about the pardoning in 2008 of four high-ranking officials of the Department of Constitutional Security of the Georgian Ministry of Internal Affairs – Gia Alania, Avtandil Aptsiauri, Alexander Gachava and Mikhail Bibiluridze, The case of the murder of bank employee Sandro Girgvliani on 28 January 2006, as well as for unlawful actions against his friend Levan Bukhaidze. Also – as a witness, for nine criminal cases, including the death", "Saakashvili energetically supported Ukraine's Euromaidan movement and its 2014 Ukrainian revolution. On 7 March 2014, Saakashvili authored an op-ed piece entitled \"When Putin invaded my country\", in the context of the turmoil in Ukraine after the ouster on 22 February of President Viktor Yanukovich and before the 16 March referendum in the 2014 Crimean crisis. In September 2014 Saakashvili moved to Williamsburg, Brooklyn.", "On 13 February 2015, Saakashvili was appointed by the President of Ukraine Petro Poroshenko as head of the International Advisory Council on Reforms—an advisory body whose main task is working out proposals and recommendations for implementation and introduction of reforms in Ukraine based on best international practices. On 30 May 2015, Poroshenko appointed Saakashvili Governor of Odessa Oblast (region). On the previous day, 29 May 2015, he was granted Ukrainian citizenship. A month before this appointment, Saakashvili had stated that he had turned down the post of First Vice Prime Minister of Ukraine because in order to fulfill that post, he would have had to become a Ukrainian citizen and renounce his Georgian citizenship. Saakashvili stated on 1 June 2015 that he had now changed his mind to avoid \"guaranteed imprisonment\" in Georgia and to defend Georgian interest through his governorship in Odessa. Also on 1 June 2015, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Georgia stated that the appointment", "On 11 November 2016 Saakashvili announced his goal to create a new political party called \"Movement of New Forces\" and that \"our goal is early parliamentary elections to be carried out as quickly as possible in", "On 26 July 2017 President Poroshenko issued a decree stripping Saakashvili of his Ukrainian citizenship, but without a reason for his doing so being stated. Ukraine's migration service said in a statement that \"according to the Constitution of Ukraine, the president takes decisions on who is stripped of Ukrainian citizenship based on the conclusions of the citizenship commission\". Saakashvili, in response to his being stripped of citizenship, replied: \"I have only one citizenship, that of Ukraine, and I will not be deprived of it! Now there is an attempt", "On 5 December 2017, Saakashvili (who was leading anti-government protests at the time) was temporarily detained by Ukraine's Security Service on the roof of his apartment building in central Kyiv and his apartment was searched. He was freed from police by a large group of protesters. Saakashvili's lawyer reported that the politician had been detained for attempting to overthrow Ukraine's constitutional system, whilst the SBU accused Saakashvili of receiving financing from a \"criminal group\" linked to ousted (during the 2014 Ukrainian revolution) Ukrainian President Viktor Yanukovych. On 8 December General Prosecutor of Ukraine Yuriy Lutsenko", "In May 2019, Ukraine's new President Volodymyr Zelensky restored Saakashvili's Ukrainian citizenship. On 29 May (2019) Saakashvili returned to Ukraine; but he soon stated that he had no political ambitions in Ukraine. On 4 June Kiev Mayor Vitali Klitschko offered Saakashvili to join the leadership of his UDAR party and to take part in the July 2019 early parliamentary elections. Saakashvili turned down the offer. In these elections Saakashvili did head the party list of Movement of New Forces. The party received 0.46% of", "Saakashvili is married to Dutch linguist Sandra Roelofs, whom he met in Strasbourg in 1993. The couple have two sons, Eduard and Nikoloz. Apart from his native Georgian, Saakashvili speaks fluent English, French,", "In the 2010 study \"Competitive Authoritarianism: Hybrid Regimes After the Cold War\", political scientists Steven Levitsky and Lucan A. Way cite various media and human rights reports to describe Saakashvili's Georgia as a \"competitive authoritarian\" (i.e., a formally democratic but essentially non-democratic) state. Saakashvili's government has been lauded by the World Bank for making \"striking improvements\" in the fight against corruption. In addition, the U.S. State Department noted that during 2005 \"the government amended several laws and increased the amount of investigations and prosecutions reducing the amount of abuse and ill-treatment", "! rowspan=2|Election! rowspan=2|Affiliation! colspan=3|First round! colspan=3|Second round!Votes!Percentage!Position!Votes!Percentage!Position!2004" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Basic terminology.", "Intensional definitions vs extensional definitions.", "Classes of intensional definitions.", "Classes of extensional definitions.", "\"Divisio\" and \"partitio\".", "Nominal definitions vs real definitions.", "Operational Versus Theoretical Definitions.", "Terms with multiple definitions.", "Homonyms.", "Polysemes.", "In logic and mathematics.", "Classification.", "Recursive definitions.", "In medicine.", "Issues with definitions.", "Fallacies of definition.", "Limitations of definition." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "In modern usage, a \"definition\" is something, typically expressed in words, that attaches a meaning to a word or group of words. The word or group of words that is to be defined is called the \"definiendum\", and the word, group of words, or action that defines it is called the \"definiens\". For example, in the definition \"\"An elephant is a large gray animal native to Asia and Africa\"\", the word \"elephant\" is the \"definiendum\", and everything after the word \"is\" is the \"definiens\". The \"definiens\" is not \"the meaning\" of the word defined, but is instead something that \"conveys the same meaning\" as that word. There are many sub-types of definitions, often specific to a given field of knowledge or study. These include, among many others, lexical definitions, or the common dictionary definitions of words already in a language; demonstrative definitions, which define something by pointing to an example of it (\"\"This,\" [said while pointing to a large grey animal], \"is an Asian elephant.\"\"); and precising definitions, which reduce the vagueness of a word, typically in some special sense (\"\"'Large', among female Asian elephants, is any individual weighing over 5,500 pounds.\"\").", "An \"intensional definition\", also called a \"connotative\" definition, specifies the necessary and sufficient conditions for a thing to be a member of a specific set. Any definition that attempts to set out the essence of something, such as that by genus and differentia, is an intensional definition. An \"extensional definition\", also called a \"denotative\" definition, of a concept or term specifies its \"extension\". It is a list naming every object that is a member of a specific set. Thus, the \"seven deadly sins\" can be defined \"intensionally\" as those singled out by Pope Gregory I as particularly destructive of the life of grace and charity within a person, thus creating the threat of eternal damnation. An \"extensional\" definition, on the other hand, would be the list of wrath, greed, sloth, pride, lust, envy, and gluttony. In contrast, while an intensional definition of \"Prime Minister\" might be \"the most senior minister of a cabinet in the executive branch of parliamentary government\", an extensional definition is not possible since it is not known who the future prime ministers will be (even though all prime ministers from the past and present can be listed).", "A genus–differentia definition is a type of intensional definition that takes a large category (the genus) and narrows it down to a smaller category by a distinguishing characteristic (i.e. the differentia). More formally, a genus–differentia definition consists of: For example, consider the following genus–differentia definitions: Those definitions can be expressed as a genus (\"a plane figure\") and two differentiae (\"that has three straight bounding sides\" and \"that has four straight bounding sides\", respectively). It is also possible to have two different genus–differentia definitions that describe the same term, especially when the term describes the overlap of two large categories. For instance, both of these genus–differentia definitions of \"square\" are equally acceptable: Thus, a \"square\" is a member of both genera (the plural of \"genus\"): the genus \"rectangle\" and the genus \"rhombus\".", "One important form of the extensional definition is \"ostensive definition\". This gives the meaning of a term by pointing, in the case of an individual, to the thing itself, or in the case of a class, to examples of the right kind. For example, one can explain who \"Alice\" (an individual) is, by pointing her out to another; or what a \"rabbit\" (a class) is, by pointing at several and expecting another to understand. The process of ostensive definition itself was critically appraised by Ludwig Wittgenstein. An \"enumerative definition\" of a concept or a term is an \"extensional definition\" that gives an explicit and exhaustive listing of all the objects that fall under the concept or term in question. Enumerative definitions are only possible for finite sets (and in fact only practical for relatively small sets).", "\"Divisio\" and \"partitio\" are classical terms for definitions. A \"partitio\" is simply an intensional definition. A \"divisio\" is not an extensional definition, but an exhaustive list of subsets of a set, in the sense that every member of the \"divided\" set is a member of one of the subsets. An extreme form of \"divisio\" lists all sets whose only member is a member of the \"divided\" set. The difference between this and an extensional definition is that extensional definitions list \"members\", and not \"subsets\".", "In classical thought, a definition was taken to be a statement of the essence of a thing. Aristotle had it that an object's essential attributes form its \"essential nature\", and that a definition of the object must include these essential attributes. The idea that a definition should state the essence of a thing led to the distinction between \"nominal\" and \"real\" essence—a distinction originating with Aristotle. In the Posterior Analytics, he says that the meaning of a made-up name can be known (he gives the example \"goat stag\") without knowing what he calls the \"essential nature\" of the thing that the name would denote (if there were such a thing). This led medieval logicians to distinguish between what they called the \"quid nominis\", or the \"whatness of the name\", and the underlying nature common to all the things it names, which they called the \"quid rei\", or the \"whatness of the thing\". The name \"hobbit\", for example, is perfectly meaningful. It has a \"quid nominis\", but one could not know the real nature of hobbits, and so the \"quid rei\" of hobbits cannot be known. By contrast, the name \"man\" denotes real things (men) that have a certain \"quid rei\". The meaning of a name is distinct from the nature that a thing must have in order that the name apply to it. This leads to a corresponding distinction between \"nominal\" and \"real\" definitions. A nominal definition is the definition explaining what a word means (i.e., which says what the \"nominal essence\" is), and is definition in the classical sense as given above. A real definition, by contrast, is one expressing the real nature or \"quid rei\" of the thing. This preoccupation with essence dissipated in much of modern philosophy. Analytic philosophy, in particular, is critical of attempts to elucidate the essence of a thing. Russell described essence as \"a hopelessly muddle-headed notion\". More recently Kripke's formalisation of possible world semantics in modal logic led to a new approach to essentialism. Insofar as the essential properties of a thing are \"necessary\" to it, they are those things that it possesses in all possible worlds. Kripke refers to names used in this way as rigid designators.", "A definition may also be classified as an operational definition or theoretical definition.", "", "A homonym is, in the strict sense, one of a group of words that share the same spelling and pronunciation but have different meanings. Thus homonyms are simultaneously homographs (words that share the same spelling, regardless of their pronunciation) \"and\" homophones (words that share the same pronunciation, regardless of their spelling). The state of being a homonym is called homonymy. Examples of homonyms are the pair \"stalk\" (part of a plant) and \"stalk\" (follow/harass a person) and the pair \"left\" (past tense of leave) and \"left\" (opposite of right). A distinction is sometimes made between \"true\" homonyms, which are unrelated in origin, such as \"skate\" (glide on ice) and \"skate\" (the fish), and polysemous homonyms, or polysemes, which have a shared origin, such as \"mouth\" (of a river) and \"mouth\" (of an animal).", "Polysemy is the capacity for a sign (such as a word, phrase, or symbol) to have multiple meanings (that is, multiple semes or sememes and thus multiple senses), usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. It is thus usually regarded as distinct from homonymy, in which the multiple meanings of a word may be unconnected or unrelated.", "In mathematics, definitions are generally not used to describe existing terms, but to describe or characterize a concept. For naming the object of a definition mathematicians can use either a neologism (this was mainly the case in the past) or words or phrases of the common language (this is generally the case in modern mathematics). The precise meaning of a term given by a mathematical definition is often different than the English definition of the word used, which can lead to confusion, particularly when the meanings are close. For example a set is not exactly the same thing in mathematics and in common language. In some case, the word used can be misleading; for example, a real number has nothing more (or less) real than an imaginary number. Frequently, a definition uses a phrase built with common English words, which has no meaning outside mathematics, such as primitive group or irreducible variety.", "Authors have used different terms to classify definitions used in formal languages like mathematics. Norman Swartz classifies a definition as \"stipulative\" if it is intended to guide a specific discussion. A stipulative definition might be considered a temporary, working definition, and can only be disproved by showing a logical contradiction. In contrast, a \"descriptive\" definition can be shown to be \"right\" or \"wrong\" with reference to general usage. Swartz defines a \"precising definition\" as one that extends the descriptive dictionary definition (lexical definition) for a specific purpose by including additional criteria. A precising definition narrows the set of things that meet the definition. C.L. Stevenson has identified \"persuasive definition\" as a form of stipulative definition which purports to state the \"true\" or \"commonly accepted\" meaning of a term, while in reality stipulating an altered use (perhaps as an argument for some specific belief). Stevenson has also noted that some definitions are \"legal\" or \"coercive\" – their object is to create or alter rights, duties, or crimes.", "A recursive definition, sometimes also called an \"inductive\" definition, is one that defines a word in terms of itself, so to speak, albeit in a useful way. Normally this consists of three steps: For instance, we could define a natural number as follows (after Peano): So \"0\" will have exactly one successor, which for convenience can be called \"1\". In turn, \"1\" will have exactly one successor, which could be called \"2\", and so on. Notice that the second condition in the definition itself refers to natural numbers, and hence involves self-reference. Although this sort of definition involves a form of circularity, it is not vicious, and the definition has been quite successful. In the same way, we can define ancestor as follows: Or simply: an ancestor is a parent or a parent of an ancestor.", "In medical dictionaries, guidelines and other consensus statements and classifications, definitions should as far as possible be:", "", "Certain rules have traditionally been given for definitions (in particular, genus-differentia definitions).", "Given that a natural language such as English contains, at any given time, a finite number of words, any comprehensive list of definitions must either be circular or rely upon primitive notions. If every term of every \"definiens\" must itself be defined, \"where at last should we stop?\" A dictionary, for instance, insofar as it is a comprehensive list of lexical definitions, must resort to circularity. Many philosophers have chosen instead to leave some terms undefined. The scholastic philosophers claimed that the highest genera (called the ten \"generalissima\") cannot be defined, since a higher genus cannot be assigned under which they may fall. Thus being, unity and similar concepts cannot be defined. Locke supposes in \"An Essay Concerning Human Understanding\" that the names of simple concepts do not admit of any definition. More recently Bertrand Russell sought to develop a formal language based on logical atoms. Other philosophers, notably Wittgenstein, rejected the need for any undefined simples. Wittgenstein pointed out in his \"Philosophical Investigations\" that what counts as a \"simple\" in one circumstance might not do so in another. He rejected the very idea that every explanation of the meaning of a term needed itself to be explained: \"As though an explanation hung in the air unless supported by another one\", claiming instead that explanation of a term is only needed to avoid misunderstanding. Locke and Mill also argued that individuals cannot be defined. Names are learned by connecting an idea with a sound, so that speaker and hearer have the same idea when the same word is used. This is not possible when no one else is acquainted with the particular thing that has \"fallen under our notice\". Russell offered his theory of descriptions in part as a way of defining a proper name, the definition being given by a definite description that \"picks out\" exactly one individual. Saul Kripke pointed to difficulties with this approach, especially in relation to modality, in his book \"Naming and Necessity\". There is a presumption in the classic example of a definition that the \"definiens\" can be stated. Wittgenstein argued that for some terms this is not the case. The examples he used include \"game\", \"number\" and \"family\". In such cases, he argued, there is no fixed boundary that can be used to provide a definition. Rather, the items are grouped together because of a family resemblance. For terms such as these it is not possible and indeed not necessary to state a definition; rather, one simply comes to understand the \"use\" of the term." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Definition.", "Properties.", "Examples.", "Derived functions.", "Complementary cumulative distribution function (tail distribution).", "Folded cumulative distribution.", "Inverse distribution function (quantile function).", "Empirical distribution function.", "Multivariate case.", "Definition for two random variables.", "Properties.", "Complex case.", "Complex random variable.", "Complex random vector.", "Use in statistical analysis.", "Kolmogorov–Smirnov and Kuiper's tests." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "The cumulative distribution function of a real-valued random variable formula_1 is the function given by where the right-hand side represents the probability that the random variable formula_1 takes on a value less than or equal to formula_3. The probability that formula_1 lies in the semi-closed interval formula_11, where formula_12, is therefore In the definition above, the \"less than or equal to\" sign, \"≤\", is a convention, not a universally used one (e.g. Hungarian literature uses \"<\"), but the distinction is important for discrete distributions. The proper use of tables of the binomial and Poisson distributions depends upon this convention. Moreover, important formulas like Paul Lévy's inversion formula for the characteristic function also rely on the \"less than or equal\" formulation. If treating several random variables formula_13 etc. the corresponding letters are used as subscripts while, if treating only one, the subscript is usually omitted. It is conventional to use a capital formula_14 for a cumulative distribution function, in contrast to the lower-case formula_15 used for probability density functions and probability mass functions. This applies when discussing general distributions: some specific distributions have their own conventional notation, for example the normal distribution. The probability density function of a continuous random variable can be determined from the cumulative distribution function by differentiating using the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus; i.e. given formula_16, as long as the derivative exists. The CDF of a continuous random variable formula_1 can be expressed as the integral of its probability density function formula_19 as follows: In the case of a random variable formula_1 which has distribution having a discrete component at a value formula_22, If formula_24 is continuous at formula_22, this equals zero and there is no discrete component at formula_22.", "Every cumulative distribution function formula_24 is non-decreasing and right-continuous, which makes it a càdlàg function. Furthermore, Every function with these four properties is a CDF, i.e., for every such function, a random variable can be defined such that the function is the cumulative distribution function of that random variable. If formula_1 is a purely discrete random variable, then it attains values formula_30 with probability formula_31, and the CDF of formula_1 will be discontinuous at the points formula_33: If the CDF formula_24 of a real valued random variable formula_1 is continuous, then formula_1 is a continuous random variable; if furthermore formula_24 is absolutely continuous, then there exists a Lebesgue-integrable function formula_39 such that for all real numbers formula_41 and formula_22. The function formula_19 is equal to the derivative of formula_24 almost everywhere, and it is called the probability density function of the distribution of formula_1.", "As an example, suppose formula_1 is uniformly distributed on the unit interval formula_47. Then the CDF of formula_1 is given by Suppose instead that formula_1 takes only the discrete values 0 and 1, with equal probability. Then the CDF of formula_1 is given by Suppose formula_1 is exponential distributed. Then the CDF of formula_1 is given by Here λ > 0 is the parameter of the distribution, often called the rate parameter. Suppose formula_1 is normal distributed. Then the CDF of formula_1 is given by Here the parameter formula_59 is the mean or expectation of the distribution; and formula_60 is its standard deviation. Suppose formula_1 is binomial distributed. Then the CDF of formula_1 is given by Here formula_64 is the probability of success and the function denotes the discrete probability distribution of the number of successes in a sequence of formula_65 independent experiments, and formula_66 is the \"floor\" under formula_67, i.e. the greatest integer less than or equal to formula_67.", "", "Sometimes, it is useful to study the opposite question and ask how often the random variable is \"above\" a particular level. This is called the complementary cumulative distribution function (ccdf) or simply the tail distribution or exceedance, and is defined as This has applications in statistical hypothesis testing, for example, because the one-sided p-value is the probability of observing a test statistic \"at least\" as extreme as the one observed. Thus, provided that the test statistic, \"T\", has a continuous distribution, the one-sided p-value is simply given by the ccdf: for an observed value formula_70 of the test statistic In survival analysis, formula_72 is called the survival function and denoted formula_73, while the term \"reliability function\" is common in engineering. Z-table: One of the most popular application of cumulative distribution function is standard normal table, also called the unit normal table or Z table, is the value of cumulative distribution function of the normal distribution. It is very useful to use Z-table not only for probabilities below a value which is the original application of cumulative distribution function, but also above and/or between values on standard normal distribution, and it was further extended to any normal distribution.", "While the plot of a cumulative distribution often has an S-like shape, an alternative illustration is the folded cumulative distribution or mountain plot, which folds the top half of the graph over, thus using two scales, one for the upslope and another for the downslope. This form of illustration emphasises the median and dispersion (specifically, the mean absolute deviation from the median) of the distribution or of the empirical results.", "If the CDF \"F\" is strictly increasing and continuous then formula_84 is the unique real number formula_85 such that formula_86. In such a case, this defines the inverse distribution function or quantile function. Some distributions do not have a unique inverse (for example in the case where formula_87 for all <math>a<x, causing formula_24 to be constant). This problem can be solved by defining, for formula_89, the generalized inverse distribution function: Some useful properties of the inverse cdf (which are also preserved in the definition of the generalized inverse distribution function) are: The inverse of the cdf can be used to translate results obtained for the uniform distribution to other distributions.", "The empirical distribution function is an estimate of the cumulative distribution function that generated the points in the sample. It converges with probability 1 to that underlying distribution. A number of results exist to quantify the rate of convergence of the empirical distribution function to the underlying cumulative distribution function.", "", "When dealing simultaneously with more than one random variable the joint cumulative distribution function can also be defined. For example, for a pair of random variables formula_110, the joint CDF formula_111 is given by where the right-hand side represents the probability that the random variable formula_1 takes on a value less than or equal to formula_3 and that formula_99 takes on a value less than or equal to formula_115. Example of joint cumulative distribution function: For two continuous variables \"X\" and \"Y\": formula_116 random variables formula_117, the joint CDF formula_118 is given by Interpreting the formula_119 random variables as a random vector formula_120 yields a shorter notation:", "Every multivariate CDF is: The probability that a point belongs to a hyperrectangle is analogous to the 1-dimensional case:", "", "The generalization of the cumulative distribution function from real to complex random variables is not obvious because expressions of the form formula_125 make no sense. However expressions of the form formula_126 make sense. Therefore, we define the cumulative distribution of a complex random variables via the joint distribution of their real and imaginary parts:", "Generalization of yields as definition for the CDS of a complex random vector formula_129.", "The concept of the cumulative distribution function makes an explicit appearance in statistical analysis in two (similar) ways. Cumulative frequency analysis is the analysis of the frequency of occurrence of values of a phenomenon less than a reference value. The empirical distribution function is a formal direct estimate of the cumulative distribution function for which simple statistical properties can be derived and which can form the basis of various statistical hypothesis tests. Such tests can assess whether there is evidence against a sample of data having arisen from a given distribution, or evidence against two samples of data having arisen from the same (unknown) population distribution.", "The Kolmogorov–Smirnov test is based on cumulative distribution functions and can be used to test to see whether two empirical distributions are different or whether an empirical distribution is different from an ideal distribution. The closely related Kuiper's test is useful if the domain of the distribution is cyclic as in day of the week. For instance Kuiper's test might be used to see if the number of tornadoes varies during the year or if sales of a product vary by day of the week or day of the month." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot.", "Production.", "Development.", "Casting.", "Filming.", "Music.", "Distribution.", "Video game.", "Home media.", "Reception.", "Critical response.", "Box office." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Arya, elf princess of Ellesméra, flees with a strange stone, pursued by Durza, a dark sorcerer under king Galbatorix. When Durza corners Arya, she uses magic to send the stone away. Eragon, a farm boy living in the country of Alagaësia with his uncle, is hunting for food when he witnesses the stone appearing. Hoping to trade it for food, Eragon brings the stone home, and finds a blue dragon hatching from it. As he touches the dragon, a magical mark is burned into his palm. A few people are shown reacting to this incident, including Arya, an old man named Brom, and Galbatorix himself. Eragon shelters and feeds the dragon and teaches her to fly as she gradually grows to full size. She speaks to him through their thoughts and calls herself Saphira. When they are out, Durza's monstrous minions, the Ra'zac, arrive at the village to look for the dragon and the rider, killing Eragon's uncle in the process. Blaming Saphira for his uncle's death, Eragon sends her away. Brom shows up, takes Eragon away from the village, warns him of Saphira's importance, and urges him to call her back. Eragon calls Saphira with his thoughts, she hears everything that Eragon says and comes back, forgiving him for what he previously said. Brom is leading the group to the Varden, rebel freedom fighters opposing Galbatorix. On the way, Brom fills Eragon in on the knowledge of dragon riders, Galbatorix, Durza and the Ra'zac. He also trains Eragon's sword-fighting. In a small village Eragon meets a fortune-teller named Angela who tells him of a girl awaiting his help, and of his dangerous path ahead. When Brom and Eragon are attacked by Galbatorix's servants, the Urgals, Eragon attempts to mimic Brom and wipes out the whole group with a magic attack of blue fire, then falls unconscious from the strain. Saphira saves him. Brom teaches Eragon to control his magic and bond his powers with Saphira. After flying for the first time Eragon and Saphira help Brom kill the Ra'zac, and Brom reveals he was once a rider before his dragon was killed by Morzan, a rogue rider allied with Galbatorix. Durza sets a trap for Eragon, using Arya as bait. Hearing her telepathic calls, Eragon finds her, but is ambushed by Durza. Eragon is outmatched, and Brom arrives to help him, getting mortally wounded in the process. Eragon vengefully shoots an arrow into Durza's head, causing him to disappear. The trio escapes, and Brom dies of his wounds while flying on Saphira. Eragon confronts a hooded figure that has been following them. He reveals himself to be Murtagh and guides them to the Varden. Soon after, Durza and his men surround the rebel camp. Eragon, Saphira, Arya, and the Varden prepare for battle. Arya, Murtagh and the Varden fight Galbatorix's forces as Eragon and Saphira duel in the skies with Durza who rides his own beast. Eragon and Saphira kill Durza, but Saphira is heavily injured. Eragon uses magic to heal her and once again passes out from the strain. The following morning, Eragon awakes with Murtagh at his side. He fears Saphira may be dead but finds her fully healed. They catch up with Arya, who is on her way to Ellesméra to lead the elves in the coming war against Galbatorix's revenge. She calls Eragon \"The great Shadeslayer\" and they part ways promising they'll meet again. Meanwhile, in his castle, a furious Galbatorix slashes at his hanging map of Alagaësia, revealing his immense pitch black dragon, Shruikan.", "", "Plans to create a film based on Christopher Paolini's best-selling novel were first announced in February 2004. 20th Century Fox purchased the rights to \"Eragon\". Screenwriter Peter Buchman, whose credits included \"Jurassic Park III\", wrote the screenplay. Buchman, a fan of fantasy and science fiction literature and films, says he was \"blown away\" by the author's precociousness, his mastery of plot lines and characters, and his ability to create several completely imaginary worlds.", "Speleers was selected for the title role after a worldwide casting search. \"Ed came in [to the casting session], and we just looked at each other and said, \"\"That's\" Eragon, that's the guy from the book,\" said director Stefen Fangmeier: \"I got a strong sense of Ed's sparkle, of his life. It's the kind of thing where you just know he's destined to become a movie star. Speleers won the role as he was trying to learn his lines for a school production of \"Hamlet\". Others considered for the role included Alex Pettyfer but since production took place in central Europe and Pettyfer is afraid of flying, he declined the role. On July 15, 2005, in an official press release from 20th Century Fox, it was confirmed that Speleers had signed on to the project. Over the following months, Jeremy Irons, John Malkovich, Chris Egan, and Djimon Hounsou were all confirmed as joining the \"Eragon\" cast. Paolini, author of the original novel, had expressed his wishes to be featured in a cameo role in the film — specifically, as a warrior who is beheaded in the battle of Farthen Dûr. However, he was unable because of his European book tour. Jeremy Irons, who welcomed the opportunity to reintroduce himself to younger audiences, took on the role although \"Dungeons & Dragons\" (a previous fantasy film he had acted in) had flopped, and he said that he thought that Eragon \"had been better managed\" than that film.", "In August 2005, Fox began filming \"Eragon\" at various locations throughout Hungary and Slovakia, including: Filming ended a month later in September, beginning the film's post-production stage, with Industrial Light and Magic creating the film's CGI. The decision was made later on in production to add feathers to the standard bat-like wings of the dragon Saphira. The studio had been inspired by the Angel's wings in \"\". Jean Bolte, lead viewpaint artist for ILM on the film, calls them \"skethers\" (half-feathers, half-scales) and was inspired by the scales of the pangolin. It was eventually decided that Saphira's colors scheme should be subdued rather than vibrant in order to be more realistic.", "The score for the film was composed by Patrick Doyle who also created the score of 2005's \"Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire\". Avril Lavigne also recorded the film's theme song, entitled \"Keep Holding On\", which was featured in the credits and on the soundtrack. The track was released as a single in 2006 (and later as a track on her 2007 album \"The Best Damn Thing\") and reached 17 on \"Billboard\" Hot 100 singles chart in America.", "", "The video game based on the motion picture was developed by Stormfront Studios and Amaze Entertainment and was released in November 2006.", "\"Eragon\" was released DVD, and Blu-ray in the US on March 20, 2007. It debuted at number 1 on the national DVD sales charts and at number 3 on the DVD rental charts. It grossed more than US$35.2 million in rentals. It was released on DVD in Europe on April 16, 2007 and in Australia on April 18, 2007.", "", "\"Eragon\" was one of the worst reviewed films of 2006; 16% of reviews by critics were positive with an average rating of 4.1/10 at Rotten Tomatoes. The consensus reads \"\"Eragon\" is a fantasy epic that lacks any magic, brought down to earth by unconvincing world-building and a litany of stars who seem bemused by the material.\" \"The Seattle Times\" described the film as \"technically accomplished, but fairly lifeless and at times a bit silly\". \"The Hollywood Reporter\" said the world of \"Eragon\" was \"without much texture or depth.\" The story was labeled \"derivative\" by \"The Washington Post\", and \"generic\" by the \"Las Vegas Weekly\". \"Newsday\" stressed this point further, asserting that only \"nine-year-olds with no knowledge whatsoever of any of the six \"Star Wars\" movies would find the film original.\" The acting was called \"lame\" by the \"Washington Post\", plus \"stilted\" and \"lifeless\" by the \"Orlando Weekly\". The dialogue was also criticized, with MSNBC labelling it \"silly\"; the \"Las Vegas Weekly\" called it \"wooden\". Positive reviews described the film as \"fun\" and \"the stuff boys' fantasies are made of.\" The CGI work was called \"imaginative\" and Saphira was called a \"magnificent creation.\" Christopher Paolini stated he enjoyed the film, particularly praising the performances of Jeremy Irons and Ed Speleers.", "\"Eragon\" grossed approximately $75 million in the US and $173.9 million elsewhere, grossing $249 million worldwide. Director Stefen Fangmeier believes that Fox was \"modestly happy with the worldwide box office.\" \"Eragon\" was in release for 17 weeks in the US, opening on December 15, 2006 and closing on April 8, 2007. It opened in 3020 theaters, earning $8.7 million on opening day and $23.2 million across opening weekend, ranked 2nd behind \"The Pursuit of Happyness\". Eragon's second weekend US box office dropped by almost 70%, possibly due to the opening of \"Night at the Museum\", another family film from 20th Century Fox, the 41st biggest second weekend drop since this statistic was kept. Eragon's $75 million total US gross was the 31st highest for 2006. The film earned $150 million in its opening weekend across 76 overseas markets, making it the #1 film worldwide. This was attributed to the sheer scope of Eragon's global launch as the film ranked number 1 in fewer than half of the overseas territories it was released in. The foreign box office competition for the film's opening week was \"soft;\" had Eragon been released one year earlier, it would have been placed fourth. Eragon's UK opening was \"a disappointment,\" in Australia it was \"solid if unimpressive,\" but its most impressive market was France, where the film earned more than $21 million. The film's $249 million total worldwide gross was the 16th highest for 2006. Eragon grossed $86,995,160 on DVD from March 20, 2007 – May 13, 2007." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Personal life.", "Influences.", "Career.", "Themes and style.", "Pseudonyms.", "Adaptations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Michel de Ghelderode was born in Brussels, Belgium in 1898. Ghelderode's father, Henri-Louis Martens, was employed as a royal archivist, a line of work later to be pursued by young Ghelderode. The author's mother, née Jeanne-Marie Rans, was a former postulant for holy orders; even after bearing four children, of whom Ghelderode was the youngest, she retained evident traces of her erstwhile vocation that would strongly influence the mature Ghelderode's dramatic work: One of Mme Martens's remembered \"spiritual tales,\" concerning a child mistakenly buried alive who remained strangely marked by death even after her rescue, inspired most of the plot and characters of Ghelderode's \"Mademoiselle Jaire\" (1934) written when the author was in his mid-thirties. He was in military service from 1919 – 1921 and in 1924 married Jeanne-Françoise Gérard (d. 1980). Ghelderode became increasingly reclusive from 1930 onwards and was chronically ill with asthma during his late thirties. Frequently suffering from poor health, around the age of sixteen, while pursuing his studies at the Institut St.-Louis in Brussels, he fell gravely ill with typhus. He would retain for the rest of his life the vision of \"a Lady\" who materialized at his bedside to utter the words, \"not now, sixty-three.\" Ghelderode in fact died two days short of what would have been his sixty-fourth birthday in 1962. He is buried in the Laeken Cemetery, Brussels.", "Ghelderode’s ideas and vision of the theatre is in remarkable accord with ideas Antonin Artaud expressed in his manifesto \"The Theatre and Its Double\", which was originally published 1 February 1938. Both men saw theatre as having the potential to express the human unconscious with its dream-like hallucinatory images and dynamic appetites. And both Artaud and Ghelderode found inspiration in the fantastical, dream-like images and ideas found in the works of the Flemish painters Bosch and Brueghel. Ghelderode referred to Brueghel as his \"\"père nourricier\"\" (foster father), wrote plays closely based on Brueghel’s paintings, and said of Brueghel’s \"Dulle Griet\" that it \"was not only a wonderful painting but offered a vision of the world, a philosophy.\" Artaud independently discusses in detail the very same painting (Brueghel’s \"Dulle Griet\") in \"The Theatre and Its Double\" to illustrate his own ideas regarding the theatre of cruelty, as he references the \"nightmares of Flemish painting”. Ghelderode, who was born in Flanders, expressed a great appreciation for Flemish folk traditions and culture, which permeates his plays and stories. Ghelderode has said, \"The Fleming lives in a hallucinatory world.... But our eye remains meticulously realistic: the keen awareness of the surface and of the great mysteries beyond — there you have the Fleming since even before Brueghel.... The ridiculous outside and the wretched, sublime eternal quandary of the soul... I am not a revolutionary; I am merely writing in the tradition of my race.\" Ghelderode's influences include puppet theater, Italian commedia dell'arte, the medieval world of Flanders, the Flemish painters Bosch, Bruegel, Jacob Jordaens and the Teniers, along with the Belgian artist James Ensor, painter of the macabre, and the novelist Georges Eekhoud.", "A prolific writer, Ghelderode wrote more than 60 plays, a hundred stories, a number of articles on art and folklore and more than 20,000 letters. He began writing plays in French in 1916. \"La mort regarde à la fenêtre\" (Death Looks In at the Window) was produced in 1918, followed by \"Le repas des fauves\" (The Beasts' Meal) in 1919. In 1921 and 1922 he was a professor at the Institut Dupuich but resigned because of ill health. The following year he worked as a bookseller. In 1923 Ghelderode earned the post of archives editor in the Communale de Schaerbeek, where he worked in a variety of capacities until 1945. In 1924 he began contributing to such publications as \"La Flandre littéraire\" and \"La Renaissance d'Occident\" and wrote plays for the puppet theater \"Les Marionnettes de la Renaissance d'Occident\". Ghelderode began staging plays again in 1925, working with the Dutch producer Johan de Meester, a collaboration which lasted until 1930. \"Escurial\" (1927) is one of his most frequently performed plays. Widely recognized as one of his finest achievements, it exhibits German Expressionism and Symbolist influences. He wrote \"Pantagleize\" (1929) expressly for the Flemish comedian Renaat Verheyen, who died aged twenty-six, shortly after appearing in the title role. Ghelderode completely gave up writing plays in 1939. Between 1946 and 1953 he wrote for \"Le Journal de Bruges\".In Paris during 1949, productions of Ghederode’s plays, especially \"Fastes d'enfer\" (Chronicles of Hell), caused huge uproar. Some theatre-goers were excited and some were furious. It achieved for Ghelderode a \"succès de scandal\".", "He is the creator of a fantastic and disturbing, often macabre, grotesque and cruel world filled with mannequins, puppets, devils, masks, skeletons, religious paraphernalia, and mysterious old women. His works create an eerie and unsettling atmosphere although they rarely contain anything explicitly scary. A strong anticlerical streak runs through many of Ghelderode's plays, mitigated by a spirituality which stops short of true belief. Throughout Ghelderode's theatrical universe, religion is more often honored than adhered to. Sensuality is another dominant characteristic prominent in almost all of Ghelderode's plays, often in unattractive forms. Gluttony and heavy drinking loom large, as does lust, often represented by hag-like female characters with suggestive names. According to Oscar G. Brockett, the works of Ghelderode resemble those of Alfred Jarry, the surrealists and the expressionists, and his theories are similar to those of Antonin Artaud. Through nearly all of his plays runs his perception of human beings as creatures whose flesh overpowers spirit. \"Corruption, death and cruelty are always near the surface [of Ghelderode's work], although behind them lurks an implied criticism of degradation and materialism and a call to repentance.\" Ghelderode was one of the first dramatists to exploit the idea of total theatre—that is, drama in which every sort of appeal is made to the eye, the ear, and the emotions in order to stir the intellect. As a pioneer of total theatre, Ghelderode exerted a powerful influence on the history of the French theatre. Although many of his plays have since been translated into English, his works are infrequently performed in English-speaking countries. Writing in October 1957 on the occasion of the first of his plays to be seen publicly in England, Ghelderode declared – In 1957 Luc de Heusch and Jean Raine made a 22-minute film about Ghelderode. He appears near its end, in the location of the Theatre Royale de Toone, the sixth and last in a dynasty of marionette theatres in Brussels.", "Ghelderode was born with the name Adhémar-Adolphe-Louis Martens, and changed his name by Royal Deed. He also wrote under the pen-names Philostene Costenoble, Jac Nolan, and Babylas.", "Ghelderode's \"La Balade du grand macabre\" (1934) served as libretto for György Ligeti's opera \"Le Grand Macabre\" (1974–77. Revised 1996)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Example.", "Absolutely continuous univariate distributions.", "Formal definition.", "Discussion.", "Further details.", "Link between discrete and continuous distributions.", "Families of densities.", "Densities associated with multiple variables.", "Marginal densities.", "Independence.", "Corollary.", "Example.", "Function of random variables and change of variables in the probability density function.", "Scalar to scalar.", "Vector to vector.", "Vector to scalar.", "Sums of independent random variables.", "Products and quotients of independent random variables.", "Example: Quotient distribution.", "Example: Quotient of two standard normals." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Suppose bacteria of a certain species typically live 4 to 6 hours. The probability that a bacterium lives 5 hours is equal to zero. A lot of bacteria live for approximately 5 hours, but there is no chance that any given bacterium dies at exactly 5.0000000000... hours. However, the probability that the bacterium dies between 5 hours and 5.01 hours is quantifiable. Suppose the answer is 0.02 (i.e., 2%). Then, the probability that the bacterium dies between 5 hours and 5.001 hours should be about 0.002, since this time interval is one-tenth as long as the previous. The probability that the bacterium dies between 5 hours and 5.0001 hours should be about 0.0002, and so on. In these three examples, the ratio (probability of dying during an interval) / (duration of the interval) is approximately constant, and equal to 2 per hour (or 2 hour). For example, there is 0.02 probability of dying in the 0.01-hour interval between 5 and 5.01 hours, and (0.02 probability / 0.01 hours) = 2 hour. This quantity 2 hour is called the probability density for dying at around 5 hours. Therefore, the probability that the bacterium dies at 5 hours can be written as (2 hour) \"dt\". This is the probability that the bacterium dies within an infinitesimal window of time around 5 hours, where \"dt\" is the duration of this window. For example, the probability that it lives longer than 5 hours, but shorter than (5 hours + 1 nanosecond), is (2 hour)×(1 nanosecond) ≈ (using the unit conversion nanoseconds = 1 hour). There is a probability density function \"f\" with \"f\"(5 hours) = 2 hour. The integral of \"f\" over any window of time (not only infinitesimal windows but also large windows) is the probability that the bacterium dies in that window.", "A probability density function is most commonly associated with absolutely continuous univariate distributions. A random variable formula_1 has density formula_2, where formula_2 is a non-negative Lebesgue-integrable function, if: Hence, if formula_5 is the cumulative distribution function of formula_1, then: and (if formula_2 is continuous at formula_9) Intuitively, one can think of formula_11 as being the probability of formula_1 falling within the infinitesimal interval formula_13.", "A random variable formula_1 with values in a measurable space formula_15 (usually formula_16 with the Borel sets as measurable subsets) has as probability distribution the measure \"X\"\"P\" on formula_15: the density of formula_1 with respect to a reference measure formula_19 on formula_15 is the Radon–Nikodym derivative: That is, \"f\" is any measurable function with the property that: for any measurable set formula_23", "In the continuous univariate case above, the reference measure is the Lebesgue measure. The probability mass function of a discrete random variable is the density with respect to the counting measure over the sample space (usually the set of integers, or some subset thereof). It is not possible to define a density with reference to an arbitrary measure (e.g. one can't choose the counting measure as a reference for a continuous random variable). Furthermore, when it does exist, the density is almost everywhere unique.", "Unlike a probability, a probability density function can take on values greater than one; for example, the uniform distribution on the interval [0, 1⁄2] has probability density \"f\"(\"x\") = 2 for 0 ≤ \"x\" ≤ 1⁄2 and \"f\"(\"x\") = 0 elsewhere. The standard normal distribution has probability density If a random variable \"X\" is given and its distribution admits a probability density function \"f\", then the expected value of \"X\" (if the expected value exists) can be calculated as Not every probability distribution has a density function: the distributions of discrete random variables do not; nor does the Cantor distribution, even though it has no discrete component, i.e., does not assign positive probability to any individual point. A distribution has a density function if and only if its cumulative distribution function \"F\"(\"x\") is absolutely continuous. In this case: \"F\" is almost everywhere differentiable, and its derivative can be used as probability density: If a probability distribution admits a density, then the probability of every one-point set {\"a\"} is zero; the same holds for finite and countable sets. Two probability densities \"f\" and \"g\" represent the same probability distribution precisely if they differ only on a set of Lebesgue measure zero. In the field of statistical physics, a non-formal reformulation of the relation above between the derivative of the cumulative distribution function and the probability density function is generally used as the definition of the probability density function. This alternate definition is the following: If \"dt\" is an infinitely small number, the probability that \"X\" is included within the interval (\"t\", \"t\" + \"dt\") is equal to \"f\"(\"t\") \"dt\", or:", "It is possible to represent certain discrete random variables as well as random variables involving both a continuous and a discrete part with a generalized probability density function, by using the Dirac delta function. (This is not possible with a probability density function in the sense defined above, it may be done with a distribution.) For example, consider a binary discrete random variable having the Rademacher distribution—that is, taking −1 or 1 for values, with probability 1⁄2 each. The density of probability associated with this variable is: More generally, if a discrete variable can take \"n\" different values among real numbers, then the associated probability density function is: where formula_30 are the discrete values accessible to the variable and formula_31 are the probabilities associated with these values. This substantially unifies the treatment of discrete and continuous probability distributions. For instance, the above expression allows for determining statistical characteristics of such a discrete variable (such as its mean, its variance and its kurtosis), starting from the formulas given for a continuous distribution of the probability.", "It is common for probability density functions (and probability mass functions) to be parametrized—that is, to be characterized by unspecified parameters. For example, the normal distribution is parametrized in terms of the mean and the variance, denoted by formula_19 and formula_33 respectively, giving the family of densities It is important to keep in mind the difference between the domain of a family of densities and the parameters of the family. Different values of the parameters describe different distributions of different random variables on the same sample space (the same set of all possible values of the variable); this sample space is the domain of the family of random variables that this family of distributions describes. A given set of parameters describes a single distribution within the family sharing the functional form of the density. From the perspective of a given distribution, the parameters are constants, and terms in a density function that contain only parameters, but not variables, are part of the normalization factor of a distribution (the multiplicative factor that ensures that the area under the density—the probability of \"something\" in the domain occurring— equals 1). This normalization factor is outside the kernel of the distribution. Since the parameters are constants, reparametrizing a density in terms of different parameters, to give a characterization of a different random variable in the family, means simply substituting the new parameter values into the formula in place of the old ones. Changing the domain of a probability density, however, is trickier and requires more work: see the section below on change of variables.", "For continuous random variables \"X\",..., \"X\", it is also possible to define a probability density function associated to the set as a whole, often called joint probability density function. This density function is defined as a function of the \"n\" variables, such that, for any domain \"D\" in the \"n\"-dimensional space of the values of the variables \"X\",..., \"X\", the probability that a realisation of the set variables falls inside the domain \"D\" is If \"F\"(\"x\",..., \"x\") = Pr(\"X\" ≤ \"x\",..., \"X\" ≤ \"x\") is the cumulative distribution function of the vector (\"X\",..., \"X\"), then the joint probability density function can be computed as a partial derivative", "For \"i\" = 1, 2,...,\"n\", let \"f\"(\"x\") be the probability density function associated with variable \"X\" alone. This is called the marginal density function, and can be deduced from the probability density associated with the random variables \"X\",..., \"X\" by integrating over all values of the other \"n\" − 1 variables:", "Continuous random variables \"X\",..., \"X\" admitting a joint density are all independent from each other if and only if", "If the joint probability density function of a vector of \"n\" random variables can be factored into a product of \"n\" functions of one variable (where each \"f\" is not necessarily a density) then the \"n\" variables in the set are all independent from each other, and the marginal probability density function of each of them is given by", "This elementary example illustrates the above definition of multidimensional probability density functions in the simple case of a function of a set of two variables. Let us call formula_41 a 2-dimensional random vector of coordinates (\"X\", \"Y\"): the probability to obtain formula_41 in the quarter plane of positive \"x\" and \"y\" is", "If the probability density function of a random variable (or vector) \"X\" is given as \"f\"(\"x\"), it is possible (but often not necessary; see below) to calculate the probability density function of some variable. This is also called a “change of variable” and is in practice used to generate a random variable of arbitrary shape using a known (for instance, uniform) random number generator. It is tempting to think that in order to find the expected value \"E\"(\"g\"(\"X\")), one must first find the probability density \"f\" of the new random variable. However, rather than computing one may find instead The values of the two integrals are the same in all cases in which both \"X\" and \"g\"(\"X\") actually have probability density functions. It is not necessary that \"g\" be a one-to-one function. In some cases the latter integral is computed much more easily than the former. See Law of the unconscious statistician.", "Let formula_46 be a monotonic function, then the resulting density function is Here \"g\" denotes the inverse function. This follows from the fact that the probability contained in a differential area must be invariant under change of variables. That is, or For functions that are not monotonic, the probability density function for \"y\" is where \"n\"(\"y\") is the number of solutions in \"x\" for the equation formula_51, and formula_52 are these solutions.", "The above formulas can be generalized to variables (which we will again call \"y\") depending on more than one other variable. \"f\"(\"x\",..., \"x\") shall denote the probability density function of the variables that \"y\" depends on, and the dependence shall be. Then, the resulting density function is where the integral is over the entire (\"n\" − 1)-dimensional solution of the subscripted equation and the symbolic \"dV\" must be replaced by a parametrization of this solution for a particular calculation; the variables \"x\",..., \"x\" are then of course functions of this parametrization. This derives from the following, perhaps more intuitive representation: Suppose x is an \"n\"-dimensional random variable with joint density \"f\". If, where \"H\" is a bijective, differentiable function, then y has density \"g\": with the differential regarded as the Jacobian of the inverse of \"H(.)\", evaluated at y. For example, in the 2-dimensional case x = (\"x\", \"x\"), suppose the transform \"H\" is given as \"y\" = \"H\"(\"x\", \"x\"), \"y\" = \"H\"(\"x\", \"x\") with inverses \"x\" = \"H\"(\"y\", \"y\"), \"x\" = \"H\"(\"y\", \"y\"). The joint distribution for y = (\"y\", y) has density", "Let formula_56 be a differentiable function and formula_57 be a random vector taking values in formula_58, formula_59 be the probability density function of formula_57 and formula_61 be the Dirac delta function. It is possible to use the formulas above to determine formula_62, the probability density function of formula_63, which will be given by which is an upper triangular matrix with ones on the main diagonal, therefore its determinant is 1. Applying the change of variable theorem from the previous section we obtain that which if marginalized over formula_9 leads to the desired probability density function.", "The probability density function of the sum of two independent random variables \"U\" and \"V\", each of which has a probability density function, is the convolution of their separate density functions: It is possible to generalize the previous relation to a sum of N independent random variables, with densities \"U\",..., \"U\": This can be derived from a two-way change of variables involving \"Y=U+V\" and \"Z=V\", similarly to the example below for the quotient of independent random variables.", "Given two independent random variables \"U\" and \"V\", each of which has a probability density function, the density of the product \"Y\" = \"UV\" and quotient \"Y\"=\"U\"/\"V\" can be computed by a change of variables.", "To compute the quotient \"Y\" = \"U\"/\"V\" of two independent random variables \"U\" and \"V\", define the following transformation: Then, the joint density \"p\"(\"y\",\"z\") can be computed by a change of variables from \"U,V\" to \"Y,Z\", and \"Y\" can be derived by marginalizing out \"Z\" from the joint density. The inverse transformation is The Jacobian matrix formula_73 of this transformation is Thus: And the distribution of \"Y\" can be computed by marginalizing out \"Z\": This method crucially requires that the transformation from \"U\",\"V\" to \"Y\",\"Z\" be bijective. The above transformation meets this because \"Z\" can be mapped directly back to \"V\", and for a given \"V\" the quotient \"U\"/\"V\" is monotonic. This is similarly the case for the sum \"U\" + \"V\", difference \"U\" − \"V\" and product \"UV\". Exactly the same method can be used to compute the distribution of other functions of multiple independent random variables.", "Given two standard normal variables \"U\" and \"V\", the quotient can be computed as follows. First, the variables have the following density functions: We transform as described above: This leads to: This is the density of a standard Cauchy distribution." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Formal definition.", "Measure theoretic formulation.", "Examples.", "Finite.", "Multivariate case." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Probability mass function is the probability distribution of a discrete random variable, and provides the possible values and their associated probabilities. It is the function formula_1 formula_2 defined by for formula_3, where formula_4 is a probability measure. formula_5 can also be simplified as formula_6. The probabilities associated with each possible values must be positive and sum up to 1. For all other values, the probabilities need to be 0. Thinking of probability as mass helps to avoid mistakes since the physical mass is conserved as is the total probability for all hypothetical outcomes formula_10.", "A probability mass function of a discrete random variable formula_11 can be seen as a special case of two more general measure theoretic constructions: the distribution of formula_11 and the probability density function of formula_11 with respect to the counting measure. We make this more precise below. Suppose that formula_14 is a probability space and that formula_15 is a measurable space whose underlying σ-algebra is discrete, so in particular contains singleton sets of formula_16. In this setting, a random variable formula_17 is discrete provided its image is countable. The pushforward measure formula_18—called a distribution of formula_11 in this context—is a probability measure on formula_16 whose restriction to singleton sets induces a probability mass function formula_21 since formula_22 for each formula_23. Now suppose that formula_24 is a measure space equipped with the counting measure μ. The probability density function formula_25 of formula_11 with respect to the counting measure, if it exists, is the Radon–Nikodym derivative of the pushforward measure of formula_11 (with respect to the counting measure), so formula_28 and formula_25 is a function from formula_16 to the non-negative reals. As a consequence, for any formula_23 we have demonstrating that formula_25 is in fact a probability mass function. When there is a natural order among the potential outcomes formula_10, it may be convenient to assign numerical values to them (or \"n\"-tuples in case of a discrete multivariate random variable) and to consider also values not in the image of formula_11. That is, formula_37 may be defined for all real numbers and formula_38 for all formula_39 as shown in the figure. The image of formula_11 has a countable subset on which the probability mass function formula_41 is one. Consequently, the probability mass function is zero for all but a countable number of values of formula_10. The discontinuity of probability mass functions is related to the fact that the cumulative distribution function of a discrete random variable is also discontinuous. If formula_11 is a discrete random variable, then formula_44 means that the casual event formula_45 is certain (it is true in the 100% of the occurrencies); on the contrary, formula_46 means that the casual event formula_45 is always impossible. This statement isn't true for a continuous random variable formula_11, for which formula_46 for any possible formula_10: in fact, by definition, a continuous random variable can have an infinite set of possible values and thus the probability it has a single particular value \"x\" is equal to formula_51. Discretization is the process of converting a continuous random variable into a discrete one.", "", "There are three major distributions associated, the Bernoulli distribution, the Binomial distribution and the geometric distribution. Other distributions that can be modeled using a probability mass function are the Categorical distribution (also known as the generalized Bernoulli distribution) and the multinomial distribution.", "Two or more discrete random variables have a joint probability mass function, which gives the probability of each possible combination of realizations for the random variables." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Development.", "Theoretical background.", "Language activities.", "Domains.", "Competences.", "Common reference levels.", "Relationship with duration of learning process.", "Certification and teaching ecosystem enabled by the CEFR.", "Comparisons between CEFR and other scales.", "General scales.", "Difficulty in aligning the CEFR with teaching programmes.", "Other applications." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "An intergovernmental symposium in 1991 titled \"Transparency and Coherence in Language Learning in Europe: Objectives, Evaluation, Certification\" held by the Swiss Federal Authorities in the Swiss municipality of Rüschlikon found the need for a common European framework for languages to improve the recognition of language qualifications and help teachers co-operate. A project followed to develop language-level classifications for certification to be recognized across Europe. The CEFR is also intended to make it easier for educational institutions and employers to evaluate the language qualifications of candidates to education admission or employment. As a result of the symposium, the Swiss National Science Foundation set up a project to develop levels of proficiency, to lead on to the creation of a \"European Language Portfolio\"certification in language ability which can be used across Europe. A preliminary version of the Manual for Relating Language Examinations to the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) was published in 2003. This draft version was piloted in a number of projects, which included linking a single test to the CEFR, linking suites of exams at different levels, and national studies by exam boards and research institutes. Practitioners and academics shared their experiences at a colloquium in Cambridge in 2007, and the pilot case studies and findings were published in Studies in Language Testing (SiLT). The findings from the pilot projects then informed the Manual revision project during 2008–2009.", "The CEFR divides general competences in \"knowledge\", \"skills\", and \"existential competence\" with particular communicative competences in \"linguistic competence\", \"sociolinguistic competence\", and \"pragmatic competence\". This division does not exactly match previously well-known notions of \"communicative competence\", but correspondences among them can be made. The CEFR has three principal dimensions: language activities, the domains in which the language activities occur, and the competencies on which we draw when we engage in them.", "The CEFR distinguishes among four kinds of language activities: reception (listening and reading), production (spoken and written), interaction (spoken and written), and mediation (translating and interpreting).", "General and particular communicative competences are developed by producing or receiving texts in various contexts under various conditions and constraints. These contexts correspond to various sectors of social life that the CEFR calls domains. Four broad domains are distinguished: educational, occupational, public, and personal. These largely correspond to register.", "A language user can develop various degrees of competence in each of these domains and to help describe them, the CEFR has provided a set of six \"Common Reference Levels\" (A1, A2, B1, B2, C1, C2).", "The Common European Framework divides learners into three broad divisions that can be divided into six levels; for each level, it describes what a learner is supposed to be able to do in reading, listening, speaking and writing. The following table indicates these levels. A more thorough description of each level, with criteria for listening, reading, speaking, and writing, is available on the Internet. These descriptors can apply to any of the languages spoken in Europe, and there are translations in many languages.", "Educational bodies for various languages have offered estimates for the amount of study needed to reach levels in the relevant language.", "Multiple organizations have been created to serve as an umbrella for language schools and certification businesses that claim compatibility with the CEFR. For example, the European Association for Language Testing and Assessment (EALTA) is an initiative funded by the European Community to promote the CEFR and best practices in delivering professional language training. The Association of Language Testers in Europe (ALTE) is a consortium of academic organizations that aims at standardizing assessment methods. EAQUALS (Evaluation and Accreditation of Quality in Language Services) is an international association of institutions and organizations involved in language education, active throughout Europe, and following the CEFR. In France, the Ministry for Education has created a government-mandated certificate called CLES, which formalizes the use of the CEFR in language teaching programs in French higher education institutions. In Germany, Telc, a non-profit agency, is the federal government's exclusive partner for language tests taken at the end of the integration courses for migrants, following the CEFR standards.", "", "Studies have addressed correspondence with the ACTFL Proficiency Guidelines and the United States ILR scale. For convenience, the following abbreviations will be used for the ACTFL levels: A 2008 statistical study by Alfonso Martínez Baztán of Universidad de Granada based on the performances of a group of subjects determines the following ordering of the ACTFL and CEFR levels, in which higher levels are placed further right. The following table summarizes the results of Martínez Baztán, the equivalences between CEFR and ACTFL standards proposed in a 2005 paper by Erwin Tschirner of Universität Leipzig (also quoted by Martínez Baztán), and the equivalences of Buitrago (unpublished, 2006) as quoted in Martínez Baztán 2008. In a panel discussion at the Osaka University of Foreign Studies, one of the coauthors of the CEFR, Brian North, stated that a \"sensible hypothesis\" would be for C2 to correspond to \"Distinguished,\" C1 to \"Superior,\" B2 to \"Advanced-mid,\" and B1 to \"Intermediate-high\" in the ACTFL system. This agrees with a table published by the American University Center of Provence giving the following correspondences: However, a comparison between the ILR self-assessment grids (reading, speaking, listening ) and the CEFR assessment grid could suggest a different equivalence: A study by Buck, Papageorgiou and Platzek addresses the correspondence between the difficulty of test items under the CEFR and ILR standards. The most common ILR levels for items of given CEFR difficulty were as follows: Canada increasingly uses the CEFR in a few domains. CEFR-compatible exams such as the DELF/DALF (French) and the DELE (Spanish) are administered. Universities increasingly structure their courses around the CEFR levels. Larry Vandergrift of the University of Ottawa has proposed Canadian adoption of the CEFR in his report \"Proposal for a Common Framework of Reference for Languages for Canada\" published by Heritage Canada. This report contains a comparison of the CEFR to other standards in use in Canada and proposes an equivalence table. The resulting correspondence between the ILR and ACTFL scales disagrees with the generally accepted one. The ACTFL standards were developed so that Novice, Intermediate, Advanced and Superior would correspond to 0/0+, 1/1+, 2/2+ and 3/3+, respectively on the ILR scale. Also, the ILR and NB OPS scales do not correspond despite the fact that the latter was modelled on the former. A more recent document by Macdonald and Vandergrift estimates the following correspondences (for oral ability) between the Public Service Commission levels and the CEFR levels: Language schools may also propose their own equivalence tables. For example, the Vancouver English Centre provides a comprehensive equivalence table between the various forms of the TOEFL test, the Cambridge exam, the VEC level system, and the CEFR.", "Language schools and certificate bodies evaluate their own equivalences against the framework. Differences of estimation have been found to exist, for example, with the same level on the PTE A, TOEFL, and IELTS, and is a cause of debate between test producers.", "The CEFR methodology has been extended to describe and evaluate the proficiency of users of programming languages, when the programming activity is considered as a language activity." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Career.", "Formula Three and Japanese racing.", "Formula One.", "1994–1998: Lotus, Tyrrell and Arrows.", "1999: British American Racing and Ferrari.", "2000–2002: Sauber and Toyota.", "Post-Formula One.", "Personal.", "Helmet.", "Racing record.", "Complete CART results.", "Complete V8 Supercar results." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "In 1989, Helsinki-born Salo competed in the British Formula 3 Championship, racing for Alan Docking Racing. He raced with the Reynard Alfa Romeo package which was not the season's best. Staying with Alan Docking Racing for 1990 and moving to a more competitive Ralt chassis, he raced against countryman and fierce rival Mika Häkkinen in Formula Three, finishing second to him. In 1990, Salo was caught driving under the influence in London. In 1991 Salo headed to Japan to race in the Japanese Formula 3000 Championship (now named Super Formula). His initial aim was to race in Europe's Formula 3000 but did not garner enough funding to compete. A budget would have spanned from £200,000 to £500,000 to drive in Europe and Salo had only collected a fraction over £200,000, not enough to stay competitive. While in Japan, Salo landed a competitive seat and got also paid for driving for AD Racing's in their single car team. The Japanese Formula 3000 Championship in 1991 had increased stature thanks to the aggrieved Johnny Herbert (who raced in F1 in 1989) raising the calibre of the championship, driving in Japan in the same time than Salo.", "", "After a few years racing in Japan he made his first Formula One start at the penultimate round of the season in Japan for the ailing Lotus team. He was kept on for the season's finale in Australia. Following the collapse of Lotus following the end of the season, Salo moved to Tyrrell for. He was to spend three years with the team, scoring points several times. In the 1997 Monaco Grand Prix he completed the whole (rain-shortened and -slowed) race without refuelling, taking fifth place ahead of the faster Giancarlo Fisichella as a result. Despite a promising with Arrows, he had no full-time drive in.", "Following an injury to BAR driver Ricardo Zonta, Salo took his place for three races whilst the Brazilian recovered. However a greater opportunity arose when Michael Schumacher broke his leg in a crash during the 1999 British Grand Prix. Salo was selected as his substitute to partner Eddie Irvine at Ferrari. In his second race in Ferrari at the 1999 German Grand Prix Salo led for part of the race and would have scored a Grand Prix win but team orders demanded that he give the lead to Irvine, who at the time was fighting for the championship with Mika Häkkinen. Following the race, Irvine handed his victory trophy over to Salo as a gesture of gratitude. He also finished third at Monza, ahead of Irvine. These podium finishes were critical in helping Ferrari win their first Constructors' title since.", "Salo was back full-time in with Sauber, taking 11th in the championship, although he left the team at the end of the season to join the new Toyota team in preparation for its Formula One entry in, and also cited a desire to score podiums rather than lower points-scoring positions. He scored two points for Toyota in their first season, becoming the first driver since JJ Lehto at the 1993 South African Grand Prix to score points on a team's debut by finishing sixth at the 2002 Australian Grand Prix. He retired from Formula One at the end of 2002, after surprisingly getting fired from Toyota (though it was later revealed that he was not on good terms with the team due to his deemed poor performance). During his Formula One career, he achieved two podiums, and scored a total of 33 championship points.", "His first post-Formula One race came at the 2003 12 Hours of Sebring, driving the UK-entered Audi R8, the same car he was due to race at the 24 Hours of Le Mans if it had not run out of fuel already after the first hour. He raced in four CART races for PK Racing during the same year, his best finish being third in Miami in his second series start. Because of his strong links with Ferrari he was picked up to be part of the development program of the Maserati MC12 GT racer. He made his FIA GT debut in 2004, narrowly losing the 24 Hours of Spa-Francorchamps in a Ferrari 575. After that he entered the last four races of the season in the Maserati, winning two races and finishing second once. 2005 was a year somewhat lost in the doldrums with only two participations with the Maserati MC12 in the ALMS GTS-class, a competition where the car turned out to be not even half as competitive as in the FIA GT series. For 2006, Salo returned to racing full-time, signing with AF Corse in the FIA GT to drive the Ferrari F430 and later on in the year with Risi Competizione in the ALMS. He was victorious in class in the 24 Hours of Spa and finished third in the FIA GT2 Drivers' Championship with 61 points, while his efforts in the ALMS contributed to Risi's Teams' Championship cup. In the following year he continued with Risi Competizione in the ALMS and took the GT2 class honours in the 12 Hours of Sebring and the championship along with teammate Jaime Melo. They won a total of eight races out of twelve in the class. In addition, he won the RAC Tourist Trophy with Thomas Biagi when substituting for Michael Bartels, driving a Maserati MC12 once more. Salo and Melo with Risi Competizione earned the first team At-Large honours on the 2007 All-American Racing Team, as voted for by the American Auto Racing Writers and Broadcasters (AARWBA). Salo raced again in the ALMS for Risi Competizione in 2008. Although he was not successful in defending his previous year's titles, he won the GT2 class in the 24 Hours of Le Mans, coming in 18th overall. In 2009, he joined the Risi Ferrari team at the blue-riband races only, the 12 Hours of Sebring, the 24 Hours of Le Mans and the Petit Le Mans event, winning all three of them. Having won these enduro races all more than once, Salo felt he was ready for a new challenge. He set his mind on NASCAR, and had his first test with Michael Waltrip Racing at the half-mile New Smyrna Speedway in November 2009. In 2010–12, Salo competed in the Gold Coast 600, an endurance event for the V8 Supercars. In 2010, he partnered with Walkinshaw Racing's Andrew Thompson and retired from both races. For 2011–12 he raced with Will Davison and the Ford Performance Racing team, finishing 2nd in the 1st race of 2011 and winning the 2nd race in 2012. In 2014, driving for Maranello Motorsport, Salo co-drove a Ferrari 458 Italia GT3 to victory at the Bathurst 12 Hour alongside Australian motor racing legends Craig Lowndes and John Bowe, and another local Australian driver Peter Edwards.", "Salo lives in Estonia, and has a son and a daughter with his wife Noriko. His godson Jesse Krohn competes in Formula Renault, both in Scandinavia and the UK. Like fellow Finns Keke Rosberg and JJ Lehto, both former Formula One drivers, Salo has commentated on several F1 races on MTV3 and the pay-channel MTV3 MAX since 2005. Since 2011, Salo has been hosting the Finnish TV-show, Virittäjät ('Test Drive by Mika Salo'), along with his former co-host Tomi Tuominen, who is a Finnish journalist, television presenter, sports commentator and former co-driver in the World Rally Championship. In 2013, Salo featured in Discovery channel's program called \"Driven to Extremes\" along with Hollywood actors Tom Hardy and Adrien Brody. Salo appeared in two episodes, one with Tom Hardy in minus 50 degrees Celsius in Russia, and the other one with Adrien Brody to the Malaysian jungle at the height of the monsoon season.", "Salo's helmet was originally dark blue with a white halo on the top (with a red line inside), 2 white stripes (with a red line inside) going from the rear going down diagonally to the sides of the helmet and a white trapezoidal shape on the chin area (with blue outline), slightly based on Prost's helmet. When he raced in Formula One, he changed the helmet from dark blue to sky blue with the rest of the elements intact.", "", "† Cancelled due to California Fires", "† Not Eligible for points" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Politics.", "Honours and memberships.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Robert Southey was born in Wine Street, Bristol, to Robert Southey and Margaret Hill. He was educated at Westminster School, London (where he was expelled for writing an article in \"The Flagellant\" attributing the invention of flogging to the Devil), and at Balliol College, Oxford. Southey later said of Oxford, \"All I learnt was a little swimming... and a little boating.\" Experimenting with a writing partnership with Samuel Taylor Coleridge, most notably in their joint composition of \"The Fall of Robespierre\", Southey published his first collection of poems in 1794. The same year, Southey, Coleridge, Robert Lovell and several others discussed creating an idealistic community (\"pantisocracy\") on the banks of the Susquehanna River in America: Southey was the first to reject the idea as unworkable, suggesting that they move the intended location to Wales, but when they failed to agree, the plan was abandoned. In 1799 Southey and Coleridge were involved with early experiments with nitrous oxide (laughing gas), conducted by the Cornish scientist Humphry Davy. Southey married Edith Fricker, Coleridge's sister-in-law, at St. Mary Redcliffe, Bristol, on 14 November 1795. The Southeys made their home at Greta Hall, Keswick, in the Lake District, living on his tiny income. Also living at Greta Hall and supported by him were Sara Coleridge and her three children (after Coleridge abandoned them) and the widow of poet Robert Lovell and her son. In 1808 Southey met Walter Savage Landor, whose work he admired, and they became close friends. That same year he wrote \"Letters from England\" under the pseudonym Don Manuel Alvarez Espriella, an account of a tour supposedly from a foreigner's viewpoint. Through the mouth of his pseudonym Southey is critical of the disparity between the haves and have-nots in English society, arguing that a change in taxation policy would be needed to foster a greater degree of equity. From 1809 Southey contributed to the \"Quarterly Review\". He had become so well known by 1813 that he was appointed Poet Laureate after Walter Scott refused the post. In 1819, through a mutual friend (John Rickman), Southey met the leading civil engineer Thomas Telford and struck up a friendship. From mid-August to 1 October 1819, Southey accompanied Telford on an extensive tour of his engineering projects in the Scottish Highlands, keeping a diary of his observations. This was published in 1929 as \"Journal of a Tour in Scotland in 1819\". He was also a friend of the Dutch poet Willem Bilderdijk, whom he met twice, in 1824 and 1826, at Bilderdijk's home in Leiden. He expressed appreciation of the work of the English novelist Ann Doherty. In 1837 Southey received a letter from Charlotte Brontë, seeking his advice on some of her poems. He wrote back praising her talents, but discouraging her from writing professionally: \"Literature cannot be the business of a woman's life,\" he argued. Years later, Brontë remarked to a friend that the letter was \"kind and admirable; a little stringent, but it did me good.\" In 1838 Edith died and Southey remarried, to Caroline Anne Bowles, also a poet, on 4 June 1839. Southey's mind was giving way when he wrote a last letter to his friend Landor in 1839, but he continued to mention Landor's name when generally incapable of mentioning any one. He died on 21 March 1843 and was buried in the churchyard of Crosthwaite Church, Keswick, where he had worshipped for forty years. There is a memorial to him inside the church, with an epitaph written by his friend, William Wordsworth. A few of Southey's ballads are still read by British schoolchildren, the best-known being \"The Inchcape Rock\", \"God's Judgement on a Wicked Bishop\", \"After Blenheim\" (possibly one of the earliest anti-war poems) and \"Cataract of Lodore\". Southey was also a prolific letter writer, literary scholar, essay writer, historian and biographer. His biographies include the life and works of John Bunyan, John Wesley, William Cowper, Oliver Cromwell and Horatio Nelson. The last has rarely been out of print since its publication in 1813 and was adapted as the 1926 British film \"Nelson\". He was also a renowned scholar of Portuguese and Spanish literature and history, translating a number of works from those two languages into English and writing a \"History of Brazil\" (part of his planned \"History of Portugal\", which he never completed) and a \"History of the Peninsular War\". Perhaps his most enduring contribution to literary history is the children's classic \"The Story of the Three Bears\", the original Goldilocks story, first published in Southey's prose collection \"The Doctor\". He also wrote on political issues, which led to a brief, non-sitting, spell as a Tory Member of Parliament. As a prolific writer and commentator, Southey introduced or popularised a number of words into the English language. The term \"autobiography\", for example, was used by Southey in 1809 in the \"Quarterly Review\", in which he predicted an \"epidemical rage for autobiography\", which indeed has continued to the present day. The English word \"zombie\", from the Haitian French \"zombi\", is purported to have first been recorded by Southey in his 1819 essay \"History of Brazil\".", "Although originally a radical supporter of the French Revolution, Southey followed the trajectory of his fellow Romantic poets Wordsworth and Coleridge towards conservatism. Embraced by the Tory establishment as Poet Laureate, and from 1807 in receipt of a yearly stipend from them, he vigorously supported the Liverpool government. He argued against parliamentary reform (\"the railroad to ruin with the Devil for driver\"), blamed the Peterloo Massacre on an allegedly revolutionary \"rabble\" killed and injured by government troops, and spurned Catholic emancipation. In 1817 he privately proposed penal transportation for those guilty of \"libel\" or \"sedition\". He had in mind figures like Thomas Jonathan Wooler and William Hone, whose prosecution he urged. Such writers were guilty, he wrote in the \"Quarterly Review\", of \"inflaming the turbulent temper of the manufacturer and disturbing the quiet attachment of the peasant to those institutions under which he and his fathers have dwelt in peace.\" Wooler and Hone were acquitted, but the threats caused another target, William Cobbett, to emigrate temporarily to the United States. In some respects, Southey was ahead of his time in his views on social reform. For example, he was an early critic of the evils the new factory system brought to early 19th-century Britain. He was appalled by the living conditions in towns like Birmingham and Manchester and especially by employment of children in factories and outspoken about them. He sympathised with the pioneering socialist plans of Robert Owen, advocated that the state promote public works to maintain high employment, and called for universal education. Given his departure from radicalism, and his attempts to have former fellow travellers prosecuted, it is unsurprising that less successful contemporaries who kept the faith attacked Southey. They saw him as selling out for money and respectability. In 1817 Southey was confronted with the surreptitious publication of a radical play, \"Wat Tyler\", which he had written in 1794 at the height of his radical period. This was instigated by his enemies in an attempt to embarrass the Poet Laureate and highlight his apostasy from radical poet to supporter of the Tory establishment. One of his most savage critics was William Hazlitt. In his portrait of Southey, in \"The Spirit of the Age\", he wrote: \"He wooed Liberty as a youthful lover, but it was perhaps more as a mistress than a bride; and he has since wedded with an elderly and not very reputable lady, called Legitimacy.\" Southey largely ignored his critics but was forced to defend himself when William Smith, a member of Parliament, rose in the House of Commons on 14 March to attack him. In a spirited response Southey wrote an open letter to the MP, in which he explained that he had always aimed at lessening human misery and bettering the condition of all the lower classes and that he had only changed in respect of \"the means by which that amelioration was to be effected.\" As he put it, \"that as he learnt to understand the institutions of his country, he learnt to appreciate them rightly, to love, and to revere, and to defend them.\" Another critic of Southey in his later period was Thomas Love Peacock, who scorned him in the character of Mr. Feathernest in his 1817 satirical novel \"Melincourt\". He was often mocked for what were seen as sycophantic odes to the king, notably in Byron's long ironic dedication of \"Don Juan\" to Southey. In the poem Southey is dismissed as insolent, narrow and shabby. This was based both on Byron's disrespect for Southey's literary talent, and his disdain for what he perceived as Southey's hypocritical turn to conservatism later in life. Much of the animosity between the two men can be traced back to Byron's belief that Southey had spread rumours about him and Percy Bysshe Shelley being in a \"League of Incest\" during their time on Lake Geneva in 1816, an accusation that Southey strenuously denied. In response, Southey attacked what he called the Satanic School among modern poets in the preface to his poem, \"A Vision of Judgement\", written after the death of George III. While not naming Byron, it was clearly directed at him. Byron retaliated with \"The Vision of Judgment\", a parody of Southey's poem. Without his prior knowledge, the Earl of Radnor, an admirer of his work, had Southey returned as MP for the latter's pocket borough seat of Downton in Wiltshire at the 1826 general election, as an opponent of Catholic emancipation, but Southey refused to sit, causing a by-election in December that year, pleading that he did not have a large enough estate to support him through political life, or want to take on the hours full attendance required. He wished to continue living in the Lake District and preferred to defend the Church of England in writing rather than speech. He declared that \"for me to change my scheme of life and go into Parliament, would be to commit a moral and intellectual suicide.\" His friend John Rickman, a Commons clerk, noted that \"prudential reasons would forbid his appearing in London\" as a Member. In 1835 Southey declined the offer of a baronetcy, but accepted a life pension of £300 a year from Prime Minister Sir Robert Peel. He is buried in the churchyard of Crosthwaite Parish Church in Cumbria.", "Southey was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1822. He was also a member of the Royal Spanish Academy.", "Notes Citations" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Racing career.", "Racing safety advocate.", "Consultant.", "Commentator.", "\"ABC's Wide World of Sports and NBC Sportsworld\".", "Australian and Canadian TV coverage.", "Team owner.", "Honours.", "Other appearances.", "Helmet.", "Personal life." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Stewart was born in Milton, Dunbartonshire, Scotland, a village fifteen miles west of Glasgow. Stewart's family were Austin, and later Jaguar, car dealers and had built up a successful business. His father had been an amateur motorcycle racer, and his brother Jimmy was a racing driver with a local reputation who drove for Ecurie Ecosse and competed in the 1953 British Grand Prix at Silverstone. Jackie attended Hartfield primary school in the nearby town of Dumbarton, and moved to Dumbarton Academy at the age of 12. He experienced learning difficulties owing to undiagnosed dyslexia, and due to the condition not being understood or even widely known at the time, he was regularly berated and humiliated by teachers and peers alike for being \"dumb\" and \"thick\". Stewart was unable to continue his secondary education past the age of 16, and began working in his father's garage as an apprentice mechanic. He was not actually diagnosed with dyslexia until 1980, when his oldest son Mark was diagnosed with the condition. On learning that dyslexia can be genetically passed on, and seeing very similar symptoms with his son that he had experienced himself as a child, Stewart asked if he could be tested, and was diagnosed with the disorder, by which time he was 41 years old. He has said: \"When you've got dyslexia and you find something you're good at, you put more into it than anyone else; you can't think the way of the clever folk, so you're always thinking out of the box.\" At the age of 13 he had won a clay pigeon shooting competition and then went on to become a prize-winning member of the Scottish shooting team, competing in the United Kingdom and abroad. He won the British, Irish, Welsh and Scottish skeet shooting championships and twice won the \"Coupe de Nations\" European championship. He competed for a place in the British trap shooting team for the 1960 Summer Olympics, but finished third behind Joseph Wheater and Brett Huthart. Stewart's first car was a light green Austin A30 with \"real leather [covered] seats\" which he purchased shortly before his seventeenth birthday for £375, a detail he was able to recall for an interviewer sixty years later. He had saved up the purchase price from tips received from his job at the family garage. He took up an offer from Barry Filer, a customer of the family business, to test in a number of his cars at Oulton Park. For 1961, Filer provided a Marcos, in which Stewart scored four wins, and competed once in Filer's Aston DB4GT. In 1962, to help decide if he was ready to become a professional driver, he tested a Jaguar E-type at Oulton Park, matching Roy Salvadori's times in a similar car the year before. He won two races, his first in England, in the E-type, and David Murray of Ecurie Ecosse offered him a ride in the Tojeiro EE Mk2, and their Cooper T49, in which he won at Goodwood. For 1963, he earned fourteen wins, a second, and two-thirds, with six retirements. In 1964, he again signed with Ecurie Ecosse. Ken Tyrrell, then running the Formula Junior team for the Cooper Car Company, heard of the young Scotsman from Goodwood's track manager and called up Jimmy Stewart to see if his younger brother was interested in a tryout. Jackie came down for the test at Goodwood, taking over a new, and very competitive, Formula Three T72-BMC which Bruce McLaren was testing. Soon Stewart was bettering McLaren's times, causing McLaren to return to the track for some quicker laps. Again, Stewart was quicker, and Tyrrell offered Stewart a spot on the team.", "In 1964 he drove in Formula Three for Tyrrell. His debut, in the wet at Snetterton on 15 March, was dominant; he took a 25-second lead in just two laps before coasting home to a win by 44 seconds. Within days, he was offered a Formula One ride with Cooper, but declined, preferring to gain experience under Tyrrell; he failed to win just two races (one to clutch failure, one to a spin) in becoming F3 champion. After running John Coombs' E-type and practising in a Ferrari at Le Mans, he took a trial in an F1 Lotus 33-Climax, in which he impressed Colin Chapman and Jim Clark. Stewart again refused a ride in F1, but went instead to the Lotus Formula Two team. In his F2 debut, he was second at the difficult Circuit Clermont-Ferrand in a Lotus 32-Cosworth. While he signed with BRM alongside Graham Hill in 1965, a contract which netted him £4,000, his first race in an F1 car was for Lotus, as stand-in for an injured Jim Clark, at the non-championship Rand Grand Prix in December 1964; after qualifying in pole position the Lotus broke in the first heat, but he won the second and claimed fastest lap. On his World Championship F1 debut in South Africa, he finished sixth. His first major competition victory came in the BRDC International Trophy in the late spring, and before the end of the year he won his first World Championship race at Monza, fighting wheel-to-wheel with teammate Hill's P261. Stewart finished his rookie season with a win, three seconds, a third, a fifth, and a sixth, and third place in the World Drivers' Championship. He also piloted Tyrrell's unsuccessful F2 Cooper T75-BRM, and drove the Rover Company's revolutionary turbine car at the 24 Hours of Le Mans alongside Graham Hill. At the start of the 1966 season, Stewart won the Tasman Series from his BRM teammate Graham Hill in two-litre BRMs and also raced closely with his great rival and friend Jim Clark who was somewhat disadvantaged by an unreliable Lotus 39 which was let down by its old 2.5-litre Climax engine. In F1, after his promising start the previous year, 1966 was a poor year for Stewart; the 3-litre H16 BRMs were unreliable, although Stewart did win the Monaco Grand Prix in a 2-litre engined car. The most significant event in that year was his accident at the Belgian Grand Prix at Spa-Francorchamps, which sparked his campaign to improve safety in F1 and caused him to miss the French Grand Prix at Reims. Stewart had some success in other forms of racing during the year, winning the 1966 Rothmans 12 Hour International Sports Car Race and almost winning the Indianapolis 500 on his first attempt, in John Mecom's Lola T90-Ford, only to be denied by a broken scavenge pump while leading by over a lap with eight laps to go. However, Stewart's performance, having had the race fully in hand, sidelined only by mechanical failure, won him Rookie of the Year honours despite the winner, Graham Hill, also being an Indianapolis rookie. Stewart apeard at 24 Hours of Le Mans test day on 3 April 1966 driving a Ford GT40 Mk II version of Holman & Moody and the Ford GT40 owend by Alan Mann Racing. BRM's fortunes did not improve in 1967, despite closely contesting the Tasman Series with Jim Clark who probably raced closer and harder with him than at any time in their careers. While Clark usually won, Stewart won a victory in the New Zealand Grand Prix with Clark attempting to run him down in the last laps with bodywork flying off his Lotus. In F1 the BRMs were still struggling with reliability problems and Stewart came no higher than second, at Spa, while having to drive one-handed while holding the car in gear with the other. In F2 he won events at Karlskoga, Enna, Oulton Park, and Albi in a Tyrrell-entered Matra MS5 or MS7. He also placed 2nd driving a works-entered Ferrari driving with Chris Amon at the BOAC 6 Hours at Brands Hatch, the 10th round of World Sportscar Championship at the time. Stewart also attempted to run the 1967 National 500 NASCAR race but did not qualify for the race. For 1968 in Formula One, he switched to Tyrrell's Matra International team, where he drove a Matra MS10-Cosworth. After a promising start in South Africa with the Matra MS9 development mule he missed Jarama and Monaco due to an F2 injury at Jarama and his first win of the season was in heavy rain at Zandvoort. Another win in rain and fog at the Nürburgring followed, where he won by a margin of four minutes. He also won at Watkins Glen but his car failed at Mexico City, and so he lost the drivers' title to Hill. In 1969, driving the Matra MS80-Cosworth, Stewart had a number of races where he completely dominated the opposition, such as winning by over two laps at Montjuïc, a minute in front at Clemont-Ferrand and by more than a lap at Silverstone. With additional wins at Kyalami, Zandvoort, and Monza, Stewart became world champion. Until 2005 he was the only driver to have won the championship in a car built by a French constructor and remains the only driver to win the world championship in a car built in France as well as in a car entered by a privateer team. Also that year, Stewart led at least one lap of every World Championship Grand Prix, and remains the only driver to achieve this feat. For 1970, Matra insisted on using their own V12 engines, while Tyrrell and Stewart wanted to continue with the Cosworth and maintain their connection to Ford, which conflicted with Matra's recent connections to Chrysler. Tyrrell decided to build his own car and in the interim bought a chassis from March Engineering; Stewart took the March 701-Cosworth to wins at the \"Daily Mail\" Race of Champions and Jarama, but development on the car stalled and it was soon overcome by the Lotus team's new 72. The new Tyrrell 001-Cosworth, appeared in August and suffered problems but showed promise. Tyrrell continued to be sponsored by French fuel company Elf, and Stewart raced in a car painted French Racing Blue for many years. Stewart also continued to race sporadically in Formula Two, winning at Crystal Palace and placing at Thruxton. A projected Le Mans appearance, to co-drive the 4.5 litre Porsche 917K with Steve McQueen, did not come off, due to McQueen's inability to get insurance. He also had a one-off race in Can-Am, in the revolutionary Chaparral 2J. Stewart qualified third, in what was the car's first outing, but brake failure ended his race. Stewart went on to win the Formula One world championship in 1971 using the Tyrrell 003-Cosworth, winning Spain, Monaco, France, Britain, Germany, and Canada. He also did a full season in Can-Am, driving a Carl Haas sponsored Lola T260-Chevrolet. During the 1971 season, Stewart was the only driver able to challenge the McLarens driven by Denny Hulme and Peter Revson. Stewart won two races, at Mont Tremblant and Mid Ohio, and finished 3rd in the championship. The stress of racing year round and on several continents eventually caused medical problems for Stewart. He won the 1971 world championship despite suffering from mononucleosis and crossing the Atlantic Ocean 186 times due to media commitments in the United States. During the 1972 Grand Prix season he missed the Belgian Grand Prix at Nivelles due to gastritis, and had to cancel plans to drive a Can-Am McLaren, but won the Argentine, French, U.S. and Canadian Grands Prix, to come second to Emerson Fittipaldi in the drivers' standings. Stewart also competed in a Ford Capri RS2600 in the European Touring Car Championship, with F1 teammate François Cevert and other F1 pilots, at a time where the competition between Ford and BMW was at a height. Their best result was at the 6 Hours of Paul Ricard, finishing second. In 1972 Stewart also received the OBE. Entering the 1973 season, Stewart had decided to retire. He nevertheless won at South Africa, Belgium, Monaco and the Netherlands. His last and then record-setting 27th victory came at the Nürburgring with a 1–2 for Tyrrell. \"Nothing gave me more satisfaction than to win at the Nürburgring and yet I was always afraid.\" Stewart later said. \"When I left home for the German Grand Prix I always used to pause at the end of the driveway and take a long look back. I was never sure I'd come home again.\" After the fatal crash of his teammate François Cevert in practice for the 1973 United States Grand Prix at Watkins Glen, Stewart retired one race earlier than intended and missed what would have been his 100th Grand Prix. Stewart had already won the Drivers' Championship at the Italian Grand Prix two races previously; this was a race where Stewart had to come into the pits to change a flat tyre, and drove from 20th to finish 4th. Stewart held the record for most wins by a Formula One driver (27) for 14 years until Alain Prost won the 1987 Portuguese Grand Prix, and the record for most wins by a British Formula One driver for 19 years until Nigel Mansell won the 1992 British Grand Prix. In his commentary work for race broadcaster Channel 9 during qualifying for the 1988 Australian Grand Prix, Stewart said that he had been asked numerous times if he was unhappy about losing his record to Prost, going on to say that he was happy that his record had been taken by someone of the calibre of Prost, as he believed him to be the best driver in Formula One.", "At Spa-Francorchamps in 1966, Stewart ran off the track while driving at in heavy rain, and crashed into a telephone pole and a shed before coming to rest in a farmer's outbuilding. His steering column pinned his leg, while ruptured fuel tanks emptied their contents into the cockpit. There were no track crews to extricate him, nor were proper tools available. Stewart was rescued by fellow drivers Graham Hill and Bob Bondurant who had also crashed nearby. There were no doctors or medical facilities at the track, and Stewart was put in the bed of a pickup truck, remaining there until an ambulance arrived. He was first taken to the track's first aid centre, where he waited on a stretcher, which was placed on a floor strewn with cigarette ends and other rubbish. Finally, another ambulance crew picked him up, but the ambulance driver got lost driving to a hospital in Liège. Ultimately, a private jet flew Stewart back to the UK for treatment. After his crash at Spa, Stewart became an outspoken advocate for auto racing safety. Later, he explained, \"If I have any legacy to leave the sport I hope it will be seen to be an area of safety because when I arrived in Grand Prix racing so-called precautions and safety measures were diabolical.\" By Stewart's reckoning, a driver who raced for five years had a two-thirds chance of being killed in a crash. Stewart campaigned with Louis Stanley (BRM team boss) for improved emergency services and better safety barriers around race tracks. \"We were racing at circuits where there were no crash barriers in front of the pits, and fuel was lying about in churns in the pit lane. A car could easily crash into the pits at any time. It was ridiculous.\" As a stop-gap measure, Stewart hired a private doctor to be at all his races, and taped a spanner to the steering shaft of his BRM in case it would be needed again. Stewart pressed for mandatory seat belt usage and full-face helmets for drivers, which have become unthinkable omissions for modern races. Likewise, he pressed track owners to modernize their tracks, including organizing driver boycotts of races at Spa-Francorchamps in 1969, the Nürburgring in 1970 being joined by his close friend Jochen Rindt, and Zandvoort in 1972 until barriers, run-off areas, fire crews, and medical facilities were improved. Some drivers and press members believed the safety improvements for which Stewart advocated detracted from the sport, while track owners and race organizers balked at the extra costs. \"I would have been a much more popular World Champion if I had always said what people wanted to hear. I might have been dead, but definitely more popular.\", Stewart later said.", "Subsequently, he became a consultant for Ford Motor Company while continuing to be a spokesman for safer cars and circuits in Formula One.", "", "During the period 1971 to 1986, Stewart covered F1 races, NASCAR races and Indianapolis 500 as a color commentator, and also functioned as host for the latter. Jackie was a play-by-play announcer for the Luge at the 1976 Winter Olympics and the Equestrian at the 1976 Summer Olympics (partnered with Chris Schenkel) on \"ABC's Wide World of Sports\". He was noted for his insightful analysis, Scottish accent, and rapid delivery, which once caused Jim McKay to remark that Stewart spoke almost as fast as he drove. Later, Stewart covered CART IndyCar races starting at Long Beach in 1987 on NBC SportsWorld, along with Paul Page. He returned in 1988, along with Charlie Jones. Stewart only covered road course and street races in his brief time at NBC. He did not return in 1989 and was replaced by Johnny Rutherford and Tom Sneva.", "Stewart also worked on Australian and Canadian TV coverage, from late 1986 to the mid-1990s.", "In 1997 Stewart returned to Formula One, with Stewart Grand Prix, as a team owner in partnership with his son, Paul. The team was a development of the previous Paul Stewart Racing team that had previously competed in lower formulae. As the works Ford team, their first race was the 1997 Australian Grand Prix. The only success of their first year came at the rain-affected Monaco Grand Prix where Rubens Barrichello finished second. The following year, 1998, was less competitive, with no podiums and few points. However, after Ford acquired Cosworth in July 1998, the team risked designing and building a new engine for 1999. The SF3 was consistently competitive throughout the season. The team won one race at the European Grand Prix at the Nürburgring with Johnny Herbert, while Barrichello took three 3rd places, pole in France, and briefly led his home race at Interlagos. The team was later bought by Ford and became Jaguar Racing in 2000 (which subsequently became Red Bull Racing in 2005). Stewart is also the head sports consultant/ patron for the Royal Bank of Scotland. In March 2009, he waived his fee for the year in response to the bank losing £24bn in 2008.", "Stewart received \"Sports Illustrated\" magazine's 1973 \"Sportsman of the Year\" award, the only auto racer to have won the title. In the same year he also won BBC Television's \"Sports Personality of the Year\" award, and was named as ABC's Wide World of Sports Athlete of the Year, which he was shared with American pro football player O.J. Simpson. In 1990, he was inducted into the International Motorsports Hall of Fame. In 1996, he was awarded an honorary doctorate by Heriot-Watt University in Edinburgh. In 1998 Stewart received an honorary doctorate from Cranfield University where he later served as chairman of the steering committee for the MSc Motorsport Engineering and Management. He was a subject of the television programme \"This Is Your Life\" in January 1970 where he was surprised by Eamonn Andrews at Thames Television's Euston Road Studios. In the 1971 Birthday Honours Stewart was created an Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE). In 2001 he received a knighthood. In both cases the honour was for services to motor racing. In 2002 he became a founding patron of the Scottish Sports Hall of Fame and an inaugural inductee. In 2003 the World Forum on the Future of Sport Shooting Activities presented Stewart the Sport Shooting Ambassador Award. The Award goes to an outstanding individual whose efforts have promoted the shooting sports internationally. On 27 November 2008, Stewart was awarded an honorary Doctor of Science (D.Sc.) degree from the University of St Andrews. On 26 June 2009, Stewart was awarded the Freedom of West Dunbartonshire at a special ceremony in his hometown of Dumbarton. In 2010, Stewart was named as a founding member of \"Motor Sport\" magazine's Hall of Fame. On 28 January 2012, Stewart gave the starting command for the 50th Anniversary of the Rolex 24 at Daytona. He assumed the role after previously announced Grand Marshal A. J. Foyt was forced to cancel his visit due to complications from his recent knee surgery.", "Stewart appears in the 1966 John Frankenheimer movie \"Grand Prix\" doing all the driving scenes for actor Brian Bedford, who played Scott Stoddard, as Bedford did not know how to drive. Stewart anachronistically appeared in a cameo in a 1977 episode of \"Lupin III\" as a competitor in the 1977 Monaco Grand Prix and also once appeared on the UK motoring program \"Top Gear\" as a driving instructor for host James May. Stewart was the subject in the Roman Polanski-produced film \"Weekend of a Champion\", in which Polanski shadows him throughout a race weekend at the 1971 Monaco Grand Prix. George Harrison, a good friend of Stewart's, released a single, \"Faster\", in 1979 as a tribute to Stewart, Niki Lauda, Ronnie Peterson and fellow Formula One race car drivers. He is also interviewed in some depth in Martin Scorsese's documentary biography of Harrison, \"\". Stewart was featured in the video to the song \"Supreme\" by British singer, Robbie Williams. Stewart also wrote the foreword for the book \"The Centenary of the Car 1885–1985\" by Andrew Whyte in 1984. Stewart appeared in several UPS commercials in 2002 and 2003 as a consultant for Dale Jarrett to convince Jarrett to \"race the Big Brown truck\". He, along with his son Mark, appeared in a Vectrex commercial in the 1980s as a spokesman for the General Consumer Electronics (GCE) / Milton Bradley Vectrex home video game. Stewart also featured in a special presentation video of the then all new Ford Mondeo in 1993, the video was given away free on the front cover of \"What Car?\" magazine in 1993. 2018 saw the 50th anniversary of the relationship between Stewart and luxury watch brand Rolex. Stewart currently (2018) appears in US commercials for Heineken beer, in which he refuses an offered beer saying \"I'm still driving\" before driving away in a Jaguar F-Type.", "Stewart's helmet was white, with the red, green, blue, white and yellow Royal Stewart tartan surrounding the top.", "He married his childhood sweetheart Helen (née McGregor) in 1962, and they have two sons. Paul was a racing driver, and later ran Paul Stewart Racing with his father, selling it in 1999. Mark is a film and television producer. The couple currently live in the Buckinghamshire village of Ellesborough, on a 140-acre farm that was the hunting grounds of the nearby Prime Minister's country house, Chequers. Between 1969 and 1997 the couple lived in Begnins, near Lake Geneva in Switzerland (and later sold his house to Phil Collins). Stewart dictated his autobiography titled \"Winning Is Not Enough\", due to his dyslexia. In a 2009 interview, and in the book, he discusses his close relationship with his older brother Jimmy, who was also a successful racing driver in his youth but had a long struggle with alcoholism. Jimmy died in 2008. In 2018 he set up the charity Race Against Dementia. In 2016 his wife Lady Helen was diagnosed at the Mayo Clinic with frontotemporal dementia. As of 2018 Lady Helen has limited short-term memory and impaired mobility, and requires round-the-clock care support. Sir Jackie believes that the application of Formula1's technology and out of the box thinking could bring about earlier solutions to society coping with dementia." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Relationship with Annette Vallon.", "First publication and \"Lyrical Ballads\".", "\"The Borderers\".", "Germany and move to the Lake District.", "Marriage and children.", "Autobiographical work and \"Poems, in Two Volumes\".", "The Prospectus.", "Religious beliefs.", "Laureateship and other honours.", "Death.", "In popular culture.", "External links." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The second of five children born to John Wordsworth and Ann Cookson, William Wordsworth was born on 7 April 1770 in what is now named Wordsworth House in Cockermouth, Cumberland, part of the scenic region in northwestern England known as the Lake District. William's sister, the poet and diarist Dorothy Wordsworth, to whom he was close all his life, was born the following year, and the two were baptised together. They had three other siblings: Richard, the eldest, who became a lawyer; John, born after Dorothy, who went to sea and died in 1805 when the ship of which he was captain, the \"Earl of Abergavenny\", was wrecked off the south coast of England; and Christopher, the youngest, who entered the Church and rose to be Master of Trinity College, Cambridge. Wordsworth's father was a legal representative of James Lowther, 1st Earl of Lonsdale and, through his connections, lived in a large mansion in the small town. He was frequently away from home on business, so the young William and his siblings had little involvement with him and remained distant from him until his death in 1783. However, he did encourage William in his reading, and in particular set him to commit large portions of verse to memory, including works by Milton, Shakespeare and Spenser. William was also allowed to use his father's library. William also spent time at his mother's parents' house in Penrith, Cumberland, where he was exposed to the moors, but did not get along with his grandparents or his uncle, who also lived there. His hostile interactions with them distressed him to the point of contemplating suicide. Wordsworth was taught to read by his mother and attended, first, a tiny school of low quality in Cockermouth, then a school in Penrith for the children of upper-class families, where he was taught by Ann Birkett, who insisted on instilling in her students traditions that included pursuing both scholarly and local activities, especially the festivals around Easter, May Day and Shrove Tuesday. Wordsworth was taught both the Bible and the \"Spectator\", but little else. It was at the school in Penrith that he met the Hutchinsons, including Mary, who later became his wife. After the death of Wordsworth's mother, in 1778, his father sent him to Hawkshead Grammar School in Lancashire (now in Cumbria) and sent Dorothy to live with relatives in Yorkshire. She and William did not meet again for another nine years. Wordsworth made his debut as a writer in 1787 when he published a sonnet in \"The European Magazine\". That same year he began attending St John's College, Cambridge. He received his BA degree in 1791. He returned to Hawkshead for the first two summers of his time at Cambridge, and often spent later holidays on walking tours, visiting places famous for the beauty of their landscape. In 1790 he went on a walking tour of Europe, during which he toured the Alps extensively, and visited nearby areas of France, Switzerland, and Italy.", "In November 1791, Wordsworth visited Revolutionary France and became enchanted with the Republican movement. He fell in love with a French woman, Annette Vallon, who, in 1792, gave birth to their daughter Caroline. Financial problems and Britain's tense relations with France forced him to return to England alone the following year. The circumstances of his return and his subsequent behaviour raised doubts as to his declared wish to marry Annette. However, he supported her and his daughter as best he could in later life. The Reign of Terror left Wordsworth thoroughly disillusioned with the French Revolution and the outbreak of armed hostilities between Britain and France prevented him from seeing Annette and his daughter for some years. With the Peace of Amiens again allowing travel to France, in 1802 Wordsworth and his sister Dorothy visited Annette and Caroline in Calais. The purpose of the visit was to prepare Annette for the fact of his forthcoming marriage to Mary Hutchinson. Afterwards he wrote the sonnet \"It is a beauteous evening, calm and free\", recalling a seaside walk with the 9-year-old Caroline, whom he had never seen before that visit. Mary was anxious that Wordsworth should do more for Caroline. Upon Caroline's marriage, in 1816, Wordsworth settled £30 a year on her (equivalent to £2,313 as of 2019), payments which continued until 1835, when they were replaced by a capital settlement.", "The year 1793 saw the first publication of poems by Wordsworth, in the collections \"An Evening Walk\" and \"Descriptive Sketches\". In 1795 he received a legacy of £900 from Raisley Calvert and became able to pursue a career as a poet. It was also in 1795 that he met Samuel Taylor Coleridge in Somerset. The two poets quickly developed a close friendship. For two years from 1795, William and his sister Dorothy lived at Racedown House in Dorset—a property of the Pinney family—to the west of Pilsdon Pen. They walked in the area for about two hours every day, and the nearby hills consoled Dorothy as she pined for the fells of her native Lakeland. She wrote, \"We have hills which, seen from a distance almost take the character of mountains, some cultivated nearly to their summits, others in their wild state covered with furze and broom. These delight me the most as they remind me of our native wilds.\" In 1797, the pair moved to Alfoxton House, Somerset, just a few miles away from Coleridge's home in Nether Stowey. Together Wordsworth and Coleridge (with insights from Dorothy) produced \"Lyrical Ballads\" (1798), an important work in the English Romantic movement. The volume gave neither Wordsworth's nor Coleridge's name as author. One of Wordsworth's most famous poems, \"Tintern Abbey\", was published in this collection, along with Coleridge's \"The Rime of the Ancient Mariner\". The second edition, published in 1800, had only Wordsworth listed as the author, and included a preface to the poems. It was augmented significantly in the next edition, published in 1802. In this preface, which some scholars consider a central work of Romantic literary theory, Wordsworth discusses what he sees as the elements of a new type of verse, one that is based on the ordinary language \"really used by men\" while avoiding the poetic diction of much 18th-century verse. Wordsworth also gives his famous definition of poetry as \"the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings: it takes its origin from emotion recollected in tranquility\", and calls his own poems in the book \"experimental\". A fourth and final edition of \"Lyrical Ballads\" was published in 1805.", "Between 1795–1797, Wordsworth wrote his only play, \"The Borderers\", a verse tragedy set during the reign of King Henry III of England, when Englishmen in the North Country came into conflict with Scottish border reivers. He attempted to get the play staged in November 1797, but it was rejected by Thomas Harris, the manager of the Covent Garden Theatre, who proclaimed it \"impossible that the play should succeed in the representation\". The rebuff was not received lightly by Wordsworth and the play was not published until 1842, after substantial revision.", "Wordsworth, Dorothy and Coleridge travelled to Germany in the autumn of 1798. While Coleridge was intellectually stimulated by the journey, its main effect on Wordsworth was to produce homesickness. During the harsh winter of 1798–99 Wordsworth lived with Dorothy in Goslar, and, despite extreme stress and loneliness, began work on the autobiographical piece that was later titled \"The Prelude\". He wrote a number of other famous poems in Goslar, including \"The Lucy poems\". In the Autumn of 1799, Wordsworth and his sister returned to England and visited the Hutchinson family at Sockburn. When Coleridge arrived back in England he travelled to the North with their publisher Joseph Cottle to meet Wordsworth and undertake a proposed tour of the Lake District. This was the immediate cause of the brother and sister's settling at Dove Cottage in Grasmere in the Lake District, this time with another poet, Robert Southey, nearby. Wordsworth, Coleridge and Southey came to be known as the \"Lake Poets\". Throughout this period many of Wordsworth's poems revolved around themes of death, endurance, separation and grief.", "In 1802, Lowther's heir, William Lowther, 1st Earl of Lonsdale, paid the £4,000 owed to Wordsworth's father through Lowther's failure to pay his aide. It was this repayment that afforded Wordsworth the financial means to marry. On 4 October, following his visit with Dorothy to France to arrange matters with Annette, Wordsworth married his childhood friend Mary Hutchinson. Dorothy continued to live with the couple and grew close to Mary. The following year Mary gave birth to the first of five children, three of whom predeceased her and William:", "Wordsworth had for years been making plans to write a long philosophical poem in three parts, which he intended to call \"The Recluse\". In 1798–99 he started an autobiographical poem, which he referred to as the \"poem to Coleridge\" and which he planned would serve as an appendix to a larger work called \"The Recluse\". In 1804 he began expanding this autobiographical work, having decided to make it a prologue rather than an appendix. He completed this work, now generally referred to as the first version of \"The Prelude\", in 1805, but refused to publish such a personal work until he had completed the whole of \"The Recluse\". The death of his brother John, also in 1805, affected him strongly and may have influenced his decisions about these works. Wordsworth's philosophical allegiances as articulated in \"The Prelude\" and in such shorter works as \"Lines written a few miles above Tintern Abbey\" have been a source of critical debate. It was long supposed that Wordsworth relied chiefly on Coleridge for philosophical guidance, but more recently scholars have suggested that Wordsworth's ideas may have been formed years before he and Coleridge became friends in the mid-1790s. In particular, while he was in revolutionary Paris in 1792, the 22-year-old Wordsworth made the acquaintance of the mysterious traveller John \"Walking\" Stewart (1747–1822), who was nearing the end of his thirty years of wandering, on foot, from Madras, India, through Persia and Arabia, across Africa and Europe, and up through the fledgling United States. By the time of their association, Stewart had published an ambitious work of original materialist philosophy entitled \"The Apocalypse of Nature\" (London, 1791), to which many of Wordsworth's philosophical sentiments may well be indebted. In 1807 Wordsworth published \"Poems, in Two Volumes\", including \"\". Up to this point, Wordsworth was known only for \"Lyrical Ballads\", and he hoped that this new collection would cement his reputation. Its reception was lukewarm, however. In 1810, Wordsworth and Coleridge were estranged over the latter's opium addiction, and in 1812, his son Thomas died at the age of 6, six months after the death of 3-year-old Catherine. The following year he received an appointment as Distributor of Stamps for Westmorland, and the stipend of £400 a year made him financially secure, albeit at the cost of political independence. In 1813, he and his family, including Dorothy, moved to Rydal Mount, Ambleside (between Grasmere and Rydal Water), where he spent the rest of his life.", "In 1814 Wordsworth published \"The Excursion\" as the second part of the three-part work \"The Recluse\", even though he had not completed the first part or the third part, and never did. He did, however, write a poetic Prospectus to \"The Recluse\" in which he laid out the structure and intention of the whole work. The Prospectus contains some of Wordsworth's most famous lines on the relation between the human mind and nature: Some modern critics suggest that there was a decline in his work beginning around the mid-1810s, perhaps because most of the concerns that characterised his early poems (loss, death, endurance, separation and abandonment) had been resolved in his writings and his life. By 1820, he was enjoying considerable success accompanying a reversal in the contemporary critical opinion of his earlier works. Following the death of his friend the painter William Green in 1823, Wordsworth also mended his relations with Coleridge. The two were fully reconciled by 1828, when they toured the Rhineland together. Dorothy suffered from a severe illness in 1829 that rendered her an invalid for the remainder of her life. Coleridge and Charles Lamb both died in 1834, their loss being a difficult blow to Wordsworth. The following year saw the passing of James Hogg. Despite the death of many contemporaries, the popularity of his poetry ensured a steady stream of young friends and admirers to replace those he lost.", "Wordsworth's youthful political radicalism, unlike Coleridge's, never led him to rebel against his religious upbringing. He remarked in 1812 that he was willing to shed his blood for the established Church of England, reflected in his \"Ecclesiastical Sketches\" of 1822. This religious conservatism also colours \"The Excursion\" (1814), a long poem that became extremely popular during the nineteenth century; it features three central characters, the Wanderer; the Solitary, who has experienced the hopes and miseries of the French Revolution; and the Pastor, who dominates the last third of the poem.", "Wordsworth remained a formidable presence in his later years. In 1837, the Scottish poet and playwright Joanna Baillie reflected on her long acquaintance with Wordsworth. \"He looks like a man that one must not speak to unless one has some sensible thing to say. However he does occasionally converse cheerfully & well; and when one knows how benevolent & excellent he is, it disposes one to be very much pleased with him.\" In 1838, Wordsworth received an honorary doctorate in Civil Law from the University of Durham and the following year he was awarded the same honorary degree by the University of Oxford, when John Keble praised him as the \"poet of humanity\", praise greatly appreciated by Wordsworth. (It has been argued that Wordsworth was a great influence on Keble's immensely popular book of devotional poetry, \"The Christian Year\" (1827).) In 1842, the government awarded him a Civil List pension of £300 a year. Following the death of Robert Southey in 1843 Wordsworth became Poet Laureate. He initially refused the honour, saying that he was too old, but accepted when the Prime Minister, Robert Peel, assured him that \"you shall have nothing required of you\". Wordsworth thus became the only poet laureate to write no official verses. The sudden death of his daughter Dora in 1847 at age 42 was difficult for the aging poet to take and in his depression, he completely gave up writing new material.", "William Wordsworth died at home at Rydal Mount from an aggravated case of pleurisy on 23 April 1850, and was buried at St Oswald's Church, Grasmere. His widow, Mary, published his lengthy autobiographical \"Poem to Coleridge\" as \"The Prelude\" several months after his death. Though it failed to interest people at the time, it has since come to be widely recognised as his masterpiece.", "Wordsworth has appeared as a character in works of fiction, including: Isaac Asimov's 1966 novelization of the 1966 film \"Fantastic Voyage\" sees Dr. Peter Duval quoting Wordsworth's \"The Prelude\" as the miniaturized submarine sails through the cerebral fluid surrounding a human brain, comparing it to the \"strange seas of thought\".", "General information and biographical sketches Books Wordsworth's works" ] }

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{ "title": [ "City name.", "History.", "Partitions of Poland.", "World War One.", "Second Polish Republic.", "World War Two.", "Modern day.", "Climate.", "Economy.", "Tourism.", "Prominent tourist destinations.", "Transport.", "Culture.", "Museums.", "Music.", "Theatre.", "Festivals.", "Cinemas.", "Education.", "Sports.", "Administration.", "Politics.", "Local government.", "Religion and places of worship.", "Twin towns – sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The name of Częstochowa means \"Częstoch's place\" and comes from a personal name of Częstoch mentioned in the medieval documents also as \"Częstobor\" and \"Częstomir\". Variations of the name include \"Czanstochowa\" used in 1220, and Częstochow used in 1382 and 1558. A part of today's city called Częstochówka was a separate municipality mentioned in the 14th century as the Old Częstochowa (\"Antiquo Czanstochowa\", 1382) and \"Częstochówka\" in 1470–80. The city was also known in German as \"Tschenstochau\" and in Russian as \"Ченстохов\" (\"Chenstokhov\").", "According to archaeological findings, the first Slavic settlement in the location of Częstochowa was established in the late 11th century. It was first mentioned in historical documents from 1220, when Bishop of Kraków Iwo Odrowąż made a list of properties of the Mstów monastery. Two villages, Częstochowa and Częstochówka were mentioned in the document. Both of them belonged to the basic territorial unit of Slavic tribes (\"opole\"), with its capital at Mstów. Częstochówka was located on a hill on which the Jasna Góra Monastery was later built. In the late 13th century Częstochowa became the seat of a Roman Catholic parish church, which was subjected to the Lelów deanery. The village was located in the northwestern corner of \"Kraków Land\", Lesser Poland, near the Royal Castle at Olsztyn. Częstochowa lay along a busy merchant road from Lesser Poland to Greater Poland. The village was ruled by a starosta, who stayed at the Olsztyn Castle. It is not known when Częstochowa was granted town charter, as no documents have been preserved. It happened sometime between 1356–1377. In 1502, King Alexander Jagiellon granted a new charter, based on Magdeburg rights to Częstochowa. In 1382 the Paulist monastery of Jasna Góra was founded by Vladislaus II of Opole – the Polish Piast prince of Upper Silesia. Two years later the monastery received its famous Black Madonna icon of the Virgin Mary and in subsequent years became a centre of pilgrimage, contributing to the growth of the adjacent town. Częstochowa prospered in the late 15th and early 16th centuries, due to efforts of Sigismund I the Old, the future king of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. At that time, Sigismund ruled the Duchy of Głogów, and frequently visited Częstochowa on his way to the Duchies of Silesia (1498, 1502, 1502, 1503, 1505, 1505, 1506). In 1504, Częstochowa was granted the right to collect tolls on the Warta (Latin: Varta) river bridge. In 1508, Częstochowa was allowed to organise one fair a year; in 1564, the number of fairs was increased to three annually, and in 1639 to six. In the year 1631, Częstochowa had 399 houses, but at the same time, several residents died in a plague, after which 78 houses were abandoned. In the first half of the 17th century, kings of the House of Vasa turned the Jasna Góra Monastery into a modern Dutch-style fortress, which was one of the pockets of Polish resistance against the Swedish armies during Swedish invasion of Poland in 1655 (for more information, see Siege of Jasna Góra). The town of Częstochowa itself was almost completely destroyed by Swedish soldiers. It has been estimated that the town lost 50% of the population, and 60% of houses. Nevertheless, the destruction was less severe than at other towns in the area (Przyrów, Olsztyn and Mstów). It took several years for Częstochowa to recover from extensive losses. As late as in the 1680s there still were ruined houses in the town. At the same time, the Jasna Góra Monastery prospered. On February 27, 1670, the wedding of the king Michał Korybut Wiśniowiecki with princess Eleanor of Austria took place here. Furthermore, in 1682 the celebration of 300 anniversary of the Black Madonna of Częstochowa brought thousands of pilgrims from both Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Silesia. The Jewish community in Częstochowa came into existence by about 1700. During the Great Northern War, Częstochowa was captured by Swedish army on August 11, 1702. In February 1703 Swedes besieged the monastery, but failed to seize it. In April 1705 the Swedes returned, and appeared at the monastery again in September 1709. Unable to capture the fortified stronghold, they looted villages in the area, set Częstochowa on fire and left towards Wieluń. At that time, a village of Częstochówk also existed next to Częstochowa. The village belonged to the monastery and quickly developed. In 1717 it was granted town charter, and its name was changed into \"Nowa Częstochowa\" (\"New Częstochowa\"). The town was completely destroyed during the Bar Confederation. On February 8, 1769, the monastery was seized by rebels of the Bar Confederation, commanded by Kazimierz Pułaski. Soon the stronghold was besieged by Russians under German-born General Johann von Drewitz. The Russians gave up on January 15, 1771. In 1789, the population of Częstochowa (also called \"Stara Częstochowa\", \"Old Częstochowa\") was app. 1,600, which was less than in the 15th century. After the Sejm passed the Constitution of May 3, 1791, local Sejmiks were obliged to legitimize it. On February 14–15, 1792, a sejmik of the szlachta of northern part of Kraków Voivodeship (counties of Lelów and Książ Wielki) took place in Częstochowa. Traditionally, local sejmiks were organized in Żarnowiec; the fact that it was moved to Częstochowa confirms the growing importance of the town. In 1760, Jacob Frank, the leader of a Jewish sect mixing Kabbalah, Catholicism and Islam, was imprisoned for heresy in the monastery by the church. His followers established near him, later establishing a cult of his daughter Eve Frank. In August 1772, Frank was released by the Russian general Bibikov, who had taken occupation of the city, promising the Russians that he would convince Jews to convert to Orthodox Christianity.", "During the Partitions of Poland, Częstochowa was seized by the Kingdom of Prussia in 1793, and incorporated into the province of South Prussia, Department of Kalisz (Kalisch). The Old Częstochowa became the seat of a county (see Districts of Prussia). During the Napoleonic Wars, in 1807 Częstochowa became part of the Duchy of Warsaw, and in 1815, Russian-controlled Congress Poland, in which it remained until World War One. Old Częstochowa remained the seat of a county in 1807–1830. In 1809, the monastery was unsuccessfully besieged by Austrians (see Polish–Austrian War). On April 2, 1813, Jasna Góra was seized by the Russians (see War of the Sixth Coalition), after a two-week siege. In 1821, the government of Congress Poland carried out a census, according to which the population of New Częstochowa was 1,036, while the population of Old Częstochowa was 2,758. Furthermore, almost four hundred people lived in several settlements in the area (\"Zawodzie, Stradom, Kucelin\"). The idea of a merger of both towns was first brought up in 1815. In 1819, military architect Jan Bernhard planned and started the construction of \"Aleja Najświętszej Panny Marii\"—the \"Holy Virgin Mary Avenue\", which is currently the main arterial road of the modern city, and which connected Old Częstochowa with New Częstochowa. Finally, both towns were officially merged on August 19, 1826. The new city quickly emerged as the fourth-largest urban centres of Congress Poland; larger were only the cities of Warsaw, Lublin, and Kalisz. On September 8, 1862, a patriotic rally took place in the city, in front of St. Sigismund church. As a reprisal, Russian military authorities destroyed app. 65% of Częstochowa's Old Town, and martial law was introduced. During the January Uprising, several skirmishes took place in the area of Częstochowa, with the last one taking place on July 4, 1864 near Chorzenice. In 1846 the Warsaw-Vienna Railway line was opened, linking the city with the rest of Europe. After 1870 iron ore started to be developed in the area, which gave a boost to the local industry. Among the most notable investments of the epoch was the Huta Częstochowa steel mill built by Bernard Hantke, as well as several weaveries and paper factories. Up to the Second World War, like many other cities in Europe, Częstochowa had a significant Jewish population: according to Russian census of 1897, out of the total population of 45,130, Jews constituted 12,000 (so around 26% percent). An anti-Semitic pogrom occurred in 1902, Częstochowa pogrom (1902). A mob attacked the Jewish shops, killing fourteen Jews and one gendarme. Częstochowa entered the 20th century as one of the leading industrial centres of Russian Poland (together with Warsaw, Łódź, and Zagłębie Dąbrowskie). The city was conveniently located on the Warta and other smaller rivers (\"Kucelinka, Stradomka, Konopka\"). Real estate and land prices were low, compared to Łódź, and the existence of the monastery brought numerous pilgrims, who also were customers of local businesses. In 1904, Częstochowa had 678 smaller workshops, which employed 2,000 workers. In 1902, rail connection to the Prussian border crossing at Herby Stare was opened, and in 1911, the line to Kielce was completed. The Revolution in the Kingdom of Poland (1905–1907) began in Częstochowa as early as May 1904, when first patriotic rallies took place. On December 25, 1904, a man named Wincenty Makowski tried to blow up a monument of Tsar Alexander II, which stood in front of the monastery. In February 1905, general strike action was declared in the city, with workers demanding pay rises. In June 1905 street clashes took place in Częstochowa, in which 20 people were killed by Russian forces. Further protests took place in 1909 and 1912.", "In early August 1914, Częstochowa was abandoned by the Imperial Russian Army, and first units of the German Army entered the city on August 3. Four days later drunken German soldiers shot at each other; unknown number died. Residents of the city were accused of killing Germans, and as a punishment, a number of civilians were executed. During the German occupation (1914–1918), Częstochowa was cut off from its traditional Russian markets, which resulted in widespread poverty and unemployment. Furthermore, German authorities closed down several plants, urging unemployed workers to migrate to Upper Silesia, where they replaced men drafted into the army. Altogether, some 20,000 left for Upper Silesia and other provinces of the German Empire. On February 2, 1915, Częstochowa was visited by Charles I of Austria. Four days later Emperor Wilhelm II came to the city, and on May 17, 1915, Częstochowa hosted King of Saxony Frederick Augustus III. Unlike the city of Częstochowa, the Jasna Góra Monastery was since April 26, 1915, under control of Austria-Hungary, after the personal intervention of Emperor Franz Joseph I, who was a pious Roman Catholic. The monastery was manned by soldiers under Austrian Army Captain Josef Klettinger and remained under Austrian control until November 4, 1918. In October 1917, the City Council of Częstochowa demanded permission to destroy the monument to Tsar Alexander II, to which General Governor of Warsaw Hans Hartwig von Beseler agreed. Polish authorities established control over the entire city on November 11, 1918.", "On November 12, 1918, three companies of the freshly created Polish Army marched along the Holy Virgin Mary Avenue. In 1919–1921, Częstochowa was one of centres of support of Silesian Poles fighting in the Silesian Uprisings. On December 4, 1920, Symon Petliura together with app. 2,000 Ukrainian soldiers. Their arrival spurred widespread protests, as the city, in which food situation was desperate, was obliged to house and feed the Ukrainians. In the Second Polish Republic, Częstochowa belonged to Kielce Voivodeship (Kieleckie), where since 1928 it constituted \"City County of Częstochowa\". In the 1920s, the local industry still suffered from World War One losses, and cutting off from Russian markets. Unemployment remained high, and thousands of workers left for France in search of jobs. The Great Depression was particularly difficult, with strikes and street clashes with the police. In 1925, the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Częstochowa was created. The city grew in size, when between 1928 and 1934, several local settlements and villages were annexed. In 1939, the population of Częstochowa was 138,000, which made it the 8th largest city of Poland. In 1938, the Polish government announced plans to liquidate Kielce Voivodeship, and create Sandomierz Voivodeship (Sandomierskie), based on Central Industrial Area. According to these plans, Częstochowa was to be transferred either to Łódź Voivodeship (Łódzkie), or Silesian Voivodeship (Ślaskie), together with Zagłębie Dąbrowskie.", "In the Polish Defensive War of 1939, Częstochowa was defended by the 7th Infantry Division, part of northern wing of Kraków Army. After the Battle of Mokra and other battles, Polish forces withdrew, and the Wehrmacht entered the city on Sunday, September 3, 1939. Częstochowa was renamed into \"Tschenstochau\", and incorporated into the General Government. Monday, September 4, 1939, became known as \"Bloody Monday\" or also \"Częstochowa massacre\", when 227 people (205 ethnic Poles and 22 Jews) were killed by the Germans (some estimates of victims put the number at more than 1,000; 990 ethnic Poles and 110 Jews). German occupiers from the very beginning initiated a plan of cultural and physical extermination of the Polish nation. Częstochowa was a city-county (\"Stadkreis Tschenstochau\"), part of the \"Radom District\" of the General Government. The city was located near the border with Upper Silesia Province, and in its area operated units of the Home Army and National Armed Forces (\"NSZ\"). On April 20, 1943, a \"NZS\" unit attacked the local office of the Bank Emisyjny w Polsce. After the collapse of the Warsaw Uprising, Częstochowa briefly was the capital of the Polish Underground State. In the autumn 1944, Germans fortified the city, preparing for a lengthy defence. On January 16, 1945, however, the Wehrmacht retreated after just one day of fighting. On April 9, 1941, a ghetto for Jews was created. During World War II approximately 45,000 of Częstochowa's Jews, almost the entire Jewish community living here, were killed by the Germans. Life in Nazi-occupied Częstochowa is depicted in the Pulitzer Prize-winning graphic novel \"Maus\", by Art Spiegelman, the son of a Jewish Częstochowa resident. Before the Holocaust, Częstochowa was considered a great Jewish centre in Poland. By the end of WWII, nearly all Jews had been killed or deported to be killed, making Częstochowa what the Nazis called Judenfrei.", "Due to the communist idea of fast industrialisation, the inefficient steel mill was significantly expanded and named after Bolesław Bierut. This, combined with the growing tourist movement, led to yet another period of fast city growth, concluded in 1975 with the creation of a separate Częstochowa Voivodeship (Częstochowskie). In the immediate post-war period, Częstochowa belonged to Kielce Voivodeship (1945–1950), and then the city was transferred to Katowice Voivodeship (Katowickie). In the People's Republic of Poland, Częstochowa emerged not only as an industrial, but also academic centre of the region. The city expanded, with first tram lines opened in 1959. On January 1, 1977, several villages and settlements were annexed by Częstochowa. As a result, the area of the city expanded from. In modern times, Pope John Paul II, a native son of Poland, prayed before the Madonna during his historic visit in 1979, several months after his election to the Chair of Peter. The Pope made another visit to Our Lady of Częstochowa in 1983 and again in 1987, 1991, 1997 and 1999. On August 15, 1991, John Paul II was named Honorary Citizen of Częstochowa. On May 26, 2006, the city was visited by Pope Benedict XVI.", "It can be said that the climate is humid continental (Köppen: \"Dfb\"), but still with some oceanic characteristics (\"Cfb\"), especially in recent normals. Częstochowa is in one of the hottest summer regions in Poland, although its winters are not the most rigorous, they are colder than the more moderate climates of the west and the Baltic Sea. On average, four hours a day with direct solar radiation. In the course of the year, the best insolation is observed in June, due to the greatest length of the day. There are few windless days in Częstochowa. Lull periods on an annual scale account for an average of 9.2%. Western winds prevail here - 18% and south-west - 18.2%. At the same time, they achieve the highest speeds from these directions - 2.2 m/s. The northern winds are least common - 7.7% and north-eastern winds - 7.4%.", "There are about 26,000 companies registered in Częstochowa. They are represented by the Regional Chamber of Commerce and Industry in Częstochowa. The investment areas form part of the Katowice Special Economic Zone. The main initiator of activities pertaining to the economic development and investments is the Agency of Regional Development. In 2007, in areas surrounding the ISD Częstochowa Steelworks, the Częstochowa Industry Park was established. In 2011, three industry clusters were established – The Cluster of Polymers Manufacturing \"Plastosfera\", Częstochowa Communal Cluster \"Aglomeracja\" and the Regional Cluster of Building Industry and Infrastructure \"Budosfera\". Industry Częstochowa is the main city in the Częstochowa Industrial District, which is the third biggest in the Silesian Voivodship. Since the medieval times, the metal industry has been developing, thanks to the iron ore deposits. The main factories in the city include: Trade and commerce In Częstochowa, there is the Jurajska Shopping Mall, which was opened in 2009. It has 200 shops, service and catering outlets and a Cinema City multiplex. It provides clients with a multi-storey car park with 2000 parking spaces. Additionally, there are hypermarkets - M1 Shopping Centre and Auchan Northern Częstochowa (previously Real, opened in 1997), Tesco (opened in 1999) and Auchan Częstochowa Poczesna (opened in 2001).", "Currently, the city is one of the main tourist attractions of the area and is sometimes called the \"little Nuremberg\" because of the number of souvenir shops. It attracts millions (4.5 mln – 2005) of tourists and pilgrims every year. The Black Madonna of Częstochowa, housed at the Jasna Góra Monastery, is a particularly popular attraction. Throughout the centuries, many buildings have been erected, most of them now have the status of tourist attractions and historical monuments since Częstochowa was established already in the Middle Ages. Among those attractions are old townhouses and the urban core of the city centre. The most popular with religious tourism as mentioned above is the Jasna Góra Monastery.", "The main representative artery in the city centre is the Najświętszej Maryi Panny Avenue (The Holy Virgin Mary Avenue). It was first built in the beginning of the 19th century, as a road linking Częstochowa with New Częstochowa, cities which were administratively merged in 1826. The most characteristic feature of the avenue is its layout, whereby the lanes are separated by the pedestrianised boulevard. During the pilgrimage period, the Avenues are used by pilgrims heading for Jasna Góra Monastery. The avenues are 1.5 km long and 44 m wide; primarily they perform trade, service, financial and cultural functions. The housing consists mostly of classicist, late-classicist houses, rarely eclectic. More modern buildings can also be noticed. The most interesting townhouses include:", "Main road connections from Częstochowa include a connection with Warsaw (to the north-east) and Katowice (to the south) via the European route E75 (Motorway ). There are also three other national roads: to Wieluń, to Opole and to Piotrków Trybunalski. Furthermore, Częstochowa is a major railroad hub, located at the intersection of two important lines - west-east (from Lubliniec to Kielce) and north-south (from Warsaw to Katowice). Also, an additional northbound line stems from Częstochowa, which goes to Chorzew Siemkowice, where it joins the Polish Coal Trunk-Line. There are six railway stations in the city, the biggest ones being \"Częstochowa Osobowa\" and \"Częstochowa Stradom\". The city has direct connections to many Polish cities as Warsaw, Cracow, Katowice, Wrocław and Szczecin, proteza koniecpolska makes some of the connections more comfortable. The public transport is managed by the Częstochowa City Council of Roads and Transport. The public transport carriage is contracted to the City Public Transport Corporation (Miejskie Przedsiębiorstwo Komunikacyjne). The public transport in Częstochowa comprises 3 tram lines, 30 city bus lines and 8 suburban lines connecting Częstochowa with Blachownia, Mstów, Konopiska, Poczesna, Olsztyn. The bus transport connecting Częstochowa Bus Station with other towns and villages in the Częstochowa region is operated by the Częstochowa Bus Transport Ltd. (PKS Częstochowa). The closest airport is the Katowice International Airport, which is located from Częstochowa, and a small Częstochowa - Rudniki airport in Kościelec, Rędziny.", "", "In Częstochowa on top of the Jasna Góra Monastery serving the museum and exhibition functions, other similar institutions include:", "The Bronisław Huberman Philharmonic of Częstochowa is located in the city centre on Wilson Street, in the building erected between 1955 and 1965 on foundations of New Synagogue, which had been burnt down on 25 December 1939. The Philharmonic has at its disposal two concert halls and one rehearsal hall. The large concert hall can accommodate 825 people, whilst the small hall has 156 seats. The concert hall of the Philharmonic of Częstochowa is a place where concerts of symphonic orchestra take place. The building itself is younger than the history of symphonic concerts in Częstochowa, as the first concert took place in March 1945. The mixed choir has been functioning since the Philharmonic was set up. The choir was professionalized in September 2012 and it was named The Częstochowa Philharmonic Choir \"Collegium Cantorum\". The Philharmonic is also a co-organiser and a co-performer of operas, operettas and ballets. It is also a place where various exhibitions take place. The Philharmonic annually organises Bronisław Huberman International Violin Festival, Reszek Vocal Competition, Festival of Traditional Jazz \"Hot Jazz Spring\". The Philharmonic also engages in organising the \"Night of Culture\", the International Festival of Sacral Music \"Gaude Mater\" and the Bach Family Music Festival. Music education is also an important part of the Philharmonic's activity. Its educational functions are carried out through a series of concerts such as \"Music for children\", \"FEEL harmony - feel the climate!\" and \"Sunday Mornings with Philharmonic\". In 2010, the building of The Philharmonic of Cżęstochowa was refurbished through the financial support from the European Fund of Regional Development. In Częstochowa, there are many functioning female, male and mixed choirs. The oldest is the Male Choir \"Pochodnia\" (Torch). Others include the Academic Choir of the Częstochowa University of Technology, the Jasna Góra Vocal Ensemble \"Camerata\" and the Archcathedral Choir of the Holy Family \"Basilica Cantans\".", "Adam Mickiewicz Theatre is located on Kiliński Street in the city centre. The building was erected between 1928 and 1931. Between 1979 and 1984 it was refurbished. The theatre has three halls: Big, Small, Histrion and Marek Perepeczko Foyer. The Theatre organises \"Festival of Important Plays - Through Touch\", \"Festival of High School Theatres\" and \"Children's Land of Sensitivity\". It also takes part in annually organised \"Night of Culture\".", "The Centre for the Promotion of Culture 'Gaude Mater' is a cultural institution established in 1991. It is the organiser of various cultural events in Częstochowa, such as:", "In Częstochowa, there are three cinemas. Two are part of chain of cinemas Cinema City Poland: Cinema City \"Wolność\" (Freedom), which has 1766 seats, and Cinema City Galeria Jurajska, opened in 2009. There is also an independent cinema, Ośrodek Kultury Filmowej (Centre of Cinematography), established in 1991.", "Some of the tertiary educational institutions in Częstochowa include:", "The most popular sports in Częstochowa are speedway, volleyball and football. The following teams represent Częstochowa on a national level:", "Częstochowa is a city with powiat rights. Residents of Częstochowa elect 28 city councillors. The executive branch of local government is a city mayor. The city hall is located in Śląska Street 11/13. The city is divided into 20 neighborhoods. The residents of each neighborhood elect Neighborhood Council members. The neighborhoods of Częstochowa include: Błeszno, Częstochówka-Parkitka, Dźbów, Gnaszyn-Kawodrza, Grabówka, Kiedrzyn, Lisiniec, Mirów, Ostatni Grosz, Podjasnogórska, Północ, Raków, Stare Miasto, Stradom, Śródmieście, Trzech Wieszczów, Tysiąclecie, Wrzosowiak, Wyczerpy-Aniołów, and Zawodzie-Dąbie.", "", "The current Mayor of Częstochowa is Krzysztof Matyjaszczyk, a member of Democratic Left Alliance. In the Częstochowa 2018 mayoral elections the results were as follows: Krzysztof Matyjaszczyk (Democratic Left Alliance) 59.76%, Artur Warzocha (Law and Justice) 25.54%, Marcin Maranda (Residents of Częstochowa) 6.17%, Tomasz Jaskóła (Kukiz'15) 5.27%, Jacek Krawczyk (Civic Coalition) 2.83%, Martin Saczek (Razem) 0.43%. In the Częstochowa City Council Elections 2018 the results were as follows. Seats in the city council: Left Democratic Alliance (32.80%) 12, Law and Justice (26.04%) 10, Civic Coalition (15.98%) 5, Together for Częstochowa (Independents) (8.77%) 1. After elections in Częstochowa was formed a centre-left coalition between liberal and pro-market Civic Coalition and social democratic Left Democratic Alliance. Conservative Law and Justice remained in opposition. There are also published cultural quarterlies such as: Aleje 3, Bulion; a monthly Puls Regionu and an annual – Ziemia Częstochowska", "In addition to the Roman Catholic Church and Polish Orthodox Church, various denominations are present in Częstochowa, including Evangelical Church of the Augsburg Confession in Poland, Baptist Union of Poland, Jehovah Witnesses, Pentecostal Church, Plymouth Brethren, Seventh-day Adventist Church, and Polish Catholic Church. Częstochowa is the Seat of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Częstochowa, as well as Holy Family Archdiocese Cathedral in Częstochowa, and the Jasna Góra Monastery along with 50 Catholic Parish Churches.", "Częstochowa is twinned with:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and education.", "Pantisocracy and marriage.", "Cambridge and Somerset.", "The West Midlands and the North.", "Later life and increasing drug use.", "Travel and \"The Friend\".", "London: final years and death.", "Remains.", "Poetry.", "\"The Rime of the Ancient Mariner\", \"Christabel\", and \"Kubla Khan\".", "The Conversation poems.", "Literary criticism.", "\"Biographia Literaria\".", "Coleridge and the influence of the Gothic.", "Religious beliefs.", "Theological legacy.", "Political thinking.", "Collected works." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Coleridge was born on 21 October 1772 in the town of Ottery St Mary in Devon, England. Samuel's father was the Reverend John Coleridge (1718–1781), the well-respected vicar of St Mary's Church, Ottery St Mary and was headmaster of the King's School, a free grammar school established by King Henry VIII (1509–1547) in the town. He had previously been master of Hugh Squier's School in South Molton, Devon, and lecturer of nearby Molland. John Coleridge had three children by his first wife. Samuel was the youngest of ten by the Reverend Mr. Coleridge's second wife, Anne Bowden (1726–1809), probably the daughter of John Bowden, Mayor of South Molton, Devon, in 1726. Coleridge suggests that he \"took no pleasure in boyish sports\" but instead read \"incessantly\" and played by himself. After John Coleridge died in 1781, 8-year-old Samuel was sent to Christ's Hospital, a charity school which was founded in the 16th century in Greyfriars, London, where he remained throughout his childhood, studying and writing poetry. At that school Coleridge became friends with Charles Lamb, a schoolmate, and studied the works of Virgil and William Lisle Bowles. In one of a series of autobiographical letters written to Thomas Poole, Coleridge wrote: \"At six years old I remember to have read \"Belisarius\", \"Robinson Crusoe\", and \"Philip Quarll\" – and then I found the \"Arabian Nights' Entertainments\" – one tale of which (the tale of a man who was compelled to seek for a pure virgin) made so deep an impression on me (I had read it in the evening while my mother was mending stockings) that I was haunted by spectres whenever I was in the dark – and I distinctly remember the anxious and fearful eagerness with which I used to watch the window in which the books lay – and whenever the sun lay upon them, I would seize it, carry it", "", "At Jesus College, Coleridge was introduced to political and theological ideas then considered radical, including those of the poet Robert Southey with whom he collaborated on the play \"The Fall of Robespierre\". Coleridge joined Southey in a plan, later abandoned, to found a utopian commune-like society, called Pantisocracy, in the wilderness of Pennsylvania. In 1795, the two friends married sisters Sara and Edith Fricker, in St Mary Redcliffe, Bristol, but Coleridge's marriage with Sara proved unhappy. He grew to detest his wife, whom he married mainly because of social constraints. Following the birth of their fourth child, he eventually separated from her. A third sister, Mary, had already married", "Coleridge also worked briefly in Shropshire, where he came in December 1797 as locum to its local Unitarian minister, Dr Rowe, in their church in the High Street at Shrewsbury. He is said to have read his \"Rime of the Ancient Mariner\" at a literary evening in Mardol. He was then contemplating a career in the ministry, and gave a probationary sermon in High Street church on Sunday, 14 January 1798. William Hazlitt, a Unitarian minister's son, was in the congregation, having walked from Wem to hear him. Coleridge later visited Hazlitt and his father at Wem but within a day or two of preaching he received a letter from Josiah Wedgwood II, who had offered to help him", "", "In 1804, he travelled to Sicily and Malta, working for a time as Acting Public Secretary of Malta under the Civil Commissioner, Alexander Ball, a task he performed quite successfully. He lived in San Anton Palace in the village of Attard. He gave this up and returned to England in 1806. Dorothy Wordsworth was shocked at his condition upon his return. From 1807 to 1808, Coleridge returned to Malta and then travelled in Sicily and Italy, in the hope that leaving Britain's damp climate would improve his health and thus enable him to reduce his consumption of opium. Thomas De Quincey alleges in his \"Recollections of the Lakes and the Lake Poets\" that it was during this period that Coleridge became a full-blown opium addict, using the drug as a substitute for the lost vigour and creativity of his youth. It has been suggested that this reflects De Quincey's own experiences more than Coleridge's. His opium addiction (he was using as much as two quarts of laudanum a week) now began to take", "Between 1810 and 1820, Coleridge gave a series of lectures in London and Bristol – those on Shakespeare renewed interest in the playwright as a model for contemporary writers. Much of Coleridge's reputation as a literary critic is founded on the lectures that he undertook in the winter of 1810–11, which were sponsored by the Philosophical Institution and given at Scot's Corporation Hall off Fetter Lane, Fleet Street. These lectures were heralded in the prospectus as \"A Course of Lectures on Shakespeare and Milton, in Illustration of the Principles of Poetry.\" Coleridge's ill-health, opium-addiction problems, and somewhat unstable personality meant that all his lectures were plagued with problems of delays and a general irregularity of quality from one lecture to the next. As a result of these factors, Coleridge often failed to prepare anything but the loosest set of notes for his lectures and regularly entered into extremely long digressions which his audiences found difficult to follow. However, it was the lecture on \"Hamlet\" given on 2 January", "Coleridge is buried in the aisle of St. Michael's Parish Church in Highgate, London. He was originally buried at Old Highgate Chapel but was re-interred in St. Michael's in 1961. Coleridge could see the red door of the then new church from his last residence across the green, where he lived with a doctor he had hoped might cure him (in a house owned today by Kate Moss). When it was discovered Coleridge's vault had become derelict, the coffins – Coleridge's and those of his wife, daughter, son-in-law,", "Coleridge is one of the most important figures in English poetry. His poems directly and deeply influenced all the major poets of the age. He was known by his contemporaries as a meticulous craftsman who was more rigorous in his careful reworking of his poems than any other poet, and Southey and Wordsworth were dependent on his professional advice. His influence on Wordsworth is particularly important because many critics have credited Coleridge with the very idea of \"Conversational Poetry\". The idea of utilising common, everyday language to express profound poetic images and ideas for which Wordsworth became so famous may have originated almost entirely in Coleridge’s mind. It is difficult to imagine Wordsworth’s great poems, \"The Excursion\" or \"The Prelude\", ever having been written without the direct influence of Coleridge’s originality. As important as Coleridge was to poetry as a poet, he was equally important to poetry as a critic. His philosophy of poetry, which he developed over many years, has been deeply influential in the field of literary criticism. This influence can be seen in such critics as A. O. Lovejoy and I. A. Richards.", "Coleridge is arguably best known for his longer poems, particuarly \"The Rime of the Ancient Mariner\" and \"Christabel\". Even those who have never read the \"Rime\" have come under its influence: its words have given the English language the metaphor of an albatross around one's neck, the quotation of \"water, water everywhere, nor any drop to drink\" (almost always rendered as \"but not a drop to drink\"), and the phrase \"a sadder and a", "The eight of Coleridge's poems listed above are now often discussed as a group entitled \"Conversation poems\". The term itself was coined in 1928 by George McLean Harper, who borrowed the subtitle of \"The Nightingale: A Conversation Poem\" (1798) to describe the seven other poems as well. The poems are considered by many critics to be among Coleridge's finest verses; thus Harold Bloom has written, \"With \"Dejection\", \"The Ancient Mariner\", and \"Kubla Khan\", \"Frost at Midnight\" shows Coleridge at his most impressive.\"", "", "In addition to his poetry, Coleridge also wrote influential pieces of literary criticism including \"Biographia Literaria\", a collection of his thoughts and opinions on literature which he published in 1817. The work delivered both biographical explanations of the author's life as well as his impressions on literature. The collection also contained an analysis of a broad range of philosophical principles of literature ranging from Aristotle to Immanuel Kant and Schelling and applied them to the poetry of peers such as William Wordsworth. Coleridge's explanation of metaphysical principles were popular topics of discourse in academic communities throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, and T.S. Eliot stated that he believed that Coleridge was \"perhaps the greatest of English critics, and in a sense the last.\" Eliot suggests that Coleridge displayed \"natural abilities\" far greater than his contemporaries, dissecting literature and applying philosophical principles of metaphysics in a way that brought the subject of his criticisms away from the text and into a world of logical analysis that mixed logical analysis and emotion. However, Eliot also criticises Coleridge for allowing his emotion to play a role in", "Coleridge wrote reviews of Ann Radcliffe's books and \"The Mad Monk\", among others. He comments in his reviews: \"Situations of torment, and images of naked horror, are easily conceived; and a writer in whose works they abound, deserves our gratitude almost equally with him who should drag us by way of sport through a military hospital, or force us to sit at the dissecting-table of a natural philosopher. To trace the nice boundaries, beyond which terror and sympathy are deserted by the pleasurable emotions, – to reach those limits, yet never to pass them, hic labor, hic opus est.\" and \"The horrible and the preternatural have usually seized on the popular taste, at the rise and decline of literature. Most powerful stimulants, they can never be required except by the torpor of an unawakened, or the languor of an exhausted, appetite... We trust,", "Although his father was an Anglican vicar, Coleridge worked as a Unitarian preacher between 1796 and 1797. He eventually returned to the Church of England in 1814. His most noteworthy writings on religion are \"Lay Sermons\" (1817), \"Aids to Reflection\" (1825) and \"The Constitution of Church and State\" (1830).", "Despite being mostly remembered today for his poetry and literary criticism, Coleridge was also (perhaps in his own eyes primarily) a theologian. His writings include discussions of the status of scripture, the doctrines of the Fall, justification and", "Coleridge was also a profound political thinker. While he began his life as a political radical, and an enthusiast for the French Revolution; over the years Coleridge developed a more", "The current standard edition is \"The Collected Works of Samuel Taylor Coleridge,\" edited by Kathleen Coburn and many others from 1969 to 2002. This collection appeared across 16 volumes as Bollingen Series 75, published variously by Princeton University Press and Routledge & Kegan Paul. The set is broken down as follows into further parts, resulting in a total of 34 separate printed volumes: In addition, Coleridge's letters are available in: \"The Collected Letters of Samuel Taylor Coleridge\" (1956–71), ed. Earl Leslie Griggs, 6 vols. (Oxford: Clarendon Press)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Registers.", "SSE instructions.", "Example.", "Software and hardware issues.", "Identifying." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "SSE originally added eight new 128-bit registers known as codice_1 through codice_2. The AMD64 extensions from AMD (originally called \"x86-64\") added a further eight registers codice_3 through codice_4, and this extension is duplicated in the Intel 64 architecture. There is also a new 32-bit control/status register, codice_5. The registers codice_3 through codice_4 are accessible only in 64-bit operating mode. SSE used only a single data type for XMM registers: SSE2 would later expand the usage of the XMM registers to include: Because these 128-bit registers are additional machine states that the operating system must preserve across task switches, they are disabled by default until the operating system explicitly enables them. This means that the OS must know how to use the codice_8 and codice_9 instructions, which is the extended pair of instructions that can save all x86 and SSE register states at once. This support was quickly added to all major IA-32 operating systems. The first CPU to support SSE, the Pentium III, shared execution resources between SSE and the floating point unit (FPU). While a compiled application can interleave FPU and SSE instructions side-by-side, the Pentium III will not issue an FPU and an SSE instruction in the same clock cycle. This limitation reduces the effectiveness of pipelining, but the separate XMM registers do allow SIMD and scalar floating point operations to be mixed without the performance hit from explicit MMX/floating point mode switching.", "SSE introduced both scalar and packed floating point instructions.", "The following simple example demonstrates the advantage of using SSE. Consider an operation like vector addition, which is used very often in computer graphics applications. To add two single precision, four-component vectors together using x86 requires four floating-point addition instructions. This corresponds to four x86 FADD instructions in the object code. On the other hand, as the following pseudo-code shows, a single 128-bit 'packed-add' instruction can replace the four scalar addition instructions.", "With all x86 instruction set extensions, it is up to the BIOS, operating system and application programmer to test and detect their existence and proper operation. User application uptake of the x86 extensions has been slow with even bare minimum baseline MMX and SSE support (in some cases) being non-existent by applications some 10 years after these extensions became commonly available. Distributed computing has accelerated the use of these extensions in the scientific community—and many scientific applications refuse to run unless the CPU supports SSE2 or SSE3. The use of multiple revisions of an application to cope with the many different sets of extensions available is the simplest way around the x86 extension optimization problem. Software libraries and some applications have begun to support multiple extension types hinting that full use of available x86 instructions may finally become common some 5 to 15 years after the instructions were initially introduced.", "The following programs can be used to determine which, if any, versions of SSE are supported on a system" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Personal life.", "Career performance." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Wang Nan is married to Guo Bin.", "In 1994 Wang Nan won the women's singles titles at the Sweden Open. The nex, Women's World Table Tennis Cup and Olympic Games. From 1997 to 1998 she won the Women's World Table Tennis Cup twice, as well as the American Open and China Open. At the 1998 Asian Games in Bangkok, Wang won the four gold medals on offer (singles, doubles, mixed doubles and women teams). At the end of 1998, she won the ITTF tour finals. In 1999 she won the gold medal at the World Table Tennis Championships and the ITTF tour finals in both singles and doubles. She became world #1 in the same year. In the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney she won two gold medals in singles and doubles. Her excellent success record has resulted in her becoming a Grand-Slam champion. However, in the 2002 Asian Games in Busan, she lost two finals in the singles and women's teams competitions, winning no gold medals. Many people criticized her attitude and observed that she was inactive and lacking confidence. A lot of rumors claimed that she was going to retire because her skills were depleted and she could not compete on the improving world stage. Wang Nan attended 2003 World Table Tennis Championships in Paris. This is her fourth time representing China. She won three gold medals in singles, doubles and mixed doubles and of particular interest, she won both singles and doubles championship for the third time in a row, records which are hard to break in the future. Many people didn't expect her success before the competition began; however, the three gold medals proved that she was still one of the top players in the world. At the 2004 Summer Olympics Wang Nan failed to retain her singles crown but went on to win the women's doubles with Zhang Yining. Four years later at the 2008 Summer Olympics she made it to the Women's Final yet again, this time losing out to Zhang Yining, 8-11, 13–11, 11–8, 11–8, 11–3. She did, however, win the team gold for the host country." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Rationale.", "History.", "International Auxiliary Language Association.", "Development of a new language.", "Success, decline, and resurgence.", "In the Soviet bloc.", "Interlingua today.", "Community.", "Orthography.", "Interlingua alphabet.", "Collateral orthography.", "Phonology.", "Pronunciation.", "Stress.", "Phonotactics.", "Loanwords.", "Vocabulary.", "Eligibility.", "Form.", "An illustration.", "Grammar.", "Criticisms and controversies.", "Samples.", "Flags and symbols." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The expansive movements of science, technology, trade, diplomacy, and the arts, combined with the historical dominance of the Greek and Latin languages have resulted in a large common vocabulary among European languages. With Interlingua, an objective procedure is used to extract and standardize the most widespread word or words for a concept found in a set of primary control languages: English, French, Italian, Spanish and Portuguese, with German and Russian as secondary control languages. Words from any language are eligible for inclusion, so long as their internationality is shown by their presence in these control languages. Hence, Interlingua includes such diverse word forms as Japanese \"geisha\" and \"samurai\", Arabic \"califa\", Guugu Yimithirr \"gangurru\" (Interlingua: kanguru), and Finnish \"sauna\". Interlingua combines this pre-existing vocabulary with a minimal grammar based on the control languages. People with a good knowledge of a Romance language, or a smattering of a Romance language plus a good knowledge of the \"international scientific vocabulary\" can frequently understand it immediately on reading or hearing it. The immediate comprehension of Interlingua, in turn, makes it unusually easy to learn. Speakers of other languages can also learn to speak and write Interlingua in a short time, thanks to its simple grammar and regular word formation using a small number of roots and affixes. Once learned, Interlingua can be used to learn other related languages quickly and easily, and in some studies, even to understand them immediately. Research with Swedish students has shown that, after learning Interlingua, they can translate elementary texts from Italian, Portuguese, and Spanish. In one 1974 study, an Interlingua class translated a Spanish text that students who had taken 150 hours of Spanish found too difficult to understand. Gopsill has suggested that Interlingua's freedom from irregularities allowed the students to grasp the mechanisms of language quickly.", "The American heiress Alice Vanderbilt Morris (1874–1950) became interested in linguistics and the international auxiliary language movement in the early 1920s, and in 1924, Morris and her husband, Dave Hennen Morris, established the non-profit International Auxiliary Language Association (IALA) in New York City. Their aim was to place the study of IALs on a scientific basis. Morris developed the research program of IALA in consultation with Edward Sapir, William Edward Collinson, and Otto Jespersen.", "The IALA became a major supporter of mainstream American linguistics. Numerous studies by Sapir, Collinson, and Morris Swadesh in the 1930s and 1940s, for example, were funded by IALA. Alice Morris edited several of these studies and provided much of IALA's financial support. IALA also received support from such prestigious groups as the Carnegie Corporation, the Ford Foundation, the Research Corporation, and the Rockefeller Foundation. In its early years, IALA concerned itself with three tasks: finding other organizations around the world with similar goals; building a library of books about languages and interlinguistics; and comparing extant IALs, including Esperanto, Esperanto II, Ido, Peano's Interlingua (Latino sine flexione), Novial, and Interlingue (Occidental). In pursuit of the last goal, it conducted parallel studies of these languages, with comparative studies of national languages, under the direction of scholars at American and European universities. It also arranged conferences with proponents of these IALs, who debated features and goals of their respective languages. With a \"concession rule\" that required participants to make a certain number of concessions, early debates at IALA sometimes grew from heated to explosive. At the Second International Interlanguage Congress, held in Geneva in 1931, IALA began to break new ground; 27 recognized linguists signed a testimonial of support for IALA's research program. An additional eight added their signatures at the third congress, convened in Rome in 1933. That same year, Herbert N. Shenton and Edward L. Thorndike became influential in IALA's work by authoring key studies in the interlinguistic field. The first steps towards the finalization of Interlingua were taken in 1937, when a committee of 24 eminent linguists from 19 universities published \"Some Criteria for an International Language and Commentary\". However, the outbreak of World War II in 1939 cut short the intended biannual meetings of the committee.", "Originally, the association had not set out to create its own language. Its goal was to identify which auxiliary language already available was best suited for international communication, and how to promote it most effectively. However, after ten years of research, more and more members of IALA concluded that none of the existing interlanguages were up to the task. By 1937, the members had made the decision to create a new language, to the surprise of the world's interlanguage community. To that point, much of the debate had been equivocal on the decision to use naturalistic (e.g., Peano's Interlingua, Novial and Occidental) or systematic (e.g., Esperanto and Ido) words. During the war years, proponents of a naturalistic interlanguage won out. The first support was Thorndike's paper; the second was a concession by proponents of the systematic languages that thousands of words were already present in many, or even a majority, of the European languages. Their argument was that systematic derivation of words was a Procrustean bed, forcing the learner to unlearn and re-memorize a new derivation scheme when a usable vocabulary was already available. This finally convinced supporters of the systematic languages, and IALA from that point assumed the position that a naturalistic language would be best. IALA's research activities were based in Liverpool, before relocating to New York due to the outbreak of World War II, where E. Clark Stillman established a new research staff. Stillman, with the assistance of Alexander Gode, developed a \"prototyping\" technique – an objective methodology for selecting and standardizing vocabulary based on a comparison of \"control languages\". In 1943 Stillman left for war work and Gode became Acting Director of Research. IALA began to develop models of the proposed language, the first of which were presented in Morris's \"General Report\" in 1945. From 1946 to 1948, French linguist André Martinet was Director of Research. During this period IALA continued to develop models and conducted polling to determine the optimal form of the final language. In 1946, IALA sent an extensive survey to more than 3,000 language teachers and related professionals on three continents. Four models were canvassed: The results of the survey were striking. The two more schematic models were rejected – K overwhelmingly. Of the two naturalistic models, M received somewhat more support than P. IALA decided on a compromise between P and M, with certain elements of C. Martinet took up a position at Columbia University in 1948, and Gode took on the last phase of Interlingua's development. The vocabulary and grammar of Interlingua were first presented in 1951, when IALA published the finalized \"\" and the 27,000-word \"Interlingua–English Dictionary\" (IED). In 1954, IALA published an introductory manual entitled \"Interlingua a Prime Vista\" (\"Interlingua at First Sight\"). Interlingua as presented by the IALA is very close to Peano's Interlingua (Latino sine flexione), both in its grammar and especially in its vocabulary. Accordingly, the very name \"Interlingua\" was kept, yet a distinct abbreviation was adopted: IA instead of IL.", "An early practical application of Interlingua was the scientific newsletter \"Spectroscopia Molecular\", published from 1952 to 1980. In 1954, Interlingua was used at the Second World Cardiological Congress in Washington, D.C. for both written summaries and oral interpretation. Within a few years, it found similar use at nine further medical congresses. Between the mid-1950s and the late 1970s, some thirty scientific and especially medical journals provided article summaries in Interlingua. Science Service, the publisher of \"Science Newsletter\" at the time, published a monthly column in Interlingua from the early 1950s until Gode's death in 1970. In 1967, the International Organization for Standardization, which normalizes terminology, voted almost unanimously to adopt Interlingua as the basis for its dictionaries. The IALA closed its doors in 1953 but was not formally dissolved until 1956 or later. Its role in promoting Interlingua was largely taken on by Science Service, which hired Gode as head of its newly formed Interlingua Division. Hugh E. Blair, Gode's close friend and colleague, became his assistant. A successor organization, the Interlingua Institute, was founded in 1970 to promote Interlingua in the US and Canada. The new institute supported the work of other linguistic organizations, made considerable scholarly contributions and produced Interlingua summaries for scholarly and medical publications. One of its largest achievements was two immense volumes on phytopathology produced by the American Phytopathological Society in 1976 and 1977. Interlingua had attracted many former adherents of other international-language projects, notably Occidental and Ido. The former Occidentalist Ric Berger founded The Union Mundial pro Interlingua (UMI) in 1955, and by the late 1950s, interest in Interlingua in Europe had already begun to overtake that in North America. Beginning in the 1980s, UMI has held international conferences every two years (typical attendance at the earlier meetings was 50 to 100) and launched a publishing programme that eventually produced over 100 volumes. Other Interlingua-language works were published by university presses in Sweden and Italy, and in the 1990s, Brazil and Switzerland. Several Scandinavian schools undertook projects that used Interlingua as a means of teaching the international scientific and intellectual vocabulary. In 2000, the Interlingua Institute was dissolved amid funding disputes with the UMI; the American Interlingua Society, established the following year, succeeded the institute and responded to new interest emerging in Mexico.", "Interlingua was spoken and promoted in the Soviet bloc, despite attempts to suppress the language. In East Germany, government officials confiscated the letters and magazines that the UMI sent to Walter Rädler, the Interlingua representative there. In Czechoslovakia, Július Tomin published his first article on Interlingua in the Slovak magazine \"Príroda a spoločnosť\" (Nature and Society) in 1971, after which he received several anonymous threatening letters. He went on to become the Czech Interlingua representative, teach Interlingua in the school system, and publish a series of articles and books.", "Today, interest in Interlingua has expanded from the scientific community to the general public. Individuals, governments, and private companies use Interlingua for learning and instruction, travel, online publishing, and communication across language barriers. Interlingua is promoted internationally by the Union Mundial pro Interlingua. Periodicals and books are produced by many national organizations, such as the Societate American pro Interlingua, the Svenska Sällskapet för Interlingua, and the Union Brazilian pro Interlingua.", "It is not certain how many people have an active knowledge of Interlingua. As noted above, Interlingua is claimed to be the most widely spoken naturalistic auxiliary language. Interlingua's greatest advantage is that it is the most widely \"understood\" international auxiliary language besides Interlingua (IL) de A.p.I. by virtue of its naturalistic (as opposed to schematic) grammar and vocabulary, allowing those familiar with a Romance language, and educated speakers of English, to read and understand it without prior study. Interlingua has active speakers on all continents, especially in South America and in Eastern and Northern Europe, most notably Scandinavia; also in Russia and Ukraine. There are copious Interlingua web pages, including editions of Wikipedia and Wiktionary, and a number of periodicals, including \"Panorama in Interlingua\" from the Union Mundial pro Interlingua (UMI) and magazines of the national societies allied with it. There are several active mailing lists, and Interlingua is also in use in certain Usenet newsgroups, particularly in the europa.* hierarchy. Interlingua is presented on CDs, radio, and television. Interlingua is taught in many high schools and universities, sometimes as a means of teaching other languages quickly, presenting interlinguistics, or introducing the international vocabulary. The University of Granada in Spain, for example, offers an Interlingua course in collaboration with the Centro de Formación Continua. Every two years, the UMI organizes an international conference in a different country. In the year between, the Scandinavian Interlingua societies co-organize a conference in Sweden. National organizations such as the Union Brazilian pro Interlingua also organize regular conferences. , Google Keyboard supports Interlingua.", "Interlingua has a largely phonemic orthography.", "Interlingua uses the 26 letters of the ISO basic Latin alphabet with no diacritics. The alphabet, pronunciation in IPA and letter name in Interlingua are:", "The book \"Grammar of Interlingua\" defines in §15 a \"collateral orthography\".", "Interlingua is primarily a written language, and the pronunciation is not entirely settled. The sounds in parentheses are not used by all speakers.", "For the most part, consonants are pronounced as in English, while the vowels are like Spanish. Written double consonants may be geminated as in Italian for extra clarity or pronounced as single as in English or French. Interlingua has five falling diphthongs,, and, although and are rare.", "The \"general rule\" is that stress falls on the vowel before the last consonant (e.g., \"lingua\", 'language', \"esser\", 'to be', \"requirimento\",'requirement') ignoring the final plural \"-(e)s\" (e.g. \"linguas\", the plural of \"lingua\", still has the same stress as the singular), and where that is not possible, on the first vowel (\"via\", 'way', \"io crea\", 'I create'). There are a few exceptions, and the following rules account for most of them: Speakers may pronounce all words according to the general rule mentioned above. For example, \"kilometro\" is acceptable, although \"kilometro\" is more common.", "Interlingua has no explicitly defined phonotactics. However, the prototyping procedure for determining Interlingua words, which strives for internationality, should in general lead naturally to words that are easy for most learners to pronounce. In the process of forming new words, an ending cannot always be added without a modification of some kind in between. A good example is the plural \"-s\", which is always preceded by a vowel to prevent the occurrence of a hard-to-pronounce consonant cluster at the end. If the singular does not end in a vowel, the final \"-s\" becomes \"-es.\"", "Unassimilated foreign loanwords, or borrowed words, are spelled as in their language of origin. Their spelling may contain diacritics, or accent marks. If the diacritics do not affect pronunciation, they are removed.", "Words in Interlingua may be taken from any language, as long as their internationality is verified by their presence in seven \"control\" languages: Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, French, and English, with German and Russian acting as secondary controls. These are the most widely spoken Romance, Germanic, and Slavic languages, respectively. Because of their close relationship, Spanish and Portuguese are treated as one unit. The largest number of Interlingua words are of Latin origin, with the Greek and Germanic languages providing the second and third largest number. The remainder of the vocabulary originates in Slavic and non-Indo-European languages.", "A word, that is a form with meaning, is eligible for the Interlingua vocabulary if it is verified by at least three of the four primary control languages. Either secondary control language can substitute for a primary language. Any word of Indo-European origin found in a control language can contribute to the eligibility of an international word. In some cases, the archaic or \"potential\" presence of a word can contribute to its eligibility. A word can be potentially present in a language when a derivative is present, but the word itself is not. English \"proximity\", for example, gives support to Interlingua \"proxime\", meaning 'near, close'. This counts as long as one or more control languages actually have this basic root word, which the Romance languages all do. Potentiality also occurs when a concept is represented as a compound or derivative in a control language, the morphemes that make it up are themselves international, and the combination adequately conveys the meaning of the larger word. An example is Italian \"fiammifero\" (lit. flamebearer), meaning \"match, lucifer\", which leads to Interlingua \"flammifero\", or \"match\". This word is thus said to be potentially present in the other languages although they may represent the meaning with a single morpheme. Words do not enter the Interlingua vocabulary solely because cognates exist in a sufficient number of languages. If their meanings have become different over time, they are considered different words for the purpose of Interlingua eligibility. If they still have one or more meanings in common, however, the word can enter Interlingua with this smaller set of meanings. If this procedure did not produce an international word, the word for a concept was originally taken from Latin (see below). This only occurred with a few grammatical particles.", "The form of an Interlingua word is considered an \"international prototype\" with respect to the other words. On the one hand, it should be neutral, free from characteristics peculiar to one language. On the other hand, it should maximally capture the characteristics common to all contributing languages. As a result, it can be transformed into any of the contributing variants using only these language-specific characteristics. If the word has any derivatives that occur in the source languages with appropriate parallel meanings, then their morphological connection must remain intact; for example, the Interlingua word for 'time' is spelled \"tempore\" and not \"*tempus\" or \"*tempo\" in order to match it with its derived adjectives, such as \"temporal\". The language-specific characteristics are closely related to the sound laws of the individual languages; the resulting words are often close or even identical to the most recent form common to the contributing words. This sometimes corresponds with that of Vulgar Latin. At other times, it is much more recent or even contemporary. It is never older than the classical period.", "The French \"œil\", Italian \"occhio\", Spanish \"ojo\", and Portuguese \"olho\" appear quite different, but they descend from a historical form \"oculus\". German \"Auge\", Dutch \"oog\" and English \"eye\" (cf. Czech and Polish \"oko\", Ukrainian \"око\" \"(óko)\") are related to this form in that all three descend from Proto-Indo-European \"*okw\". In addition, international derivatives like \"ocular\" and \"oculista\" occur in all of Interlingua's control languages. Each of these forms contributes to the eligibility of the Interlingua word. German and English base words do not influence the form of the Interlingua word, because their Indo-European connection is considered too remote. Instead, the remaining base words and especially the derivatives determine the form \"oculo\" found in Interlingua.", "Interlingua has been developed to omit any grammatical feature that is absent from any one primary control language. Thus, Interlingua has no noun–adjective agreement by gender, case, or number (cf. Spanish and Portuguese \"gatas negras\" or Italian \"gatte nere\", 'black female cats'), because this is absent from English, and it has no progressive verb tenses (English \"I am reading\"), because they are absent from French. Conversely, Interlingua distinguishes singular nouns from plural nouns because all the control languages do. With respect to the secondary control languages, Interlingua has articles, unlike Russian. The definite article \"le\" is invariable, as in English. Nouns have no grammatical gender. Plurals are formed by adding \"-s\", or \"-es\" after a final consonant. Personal pronouns take one form for the subject and one for the direct object and reflexive. In the third person, the reflexive is always \"se\". Most adverbs are derived regularly from adjectives by adding \"-mente\", or \"-amente\" after a \"-c\". An adverb can be formed from any adjective in this way. Verbs take the same form for all persons (\"io vive, tu vive, illa vive\", 'I live', 'you live','she lives'). The indicative (\"pare\", 'appear', 'appears') is the same as the imperative (\"pare!\" 'appear!'), and there is no subjunctive. Three common verbs usually take short forms in the present tense: \"es\" for 'is', 'am', 'are;' \"ha\" for 'has', 'have;' and \"va\" for 'go', 'goes'. A few irregular verb forms are available, but rarely used. There are four simple tenses (present, past, future, and conditional), three compound tenses (past, future, and conditional), and the passive voice. The compound structures employ an auxiliary plus the infinitive or the past participle (e.g., \"Ille ha arrivate\", 'He has arrived'). Simple and compound tenses can be combined in various ways to express more complex tenses (e.g., \"Nos haberea morite\", 'We would have died'). Word order is subject–verb–object, except that a direct object pronoun or reflexive pronoun comes before the verb (\"Io les vide\", 'I see them'). Adjectives may precede or follow the nouns they modify, but they most often follow it. The position of adverbs is flexible, though constrained by common sense. The grammar of Interlingua has been described as similar to that of the Romance languages, but greatly simplified, primarily under the influence of English. More recently, Interlingua's grammar has been likened to the simple grammars of Japanese and particularly Chinese.", "Critics argue that, being based on a few European languages, Interlingua is best suited for speakers of European languages. Others contend that Interlingua has spelling irregularities that, while internationally recognizable in written form, increase the time needed to fully learn the language, especially for those unfamiliar with Indo-European languages. A related point of criticism is that Interlingua's credential as being Standard Average European is too weak outside the Romance languages. Some opponents see the Germanic, Slavic, and Celtic languages, in particular, as having little influence. Proponents argue that Interlingua's source languages include not only Romance languages but English, German, and Russian as well. Moreover, the source languages are widely spoken internationally, and large numbers of their words also appear in other languages – still more when derivative forms and loan translations are included. Tests had shown that if a larger number of source languages were used, the results would be about the same.", "From an essay by Alexander Gode:", "As with Esperanto, there have been proposals for a flag of Interlingua; the proposal by Czech translator Karel Podrazil is recognized by multilingual sites. It consists of a white four-pointed star extending to the edges of the flag and dividing it into an upper blue and lower red half. The star is symbolic of the four cardinal directions, and the two halves symbolize Romance and non-Romance speakers of Interlingua who understand each other. Another symbol of Interlingua is the \"Blue Marble\" surrounded by twelve stars on a black or blue background, echoing the twelve stars of the Flag of Europe (because the source languages of Interlingua are purely European)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "Overview.", "Distribution.", "History.", "Species.", "History of American mahogany trade.", "18th century.", "Recent history.", "Uses.", "Mahogany as an invasive species." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The three species are: While the three \"Swietenia\" species are classified officially as \"genuine mahogany\", other Meliaceae species with timber uses are classified as \"true mahogany.\" (Only members of the genus Swietenia can be called \"genuine mahogany.\") Some may or may not have the word mahogany in their trade or common name. Some of these true mahoganies include the African genera \"Khaya\" (African mahogany) and \"Entandrophragma\" (sapele mahogany); New Zealand mahogany or kohekohe (\"Dysoxylum spectabile\"); Chinese mahogany, \"Toona sinensis\"; Indonesian mahogany, \"Toona sureni\"; Indian mahogany, \"Toona ciliata\"; Chinaberry, \"Melia azedarach\"; Pink Mahogany (or Bosse), \"Guarea\"; Chittagong (also known as Indian Mahogany), \"Chukrasia velutina\"; and Crabwood \"Carapa guianensis\". Some members of the genus \"Shorea\" (Meranti, Balau, or Lauan) of the family Dipterocarpaceae are also sometimes sold as Philippine mahogany, although the name is more properly applied to another species of Toona, \"Toona calantas\". Mahogany is a commercially important lumber prized for its beauty, durability, and color, and used for paneling and to make furniture, boats, musical instruments and other items. The leading importer of mahogany is the United States, followed by Britain; while the largest exporter today is Peru, which surpassed Brazil after that country banned mahogany exports in 2001. It is estimated that some 80 or 90 percent of Peruvian mahogany exported to the United States is illegally harvested, with the economic cost of illegal logging in Peru placed conservatively at $40–70 million USD annually. It was estimated that in 2000, some 57,000 mahogany trees were harvested to supply the U.S. furniture trade alone. Mahogany is the national tree of the Dominican Republic and Belize. A mahogany tree with two woodcutters bearing an axe and a paddle also appears on the Belizean national coat of arms, under the national motto, \"Sub umbra floreo\", Latin for \"under the shade I flourish.\" The specific gravity of mahogany is 0.55.", "", "The natural distribution of these species within the Americas is geographically distinct. \"S. mahagoni\" grows on the West Indian islands as far north as the Bahamas, the Florida Keys and parts of Florida; \"S. humilis\" grows in the dry regions of the Pacific coast of Central America from south-western Mexico to Costa Rica; \"S. macrophylla\" grows in Central America from Yucatan southwards and into South America, extending as far as Peru, Bolivia and extreme western Brazil. In the 20th century various botanists attempted to further define \"S. macrophylla\" in South America as a new species, such as \"S. candollei\" Pittier and \"S. tessmannii\" Harms., but many authorities consider these spurious. According to Record and Hess, all of the mahogany of continental North and South America can be considered as one botanical species, \"Swietenia macrophylla\" King.", "The name \"mahogany\" was initially associated only with those islands in the West Indies under British control (French colonists used the term \"acajou\", while in the Spanish territories it was called \"caoba\"). The origin of the name is uncertain, but it could be a corruption of'm'oganwo', the name used by the Yoruba and Ibo people of West Africa to describe trees of the genus \"Khaya\", which is closely related to \"Swietenia\". When transported to Jamaica as slaves, they gave the same name to the similar trees they saw there. Though this interpretation has been disputed, no one has suggested a more plausible origin. The indigenous Arawak name for the tree is not known. In 1671 the word mahogany appeared in print for the first time, in John Ogilby's \"America\". Among botanists and naturalists, however, the tree was considered a type of cedar, and in 1759 was classified by Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778) as \"Cedrela mahagoni\". The following year it was assigned to a new genus by Nicholas Joseph Jacquin (1727–1817), and named \"Swietenia mahagoni\". Until the 19th century all of the mahogany was regarded as one species, although varying in quality and character according to soil and climate. In 1836 the German botanist Joseph Gerhard Zuccarini (1797–1848) identified a second species while working on specimens collected on the Pacific coast of Mexico, and named it \"Swietenia humilis\". In 1886 a third species, \"Swietenia macrophylla\", was named by Sir George King (1840–1909) after studying specimens of Honduras mahogany planted in the Botanic Gardens in Calcutta, India. Today, all species of \"Swietenia\" grown in their native locations are listed by CITES, and are therefore protected. Both \"Swietenia mahagoni\", and \"Swietenia macrophylla\" were introduced into several Asian countries at the time of the restrictions imposed on American mahogany in the late 1990s and both are now successfully grown and harvested in plantations in those countries. A small percentage of global supply of genuine mahogany comes from these Asian plantations, notably from India, Bangladesh, Indonesia and from Fiji, in Oceania. For \"Swietenia macrophylla\", the trees in these plantations are still relatively young compared to the trees being harvested from old growth forests in South America. Thus, the illegal trade of bigleaf mahogany continues apace.", "Species of \"Swietenia\" cross-breed readily when they grow in proximity; the hybrid between \"S. mahagoni\" and \"S. macrophylla\" is widely planted for its timber. In addition, the U.S. timber trade also markets various other Federal Trade Commission-defined species as \"mahoganies\" under a variety of different commercial names, most notably \"Philippine mahogany\", which is actually from the genus \"Shorea\", a dipterocarp. This wood is also called \"Lauan\" or \"Meranti\".", "In the 17th century, the buccaneer John Esquemeling recorded the use of mahogany or cedrela on Hispaniola for making canoes: \"The Indians make these canoes without the use of any iron instruments, by only burning the trees at the bottom near the root, and afterwards governing the fire with such industry that nothing is burnt more than what they would have...\" The wood first came to the notice of Europeans with the beginning of Spanish colonisation in the Americas. A cross in the Cathedral at Santo Domingo, bearing the date 1514, is said to be mahogany, and Phillip II of Spain apparently used the wood for the interior joinery of the Escorial Palace, begun in 1584. However, \"caoba\", as the Spanish called the wood, was principally reserved for ship building, and it was declared a royal monopoly at Havana in 1622. Hence very little of the mahogany growing in Spanish controlled territory found its way to Europe. After the French established a colony in Saint Domingue (now Haiti), some mahogany from that island probably found its way to France, where joiners in the port cities of Saint-Malo, Nantes, La Rochelle and Bordeaux used the wood to a limited extent from about 1700. On the English-controlled islands, especially Jamaica and the Bahamas, mahogany was abundant but not exported in any quantity before 1700.", "While the trade in mahogany from the Spanish and French territories in America remained moribund for most of the 18th century, this was not true for those islands under British control. In 1721 the British Parliament removed all import duties from timber imported into Britain from British possessions in the Americas. This immediately stimulated the trade in West Indian timbers including, most importantly, mahogany. Importations of mahogany into England (and excluding those to Scotland, which were recorded separately) reached 525 tons per annum by 1740, 3,688 tons by 1750, and more than 30,000 tons in 1788, the peak year of the 18th century trade. At the same time, the 1721 Act had the effect of substantially increasing exports of mahogany from the West Indies to the British colonies in North America. Although initially regarded as a joinery wood, mahogany rapidly became the timber of choice for makers of high quality furniture in both the British Isles and the 13 colonies of North America. Until the 1760s over 90 per cent of the mahogany imported into Britain came from Jamaica. Some of this was re-exported to continental Europe, but most was used by British furniture makers. Quantities of Jamaican mahogany also went to the North American colonies, but most of the wood used in American furniture came from the Bahamas. This was sometimes called Providence wood, after the main port of the islands, but more often \"madera\" or \"maderah\", which was the Bahamian name for mahogany. In addition to Jamaica and Bahamas, all the British controlled islands exported some mahogany at various times, but the quantities were not large. The most significant third source was Black River and adjacent areas on the Mosquito Coast (now Republic of Honduras), from where quantities of mahogany were shipped from the 1740s onwards. This mahogany was known as 'Rattan mahogany', after the island of Ruatan, which was the main offshore entrepot for the British settlers in the area. At the end of the Seven Years' War (1756–63), the mahogany trade began to change significantly. During the occupation of Havana by British forces between August 1762 and July 1763, quantities of Cuban or Havanna mahogany were sent to Britain, and after the city was restored to Spain in 1763, Cuba continued to export small quantities, mostly to ports on the north coast of Jamaica, from where it went to Britain. However, this mahogany was regarded as inferior to the Jamaican variety, and the trade remained sporadic until the 19th century. Another variety new to the market was Hispaniola mahogany, also called 'Spanish' and 'St Domingo' mahogany. This was the result of the 1766 Free Ports Act, which opened Kingston and other designated Jamaican ports to foreign vessels for the first time. The object was primarily to encourage importations of cotton from French plantations in Saint Domingue, but quantities of high quality mahogany were also shipped. These were then forwarded to Britain, where they entered the market in the late 1760s. In terms of quantity, the most significant new addition to the mahogany trade was Honduras mahogany, also called 'baywood', after the Bay of Honduras. British settlers had been active in southern Yucatan since the beginning of the 18th century, despite the opposition of the Spanish, who claimed sovereignty over all of Central America. Their main occupation was cutting logwood, a dyewood in high demand in Europe. The centre of their activity and the primary point of export was Belize. Under Article XVII of the Treaty of Paris (1763), British cutters were for the first time given the right to cut logwood in Yucatan unmolested, within agreed limits. Such was the enthusiasm of the cutters that within a few years the European market was glutted, and the price of logwood collapsed. However, the price of mahogany was still high after the war, and so the cutters turned to cutting mahogany. The first Honduras mahogany arrived in Kingston, Jamaica, in November 1763, and the first shipments arrived in Britain the following year. By the 1790s most of the viable stocks of mahogany in Jamaica had been cut, and the market was divided between two principal sources or types of mahogany. Honduras mahogany was relatively cheap, plentiful, but rarely of the best quality. Hispaniola (also called Spanish or Santo Domingo) mahogany was the wood of choice for high quality work. Data are lacking, but it is likely that the newly independent United States now received a good proportion of its mahogany from Cuba. In the last quarter of the 18th century France began to use mahogany more widely; they had ample supplies of high quality wood from Saint Domingue. The rest of Europe, where the wood was increasingly fashionable, obtained most of their wood from Britain.", "The French Revolution of 1789 and the wars that followed radically changed the mahogany trade, primarily due to the progressive collapse of the French and Spanish colonial empires, which allowed British traders into areas previously closed to them. Saint Domingue became the independent republic of Haiti, and from 1808, Spanish controlled Santo Domingo and Cuba were both open to British vessels for the first time. From the 1820s mahogany from all these areas was imported into Europe and North America, with the lion's share going to Britain. In Central America British loggers moved northwest towards Mexico and south into Guatemala. Other areas of Central America as far south as Panama also began to be exploited. The most important new development was the beginning of large scale logging in Mexico from the 1860s. Most mahogany was cut in the province of Tabasco and exported from a number of ports on the Gulf of Campeche, from Vera Cruz eastwards to Campeche and Sisal. By the end of the 19th century there was scarcely any part of Central America within reach of the coast untouched by logging, and activity also extended into Colombia, Venezuela, Peru and Brazil. Trade in American mahogany probably reached a peak in the last quarter of the 19th century. Figures are not available for all countries, but Britain alone imported more than 80,000 tons in 1875. This figure was not matched again. From the 1880s, African mahogany (\"Khaya\" spp.), a related genus, began to be exported in increasing quantities from West Africa, and by the early 20th century it dominated the market. In 1907 the total of mahogany from all sources imported into Europe was 159,830 tons, of which 121,743 tons were from West Africa. By this time mahogany from Cuba, Haiti and other West Indian sources had become increasingly difficult to obtain in commercial sizes, and by the late 20th century Central American and even South American mahogany was heading in a similar direction. In 1975 \"S. humilis\" was placed on CITES Appendix II followed by \"S. mahagoni\" in 1992. The most abundant species, \"S. macrophylla\", was placed on Appendix III in 1995 and moved to Appendix II in 2003.", "Mahogany has a straight, fine, and even grain, and is relatively free of voids and pockets. Its reddish-brown color darkens over time, and displays a reddish sheen when polished. It has excellent workability, and is very durable. Historically, the tree's girth allowed for wide boards from traditional mahogany species. These properties make it a favorable wood for crafting cabinets and furniture. Much of the first-quality furniture made in the American colonies from the mid 18th century was made of mahogany, when the wood first became available to American craftsmen. Mahogany is still widely used for fine furniture; however, the rarity of Cuban mahogany, the over-harvesting of Honduras and Brazilian mahogany, and the protests by indigenous peoples and environmental organizations from the 1980s into the 2000s, have diminished their use. Recent mahogany production from Mexico and Fiji has a lighter color and density than South American production from the early 20th century. Mahogany also resists wood rot, making it attractive in boat construction and outdoor decking. It is a tonewood, often used for musical instruments, particularly the backs, sides and necks of acoustic guitars, electric guitar bodies, and drum shells because of its ability to produce a very deep, warm tone compared to other commonly used woods, such as maple or birch. Guitars featuring mahogany in their construction include select Martin Guitars such as the D-18, select Taylor Guitars, select Gibson Guitars such as the Les Paul, SG and J45 and select Hagström guitars. In the 1930s Gibson used the wood to make banjo necks as well, the RB, TB and PB style 3s and RB, TB and PB style 75s were most commonly fitted with mahogany necks.", "In the Philippines, environmentalists are calling for an end to the planting of mahogany because of its negative impact on the environment and wildlife, including possibly causing soil acidification and no net benefit to wildlife." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "On 20 May 1858, the Pei-ho, as it was then known, was the scene of an invasion by Anglo-French forces during the Second Opium War whereby the Taku Forts were captured. In 1863 seagoing ships could reach the head of navigation at Tongzhou, but the crooked river was difficult for large vessels. During the Boxer Rebellion, Imperial Chinese forces deployed a weapon called \"electric mines\" on June 15, at the Baihe river before the Battle of Taku Forts (1900), to prevent the western Eight-Nation Alliance from sending ships to attack. This was reported by American military intelligence in the United States. War Dept. by the United States. Adjutant-General's Office. Military Information Division. Like the Yellow River, the Hai is exceedingly muddy because of the powdery soil through which it flows. The silt carried by the water deposits in the lower reaches, sometimes causing flooding. The waters from the five major tributaries only have one shallow outlet to the sea, which makes such floods stronger. Because China's capital (and second largest city), Beijing, and the third largest city, Tianjin, both lie in the Hai He Basin, Hai He floods cause a significant loss. To alleviate flooding, reservoirs have been built and artificial channels dug to divert excess water directly into the sea. For example, the Chaobai River is diverted to the Chaobai Xin River and no longer joins with the Northern Canal. Due to industrial and urban development in the Hai He Basin, the volume of water flow has greatly decreased. Many smaller tributaries and some of the major tributaries are dry for most of the year. With reduced water flow, water pollution worsens. The water shortage in the Hai He basin is expected to be alleviated by the South-North Water Transfer Project." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Historical development.", "Overview.", "Application to epidemiology and public health.", "Connection to home economics.", "Niche of the Anthropocene.", "Ecosystem services.", "Sixth mass extinction.", "Ecological footprint.", "Ecological economics.", "Interdisciplinary approaches.", "In art.", "In education.", "Bioregionalism and urban ecology." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The roots of ecology as a broader discipline can be traced to the Greeks and a lengthy list of developments in natural history science. Ecology also has notably developed in other cultures. Traditional knowledge, as it is called, includes the human propensity for intuitive knowledge, intelligent relations, understanding, and for passing on information about the natural world and the human experience. The term ecology was coined by Ernst Haeckel in 1866 and defined by direct reference to \"the economy of nature\". Like other contemporary researchers of his time, Haeckel adopted his terminology from Carl Linnaeus where human ecological connections were more evident. In his 1749 publication, \"Specimen academicum de oeconomia naturae\", Linnaeus developed a science that included the \"economy and polis of nature\". Polis stems from its Greek roots for a political community (originally based on the city-states), sharing its roots with the word police in reference to the promotion of growth and maintenance of good social order in a community. Linnaeus was also the first to write about the close affinity between humans and primates. Linnaeus presented early ideas found in modern aspects to human ecology, including the balance of nature while highlighting the importance of ecological functions (ecosystem services or natural capital in modern terms): \"In exchange for performing its function satisfactorily, nature provided a species with the necessaries of life\" The work of Linnaeus influenced Charles Darwin and other scientists of his time who used Linnaeus' terminology (i.e., the \"economy and polis of nature\") with direct implications on matters of human affairs, ecology, and economics. Ecology is not just biological, but a human science as well. An early and influential social scientist in the history of human ecology was Herbert Spencer. Spencer was influenced by and reciprocated his influence onto the works of Charles Darwin. Herbert Spencer coined the phrase \"survival of the fittest\", he was an early founder of sociology where he developed the idea of society as an organism, and he created an early precedent for the socio-ecological approach that was the subsequent aim and link between sociology and human ecology. The history of human ecology has strong roots in geography and sociology departments of the late 19th century. In this context a major historical development or landmark that stimulated research into the ecological relations between humans and their urban environments was founded in George Perkins Marsh's book \"Man and Nature; or, physical geography as modified by human action\", which was published in 1864. Marsh was interested in the active agency of human-nature interactions (an early precursor to urban ecology or human niche construction) in frequent reference to the \"economy of nature\". In 1894, an influential sociologist at the University of Chicago named Albion W. Small, collaborated with sociologist George E. Vincent and published a \"\"laboratory guide\" to studying people in their \"every-day occupations.\"\" This was a guidebook that trained students of sociology how they could study society in a way that a natural historian would study birds. Their publication \"explicitly included the relation of the social world to the material environment.\" The first English-language use of the term \"ecology\" is credited to American chemist and founder of the field of home economics, Ellen Swallow Richards. Richards first introduced the term as \"oekology\" in 1892, and subsequently developed the term \"human ecology\". The term \"human ecology\" first appeared in Ellen Swallow Richards' 1907 \"Sanitation in Daily Life\", where it was defined as \"the study of the surroundings of human beings in the effects they produce on the lives of men\". Richard's use of the term recognized humans as part of rather than separate from nature. The term made its first formal appearance in the field of sociology in the 1921 book \"Introduction to the Science of Sociology\", published by Robert E. Park and Ernest W. Burgess (also from the sociology department at the University of Chicago). Their student, Roderick D. McKenzie helped solidify human ecology as a sub-discipline within the Chicago school. These authors emphasized the difference between human ecology and ecology in general by highlighting cultural evolution in human societies. Human ecology has a fragmented academic history with developments spread throughout a range of disciplines, including: home economics, geography, anthropology, sociology, zoology, and psychology. Some authors have argued that geography is human ecology. Much historical debate has hinged on the placement of humanity as part or as separate from nature. Biological ecologists have traditionally been reluctant to study human ecology, gravitating instead to the allure of wild nature. Human ecology has a history of focusing attention on humans’ impact on the biotic world. Paul Sears was an early proponent of applying human ecology, addressing topics aimed at the population explosion of humanity, global resource limits, pollution, and published a comprehensive account on human ecology as a discipline in 1954. He saw the vast \"explosion\" of problems humans were creating for the environment and reminded us that \"what is important is the work to be done rather than the label.\" \"When we as a profession learn to diagnose the total landscape, not only as the basis of our culture, but as an expression of it, and to share our special knowledge as widely as we can, we need not fear that our work will be ignored or that our efforts will be unappreciated.\" Recently, the Ecological Society of America has added a Section on Human Ecology, indicating the increasing openness of biological ecologists to engage with human dominated systems and the acknowledgement that most contemporary ecosystems have been influenced by human action.", "Human ecology has been defined as a type of analysis applied to the relations in human beings that was traditionally applied to plants and animals in ecology. Toward this aim, human ecologists (which can include sociologists) integrate diverse perspectives from a broad spectrum of disciplines covering \"wider points of view\". In its 1972 premier edition, the editors of \"Human Ecology: An Interdisciplinary Journal\" gave an introductory statement on the scope of topics in human ecology. Their statement provides a broad overview on the interdisciplinary nature of the topic: Forty years later in the same journal, Daniel G. Bates (2012) notes lines of continuity in the discipline and the way it has changed: Today there is greater emphasis on the problems facing individuals and how actors deal with them with the consequence that there is much more attention to decision-making at the individual level as people strategize and optimize risk, costs and benefits within specific contexts. Rather than attempting to formulate a cultural ecology or even a specifically “human ecology” model, researchers more often draw on demographic, economic and evolutionary theory as well as upon models derived from field ecology. While theoretical discussions continue, research published in \"Human Ecology Review\" suggests that recent discourse has shifted toward applying principles of human ecology. Some of these applications focus instead on addressing problems that cross disciplinary boundaries or transcend those boundaries altogether. Scholarship has increasingly tended away from Gerald L. Young's idea of a \"unified theory\" of human ecological knowledge—that human ecology may emerge as its own discipline—and more toward the pluralism best espoused by Paul Shepard: that human ecology is healthiest when \"running out in all directions.\". But human ecology is neither anti-discipline nor anti-theory, rather it is the ongoing attempt to formulate, synthesize, and apply theory to bridge the widening schism between man and nature. This new human ecology emphasizes complexity over reductionism, focuses on changes over stable states, and expands ecological concepts beyond plants and animals to include people.", "The application of ecological concepts to epidemiology has similar roots to those of other disciplinary applications, with Carl Linnaeus having played a seminal role. However, the term appears to have come into common use in the medical and public health literature in the mid-twentieth century. This was strengthened in 1971 by the publication of Epidemiology as Medical Ecology, and again in 1987 by the publication of a textbook on Public Health and Human Ecology. An “ecosystem health” perspective has emerged as a thematic movement, integrating research and practice from such fields as environmental management, public health, biodiversity, and economic development. Drawing in turn from the application of concepts such as the social-ecological model of health, human ecology has converged with the mainstream of global public health literature.", "In addition to its links to other disciplines, human ecology has a strong historical linkage to the field of home economics through the work of Ellen Swallow Richards, among others. However, as early as the 1960s, a number of universities began to rename home economics departments, schools, and colleges as human ecology programs. In part, this name change was a response to perceived difficulties with the term home economics in a modernizing society, and reflects a recognition of human ecology as one of the initial choices for the discipline which was to become home economics. Current human ecology programs include the University of Wisconsin School of Human Ecology, the Cornell University College of Human Ecology, and the University of Alberta's Department of Human Ecology, among others.", "Changes to the Earth by human activities have been so great that a new geological epoch named the Anthropocene has been proposed. The human niche or ecological \"polis\" of human society, as it was known historically, has created entirely new arrangements of ecosystems as we convert matter into technology. Human ecology has created anthropogenic biomes (called anthromes). The habitats within these anthromes reach out through our road networks to create what has been called technoecosystems containing technosols. Technodiversity exists within these technoecosystems. In direct parallel to the concept of the ecosphere, human civilization has also created a technosphere. The way that the human species engineers or constructs technodiversity into the environment, threads back into the processes of cultural and biological evolution, including the human economy.", "The ecosystems of planet Earth are coupled to human environments. Ecosystems regulate the global geophysical cycles of energy, climate, soil nutrients, and water that in turn support and grow natural capital (including the environmental, physiological, cognitive, cultural, and spiritual dimensions of life). Ultimately, every manufactured product in human environments comes from natural systems. Ecosystems are considered common-pool resources because ecosystems do not exclude beneficiaries and they can be depleted or degraded. For example, green space within communities provides sustainable health services that reduces mortality and regulates the spread of vector borne disease. Research shows that people who are more engaged with regular access to natural areas have lower rates of diabetes, heart disease and psychological disorders. These ecological health services are regularly depleted through urban development projects that do not factor in the common-pool value of ecosystems. The ecological commons delivers a diverse supply of community services that sustains the well-being of human society. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, an international UN initiative involving more than 1,360 experts worldwide, identifies four main ecosystem service types having 30 sub-categories stemming from natural capital. The ecological commons includes provisioning (e.g., food, raw materials, medicine, water supplies), regulating (e.g., climate, water, soil retention, flood retention), cultural (e.g., science and education, artistic, spiritual), and supporting (e.g., soil formation, nutrient cycling, water cycling) services.", "Global assessments of biodiversity indicate that the current epoch, the Holocene (or Anthropocene) is a sixth mass extinction. Species loss is accelerating at 100–1000 times faster than average background rates in the fossil record. The field of conservation biology involves ecologists that are researching, confronting, and searching for solutions to sustain the planet's ecosystems for future generations. \"Human activities are associated directly or indirectly with nearly every aspect of the current extinction spasm.\" Nature is a resilient system. Ecosystems regenerate, withstand, and are forever adapting to fluctuating environments. Ecological resilience is an important conceptual framework in conservation management and it is defined as the preservation of biological relations in ecosystems that persevere and regenerate in response to disturbance over time. However, persistent, systematic, large and nonrandom disturbance caused by the niche constructing behavior of human beings, habitat conversion and land development, has pushed many of the Earth's ecosystems to the extent of their resilient thresholds. Three planetary thresholds have already been crossed, including biodiversity loss, climate change, and nitrogen cycles. These biophysical systems are ecologically interrelated and naturally resilient, but human civilization has transitioned the planet to an Anthropocene epoch, where the threshold for planetary scale resilience has been crossed and the ecological state of the Earth is deteriorating rapidly to the detriment of humanity. The world's fisheries and oceans, for example, are facing dire challenges as the threat of global collapse appears imminent, with serious ramifications for the well-being of humanity; while the Anthropocene is yet to be classified as an official epoch, current evidence suggest that \"an epoch-scale boundary has been crossed within the last two centuries.\" The ecology of the planet is further threatened by global warming, but investments in nature conservation can provide a regulatory feedback to store and regulate carbon and other greenhouse gases.", "In 1992, William Rees developed the ecological footprint concept. The ecological footprint and its close analog the water footprint has become a popular way of accounting for the level of impact that human society is imparting on the Earth's ecosystems. All indications are that the human enterprise is unsustainable as the footprint of society is placing too much stress on the ecology of the planet. The WWF 2008 living planet report and other researchers report that human civilization has exceeded the bio-regenerative capacity of the planet. This means that the footprint of human consumption is extracting more natural resources than can be replenished by ecosystems around the world.", "Ecological economics is an economic science that extends its methods of valuation onto nature in an effort to address the inequity between market growth and biodiversity loss. Natural capital is the stock of materials or information stored in biodiversity that generates services that can enhance the welfare of communities. Population losses are the more sensitive indicator of natural capital than are species extinction in the accounting of ecosystem services. The prospect for recovery in the economic crisis of nature is grim. Populations, such as local ponds and patches of forest are being cleared away and lost at rates that exceed species extinctions. The mainstream growth-based economic system adopted by governments worldwide does not include a price or markets for natural capital. This type of economic system places further ecological debt onto future generations. Human societies are increasingly being placed under stress as the ecological commons is diminished through an accounting system that has incorrectly assumed \"... that nature is a fixed, indestructible capital asset.\" The current wave of threats, including massive extinction rates and concurrent loss of natural capital to the detriment of human society, is happening rapidly. This is called a biodiversity crisis, because 50% of the worlds species are predicted to go extinct within the next 50 years. Conventional monetary analyses are unable to detect or deal with these sorts of ecological problems. Multiple global ecological economic initiatives are being promoted to solve this problem. For example, governments of the G8 met in 2007 and set forth The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB) initiative: In a global study we will initiate the process of analyzing the global economic benefit of biological diversity, the costs of the loss of biodiversity and the failure to take protective measures versus the costs of effective conservation. The work of Kenneth E. Boulding is notable for building on the integration between ecology and its economic origins. Boulding drew parallels between ecology and economics, most generally in that they are both studies of individuals as members of a system, and indicated that the “household of man” and the “household of nature” could somehow be integrated to create a perspective of greater value.", "Human ecology expands functionalism from ecology to the human mind. People's perception of a complex world is a function of their ability to be able to comprehend beyond the immediate, both in time and in space. This concept manifested in the popular slogan promoting sustainability: \"think global, act local.\" Moreover, people's conception of community stems from not only their physical location but their mental and emotional connections and varies from \"community as place, community as way of life, or community of collective action.\" In these early years, human ecology was still deeply enmeshed in its respective disciplines: geography, sociology, anthropology, psychology, and economics. Scholars through the 1970s until present have called for a greater integration between all of the scattered disciplines that has each established formal ecological research.", "While some of the early writers considered how art fit into a human ecology, it was Sears who posed the idea that in the long run human ecology will in fact look more like art. Bill Carpenter (1986) calls human ecology the \"possibility of an aesthetic science,\" renewing dialogue about how art fits into a human ecological perspective. According to Carpenter, human ecology as an aesthetic science counters the disciplinary fragmentation of knowledge by examining human consciousness.", "While the reputation of human ecology in institutions of higher learning is growing, there is no human ecology at the primary or secondary education levels, with one notable exception, Syosset High School, in Long Island, New York. Educational theorist Sir Kenneth Robinson has called for diversification of education to promote creativity in academic and non-academic (i.e.- educate their “whole being”) activities to implement a “new conception of human ecology”.", "In the late 1960s, ecological concepts started to become integrated into the applied fields, namely architecture, landscape architecture, and planning. Ian McHarg called for a future when all planning would be “human ecological planning” by default, always bound up in humans’ relationships with their environments. He emphasized local, place-based planning that takes into consideration all the “layers” of information from geology to botany to zoology to cultural history. Proponents of the new urbanism movement, like James Howard Kunstler and Andres Duany, have embraced the term human ecology as way to describe the problem of—and prescribe the solutions for—the landscapes and lifestyles of an automobile oriented society. Duany has called the human ecology movement to be \"the agenda for the years ahead.\" While McHargian planning is still widely respected, the landscape urbanism movement seeks a new understanding between human and environment relations. Among these theorists is Frederich Steiner, who published \"Human Ecology: Following Nature's Lead\" in 2002 which focuses on the relationships among landscape, culture, and planning. The work highlights the beauty of scientific inquiry by revealing those purely human dimensions which underlie our concepts of ecology. While Steiner discusses specific ecological settings, such as cityscapes and waterscapes, and the relationships between socio-cultural and environmental regions, he also takes a diverse approach to ecology—considering even the unique synthesis between ecology and political geography. Deiter Steiner's 2003 \"Human Ecology: Fragments of Anti-fragmentary\" view of the world is an important expose of recent trends in human ecology. Part literature review, the book is divided into four sections: \"human ecology\", \"the implicit and the explicit\", \"structuration\", and \"the regional dimension\". Much of the work stresses the need for transciplinarity, antidualism, and wholeness of perspective." ] }