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StivenLancheros

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Formation.", "\"Dominion: Storm Over Gift 3\".", "\"Daikatana\".", "\"Anachronox\".", "\"Deus Ex\".", "Closure.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Ion Storm was founded by John Romero, Tom Hall, Todd Porter and Jerry O'Flaherty on November 15, 1996, with its headquarters in Dallas, Texas. Hall came up with the name, the \"Storm\" part coming from Porter's first project for the company. The company had signed a licensing deal with Eidos Interactive for six games, and the founders planned to scoop up titles from other companies that were close to completion, finish them, and push them out quickly to bring in initial revenue. In a fashion similar to other dot com busts, the company spent lavishly on office decor and facilities for employees. The corporate headquarters of Ion Storm were located in Suite 5400, of space in a penthouse suite on the 54th floor, the top floor, of the Chase Tower in Downtown Dallas. Ion Storm spent $2 million on the facility. Lisa Chadderdon of \"Fast Company\" said that the penthouse location was \"unusual\". For the first ten years after the construction of the JPMorgan Chase Tower, the penthouse location had been unleased. Russ Berger Design Group, a firm most known for its work in designing recording studios, was responsible for the interior design of the headquarters. This included a ten-foot-wide company logo set into the terrazzo floor of the lobby and matching green elevator doors. The headquarters included a \"crash room\", a dormitory facility with two beds, three couches, a VCR, a wide-screen television, and two telephone booths. It also housed a gaming room with a ping-pong table and four arcade machines, a changing area, and a shower room. The headquarters included these facilities because many employees in the video game industry work long hours at a time. The sun shone through the office's glass rooftop directly into the monitors of the employees, forcing them to cover their cubicles with black fabric.", "The company's first attempt was Todd Porter's \"\". \"Dominion\" was already partially completed by Todd Porter's previous employer, 7th Level, and was expected to take $50,000 and three months to complete. Instead, development continued for over a year costing hundreds of thousands. When it was finally released it received poor ratings and equally poor sales. Marketing missteps included releasing the real-time strategy (RTS) game on the same day Blizzard Entertainment put out its highly anticipated demo of \"StarCraft\", which would become a defining game of the RTS genre.", "John Romero's \"Daikatana\" was meant to be finished within seven months of the founding of Ion Storm and was to use the \"Quake\" engine. From very early on in the game's development, \"Daikatana\" was advertised as the brainchild of John Romero, a man famous for his work at id Software in the development of \"Wolfenstein 3D\", \"Doom\" and \"Quake\". \"Time\" magazine gave Romero and \"Daikatana\" glowing coverage, saying \"Everything that game designer John Romero touches turns to gore and gold.\" During that time, in April 1999, publisher Eidos Interactive acquired a 51% stake in the company, in exchange for advances to the developers. An early advertisement for \"Daikatana\", created by marketer Mike Wilson and approved by Romero, was a red poster with large black lettering proclaiming \"John Romero's about to make you his bitch\", a reference to Romero's infamous trash talk during gaming. Nothing else was featured on this poster but a small tag-line reading \"Suck It Down\", an Ion Storm logo and an Eidos logo. However, already behind schedule, the decision was made to port the entire game to the \"Quake II\" engine, six months into development. \"Daikatana\", was released three years late in Spring 2000, after its promised launch date of Christmas 1997. The game was released to middling critical reviews, and an aggressive advertising campaign in 1997 touting Romero's name as the reason to buy the game backfired as fans grew angry over delays.", "Like \"Daikatana\", Tom Hall's \"Anachronox\" was moved over to the \"Quake II\" engine. These changes brought costly delays to an already beleaguered product line. Although \"Anachronox\" received critical acclaim for its vast storyline and characters, it, too, was commercially unsuccessful on its release in June 2001.", "In late 1997, Warren Spector was asked to found the Austin branch of Ion Storm. By keeping well clear of the troubles at the Dallas office, Ion Storm (Austin) was more successful. It developed the highly successful and critically acclaimed \"Deus Ex\". With the demise of Looking Glass Studios, Eidos Interactive secured the rights to the \"Thief\" franchise and together with Spector tried to relocate as many of the Looking Glass team to Austin as was possible.", "Romero and Hall left the company after producing \"Anachronox\" in July 2001. On July 17, 2001, four and a half years after the company's creation, Eidos Interactive closed the Dallas offices. The Austin office remained open to produce \"\" and \"\" until Spector's departure to \"pursue personal interests outside the company\" in 2004. A number of other senior staff also left at about the same time. After finishing their 6 game contract, on February 9, 2005, Eidos announced that the Austin office would also close, meaning the end of Ion Storm as a company.", "The rise and fall of the company is documented in great detail in the book \"Masters of Doom\". \"Doom\" was just one of a series of blockbuster games Romero had designed, and Ion Storm was founded in no small part on his celebrity status within the industry. This elevation of the game creators over the products themselves caused problems early on, evidenced in a 1997 advertisement which hyped the subsequently delayed \"Daikatana\" by boasting \"John Romero's About To Make You His Bitch...Suck it down\". In 2010, Romero would later apologize for the infamous advertisement. Romero stated in an interview that \"up until that ad, I felt I had a great relationship with the gamer and the game development community and that ad changed everything. That stupid ad. I regret it and I apologize for it.\" The critical and commercial failure of \"Daikatana\" was a major contributing factor in the closure of Ion Storm's Dallas office. ScrewAttack named this game the #7 bust on their 2009 \"Top 10 Biggest Busts\", which listed the biggest failures in gaming, due to its controversial advertising and the hype that Romero built on this game, which in the end turned out to be a failure. GameTrailers ranked this game the #2 biggest gaming disappointment of the decade (the 2000s), citing the game's terrible AI for friend and foe alike, pushed-back release dates, controversial magazine ad, and gossip-worthy internal drama (among other things) as \"the embodiment of game's industry hubris.\" Since its release, \"Deus Ex\" has appeared in a number of \"Greatest Games of All Time\" lists and Hall of Fame features. It was included in IGN's \"100 Greatest Games of All Time\" (#40, #21 and #34 in 2003, 2005 and 2007, respectively), \"Top 25 Modern PC Games\" (4th place in 2010) and \"Top 25 PC Games of All Time\" (#20 and #21 in 2007 and 2009 respectively) lists. GameSpy featured the game in its \"Top 50 Games of All Time\" (18th place in 2001) and \"25 Most Memorable Games of the Past 5 Years\" (15th place in 2004) lists, and in the site's \"Hall of Fame\". \"PC Gamer\" placed \"Deus Ex\" on its \"Top 100 PC Games of All Time\" (#2, #2, #1 by staff and #4 by readers in 2007, 2008, 2010 and 2010 respectively) and \"50 Best Games of All Time\" (#10 and #27 in 2001 and 2005) lists, and it was awarded 1st place in \"PC Zone\"s \"101 Best PC Games Ever\" feature. It was also included in Yahoo! UK Video Games' \"100 Greatest Computer Games of All Time\" (28th place) list, and in \"Edge\"s \"The 100 Best Videogames\" (29th place in 2007) and \"100 Best Games to Play Today\" (57th place in 2009) lists. \"Deus Ex\" was named the second-best game of the 2000s by Gamasutra. In 2012, \"Time\" named it one of the 100 greatest video games of all time, and G4tv ranked it as the 53rd best game of all time for its \"complex and well-crafted story that was really the start of players making choices that genuinely affect the outcome.\" 1UP.com listed it as one of the most important games of all time, calling its influence \"too massive to properly gauge.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Foundation.", "Cluny and the Gregorian reforms.", "Organization.", "The Cluniac Prayer.", "Cluniac Houses in Britain.", "Arts.", "Library.", "Cluny's influence.", "Decline and destruction of the buildings." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "In 910, William I, Duke of Aquitaine \"the Pious\", and Count of Auvergne, founded the Benedictine Abbey of Cluny on a modest scale, as the motherhouse of the Congregation of Cluny. The deed of gift included vineyards, fields, meadows, woods, waters, mills, serfs, and lands both cultivated and uncultivated. Hospitality was to be given to the poor, strangers, and pilgrims. It was stipulated that the monastery would be free from local authorities, lay or ecclesiastical, and subject only to the Pope, with the proviso that even he could not seize the property, divide or give it to someone else or appoint an abbot without the consent of the monks. William placed Cluny under the protection of saints Peter and Paul, with a curse on anyone who should violate the charter. With the Pope across the Alps in Italy, this meant the monastery was essentially independent. In donating his hunting preserve in the forests of Burgundy, William released Cluny Abbey from all future obligation to him and his family other than prayer. Contemporary patrons normally retained a proprietary interest and expected to install their kinsmen as abbots. William appears to have made this arrangement with Berno, the first abbot, to free the new monastery from such secular entanglements and initiate the Cluniac Reforms. The appropriate deeds made all assets of the added Abby sacred, and to take them was to commit sacrilege. Soon, Cluny began to receive bequests from around Europe – from the Holy Roman Empire to the Spanish kingdoms from southern England to Italy. It became a powerful monastic congregation that owned and operated the network of monasteries and priories, under the authority of the central abbey at Cluny. It was a highly original and successful system, The Abbots of Cluny became leaders on the international stage and the monastery of Cluny was considered the grandest, most prestigious and best-endowed monastic institution in Europe. The height of Cluniac influence was from the second half of the 10th century through the early 12th. The first women members were admitted to the Order during the 11th century.", "The reforms introduced at Cluny were in some measure traceable to the influence of Benedict of Aniane, who had put forward his new ideas at the first great meeting of the abbots of the order held at Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle) in 817. Berno had adopted Benedict's interpretation of the Rule previously at Baume Abbey. Cluny was not known for the severity of its discipline or its asceticism, but the abbots of Cluny supported the revival of the papacy and the reforms of Pope Gregory VII. The Cluniac establishment found itself closely identified with the Papacy. In the early 12th century, the order lost momentum under poor government. It was subsequently revitalized under Abbot Peter the Venerable (died 1156), who brought lax priories back into line and returned to stricter discipline. Cluny reached its apogee of power and influence under Peter, as its monks became bishops, legates, and cardinals throughout France and the Holy Roman Empire. But by the time Peter died, newer and more austere orders such as the Cistercians were generating the next wave of ecclesiastical reform. Outside monastic structures, the rise of English and French nationalism created a climate unfavourable to the existence of monasteries autocratically ruled by a head residing in Burgundy. The Papal Schism of 1378 to 1409 further divided loyalties: France recognizing a pope at Avignon and England one at Rome, interfered with the relations between Cluny and its dependent houses. Under the strain, some English houses, such as Lenton Priory, Nottingham, were naturalized (Lenton in 1392) and no longer regarded as alien priories, weakening the Cluniac structure. By the time of the French Revolution, the monks were so thoroughly identified with the \"Ancien Régime\" that the order was suppressed in France in 1790 and the monastery at Cluny almost totally demolished in 1810. Later, it was sold and used as a quarry until 1823. Today, little more than one of the original eight towers remains of the whole monastery. Modern excavations of the Abbey began in 1927 under the direction of Kenneth John Conant, American architectural historian of Harvard University, and continued (although not continuously) until 1950.", "The Abbey of Cluny differed in three ways from other Benedictine houses and confederations: Cluny developed a highly centralized form of government entirely foreign to Benedictine tradition. While most Benedictine monasteries remained autonomous and associated with each other only informally, Cluny created a large, federated order in which the administrators of subsidiary houses served as deputies of the Abbot of Cluny and answered to him. The Cluniac houses, being directly under the supervision of the Abbot of Cluny, the head of the Order, were styled priories, not abbeys. The priors, or chiefs of priories, met at Cluny once a year to deal with administrative issues and to make reports. Many other Benedictine monasteries, even those of earlier formation, came to regard Cluny as their guide. When in 1016 Pope Benedict VIII decreed that the privileges of Cluny be extended to subordinate houses, there was further incentive for Benedictine communities to join the Cluniac Order. Partly due to the Order's opulence, the Cluniac monasteries of nuns were not seen as being particularly cost-effective. The Order did not have an interest in founding many new houses for women, so their presence was always limited. The customs of Cluny represented a shift from the earlier ideal of a Benedictine monastery as an agriculturally self-sufficient unit. This was similar to the contemporary villa of the more Romanized parts of Europe and the manor of the more feudal parts, in which each member did physical labor as well as offering prayer. In 817 St Benedict of Aniane, the \"second Benedict\", developed monastic constitutions at the urging of Louis the Pious to govern all the Carolingian monasteries. He acknowledged that the Black Monks no longer supported themselves by physical labor. Cluny's agreement to offer perpetual prayer (\"laus perennis\", literally \"perpetual praise\") meant that it had increased a specialization in roles. As perhaps the wealthiest monastic house of the Western world, Cluny hired managers and workers to do the traditional labour of monks. The Cluniac monks devoted themselves to almost constant prayer, thus elevating their position into a profession. Despite the monastic ideal of a frugal life, Cluny Abbey commissioned candelabras of solid silver and gold chalices made with precious gems for use at the abbey Masses. Instead of being limited to the traditional fare of broth and porridge, the monks ate very well, enjoying roasted chickens (a luxury in France then), wines from their vineyards and cheeses made by their employees. The monks wore the finest linen religious habits and silk vestments at Mass. Artifacts exemplifying the wealth of Cluny Abbey are today on display at the Musée de Cluny in Paris.", "O God, by whose grace thy servants, the Holy Abbots of Cluny, enkindled with the fire of thy love, became burning and shining lights in thy Church : Grant that we also may be aflame with the spirit of love and discipline, and may ever walk before thee as children of light; through Jesus Christ our Lord, who with thee, in the unity of the Holy Spirit, liveth and reigneth, one God, now and forever. In contemporary language: O God, by whose grace your servants the Holy Abbots of Cluny, Kindled with the flame of your love, became burning and shining lights in your Church: Grant that we also may be aflame with the spirit of love and discipline, and walk before you as children of light; through Jesus Christ our Lord, who lives and reigns with you, in the unity of the Holy Spirit, one God, now and forever.", "All but one of the English and Scottish Cluniac houses which were larger than cells were known as priories, symbolising their subordination to Cluny. The exception was the priory at Paisley which was raised to the status of an abbey in 1245 answerable only to the Pope. Cluny's influence spread into the British Isles in the 11th century, first at Lewes, and then elsewhere. The head of their Order was the Abbot at Cluny. All English and Scottish Cluniacs were bound to cross to France to Cluny to consult or be consulted unless the abbot chose to come to Britain, which occurred five times in the 13th century, and only twice in the 14th.", "At Cluny, the central activity was the liturgy; it was extensive and beautifully presented in inspiring surroundings, reflecting the new personally-felt wave of piety of the 11th century. Monastic intercession was believed indispensable to achieving a state of grace, and lay rulers competed to be remembered in Cluny's endless prayers; this inspired the endowments in land and benefices that made other arts possible. The fast-growing community at Cluny required buildings on a large scale. The examples at Cluny profoundly affected architectural practice in Western Europe from the tenth through the twelfth centuries. The three successive churches are conventionally called Cluny I, II and III. The construction of Cluny II, ca. 955–981, begun after the destructive Hungarian raids of 953, led the tendency for Burgundian churches to be stone-vaulted. In building the third and final church at Cluny, the monastery constructed what was to remain the largest building in Europe until the 16th century when the new St. Peter's in Rome was rebuilt. The building campaign was financed by the annual \"census\" established by Ferdinand I of León, ruler of a united León-Castile, some time between 1053 and 1065. (Alfonso VI re-established it in 1077, and confirmed it in 1090.) Ferdinand fixed the sum at 1,000 golden \"aurei\", an amount which Alfonso VI doubled in 1090. This was the biggest annuity that the Order ever received from king or layman, and it was never surpassed. Henry I of England's annual grant from 1131 of 100 marks of silver, not gold, seemed little by comparison. The Alfonsine census enabled Abbot Hugh (who died in 1109) to undertake construction of the huge third abbey church. When payments in aurei later lapsed, the Cluniac order suffered a financial crisis that crippled them during the abbacies of Pons of Melgueil (1109–1125) and Peter the Venerable (1122–1156). The Spanish wealth donated to Cluny publicized the rise of the Spanish Christians, and drew central Spain for the first time into the larger European orbit.", "The Cluny library was one of the richest and most important in France and Europe. It was a storehouse of numerous very valuable manuscripts. During the religious conflicts of 1562, the Huguenots sacked the abbey, destroying or dispersing many of the manuscripts. Of those that were left, some were burned in 1790 by a rioting mob during the French Revolution. Others still were stored away in the Cluny town hall. The French Government worked to relocate such treasures, including those that ended up in private hands. They are now held by the \"Bibliothèque nationale de France\" at Paris. The British Museum holds some sixty or so charters originating from Cluny.", "In the fragmented and localized Europe of the 10th and 11th centuries, the Cluniac network extended its reforming influence far. Free of lay and episcopal interference, and responsible only to the papacy (which was in a state of weakness and disorder, with rival popes supported by competing nobles), Cluny was seen to have revitalized the Norman church, reorganized the royal French monastery at Fleury and inspired St Dunstan in England. There were no official English Cluniac priories until that of Lewes in Sussex, founded by the Anglo-Norman earl William de Warenne \"c\" 1077. The best-preserved Cluniac houses in England are Castle Acre Priory, Norfolk, and Wenlock Priory, Shropshire. It is thought that there were only three Cluniac nunneries in England, one of them being Delapré Abbey at Northampton. Until the reign of Henry VI, all Cluniac houses in England were French, governed by French priors and directly controlled from Cluny. Henry's act of raising the English priories to independent abbeys was a political gesture, a mark of England's nascent national consciousness. The early Cluniac establishments had offered refuges from a disordered world but by the late 11th century, Cluniac piety permeated society. This is the period that achieved the final Christianization of the heartland of Europe. Well-born and educated Cluniac priors worked eagerly with local royal and aristocratic patrons of their houses, filled responsible positions in their chanceries and were appointed to bishoprics. Cluny spread the custom of veneration of the king as patron and support of the Church, and in turn the conduct of 11th-century kings, and their spiritual outlook, appeared to undergo a change. In England, Edward the Confessor was later canonized. In Germany, the penetration of Cluniac ideals was effected in concert with Henry III of the Salian dynasty, who had married a daughter of the duke of Aquitaine. Henry was infused with a sense of his sacramental role as a delegate of Christ in the temporal sphere. He had a spiritual and intellectual grounding for his leadership of the German church, which culminated in the pontificate of his kinsman, Pope Leo IX. The new pious outlook of lay leaders enabled the enforcement of the Truce of God movement to curb aristocratic violence. Within his order, the Abbot of Cluny was free to assign any monk to any house; he created a fluid structure around a central authority that was to become a feature of the royal chanceries of England and of France, and of the bureaucracy of the great independent dukes, such as that of Burgundy. Cluny's highly centralized hierarchy was a training ground for Catholic prelates: four monks of Cluny became popes: Gregory VII, Urban II, Paschal II and Urban V. An orderly succession of able and educated abbots, drawn from the highest aristocratic circles, led Cluny, and the first six abbots of Cluny were all canonized: Odilo continued to reform other monasteries, but as Abbot of Cluny, he also exercised tighter control of the order's far-flung priories.", "Starting from the 12th century, Cluny had serious financial problems mainly because of the cost of building the third abbey (Cluny III). Charity given to the poor also increased the expenditure. As other religious orders such as the Cistercians in the 12th and then the Mendicants in the 13th century arose within the Western Christian church, the competition gradually weakened the status and influence of the abbey. Furthermore, poor management of the abbey's estates and the unwillingness of its subsidiary priories to pay their share of the annual taxable quotas annually reduced Cluny's total revenues. In response to these issues, Cluny raised loans against its assets but this saddled the religious order with debt. Throughout the late Middle Ages, conflicts with its priories increased. This waning influence was shadowed by the increasing power of the Pope within the Catholic Church. By the start of the 14th century, the pope was frequently naming the abbots of Cluny. Although the monks – who never numbered more than 60 – lived in relative luxury during this period, the political and religious wars of the 16th century further weakened the abbey's status in Christendom. For instance with the Concordat of Bologna in 1516 overseen by Antoine Duprat, Francis I, the king of France, gained the power to appoint the abbot of Cluny from Pope Leo X. Over the next 250 years, the abbey never regained its power or position within European Christianity. Seen as an example of the excesses of the\" Ancien Régime\", the monastic buildings and most of the church were destroyed in the French Revolution. Its extensive library and archives were burned in 1793 and the church was given up to plundering. The abbey's estate was sold in 1798 for 2,140,000 francs. Over the next twenty years the Abbey's immense walls were quarried for stone that was used in rebuilding the town. Although it was the largest church in Christendom until the completion of Rome's St. Peter's Basilica in the early 17th century, little remains of the original buildings. In total the surviving parts amount to about 10% of the original floor space of Cluny III. These include the southern transept and its bell-tower, and the lower parts of the two west front towers. In 1928, the site was excavated by the American archaeologist Kenneth J. Conant with the backing of the Medieval Academy of America. Ruined bases of columns convey the size of the former church and monastery. Since 1901 it has been a center of the \"École nationale supérieure d'arts et métiers\" (ENSAM), an elite school of engineering." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Company name.", "Former key employees.", "Game development.", "Technology.", "Linux gaming.", "Games.", "\"Commander Keen\".", "\"Wolfenstein\".", "\"Doom\".", "\"Quake\".", "\"Rage\".", "Other games.", "Other media.", "Controversy.", "\"Doom\".", "\"Wolfenstein 3D\".", "People.", "John Carmack.", "John Romero.", "Tom Hall.", "Sandy Petersen.", "American McGee." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The founders of id Software met in the offices of Softdisk developing multiple games for Softdisk's monthly publishing, including \"Dangerous Dave\". In September 1990, John Carmack developed an efficient way to rapidly side-scroll graphics on the PC. Upon making this breakthrough, Carmack and Tom Hall stayed up late into the night making a replica of the first level of the popular 1988 NES game \"Super Mario Bros. 3\", inserting stock graphics of John Romero's Dangerous Dave character in lieu of Mario. When Romero saw the demo, entitled \"Dangerous Dave in Copyright Infringement\", he realized that Carmack's breakthrough could have potential. The team that would later form id Software immediately began moonlighting, going so far as to \"borrow\" company computers that were not being used over the weekends and at nights while they designed their own remake of \"Super Mario Bros. 3\". Despite their work, Nintendo turned them down, saying they had no interest in expanding to the PC market, and that Mario games were to remain exclusive to Nintendo consoles. Around this time, Scott Miller of Apogee Software learned of the group and their exceptional talent, having played one of Romero's Softdisk games, \"Dangerous Dave\", and contacted Romero under the guise of multiple fan letters that Romero came to realize all originated from the same address. When he confronted Miller, Miller explained that the deception was necessary since Softdisk screened letters it received. Although disappointed by not actually having received mail from multiple fans, Romero and other Softdisk developers began proposing ideas to Miller, including \"Commander Keen\" in December 1990, which became a very successful shareware game. After their first royalty check, Romero, Carmack, and Adrian Carmack (no relation) decided to start their own company. After hiring Hall, the group finished the \"Commander Keen\" series, then hired Jay Wilbur and Kevin Cloud and began working on \"Wolfenstein 3D\". Id Software was officially founded by Romero, John and Adrian Carmack and Hall on February 1, 1991. The shareware distribution method was initially employed by id Software through Apogee Software to sell their products, such as the \"Commander Keen\", \"Wolfenstein\" and \"Doom\" games. They would release the first part of their trilogy as shareware, then sell the other two installments by mail order. Only later (about the time of the release of \"Doom II\") did id Software release their games via more traditional shrink-wrapped boxes in stores (through other game publishers). After \"Wolfenstein 3D\"s great success, id began working on \"Doom\". After Hall left the company, Sandy Petersen and Dave Taylor were hired before the release of \"Doom\" in December 1993. On June 24, 2009, it was announced that id Software had been acquired by ZeniMax Media (owner of Bethesda Softworks). The deal would eventually affect publishing deals id Software had before the acquisition, namely \"Rage\", which was being published through Electronic Arts. ZeniMax received in July a $105 million investment from StrongMail Systems for the id acquisition, it's unknown if that was the exact price of the deal. id Software moved from the \"cube-shaped\" Mesquite office to a location in Richardson, Texas during the spring of 2011. On June 26, 2013, id Software president Todd Hollenshead quit after 17 years of service. On November 22, 2013, it was announced id Software co-founder and Technical Director John Carmack had fully resigned from the company to work full-time at Oculus VR which he joined as CTO in August 2013. He was the last of the original founders to leave the company. Tim Willits left the company in 2019.", "The company writes its name with a lowercase \"id\", which is pronounced as in \"did\" or \"kid\", and, according to the book \"Masters of Doom\", the group identified itself as \"Ideas from the Deep\" in the early days of Softdisk but that, in the end, the name 'id' came from the phrase \"in demand\". Disliking \"in demand\" as \"lame\", someone suggested a connection with Sigmund Freud's psychological concept of id, which the others accepted. Evidence of the reference can be found as early as \"Wolfenstein 3D\" with the statement \"that's id, as in the id, ego, and superego in the psyche\" appearing in the game's documentation. Prior to an update to the website, id's History page made a direct reference to Freud.", "Arranged in chronological order:", "", "Starting with their first shareware game series, \"Commander Keen\", id Software has licensed the core source code for the game, or what is more commonly known as the engine. Brainstormed by John Romero, id Software held a weekend session titled \"The id Summer Seminar\" in the summer of 1991 with prospective buyers including Scott Miller, George Broussard, Ken Rogoway, Jim Norwood and Todd Replogle. One of the nights, id Software put together an impromptu game known as \"Wac-Man\" to demonstrate not only the technical prowess of the \"Keen\" engine, but also how it worked internally. id Software has developed their own game engine for each of their titles when moving to the next technological milestone, including \"Commander Keen\", \"Wolfenstein 3D\", \"ShadowCaster\", \"Doom\", \"Quake\", \"Quake II\", and \"Quake III\", as well as the technology used in making \"Doom 3\". After being used first for id Software's in-house game, the engines are licensed out to other developers. According to \"Eurogamer.net\", \"id Software has been synonymous with PC game engines since the concept of a detached game engine was first popularized\". During the mid to late 1990s, \"the launch of each successive round of technology it's been expected to occupy a headlining position\", with the \"Quake III\" engine being most widely adopted of their engines. However id Tech 4 had far fewer licensees than the Unreal Engine from Epic Games, due to the long development time that went into \"Doom 3\" which id Software had to release before licensing out that engine to others. Despite his enthusiasm for open source code, Carmack revealed in 2011 that he had no interest in licensing the technology to the mass market. Beginning with Wolfenstein 3D, he felt bothered when third-party companies started \"pestering\" him to licence the id tech engine, adding that he wanted to focus on new technology instead of providing support to existing ones. He felt very strongly that this was not why he signed up to be a game programmer for; to be \"holding the hands\" of other game developers. Carmack commended Epic Games for pursuing the licensing to the market beginning with Unreal Engine 3. Even though the said company has gained more success with its game engine than id Software over the years, Carmack had no regrets by his decision and continued to focus on open source until his departure from the company in 2013. In conjunction with his self-professed affinity for sharing source code, John Carmack has open-sourced most of the major id Software engines under the GNU General Public License. Historically, the source code for each engine has been released once the code base is 5 years old. Consequently, many home grown projects have sprung up porting the code to different platforms, cleaning up the source code, or providing major modifications to the core engine. \"Wolfenstein 3D\", \"DOOM\" and \"Quake\" engine ports are ubiquitous to nearly all platforms capable of running games, such as hand-held PCs, iPods, the PSP, the Nintendo DS and more. Impressive core modifications include DarkPlaces which adds stencil shadow volumes into the original \"Quake\" engine along with a more efficient network protocol. Another such project is ioquake3, which maintains a goal of cleaning up the source code, adding features and fixing bugs. Even earlier id Software code, namely for \"Hovertank 3D\" and \"Catacomb 3D\", was released in June 2014 by Flat Rock Software. The GPL release of the \"Quake III\" engine's source code was moved from the end of 2004 to August 2005 as the engine was still being licensed to commercial customers who would otherwise be concerned over the sudden loss in value of their recent investment. On August 4, 2011, John Carmack revealed during his QuakeCon 2011 keynote that they will be releasing the source code of the \"Doom 3\" engine (id Tech 4) during the year. id Software publicly stated they would not support the Wii console (possibly due to technical limitations), although they have since indicated that they may release titles on that platform (although it would be limited to their games released during the 1990s). They did the same thing with the Wii U but for Nintendo Switch, they collaborated with Panic Button to release 2016's Doom and. Since id Software revealed their engine id Tech 5, they call their engines \"id Tech\", followed by a version number. Older engines have retroactively been renamed to fit this scheme, with the \"Doom\" engine as id Tech 1.", "id Software was an early pioneer in the Linux gaming market, and id Software's Linux games have been some of the most popular of the platform. Many id Software games won the Readers' and Editors' Choice awards of Linux Journal. Some id Software titles ported to Linux are \"Doom\" (the first id Software game to be ported), \"Quake\", \"Quake II\", \"Quake III Arena\", \"Return to Castle Wolfenstein\", \"\", \"Doom 3\", \"Quake 4\", and \"\". Since id Software and some of its licensees released the source code for some of their previous games, several games which were not ported (such as \"Wolfenstein 3D\", \"Spear of Destiny\", \"Heretic\", \"\", \"Hexen II\", and \"Strife\") can run on Linux and other operating systems natively through the use of source ports. \"Quake Live\" also launched with Linux support, although this, alongside OS X support, was later removed when changed to a standalone title. The tradition of porting to Linux was first started by Dave D. Taylor, with David Kirsch doing some later porting. Since \"Quake III Arena\", Linux porting had been handled by Timothee Besset. The majority of all id Tech 4 games, including those made by other developers, have a Linux client available, the only current exceptions being \"Wolfenstein\" and \"Brink\". Similarly, almost all of the games utilizing the Quake II engine have Linux ports, the only exceptions being those created by Ion Storm (\"Daikatana\" later received a community port). Despite fears by the Linux gaming community that id Tech 5 would not be ported to that platform, Timothee Besset in his blog stated \"I'll be damned if we don't find the time to get Linux builds done\". Besset explained that id Software's primary justification for releasing Linux builds was better code quality, along with a technical interest in the platform. However, on January 26, 2012, Besset announced that he had left id. John Carmack has expressed his stance with regard to Linux builds in the past. In December 2000 Todd Hollenshead expressed support for Linux: \"All said, we will continue to be a leading supporter of the Linux platform because we believe it is a technically sound OS and is the OS of choice for many server ops.\" However, on April 25, 2012, Carmack revealed that \"there are no plans for a native Linux client\" of id's most recent game, \"Rage\". In February 2013, Carmack argued for improving emulation as the \"proper technical direction for gaming on Linux\", though this was also due to ZeniMax's refusal to support \"unofficial binaries\", given all prior ports (except for \"Quake III Arena\", via Loki Software, and earlier versions of \"Quake Live\") having only ever been unofficial. Carmack didn't mention official games \"Quake: The Offering\" and \"Quake II: Colossus\" ported by id Software to Linux and published by Macmillan Computer Publishing USA. Despite no longer releasing native binaries, id has been an early adopter of Google Stadia, a cloud gaming service powered by Debian Linux servers, and the cross-platform Vulkan API.", "", "\"Commander Keen in Invasion of the Vorticons\", a platform game in the style of those for the Nintendo Entertainment System, was one of the first MS-DOS games with smooth horizontal-scrolling. Published by Apogee Software, the title and follow-ups brought id Software success as a shareware developer. It is the series of id Software that designer Tom Hall is most affiliated with. The first \"Commander Keen\" trilogy was released on December 14, 1990.", "The company's breakout product was released on May 5, 1992: \"Wolfenstein 3D\", a first-person shooter (FPS) with smooth 3D graphics that were unprecedented in computer games, and with violent gameplay that many gamers found engaging. After essentially founding an entire genre with this game, id Software created \"Doom\", \"\", \"Quake\", \"Quake II\", \"Quake III Arena\", \"Quake 4\", and \"Doom 3\". Each of these first-person shooters featured progressively higher levels of graphical technology. \"Wolfenstein 3D\" spawned a prequel and a sequel: the prequel called \"Spear of Destiny\", and the second, \"Return to Castle Wolfenstein\", using the id Tech 3 engine. A third \"Wolfenstein\" sequel, simply titled \"Wolfenstein\", was released by Raven Software, using the id Tech 4 engine. Another sequel, named \"\"; was developed by MachineGames using the id Tech 5 engine and released in 2014, with it getting a prequel by the name of \"\" a year later; followed by a direct sequel titled \"\" in 2017.", "Eighteen months after their release of \"Wolfenstein 3D\", on December 10, 1993, id Software released \"Doom\" which would again set new standards for graphic quality and graphic violence in computer gaming. \"Doom\" featured a sci-fi/horror setting with graphic quality that had never been seen on personal computers or even video game consoles. \"Doom\" became a cultural phenomenon and its violent theme would eventually launch a new wave of criticism decrying the dangers of violence in video games. \"Doom\" was ported to numerous platforms, inspired many knock-offs, and was eventually followed by the technically similar \"\". id Software made its mark in video game history with the shareware release of \"Doom\", and eventually revisited the theme of this game in 2004 with their release of \"Doom 3\". John Carmack said in an interview at QuakeCon 2007 that there would be a \"Doom 4\". It began development on May 7, 2008. \"Doom\", the fourth installation and a reboot of the Doom series, was released on Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4, and Xbox One on May 13, 2016, and was later released on Nintendo Switch on November 10, 2017. In June 2018, the sequel to the 2016 reboot, \"Doom Eternal\" was officially announced at E3 2018 with a teaser trailer, followed by a gameplay reveal at QuakeCon in August 2018.", "On June 22, 1996, the release of \"Quake\" marked the third milestone in id Software history. \"Quake\" combined a cutting edge fully 3D engine, the \"Quake\" engine, with a distinctive art style to create critically acclaimed graphics for its time. Audio was not neglected either, having recruited Nine Inch Nails frontman Trent Reznor to facilitate unique sound effects and ambient music for the game. (A small homage was paid to Nine Inch Nails in the form of the band's logo appearing on the ammunition boxes for the nailgun weapon.) It also included the work of Michael Abrash. Furthermore, \"Quake\"'s main innovation, the capability to play a deathmatch (competitive gameplay between living opponents instead of against computer-controlled characters) over the Internet (especially through the add-on \"QuakeWorld\"), seared the title into the minds of gamers as another smash hit. In 2008, id Software was honored at the 59th Annual Technology & Engineering Emmy Awards for the pioneering work \"Quake\" represented in user modifiable games. id Software is the only game development company ever honored twice by the National Academy of Television Arts & Sciences, having been given an Emmy Award in 2007 for creation of the 3D technology that underlies modern shooter video games. The \"Quake\" series continued with \"Quake II\" in 1997. Activision purchased a 49% stake in id Software, making it a second party which took publishing duties until 2009. However, the game is not a storyline sequel, and instead focuses on an assault on an alien planet, Stroggos, in retaliation for Strogg attacks on Earth. Most of the subsequent entries in the \"Quake\" franchise follow this storyline. \"Quake III Arena\" (1999), the next title in the series, has minimal plot, but centers around the \"Arena Eternal\", a gladiatorial setting created by an alien race known as the Vadrigar and populated by combatants plucked from various points in time and space. Among these combatants are some characters either drawn from or based on those in \"Doom\" (\"Doomguy\"), \"Quake\" (Ranger, Wrack), and \"Quake II\" (Bitterman, Tank Jr., Grunt, Stripe). \"Quake IV\" (2005) picks up where \"Quake II\" left off – finishing the war between the humans and Strogg. The spin-off \"\" acts as a prequel to \"Quake II\", when the Strogg first invade Earth. \"Quake IV\" and \"Enemy Territory: Quake Wars\" were made by outside developers and not id. There have also been other spin-offs such as Quake Mobile in 2005 and \"Quake Live\", an internet browser based modification of \"Quake III\". A game called \"Quake Arena DS\" was planned and canceled for the Nintendo DS. John Carmack stated, at QuakeCon 2007, that the \"id Tech 5\" engine would be used for a new \"Quake\" game.", "Todd Hollenshead announced in May 2007 that id Software had begun working on an all new series that would be using a new engine. Hollenshead also mentioned that the title would be completely developed in-house, marking the first game since 2004's \"Doom 3\" to be done so. At 2007's WWDC, John Carmack showed the new engine called id Tech 5. Later that year, at QuakeCon 2007, the title of the new game was revealed as \"Rage\". On July 14, 2008, id Software announced at the 2008 E3 event that they would be publishing \"Rage\" through Electronic Arts, and not id's longtime publisher Activision. However, since then ZeniMax has also announced that they are publishing \"Rage\" through Bethesda Softworks. On August 12, 2010, during Quakecon 2010, id Software announced \"Rage\" US ship date of September 13, 2011, and a European ship date of September 15, 2011. During the keynote, id Software also demonstrated a \"Rage\" spin-off title running on the iPhone. This technology demo later became \"Rage HD\". On May 14, 2018, Bethesda Softworks announced \"Rage 2\", a co-development between id Software and Avalanche Studios.", "During its early days, id Software produced much more varied games; these include the early 3D first-person shooter experiments that led to \"Wolfenstein 3D\" and \"Doom\" – \"Hovertank 3D\" and \"Catacomb 3D\". There was also the \"Rescue Rover\" series, which had two games – \"Rescue Rover\" and \"Rescue Rover 2\". Also there was John Romero's \"Dangerous Dave\" series, which included such notables as the tech demo (\"In Copyright Infringement\") which led to the \"Commander Keen\" engine, and the decently popular \"Dangerous Dave in the Haunted Mansion\". \"In the Haunted Mansion\" was powered by the same engine as the earlier id Software game \"Shadow Knights\", which was one of the several games written by id Software to fulfill their contractual obligation to produce games for Softdisk, where the id Software founders had been employed. id Software has also overseen several games using its technology that were not made in one of their IPs such as \"ShadowCaster\", (early-id Tech 1), \"Heretic\", \"\" (id Tech 1), \"Hexen II\" (\"Quake\" engine), and \"Orcs and Elves\" (\"Doom RPG\" engine).", "id Software has also published novels based on the Doom series \"Doom\" novels. After a brief hiatus from publishing, id resumed and re-launched the novel series in 2008 with Matthew J. Costello's (a story consultant for \"Doom 3\" and now \"Rage\") new \"Doom 3\" novels: \"\" and \"\". id Software became involved in film development when they oversaw the film adaption of their \"Doom\" franchise in 2005. In August 2007, Todd Hollenshead stated at QuakeCon 2007 that a \"Return to Castle Wolfenstein\" movie is in development which re-teams the \"Silent Hill\" writer/producer team, Roger Avary as writer and director and Samuel Hadida as producer. A new \"Doom\" film, titled \"\", was released in 2019, although id itself stressed its lack of involvement.", "id Software was the target of controversy over two of their most popular games, \"Doom\" and the earlier \"Wolfenstein 3D\":", "\"Doom\" was notorious for its high levels of gore and occultism along with satanic imagery, which generated controversy from a broad range of groups. Yahoo! Games listed it as one of the top ten most controversial games of all time. The game again sparked controversy throughout a period of school shootings in the United States when it was found that Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold, who committed the Columbine High School massacre in 1999, were avid players of the game. While planning for the massacre, Harris said that the killing would be \"like playing \"Doom\"\", and \"it'll be like the LA riots, the Oklahoma bombing, World War II, Vietnam, \"Duke Nukem\" and \"Doom\" all mixed together\", and that his shotgun was \"straight out of the game\". A rumor spread afterwards that Harris had designed a \"Doom\" level that looked like the high school, populated with representations of Harris's classmates and teachers, and that Harris practiced for his role in the shootings by playing the level over and over. Although Harris did design \"Doom\" levels, none of them were based on Columbine High School. While \"Doom\" and other violent video games have been blamed for nationally covered school shootings, 2008 research featured by Greater Good Science Center shows that the two are not closely related. Harvard Medical School researchers Cheryl Olson and Lawrence Kutner found that violent video games did not correlate to school shootings. The United States Secret Service and United States Department of Education analyzed 37 incidents of school violence and sought to develop a profile of school shooters; they discovered that the most common traits among shooters were that they were male and had histories of depression and attempted suicide. While many of the killers—like the vast majority of young teenage boys—did play video games, this study did not find a relationship between gameplay and school shootings. In fact, only one-eighth of the shooters showed any special interest in violent video games, far less than the number of shooters who seemed attracted to books and movies with violent content.", "As for \"Wolfenstein 3D\", due to its use of Nazi symbols such as the swastika and the anthem of the Nazi Party, \"Horst-Wessel-Lied\", as theme music, the PC version of the game was withdrawn from circulation in Germany in 1994, following a verdict by the Amtsgericht München on January 25, 1994. Despite the fact that Nazis are portrayed as the enemy in \"Wolfenstein\", the use of those symbols is a federal offense in Germany unless certain circumstances apply. Similarly, the Atari Jaguar version was confiscated following a verdict by the Amtsgericht Berlin Tiergarten on December 7, 1994. Due to concerns from Nintendo of America, the Super NES version was modified to not include any swastikas or Nazi references; furthermore, blood was replaced with sweat to make the game seem less violent, and the attack dogs in the game were replaced by giant mutant rats. Employees of id Software are quoted in \"The Official DOOM Player Guide\" about the reaction to \"Wolfenstein\", claiming it to be ironic that it was morally acceptable to shoot people and rats, but not dogs. Two new weapons were added as well. The Super NES version was not as successful as the PC version.", "In 2003, the book \"Masters of Doom\" chronicled the development of id Software, concentrating on the personalities and interaction of John Carmack and John Romero. Below are the key people involved with id's success.", "Carmack's skill at 3D programming is widely recognized in the software industry and from its inception, he was id's lead programmer. On August 7, 2013, he joined Oculus VR, a company developing virtual reality headsets, and left id Software on November 22, 2013.", "John Romero, who was forced to resign in 1996 after the release of \"Quake\", later formed the ill-fated company Ion Storm. There, he became infamous through the development of \"Daikatana\", which was received negatively from reviewers and gamers alike upon release. Both Tom Hall and John Romero have reputations as designers and idea men who have helped shape some of the key PC gaming titles of the 1990s.", "Tom Hall was forced to resign by id Software during the early days of \"Doom\" development, but not before he had some impact; for example, he was responsible for the inclusion of teleporters in the game. He was let go before the shareware release of \"Doom\" and then went to work for Apogee, developing \"Rise of the Triad\" with the \"Developers of Incredible Power\". When he finished work on that game, he found he was not compatible with the \"Prey\" development team at Apogee, and therefore left to join his ex-id Software compatriot John Romero at Ion Storm. Hall has frequently commented that if he could obtain the rights to \"Commander Keen\", he would immediately develop another Keen title.", "Sandy Petersen was a level designer for 19 of the 27 levels in the original \"Doom\" title as well as 17 of the 32 levels of \"Doom II\". As a fan of H.P. Lovecraft, his influence is apparent in the Lovecraftian feel of the monsters for \"Quake\", and he created \"Inferno\", the third \"episode\" of the first DOOM. He was forced to resign from id Software during the production of \"Quake II\" and most of his work was scrapped before the title was released.", "American McGee was a level designer for \"Doom II\", \"The Ultimate Doom\", \"Quake\", and \"Quake II\". He was asked to resign after the release of \"Quake II\", then moved to Electronic Arts where he gained industry notoriety with the development of his own game \"American McGee's Alice\". After leaving Electronic Arts, he became an independent entrepreneur and game developer. McGee now heads independent game development house Spicy Horse in Shanghai, where he works on various projects." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Effect.", "Formula One.", "Procedure.", "History.", "Virtual safety car (VSC).", "Formula E.", "Indianapolis 500.", "NASCAR.", "Incidents with safety cars and other course cars.", "2014 Sprint Unlimited.", "2012 Daytona 500.", "2011 6 Hours of Castellet.", "2009 WTCC Pau.", "2008 Dutch Supercar Challenge Spa.", "1971 Indianapolis 500." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The use of a safety car has the effect of bunching up competitors together, such as to eliminate any time and distance advantage that a leading driver may have had over the remaining field of competitors. This effect can make racing more competitive upon full race resumption; conversely, it has also contributed to faster leading drivers being negated just rewards for their efforts prior to the caution period. Subject to the racing regulations in force, it is not uncommon for drivers to be allowed to make pitstops during safety car periods. This situation may provide a strategic advantage since any scheduled refueling, tire change or maintenance may be carried out while other competitors are lapping at lower speed, and the drivers who pit then simply rejoin a queue of cars all running together. During normal racing conditions, such interventions would typically involve losing significant terrain over those drivers that remain on-track. Another notable effect of safety car periods is that racing cars consume less fuel until full race resumption, which can allow competitors to run longer distances on a tank of fuel than would otherwise have been possible and/or reduce the number of pitstops required for the duration of the race.", "", "In Formula One if an accident or inclement weather (typically, heavy rain) prevents normal racing from continuing safely, the Race Director will call for a \"safety car\" period, which would see marshals wave yellow flags and hold \"SC\" boards, pending the car in question entering the track. From 2007, all Formula One cars must have LEDs and/or displays fitted to the steering wheel or cockpit, which inform the driver which flags are being waved. A yellow LED is illuminated when the safety car is deployed. The safety car has both orange and green lights mounted on its roof in the form of a light bar. The green lights are used to signal that it is possible to overtake the safety car; this is only done until the race leader is immediately behind the safety car and at the head of the queue of race cars following. From 2015, the safety car is not required to wait until all backmarkers have caught back up to the queue. When the safety car is ready to leave the circuit, it will turn off its orange lights to indicate that it will enter the pit lane at the end of the lap. Drivers must continue in formation until they cross the first safety car line, where circuit green lights and flags will indicate they are free to race again. The safety car is piloted by professional drivers (since 2000, by Bernd Mayländer) on-board high-powered modified vehicles supplied by Mercedes-Benz, and must maintain a reasonable speed so as to ensure that the competitors' tyres are as close as possible to operating temperature and their engines do not overheat. The driver of the safety car is accompanied by a co-driver to assist with operations and communications. For incidents during the first three laps, the safety car also has an advantage over the traditional red flag; with a red flag, it would take a minimum of fifteen minutes to restart the race, and the two-hour limit would not start until the cars were ready for a second formation lap. With regards to the time limit, the race is being scored and the time is also counting while the safety car is on the track, and the race resumes.", "The first use of a safety car in Formula One is reported to have taken place at the 1973 Canadian Grand Prix, where a yellow Porsche 914 was called for duty following various incidents under treacherous weather conditions. Controversially, on that occasion, it took several hours after the race to figure out the winner and final results since the safety car driver had placed his car in front of the wrong competitor thus causing part of the field to be one lap down incorrectly. The sport officially introduced safety cars in, after trials were conducted at both the French and British Grands Prix during the preceding season. Since 1996, as part of promotional arrangements, the supplier of safety cars has been Mercedes-Benz, unlike previous years that have seen cars of different brands being used throughout the season and depending on the track visited (for example, the exotic Lamborghini Countach for the Monaco Grand Prix in the 1980s to the more mundane Fiat Tempra used at the rain-affected 1993 Brazilian Grand Prix and the high performance version of the Opel Vectra used at the infamous 1994 San Marino Grand Prix). From 2007, new procedures were applied for the first time during the Bahrain Grand Prix. The pit lane was closed immediately upon the deployment of the safety car. No car could enter the pits until all cars on the track had formed up in a line behind the safety car, they passed the pit entrance, and the message \"pit lane open\" was given. A ten-second stop/go penalty (which must be taken when the race is resumed) was imposed on any driver who entered the pit lane before the pit lane open message is given. However, any car which was in the pit entry or pit lane when the safety car was deployed would not incur a penalty. From 2009, however, this procedure has been dropped, and replaced by software that calculates where a car is on the track and a minimum lap time it should take the car to get to the pits. Cars that enter the pits before this time limit has expired are penalised. When the safety car and the drivers behind it are on the start/finish straight, there is a red light at the exit of the pit lane. Drivers who go past the red light are disqualified from the race. This has happened to several drivers during the years, such as Giancarlo Fisichella and Felipe Massa in the 2007 Canadian Grand Prix. At the same race a year later, Lewis Hamilton failed to notice the red light and slammed into the back of the car of Kimi Räikkönen, who was waiting at the end of the pit lane alongside Robert Kubica. From 2010, once cars were lined up behind the safety car, lapped cars were no longer allowed to unlap themselves before the race was restarted. This rule was abandoned from the 2012 season onwards, with cars now allowed to unlap themselves before the race resumes; however, since 2015, the safety car need not wait for the backmarkers to catch up with the leading pack before returning to the pits.", "Following an accident at the 2014 Japanese Grand Prix, which saw driver Jules Bianchi suffer a serious head injury which led to his death, the FIA established an \"accident panel\" to investigate the dynamics of the accident and ways to minimize the risk of a crash during similar circumstances that do not warrant the deployment of a safety car and cannot be simply managed with yellow flags. The accident panel recommended the implementation of a \"virtual safety car\", based on the \"slow zone\" system used in Le Mans racing. On top of not being allowed to overtake under yellow flag conditions in the affected sector, a \"VSC\" icon would appear trackside and on the drivers' steering displays, obliging drivers to not exceed the posted speed limit, thus resulting in a 35% speed reduction. The system was similar to the Electro-PACER lights used in the Indianapolis 500 races from 1972 until 1978, except that engine control units (ECU) were involved and could enforce speed limits under the current system. The VSC was tested over the course of the final three races of the season, during parts of free practice sessions. The system was evolved taking into account drivers' feedback and was officially introduced for the season following ratification by the World Motor Sport Council (WMSC). The VSC was officially used for the first time – and for a brief period prior to the deployment of the actual safety car – at the 2015 Monaco Grand Prix, following a 30G crash involving Max Verstappen. The system saw its first extended deployment at the 2015 British Grand Prix after Carlos Sainz Jr.'s power unit failed at Club Corner of the Silverstone Circuit.", "The Full Course Yellow condition is the Formula E version of the Virtual Safety Car. In this condition, all marshal posts will wave yellow flags, accompanied by a sign that says \"FCY\" with a yellow background. This condition is often decided by the Race Director whether it is appropriate to implement it or not. The fans (if they're watching the race on TV) and drivers can hear the Race Director declare the FCY (mainly saying \"Attention all teams, attention all teams this is Race Control, Full Course Yellow in 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, Full Course Yellow, Full Course Yellow). Once the FCY is implemented, all drivers must activate the FCY limiter, which, similar to the pit speed limiter, keeps the car under FCY speeds despite the throttle being flat to the floor. For season 6 of Formula E, when there is an FCY period, everyone is no longer allowed to activate Attack Mode. For every minute spent under FCY conditions, 1kWh of energy kept in reserve by the drivers will be subtracted, giving more energy saving tactics to the drivers and teams alike. Like Formula One, Formula E does have a safety car condition, but instead of a Mercedes-AMG GT R as the safety car, since 2014, a BMW i8 plug-in hybrid sports car is used.", "The first use of a pace car in automobile racing was at the inaugural Indy 500 in 1911. The officials at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway have been selecting a pace car and its driver for the Indy 500 each year since that first race. The first pace car was a Stoddard-Dayton driven by Carl G. Fisher. In recent years Chevrolet models have been chosen as the official pace car, owing to the ability for them to be used at both major automobile races at the Speedway (typically Corvette at the 500 and Impala at the 400). The pace car is selected two months before the race runs, allowing the manufacturer of the selected pace car to produce replicas of that year's car, which sell at a marked premium to collectors and race fans. Pace car replicas are often seen on the streets of Indianapolis weeks before the race is actually held, and a celebrity driver is usually used for the start of the race only. The Indiana Pacers, a professional basketball team located in Indianapolis, Indiana, is named after a pace car. The legacy of racing and the rich history of the Indy 500 both played a major role in the naming process. Automakers compete for the prestige of having one of their models selected as the year's pace car for the publicity. In 1971, the move backfired as no automakers stepped up to provide a pace car. Instead, local Indianapolis-area Dodge dealers fulfilled the duty. Eldon Palmer, a local dealer, lost control of the Dodge Challenger pace car and crashed into a photography stand, injuring several people. The blame for the crash was never fully determined, as officials realized that an orange cone (or perhaps an orange flag), which was to identify Palmer's braking point, was accidentally removed. In the last 50 years, the Pontiac Trans Am, Chevrolet Camaro, Chevrolet Corvette, Oldsmobile Cutlass, and Ford Mustang are the only models that have been selected as pace cars three or more times. During the IndyCar Series season, however, Johnny Rutherford is the normal driver of the IRL pace car for all events. The pace car is deployed for debris, collision, or weather reasons. Since 1993, upon the waving of the yellow flag, pit road is closed until the pace car picks up the leader and passes the pit entrance the first time, unless track blockage forces the field to drive through pit lane. Another duty of the pace car is to lead the field around the course on parade laps prior to the start of the race. These increase in speed, allowing for a flying start of the race. Furthermore, two other rule changes have been implemented. Since 2000, with one lap to go before going back to green, the pace car pulls off the track in turn one rather than in turn four. The current leader of the race is then assigned the task of pacing the field back to the green flag. After much consideration, this rule was added to prevent a situation much like the one that happened in the 1995 Indianapolis 500, when Scott Goodyear passed the pace car going back to green. In 2002, another rule was added. With one lap to go before the green, the pace car waves by all cars (if there are any) between the pace car and the actual leader of the race. This allows for the leader to control the restart without lapped cars being in front of him. It also creates a strategy for cars to gain laps back, loosely resembling the \"Lucky dog\" rule. However, the cars who get waved around are not allowed to pit until the green flag restarts the race (so they do not get the advantage of getting their lap back AND a free pit stop).", "In all NASCAR series, if the caution is out for debris, accident, or inclement weather, the flagman will display the yellow caution flag and the pace car will pull out of the pits and turn on the yellow strobes on top and/or behind the car. When race officials are ready to open pit lane, a green light will come on in the rear window of the safety car. One lap before a green flag, the pace car will shut off its lights to signal drivers to line up double file. Unlike most series in motorsport, owing to NASCAR's short-track roots, each track usually offers its own safety car, typically from the manufacturer, but in recent years, it has been a local dealer or association of regional dealerships-provided Safety car. Tracks that use Toyota safety cars will use a Toyota Camry Hybrid, while Ford tracks will use a Ford Mustang, while Chevrolet tracks use a Chevrolet Camaro and most Dodge tracks use a Dodge Challenger. If a manufacturer is promoting a new vehicle, they will often use the new car instead of the standard-specification safety car. For the Truck Series, which races pickup trucks instead of cars, the safety \"car\" is often a pickup. Tracks affiliated with a local or regional Chevrolet dealership will use a Chevrolet Silverado, while Chrysler dealership-affiliated tracks will use a Ram 1500. Ford-affiliated tracks will often use the F-Series, but Toyota-affiliated tracks are less likely to use the Toyota Tundra, but prefer marketing the Camry Hybrid. However, Ford and Toyota manufacturer sponsored tracks will prefer the Mustang and Camry, respectively, instead of a truck, and occasionally, pickup trucks have been used as pace vehicles for Cup Series and Xfinity races. Since NASCAR does not allow speedometers or electronic speed limiting devices, the pace car circles the track at pit road speed during the warm-up laps. This allows each driver to note the RPM at which pit road speed is maintained. Drivers exceeding that speed on pit road will be penalized, typically a \"drive-through\" or \"stop and go\" penalty, costing them valuable track position. Since mid-2004, NASCAR official Brett Bodine has driven the vehicle during official race functions during Cup Series races. Other famous NASCAR pace car drivers include Robert \"Buster\" Auton and Elmo Langley. At many races, NASCAR has an honorary pace car driver that actually drives a car during the parade laps. Depending on the driver's skill, some drivers are allowed to pace the field right up to the dropping of the green flag. Some famous drivers have been Jay Leno, Richard Hammond, Luke Wilson, Rob Gronkowski, Guy Fieri and many others. The beneficiary rule (informally known as the \"lucky dog\" rule) states once the safety car is deployed, the first car not on the lead lap will regain a lap. The Beneficiary will regain his lap once pit road opens. Bodine will signal that car to pass him through radio contact between NASCAR and that team. The free pass car must pit with the lapped cars. In 2009, NASCAR introduced a new \"Double-file restart\" rule that lines the field two cars on each row on every restart, similar to the start of the race, instead of lead-lap cars on the outside and lapped cars on the inside. Also, the \"wave-around\" rule, similar to what is enforced in racing series sanctioned by IndyCar, was adopted to ensure the first car on the restart is the leader, and ensure there are no lapped cars ahead of the leader.", "", "Before the start of the final segment of the Sprint Cup Series' Sprint Unlimited exhibition race at Daytona, the Chevrolet SS pace car caught fire and stopped off the track, delaying the restart. The fire was believed to have started in a trunk-mounted battery pack powering the lights.", "During a safety car situation on Lap 160 of the 2012 Daytona 500, Earnhardt Ganassi Racing driver Juan Pablo Montoya's car had a suspension part failure, and it lost control on turn 3, sharply veering right into a safety truck and jet dryer trailer, causing a massive diesel/jet fuel fire. As it was seen on video, sparks were seen emanating from Montoya's car right before its hard collision with the jet dryer trailer and left driver's side of the truck. Montoya was treated at the infield care center and released. Montoya's report over the radio after the incident was \"I left the pits and felt a really weird vibration and I came back in and checked the rear end and said it was okay and I got into the backstraight and we were are going fourth gear but wasn't going that fast. Every time I got on the gas I could feel the rear squeezing. When I was telling the spotter to have a look how the rear was moving the car just turned right.\" The driver of the Chevrolet Silverado Crew Cab, Duane Barnes, was taken to a local hospital for observation and was resting comfortably. He was an employee at Michigan International Speedway, a sister track of Daytona. The tracks often share jet dryer equipment on race weekends to help in case of rain such as the case on Sunday, the original scheduled start time of the race. The entire incident took about two hours to clean up before the last 40 (later extended to 42 due to a Green-white-checkered finish) laps were able to be completed. NASCAR subsequently added the use of the second safety car (used during race start situations) to protect the last jet dryer in other safety car situations.", "The 2011 6 Hours of Castellet got off to a controversial start when the pace car did not return to the pits when the green lights came on. The front running LMPs slowed down but some of the GT cars could not react fast enough, resulting in heavy damage to all three GTE Pro class Porsches which caused them to retire. The GTE Am class IMSA Performance Matmut Porsche and GTE Pro JOTA Aston Martin were also caught up in the carnage.", "An accident occurred during the 2009 FIA WTCC Race of France in Pau, France. A succession of first-lap accidents caused the safety car to be placed on standby, with yellow flags waving on the start-finish section of the track. The safety car driver then proceeded to drive onto the track at slow speed, without official approval, moving across the pit exit line immediately after exiting the pits, instead of confining to the inside of it until the line ended. Race leader Franz Engstler came through the kink on the start-finish straight and was unable to avoid hitting the side of the pace car. Engstler commented \"I saw the safety car coming out from the right and realized that I had no chance to brake... I really do not understand why he was going out of the pits\". After this incident, the Portuguese Bruno Correia was appointed as the official safety car driver.", "A safety car caused a crash during the 2008 Dutch Supercar Challenge race at Spa Francorchamps. The Seat Leon was released too late, allowing the leading Marcos LM600 to pass while erroneously identifying the Audi TT DTM in 2nd and Mosler MT900R GT3 in 3rd as 'the leading pack.' Race officials immediately realized their mistake, and the safety car was instructed to slow down and let the entire field pass. As the safety car was exiting turn 11, an approaching Lamborghini Gallardo GT3 drastically reduced its speed in response to the unusually slow safety car. However, a BMW a few seconds behind came around the blind turn at speed, colliding with the Gallardo and safety car. The collision destroyed the Gallardo and sent the BMW into a number of rolls. The safety car was sent off the track into the Armco safety barrier at great speed. In the chaos, a Marcos LM600 coming around turn 11 locked up its brakes and spun into the wet grass on the inside of the track. Sliding back onto the track, it was hit from the side by a BMW Z3. Furthermore, two E46 BMW M3 GTRs were damaged: one on the outside line hit the rear of the Marcos, and the other, on the inside line, slightly damaged its front right. The second M3 continued around the track, while the first slid into the grass before turn 12. The race was stopped, and there were no serious injuries to any of the drivers.", "The pace car of the 1971 Indianapolis 500, an orange Dodge Challenger driven by local auto dealer Eldon Palmer, crashed at the start of the race. As Palmer drove the car off into the pit lane to let the race cars begin the race, he lost control of the car and crashed into a photographer stand. There were no fatalities, and the number of people reported injured has ranged from 18 to 29." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Experiments in flight.", "Projects.", "Test locations.", "Worldwide notice.", "Final flight.", "Legacy.", "Gallery." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Lilienthal was born on 23 May 1848 in Anklam, Pomerania Province, German kingdom of Prussia. According to his baptism certificate, his parents were Gustav and Caroline née Pohle. They belonged to the St. Nikolai evangelical church community in Anklam, where he later attended grammar school, and where he eventually studied the flight of birds with his brother Gustav (1849–1933). Fascinated by the idea of manned flight, Lilienthal and his brother made strap-on wings, but failed in their attempts to fly. He then attended the regional technical school in Potsdam for two years and trained at the Schwarzkopf Company before becoming a professional design engineer. He would later attend the Royal Technical Academy in Berlin. In 1867, Lilienthal began experiments on the force of air in earnest, interrupted when he served in the Franco-Prussian War. As a staff engineer in various engineering companies, Lilienthal received his first patent for a mining machine. Five years later he founded his own company to make boilers and steam engines. Lilienthal published his famous book \"Birdflight as the Basis of Aviation\" in 1889. Lilienthal was born to middle-class parents. They had eight children, but only three of them survived infancy: Otto, Gustav, and Marie. The brothers worked together all their lives on technical, social, and cultural projects. On 6 June 1878, Lilienthal married Agnes Fischer, daughter of a deputy. Music brought them together; she was trained in piano and voice while Lilienthal played the French horn and had a good tenor voice. After marriage, they took up residence in Berlin and had four children: Otto, Anna, Fritz, and Frida.", "Lilienthal's greatest contribution was in the development of heavier-than-air flight. He made his flights from an artificial hill he built near Berlin and from natural hills, especially in the Rhinow region. The filing of a U.S. Patent in 1894 by Lilienthal directed pilots to grip the \"bar\" for carrying and flying the hang glider. The A-frame of Percy Pilcher and Lilienthal echoes in today's control frame for hang gliders and ultralight aircraft. Working in conjunction with his brother Gustav, Lilienthal made over 2,000 flights in gliders of his design starting in 1891 with his first glider version, the Derwitzer, until his death in a gliding crash in 1896. His total flying time was five hours. At the beginning, in 1891, Lilienthal succeeded with jumps and flights covering a distance of about. He could use the updraft of a 10 m/s wind against a hill to remain stationary with respect to the ground, shouting to a photographer on the ground to manoeuvre into the best position for a photo. In 1893, in the Rhinow Hills, he was able to achieve flight distances as long as. This record remained unbeaten for him or anyone else at the time of his death. Lilienthal did research in accurately describing the flight of birds, especially storks, and used polar diagrams for describing the aerodynamics of their wings. He made many experiments in an attempt to gather reliable aeronautical data.", "During his short flying career, Lilienthal developed a dozen models of monoplanes, wing flapping aircraft and two biplanes. His gliders were carefully designed to distribute weight as evenly as possible to ensure a stable flight. Lilienthal controlled them by changing the center of gravity by shifting his body, much like modern hang gliders. However they were difficult to maneuvre and had a tendency to pitch down, from which it was difficult to recover. One reason for this was that he held the glider by his shoulders, rather than hanging from it like a modern hang glider. Only his legs and lower body could be moved, which limited the amount of weight shift he could achieve. Lilienthal made many attempts to improve stability with varying degrees of success. These included making a biplane which halved the wing span for a given wing area, and by having a hinged tailplane that could move upwards to make the flare at the end of a flight easier. He speculated that flapping wings of birds might be necessary and had begun work on such a powered aircraft. While his lifelong pursuit was flight, Lilienthal was also an inventor and devised a small engine that worked on a system of tubular boilers. His engine was much safer than the other small engines of the time. This invention gave him the financial freedom to focus on aviation. His brother Gustav (1849–1933) was living in Australia at the time, and Lilienthal did not engage in aviation experiments until his brother's return in 1885. There are 25 known Lilienthal patents.", "Lilienthal performed his first gliding attempts in mid-1891 at the so-called \"Windmühlenberg\" near to the villages of Krielow and Derwitz which are located west of Potsdam. In 1892, Lilienthal's training area was a hill formation called \"Maihöhe\" in Steglitz, Berlin. He built a high shed, in the shape of a tower, on top of it. This way, he obtained a \"jumping off\" place high. The shed served also for storing his apparatus. In 1893, Lilienthal also started to perform gliding attempts in the \"Rhinower Berge\", at the \"Hauptmannsberg\" near to Rhinow and later, 1896, at the \"Gollenberg\" near to Stölln. In 1894, Lilienthal built an artificial conical hill near his home in Lichterfelde, called \"Fliegeberg\" (lit. \"Fly Hill\"). It allowed him to launch his gliders into the wind no matter which direction it was coming from. The hill was high. There was a regular crowd of people that were interested in seeing his gliding experiments. In 1932, the Fliegeberg was redesigned by a Berlin architect as a memorial to Lilienthal. On top of the hill was built a small temple-like construction, consisting of pillars supporting a slightly sloping round roof. Inside is placed a silver globe inscribed with particulars of famous flights. Lilienthal's brother Gustav and the old mechanic and assistant Paul Baylich attended the unveiling ceremony on 10 August 1932 (36 years after Otto's death).", "Reports of Lilienthal's flights spread in Germany and elsewhere, with photographs appearing in scientific and popular publications. Among those who photographed him were pioneers such as Ottomar Anschütz and American physicist Robert Williams Wood. He soon became known as the \"father of flight\" as he had successfully controlled a heavier-than-air aircraft in sustained flight. Lilienthal was a member of the \"Verein zur Förderung der Luftschifffahrt\", and regularly detailed his experiences in articles in its journal, the \"Zeitschrift für Luftschifffahrt und Physik der Atmosphäre\", and in the popular weekly publication \"Prometheus\". These were translated in the United States, France and Russia. Many people from around the world came to visit him, including Samuel Pierpont Langley from the United States, Russian Nikolai Zhukovsky, Englishman Percy Pilcher and Austrian Wilhelm Kress. Zhukovsky wrote that Lilienthal's flying machine was the most important invention in the aviation field. Lilienthal corresponded with many people, among them Octave Chanute, James Means, Alois Wolfmüller and other flight pioneers.", "On 9 August 1896, Lilienthal went, as on previous weekends, to the Rhinow Hills. The day was very sunny and not too hot (about 20 °C, or 68 °F). The first flights were successful, reaching a distance of in his normal glider. During the fourth flight Lilienthal's glide pitched forward heading down quickly. Lilienthal had previously had difficulty in recovering from this position because the glider relied on weight shift which was difficult to achieve when pointed at the ground. His attempts failed and he fell from a height of about, while still in the glider. Paul Beylich, Lilienthal's glider mechanic, transported him by horse-drawn carriage to Stölln, where he was examined by a physician. Lilienthal had a fracture of the third cervical vertebra and soon became unconscious. Later that day he was transported in a cargo train to Lehrter train station in Berlin, and the next morning to the clinic of Ernst von Bergmann, one of the most famous and successful surgeons in Europe at the time. Lilienthal died there a few hours later (about 36 hours after the crash). There are differing accounts of Lilienthal's last words. A popular account, inscribed on his tombstone, is \"\" (\"Sacrifices must be made!\"). The director of the Otto Lilienthal Museum doubts that these were his last words. Otto Lilienthal was buried at Lankwitz public cemetery in Berlin.", "Lilienthal's research was well known to the Wright brothers, and they credited him as a major inspiration for their decision to pursue manned flight. However, they abandoned his aeronautical data after two seasons of gliding and began using their own wind tunnel data. Berlin's busiest airport, Berlin Tegel \"Otto Lilienthal\" Airport, is named after him. In September 1909, Orville Wright was in Germany making demonstration flights at Tempelhof aerodrome. He paid a call to Lilienthal's widow and, on behalf of himself and Wilbur, paid tribute to Lilienthal for his influence on aviation and on their own initial experiments in 1899. In 1972, Lilienthal was inducted into the International Air & Space Hall of Fame. In 2013, American aviation magazine \"Flying\" ranked Lilienthal No. 19 on their list of the \"51 Heroes of Aviation\".", "Lilienthal was regularly joined by photographers at his request. Most of them are well known, like Ottomar Anschütz. Lilienthal was also constantly taking his own photographs of his flying machines after 1891. There are at least 145 known photographs documenting his test flights, some of excellent quality. All of them are available online at the Otto Lilienthal Museum website. The only negatives, preserved in the Deutsches Museum in Munich, were destroyed during World War II." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Species.", "Life cycle.", "Ecology.", "Bears and salmon.", "Beavers and salmon.", "Lampreys and salmon.", "Parasites.", "Effect of pile driving.", "Wild fisheries.", "Commercial.", "Recreational.", "Farmed salmon.", "Management.", "As food.", "History.", "Mythology." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The term \"salmon\" comes from the Latin \"salmo\", which in turn might have originated from \"salire\", meaning \"to leap\". The nine commercially important species of salmon occur in two genera. The genus \"Salmo\" contains the Atlantic salmon, found in the north Atlantic, as well as many species commonly named trout. The genus \"Oncorhynchus\" contains eight species which occur naturally only in the North Pacific. As a group, these are known as Pacific salmon. Chinook salmon have been introduced in New Zealand and Patagonia. Coho, freshwater sockeye, and Atlantic salmon have been established in Patagonia, as well. Also there are a", "Salmon eggs are laid in freshwater streams typically at high latitudes. The eggs hatch into alevin or sac fry. The fry quickly develop into parr with camouflaging vertical stripes. The parr stay for six months to three years in their natal stream before becoming smolts, which are distinguished by their bright, silvery colour with scales that are easily rubbed off. Only 10% of all salmon eggs are estimated to survive to this stage. The smolt body chemistry changes, allowing them to live in salt water. While a few species of salmon remain in fresh water throughout their life cycle, the majority are anadromous and migrate to the ocean for maturation: in these species, smolts spend a portion of their out-migration time in brackish water, where their body chemistry becomes accustomed to osmoregulation in the ocean. The salmon spend about one to five years (depending on the species) in the open ocean, where they gradually become sexually mature. The adult salmon then return primarily to their natal streams to spawn. Atlantic salmon spend between one and four years at sea. When a fish returns after just one year's sea feeding, it is called a grilse in Canada, Britain, and Ireland. Grilse may be present at spawning, and go unnoticed by large males, releasing their own sperm on the eggs. Prior to spawning, depending on the species, salmon undergo changes. They may grow a hump, develop canine-like teeth, or develop a kype (a pronounced curvature of the jaws in male salmon). All change from the silvery blue of a fresh-run fish from the sea to a darker colour. Salmon can make amazing journeys, sometimes moving hundreds of miles upstream against strong currents and rapids to reproduce. Chinook and sockeye salmon from central Idaho, for example, travel over and climb", "", "In the Pacific Northwest and Alaska, salmon are keystone species, supporting wildlife such as birds, bears and otters. The bodies of salmon represent a transfer of nutrients from the ocean, rich in nitrogen, sulfur, carbon and phosphorus, to the forest ecosystem. Grizzly bears function as ecosystem engineers, capturing salmon and carrying", "Beavers also function as ecosystem engineers; in the process of clear-cutting and damming, beavers alter their ecosystems extensively. Beaver ponds can provide critical habitat for juvenile salmon. An example of this was seen in the years following 1818 in the Columbia River Basin. In 1818, the British government made an agreement with the U.S. government to allow U.S. citizens access to the Columbia catchment (see Treaty of 1818). At the time, the Hudson's Bay Company sent word to trappers to extirpate all furbearers from the area", "It has been discovered that rivers which have seen a decline or disappearance of anadromous lampreys, loss of the lampreys also affects the salmon in a negative way. Like salmon, anadromous lampreys stop feeding and die after spawning, and their decomposing bodies release nutrients into the stream. Also, along with species like rainbow trout and Sacramento sucker, lampreys clean the", "According to Canadian biologist Dorothy Kieser, the myxozoan parasite \"Henneguya salminicola\" is commonly found in the flesh of salmonids. It has been recorded in the field samples of salmon returning to the Haida Gwaii Islands. The fish responds by walling off the parasitic infection into a number of cysts that contain milky fluid. This fluid is an accumulation of a large number of parasites. \"Henneguya\" and other parasites in the myxosporean group have complex life cycles, where the salmon is one of two hosts. The fish releases", "The risk of injury caused by underwater pile driving has been studied by Dr. Halvorsen and her", "", "As can be seen from the production chart at the left, the global capture reported by different countries to the FAO of commercial wild salmon has remained fairly steady since 1990 at about one million tonnes per year. This is in contrast to", "Recreational salmon fishing can be a technically demanding kind of sport fishing, not necessarily congenial for beginning fishermen. A conflict exists between commercial fishermen and recreational fishermen for the right to salmon stock resources. Commercial fishing in estuaries and coastal areas is often restricted so enough salmon can", "Salmon aquaculture is a major contributor to the world production of farmed finfish, representing about US$10 billion annually. Other commonly cultured fish species include tilapia, catfish, sea bass, carp and bream. Salmon farming is significant in Chile, Norway, Scotland, Canada and the Faroe Islands; it is the source for most salmon consumed in the United States and Europe. Atlantic salmon are also, in very small volumes, farmed in Russia and Tasmania, Australia. Salmon are carnivorous. They are fed a meal produced from catching other wild fish and other marine organisms. Salmon farming leads to a high demand for wild forage fish. Salmon require large nutritional intakes of protein, and farmed salmon consume more fish than they generate as a final product. On a dry weight basis, 2–4 kg of wild-caught fish are needed to produce one kg of salmon. As the salmon farming industry expands, it requires more wild forage fish for feed, at a time when 75% of the world's monitored fisheries are already near to or have exceeded their maximum sustainable yield. The industrial-scale extraction of wild forage fish for salmon farming affects the survivability of the wild predator fish which rely on them for food. Work continues on substituting vegetable proteins for animal proteins in the salmon diet. This substitution results in lower levels of the highly valued omega-3 fatty acid content in the farmed product. Intensive salmon farming uses open-net cages, which have low production costs. It has the drawback of allowing disease and sea lice to spread to local wild salmon stocks. Another form of salmon production, which is safer but less controllable, is to raise salmon in hatcheries until they are old enough to become independent. They are released into rivers in an attempt to increase the salmon population. This system is referred to as ranching. It was very common in countries such as Sweden, before the Norwegians developed salmon farming, but is seldom done by private companies.", "Salmon population levels are of concern in the Atlantic and in some parts of the Pacific. The population of wild salmon declined markedly in recent decades, especially North Atlantic populations, which spawn in the waters of western Europe and eastern Canada, and wild salmon in the Snake and Columbia River systems in northwestern United States. Alaska fishery stocks are still abundant, and catches have been on the rise in recent decades, after the state initiated limitations in 1972. Some of the most important Alaskan salmon sustainable wild fisheries are located near the Kenai River, Copper River, and in Bristol Bay. Fish farming of Pacific salmon is outlawed in the United States Exclusive Economic Zone, however, there is a substantial network of publicly funded hatcheries, and the State of Alaska's fisheries management system is viewed as a leader in the management of wild fish stocks. In Canada, returning Skeena River wild salmon support commercial, subsistence and recreational fisheries, as", "Salmon is a popular food. Classified as an oily fish, salmon is considered to be healthy due to the fish's high protein, high omega-3 fatty acids, and high vitamin D content. Salmon is also a source of cholesterol, with a range of depending on the species. According to reports in the journal \"Science\", farmed salmon may contain high levels of dioxins. PCB (polychlorinated biphenyl) levels may be up to eight times higher in farmed salmon than in wild salmon, but still well below levels considered dangerous. Nonetheless, according to a 2006 study published in the Journal of the American Medical Association, the benefits of eating even farmed salmon still outweigh any risks imposed by contaminants. Farmed salmon has a high omega 3 fatty acid content comparable to wild salmon. The type of omega-3 present may not be a factor for other important health functions. Salmon flesh is generally orange to red, although white-fleshed wild salmon with white-black skin colour occurs. The natural colour of salmon results from carotenoid pigments, largely astaxanthin, but also canthaxanthin, in the flesh. Wild salmon get these carotenoids from eating krill and other tiny shellfish. The vast majority of Atlantic salmon available around the world are farmed (almost 99%), whereas the majority of Pacific salmon are wild-caught (greater than 80%). Canned salmon in the US is usually wild Pacific catch, though some farmed salmon is available in canned form. Smoked salmon is another popular preparation method, and can either be hot or cold smoked. Lox can refer to either cold-smoked salmon or salmon cured in a brine solution (also called gravlax). Traditional canned salmon includes some skin (which is harmless) and bone (which adds calcium). Skinless", "The salmon has long been at the heart of the culture and livelihood of coastal dwellers, which can be traced as far back as 5,000 years when archeologists discovered Nisqually tribes remnants. The original distribution of the Genus Oncorhynchus covered the Pacific Rim coastline. History shows salmon used tributaries, rivers and estuaries without regard to jurisdiction for 18–22 million years. Baseline data is near impossible to recreate based on the inconsistent historical data, but confirmed there have been massive depletion since the 1900s. The Pacific Northwest was once sprawled with native inhabitants who practiced eco management, to ensure little degradation was caused by their actions to salmon habitats. As animists, the indigenous people relied not only for salmon for food, but spiritual guidance. The role of the salmon spirit guided the people to respect ecological systems such as the rivers and tributaries the salmon used for spawning. Natives often used the entire fish and left no waste by creating items such turning the bladder into glue, bones for toys, and skin for clothing and shoes. The first salmon ceremony was introduced by indigenous tribes on the pacific coast, which consists of three major parts. First is the welcoming of the first catch, then comes the cooking and lastly, the return of the bones to the Sea to induce hospitality so that other salmon would give their lives to the people of that village. Many tribes such as the Yurok had a taboo against harvesting the", "The salmon is an important creature in several strands of Celtic mythology and poetry, which often associated them with wisdom and venerability. In Irish folklore, fishermen associated salmon with fairies and thought it was unlucky to refer to them by name. In Irish mythology, a creature called the Salmon of Knowledge plays key role in the tale \"The Boyhood Deeds of Fionn\". In the tale, the Salmon will grant powers of knowledge to whoever eats it, and is sought by poet Finn Eces for seven years. Finally Finn Eces catches the fish and gives it to his young pupil, Fionn mac Cumhaill, to prepare it for him. However, Fionn burns his thumb on the salmon's juices, and he instinctively puts it in his mouth. In so doing, he inadvertently gains the Salmon's wisdom. Elsewhere in Irish mythology, the salmon is also one of the incarnations of both Tuan mac Cairill and Fintan mac Bóchra. Salmon also feature in Welsh mythology. In the prose tale \"Culhwch and Olwen\", the Salmon of Llyn Llyw is the oldest animal in Britain, and the only creature who knows the location of Mabon ap Modron. After speaking to a string of other ancient animals who do not know his whereabouts, King Arthur's men Cai and Bedwyr are led to the Salmon of Llyn Llyw, who lets them ride its back to the walls of Mabon's prison in Gloucester. In Norse mythology, after Loki tricked the blind god Höðr into killing his brother Baldr, Loki jumped into a river and transformed himself into a salmon to escape punishment from the other gods. When they held out a net to trap him he attempted to leap over it but was caught by Thor who grabbed him by the tail with his hand, and this is why the salmon's tail is tapered. Salmon are central spiritually and culturally to Native American mythology on the Pacific coast, from the Haida and Coast Salish peoples, to the Nuu-chah-nulth peoples in British Columbia." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "The original project." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "When the city of Donetsk reached the million inhabitants mark in the 1980s, it was entitled to build its own metro system, which was designed to follow the usual layout in the Soviet Union. In 1984 the first plans for a metro system in Donetsk were shown to the public, but construction did not immediately begin. Only after Ukraine gained independence, the Cabinet of Ministers issued a decree on 30 December 1991 to build the new underground metro system in Donetsk. The first investigation work began in 1992, and construction commenced the same year, with completion scheduled for 2002. In 1995, due to the poor financial situation of the Donetsk municipality, the completion date was postponed to 2005. On September 5, 1997, the Prime Minister of Ukraine, Valeriy Pustovoitenko, ordered that the first line of the system should be open to the public in 8 years (2005). In 2000, the first work on four of the six underground stations began. However, the financial situation of Donetsk did not improve. In June 2003, the financial problems affected the metro workers - after seven months of work, no more wages could be paid. By then nearly 300 million Hryven (about 48 million euros) had been spent on the project. In 2004 the Ukrainian government assured further means for the completion of the metro by 2010. By 2007 this seemed over-optimistic due to the slow pace of construction work. However, it later emerged that Donetsk would be one of the host cities for the Euro 2012 football championships, raising hopes for the Metro to be opened by then, although the budget that had been allocated was clearly insufficient at the time. In 2009 funding of the project was disrupted so severely that construction workers staged several strikes to demand payment of their salaries. The city mayor Oleksandr Lukianchenko informed on May 22 that the planned 500 million hryvnia (~$65 mln) for the metro the city of Donetsk has never received. In 2011 the city mayor announced that construction was to be suspended indefinitely due to continuing underfunding and inability to finish a first line in time for Euro 2012. In 2012 the Vice-Prime-Minister Borys Kolesnikov stated that Ukrzaliznytsia was to start to work on the project of ground-level metro in Donetsk. The goal was to open the first line of metro no later than December 2014. Due to the Russian military intervention in Ukraine in 2014, the work on the metro line has completely stopped. In December 2014 the Russian-installed Donetsk People's Republic set up a commission to discuss the future of the Donetsk metro. The war has greatly compromised most of economic projects that were planned in the Donetsk area due to the chronic socio-economical instability it triggered.", "The first underground line of the system, which will carry the name \"Proletarsko-Kyivs'ka Line\" (), is to be long and have six stations: \"Proletars'ka\" (Пролетарська), \"Chumakovs'ka\" (Чумаковська), \"Chervone Mistechko\" (Червоне містечко), \"Mushketovs'ka\" (Мушкетовська), \"Livoberezhna\" (Лiвобережна), and \"Politechnichnyi Institut\" (Полiтехнiчний iнститут). The system's red line, Proletarsko-Kyivska, is planned to extend with 15 stations. Additionally, the blue line, \"Shakhtarsko-Makiyivs'ka Line\" (), is planned to extend. Finally, the green line, \"Petrovs'ko-Chervonohvardiyska Line\" (), is to have 14 stations. In its final stage, the Donetsk Metro is planned to be long, with a total of 46 stations." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Definition.", "History.", "First Christian jubilee.", "Jubilee of 1350.", "Jubilees of 1390 and 1423.", "Subsequent jubilees.", "20th-century jubilees.", "\"Great Jubilee\" of 2000.", "Extraordinary Jubilee of Mercy, 2016.", "Ceremonial of the jubilee.", "Miscellaneous jubilee events.", "Jubilee indulgence." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In Jewish tradition, the jubilee year was a time of joy, the year of remission or universal pardon. Leviticus 25:10 reads, \"Thou shalt sanctify the fiftieth year, and shalt proclaim remission to all the inhabitants of thy land: for it is the year of jubilee.\" The same concept forms the fundamental idea of the Christian jubilee. The number 50 was specially associated in the early 13th century with the idea of remission. The translation of the body of Thomas Becket took place in the year 1220, 50 years after his martyrdom. The sermon on that occasion was preached by Cardinal Stephen Lantron, who told his hearers that this coincidence was meant by Providence to recall \"the mystical virtue of the number fifty, which, as every reader of the sacred page is aware, is the number of remission.\" In the \"Chronicle of Alberic of Three Fountains\", under the year 1208 (not, be it noted, 1200), is this brief entry: \"It is said that this year was celebrated as the fiftieth year, or the year of jubilee and remission, in the Roman Court.\"", "In Roman Catholic tradition, a jubilee or Holy Year is a year of forgiveness of sins and also the punishment due to sin. It is a year of reconciliation between adversaries, of conversion and receiving the Sacrament of Reconciliation, \"...and consequently of solidarity, hope, justice, commitment to serve God with joy and in peace with our brothers and sisters.\" A jubilee can be \"ordinary\" if it falls after the set period of years, and \"extraordinary\" when it is proclaimed for some outstanding event.", "", "In the face of great suffering, caused by wars and diseases such as the plague thousands of pilgrims came to Rome at Christmas in 1299. Cardinal Giacomo Gaetani Stefaneschi, the contemporary and counsellor of Pope Boniface VIII, and author of a treatise on the first Christian jubilee, noted that the proclamation of the jubilee owed its origin to the statements of certain aged pilgrims who persuaded Boniface that great indulgences had been granted to all pilgrims in Rome about a hundred years before. On February 22, 1300, Boniface published the bull \"\"Antiquorum habet fida relatio\"\", in which, appealing vaguely to the precedent of past ages, he declared \"...the most full, pardon of all their sins\", to those who fulfill certain conditions. These are, first, that being truly penitent they confess their sins, and secondly, that they visit the basilicas of St. Peter and St. Paul in Rome, at least once a day for a specified time—in the case of the inhabitants of the city for thirty days, in the case of strangers for fifteen. The word \"jubilee\" does not occur in the bull. The pope speaks rather of a celebration which is to occur every 100 years, but writers both Roman and foreign described this year as \"annus jubileus\", and the name \"jubilee\" (though others, such as the \"holy year\" or \"the golden year\", have been used, as well) has been applied to such celebrations ever since. Among those who are recorded as among the pilgrims of that first jubilee are Cimabue, Giotto, Charles, Count of Valois, the chronicler Giovanni Villani, and Dante Alighieri, who mentions it in the \"Divine Comedy\" in Canto XXXI of \"Paradiso\".", "Boniface VIII had intended that the jubilee should be celebrated only once in a hundred years. Before the middle of the 14th century, Bridget of Sweden and the poet Petrarch (among others) urged Pope Clement VI, then residing at Avignon, to change this. In 1343, Clement VI assented and issued the bull Bull \"Unigenitus\", and set the time frame for every 50 years. In 1350, a jubilee was held, and although the pope did not return to Rome, Cardinal Gaetani Ceccano was dispatched to represent him. On this occasion, daily visits to the Archbasilica of St. John Lateran were enjoined, besides those to the basilicas of St. Peter and St. Paul outside the Walls.", "In virtue of an ordinance of Pope Urban VI, it was proposed to hold a jubilee every 33 years as representing the period of the sojourn of Christ upon earth and also the average span of human life. The next jubilee was held in 1390, and the Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore was added to the list. The visits to these four churches has remained as one of the conditions for gaining the Roman jubilee indulgence. In 1400 so many people came to Rome that Pope Boniface IX granted the indulgence again, though he had not decreed a jubilee year previously. One of the most severe occurrences of plague during the Second plague pandemic was exacerbated by the many pilgrims making their way to and from Rome; in the city itself 600–800 of the faithful died daily. Another jubilee was proclaimed by Pope Martin V in 1423 (33 years after the last proclaimed jubilee in 1390), but Pope Nicholas V, in 1450, reverted to the quinquagesimal period, while in 1470 Pope Paul II decreed that the jubilee should be celebrated every 25 years, and this has been the normal rule ever since. Paul also permitted foreigners to visit some specified church in their own country, and contribute towards the expense of the Holy Wars, as a substitute for the pilgrimage to Rome.", "The jubilees of 1450 and 1475 were attended by vast crowds of pilgrims, and that of 1450 was unfortunately made famous by a terrible accident in which nearly 200 people were trampled to death in a panic which occurred on the bridge of Sant' Angelo. Following this disaster, great pains were taken to widen the thoroughfares and to provide for the entertainment and comfort of the pilgrims by numerous charitable organizations, of which the Archconfraternity of the Holy Trinity, founded by St. Philip Neri, was the most famous. In 1450, Rome was a largely rural area surrounded by the Aurelian Walls and inhabited by no more than 30,000 people engaged mainly in stock-rearing, in contrast with the economic centres of Florence, Venice, and Milan. Wolves frequented the Vatican Gardens, the population was centred on the Tiber near the Campus Martius, while round the churches of San Giovanni in Laterano and Santa Maria Maggiore were separate villages. Pope Nicholas V used the wealth brought in by pilgrims in the jubilee year of 1450 to convert the medieval city into a Renaissance capital, to found the Vatican Library, and to permanently move the papal seat to the west bank of the Tiber away from the Roman masses who had evicted his predecessor: the Vatican Palace and St Peter's Basilica thus replaced St John Lateran as the main papal headquarters. The nearby Castel Sant'Angelo was rebuilt, along with new fortifications encircling what is now the Vatican City, which Pope Nicholas made his home. According to Aeneas Silvius Piccolomini, 40,000 pilgrims arrived in Rome everyday for the jubilee in 1450. With them came plague, and some members of the Curia died of the infection while the Pope himself fled Rome for Fabriano in the Apennine Mountains. In 1500, Pope Alexander VI announced that the doors in the four major basilicas would be opened simultaneously, and that he himself would open the Holy Door of Saint Peter's. The celebrations around this were \"founded on ancient rites and full of symbolic meaning\" and the total number attending the initial jubilee events was, according to Johann Burchard, an estimated 200,000 people. This act definitively ushered in several customs. The ninth jubilee was solemnly opened on December 24, 1524, by Pope Clement VII, at a time when symptoms of the great crises which would soon tear the Church apart were already present, with the Protestant Reformation. The 1550 Jubilee was proclaimed by Pope Paul III, but Pope Julius III actually opened it. In 1575, in the time of Pope Gregory XIII, as many as 300,000 people came to Rome from all over Europe. The following Holy Year was proclaimed by Pope Clement VIII in 1600. In 1625, Pope Urban VIII opened the ceremonial doors for the jubilee year. However, the number of pilgrims was lower than expected due to the wars in northern Italy, so the Pope suspended the declaration of indulgences outside Rome in an attempt to lure the faithful to the city. He then went on to declare a universal or extraordinary jubilee in 1628 to pray for peace. This was repeated the next year in 1629, and brought undoubted material benefits to the city. Finally, Innocent X oversaw the last of his jubilees in 1650. Pope Clement X presided over that of 1675. Pope Clement XI, who opened the Jubilee of 1700, is remembered especially for establishing one of Rome's most renowned charitable institutions, the hospice of San Michele a Ripa. Gradually, other similar institutions were opened to offer shelter and assistance to pilgrims, as in 1725, the Holy Year called by Pope Benedict XIII. A famous preacher during the Jubilee of 1750, proclaimed by Pope Benedict XIV, was Leonard of Port Maurice, who set up 14 Stations of the Cross inside the ruins of the Colosseum. Pope Clement XIV announced the Jubilee of 1775, but died three months before Christmas and the Holy Door was opened by the new pope, Pius VI. The difficult situation in which the Church found herself during the hegemonic rule of Napoleon prevented Pope Pius VII from proclaiming the Jubilee of 1800. More than a half a million pilgrims made the journey to Rome for the Jubilee of 1825. Twenty-five years later, the Holy Year could not be held because of the unsettled situation in the Roman Republic and temporary exile of Pope Pius IX. However, he was able to announce a jubilee for 1875, but it was celebrated without any external solemnity, with only the clergy present for the inauguration. The holy doors were not opened, and the pilgrims who came were generally in Rome to do homage to the pope, who had not accepted the Italian annexation of Rome by the troops of Victor Emmanuel II of Italy, rather than to obtain an indulgence. The Jubilee of 1900, though shorn of much of its splendor by the self-confinement of the pope within the limits of the Vatican, was, nevertheless, carried out by Pope Leo XIII with all the solemnity that was possible.", "In the 20th century, jubilees were held in 1925, 1933 (in commemoration of the 1900th anniversary of the traditional year of Jesus's death and resurrection), 1950, 1966 (post-Council jubilee), 1975, 1983 (for the Holy Year of the Redemption: the 1950th anniversary of Jesus's death and resurrection), and 2000. Pope Pius XII used the occasion of the 1950 Jubilee to declare a new pontifical anthem for the Vatican City. With the encyclical \"Fulgens corona\", he declared the first Marian year or \"Little Holy Year\" for 1954. Pope John Paul II proclaimed a Marian year in 1987, again four years after the 1983 Jubilee.", "Pope John Paul II announced a Great Jubilee for the year 2000 with his apostolic letter \"Tertio Millennio Adveniente\" (\"As the Third Millennium Approaches\") of November 10, 1994. In this writing, he called for a three-year preparation period leading up to the opening of the Great Jubilee in December 1999. The first year, 1997, was to be dedicated to meditation on Jesus, the second to the Holy Spirit, and the third to God the Father. This Jubilee was especially marked by a simplification of the rites and the requirements for achieving the indulgence, as well as a huge effort to involve other Christians in the celebration. Protestants and the Eastern Orthodox Church were invited to celebrate the jubilee together with the Catholics as a sign of ecumenism. Furthermore, special jubilees were invoked for various groups within the Church, such as children, athletes, politicians, and actors. World Youth Day, celebrated in Rome in August, brought over two million young people together. The jubilee was closed by the pope on January 6, 2001, by the closing of the holy door of St. Peter's Basilica and the promulgation of the apostolic letter \"Novo Millennio Ineunte\" (\"Upon Entering the New Millennium\"), which outlined the pope's vision for the future of the church.", "On March 13, 2015, Pope Francis announced a special jubilee on the theme of mercy to be held from December 8, 2015, until November 20, 2016, and formally convoked the holy year through the papal bull of indiction, \"Misericordiae Vultus\" (\"The Face of Mercy\"), on 11 April 2015.", "The most distinctive feature in the ceremonial of the jubilee is the unwalling and the final walling up of the \"holy door\" in each of the four great basilicas which the pilgrims are required to visit. The doors are opened by the pope at the beginning of the jubilee and then sealed up again afterwards. Previously, the rite included the use of a silver hammer (for removing the concrete at the opening) and a silver trowel (for sealing it again after the jubilee). The pope would pound on the wall, which would then be set to collapse. This ritual caused injury of bystanders, so for the Great Jubilee of 2000, Pope John Paul II simplified the rite considerably, opening and closing the doors with his hands. Traditionally, the pope himself opens and closes the doors of St. Peter's Basilica personally, and designates a cardinal to open those of St. John Lateran, St. Mary Major, and St. Paul outside the Walls. In the Great Jubilee, the pope chose to open all the doors personally, while designating cardinals to close all the doors except that of St. Peter's. Catholic parishes all over the world share a similar rite dedicating a door for the purposes of the jubilee year to accommodate its parishioners who do not intend to visit Rome for the occasion. Local parishes' doors include the same indulgence given to the basilica doors.", "Inspired popes can include whatever seems fitting, such as jubilee pilgrimages - thus the ever world-travelling Pope John Paul II named some of his voyages jubilee pilgrimages: to Mount Sinai and the Holy Land in 2000 and a Jubilee Pilgrimage in the Footsteps of Saint Paul in 2001 to Malta, Syria, and Greece.", "This is a plenary indulgence which, as stated by Pope Boniface VIII in consistory, it is the intention of the Holy See to grant in the most ample manner possible. When first conceded, such an indulgence, and also the privilege annexed of choosing a confessor who had power to absolve from reserved cases, was a much rarer spiritual boon than it has since become. So preeminent was the favor then regarded that the custom arose of suspending all other indulgences during the jubilee year, a practice which, with certain modifications, still exists to the present day. The precise conditions for gaining each jubilee indulgence are determined by the Roman pontiff, and they are usually announced in a special Bull, distinct from that which it is customary to issue on the preceding feast of the Ascension giving notice of the forthcoming celebration. The main conditions, however, which do not usually vary, are five: confession, Communion, prayer for the Pope, complete renunciation of all attachment to sin, and visits to the four basilicas during a certain specified period. (The first four are common to all plenary indulgences.) The statement made by some, that the jubilee indulgence, being \"a culpa et a paena\", did not of old presuppose either confession or repentance, is absolutely without foundation, and is contradicted by every extant official document of the Roman Catholic Church. Besides the ordinary jubilee indulgence, to be gained only by pilgrims who pay a visit to Rome, or through special concession by certain cloistered religious confined within their monasteries, it has long been customary to extend this indulgence the following year to the faithful throughout the world, though in 2000, the indulgence was extended to the whole world during the jubilee year itself. For this, fresh conditions are appointed, usually including a certain number of visits to local churches and sometimes fasting or other works of charity. Further, the popes have constantly exercised their prerogative of conceding to all the faithful indulgences ad \"instar jubilaei\" (after the model of a jubilee) which are commonly known as \"extraordinary jubilees\". On these occasions, as at the jubilee itself, special facilities are usually accorded for absolution from reserved cases, though on the other hand, the great indulgence is only to be gained by the performance of conditions much more onerous than those required for an ordinary plenary indulgence. Such extraordinary jubilees are commonly granted by a newly elected pontiff at his accession or on occasions of some unexpected celebration, as was done, for example, at the convening of the First Vatican Council, or again at times of great calamity. Pope John Paul II convoked jubilees in 1983 (Holy Year of the Redemption) and in 2000 (the Great Jubilee). In 2000, he greatly liberalized the conditions for gaining the jubilee indulgence. A visit to only one of the four patriarchal basilicas in Rome was necessary (entering through the holy door). To the four basilicas were added the Sanctuary of Divine Love in Rome, and each diocese was permitted to name a location within the diocese where the indulgence could be gained. For instance, the Diocese of Rome added the chapel in the airport at Fiumicino as a possible pilgrimage site. Most dioceses simply named the local cathedral as the pilgrimage site. Multiple visits were not required. On the last full day of the jubilee, pilgrims were permitted to enter the holy door at St. Peter's until late into the night, so no one would be denied the opportunity to gain the indulgence. The requirements of confession, communion, prayer for the pope, and freedom from all attachment to sin remained in place, as for all plenary indulgences." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Definition.", "Concept.", "French châteaux—articular regions.", "Bordeaux region.", "Loire Valley.", "French châteaux—selected examples.", "Château de Chenonceau.", "Château de Dampierre-en-Yvelines.", "Château de Montsoreau.", "Château de Vaux-le-Vicomte.", "Palace of (Château de) Versailles." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The word \"château\" is a French word that has entered the English language, where its meaning is more specific than it is in French. The French word \"château\" denotes buildings as diverse as a medieval fortress, a Renaissance palace and a 19th-century country house. Care should therefore be taken when translating the French word château into English, noting the nature of the building in question. Most French châteaux are \"palaces\" or \"country houses\" and not \"castles\", and for these the English word \"château\" is appropriate. Sometimes the word \"palace\" is more appropriate. To give an outstanding example, the Château de Versailles, also called in French « le palais de Versailles » is so called because it was located in the countryside when it was built, but it does not bear any resemblance to a castle, so it is usually known in English as the Palace of Versailles. In French where clarification is needed, the term \"château fort\" is used to describe a castle, such as Château fort de Roquetaillade. The urban counterpart of \"château\" is \"palais\", which in French is usually applied only to grand houses in a city. This usage is again different from that of the term \"palace\" in English, where there is no requirement that a palace must be in a city, but the word is rarely used for buildings other than the grandest royal residences. The expression \"hôtel particulier\" is used for an urban \"private house\" of a grand sort.", "A château is a \"power house\", as Sir John Summerson dubbed the British and Irish \"stately homes\" that are the British Isles' architectural counterparts to French châteaux. It is the personal (and usually hereditary) badge of a \"family\" that, with some official rank, locally represents the royal authority; thus, the word \"château\" often refers to the dwelling of a member of either the French royalty or the nobility, but some fine châteaux, such as Vaux-le-Vicomte, were built by the essentially high-bourgeois—people but recently ennobled: tax-farmers and ministers of Louis XIII and his royal successors. However, the quality of the residences could vary considerably, from royal châteaux owned by royalty and the wealthy elite near larger towns to run-down châteaux vacated by poor nobility and officials in the countryside isolated and vulnerable. A château was historically supported by its \"terres\" (lands), composing a demesne that rendered the society of the château largely self-sufficient, in the manner of the historic Roman and Early Medieval villa system, (cf. manorialism, hacienda). The open villas of Rome in the times of Pliny the Elder, Maecenas, and Emperor Tiberius began to be walled-in, and then fortified in the 3rd century AD, thus evolving to \"castellar\" \"châteaux\". In modern usage, a château retains some enclosures that are distant descendants of these fortifying outworks: a fenced, gated, closeable forecourt, perhaps a gatehouse or a keeper's lodge, and supporting outbuildings (stables, kitchens, breweries, bakeries, manservant quarters in the \"garçonnière\"). Besides the \"cour d'honneur\" (court of honour) entrance, the château might have an inner \"cour\" (\"court\"), and inside, in the private residence, the château faces a simply and discreetly enclosed park. In the city of Paris, the Louvre (fortified) and the Luxembourg (originally suburban) represented the original château but lost their château etymology, becoming \"palaces\" when the City enclosed them. In the U.S., the word \"château\" took root \"selectively\", in the Gilded Age resort town of Newport, Rhode Island, the châteaux were called \"cottages\", but, north of Wilmington, Delaware, in the rich, rural \"Château Country\" centred upon the powerful Du Pont family, \"château\" is used with its original definition. In Canada, especially in English, \"château\" usually denotes a hotel, not a house, and applies only to the largest, most elaborate railway hotels built in the Canadian Railroad golden age, such as the Château Lake Louise, in Lake Louise, Alberta, the Château Laurier, in Ottawa, the Château Montebello, in Montebello, Quebec, and the most famous Château Frontenac, in Quebec City. Moreover, in other French-speaking European regions, such as Wallonia (Belgium), the word Château is used with the same definition. In Belgium, a strong French architectural influence is evident in the seventeenth-century Château des Comtes de Marchin and the eighteenth-century Château de Seneffe.", "", "There are many estates with true châteaux on them in Bordeaux region, but it is customary for any wine-producing estate since the 19th century, no matter how humble, to prefix its name with \"Château\". This term became the default way of designating an estate in Bordeaux, in the same way that Domaine did in Burgundy. Both Château and Domaine are aristocratic in implication, but Bordeaux had a better claim to the association: nobles had owned Bordeaux's best vineyards for centuries. Most of Burgundy's best vineyards, in contrast, had been owned by the Church. Nowaydays Château became a permanent verbal fixture in Bordeaux, and it was emulated in other French regions and outside France. The winery denomination Château is now protected by a French law, and confirmed in 1981 by European Union law, as \"traditional appellation\". The term Château may be uses only if two conditions are fulfilled:", "The Loire Valley (Vallée de la Loire) is home to more than 300 châteaux. They were built between the 10th and 20th centuries, firstly by the French kings followed soon thereafter by the nobility; hence, the Valley is termed \"\"The Valley of the Kings\"\". Alternatively, due to its moderate climate, wine growing soils and rich agricultural land, the Loire Valley is referred to as \"\"The Garden of France\"\". The châteaux range from the very large (often now in public hands) to more 'human-scale' châteaux such as the Château de Beaulieu in Saumur or the medieval Château du Rivau close to Chinon which were built of the local tuffeau stone.", "", "The Château de Chenonceau is a French château spanning the River Cher, near the small village of Chenonceaux in the Indre-et-Loire department of the Loire Valley in France. It is one of the best-known châteaux of the Loire valley. The estate of Chenonceau is first mentioned in writing in the 11th century. The current château was built in 1514–1522 on the foundations of an old mill and was later extended to span the river. The bridge over the river was built from 1556 to 1559 to designs by the French Renaissance architect Philibert de l'Orme, and the gallery on the bridge, built from 1570–1576 to designs by Jean Bullant.", "Built by Jules Hardouin-Mansart, 1675–1683 for the duc de Chevreuse, Colbert's son-in-law, is a French Baroque château of manageable size. Protected behind fine wrought iron double gates, the main block and its outbuildings (\"corps de logis\"), linked by balustrades, are ranged symmetrically around a dry paved and gravelled \"cour d'honneur\". Behind, the central axis is extended between the former parterres, now mown hay. The park with formally shaped water was laid out by André Le Notre.", "The Château de Montsoreau is the only Château of the Loire Valley to have been built directly in the Loire riverbed. It is also one of the very first example of a renaissance architecture in France. Montsoreau was built in 1453 by Jean II de Chambes (first counselor of Charles VII of France and ambassador of France to Venice and to Turkey) by order of the king soon after the end of the Hundred's years war. The French dramatist Alexandre Dumas made the château de Montsoreau world famous with its trilogy on the French Wars of Religion of which \"the lady of Monsoreau\" is the second volume.", "The Château de Vaux-le-Vicomte is a baroque French château located in Maincy, near Melun, 55 km southeast of Paris in the Seine-et-Marne département of France. It was built from 1658 to 1661 for Nicolas Fouquet, Marquis de Belle-Isle (Belle-Île-en-Mer), Viscount of Melun and Vaux, the superintendent of finances of Louis XIV.", "The Palace of Versailles, or in French \"Château de Versailles\", is a royal château in Versailles in the Île-de-France region of France. When the château was built, Versailles was a country village; today, however, it is a wealthy suburb of Paris, some 20 kilometres (12 miles) southwest of the French capital. The court of Versailles was the centre of political power in France from 1682, when Louis XIV moved from Paris, until the royal family was forced to return to the capital in October 1789 after the beginning of the French Revolution. Versailles is therefore famous not only as a building, but as a symbol of the system of absolute monarchy of the \"Ancien Régime\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Formation and evolution.", "Properties.", "Dwarf terminology.", "Parameters.", "Sample parameters.", "Energy generation.", "Structure.", "Luminosity-color variation.", "Lifetime.", "Evolutionary tracks." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In the early part of the 20th century, information about the types and distances of stars became more readily available. The spectra of stars were shown to have distinctive features, which allowed them to be categorized. Annie Jump Cannon and Edward C. Pickering at Harvard College Observatory developed a method of categorization that became known as the Harvard Classification Scheme, published in the \"Harvard Annals\" in 1901. In Potsdam in 1906, the Danish astronomer Ejnar Hertzsprung noticed that the reddest stars—classified as K and M in the Harvard scheme—could be divided into two distinct groups. These stars are either much brighter than the Sun, or much fainter. To distinguish these groups, he called them \"giant\" and \"dwarf\" stars. The following year he began studying star clusters; large groupings of stars that are co-located at approximately the same distance. He published the first plots of color versus luminosity for these stars. These plots showed a prominent and continuous sequence of stars, which he named the Main Sequence. At Princeton University, Henry Norris Russell was following a similar course of research. He was studying the relationship between the spectral classification of stars and their actual brightness as corrected for distance—their absolute magnitude. For this purpose he used a set of stars that had reliable parallaxes and many of which had been categorized at Harvard. When he plotted the spectral types of these stars against their absolute magnitude, he found that dwarf stars followed a distinct relationship. This allowed the real brightness of a dwarf star to be predicted with reasonable accuracy. Of the red stars observed by Hertzsprung, the dwarf stars also followed the spectra-luminosity relationship discovered by Russell. However, the giant stars are much brighter than dwarfs and so do not follow the same relationship. Russell proposed that the \"giant stars must have low density or great surface-brightness, and the reverse is true of dwarf stars\". The same curve also showed that there were very few faint white stars. In 1933, Bengt Strömgren introduced the term Hertzsprung–Russell diagram to denote a luminosity-spectral class diagram. This name reflected the parallel development of this technique by both Hertzsprung and Russell earlier in the century. As evolutionary models of stars were developed during the 1930s, it was shown that, for stars of a uniform chemical composition, a relationship exists between a star's mass and its luminosity and radius. That is, for a given mass and composition, there is a unique solution for determining the star's radius and luminosity. This became known as the Vogt–Russell theorem; named after Heinrich Vogt and Henry Norris Russell. By this theorem, when a star's chemical composition and its position on the main sequence is known, so too is the star's mass and radius. (However, it was subsequently discovered that the theorem breaks down somewhat for stars of non-uniform composition.) A refined scheme for stellar classification was published in 1943 by William Wilson Morgan and Philip Childs Keenan. The MK classification assigned each star a spectral type—based on the Harvard classification—and a luminosity class. The Harvard classification had been developed by assigning a different letter to each star based on the strength of the hydrogen spectral line, before the relationship between spectra and temperature was known. When ordered by temperature and when duplicate classes were removed, the spectral types of stars followed, in order of decreasing temperature with colors ranging from blue to red, the sequence O, B, A, F, G, K and M. (A popular mnemonic for memorizing this sequence of stellar classes is \"Oh Be A Fine Girl/Guy, Kiss Me\".) The luminosity class ranged from I to V, in order of decreasing luminosity. Stars of luminosity class V belonged to the main sequence. In April 2018, astronomers reported the detection of the most distant \"ordinary\" (i.e., main sequence) star, named Icarus (formally, MACS J1149 Lensed Star 1), at 9 billion light-years away from Earth.", "When a protostar is formed from the collapse of a giant molecular cloud of gas and dust in the local interstellar medium, the initial composition is homogeneous throughout, consisting of about 70% hydrogen, 28% helium and trace amounts of other elements, by mass. The initial mass of the star depends on the local conditions within the cloud. (The mass distribution of newly formed stars is described empirically by the initial mass function.) During the initial collapse, this pre-main-sequence star generates energy through gravitational contraction. Once sufficiently dense, stars begin converting hydrogen into helium and giving off energy through an exothermic nuclear fusion process. When nuclear fusion of hydrogen becomes the dominant energy production process and the excess energy gained from gravitational contraction has been lost, the star lies along a curve on the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram (or HR diagram) called the standard main sequence. Astronomers will sometimes refer to this stage as \"zero age main sequence\", or ZAMS. The ZAMS curve can be calculated using computer models of stellar properties at the point when stars begin hydrogen fusion. From this point, the brightness and surface temperature of stars typically increase with age. A star remains near its initial position on the main sequence until a significant amount of hydrogen in the core has been consumed, then begins to evolve into a more luminous star. (On the HR diagram, the evolving star moves up and to the right of the main sequence.) Thus the main sequence represents the primary hydrogen-burning stage of a star's lifetime.", "The majority of stars on a typical HR diagram lie along the main-sequence curve. This line is pronounced because both the spectral type and the luminosity depend only on a star's mass, at least to zeroth-order approximation, as long as it is fusing hydrogen at its core—and that is what almost all stars spend most of their \"active\" lives doing. The temperature of a star determines its spectral type via its effect on the physical properties of plasma in its photosphere. A star's energy emission as a function of wavelength is influenced by both its temperature and composition. A key indicator of this energy distribution is given by the color index, \"B\" − \"V\", which measures the star's magnitude in blue (\"B\") and green-yellow (\"V\") light by means of filters. This difference in magnitude provides a measure of a star's temperature.", "Main-sequence stars are called dwarf stars, but this terminology is partly historical and can be somewhat confusing. For the cooler stars, dwarfs such as red dwarfs, orange dwarfs, and yellow dwarfs are indeed much smaller and dimmer than other stars of those colors. However, for hotter blue and white stars, the size and brightness difference between so-called \"dwarf\" stars that are on the main sequence and the so-called \"giant\" stars that are not becomes smaller; for the hottest stars it is not directly observable. For those stars the terms \"dwarf\" and \"giant\" refer to differences in spectral lines which indicate if a star is on the main sequence or off it. Nevertheless, very hot main-sequence stars are still sometimes called dwarfs, even though they have roughly the same size and brightness as the \"giant\" stars of that temperature. The common use of \"dwarf\" to mean main sequence is confusing in another way, because there are dwarf stars which are not main-sequence stars. For example, a white dwarf is the dead core of a star that is left after the star has shed its outer layers, that is much smaller than a main-sequence star, roughly the size of Earth. These represent the final evolutionary stage of many main-sequence stars.", "By treating the star as an idealized energy radiator known as a black body, the luminosity \"L\" and radius \"R\" can be related to the effective temperature \"T\" by the Stefan–Boltzmann law: where \"σ\" is the Stefan–Boltzmann constant. As the position of a star on the HR diagram shows its approximate luminosity, this relation can be used to estimate its radius. The mass, radius and luminosity of a star are closely interlinked, and their respective values can be approximated by three relations. First is the Stefan–Boltzmann law, which relates the luminosity \"L\", the radius \"R\" and the surface temperature \"T\". Second is the mass–luminosity relation, which relates the luminosity \"L\" and the mass \"M\". Finally, the relationship between \"M\" and \"R\" is close to linear. The ratio of \"M\" to \"R\" increases by a factor of only three over 2.5 orders of magnitude of \"M\". This relation is roughly proportional to the star's inner temperature \"T\", and its extremely slow increase reflects the fact that the rate of energy generation in the core strongly depends on this temperature, whereas it has to fit the mass–luminosity relation. Thus, a too high or too low temperature will result in stellar instability. A better approximation is to take \"ε\" = \"L/M\", the energy generation rate per unit mass, as ε is proportional to \"T\", where \"T\" is the core temperature. This is suitable for stars at least as massive as the Sun, exhibiting the CNO cycle, and gives the better fit \"R\" ∝ \"M\".", "The table below shows typical values for stars along the main sequence. The values of luminosity (\"L\"), radius (\"R\") and mass (\"M\") are relative to the Sun—a dwarf star with a spectral classification of G2 V. The actual values for a star may vary by as much as 20–30% from the values listed below.", "All main-sequence stars have a core region where energy is generated by nuclear fusion. The temperature and density of this core are at the levels necessary to sustain the energy production that will support the remainder of the star. A reduction of energy production would cause the overlaying mass to compress the core, resulting in an increase in the fusion rate because of higher temperature and pressure. Likewise an increase in energy production would cause the star to expand, lowering the pressure at the core. Thus the star forms a self-regulating system in hydrostatic equilibrium that is stable over the course of its main sequence lifetime. Main-sequence stars employ two types of hydrogen fusion processes, and the rate of energy generation from each type depends on the temperature in the core region. Astronomers divide the main sequence into upper and lower parts, based on which of the two is the dominant fusion process. In the lower main sequence, energy is primarily generated as the result of the proton-proton chain, which directly fuses hydrogen together in a series of stages to produce helium. Stars in the upper main sequence have sufficiently high core temperatures to efficiently use the CNO cycle (see chart). This process uses atoms of carbon, nitrogen and oxygen as intermediaries in the process of fusing hydrogen into helium. At a stellar core temperature of 18 million Kelvin, the PP process and CNO cycle are equally efficient, and each type generates half of the star's net luminosity. As this is the core temperature of a star with about 1.5, the upper main sequence consists of stars above this mass. Thus, roughly speaking, stars of spectral class F or cooler belong to the lower main sequence, while A-type stars or hotter are upper main-sequence stars. The transition in primary energy production from one form to the other spans a range difference of less than a single solar mass. In the Sun, a one solar-mass star, only 1.5% of the energy is generated by the CNO cycle. By contrast, stars with 1.8 or above generate almost their entire energy output through the CNO cycle. The observed upper limit for a main-sequence star is 120–200. The theoretical explanation for this limit is that stars above this mass can not radiate energy fast enough to remain stable, so any additional mass will be ejected in a series of pulsations until the star reaches a stable limit. The lower limit for sustained proton–proton nuclear fusion is about 0.08 or 80 times the mass of Jupiter. Below this threshold are sub-stellar objects that can not sustain hydrogen fusion, known as brown dwarfs.", "Because there is a temperature difference between the core and the surface, or photosphere, energy is transported outward. The two modes for transporting this energy are radiation and convection. A radiation zone, where energy is transported by radiation, is stable against convection and there is very little mixing of the plasma. By contrast, in a convection zone the energy is transported by bulk movement of plasma, with hotter material rising and cooler material descending. Convection is a more efficient mode for carrying energy than radiation, but it will only occur under conditions that create a steep temperature gradient. In massive stars (above 10 ) the rate of energy generation by the CNO cycle is very sensitive to temperature, so the fusion is highly concentrated at the core. Consequently, there is a high temperature gradient in the core region, which results in a convection zone for more efficient energy transport. This mixing of material around the core removes the helium ash from the hydrogen-burning region, allowing more of the hydrogen in the star to be consumed during the main-sequence lifetime. The outer regions of a massive star transport energy by radiation, with little or no convection. Intermediate-mass stars such as Sirius may transport energy primarily by radiation, with a small core convection region. Medium-sized, low-mass stars like the Sun have a core region that is stable against convection, with a convection zone near the surface that mixes the outer layers. This results in a steady buildup of a helium-rich core, surrounded by a hydrogen-rich outer region. By contrast, cool, very low-mass stars (below 0.4 ) are convective throughout. Thus the helium produced at the core is distributed across the star, producing a relatively uniform atmosphere and a proportionately longer main sequence lifespan.", "As non-fusing helium ash accumulates in the core of a main-sequence star, the reduction in the abundance of hydrogen per unit mass results in a gradual lowering of the fusion rate within that mass. Since it is the outflow of fusion-supplied energy that supports the higher layers of the star, the core is compressed, producing higher temperatures and pressures. Both factors increase the rate of fusion thus moving the equilibrium towards a smaller, denser, hotter core producing more energy whose increased outflow pushes the higher layers further out. Thus there is a steady increase in the luminosity and radius of the star over time. For example, the luminosity of the early Sun was only about 70% of its current value. As a star ages this luminosity increase changes its position on the HR diagram. This effect results in a broadening of the main sequence band because stars are observed at random stages in their lifetime. That is, the main sequence band develops a thickness on the HR diagram; it is not simply a narrow line. Other factors that broaden the main sequence band on the HR diagram include uncertainty in the distance to stars and the presence of unresolved binary stars that can alter the observed stellar parameters. However, even perfect observation would show a fuzzy main sequence because mass is not the only parameter that affects a star's color and luminosity. Variations in chemical composition caused by the initial abundances, the star's evolutionary status, interaction with a close companion, rapid rotation, or a magnetic field can all slightly change a main-sequence star's HR diagram position, to name just a few factors. As an example, there are metal-poor stars (with a very low abundance of elements with higher atomic numbers than helium) that lie just below the main sequence and are known as subdwarfs. These stars are fusing hydrogen in their cores and so they mark the lower edge of main sequence fuzziness caused by variance in chemical composition. A nearly vertical region of the HR diagram, known as the instability strip, is occupied by pulsating variable stars known as Cepheid variables. These stars vary in magnitude at regular intervals, giving them a pulsating appearance. The strip intersects the upper part of the main sequence in the region of class \"A\" and \"F\" stars, which are between one and two solar masses. Pulsating stars in this part of the instability strip that intersects the upper part of the main sequence are called Delta Scuti variables. Main-sequence stars in this region experience only small changes in magnitude and so this variation is difficult to detect. Other classes of unstable main-sequence stars, like Beta Cephei variables, are unrelated to this instability strip.", "The total amount of energy that a star can generate through nuclear fusion of hydrogen is limited by the amount of hydrogen fuel that can be consumed at the core. For a star in equilibrium, the energy generated at the core must be at least equal to the energy radiated at the surface. Since the luminosity gives the amount of energy radiated per unit time, the total life span can be estimated, to first approximation, as the total energy produced divided by the star's luminosity. For a star with at least 0.5, when the hydrogen supply in its core is exhausted and it expands to become a red giant, it can start to fuse helium atoms to form carbon. The energy output of the helium fusion process per unit mass is only about a tenth the energy output of the hydrogen process, and the luminosity of the star increases. This results in a much shorter length of time in this stage compared to the main sequence lifetime. (For example, the Sun is predicted to spend burning helium, compared to about 12 billion years burning hydrogen.) Thus, about 90% of the observed stars above 0.5 will be on the main sequence. On average, main-sequence stars are known to follow an empirical mass-luminosity relationship. The luminosity (\"L\") of the star is roughly proportional to the total mass (\"M\") as the following power law: This relationship applies to main-sequence stars in the range 0.1–50. The amount of fuel available for nuclear fusion is proportional to the mass of the star. Thus, the lifetime of a star on the main sequence can be estimated by comparing it to solar evolutionary models. The Sun has been a main-sequence star for about 4.5 billion years and it will become a red giant in 6.5 billion years, for a total main sequence lifetime of roughly 10 years. Hence: where \"M\" and \"L\" are the mass and luminosity of the star, respectively, formula_4 is a solar mass, formula_5 is the solar luminosity and formula_6 is the star's estimated main sequence lifetime. Although more massive stars have more fuel to burn and might intuitively be expected to last longer, they also radiate a proportionately greater amount with increased mass. This is required by the stellar equation of state; for a massive star to maintain equilibrium, the outward pressure of radiated energy generated in the core not only must but \"will\" rise to match the titanic inward gravitational pressure of its envelope. Thus, the most massive stars may remain on the main sequence for only a few million years, while stars with less than a tenth of a solar mass may last for over a trillion years. The exact mass-luminosity relationship depends on how efficiently energy can be transported from the core to the surface. A higher opacity has an insulating effect that retains more energy at the core, so the star does not need to produce as much energy to remain in hydrostatic equilibrium. By contrast, a lower opacity means energy escapes more rapidly and the star must burn more fuel to remain in equilibrium. A sufficiently high opacity can result in energy transport via convection, which changes the conditions needed to remain in equilibrium. In high-mass main-sequence stars, the opacity is dominated by electron scattering, which is nearly constant with increasing temperature. Thus the luminosity only increases as the cube of the star's mass. For stars below 10, the opacity becomes dependent on temperature, resulting in the luminosity varying approximately as the fourth power of the star's mass. For very low-mass stars, molecules in the atmosphere also contribute to the opacity. Below about 0.5, the luminosity of the star varies as the mass to the power of 2.3, producing a flattening of the slope on a graph of mass versus luminosity. Even these refinements are only an approximation, however, and the mass-luminosity relation can vary depending on a star's composition.", "When a main-sequence star has consumed the hydrogen at its core, the loss of energy generation causes its gravitational collapse to resume and the star evolves off the main sequence. The path which the star follows across the HR diagram is called an evolutionary track. Stars with less than are predicted to directly become white dwarfs when energy generation by nuclear fusion of hydrogen at their core comes to a halt, although no stars are old enough for this to have occurred. In stars more massive than, the hydrogen surrounding the helium core reaches sufficient temperature and pressure to undergo fusion, forming a hydrogen-burning shell and causing the outer layers of the star to expand and cool. The stage as these stars move away from the main sequence is known as the subgiant branch; it is relatively brief and appears as a gap in the evolutionary track since few stars are observed at that point. When the helium core of low-mass stars becomes degenerate, or the outer layers of intermediate-mass stars cool sufficiently to become opaque, their hydrogen shells increase in temperature and the stars start to become more luminous. This is known as the red giant branch; it is a relatively long-lived stage and it appears prominently in H–R diagrams. These stars will eventually end their lives as white dwarfs. The most massive stars do not become red giants; instead, their cores quickly become hot enough to fuse helium and eventually heavier elements and they are known as supergiants. They follow approximately horizontal evolutionary tracks from the main sequence across the top of the H–R diagram. Supergiants are relatively rare and do not show prominently on most H–R diagrams. Their cores will eventually collapse, usually leading to a supernova and leaving behind either a neutron star or black hole. When a cluster of stars is formed at about the same time, the main sequence lifespan of these stars will depend on their individual masses. The most massive stars will leave the main sequence first, followed in sequence by stars of ever lower masses. The position where stars in the cluster are leaving the main sequence is known as the turnoff point. By knowing the main sequence lifespan of stars at this point, it becomes possible to estimate the age of the cluster." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Types of structures.", "Truss structure.", "Geodesic construction.", "Monocoque shell.", "Semi-monocoque.", "Materials.", "Windows.", "Wing integration." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "This type of structure is still in use in many lightweight aircraft using welded steel tube trusses. A box truss fuselage structure can also be built out of wood—often covered with plywood. Simple box structures may be rounded by the addition of supported lightweight stringers, allowing the fabric covering to form a more aerodynamic shape, or one more pleasing to the eye.", "Geodesic structural elements were used by Barnes Wallis for British Vickers between the wars and into World War II to form the whole of the fuselage, including its aerodynamic shape. In this type of construction multiple flat strip stringers are wound about the formers in opposite spiral directions, forming a basket-like appearance. This proved to be light, strong, and rigid and had the advantage of being made almost entirely of wood. A similar construction using aluminum alloy was used in the Vickers Warwick with less materials than would be required for other structural types. The geodesic structure is also redundant and so can survive localized damage without catastrophic failure. A fabric covering over the structure completed the aerodynamic shell (see the Vickers Wellington for an example of a large warplane which uses this process). The logical evolution of this is the creation of fuselages using molded plywood, in which multiple sheets are laid with the grain in differing directions to give the monocoque type below.", "In this method, the exterior surface of the fuselage is also the primary structure. A typical early form of this (see the Lockheed Vega) was built using molded plywood, where the layers of plywood are formed over a \"plug\" or within a mold. A later form of this structure uses fiberglass cloth impregnated with polyester or epoxy resin, instead of plywood, as the skin. A simple form of this used in some amateur-built aircraft uses rigid expanded foam plastic as the core, with a fiberglass covering, eliminating the necessity of fabricating molds, but requiring more effort in finishing (see the Rutan VariEze). An example of a larger molded plywood aircraft is the de Havilland Mosquito fighter/light bomber of World War II. No plywood-skin fuselage is truly monocoque, since stiffening elements are incorporated into the structure to carry concentrated loads that would otherwise buckle the thin skin. The use of molded fiberglass using negative (\"female\") molds (which give a nearly finished product) is prevalent in the series production of many modern sailplanes. The use of molded composites for fuselage structures is being extended to large passenger aircraft such as the Boeing 787 \"Dreamliner\" (using pressure-molding on female molds).", "This is the preferred method of constructing an all-aluminum fuselage. First, a series of frames in the shape of the fuselage cross sections are held in position on a rigid fixture. These frames are then joined with lightweight longitudinal elements called stringers. These are in turn covered with a skin of sheet aluminum, attached by riveting or by bonding with special adhesives. The fixture is then disassembled and removed from the completed fuselage shell, which is then fitted out with wiring, controls, and interior equipment such as seats and luggage bins. Most modern large aircraft are built using this technique, but use several large sections constructed in this fashion which are then joined with fasteners to form the complete fuselage. As the accuracy of the final product is determined largely by the costly fixture, this form is suitable for series production, where many identical aircraft are to be produced. Early examples of this type include the Douglas Aircraft DC-2 and DC-3 civil aircraft and the Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress. Most metal light aircraft are constructed using this process. Both monocoque and semi-monocoque are referred to as \"stressed skin\" structures as all or a portion of the external load (i.e. from wings and empennage, and from discrete masses such as the engine) is taken by the surface covering. In addition, all the load from internal pressurization is carried (as \"skin tension\") by the external skin. The proportioning of loads between the components is a design choice dictated largely by the dimensions, strength, and elasticity of the components available for construction and whether or not a design is intended to be \"self jigging\", not requiring a complete fixture for alignment.", "Early aircraft were constructed of wood frames covered in fabric. As monoplanes became popular, metal frames improved the strength, which eventually led to all-metal-structure aircraft, with metal covering for all its exterior surfaces - this was first pioneered in the second half of 1915. Some modern aircraft are constructed with composite materials for major control surfaces, wings, or the entire fuselage such as the Boeing 787. On the 787, it makes possible higher pressurization levels and larger windows for passenger comfort as well as lower weight to reduce operating costs. The Boeing 787 weighs less than if it were an all-aluminum assembly.", "Cockpit windshields on the Airbus A320 must withstand bird strikes up to 350 kt and are made of chemically strengthened glass. They are usually composed of three layers or plies, of glass or plastic : the inner two are 8 mm (0.3 in.) thick each and are structural, while the outer ply, about 3 mm thick, is a barrier against foreign object damage and abrasion, with often a hydrophobic coating. It must prevent fogging inside the cabin and de-ice from. This was previously done with thin wires similar to a rear car window but is now accomplished with a transparent, nanometers-thick coating of indium tin oxide sitting between plies, electrically conductive and thus transmitting heat. Curved glass improves aerodynamics but sight criteria also needs larger panes. A cockpit windshield is composed of 4–6 panels, 35 kg (77 lb.) each on an Airbus A320. In its lifetime, an average aircraft goes through three or four windshields, and the market is shared evenly between OEM and higher margins aftermarket. Cabin windows, made from much lighter than glass stretched acrylic glass, consists of multiple panes: an outer one built to support four times the maximum cabin pressure, an inner one for redundancy and a scratch pane near the passenger. Acrylic is susceptible to crazing : a network of fine cracks appears but can be polished to restore optical transparency, removal and polishing typically undergo every 2–3 years for uncoated windows.", "\"Flying wing\" aircraft, such as the Northrop YB-49 Flying Wing and the Northrop B-2 Spirit bomber have no separate fuselage; instead what would be the fuselage is a thickened portion of the wing structure. Conversely, there have been a small number of aircraft designs which have no separate wing, but use the fuselage to generate lift. Examples include National Aeronautics and Space Administration's experimental lifting body designs and the Vought XF5U-1 Flying Flapjack. A blended wing body can be considered a mixture of the above. It carries the useful load in a fuselage producing lift. A modern example is Boeing X-48. One of the earliest aircraft using this design approach is Burnelli CBY-3, which fuselage was airfoil shaped to produce lift." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Gameplay.", "Plot.", "Development.", "Promotion and release.", "Reception.", "Sales.", "Critical reviews.", "Retrospective analysis.", "Game Boy Color version." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "\"Daikatana\" is composed of 24 levels (18 in the console versions) divided into four episodes, with a varying number of levels per episode. Each episode represents a different location and time period: 25th century Japan in 2455 AD, ancient Greece in 1200 BC, the Dark Ages in Norway in 560 AD, and near-future San Francisco in 2030 AD. One element that \"Daikatana\" stressed was the important role of Hiro Miyamoto's two sidekicks, Mikiko Ebihara and Superfly Johnson. The death of either sidekick resulted in failing the level, and their assistance was required to complete certain puzzles. Due to poor AI implementation, the sidekicks, who were one of the game's selling points, became a focus of criticism.", "In feudal Japan, two rival clans, the Ebihara and the Mishima, are at war. The Mishima go to the swordmaster Usagi Miyamoto to craft a weapon to end the conflict: the Daikatana. However, Usagi realizes the Mishimas' dark desires and gives the Daikatana to the Ebihara; Inshiro Ebihara throws the sword into a volcano at the end of the war. In 2455 AD, swordmaster Hiro Miyamoto is visited by a man named Dr. Toshiro Ebihara, a descendant of Inshiro who is suffering from a plague and about to die. Toshiro tells Hiro that Kage Mishima, the ruler of the planet, took over the world by stealing the Daikatana and using it to alter history. He stole the cure to a viral plague in 2030 and uses the cure to control the world's population. Mikiko Ebihara, Toshiro's daughter, has been captured when trying to steal back the Daikatana, and Hiro must rescue her and fix history. Hiro storms the Mishima's headquarters where he rescues Mikiko as well as Superfly Johnson, the Mishima's head of security who rebelled when he grew sick of the Mishima's brutal totalitarian practices. Mikiko and Superfly join Hiro in his quest and steal the Daikatana. The Mishima encounters the trio as the trio steal the sword, wielding a second Daikatana. The Mishima sends the trio back in time to Ancient Greece. Hiro and Mikiko defeat Medusa, recharging the Daikatana as it absorbs Medusa's power. The three time jump once more, only to encounter the Mishima again and be sent through time to the Dark Ages, stranded as the Daikatana has run out of energy. The group finds a sorcerer named Musilde who offers to recharge the Daikatana if Hiro, Superfly, and Mikiko can save his village from the black plague. To do this, the group must defeat the necromancer Nharre, reassemble the Purifier, a magical sword, and use it to restore King Gharroth's sanity so that he may use the sword to put an end to the plague. When King Gharroth recharges the Daikatana, Hiro and his allies time jump again, finally ending up in 2030, where San Francisco has fallen to gangs and martial law has been declared by the military and the Mishima. The trio fights their way through a naval base where the Mishima is working on weapons. The ghost of Usagi enters Hiro's body and gives him full control over the Daikatana. With Usagi's knowledge and skills with the sword, Hiro slays the Mishima. One of the Daikatana disappears, as its timeline no longer exists. Mikiko steals the remaining Daikatana and kills Superfly, revealing that the feudal Ebihara clan was just as evil as the Mishimas. She announces her intentions to use the Daikatana to restore the honor of her ancient clan and take over the world. Hiro defeats and kills Mikiko, then uses the Daikatana to fix history once and for all. The Daikatana is never found in 2455, the viral plague is cured in 2030, the Mishima never take over the world, and Hiro exiles himself to a forgotten corner of the space-time continuum, safeguarding the Daikatana to ensure that it never falls into the hands of evil.", "\"Daikatana\" was created by John Romero, an influential developer whose resume included founding titles in the first-person shooter genre (\"Wolfenstein 3D\", \"Doom\", \"Quake\") when he worked at id Software. The game was developed by Ion Storm, a company co-founded by Romero with Tom Hall in 1995 after the two left id Software. The aim was for the company to create games that catered to their creative tastes without excessive publisher interference, something both Romero and Hall were tired of. \"Daikatana\" was part of an initial three-game contract made between Ion Storm and expanding publisher Eidos Interactive; and the third title to be conceived at Ion Storm after \"Anachronox\" and what would become \"\". The game was built using the original \"Quake\" game engine; according to an early interview, Romero planned \"Daikatana\" to have unique weapon sets and 16 monsters per time period. The core concept was to do something different with shooter mechanics several times within the same game. Romero created the basic storyline, and named its protagonist Hiro Miyamoto in honour of Japanese game designer Shigeru Miyamoto. The title is written in Japanese kanji, translating roughly to \"big sword\". The name comes from an item in a \"Dungeons & Dragons\" campaign played by the original members of id Software, which Romero co-founded. During this early period, the team consisted of fifteen people. The music was composed by a team which included Will Loconto. However, during its earlier production, the team saw the \"Quake II\" engine and decided to incorporate its code. This resulted in many delays when finalising the engine. The problems with programming the new engine contributed to the game being delayed from its projected 1998 release date. Romero stated prior to release that he would have chosen the \"Quake II\" engine to develop the game from the start if given the chance. Romero later ascribed some problems triggered in using the technology as being due to the rivalry manufactured by the company's marketing between them and id Software. Due to the delays, development of the game ran parallel to \"Anachronox\", \"Dominion: Storm Over Gift 3\", and eventually \"Deus Ex\". Something that further impacted production was the departure of around twenty staff members from the team, who either left Ion Storm or transferred to the Austin studio. In 1998, lead artist Bryan Pritchard left the company and was replaced by Eric Smith. According to staff member Chrstian Divine, the growing negative press surrounding the company had a further detrimental effect on development. Some of the backlash eventually led to his own departure for Ion Storm's Austin studio to work on \"Deus Ex\". The most notorious incident was the public resignation of nine core team members at once, something Romero understood given the low team morale but felt it as a betrayal of trust. The departures led to the hiring of Stevie Case as level designer and Chris Perna to polish and add to character models. In a 1999 interview, Romero attributed the slowing of development during that period to the staff departures, but said that most of the level design and the entire score had been completed before that. Problems reached the point that Eidos publishing director John Kavanagh was sent down to sort out problems surrounding it production. In a later interview, Romero admitted there were many faults with the game at release, blaming the development culture and management clashes at Ion Storm, in addition to staff departures causing much of the work to be scrapped and begun over again. Divine attributed the problems to a combination of overly carefree atmosphere, and corporate struggles about company ownership interfering with game production. Only two staff members remained on the game for the entirety of its production.", "\"Daikatana\" was revealed in 1997, forming part of the opening publicity for Ion Storm. In subsequent years, the press material focused almost entirely on pushing the company name and its lead developers, something later regretted by several of its staff. This was particularly true of Romero. This consequently drew Romero away from production, leading to further difficulties. Public, journalistic and commercial confidence in the project was weakened by the repeated delays to its release date. The situation was worsened when the \"Dallas Observer\" printed a story about the internal struggles of the Austin office, which cited both undercover interviews and leaked emails. The article prompted widespread publicity surrounding the staff departures and the company's financial status. Romero responded by calling the claims of the article \"both biased and inaccurate\". Later, Romero felt that their marketing's attempts to push the game only made Ion Storm and its core members come off as egotistical. One advert for the game became notorious; a 1997 poster containing the phrase \"John Romero's About To Make You His Bitch\". According to Mike Wilson, the advert was created by the same artist who designed the game's box art under order of their chosen advertising agency. Originally, both he and Romero thought it was funny and approved it. Romero had second thoughts soon after but was persuaded by Wilson to let it pass. Speaking ten years later, Romero said while wary of the slogan at the time, he went along with it as he had a reputation for similar crass phrases. In the same interview, he noted that reactions to the poster tarnished the game's image long before release, and continued to impact his public image and career. In a 2008 blog post concerning the recent activities of Wilson, Romero attributed him for the marketing tactic. This prompted a hostile exchange of public messages between the two at the time. The game was demoed at the 1999 Electronic Entertainment Expo. The demo ran at a very low frame rate, which further damaged the game's public image. Staff member Jake Hughes remembered that Romero wanted changes made which crippled the demo tech and caused the issues, while Romero states that he had already departed for E3 and the upper management insisted on the changes when he was gone. On April 21, 2000, \"Daikatana\" was completed and reached gold status. A tie-in comic book was drawn by Marc Silvestri and released by Top Cow for Prima Games' \"Daikatana: Prima's Official Strategy Guide\". The Nintendo 64 version was first released as a Blockbuster rental exclusive by Kemco. It was later released for retail on November 26, 2000. \"Daikatana\" final patch, version 1.2, was released on September 29, 2000. Following the release of \"Daikatana\" and \"Anachronox\", Ion Storm Austin decided to close the Dallas branch office in July 2001. In the absence of any further official support after this closure, John Romero gave the game's source code to community members, allowing them to develop additional platform ports (most notably Linux, macOS and other Unix-like systems) and bug fixes.", "", "Before \"Daikatana\"s release, reports indicated that Ion Storm forecast sales of 2.5 million units, a number that GameDaily called necessary for the game \"to become profitable\". According to American market research company PC Data, a week after its release, the game ranked number ten on their charts from the week of May 28 to June 3. The computer version of \"Daikatana\" sold 8,190 copies in the United States by July 21, which drew revenues of $271,982. Mark Asher of CNET Gamecenter called this performance \"a disaster\". According to PC Data, the game's domestic sales reached 40,351 units through September 2000.", "Jeff Lundrigan reviewed the PC version of the game for \"Next Generation\", rating it two stars out of five, and stated that \"This isn't the worst game you'll ever play, but there's precious little fun either. Two years out of its time, \"Daikatana\" is notable mostly for its mediocrity.\" The Nintendo 64 version received \"unfavorable\" reviews, according to the review aggregation website GameRankings. \"Daikatana\" was delayed multiple times from its conception in early 1997 to its eventual release in 2000. By this time, numerous games based on more advanced graphics technology, such as \"Quake III Arena\" and \"Unreal Tournament\", had been released, causing \"Daikatana\" to lag technologically in the market with its dated game engine. The gameplay had many aspects that were widely disliked by players, such as an artificially limited number of saves per level and the presence of computer-controlled \"sidekicks\" who were more of an impediment to the player. As a result, \"Daikatana\" garnered mixed reception from reviewers and players. The earliest review of the Nintendo 64 version came from \"Nintendo Power\", which gave it a score of 5.6 out of 10, even though the game itself was not released until five months later. \"Entertainment Weekly\" gave it a \"D\", calling the game \"a disaster of \"Waterworld\"-ian proportions.\" In 2001, \"Computer Gaming World\" voted it as the worst game of 2000.", "Since its release, the game has been called one of the worst video games of all time. GameTrailers ranked the game the second biggest gaming disappointment of the decade (the 2000s), citing the game's terrible AI for friend and foe alike, pushed-back release dates, controversial magazine ad, and gossip-worthy internal drama (among other things) as \"the embodiment of game's industry hubris.\" The game critic Ben \"Yahtzee\" Croshaw, on a retrospective episode of Zero Punctuation, also citing the development delays and the magazine ad, named \"Daikatana\" \"one of the most notorious disappointments in the entire history of first-person shooters\", comparing the game to \"Duke Nukem Forever\".", "The Game Boy Color version of \"Daikatana\" was only released in Europe; Kemco decided against the North American and Japanese release due to the poor reputation of the \"Daikatana\" brand. This version's gameplay differs greatly from the N64 and PC versions: at Romero's request, the title was adapted to the platform as a top-down dungeon crawler, in the style of early \"Zelda\" games such as the NES original and \"\". In 2004, Romero released the ROM images for the Game Boy Color game on his website, for use with emulators. Frank Provo for GameSpot gave the game a seven out of ten." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Early politics.", "Nazism.", "Rise of \"Der Stürmer\".", "Streicher in power.", "Fall from power.", "Trial and execution.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Streicher was born in Fleinhausen, in the Kingdom of Bavaria, one of nine children of the teacher Friedrich Streicher and his wife Anna (\"née\" Weiss). He worked as an elementary school teacher, as his father had. In 1913, Streicher married Kunigunde Roth, a baker's daughter, in Nuremberg. They had two sons, Lothar (born 1915) and Elmar (born 1918). Streicher joined the German Army in 1914. For his outstanding combat performance during the First World War, he was awarded the Iron Cross 1st and 2nd Class, as well as earning a battlefield commission as an officer (lieutenant), despite having several reported instances of poor behaviour in his military record, and at a time when officers were primarily from aristocratic families. Following the end of World War I, Streicher was demobilised and returned to Nuremberg. Upon his return, Streicher took up another teaching position there but something unknown happened in 1919, which turned him into a \"radical anti-Semite\".", "Streicher was heavily influenced by the endemic antisemitism found in pre-war Germany, especially that of Theodor Fritsch. In February 1919, Streicher became active in the antisemitic \"Deutschvölkischer Schutz- und Trutzbund\" (German Nationalist Protection and Defense Federation), one of the various radical-nationalist organizations that sprang up in the wake of the failed German Communist revolution of 1918. Such groups fostered the view that Jews and Bolsheviks were synonymous, and that they were traitors trying to subject Germany to Communist rule. In 1920 Streicher turned to the \"Deutschsozialistische Partei\" (German Socialist Party, DSP), a group whose platform was close to that of the Nazi Party, or \"Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiter Partei\" (National Socialist German Workers' Party or NSDAP). The DSP had been created in May 1919 as an initiative of Rudolf von Sebottendorf as a child of the Thule Society, and its program was based on the ideas of the mechanical engineer Alfred Brunner (1881–1936); in 1919, the party was officially inaugurated in Hanover. Its leading members included Hans Georg Müller, Max Sesselmann and Friedrich Wiesel, the first two editors of the \"Münchner Beobachter\". Julius Streicher founded his local branch in 1919 in Nuremberg. By the end of 1919, the DSP had branches in Düsseldorf, Kiel, Frankfurt am Main, Dresden, Nuremberg and Munich. Streicher sought to move the German Socialists in a more virulently antisemitic direction – an effort which aroused enough opposition that he left the group and brought his now-substantial following to yet another organisation in 1921, the \"Deutsche Werkgemeinschaft\" (German Working Community), which hoped to unite the various antisemitic \"völkisch\" movements. Meanwhile, Streicher's rhetoric against the Jews continued to intensify to such a degree that the leadership of the \"Deutsche Werkgemeinschaft\" thought he was dangerous and criticized him for his obsessive \"hatred of the Jews and foreign races.\"", "In 1921, Streicher left the German Socialist Party and joined the Nazi Party, bringing with him enough members of the DSP to almost double the size of the Nazi Party overnight. He would later claim that because his political work brought him into contact with German Jews, he \"must therefore have been fated to become later on, a writer and speaker on racial politics\". He visited Munich in order to hear Adolf Hitler speak, an experience that he later said left him transformed. When asked about that moment, Streicher stated: Nearly religiously converted by this speech, Streicher believed from this point forward that, \"it was his destiny to serve Hitler\". In May 1923 Streicher founded the sensationalist newspaper \"Der Stürmer\" (\"The Stormer\", or, loosely, \"The Attacker\"). From the outset, the chief aim of the paper was to promulgate antisemitic propaganda; the first issue had an excerpt that stated, \"As long as the Jew is in the German household, we will be Jewish slaves. Therefore he must go\". Historian Richard J. Evans describes the newspaper: [\"Der Stürmer\"] rapidly established itself as the place where screaming headlines introduced the most rabid attacks on Jews, full of sexual innuendo, racist caricatures, made-up accusations of ritual murder and titillating, semi-pornographic stories of Jewish men seducing innocent German girls. In November 1923, Streicher participated in Hitler’s first effort to seize power, the failed Beer Hall Putsch in Munich. Streicher marched with Hitler in the front row of the would-be revolutionaries. As a result of his participation in the attempted Putsch, Streicher was suspended from teaching school. His loyalty to the cause earned him Hitler's lifelong trust and protection; in the years that followed, Streicher would be one of the dictator's few true intimates. Streicher and Rudolf Hess were the only Nazis mentioned in \"Mein Kampf\"; in the book, Hitler praised him for subordinating the German Socialist Party to the Nazi Party, a move Hitler believed was essential to the success of the National Socialists. When Hitler was released from his prison sentence at Landsberg am Lech on 20 December 1924 for his role in the Putsch, Streicher was one of the few remaining followers waiting for him at his Munich apartment. Hitler – who would value loyalty and faithfulness very highly throughout his life – remained loyal to Streicher even when he landed in trouble with the Nazi hierarchy. Although Hitler would allow suppression of \"Der Stürmer\" at times when it was politically important for the Nazis to be seen as respectable, and although he would admit that Streicher was not a very good administrator, he never withdrew his personal loyalty. As a reward for Streicher's dedication, when the Nazi Party was again legalized and re-organized in 1925, Streicher was appointed \"Gauleiter\" (regional leader) of the Bavarian region of Franconia, which included his home town of Nuremberg. In the early years of the party’s rise, \"Gauleiter\" were essentially party functionaries without real power; but in the final years of the Weimar Republic, as the Nazi Party grew, so did their power. During the 12 years of the Nazi regime, \"Gauleiters\" such as Streicher would wield immense power and authority, both over party matters and civil ones. Streicher was also elected to the Bavarian \"Landtag\" or legislature, a position which gave him a margin of parliamentary immunity—a safety net that would help him resist efforts to silence his racist message.", "Beginning in 1924, Streicher used \"Der Stürmer\" as a mouthpiece not only for general antisemitic attacks, but for calculated smear campaigns against specific Jews, such as the Nuremberg city official Julius Fleischmann, who worked for Streicher's nemesis, mayor. \"Der Stürmer\" accused Fleischmann of stealing socks from his quartermaster during combat in World War I. Fleischmann sued Streicher and disproved the allegations in court, where Streicher was fined 900 marks but the detailed testimony exposed less-than-glorious details of Fleischmann's record, and his reputation was badly damaged. It was proof that Streicher's unofficial motto for his tactics was correct: \"Something always sticks.\" \"Der Stürmer\"s official slogan, \"Die Juden sind unser Unglück\" (the Jews are our misfortune), was deemed non-actionable under German statutes, since it was not a direct incitement to violence. Streicher's opponents complained to authorities that \"Der Stürmer\" violated a statute against religious offense with his constant promulgation of the \"blood libel\" – the medieval accusation that Jews killed Christian children to use their blood to make matzoh. Streicher argued that his accusations were based on race, not religion, and that his communications were political speech, and therefore protected by the German constitution. Streicher orchestrated his early campaigns against Jews to make the most extreme possible claims, short of violating a law that might get the paper shut down. He insisted in the pages of his newspaper that the Jews had caused the worldwide Depression, and were responsible for the crippling unemployment and inflation which afflicted Germany during the 1920s. He claimed that Jews were white-slavers responsible for Germany's prostitution rings. Real unsolved killings in Germany, especially of children or women, were often confidently explained in the pages of \"Der Stürmer\" as cases of \"Jewish ritual murder\". One of Streicher's constant themes was the sexual violation of ethnically German women by Jews, a subject which he used to publish semi-pornographic tracts and images detailing degrading sexual acts. The fascination with the pornographic aspects of the propaganda in \"Der Stürmer\" was an important feature for many antisemites. With the help of his cartoonist Phillip \"Fips\" Rupprecht, Streicher published image after image of Jewish stereotypes and sexually-charged encounters. His portrayal of Jews as subhuman and evil is considered to have played a critical role in the dehumanization and marginalization of the Jewish minority in the eyes of common Germans – creating the necessary conditions for the later perpetration of the Holocaust. To protect himself from accountability, Streicher relied on Hitler's protection. Hitler declared that \"Der Stürmer\" was his favorite newspaper, and saw to it that each weekly issue was posted for public reading in special glassed-in display cases known as. The newspaper reached a peak circulation of 600,000 in 1935. One of the possible solutions to the Nazi's perceived problem Streicher mentioned in the pages of \"Der Stürmer\" was transporting Jews to Madagascar.", "In April 1933, after Nazi control of the German state apparatus gave the \"Gauleiters\" enormous power, Streicher organised a one-day boycott of Jewish businesses which was used as a dress-rehearsal for other antisemitic commercial measures. As he consolidated his hold on power, he came to more or less rule the city of Nuremberg and his \"Gau Franken\", and boasted that every Jew had been removed from Hersbruck. Among the nicknames provided by his enemies were \"King of Nuremberg\" and the \"Beast of Franconia.\" Because of his role as \"Gauleiter\" of Franconia, he also gained the nickname of \"Frankenführer\". Streicher later claimed that he was only \"indirectly responsible\" for passage of the anti-Jewish Nuremberg Laws of 1935, and that he felt slighted because he was not directly consulted. Perhaps epitomizing the \"profound anti-intellectualism\" of the Nazi Party, Streicher once opined that, \"If the brains of all university professors were put at one end of the scale, and the brains of the \"Führer\" at the other, which end do you think would tip?\" Streicher was ordered to take part in the establishment of the Institute for the Study and Elimination of Jewish Influence on German Church Life, that was to be organized together with the German Christians, the Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda, the Reich Ministry of Education and the Reich Ministry of the Churches. A surgical operation prevented Streicher from being able to fully participate and engage in this endeavor. This antisemitic standpoint concerning the Bible can be traced back to the earliest time of the Nazi movement, for instance Dietrich Eckart's (Hitler's early mentor) book \"Bolshevism from Moses to Lenin: A Dialogue Between Adolf Hitler and Me\", where it was claimed that \"Jewish forgeries\" had been added to the New Testament. In 1938, Streicher ordered that the Great Synagogue of Nuremberg be destroyed as part of his contribution to \"Kristallnacht\". Streicher later claimed that his decision was based on his disapproval of its architectural design, which in his opinion \"disfigured the beautiful German townscape.\"", "John Gunther described Streicher as \"the worst of the anti-Semites\", and his excesses brought condemnation even from other Nazis. Streicher's behaviour was viewed as so irresponsible that he was embarrassing the party leadership; chief among his enemies in Hitler's hierarchy was \"Reichsmarschall\" Hermann Göring, who loathed him and later claimed that he forbade his own staff to read \"Der Stürmer\". Despite his special relationship with Hitler, after 1938 Streicher's position began to unravel. He was accused of keeping Jewish property seized after \"Kristallnacht\" in November 1938; he was charged with spreading untrue stories about Göring – such as alleging that Göring's daughter Edda was conceived by artificial insemination; and he was confronted with his excessive personal behaviour, including unconcealed adultery, several furious verbal attacks on other \"Gauleiters\" and striding through the streets of Nuremberg cracking a bullwhip. In February 1940, he was stripped of his party offices and withdrew from the public eye, although he was permitted to continue publishing \"Der Stürmer\". Hitler remained committed to Streicher, whom he considered a loyal friend, despite his unsavory reputation. Streicher's wife, Kunigunde Streicher, died in 1943 after 30 years of marriage. When Germany surrendered to the Allied armies in May 1945, Streicher said later, he decided to commit suicide. Instead, he married his former secretary, Adele Tappe. Days later, on 23 May 1945, Streicher was captured in the town of Waidring, Austria, by a group of American officers led by Major Henry Plitt.", "During his trial, Streicher claimed that he had been mistreated by Allied soldiers after his capture. When the German version of the Wechsler-Bellevue IQ test was administered by Gustave Gilbert, Streicher had an above average IQ (106), the lowest among the defendants. Streicher was not a member of the military and did not take part in planning the Holocaust, or the invasion of other nations. Yet his pivotal role in inciting the extermination of Jews was significant enough, in the prosecutors' judgment, to include him in the indictment of Major War Criminals before the International Military Tribunal – which sat in Nuremberg, where Streicher had once been an unchallenged authority. He complained throughout the process that all his judges were Jews. Most of the evidence against Streicher came from his numerous speeches and articles over the years. In essence, prosecutors contended that Streicher's articles and speeches were so incendiary that he was an accessory to murder, and therefore as culpable as those who actually ordered the mass extermination of Jews. They further argued that he kept up his antisemitic propaganda even after he was aware that Jews were being slaughtered. Streicher was acquitted of crimes against peace, but found guilty of crimes against humanity, and sentenced to death on 1 October 1946. The judgment against him read, in part: He, along with Hans Fritzsche, were the first persons to be held accountable for what would later be classified as incitement to genocide. During his trial, Streicher displayed for the last time the flair for courtroom theatrics that had made him famous in the 1920s. He answered questions from his own defence attorney with diatribes against Jews, the Allies, and the court itself, and was frequently silenced by the court officers. Streicher was largely shunned by all of the other Nuremberg defendants. He also peppered his testimony with references to passages of Jewish texts he had so often carefully selected and inserted into the pages of \"Der Stürmer\". Streicher was hanged at Nuremberg Prison in the early hours of 16 October 1946, along with the nine other condemned defendants from the first Nuremberg trial. Göring, Streicher's nemesis, committed suicide only hours earlier. Streicher's was the most melodramatic of the hangings carried out that night. At the bottom of the scaffold he cried out \"Heil Hitler!\". When he mounted the platform, he delivered his last sneering reference to Jewish scripture, snapping \"\"Purimfest\"!\" Streicher's final declaration before the hood went over his head was, \"The Bolsheviks will hang you one day!\" Joseph Kingsbury-Smith, a journalist for the International News Service who covered the executions, said in his filed report that after the hood descended over Streicher's head, he also apparently said \"Adele, meine liebe Frau!\" (\"Adele, my dear wife!\"). The consensus among eyewitnesses was that Streicher's hanging did not proceed as planned, and that he did not receive the quick death from spinal severing that was typical of the other executions at Nuremberg. Kingsbury-Smith reported that Streicher \"went down kicking\", which may have dislodged the hangman's knot from its ideal position. The reason for Streicher’s bungled execution was because the U.S. Army employed an inept Master Sergeant, John C. Woods, to conduct the hangings. Nevertheless Woods always said he was very proud of his work, insisting he had performed all his executions correctly. Streicher's body, along with those of the other nine executed men and the corpse of Hermann Göring, was cremated at Ostfriedhof (Munich) and the ashes were scattered.", "Informational notes Citations Bibliography Further reading" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History of the Bulgarian Army.", "Medieval Period.", "Serbo-Bulgarian war.", "First Balkan War.", "Second Balkan War.", "First World War.", "The army between the World Wars.", "World War II.", "Cold War era.", "Modern era.", "Organization.", "Defence Staff.", "Ministry of Defence.", "Defence Staff.", "Joint Forces Command.", "Joint Special Operations Command.", "Personnel and education.", "Training.", "Budget.", "Land Forces.", "National guard unit.", "Statistics and equipment.", "Navy.", "Air Force.", "Aircraft inventory.", "Bulgarian-American cooperation.", "Deployments." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The modern Bulgarian military dates back to 1878. On 22 July 1878 (10 July O.S.) a total of 12 battalions of \"opalchentsi\" who participated in the Liberation war, formed", "The Serbo-Bulgarian War was the first armed conflict after Bulgaria's liberation. It was a result of the unification with Eastern Rumelia, which happened on 6 September 1885. The unification was not completely recognized, however, and one of the countries that refused to recognize the act was the Kingdom of Serbia. The Austro-Hungarian Empire had been expanding its influence in the Balkans and was particularly opposed. Serbia also feared this would diminish its dominance in the region. In addition, Serbian ruler Milan Obrenović IV was annoyed that Serbian opposition leaders like Nikola Pašić, who had escaped persecution after the Timok Rebellion, had found asylum in Bulgaria. Lured by Austria-Hungary's promises of territorial gains", "Instability in the Balkan region in the early 1900s quickly became a precondition for a new war. Serbia's aspirations towards Bosnia and Herzegovina were thwarted by the Austrian annexation of the province in October 1908, so the Serbs focused their attention onto their historic cradle, Kosovo, and to the south for expansion. Greek officers, revolting in August 1909, had secured the appointment of a progressive government under Eleftherios Venizelos, which they hoped would resolve the Cretan issue in Greece's favor and reverse their defeat of 1897 by the Ottomans. Bulgaria, which had secured Ottoman recognition of its independence in April 1909 and enjoyed the friendship of Russia, also looked to districts of Ottoman Thrace and Macedonia for expansion. In March 1910 an Albanian insurrection broke out in Kosovo. In August Montenegro", "The peace settlement of the First Balkan War proved unsatisfactory for both Serbia and Bulgaria. Serbia refused to cede a part of the territories in Macedonia, which it occupied and promised to give to Bulgaria according to a secret agreement. Serbia, on its side, was not satisfied with the independence of Albania and sought a secret alliance with Greece. Armed skirmishes between Serbian and Bulgarian troops occurred. On 16 June 1913, just a few months after the end of the first war, the", "The Kingdom of Bulgaria participated in World War I on the side of the Central Powers between 15 October 1915, when the country declared war on Serbia, and 29 September 1918, when the Armistice of Thessalonica was signed. In the aftermath of the Balkan Wars, Bulgarian opinion turned against Russia and the western powers, whom the Bulgarians felt had done nothing to help them. The government of Vasil Radoslavov aligned the country with Germany and Austria-Hungary, even though this meant also becoming an ally of the Ottomans, Bulgaria's traditional enemy. However, Bulgaria now had no claims against the Ottomans, whereas Serbia, Greece and Romania (allies of Britain and France) were all in possession of lands perceived in Bulgaria as its own. In 1915 Germany promised to restore the boundaries according to the Treaty", "The Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine proved to be a severe blow to Bulgaria's military. According to the treaty, the country had no right to organize a conscription-based military. The professional army was to be", "The government of the Kingdom of Bulgaria under Prime Minister Bogdan Filov declared a position of neutrality upon the outbreak of World War II. Bulgaria was determined to observe it until the end of the war but it hoped for bloodless territorial gains, especially in the lands with a significant Bulgarian population occupied by neighboring countries after the Second Balkan War and World War I. However, it was clear that the central geopolitical position of Bulgaria in the Balkans would inevitably lead to", "As the Red Army invaded Bulgaria in 1944 and installed a communist government, the armed forces were rapidly forced to reorganise following the Soviet model, and were renamed the Bulgarian People's Army (\"Bulgarska Narodna Armiya, BNA\"). Moscow quickly supplied Bulgaria with T-34-85 tanks, SU-100 guns, Il-2 attack planes and other new combat machinery. As the country was a Soviet satellite, it was a part of the Eastern Bloc and entered the Warsaw Pact as one of its founders. By this time the army had expanded to over 200,000 men with hundreds of thousands of more reserve troops. Military service was obligatory. A special defensive line, known as the Krali Marko defensive line, was constructed along the entire border with Turkey. It was heavily fortified with concrete walls and turrets of T-34, Panzer III and Panzer IV tanks. The army was involved in a number of border skirmishes from 1948 to 1952, repulsing several Greek attacks, and took part in the suppression of the Prague Spring events. In the meantime, during the rule of Todor Zhivkov,", "With the collapse of the Warsaw Pact and the end of the Cold War, Bulgaria could no longer support a vast military. A rapid reduction in personnel and active equipment was to be carried out in parallel with a general re-alignment of strategic interests. In 1990, Bulgaria had a total of more than 2,400 tanks, 2,000 armored vehicles, 2,500 large caliber artillery systems, 300 fighter and bomber aircraft, 100 trainer aircraft, more than 40 combat and 40 transport helicopters, 4 submarines, 6 fast missile craft, 2 frigates, 5 corvettes, 6 torpedo boats, 9 patrol craft, 30 minesweepers and 21 transport vessels. Due to the economic crisis that affected most former Eastern bloc countries, a steady reform in the military could not be carried", "", "The Bulgarian Armed Forces are headquartered in Sofia, where most of the Defence staff is based. Until recently the supreme military institution was the General Staff and the most senior military officer was known as the Chief of the General Staff. After the latest military reform has been implemented the General Staff became a department within the Ministry of Defence and for that matter its name had to be changed to match the new situation. For that reason the former GS became the Defence Staff and the supreme military commander became the Chief of Defence. Currently headed by Chief of Defence general Simeon Simeonov, the Defence Staff is responsible for operational command of the Bulgarian Army and its 3 major branches. Deputies: Vice Admiral Petar Petrov, General Atanas Zaprianov, General Dimitar Zekhtinov.", "Ministry of Defence<br> The organisation of the Ministry", "The Defence Staff, formerly called the General Staff of the Bulgarian Army, is the", "In 2010 the Ministry of Defence completed a thorough study of the defence policy and issued a \"White Book\", or a \"White Paper on Defence\", calling for a major overhaul of the structure of Defence Forces. According to the document the military of the Republic of Bulgaria should include two mechanized brigades, four regiments (Logistics, Artillery, Engineering, SpecOps), four battalions (Reconnaissance, Mechanized, NBC, PsyOps) in the", "The 68th Special Forces Brigade left the Land Forces on 1 February 2017, de facto becoming the country's fourth combat service. Unlike Bulgaria's Land, Air and Naval Forces however it fell outside of", "Bulgaria's total military personnel as of 2014 is 37,100, of which 30,400 (80.1%) are active military personnel and 8,100 (11.9%) are civilian personnel. The Land Forces are the largest branch, with at least 18,000 men serving there. In terms of percentage, 53% of all Army personnel are in the Land Forces, 25% are in the Air Force, 13% are in the Navy and 9% are in the Joint Forces Command. Annual spending per soldier amounts to 30,000 leva (~ 15,000 euro) and is scheduled to increase to 43,600 leva by 2014.", "The Land Forces practice extensive year-round military training in various conditions. Cooperative drills with the United States are very common, the last series of them conducted in 2008. Bulgaria's most recent full-scale exercise simulating a foreign invasion was carried out in 2009. It was conducted at the Koren range, and included some 1,700 personnel with tanks, ATGMs, attack aircraft, AA guns and armored vehicles. The combat skills of individual soldiers are on a very", "After the collapse of the Warsaw pact, Bulgaria lost the ability to acquire cheap fuel and spares for its military. A large portion of its nearly 2,000 T-55 tanks fell into disrepair, and eventually almost all of them were scrapped or sold to other countries. In the early 1990s the budget was so small, that regulars only received token-value payments. Many educated and well-trained officers lost the opportunity to educate younger soldiers, as the necessary equipment and basis lacked adequate funding. Military", "The Land Forces are functionally divided into Deployable and Reserve Forces. Their main functions include deterrence, defence, peace support and crisis management, humanitarian and rescue missions, as well as social functions within Bulgarian society. Active troops in the land forces number about 18,000 men, and reserve troops number about 13,000. The equipment of the land forces is impressive in terms of numbers, but most of it is nonoperational and scheduled to be scrapped or refurbished and exported to other nations. Bulgaria has a military stockpile of about 5,000,000 small arms, models ranging from World War II-era MP 40 machine pistols to modern Steyr AUG, AK-74, HK MP5, HK416 and AR-M12F assault rifles.", "The National Guard of Bulgaria, founded in 1879, is the successor to the personal guards of Knyaz Alexander I. On 12 July of that year, the guards escorted the Bulgarian knyaz for the first time; today the official holiday of the National Guard is celebrated on 12 July. Throughout the years the structure of the guards has evolved, going", "\"Note\": This table shows combined active and reserve force.Most are listed here. On 2019 what remained from the scrapping of the previous new equipment some but not all of the T-72 Main battle tanks were send for mechanical", "The Navy has traditionally been the smallest component of the Bulgarian military. Established almost simultaneously with the Ground forces in 1879, initially it consisted of a small fleet of boats on the Danube river. Bulgaria has a coastline of about 354 kilometers – thus, naval warfare is not considered a priority. After the downturn in 1990, the Navy was largely overlooked and received almost no funding. No projects for modernization were carried out until 2005, when a Wielingen class frigate (F912 Wandelaar) was acquired from Belgium. By 2009, Bulgaria acquired two", "In the past decade Bulgaria has been trying actively to restructure its army as a whole and a lot of attention has been placed on keeping the aging Russian aircraft operational. Currently the attack and defence branches of the Bulgarian air force are mainly MiG-29s and Su-25s. About 15 MiG-29 fighters have been modernized in order to meet NATO standards. The first aircraft arrived on 29 November 2007 and final delivery was due in 03/09. In 2006 the Bulgarian government signed a contract with Alenia Aeronautica for the delivery of five C-27J Spartan transport aircraft in order to replace the Soviet made An-24 and An-26, although the contract was later changed to only three aircraft. Modern EU-made transport helicopters were purchased in 2005 and a total of 12 Eurocopter Cougar have been delivered (8 transport and 4 CSAR).3 Eurocopter AS565 Panther for the Bulgarian navy in 2016. Branches of the airforce include: fighter aviation, assault aviation, intelligence aviation and transportation aviation, aid defence troops, radio-technical troops, communications troops, radio-technical support troops, logistics and medical troops. The Bulgarian ministry of defense has announced plans to withdraw and replace the MiG-29 fighters with new F-16V Fighting Falcon by 2025–2026.", "With the exception of the Navy's small helicopter fleet, the Air Forces are responsible for all military aircraft in Bulgaria. The Air", "The Bulgarian-American Joint Military Facilities were established by a Defence Cooperation Agreement signed by the United States and Bulgaria in April 2006. Under the agreement, U.S. forces can conduct training at several bases in", "Both during Communist rule and after, Bulgaria has deployed troops with different tasks in various countries. The table below lists Bulgarian military deployments in foreign countries. Active missions are shown in bold." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Invention and early development.", "Modicon.", "Allen-Bradley.", "Early methods of programming.", "Architecture.", "Mechanical design.", "Discrete and analog signals.", "Redundancy.", "Programming.", "Simulation.", "Control example shown in ladder diagram.", "Functionality.", "Basic functions.", "Communication.", "User interface.", "Process of a scan cycle.", "Security.", "Safety PLC.", "PLC compared with other control systems.", "PLC Chip / Embedded Controller.", "Cam timers.", "Microcontrollers.", "Single-board computers.", "PID Controllers.", "Programmable logic relays (PLR)." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "PLC originated in the late 1960s in the automotive industry in the US and were designed to replace relay logic systems. Before, control logic for manufacturing was mainly composed of relays, cam timers, drum sequencers, and dedicated closed-loop controllers. The hard-wired nature made it difficult for design engineers to alter the process. Changes would require rewiring and careful updating of the documentation. If even one wire were out of place, or one relay failed, the whole system would become faulty. Often technicians would spend hours troubleshooting by examining the schematics and comparing them to existing wiring. When general-purpose computers became available, they were soon applied to control logic in industrial processes. These early computers were unreliable and required specialist programmers and strict control of working conditions, such as temperature, cleanliness, and power quality. The PLC was developed with several advantages over earlier designs. It tolerated the industrial environment better than computers and was more reliable, compact and required less maintenance than relay systems. It was easily extensible with additional I/O modules, while relay systems required complicated hardware changes in case of reconfiguration. This allowed for easier iteration over manufacturing process design. Comparing to a computer, PLC in a rack format can be more easily extended with additional I/O in the form of I/O cards. With simple programming language focused on logic and switching operations it was more user-friendly than computers using general-purpose programming languages. It also permitted for its operation to be monitored. Early PLCs were programmed in ladder logic, which strongly resembled a schematic diagram of relay logic. This program notation was chosen to reduce training demands for the existing technicians. Other PLCs used a form of instruction list programming, based on a stack-based logic solver.", "In 1968, GM Hydramatic (the automatic transmission division of General Motors) issued a request for proposals for an electronic replacement for hard-wired relay systems based on a white paper written by engineer Edward R. Clark. The winning proposal came from Bedford Associates from Bedford, Massachusetts. The result was the first PLC—built in 1969–designated the 084, because it was Bedford Associates' eighty-fourth project. Bedford Associates started a company dedicated to developing, manufacturing, selling, and servicing this new product, which they named (standing for modular digital controller). One of the people who worked on that project was Dick Morley, who is considered to be the \"father\" of the PLC. The Modicon brand was sold in 1977 to Gould Electronics and later to Schneider Electric, the current owner. One of the very first 084 models built is now on display at Schneider Electric's facility in North Andover, Massachusetts. It was presented to Modicon by GM, when the unit was retired after nearly twenty years of uninterrupted service. Modicon used the 84 moniker at the end of its product range until the 984 made its appearance.", "In a parallel development Odo Josef Struger is sometimes known as the \"father of the programmable logic controller\" as well. He was involved in the invention of the AllenBradley programmable logic controller during 1958 to 1960 and is credited with inventing the PLC acronym. Allen-Bradley (now a brand owned by Rockwell Automation) became a major PLC manufacturer in the United States during his tenure. Struger played a leadership role in developing IEC 61131-3 PLC programming language standards.", "Many early PLCs were not capable of graphical representation of the logic, and so it was instead represented as a series of logic expressions in some kind of Boolean format, similar to Boolean algebra. As programming terminals evolved, it became more common for ladder logic to be used, because it was a familiar format used for electro-mechanical control panels. Newer formats, such as state logic and Function Block (which is similar to the way logic is depicted when using digital integrated logic circuits) exist, but they are still not as popular as ladder logic. A primary reason for this is that PLCs solve the logic in a predictable and repeating sequence, and ladder logic allows the person writing the logic to see any issues with the timing of the logic sequence more easily than would be possible in other formats. Up to the mid-1990s, PLCs were programmed using proprietary programming panels or special-purpose programming terminals, which often had dedicated function keys representing the various logical elements of PLC programs. Some proprietary programming terminals displayed the elements of PLC programs as graphic symbols, but plain ASCII character representations of contacts, coils, and wires were common. Programs were stored on cassette tape cartridges. Facilities for printing and documentation were minimal due to lack of memory capacity. The oldest PLCs used non-volatile magnetic core memory.", "Regular programmable logic controller consists of: PLCs require programming device which is used to develop and later download the created program into the memory of the controller. Modern PLCs generally contain a real-time operating system, such as OS-9 or VxWorks.", "There are two types of mechanical design for PLC systems. A \"single box\", or a \"brick\" is a small programmable controller that fits all units and interfaces into one compact casing, although, typically, additional expansion modules for inputs and outputs are available. Second design type – a \"modular\" PLC – has a chassis (also called a \"rack\") that provides space for modules with different functions, such as power supply, processor, selection of I/O modules and communication interfaces – which all can be customized for the particular application. Several racks can be administered by a single processor, and may have thousands of inputs and outputs. Either a special high speed serial I/O link or comparable communication method is used so that racks can be distributed away from the processor, reducing the wiring costs for large plants. Options are also available to mount I/O points directly to the machine and utilize quick disconnecting cables to sensors and valves, saving time for wiring and replacing components.", "Discrete (digital) signals can only take \"on\" or \"off\" value (1 or 0, \"true\" or \"false\"). Examples of devices providing a discrete signal include limit switches, photoelectric sensors and encoders. Discrete signals are sent using either voltage or current, where specific extreme ranges are designated as o\"n\" and o\"ff\". For example, a controller might use 24 V DC input with values above 22 V DC representing o\"n\", values below 2 V DC representing o\"ff\", and intermediate values undefined. Analog signals can use voltage or current that is proportional to the size of monitored variable and can take any value within their scale. Pressure, temperature, flow, and weight are often represented by analog signals. These are typically interpreted as integer values with various ranges of accuracy depending on the device and the number of bits available to store the data. For example, an analog 0 to 10 V or 4-20 mA input would be converted into an integer value of 0 to 32,767. The PLC will take this value and transpose it into the desired units of the process so the operator or program can read it. Proper integration will also include filter times to reduce noise as well as high and low limits to report faults. Current inputs are less sensitive to electrical noise (e.g. from welders or electric motor starts) than voltage inputs. Distance from the device and the controller is also a concern as the maximum travelling distance of a good quality 0-10V signal is very short compared to the 4-20 mA signal. The 4-20 mA signal can also report if the wire is disconnected along the path as it would return a 0 mA signal.", "Some special processes need to work permanently with minimum unwanted down time. Therefore, it is necessary to design a system which is fault-tolerant and capable of handling the process with faulty modules. In such cases to increase the system availability in the event of hardware component failure, redundant CPU or I/O modules with the same functionality can be added to hardware configuration for preventing total or partial process shutdown due to hardware failure. Other redundancy scenarios could be related to safety critical processes, for example large hydraulic presses could require that both PLCs turn on an output before the press can come down in case one output does not turn off properly.", "Programmable logic controllers are intended to be used by engineers without programming background. For this reason, graphical programming language called Ladder Diagram (LD, LAD) was first developed which resembles the schematic diagram of a system built with electromechanical relays. It was adopted by many manufacturers and later standardized in the IEC 61131-3 control systems programming standard., it is still widely used, thanks to its simplicity. , the majority of PLC systems adhere to the IEC 61131-3 standard that defines 2 textual programming languages: Structured Text (ST; similar to Pascal) and Instruction List (IL); as well as 3 graphical languages: Ladder Diagram, Function Block Diagram (FBD) and Sequential Function Chart (SFC). Instruction List (IL) was deprecated in the third edition of the standard. Modern PLCs can be programmed in a variety of ways, from the relay-derived ladder logic to programming languages such as specially adapted dialects of BASIC and C. While the fundamental concepts of PLC programming are common to all manufacturers, differences in I/O addressing, memory organization, and instruction sets mean that PLC programs are never perfectly interchangeable between different makers. Even within the same product line of a single manufacturer, different models may not be directly compatible. PLC programs are typically written in programming device which can take form of a desktop console, a special software on a personal computer, or a handheld programming device. Then, the program is downloaded to the PLC directly or over a network. It is stored either in non-volatile flash memory or battery-backed-up RAM. In some programmable controllers, the program is transferred from a personal computer to the PLC through a programming board which writes the program into a removable chip, such as EPROM. Program written on personal computer can be easily copied and backed up on external storage. Manufacturers develop programming software for their controllers. In addition to being able to program PLCs in multiple languages, they provide common features like hardware diagnostics and maintenance, software debugging, and offline simulation. The program can be uploaded for backup and restoration purposes.", "In order to properly understand the operation of a PLC, it is necessary to spend considerable time programming, testing and debugging PLC programs. PLC systems are inherently expensive, and down-time is often very costly. In addition, if a PLC is programmed incorrectly it can result in lost productivity and dangerous conditions. PLC simulation software such as PLCLogix can save time in the design of automated control applications and can also increase the level of safety associated with equipment since many \"what if\" scenarios can be tried and tested before the system is activated.", "This is a programming example in ladder diagram which shows the control system. A ladder diagram is a method of drawing control circuits which pre-dates PLCs. The ladder diagram resembles the schematic diagram of a system built with electromechanical relays. As an example, say a facility needs to store water in a tank. The water is drawn from the tank by another system, as needed, and our example system must manage the water level in the tank by controlling the valve that refills the tank. Shown are: In ladder diagram, the contact symbols represent the state of bits in processor memory, which corresponds to the state of physical inputs to the system. If a discrete input is energized, the memory bit is a 1, and a \"normally open\" contact controlled by that bit will pass a logic \"true\" signal on to the next element of the ladder. Therefore, the contacts in the PLC program that \"read\" or look at the physical switch contacts in this case must be \"opposite\" or open in order to return a TRUE for the closed physical switches. Internal status bits, corresponding to the state of discrete outputs, are also available to the program. In the example, the physical state of the float switch contacts must be considered when choosing \"normally open\" or \"normally closed\" symbols in the ladder diagram. The PLC has two discrete inputs from float switches (Low Level and High Level). Both float switches (normally closed) open their contacts when the water level in the tank is above the physical location of the switch. When the water level is below both switches, the float switch physical contacts are both closed, and a true (logic 1) value is passed to the Fill Valve output. Water begins to fill the tank. The internal \"Fill Valve\" contact latches the circuit so that even when the \"Low Level\" contact opens (as the water passes the lower switch), the fill valve remains on. Since the High Level is also normally closed, water continues to flow as the water level remains between the two switch levels. Once the water level rises enough so that the \"High Level\" switch is off (opened), the PLC will shut the inlet to stop the water from overflowing; this is an example of seal-in (latching) logic. The output is sealed in until a high level condition breaks the circuit. After that the fill valve remains off until the level drops so low that the Low Level switch is activated, and the process repeats again. A complete program may contain thousands of rungs, evaluated in sequence. Typically the PLC processor will alternately scan all its inputs and update outputs, then evaluate the ladder logic; input changes during a program scan will not be effective until the next I/O update. A complete program scan may take only a few milliseconds, much faster than changes in the controlled process. Programmable controllers vary in their capabilities for a \"rung\" of a ladder diagram. Some only allow a single output bit. There are typically limits to the number of series contacts in line, and the number of branches that can be used. Each element of the rung is evaluated sequentially. If elements change their state during evaluation of a rung, hard-to-diagnose faults can be generated, although sometimes (as above) the technique is useful. Some implementations forced evaluation from left-to-right as displayed and did not allow reverse flow of a logic signal (in multi-branched rungs) to affect the output.", "The main difference from most other computing devices is that PLCs are intended-for and therefore tolerant-of more severe conditions (such as dust, moisture, heat, cold), while offering extensive input/output (I/O) to connect the PLC to sensors and actuators. PLC input can include simple digital elements such as limit switches, analog variables from process sensors (such as temperature and pressure), and more complex data such as that from positioning or machine vision systems. PLC output can include elements such as indicator lamps, sirens, electric motors, pneumatic or hydraulic cylinders, magnetic relays, solenoids, or analog outputs. The input/output arrangements may be built into a simple PLC, or the PLC may have external I/O modules attached to a fieldbus or computer network that plugs into the PLC. The functionality of the PLC has evolved over the years to include sequential relay control, motion control, process control, distributed control systems, and networking. The data handling, storage, processing power, and communication capabilities of some modern PLCs are approximately equivalent to desktop computers. PLC-like programming combined with remote I/O hardware, allow a general-purpose desktop computer to overlap some PLCs in certain applications. Desktop computer controllers have not been generally accepted in heavy industry because the desktop computers run on less stable operating systems than PLCs, and because the desktop computer hardware is typically not designed to the same levels of tolerance to temperature, humidity, vibration, and longevity as the processors used in PLCs. Operating systems such as Windows do not lend themselves to deterministic logic execution, with the result that the controller may not always respond to changes of input status with the consistency in timing expected from PLCs. Desktop logic applications find use in less critical situations, such as laboratory automation and use in small facilities where the application is less demanding and critical.", "The most basic function of a programmable controller is to emulate the functions of electro-mechanical relays. Discrete inputs are given a unique address, and a PLC instruction can test if the input state is on or off. Just as a series of relay contacts perform a logical AND function, not allowing current to pass unless all the contacts are closed, so a series of \"examine if on\" instructions will energize its output storage bit if all the input bits are on. Similarly, a parallel set of instructions will perform a logical OR. In an electro-mechanical relay wiring diagram, a group of contacts controlling one coil is called a \"rung\" of a \"ladder diagram \", and this concept is also used to describe PLC logic. Some models of PLC limit the number of series and parallel instructions in one \"rung\" of logic. The output of each rung sets or clears a storage bit, which may be associated with a physical output address or which may be an \"internal coil\" with no physical connection. Such internal coils can be used, for example, as a common element in multiple separate rungs. Unlike physical relays, there is usually no limit to the number of times an input, output or internal coil can be referenced in a PLC program. Some PLCs enforce a strict left-to-right, top-to-bottom execution order for evaluating the rung logic. This is different from electro-mechanical relay contacts, which in a sufficiently complex circuit may either pass current left-to-right or right-to-left, depending on the configuration of surrounding contacts. The elimination of these \"sneak paths\" is either a bug or a feature, depending on programming style. More advanced instructions of the PLC may be implemented as functional blocks, which carry out some operation when enabled by a logical input and which produce outputs to signal, for example, completion or errors, while manipulating variable internally that may not correspond to discrete logic.", "PLCs use built-in ports, such as USB, Ethernet, RS-232, RS-485, or RS-422 to communicate with external devices (sensors, actuators) and systems (programming software, SCADA, HMI). Communication is carried over various industrial network protocols, like Modbus, or EtherNet/IP. Many of these protocols are vendor specific. PLCs used in larger I/O systems may have peer-to-peer (P2P) communication between processors. This allows separate parts of a complex process to have individual control while allowing the subsystems to co-ordinate over the communication link. These communication links are also often used for HMI devices such as keypads or PC-type workstations. Formerly, some manufacturers offered dedicated communication modules as an add-on function where the processor had no network connection built-in.", "PLCs may need to interact with people for the purpose of configuration, alarm reporting, or everyday control. A human-machine interface (HMI) is employed for this purpose. HMIs are also referred to as man-machine interfaces (MMIs) and graphical user interfaces (GUIs). A simple system may use buttons and lights to interact with the user. Text displays are available as well as graphical touch screens. More complex systems use programming and monitoring software installed on a computer, with the PLC connected via a communication interface.", "A PLC works in a program scan cycle, where it executes its program repeatedly. The simplest scan cycle consists of 3 steps: The program follows the sequence of instructions. It typically takes a time span of tens of milliseconds for the processor to evaluate all the instructions and update the status of all outputs. If the system contains remote I/O—for example, an external rack with I/O modules—then that introduces additional uncertainty in the response time of the PLC system. As PLCs became more advanced, methods were developed to change the sequence of ladder execution, and subroutines were implemented. This enhanced programming could be used to save scan time for high-speed processes; for example, parts of the program used only for setting up the machine could be segregated from those parts required to operate at higher speed. Newer PLCs now have the option to run the logic program synchronously with the IO scanning. This means that IO is updated in the background and the logic reads and writes values as required during the logic scanning. Special-purpose I/O modules may be used where the scan time of the PLC is too long to allow predictable performance. Precision timing modules, or counter modules for use with shaft encoders, are used where the scan time would be too long to reliably count pulses or detect the sense of rotation of an encoder. This allows even a relatively slow PLC to still interpret the counted values to control a machine, as the accumulation of pulses is done by a dedicated module that is unaffected by the speed of program execution.", "In his book from 1998, E. A. Parr pointed out that even though most programmable controllers require physical keys and passwords, the lack of strict access control and version control systems, as well as an easy to understand programming language make it likely that unauthorized changes to programs will happen and remain unnoticed. Prior to the discovery of the Stuxnet computer worm in June 2010, security of PLCs received little attention. Modern programmable controllers generally contain a real-time operating systems, which can be vulnerable to exploits in similar way as desktop operating systems, like Microsoft Windows. PLCs can also be attacked by gaining control of a computer they communicate with., this concerns grow as networking is becoming more commonplace in the PLC environment connecting the previously separate plant floor networks and office networks.", "In recent years \"safety\" PLCs have started to become popular, either as standalone models or as functionality and safety-rated hardware added to existing controller architectures (Allen-Bradley Guardlogix, Siemens F-series etc.). These differ from conventional PLC types as being suitable for use in safety-critical applications for which PLCs have traditionally been supplemented with hard-wired safety relays. For example, a safety PLC might be used to control access to a robot cell with trapped-key access, or perhaps to manage the shutdown response to an emergency stop on a conveyor production line. Such PLCs typically have a restricted regular instruction set augmented with safety-specific instructions designed to interface with emergency stops, light screens, and so forth. The flexibility that such systems offer has resulted in rapid growth of demand for these controllers.", "PLCs are well adapted to a range of automation tasks. These are typically industrial processes in manufacturing where the cost of developing and maintaining the automation system is high relative to the total cost of the automation, and where changes to the system would be expected during its operational life. PLCs contain input and output devices compatible with industrial pilot devices and controls; little electrical design is required, and the design problem centers on expressing the desired sequence of operations. PLC applications are typically highly customized systems, so the cost of a packaged PLC is low compared to the cost of a specific custom-built controller design. On the other hand, in the case of mass-produced goods, customized control systems are economical. This is due to the lower cost of the components, which can be optimally chosen instead of a \"generic\" solution, and where the non-recurring engineering charges are spread over thousands or millions of units. Programmable controllers are widely used in motion, positioning, or torque control. Some manufacturers produce motion control units to be integrated with PLC so that G-code (involving a CNC machine) can be used to instruct machine movements.", "For small machines with low or medium volume. PLCs that can execute PLC languages such as Ladder, Flow-Chart/Grafcet... Similar to traditional PLCs, but their small size allows developers to design them into custom printed circuit boards like a microcontroller, without computer programming knowledge, but with a language that is easy to use, modify and maintain. It's between the classic PLC / Micro-PLC and the Microcontrollers.", "For high volume or very simple fixed automation tasks, different techniques are used. For example, a cheap consumer dishwasher would be controlled by an electromechanical cam timer costing only a few dollars in production quantities.", "A microcontroller-based design would be appropriate where hundreds or thousands of units will be produced and so the development cost (design of power supplies, input/output hardware, and necessary testing and certification) can be spread over many sales, and where the end-user would not need to alter the control. Automotive applications are an example; millions of units are built each year, and very few end-users alter the programming of these controllers. However, some specialty vehicles such as transit buses economically use PLCs instead of custom-designed controls, because the volumes are low and the development cost would be uneconomical.", "Very complex process control, such as used in the chemical industry, may require algorithms and performance beyond the capability of even high-performance PLCs. Very high-speed or precision controls may also require customized solutions; for example, aircraft flight controls. Single-board computers using semi-customized or fully proprietary hardware may be chosen for very demanding control applications where the high development and maintenance cost can be supported. \"Soft PLCs\" running on desktop-type computers can interface with industrial I/O hardware while executing programs within a version of commercial operating systems adapted for process control needs. The rising popularity of single board computers has also had an influence on the development of PLCs. Traditional PLCs are generally closed platforms, but some newer PLCs (e.g. ctrlX from Bosch Rexroth, PFC200 from Wago, PLCnext from Phoenix Contact, and Revolution Pi from Kunbus) provide the features of traditional PLCs on an open platform.", "PLCs may include logic for single-variable feedback analog control loop, a PID controller. A PID loop could be used to control the temperature of a manufacturing process, for example. Historically PLCs were usually configured with only a few analog control loops; where processes required hundreds or thousands of loops, a distributed control system (DCS) would instead be used. As PLCs have become more powerful, the boundary between DCS and PLC applications has been blurred.", "In more recent years, small products called programmable logic relays (PLRs) or smart relays, have become more common and accepted. These are similar to PLCs and are used in light industry where only a few points of I/O are needed, and low cost is desired. These small devices are typically made in a common physical size and shape by several manufacturers, and branded by the makers of larger PLCs to fill out their low end product range. Most of these have 8 to 12 discrete inputs, 4 to 8 discrete outputs, and up to 2 analog inputs. Most such devices include a tiny postage-stamp-sized LCD screen for viewing simplified ladder logic (only a very small portion of the program being visible at a given time) and status of I/O points, and typically these screens are accompanied by a 4-way rocker push-button plus four more separate push-buttons, similar to the key buttons on a VCR remote control, and used to navigate and edit the logic. Most have a small plug for connecting via RS-232 or RS-485 to a personal computer so that programmers can use simple Windows applications for programming instead of being forced to use the tiny LCD and push-button set for this purpose. Unlike regular PLCs that are usually modular and greatly expandable, the PLRs are usually not modular or expandable, but their price can be two orders of magnitude less than a PLC, and they still offer robust design and deterministic execution of the logics. A variant of PLCs, used in remote locations is the remote terminal unit or RTU. An RTU is typically a low power, ruggedised PLC whose key function is to manage the communications links between the site and the central control system (typically SCADA) or in some modern systems, \"The Cloud\". Unlike factory automation using high speed Ethernet, communications links to remote sites are often radio based and are less reliable. To account for the reduced reliability, RTU will buffer messages or switch to alternate communications paths. When buffering messages, the RTU will timestamp each message so that a full history of site events can be reconstructed. RTUs, being PLCs, have a wide range of I/O and are fully programmable, typically with languages from the IEC 61131-3 standard that is common to many PLCs, RTUs and DCSs. In remote locations, it is common to use an RTU as a gateway for a PLC, where the PLC is performing all site control and the RTU is managing communications, time stamping events and monitoring ancillary equipment. On sites with only a handful of I/O, the RTU may also be the site PLC and will perform both communications and control functions." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Design and development.", "Operational history.", "Accidents and incidents." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The aircraft was developed in only four months, thanks to the use of the S.55 wing, combined with a much more conventional fuselage. Developed in parallel with a bomber version (the SM.81 \"Pipistrello\") the prototype S.73 first flew on 4 July 1934 from Cameri, with Adriano Bacula as test pilot. The prototype had a four-blade wooden propeller on the central engine, and two-blade wooden propellers on each wing engine. Later all aircraft were fitted with three-blade metal propellers. The S.73 was a mixed-construction (a skeleton of steel covered by wood and fabric for the fuselage, wood for the three-spar wing) monoplane with a braced tailplane and fixed undercarriage. There were two generators, one in each side of the fuselage; the batteries were 24 V and were rated at 90 A. The pilot and co-pilot were seated side-by-side in an enclosed cockpit, with a compartment for a radio operator and a mechanic. A passenger compartment could house 18 passengers in two rows. It had eight metallic fuel tanks, all in the wings, with a total capacity of. The prototype had French Gnome-Rhône 9Kfr Mistral engines, but further aircraft had Piaggio Stella P.X, Wright R-1820, Walter Pegasus III MR2V, Alfa Romeo 125 or Alfa Romeo 126, driving ground adjustable, three-bladed, aluminium-steel propellers. It could be used from small airports, had reliable handling and was not too costly. With the Wright R-1820 engine the S.73 had cruise/max speeds of, range, and ceiling. With the AR.126 the S.73 had a maximum speed of, range, and ceiling. The SABCA license-produced aircraft had Gnome-Rhône 14K Mistral Major engines for a total of, comparable to the last models of S.79s or the CANT Z.1018. The S.73 had an unremarkable flight test programme with few modifications recommended by the Regia Aeronautica. It was easy to fly, rugged, and easy to operate on the ground, including the ability to fly from short airfields in treacherous terrain, in spite of being under-powered and the lack of leading edge slats. Its mixed construction and fixed landing gear were its main shortcomings, when contemporary aircraft in the US and Germany were of all-metal construction with retractable undercarriages. Some of these had better performance, but the S.73 remained competitive for some years.", "In December 1935, an S.73 was used for a journey from Italy to Asmara, delivering over 200,000 letters, with 6,600 km (4,100 mi) traveled in four days, followed by the return trip to Rome on 6 January 1936. A commercial line was established covering a 6,100 km (3,790 mi) journey. SABENA had a similar route to Congo, with four days and 44 flying hours. The S.73 flew in passenger service with airlines such as SABENA, \"Ala Littoria\", Czechoslovak Airlines and \"Avio Linee Italiane\". At the outbreak of World War II the aircraft was already obsolete, but some of the aircraft were pressed into service with the Regia Aeronautica for operations in Abyssinia and Spain. Five S.73s were present in Eastern Africa and used as military transports. Owing to the poor military situation, with British Commonwealth forces on the brink of capturing Addis Ababa, the Duke of Aosta, the Viceroy of Italian East Africa, ordered the remaining three S.73s to be evacuated. After several days of preparation, they took off from Addis Ababa on 3 April 1941 with 36 men on board, planning to fly to Kufra in Libya, away, requiring additional fuel tanks in the fuselage. All three aircraft force-landed in the desert, but refuelled at Jeddah, before resuming their journey. After several days of difficulties, including sand storms that clogged up the air filters, they took off again. Initially, it was planned to make another landing in Beirut but in the meantime Erwin Rommel had conquered Benghazi, so this was the final destination of the three aircraft. Two aircraft, after 10 hours of flying and the men inside almost killed by fumes of the fuel auxiliary tanks, landed at Benghazi, after and over a month of travel. Seven Belgian S.73s were flown to the United Kingdom in May 1940 and were pressed into service by the Royal Air Force. The RAF examples were used in North Africa where four later served with the \"Regia Aeronautica\". Some Italian aircraft were pressed into military service in East Africa while those still in Italy were used to equip 605 and 606 \"Squadriglie\". Four S.73s survived until the 1943 armistice, three being used by the Allies and one by the pro-Axis government; all had been taken out of service by the end of the war.", "S.73 OO-AGN of SABENA crashed at Tatsfield, Surrey, United Kingdom with the loss of all eleven on board." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Childhood and youth.", "Career and family.", "Life as an archaeologist.", "Troy and Mycenae.", "Death.", "Criticisms.", "In popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Schliemann was born January 6, 1822 Heinrich Schliemann in Neubukow, Mecklenburg-Schwerin (part of the German Confederation). His father, Ernst Schliemann, was a Lutheran minister. The family moved to Ankershagen in 1823 (today their home houses the \"Heinrich Schliemann Museum\"). Heinrich's father was a poor Pastor. His mother, Luise Therese Sophie Schliemann, died in 1831, when Heinrich was nine years old. After his mother's death, his father sent Heinrich to live with his uncle. When he was eleven years old, his father paid for him to enroll in the Gymnasium (grammar school) at Neustrelitz. Heinrich's later interest in history was initially encouraged by his father, who had schooled him in the tales of the Iliad and the Odyssey and had given him a copy of Ludwig Jerrer's \"Illustrated History of the World\" for Christmas in 1829. Schliemann later claimed that at the age of 7 he had declared he would one day excavate the city of Troy. However, Heinrich had to transfer to the Realschule (vocational school) after his father was accused of embezzling church funds and had to leave that institution in 1836 when his father was no longer able to pay for it. His family's poverty made a university education impossible, so it was Schliemann's early academic experiences that influenced the course of his education as an adult. In his archaeological career, however, there was often a division between Schliemann and the educated professionals. At age 14, after leaving Realschule, Heinrich became an apprentice at Herr Holtz's grocery in Fürstenberg. He later told that his passion for Homer was born when he heard a drunkard reciting it at the grocer's. He laboured for five years, until he was forced to leave because he burst a blood vessel lifting a heavy barrel. In 1841, Schliemann moved to Hamburg and became a cabin boy on the \"Dorothea,\" a steamer bound for Venezuela. After twelve days at sea, the ship foundered in a gale. The survivors washed up on the shores of the Netherlands. Schliemann became a messenger, office attendant, and later, a bookkeeper in Amsterdam.", "On March 1, 1844, 22-year-old Schliemann took a position with B. H. Schröder & Co., an import/export firm. In 1846, the firm sent him as a General Agent to St. Petersburg. In time, Schliemann represented a number of companies. He learned Russian and Greek, employing a system that he used his entire life to learn languages; Schliemann claimed that it took him six weeks to learn a language and wrote his diary in the language of whatever country he happened to be in. By the end of his life, he could converse in English, French, Dutch, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, Russian, Swedish, Polish, Greek, Latin, and Arabic, besides his native German. Schliemann's ability with languages was an important part of his career as a businessman in the importing trade. In 1850, he learned of the death of his brother, Ludwig, who had become wealthy as a speculator in the California gold fields. Schliemann went to California in early 1851 and started a bank in Sacramento buying and reselling over a million dollars' worth of gold dust in just six months. When the local Rothschild agent complained about short-weight consignments he left California, pretending it was because of illness. While he was there, California became the 31st state in September 1850, and Schliemann acquired United States citizenship. While this story was propounded in Schliemann's autobiography of 1881, Christo Thanos and Wout Arentzen, state clearly that Schliemann was in St Petersburg that day, and \"in actual fact,...obtained his American citizenship only in 1869.\" According to his memoirs, before arriving in California he dined in Washington, D.C. with President Millard Fillmore and his family, but W. Calder III says that Schliemann didn't attend but simply read about a similar gathering in the papers. Schliemann also published what he said was an eyewitness account of the San Francisco Fire of 1851, which he said was in June although it took place in May. At the time he was in Sacramento and used the report of the fire in the \"Sacramento Daily Journal\" to write his report. On April 7, 1852, he sold his business and returned to Russia. There he attempted to live the life of a gentleman, which brought him into contact with Ekaterina Petrovna Lyschin (1826–1896), the niece of one of his wealthy friends. Schliemann had previously learned that his childhood sweetheart, Minna, had married. Heinrich and Ekaterina married on October 12, 1852. The marriage was troubled from the start. Schliemann next cornered the market in indigo dye and then went into the indigo business itself, turning a good profit. Ekaterina and Heinrich had a son, Sergey (1855–1941), and two daughters, Natalya (1859–1869) and Nadezhda (1861–1935). Schliemann made yet another quick fortune as a military contractor in the Crimean War, 1854–1856. He cornered the market in saltpeter, sulfur, and lead, constituents of ammunition, which he resold to the Russian government. By 1858, Schliemann was 36 years old and wealthy enough to retire. In his memoirs, he claimed that he wished to dedicate himself to the pursuit of Troy. As a consequence of his many travels, Schliemann was often separated from his wife and small children. He spent a month studying at the Sorbonne in 1866, while moving his assets from St. Petersburg to Paris to invest in real estate. He asked his wife to join him, but she refused. Schliemann threatened to divorce Ekaterina twice before doing so. In 1869, he bought property and settled in Indianapolis for about three months to take advantage of Indiana's liberal divorce laws, although he obtained the divorce by lying about his residency in the U.S. and his intention to remain in the state. He moved to Athens as soon as an Indiana court granted him the divorce and married again two months later.", "Heinrich Schliemann never was trained professionally in the art of archaeology. He is an amateur archaeologist, but many do not refer to him as any other than that of a professional archaeologist. Schliemann was obsessed with the stories of Homer and ancient Mediterranean civilizations. He dedicated his life's work to unveiling the actual physical remains of the cities of Homer's epic tales. Many refer to him as the \"father of pre-Hellenistic archaeology.\" In 1868, Schliemann visited sites in the Greek world, published \"Ithaka, der Peloponnesus und Troja\" in which he asserted that Hissarlik was the site of Troy, and submitted a dissertation in Ancient Greek proposing the same thesis to the University of Rostock. In 1869, he was awarded a PhD \"in absentia\" from the University of Rostock, in Germany, for that submission. David Traill wrote that the examiners gave him his PhD on the basis of his topographical analyses of Ithaca, which were in part simply translations of another author's work or drawn from poetic descriptions by the same author. In 1869, Schliemann divorced his first wife, Ekaterina Petrovna Lyshin, whom he had married in 1852, and bore him three children. A former teacher and Athenian friend, Theokletos Vimpos, the Archbishop of Mantineia and Kynouria, helped Schliemann find someone \"enthusiastic about Homer and about a rebirth of my beloved Greece...with a Greek name and a soul impassioned for learning.\" The archbishop suggested a young schoolgirl, Sophia Engastromenos, daughter of his cousin. They were married by the archbishop on 23 September 1869. They later had two children, Andromache and Agamemnon Schliemann. Schliemann was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1880.", "Schliemann's first interest of a classical nature seems to have been the location of Troy. At the time he began excavating in Turkey, the site commonly believed to be Troy was at Pınarbaşı, a hilltop at the south end of the Trojan Plain. The site had been previously excavated by archaeologist and local expert, Frank Calvert. Schliemann performed soundings at Pınarbaşı but was disappointed by his findings. It was Calvert who identified Hissarlik as Troy and suggested Schliemann dig there on land owned by Calvert's family. Schliemann was at first skeptical about the identification of Hissarlik with Troy but was persuaded by Calvert. Schliemann began digging at Hissarlik in 1870, and by 1873 had discovered nine buried cities. The day before digging was to stop on 15 June 1873, was the day he discovered gold, which he took to be Priam's treasure trove. A cache of gold and several other objects appeared on or around May 27, 1873; Schliemann named it \"Priam's Treasure\". He later wrote that he had seen the gold glinting in the dirt and dismissed the workmen so that he and Sophia could excavate it themselves; they removed it in her shawl. However, Schliemann's oft-repeated story of the treasure's being carried by Sophia in her shawl was untrue. Schliemann later admitted fabricating it; at the time of the discovery Sophia was in fact with her family in Athens, following the death of her father. Sophia later wore \"the Jewels of Helen\" for the public. Schliemann smuggled the treasure out of Turkey into Greece. The Turkish government sued Schliemann in a Greek court, and Schliemann was forced to pay a 10,000 gold franc indemnity. Schliemann ended up sending 50,000 gold francs to the Constantinople Imperial Museum, and some of the artifacts. Schliemann published \"Troy and Its Remains\" in 1874. Schliemann at first offered his collections, which included Priam's Gold, to the Greek government, then the French, and finally the Russians. However, in 1881, his collections ended up in Berlin, housed first in the Ethnographic Museum, and then the Museum for Pre- and Early History, until the start of WWII. In 1939, all exhibits were packed and stored in the museum basement, then moved to the Prussian State Bank vault in January 1941. Later in 1941, the treasure was moved to the Flakturm located at the Berlin Zoological Garden, called the Zoo Tower. Dr. Wilhelm Unverzagt protected the three crates containing the Trojan gold when the Battle for Berlin commenced, right up until SMERSH forces took control of the tower on 1 May. On 26 May 1945, Soviet forces, led by Lt. Gen. Nikolai Antipenko, Andre Konstantinov, deputy head of the Arts Committee, Viktor Lazarev, and Serafim Druzhinin, took the three crates away on trucks. The crates were then flown to Moscow on 30 June 1945, and taken to the Pushkin Museum ten days later. In 1994, the museum admitted the collection was in their possession. In 1876, he began digging at Mycenae. There, he discovered the Shaft Graves, with their skeletons and more regal gold (including the so-called Mask of Agamemnon). These findings were published in \"Mycenae\" in 1878. Although he had received permission in 1876 to continue excavation, Schliemann did not reopen the dig site at Troy until 1878–1879, after another excavation in Ithaca designed to locate a site mentioned in the \"Odyssey\". This was his second excavation at Troy. Emile Burnouf and Rudolf Virchow joined him there in 1879. Schliemann began excavation of the Treasury of Minyas at Orchomenus (Boeotia) in 1880. Schliemann made a third excavation at Troy in 1882–1883, an excavation of Tiryns with Wilhelm Dörpfeld in 1884, and a fourth excavation at Troy, also with Dörpfeld (who emphasized the importance of strata), in 1888–1890.", "On August 1, 1890, Schliemann returned reluctantly to Athens, and in November travelled to Halle, where his chronic ear infection was operated upon, on November 13. The doctors deemed the operation a success, but his inner ear became painfully inflamed. Ignoring his doctors' advice, he left the hospital and travelled to Leipzig, Berlin, and Paris. From the latter, he planned to return to Athens in time for Christmas, but his ear condition became even worse. Too sick to make the boat ride from Naples to Greece, Schliemann remained in Naples but managed to make a journey to the ruins of Pompeii. On Christmas Day 1890, he collapsed into a coma; he died in a Naples hotel room the following day; the cause of death was cholesteatoma. His corpse was then transported by friends to the First Cemetery in Athens. It was interred in a mausoleum shaped like a temple erected in ancient Greek style, designed by Ernst Ziller in the form of an amphiprostylee temple on top of a tall base. The frieze circling the outside of the mausoleum shows Schliemann conducting the excavations at Mycenae and other sites. Schliemann's magnificent residence in the city centre of Athens, the \"Iliou Melathron\" (Ιλίου Μέλαθρον, \"Palace of Ilium\") houses today the Numismatic Museum of Athens.", "Further excavation of the Troy site by others indicated that the level he named the Troy of the \"Iliad\" was inaccurate, although they retain the names given by Schliemann. In an article for \"The Classical World,\" D.F. Easton wrote that Schliemann \"was not very good at separating fact from interpretation\" and claimed that, \"Even in 1872 Frank Calvert could see from the pottery that Troy II had to be hundreds of years too early to be the Troy of the Trojan War, a point finally proven by the discovery of Mycenaean pottery in Troy VI in 1890.\" \"King Priam's Treasure\" was found in the Troy II level, that of the Early Bronze Age, long before Priam's city of Troy VI or Troy VIIa in the prosperous and elaborate Mycenaean Age. Moreover, the finds were unique. The elaborate gold artifacts do not appear to belong to the Early Bronze Age. His excavations were condemned by later archaeologists as having destroyed the main layers of the real Troy. Kenneth W. Harl, in the Teaching Company's \"Great Ancient Civilizations of Asia Minor\" lecture series, sarcastically claimed that Schliemann's excavations were carried out with such rough methods that he did to Troy what the Greeks could not do in their times, destroying and levelling down the entire city walls to the ground. In 1972, Professor William Calder of the University of Colorado, speaking at a commemoration of Schliemann's birthday, claimed that he had uncovered several possible problems in Schliemann's work. Other investigators followed, such as Professor David Traill of the University of California. An article published by the National Geographic Society called into question Schliemann's qualifications, his motives, and his methods: Another article presented similar criticisms when reporting on a speech by University of Pennsylvania scholar C. Brian Rose: Schliemann's methods have been described as \"savage and brutal. He plowed through layers of soil and everything in them without proper record keeping—no mapping of finds, few descriptions of discoveries.\" Carl Blegen forgave his recklessness, saying \"Although there were some regrettable blunders, those criticisms are largely colored by a comparison with modern techniques of digging; but it is only fair to remember that before 1876 very few persons, if anyone, yet really knew how excavations should properly be conducted. There was no science of archaeological investigation, and there was probably no other digger who was better than Schliemann in actual field work.\" In 1874, Schliemann also initiated and sponsored the removal of medieval edifices from the Acropolis of Athens, including the great Frankish Tower. Despite considerable opposition, including from King George I of Greece, Schliemann saw the project through. The eminent historian of Frankish Greece William Miller later denounced this as \"an act of vandalism unworthy of any people imbued with a sense of the continuity of history\", and \"pedantic barbarism\".", "Peter Ackroyd's novel \"The Fall of Troy\" (2006) is based on Schliemann's excavation of Troy. Schliemann is portrayed as \"Heinrich Obermann\". Schliemann is also the subject of Chris Kuzneski's novel\" The Lost Throne\". Schliemann is the subject of Irving Stone's novel \"The Greek Treasure\" (1975), which was the basis for the 2007 German television production \"\" (\"Hunt for Troy\"). Schliemann is a peripheral character in the historical mystery, \"A Terrible Beauty\". It is the 11th book in a series of novels featuring Lady Emily Hargreaves by Tasha Alexander. Schliemann is also mentioned in the 2005 TV film \"The Magic of Ordinary Days\" by the character Livy. The questionable authenticity of Schliemann’s discovery of Priam’s Treasure is a central plot point to Lian Dolan’s novel \"Helen of Pasadena\". Schliemann is also mentioned in 2011 book \"\" by the character Ian Welch." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Circulation.", "Nazi attitudes towards the paper.", "Antisemitic content.", "Antisemitic caricatures.", "Alleged sexual crimes.", "Accusations of financial crimes.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Most of the paper's readers were young people and people from the lowest strata of German society. Copies of \"Der Stürmer\" were displayed in prominent red \"\" (display boxes) throughout the Reich; as well as advertising the publication, the cases also allowed its articles to reach those readers who either did not have time to buy and read a newspaper in depth, or could not afford the expense. In 1927, \"Der Stürmer\" sold about 27,000 copies every week. By 1935, its circulation had increased to around 480,000.", "From the late 1920s, Julius Streicher's vulgar style of propagandism increasingly became a cause of embarrassment for the Nazi party. In 1936, the sale of \"Der Stürmer\" was restricted in Berlin during the Olympic Games in an attempt to preserve the Nazi regime's international reputation and prestige. Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels tried to completely ban the newspaper in 1938. Hermann Göring forbade \"Der Stürmer\" in all of his departments, and Baldur von Schirach prohibited Hitler Youth members from reading it in Hitler Youth-sponsored hostels and other education facilities by a \"\"Reichsbefehl\"\" (\"Reich command\"). Göring harboured a particularly intense hatred of the paper, especially after it published a libelous article alleging that his daughter Edda had been conceived through artificial insemination. It was only through Hitler's intervention that Streicher was spared from punishment. However, other senior Nazi officials, including Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler, chairman of the German Labour Front Robert Ley, and proprietor of the \"Zentral Verlag\" (Central Press) Max Amann, whose organization comprised 80% of the German press, endorsed the publication, and their statements were often published in the paper. Albert Forster, the \"Gauleiter\" of Danzig (now Gdańsk), wrote in 1937: With pleasure, I say that the \"Stürmer\", more than any other daily or weekly newspaper, has made clear to the people in simple ways the danger of Jewry. Without Julius Streicher and his \"Stürmer\", the importance of a solution to the Jewish question would not be seen to be as critical as it actually is by many citizens. It is therefore to be hoped that those who want to learn the unvarnished truth about the Jewish question will read the \"Stürmer\". Hitler considered Streicher's primitive methods to be effective in influencing \"the man in the street\". Although Streicher and his paper were increasingly isolated in the Nazi party, Hitler continued to support Streicher, and was an avid reader of \"Der Stürmer\". In December 1941, he stated: \"Streicher is reproached for his \"Stürmer\". The truth is the opposite of what people say: He idealized the Jew. The Jew is baser, fiercer, more diabolical than Streicher depicted him.\" In February 1942, he praised the newspaper: \"One must never forget the services rendered by the \"Stürmer\". Now that the Jews are known for what they are, nobody any longer thinks that Streicher libeled them.\" Hermann Rauschning, who claimed to be Hitler's \"confidant\", said in the mid-1930s: Antisemitism was beyond question the most important weapon in Hitler's propagandist arsenal, and almost everywhere, it was of deadly efficiency. That was why he had allowed Streicher, for example, a free hand. The man's stuff, too, was amusing, and very cleverly done. Wherever, he wondered, did Streicher get his constant supply of new material? He, Hitler, was simply on thorns to see each new issue of the \"Stürmer\". It was the one periodical that he always read with pleasure, from the first page to the last. During the war, the paper's circulation suffered because of paper shortages, as well as Streicher's exile from Nuremberg for corruption. More ominously, because of the Holocaust, the people it targeted had begun to disappear from everyday life, which diminished the paper's relevance. Hitler, however, insisted that Streicher receive sufficient support to continue publishing \"Der Stürmer\". The final edition of the newspaper was published on 1 February 1945.", "According to the American writer Dennis Showalter, \"a major challenge of political antisemitism involves overcoming the images of the 'Jew next door' – the living, breathing acquaintance or associate whose simple existence appears to deny the validity of that negative stereotype\". The newspaper's lurid content appealed to a large spectrum of readers who were lower class and less-sophisticated. \"Der Stürmer\" was known for its use of simple themes that required little thought. The newspaper often gave descriptions of how to identify Jewish people, and included racist political cartoons, including antisemitic caricatures. Besides the graphic depictions, articles often focused on imaginary fears, exaggerations, and perceived behavioral differences between Jews and other German citizens. After the war, Streicher was tried at the Nuremberg trials. His publishing and speaking activities were a major part of the evidence presented against him. In essence, the prosecutors took the line that Streicher's role in inciting Germans to exterminate Jews made him an accessory to murder, and thus as culpable as those who actually carried out the killing. Prosecutors also introduced decisive and irrefutable evidence that Streicher continued his incendiary articles and speeches when he was well aware that Jews were being slaughtered. Streicher was found guilty of being an accessory for crimes against humanity, and was executed by hanging shortly afterwards.", "\"Der Stürmer\" was known for its virulently antisemitic caricatures, which depicted Jews as ugly characters with exaggerated facial features and misshapen bodies. In his propaganda work, Streicher furthered medieval stereotypes accusing Jews of killing children, sacrificing their bodies, and drinking their blood. The large majority of these drawings were the work of Philipp Rupprecht, known as \"Fips\", who was one of the best-known antisemitic cartoonists of Nazi Germany. Through the adaptation and amalgamation of almost every existing antisemitic stereotype, myth, and tradition, Rupprecht's virulent attacks aimed predominantly at the dehumanization and demonization of Jews. At the bottom of the title page there was always the motto \"\"Die Juden sind unser Unglück!\"\" (\"The Jews are our misfortune!\"), coined by Heinrich von Treitschke in the 1880s. In the nameplate was the motto \"\"Deutsches Wochenblatt zum Kampfe um die Wahrheit\"\" (\"German Weekly Newspaper in the Fight for Truth\").", "Stories of \"Rassenschande\", which denoted alleged scandals of Jewish men and German women having sex, were staples of \"Der Stürmer\". Streicher described Jews as sex offenders who were \"violators of the innocent\", \"perpetrators of bizarre sex crimes\", and \"ritual murderers\" who performed in religious ceremonies using blood of other humans, usually Christians. Streicher also frequently reported attempts of child molestation by Jews. \"Der Stürmer\" never lacked details about sexual intercourse, names, and crimes in order to keep readers aroused and entertained. These accusations, articles, and crimes printed in \"Der Stürmer\" were often inaccurate, and rarely investigated by staff members. In the newspaper's opinion, if a German girl became pregnant by a Jew, the Jew would deny paternity, offer to pay for an abortion, fail to pay child support, or simply leave for the U.S. Within \"Der Stürmer\", it was not uncommon to read reports of German women aborting their children because they did not want to bring a \"Jewish bastard into the world\". Streicher believed in the antisemitic telegony hypotheses of Artur Dinter, whose 1917 bestseller book \"Die Sünde wider das Blut\" (\"The Sin Against the Blood\") claimed that the ejaculation of semen of a Jewish man into the vagina of a \"German-blooded\" woman was sufficient to change the woman so effectively that all of her future descendants would have Jewish blood. This theory was rejected by the Nazis in the 1935 Nuremberg racial laws, and was called a \"heresy\" by the Racial Office of the NSDAP. The official Nazi position stated that: \"The racial characteristics of a person are determined by heredity\".", "Showalter said, \"For Julius Streicher, the Jews' hatred for Christianity was concealed only for one reason: Business.\" Jewish businessmen were often portrayed as doing almost anything to obtain financial wealth, which included, in his words, \"become a usurer, a traitor, a murderer\". In the summer of 1931, Streicher focused much of the paper's attention on a Jewish-owned butchery. As an example, when a philanthropic merchant started operating a soup kitchen, \"Der Stürmer\" ran articles accusing the business of poisoning the food being served. \"Der Stürmer\" criticized and cherrypicked every single price increase and decrease in Jewish shops, as well as their charitable donations, denouncing it as a further form of financial greed. This attack on Jewish benevolence, generosity and philanthropism received the most public criticism out of all of \"Der Stürmer\"'s antisemitic propaganda. Its \"Letter Box\" encouraged the reporting of Jewish illegal acts, while its unofficial style helped prevent suspicion of propaganda, and lent it an air of authenticity.", "Notes Bibliography" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Gameplay.", "Subscription history.", "Origin of \"Lineage\"." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Lineage's stat, monster, and item system was originally largely borrowed from \"NetHack\" with MMO elements added. Players can choose one of seven character classes: Elf, Dark Elf, Knight, Prince, Magician, Dragon Knight, or Illusionist. Princes are the only class that can lead a blood pledge (which is Lineage's term for a guild or clan). Game play is based primarily upon a castle siege system which allows castle owners to set tax rates in neighboring cities and collect taxes on items purchased in stores within those cities. It features classic RPG elements reminiscent of \"Dungeons & Dragons\", such as killing monsters and completing quests for loot and experience points, levels, character attributes (charisma, strength, wisdom, etc.), and alignments (neutral, chaotic or lawful). A character's alignment affects how monsters and town guards react to the player's character, often turning hostile to chaotic players and attacking on sight. Player versus player combat (also known as PVP) is extensive in \"Lineage\". Players can engage in combat with other player characters at any time as long as they are not in safe zones such as cities. By joining a \"bloodpledge\" (an association of players similar to a clan in other games) players become eligible to engage in castle sieges or wars between bloodpledges.", "NCsoft has reported that \"Lineage\" had at one point more than three million subscribers, most of them in Korea. The magnitude of the number Korean subscribers compared to other countries has sparked a number of theories. A ban on some Japanese imports until 1998 has been cited for delayed growth in its video game console market. As of April 2008, \"Lineage\" had a little under 1 million active subscriptions. On May 11, 2011, NC Interactive, the subsidiary of NCSoft in the United States announced it would shut down the Lineage servers (3 at that time) because of poor subscription revenues. Various events were scheduled to take place in the weeks remaining. Players were given free subscriptions to other NCSoft titles of their choice. As of June 29, 2011, Lineage has shut down all servers in NA, permanently. Between the start in 1998 and August 2012, NCsoft has accumulated US$1.3 billion in sales from Lineage. In November 2013 NC Soft announced that the game has made US$1.8 billion.", "The title \"Lineage\" came from a series of comic books with same title \"Lineage\" by Shin Il-sook, and the servers of \"Lineage\" are named after the characters of the comic book. It is a fantasy story where a rightful prince reclaims the throne from the hands of a usurper. When first created, the game closely resembled the original work. As developers have added new features, however, the fictional universes of the two works have gradually diverged." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Personal life.", "Legal and business career.", "Tennis career.", "Early career (2000–2002).", "ATP Tour career (2002–2005).", "Career apex (2006).", "Mononucleosis, and return to the Tour (2007–2010).", "Retirement." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Ančić was born in Split to Stipe and Nilda Ančić. His father owns a supermarket chain, and his mother is a financial adviser. His older brother Ivica and younger sister Sanja were also professional tennis players. Ančić was raised in a Catholic family and states that his faith is very important to him. He is very close to his uncle who is a priest and former missionary.", "From 2002 to 2008, Ančić was a law student at the University of Split; he graduated from its law school on 14 April 2008. His thesis described the legal foundation and organisation of the ATP Tour. Illness forced Ančić to be off courts in much of the 2009 tennis season, and he started his residency in the law office of Turudić in Zagreb; but he announced he would freeze his residency for some time due to his tennis career. After attending Harvard Law, he graduated with an LLM from Columbia Law School. He became an investment banking associate at Credit Suisse; as of 2019 he is an Associate at One Equity Partners in New York City.", "", "As a junior, Ančić rose to No. 1 in the junior world-rankings on 2 January 2001, compiling a singles record of 62–20. He made the finals in the Boys' Singles at the 2000 Australian Open (losing to Andy Roddick) and the 2000 Wimbledon Championships (losing to Nicolas Mahut). Goran Ivanišević was his doubles partner in his Croatian Davis Cup Team debut and at the 2000 Summer Olympic Games in doubles. At first, Ančić mostly played Futures and Davis Cup tournaments, winning one title in Zagreb; and from August 2001 he started to play Challenger tournaments, winning four in singles and one in doubles. He compiled a record of 30–16 in Challenger play in 2002.", "His ATP debut was at Miami Masters, where he drew a wild card, but he lost in the opening round. The highlight of his Grand Slam debut at the 2002 Wimbledon Championships was the major upset of his first round defeat of Roger Federer, the seventh seed, 6–3, 7–6, 6–3 in just under two hours. He finished the 2002 season in the top 100 in singles. At the ATP Indesit Milano Indoor in February 2004, Ančić made it into his first singles ATP final, defeating sixth seed Rafael Nadal and third seed Tommy Robredo. At the 2004 Wimbledon Championships, Ančić had his best Grand Slam result, reaching the semi-finals. In reaching the Grand Slam semi-finals, he jumped 36 places on the ATP singles ranking to No. 27. In doubles, he teamed up with Ivan Ljubičić, and represented Croatia at the 2004 Summer Olympics. They won a bronze medal, losing to González and Nicolás Massú in the semi-final. He won his first ATP singles title at the Ordina Open. His 2005 highlights also include the final at the Japan Open Tennis Championships, losing to Wesley Moodie.", "Ančić started on the 2006 ATP Tour with strong note in his second tournament of the year in Auckland, where he defeated top seed Fernando González on his way to the final. In February, he also reached the final in Marseille, losing to Arnaud Clément. He made in the quarter-finals at two Masters and two Grand Slams tournaments. Ančić was defeated by David Nalbandian at Miami and Rome and by Roger Federer at the French Open and Wimbledon. He also reached his career high at Master Series event, reaching the semi-finals at Hamburg Masters. Ančić successfully defended his 2005 title at ‘s-Hertogenbosch. After Wimbledon, Ančić reached No. 7, his career high in singles. At the 2006 French Open, he had a shoving incident with Paul Capdeville at the end of his second-round match. Ančić was bothered by the Chilean's repeated complaints to the chair umpire, including just before the post-match handshake. Both of them were fined $3,000. He reached the quarter-finals before losing to Federer. Ančić missed the U.S. hard-court season due to a knee injury received in a jet skiing accident. In September, in the first event after the summer injuries, he reached the final at the China Open, losing to Marcos Baghdatis. In October, he won his third singles title at the St. Petersburg Open. At the Paris Masters, Ančić lost to Nikolay Davydenko in the quarterfinals.", "He entered the 2007 Australian Open as the ninth seed, and advanced to a fourth round. In Marseille, Ančić retired in the first round and was diagnosed with mononucleosis. Later, he confessed that he was playing sick a week before in a match against Germany in the Davis Cup, and the virus had started to affect him at the Australian Open. Due to his illness, Ančić spent most of the next 10 weeks in bed and missed six months from the tour. Ančić started training in June with his Swedish coach Fredrik Rosengren. After he withdrew from two tournaments in July, Ančić returned in August at the Canada Masters and the Cincinnati Masters, where he lost in the second rounds. Ančić fractured a small bone at the gym a week before the US Open, which was the third Grand Slam he missed in 2007. In October, he made his first big result after the illness, making it into the quarterfinals at Madrid Masters. In 2007, he dropped to No. 83 at the end of the year. Ančić started the 2008 season again with illness and was forced to withdraw from the tournaments in Australia, missing his fourth Grand Slam in a row. His first 2008 event was in Marseille in February, where he eventually lost in the final to Andy Murray. At the Indian Wells Masters and Miami Masters, Ančić entered the main draw by receiving wild cards, where he beat three seeded players. Having lost in an opening round at the Canada Masters, and having skipped the Cincinnati Masters as the fatigue intensified and the weight loss mounted, Ančić withdrew from the 2008 Summer Olympics, and later the US Open, due to a recurrence of mononucleosis. Ančić returned in September, playing for the Davis Cup. After a good start at the beginning of the 2009 season, Ančić announced in May that he would pull out of the French Open, Wimbledon, and the Davis Cup semifinal match, again because recurrence of mononucleosis. Ančić returned to the main tour level at the 2010 BNP Paribas Open, where he made it to the third round. He played Challengers without success.", "On 21 February 2011, Ančić announced his retirement from professional tennis due to recurring mononucleosis. He ended his career with three titles, 208 wins and 135 losses. On 23 February 2011, Ančić held a press conference at the Firule tennis club, where he officially retired from professional tennis. He stated that; \"[My] heart wanted, but [my] body couldn't, this is the toughest moment of my life. I have never run away from responsibility. I always strived for perfection, and when I realized that my body cannot provide the kind of tennis I can play, there was no other solution\". Ancic will be helping to coach Novak Djokovic at Wimbledon 2017." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "The alchemists of the Discworld have invented moving pictures. Many hopefuls are drawn by the siren call of Holy Wood, home of the fledgling \"clicks\" industry – among them Victor Tugelbend, a dropout from Ankh-Morpork's Unseen University and Theda \"Ginger\" Withel, a girl \"from a little town you never ever heard of\", and the Discworld's most infamous salesman, Cut-Me-Own-Throat Dibbler, who introduces commerce to the equation and becomes a successful producer. The business of making movies grows rapidly, and eventually Victor and Ginger become real stars, thanks to the help of Gaspode the sentient dog (who also develops a relationship with Laddie, that everybody considers to be the real Wonder Dog, although in fact has a very simple mind). Holy Wood for a while becomes an effervescent place full of humans, dwarfs, alchemists, demons (which essentially constitute the main technological device to make movies), and trolls (among whom is Detritus) all living in harmony. Meanwhile, it gradually becomes clear that the production of movies is having a deleterious effect on the structure of reality. Ginger is possessed by an unspecified entity and she and Victor find an ancient, hidden cinema, complete with portal to the Dungeon Dimensions. Back in Ankh-Morpork, during the first screening of \"Blown Away\" (a parody of \"Gone with the Wind\") which the senior wizards of the Unseen University are also attending, a creature from the Dungeon Dimensions breaks through. Victor fights it (in what eventually becomes a parody of the movie \"King Kong\" also featuring the Librarian of the Unseen University), having found out that when a camera points at him he's capable of doing scenes from films in real life. However, after the creature is defeated, Victor and the Librarian realise that the creatures will still try to get through from the Dungeon Dimensions and that Ginger in her possessed state was not trying to summon them but trying to keep them from coming through. Returning to the ancient cinema at Holy Wood, Victor and Ginger witness a golden statue of a warrior (reminiscent of an Oscar) come to life and travel through the screen to defeat the creatures. In the end most things return to normal (also because the Patrician and the wizards make it clear that they won't allow any more movies to be produced ever again), although dwarfs find themselves inexplicably singing \"Hihohiho\" while mining. Victor and Ginger have a last dialogue over the meaning of Holy Wood and being famous, and Gaspode and the other animals under the influence of Holy Wood lose their ability to reason and speak. The ending lines depict a poetic scene about the fragility of Holy Wood dreams." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Personal background and education.", "Karting (1991–2001).", "Junior car career (2001–2005).", "Formula One career.", "Williams (2005–2009).", "2005.", "2006–2007.", "2008–2009.", "Mercedes (2010–2016).", "2010–2012.", "2013–2016.", "Retirement from motor racing (2016–present).", "Personality and driving style.", "Endorsements and philanthropy.", "Achievements and recognition.", "Racing record.", "Complete Formula One results." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Rosberg was born on 27 June 1985 at the Red Cross Hospital in Wiesbaden, Hesse, West Germany, the only child of the Finnish racing driver Keke Rosberg, who won the Formula One World Championship, and his German wife Gesine Gleitsmann \"Sina\" Dengel, an interpreter. Because his father is Finnish and his mother is German, Rosberg is a dual citizen of both countries, competing with a Finnish racing license until the conclusion of his first season in the Formula 3 Euro Series. He switched to a German license to obtain major sponsorship agreements more easily. He grew up in a stable household. Rosberg was raised in the Wiesbaden district of Nordenstadt in the first four weeks of his", "At the age of four, Rosberg had his first driving experience when his father took him to a go-kart track in Ibiza for a holiday. He steered a Jeep, and his father controlled its speed with the accelerator and the brake pedals. Rosberg began competitive racing at the age of six and decided to aim for a career in Formula One motor racing after he observed his father competing in the Deutsche Tourenwagen Meisterschaft in 1995. His parents, who did not discourage their son's career choice, consented on the condition that he maintained good grades at school. Rosberg's competitive mindset, and his early achievements in go-karting helped him to better his driving ability and to convince his father to manage him. In 1996, Rosberg won the Côte d'Azur Mini-Kart Regional Championship and the Trophee Jérôme Bernard and the Trophee de France in 1997.", "At the age of 16, Rosberg progressed to car racing, competing in three races for the 2001 Formula BMW Junior Cup Iberia finishing in 18th in the Drivers' Championship with 38 points. For his first full season of car racing, he drove for VIVA Racing in the 2002 Formula BMW ADAC Championship, winning the drivers' title with nine victories from twenty races and accumulating 264 points. For winning the title, Rosberg drove a Williams FW24 at a test session at the Circuit de Catalunya on 3 December. At the time, he became the youngest person ever to drive a Formula One car. The 2003 season saw Rosberg progress to the higher-tier Formula 3 Euro Series with Team Rosberg. Driving a Dallara F303-Opel car, he won once at the Bugatti Circuit and took five podium finishes to place eighth in the Drivers' Championship with 45 points. He was second in the Rookie Cup to Christian Klien. In November 2003, Rosberg was given a test in a Formula 3000 car at the Circuito de Jerez by Paolo Coloni, the team owner of Scuderia Coloni, as preparation for future Formula One testing with Williams. That same month, he entered the Macau Grand Prix and the Korea Super Prix with Carlin Motorsport, finishing 11th in Korea. Rosberg tested twice more for Williams in a modified", "", "", "In April 2005, Rosberg was signed by Williams as its second test driver. He and fellow driver Nelson Piquet Jr. were analysed extensively before Rosberg was selected. He worked with Williams's test and reserve driver Antônio Pizzonia and continued to focus", "Bernie Ecclestone, Formula One's commercial rights owner, said to Williams's team principal and founder Frank Williams that he thought it would be advantageous to sign Rosberg as part of his desire to bring energetic drivers to the sport. Williams told Rosberg in October 2005 that he was assured of a role on the team as either a racer or test driver for after British American Racing's Jenson Button was released from a contract with the team. \"Autosport\" reported Rosberg signed a contract that month to race for Williams in 2006 so that the team could", "The 2008 season was the first in which Rosberg was the more experienced driver on his team, being partnered by Williams test driver Kazuki Nakajima. He stated his confidence the Williams team would finish fifth or higher in the Constructors' Championship and had improved his technical skills. Rosberg began the season with a third-place finish at the, the first podium finish of his career. Afterwards, his campaign faltered because the FW30 car lacked outright performance and Williams did not develop the car fast enough for it to be competitive. Rosberg was occasionally outperformed by his teammate Nakajima, and driver errors lost him chances to score more points; he was able to adapt to a ban on traction control", "", "In mid-to-late 2009, Mercedes-Benz vice-president of motorsport Norbert Haug discussed with Rosberg the possibility of driving for the manufacturer in pending its acquisition of Brawn GP. Rosberg also talked to McLaren and Williams about potential employment; he was skeptical because Williams was mulling over whether Renault or Cosworth should be the team's engine supplier. On 29 October, he confirmed his departure from Williams at the conclusion of the season and was officially released from his contract with the team on 1 January 2010. One week later Mercedes purchased 75 percent of Brawn GP and entered Formula One under its own name; Rosberg was announced as its first driver in November 2009. He", "Before the 2013 season, Rosberg was joined at Mercedes by the 2008 world champion Lewis Hamilton, who replaced the retired Michael Schumacher. He was granted equal status by Mercedes and received no preferential treatment alongside Hamilton. During the pre-season period, Rosberg visited the Mercedes factory in Brackley, England, and displayed a fascination with the F1 W04's technological development and assisted the team in the car's development. He said his challenge for the season was to begin it better than the year before and acknowledged the difficulty of the task: \"The factory is a stronger team than it's ever been and it's making big steps. I have no doubts that a better car will come out of that.\" Rosberg challenged his teammate Hamilton during the season qualifying higher eight times and finishing more often. At the, the season's second race, a minor controversy was created when Mercedes invoked team orders on him to stay behind Hamilton. Unhappy over the decision, Rosberg led every lap to win the from pole position to become the first son of a world champion driver in history to win the event. He then won the for his third career victory after Red Bull driver Sebastian Vettel retired from the lead with a broken gearbox. Thereafter, Rosberg earned points in nine of the season's ten final rounds with consecutive podium finishes— second at the and third at the. He finished sixth in the Drivers' Championship with 171 points and three pole positions. Rosberg's results over the season earned him additional respect within the Formula One community. Rosberg continued to drive for Mercedes in with Lewis Hamilton again as his teammate. He was regarded as a favourite for the Drivers' Championship because of the team's development of the F1 W05 Hybrid car and adaptation to the technical regulations mandating the use of turbo-hybrid engines in pre-season testing at the Bahrain International Circuit and the Circuit de Barcelona-Catalunya. Rosberg said that Mercedes was ready to challenge for the championship and sought the cooperation of the team members: \"There's so much that's different this season. It's really a matter of practising to integrate it all, and making it sub-conscious. The more you have to think, that's when things are going to go wrong.\" At the season-opening, Rosberg led every lap from third place to win the race and take the lead of the Drivers' Championship. He took four second place finishes, but Hamilton's four straight victories lost Rosberg the championship lead. Rosberg won the for the second year in a row to regain the point lead after taking pole position in contentious circumstances. He then won in Austria", "Rosberg, who had signed a two-year contract extension with Mercedes to in mid-2016, began to contemplate retirement from motor racing when he considered the possibility of a championship win after the 2016 Japanese Grand Prix. He discussed it twice with his wife Vivian before the Abu Dhabi Grand Prix and decided to commit to retiring before the race commenced. Afterwards, Rosberg told Vivan and manager Georg Noite that he would retire before telephoning the Mercedes team principal Toto Wolff about it. He did not tell Wolff in person because he was apprehensive about Wolff's reaction. At a FIA Prize Giving Ceremony in Vienna on 2 December 2016, five days after winning the championship, he made public his decision to retire. Rosberg said he had reached the \"pinnacle\" of his career; he did not want his driving skills to atrophy and wished to spend more time with his young family. He was the first reigning champion to retire from Formula One since Alain Prost in 1993. Williams driver Valtteri Bottas replaced Rosberg at Mercedes. In retirement, Rosberg's love of engineering and innovation saw him become an eco-entrepreneur. He used his celebrity to advance the", "Journalists describe Rosberg as an articulate man, who speaks with \"Germanic precision\" and has \"more than a hint of canny PR-iness, distributing praise with diligent equality and seasoning his narrative with caveats when required.\" He has avoided the use of appearing to be courageous to impress others, and some saw him as detrimental to Formula One's goal to attract new fans due to a perceived lack of personality and his commitment to fitness. Nicknamed \"Britney\" after the singer Britney Spears by his colleagues at Williams for sporting blonde hair, Rosberg is shy in private, reserved, quiet, and has a dry and sarcastic wit, which has occasionally \"played out with a deft finesse.\" He has been called charming, shrewd, intelligent, focused, and photogenic. Rosberg prefers to be challenged for structuring, and is an avid reader of books that further his knowledge. His wealthy and cosmopolitan Monegasque upbringing, coupled with his polyglotism led him to describe himself as an \"International German.\" Throughout his career, Rosberg had a strong work ethic, talking to engineers and mechanics, and approached each circuit with the care of a cartographer. Formula One pundits regarded Rosberg as \"among the most promising emergent stars of what some already call 'the Lewis generation'.\" The media and fans compared him initially to the 1982 world champion, his father Keke. That comparison lessened as his career progressed; he refused to discuss the comparison with the press and the difficulty in attempting to achieve as much success as his father was rarely mentioned. During the period Rosberg was Michael Schumacher's teammate at Mercedes, he was highly cautious about what he said to the off-track press, fearing that they could misinterpret his words. Rosberg had a scientific driving style; he sought to fine-tune his car in specific detail and adapted his driving ability around the changes, especially over a single lap. He shared his father's preference of oversteer over understeer and lacked a flamboyant driving technique. Rosberg's qualifying preparations would be compromised in the event that he leaned towards a race setup; he analysed the situation and attempted to optimise his driving style to win races. He occasionally used more of the circuit, using his car's ride over a bumpy track to ask the car to take as much as possible. Rosberg was sometimes unable to cope with the stress of extra complications, causing him to overdrive in the process, but was adept at managing technical issues on his car. Will Buxton, a motorsport commentator and pundit, described him as \"quick from the outset\" and a driver who \"was so impressive; seemingly effortlessly rapid and blessed with a precision that was metronomic.\"", "Creative Artists Agency (CAA), through its sports division CAA Sports, represents Rosberg's commercial ventures. From 2010 to 2015, he was associated with the jewellery and watch brand Thomas Sabo, and the luxury travel accessory maker Tumi. Rosberg signed numerous endorsement contracts; some of the companies with which he has done business are the watchmakers Rolex, International Watch Company and Oris, the luxury fashion house Hugo Boss, the toy car company Hot Wheels, the railway company Deutsche Bahn, and the media broadcasters Sky Sports and RTL, As a result of Rosberg's endorsement money and Mercedes salary, he was listed as one of the world's highest-paid athletes by \"Forbes\" in 2016. Rosberg is", "On 5 June 2011 Rosberg received the Lorenzo Bandini Trophy, which honours a recipient \"for their dedication to motor racing, spirit of competition and achievements\". At the 2014 Brazilian Grand Prix, he won the inaugural FIA Pole Trophy for winning more pole positions than any other driver during the 2014 season with 11. Rosberg won the DHL Fastest Lap", "", "Driver failed to finish the race but was" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Descent and inheritance.", "Rise of the Robertians.", "French monarchy in the 10th century.", "France under Ottonian influence.", "Duke of the Franks.", "Archbishop of Reims.", "Failure of Lothair.", "Election.", "Charles of Lorraine.", "Reaction in the south.", "Dispute with the papacy.", "Extent of power.", "Legacy.", "Marriage and issue.", "Prophecy.", "Hugh Capet in literature." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The son of Hugh the Great, Duke of the Franks, and Hedwige of Saxony, daughter of the German king Henry the Fowler, Hugh was born sometime between 938 and 941. He was born into a well-connected and powerful family with many ties to the royal houses of France and Germany. Through his mother, Hugh was the nephew of Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor; Henry I, Duke of Bavaria; Bruno the Great, Archbishop of Cologne; and finally, Gerberga of Saxony, Queen of France. Gerberga was the wife of Louis IV, King of France and mother of Lothair of France and Charles, Duke of Lower Lorraine. His paternal family, the Robertians, were powerful landowners in the Île-de-France. His grandfather had been King Robert I. King Odo was his granduncle and Emma of France, the wife of King Rudolph, was his aunt. Hugh's paternal grandmother Beatrice of Vermandois was a patrilineal descendant of Charlemagne.", "After the end of the ninth century, the descendants of Robert the Strong became indispensable in carrying out royal policies. As Carolingian power failed, the great nobles of West Francia began to assert that the monarchy was elective, not hereditary, and twice chose Robertians (Odo I (888–898) and Robert I (922–923)) as kings, instead of Carolingians. Robert I, Hugh the Great's father, was succeeded as King of the Franks by his son-in-law, Rudolph of Burgundy. When Rudolph died in 936, Hugh the Great had to decide whether he ought to claim the throne for himself. To claim the throne would require him to risk an election, which he would have to contest with the powerful Herbert II, Count of Vermandois, father of Hugh, Archbishop of Reims, and allied to Henry the Fowler, King of Germany; and with Hugh the Black, Duke of Burgundy, brother of the late king. To block his rivals, Hugh the Great brought Louis d'Outremer, the dispossessed son of Charles the Simple, from his exile at the court of Athelstan of England to become king as Louis IV. This maneuver allowed Hugh to become the most powerful person in France in the first half of the tenth century. Once in power, Louis IV granted him the title of \"dux Francorum\" (\"Duke of the Franks\"). Louis also (perhaps under pressure) officially declared Hugh \"the second after us in all our kingdoms\". Hugh also gained power when Herbert II of Vermandois died in 943, because Herbert's powerful principality was then divided among his four sons. Hugh the Great came to dominate a wide swath of central France, from Orléans and Senlis to Auxerre and Sens, while the king was rather confined to the area northeast of Paris (Compiègne, Laon, Soissons).", "The realm in which Hugh grew up, and of which he would one day be king, bore little resemblance to modern France. Hugh's predecessors did not call themselves kings of France, and that title was not used by his successors until the time of his descendant Philip II. Kings ruled as \"rex Francorum\" (\"King of the Franks\"), the title remaining in use until 1190 (but note the use of \"FRANCORUM REX\" by Louis XII in 1499, by Francis I in 1515, and by Henry II about 1550, and on French coins up to the eighteenth century.) The lands they ruled comprised only a small part of the former Carolingian Empire. The eastern Frankish lands, the Holy Roman Empire, were ruled by the Ottonian dynasty, represented by Hugh's first cousin Otto II and then by Otto's son, Otto III. The lands south of the river Loire had largely ceased to be part of the West Francia kingdom in the years after Charles the Simple was deposed in 922. Both the Duchy of Normandy and the Duchy of Burgundy were largely independent, and Brittany entirely soalthough from 956 Burgundy was ruled by Hugh's brothers Otto and Henry.", "In 956, when his father Hugh the Great died, Hugh, the eldest son, was then about fifteen years old and had two younger brothers. Otto I, King of Germany, intended to bring western Francia under his control, which was possible since he was the maternal uncle of Hugh Capet and Lothair of France, the new king of the Franks, who succeeded Louis IV in 954, at the age of 13. In 954, Otto I appointed his brother Bruno, Archbishop of Cologne and Duke of Lorraine, as guardian of Lothair and regent of the kingdom of France. In 956, Otto gave him the same role over Hugh and the Robertian principality. With these young princes under his control, Otto aimed to maintain the balance between Robertians, Carolingians, and Ottonians. In 960, Lothair agreed to grant to Hugh the legacy of his father, the margraviate of Neustria and the title of Duke of the Franks. But in return, Hugh had to accept the new independence gained by the counts of Neustria during Hugh's minority. Hugh's brother, Otto received only the duchy of Burgundy (by marriage). Andrew W. Lewis has sought to show that Hugh the Great had prepared a succession policy to ensure his eldest son much of his legacy, as did all the great families of that time. The West was dominated by Otto I, who had defeated the Magyars in 955, and in 962 assumed the restored imperial title. The new emperor increased his power over Western Francia with special attention to certain bishoprics on his border; although elected by Lothair, Adalberon, Archbishop of Reims, had imperial sympathies. Disappointed, King Lothair relied on other dioceses (Langres, Chalons, Noyon) and on Arnulf I, Count of Flanders.", "In 956, Hugh inherited his father's estates, in theory making him one of the most powerful nobles in the much-reduced kingdom of West Francia. As he was not yet an adult, his mother acted as his guardian, and young Hugh's neighbours took advantage. Theobald I of Blois, a former vassal of Hugh's father, took the counties of Chartres and Châteaudun. Further south, on the border of the kingdom, Fulk II of Anjou, another former client of Hugh the Great, carved out a principality at Hugh's expense and that of the Bretons. The royal diplomas of the 960s show that the nobles were faithful not only to the Duke of the Franks, as in the days of Hugh the Great, but also to King Lothair. Indeed, some in the royal armies fought against the Duchy of Normandy on behalf of Lothair. Finally, even Hugh's position as second man in the kingdom seemed to slip. Two charters of the Montier-en-Der Abbey (968 and 980) refer to Herbert III, Count of Vermandois, while Count of Chateau-Thierry, Vitry and lay abbot of Saint-Médard of Soissons, bearing the title of \"Count of the Franks\" and even \"count of the palace\" in a charter of Lothair. For his part, Lothair also lost power with the ascendance of the Ottonian monarchy. It waned by participating in the gathering of relatives and vassals of Otto I in 965. However, from the death of the emperor in 973, Lothair wanted to revive the policy of his grandfather to recover Lorraine, \"cradle of Carolingians\". Otto's son and successor, Otto II, appointed his cousin, Charles, brother of Lothair, as Duke of Lower Lorraine, to the king's fury, who was at enmity with his brother. During the summer of 978, he decided to take action. In August 978, accompanied by the nobles of the kingdom, Lothair surprised and plundered Aachen, residence of Otto II, forcing the imperial family to flee. After occupying Aachen for five days, Lothair returned to France after symbolically disgracing the city. In September 978, Otto II retaliated against Lothair by invading France with the aid of Charles. He met with little resistance on French territory, devastating the land around Rheims, Soissons, and Laon. Otto II then had Charles crowned as King of France by Theodoric I, Bishop of Metz. Lothair then fled to the French capital of Paris where he was besieged by Otto II and Charles. Sickness among his troops brought on by winter, and a French relief army under Hugh Capet, forced Otto II and Charles to lift the siege on November 30 and return to Germany. On the journey back to Germany, Otto's rearguard, unable to cross the Aisne in flood at Soissons, was completely wiped out, \"and more died by that wave than by the sword.\" This victory allowed Hugh Capet to regain his position as the first noble of the Frankish kingdom.", "Until the end of the tenth century, Reims was the most important of the archiepiscopal seats of France. Situated in Carolingian lands, the archbishop claimed the primacy of Gaul and the privilege to crown kings and direct their chancery. Therefore, the Archbishop of Reims traditionally had supported the ruling family and had long been central to the royal policy. But the episcopal city was headed by Adalberon of Rheims, nephew of Adalberon of Metz (a faithful prelate to the Carolingians), elected by the King Lothair in 969, but who had family ties to the Ottonians. The Archbishop was assisted by one of the most advanced minds of his time, the schoolmaster and future Pope, Gerbert of Aurillac. Adalberon and Gerbert worked for the restoration of a single dominant empire in Europe. King Lothair, 13 years old, was under the tutelage of his uncle Otto I. But upon reaching his majority, he became independent, which defeated their plans to bring the whole of Europe under a single crown. Therefore, they turned their support from Lothair to Hugh Capet. Indeed, for the Ottonian to make France a vassal state of the empire, it was imperative that the Frankish king was not of the Carolingian race, and not powerful enough to break the Ottonian tutelage. Hugh Capet was for them the ideal candidate, especially since he actively supported monastic reform in the abbeys while other contenders continued to distribute church revenues to their own partisans. Such conduct could only appeal to Reims, who was very close to the Cluniac movement.", "With the support of Adalberon of Reims, Hugh became the new leader of the kingdom. In a letter Gerbert of Aurillac wrote to Archbishop Adalberon that \"Lothair is king of France in name alone; Hugh is, however, not in name but in effect and deed.\" In 979, Lothair sought to ensure his succession by associating his eldest son with the throne. Hugh Capet supported him and summoned the great nobles of the kingdom. The ceremony took place at Compiègne, in the presence of the king, of Arnulf (an illegitimate son of the king), and of Archbishop Adalberon, under Hugh's blessing. The congregation acclaimed Louis V, following the Carolingian custom, and the archbishop anointed the new king of the Franks. The following year, Lothair, seeing the growing power of Hugh, decided to reconcile with the Emperor Otto II by agreeing to renounce Lorraine. But Hugh did not want the king and the emperor reconciled, so he quickly took the fortress of Montreuil, and then went to Rome. There he met the emperor and the pope, with his confidants Bouchard of Vendôme and Arnulf of Orléans. Tension mounted between Lothair and Hugh. The king married his 15-year-old son Louis to Adelaide of Anjou, who was then more than 40 years old. She brought with her Auvergne and the county of Toulouse, enough to pincer the Robertian territories from the south. However, the marriage failed and the couple separated two years later. At the death of Otto II in 983, Lothair took advantage of the minority of Otto III and, after making an alliance with the Duke of Bavaria, decided to attack Lorraine. Hugh was careful not to join this expedition. When the king took Verdun and imprisoned Godfrey (brother of the Archbishop of Reims), Adalberon and Gerbert sought the aid of the duke of the Franks. But the king's enterprises came to naught when he died in March 986.", "Louis V, following Louis IV and Lothair, declared that he would take the counsels of the duke of the Franks for his policies. It seems the new king wished to launch an offensive against Reims and Laon because of their rapprochement with the empire. Sources are vague on Hugh's role at this time, but it would be his interest to limit the king's excessive pretensions. Louis summoned the archbishop of Reims at his palace at Compiègne to answer for his actions. But while hunting in the forest of Senlis, the king was killed in a riding accident on 21 or 22 May 987. In May 987, chroniclers, including Richerus and Gerbert of Aurillac, wrote that in Senlis \"died the race of Charles\". However, even if Louis died childless, there remained a Carolingian who could ascend the throne: Charles, Duke of Lower Lorraine, brother of Lothair, uncle of Louis V, first cousin of Hugh Capet through their mothers. This was nothing extraordinary; it was not the first time that a Robertian would be competing with a Carolingian. In the time of Hugh the Great, the Robertians found it expedient to support the claim of a Carolingian. By 987, however, times had changed. For ten years, Hugh Capet had been openly competing against his king, and appeared to have subjected the great vassals. And his opponent Charles of Lorraine was accused of all evils: he wanted to usurp the crown (978), had allied himself with the emperor against his brother, and had defamed Queen Emma of Italy, his brother's wife. The archbishop of Reims convened the greatest lords of France at Senlis and denounced Charles of Lorraine for not maintaining his dignity, having made himself a vassal of the emperor Otto II and marrying a woman from a lower class of nobility. Then he promoted the candidacy of Hugh Capet: Crown the Duke. He is most illustrious by his exploits, his nobility, his forces. The throne is not acquired by hereditary right; no one should be raised to it unless distinguished not only for nobility of birth, but for the goodness of his soul. Hugh was elected and crowned \"rex Francorum\" at Noyon in Picardy on 3 July 987, by the prelate of Reims, the first of the Capetian house. Immediately after his coronation, Hugh began to push for the coronation of his son Robert. The archbishop, wary of establishing hereditary kingship in the Capetian line, answered that two kings cannot be created in the same year. Hugh claimed, however, that he was planning an expedition against the Moorish armies harassing Borrel II, Count of Barcelona (a vassal of the French crown), and that the stability of the country necessitated two kings should he die while on expedition. Ralph Glaber, however, attributes Hugh's request to his old age and inability to control the nobility. Modern scholarship has largely imputed to Hugh the motive of establishing a dynasty against the pretension of electoral power on the part of the aristocracy, but this is not the typical view of contemporaries and even some modern scholars have been less skeptical of Hugh's \"plan\" to campaign in Spain. Robert was eventually crowned on 25 December that same year.", "Charles of Lorraine, the Carolingian heir, contested the succession. He drew support from the Count of Vermandois, a cadet of the Carolingian dynasty; and from the Count of Flanders, loyal to the Carolingian cause. Charles took Laon, the seat of Carolingian royalty. Hugh Capet and his son Robert besieged the city twice, but were compelled to withdraw each time. Hugh decided to make an alliance with Theopano (regent for her son Otto III), but she never replied. When Adalberon, Archbishop of Reims, died, the archbishopric was contested by his right-hand man, Gerbert of Aurillac, and Arnulf, illegitimate son of King Lothair of France (and nephew of Charles of Lorraine). Choosing Arnulf to replace Adalberon seemed a great gamble, but Hugh made it anyway, and chose him as archbishop instead of Gerbert, in order to appease Carolingian sympathizers and the local populace. Following the customs of those times, he was made to invoke a curse upon himself if he should break his oath of fidelity to Hugh. Arnulf was duly installed, and was confirmed by the pope. Yet to Arnulf the ties of blood with his uncle Charles was the stronger than the oath he had given Hugh. Gathering the nobles in his castle, Arnulf sent one of his agents and opened the gates of the city to Charles. Arnulf acted as if terrified, and took the nobles with him to a tower, which he had emptied out of supplies beforehand. Thus was the city of Reims compelled to surrender; to keep up appearances, Arnulf and Charles denounced each other, until Arnulf swore fealty to Charles. Great was the predicament of Hugh, and he began doubting whether he could win the contest by force. Adalberon, bishop of Laon, whom Charles expelled when he took the city, had sought the protection of Hugh Capet. The bishop made overtures to Arnulf and Charles, to mediate a peace between them and Hugh Capet. Adalberon was received by Charles favorably, but was made to swear oaths that would bring curses upon himself if broken. Adalberon swore to them all, \"I will observe my oaths, and if not, may I die the death of Judas.\" That night the bishop seized Charles and Arnulf in their sleep, and delivered them to Hugh. Charles was imprisoned in Orléans until his death. His sons, born in prison, were released.", "This betrayal, which occurs in the very movement of the Peace of God (the council of Charroux, 989), strongly strikes the imagination in the southern half of the kingdom: Adalberon is totally discredited in these provinces and the image of Hugh Capet is tarnished. The ruthless war against Charles of Lorraine in Laon and Reims (988–991), known by the story of Richerus of Reims and the letters of Gerbert, made the king hostile in the eyes of some of the churchmen. For a long time it was stated that the southern subjects had consistently rejected the first Capetian. Recently, studies have issued nuances. It seems that the rejection is political (the capture of Charles of Lorraine) rather than dynastic. The Duke of Aquitaine refuses to submit to his king, \"condemning the crime of the Franks [the capture of Charles]\" and the Bishop of Laon is compared to Judas the \"traitor\". Finally, they make peace on the banks of the Loire. This remark is even more explicit in the city of Limoges. Acts say that until 988, Hugh and his son Robert were recognized by the date of their reign \"\"regnante Ugo rege anno II et Rotberto filio suo anno primo\"\" (\"signed the second year of the reign of King Hugh and the first of his son Robert\"). But a few months later, the charters are not dated by their reigns: it seems that the change is due to the knowledge of the capture of Charles of Lorraine and the betrayal of Adalberon, bishop of Laon. Once made aware, the southern cities would have rejected the legitimacy of Hugh and Robert.", "After the loss of Reims by the betrayal of Arnulf, Hugh demanded his deposition by Pope John XV. But the pope was then embroiled in a conflict with the Roman aristocracy. After the capture of Charles and Arnulf, Hugh resorted to a domestic tribunal, and convoked a synod at Reims in June 991. There, Gerbert testified against Arnulf, which led to the archbishop's deposition and Gerbert being chosen as replacement. Pope John XV rejected this procedure and wished to convene a new council in Aachen, but the French bishops refused and confirmed their decision in Chelles (winter 993–994). The pope then called them to Rome, but they protested that the unsettled conditions en route and in Rome made that impossible. The Pope then sent a legate with instructions to call a council of French and German bishops at Mousson, where only the German bishops appeared, the French being stopped on the way by Hugh and Robert. Gerbert, supported by other bishops, advocates for the independence of the churches vis-à-vis Rome (which is controlled by the German emperors). Through the exertions of the legate, the deposition of Arnulf was finally pronounced illegal. To avoid excommunication of the bishops who sat in the council of St. Basle, and thus a schism, Gerbert decided to let go. He abandoned the archdiocese and went to Italy. After Hugh's death, Arnulf was released from his imprisonment and soon restored to all his dignities. Under the auspices of the emperor, Gerbert eventually succeeded to the papacy as Pope Sylvester II, the first French pope.", "Hugh Capet possessed minor properties near Chartres and Angers. Between Paris and Orléans he possessed towns and estates amounting to approximately. His authority ended there, and if he dared travel outside his small area, he risked being captured and held for ransom, though his life would be largely safe. Indeed, there was a plot in 993, masterminded by Adalberon, Bishop of Laon and Odo I of Blois, to deliver Hugh Capet into the custody of Otto III. The plot failed, but the fact that no one was punished illustrates how tenuous his hold on power was. Beyond his power base, in the rest of France, there were still as many codes of law as there were fiefdoms. The \"country\" operated with 150 different forms of currency and at least a dozen languages. Uniting all this into one cohesive unit was a formidable task and a constant struggle between those who wore the crown of France and its feudal lords. Therefore, Hugh Capet's reign was marked by numerous power struggles with the vassals on the borders of the Seine and the Loire. While Hugh Capet's military power was limited and he had to seek military aid from Richard I of Normandy, his unanimous election as king gave him great moral authority and influence. Adémar de Chabannes records, probably apocryphally, that during an argument with the Count of Auvergne, Hugh demanded of him: \"Who made you count?\" The count riposted: \"Who made you king?\".", "Hugh Capet died on 14 October 996 in Paris, and was interred in the Saint Denis Basilica. His son Robert continued to reign. Most historians regard the beginnings of modern France as having initiated with the coronation of Hugh Capet. This is because, as Count of Paris, he made the city his power centre. The monarch began a long process of exerting control of the rest of the country from there. He is regarded as the founder of the Capetian dynasty. The direct Capetians, or the House of Capet, ruled France from 987 to 1328; thereafter, the Kingdom was ruled by cadet branches of the dynasty. All French kings through Louis Philippe, and all royals since then, have belonged to the dynasty. Furthermore, cadet branches of the House continue to reign in Spain and Luxembourg. All monarchs of the Kingdom of France from Hugh Capet to Philip II of France were titled 'King of the Franks'. Philip II was the first to use the title 'King of France'.", "Hugh Capet married Adelaide, daughter of William Towhead, Count of Poitou. Their children are as follows: A number of other daughters are less reliably attested.", "According to tradition, sometime in 981, Hugh Capet recovered the relics of St. Valery, which had been stolen by the Flemings, and restored it to the proper resting place. The saint appeared to the duke in a dream, and said: \"For what you have done, you and your descendants shall be kings to the seventh generation\". When he became king, Hugh refused to wear the insignia of royalty, hoping that it would extend his descendants' reign by one generation. By the literal interpretation, Capetian kingship would thus have ended with Philip Augustus, the seventh king of his line. Figuratively, seven meant completeness, and would mean that the Capetians would be kings for ever. In fact, Capetian kingship lasted until 1848 in France, although the current King of Spain and Grand Duke of Luxembourg are Capetians.", "Hugh Capet is encountered in the \"Divine Comedy\" of Dante Alighieri (c.1265-1321); the poet places him on the fifth terrace of Mount Purgatory (\"Purgatorio\", Canto XX) among sinners performing penitence for avarice." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "Born in Eschweiler, Altmeyer began his performance career while still a voice student at the Hochschule für Musik Köln, where he studied under Clemens Glettenberg from 1953 to 1956. His first successes were primarily as an oratorio soloist. He was hired by the Westdeutscher Rundfunk (WDR) to perform in several recordings of cantatas and other religious music. He went on to win second prize at the WDR's singing competition in 1955. In 1956, Altmeyer joined the roster of singers at the Berlin State Opera, where he sang for the next four years. While there he notably portrayed the title role in the world premiere of Humphrey Searle's \"The Diary of a Madman\". Then starting in the 1960-1961 season, he was the principal lyric tenor at the Staatsoper Hannover, making his debut there as Tamino in Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's \"The Magic Flute\". He became particularly successful in that house with several more Mozart roles, like Ferrando in \"Così fan tutte\" and Don Ottavio in \"Don Giovanni\". He also excelled in portraying roles in works by Albert Lortzing and Gioachino Rossini. Other roles of note included the title roles in Benjamin Britten's \"Albert Herring\" and Jacques Offenbach's \"Orpheus in the Underworld\". He also found particular success in the title role of Hans Pfitzner's \"Palestrina\", a role he also performed at both the Vienna State Opera and the Staatsoper Stuttgart. The most important work of Altmeyer's career was in the field of religious music. He was one of the most lauded and prolific oratorio singers of his day. His repertoire spanned from the medieval masters to new compositions. He was particularly admired for his many performances and recordings of works by Johann Sebastian Bach. As an oratorio singer, he performed with major orchestras and musical ensembles throughout Germany, France, Austria, Italy, England, Belgium, the Netherlands and Switzerland. He also participated in two large and highly successful concert tours of North America and performed at major music festivals such as Bachwoche Ansbach, Lucerne, Montreux, Vienna, Florence, Naples and Venice. In 1974, Altmeyer joined the voice faculty of the Musikhochschule Hannover, where he taught for several decades. Among his students is Dantes Diwiak. He continued to appear in operas and concerts during many of these years, giving his last public performance at La Morra in 1996. He died in Hannover at the age of 76 on the anniversary of Bach's death." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Features.", "Core playback and library functions.", "Visualizations.", "Format support.", "Windows Media Player Mobile.", "Disc burning, ripping, and playback.", "Portable device sync.", "Enhanced playback features.", "Shell integration.", "Extensibility.", "Online features.", "Media streaming.", "Skin Mode.", "Security issues.", "Other versions.", "Windows Mobile.", "Mac OS X.", "European Commission case.", "Release history." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The first version of Windows Media Player appeared in 1991, when Windows 3.0 with Multimedia Extensions was released. Originally called Media Player, this component was included with \"Multimedia PC\"-compatible machines but not available for retail sale. It was capable of playing codice_1 animation files, and could be extended to support other formats. It used MCI to handle media files. Being a component of Windows, Media Player shows the same version number as that of the version Windows with which it was included. Microsoft continually produced new programs to play media files. In November of the following year, Video for Windows was introduced with the ability to play digital video files in an AVI container format, with codec support for RLE and Video1, and support for playing uncompressed files. Indeo 3.2 was added in a later release. Video for Windows was first available as a free add-on to Windows 3.1, and later integrated into Windows 95 and Windows NT 4.0. In 1995, Microsoft released ActiveMovie with DirectX Media SDK. ActiveMovie incorporates a new way of dealing with media files, and adds support for streaming media (which the original Media Player could not handle). In 1996, ActiveMovie was renamed DirectShow. However, Media Player continued to come with Windows until Windows XP, in which it was officially renamed Windows Media Player v5.1. (\"v5.1\" is the version number of Windows XP.) In 1999, Windows Media Player's versioning broke away from that of Windows itself. Windows Media Player 6.4 came as an out-of-band update for Windows 95, Windows 98 and Windows NT 4.0 that co-existed with Media Player and became a built-in component of Windows 2000, Windows ME and Windows XP with an \"mplayer2.exe\" stub allowing to use this built-in instead of newer versions. Windows Media Player 7.0 and its successors also came in the same fashion, replacing each other but leaving Media Player and Windows Media Player 6.4 intact. Windows XP is the only operating system to have three different versions of Windows Media Player (v5.1, v6.4 and v8) side by side. All versions branded Windows Media Player (instead of simply Media Player) support DirectShow codecs. Windows Media Player version 7 was a large revamp, with a new user interface, visualizations and increased functionality. Windows Vista, however, dropped older versions of Windows Media Player in favor of v11. In 2004 Microsoft launched digital music store MSN Music for new Windows Media Player 10 to compete with Apple iTunes. However, MSN Music was discontinued already in 2006 with the launch of Zune music players. Beginning with Windows Vista, Windows Media Player supports the Media Foundation framework besides DirectShow; as such it plays certain types of media using Media Foundation as well as some types of media using DirectShow. Windows Media Player 12 was released with Windows 7. It included support for more media formats and added new features. With Windows 8, however, the player did not receive an upgrade. On April 16, 2012, Microsoft announced that Windows Media Player would not be included in Windows RT, the line of Windows designed to run on ARM based devices.", "", "Windows Media Player supports playback of audio, video and pictures, along with fast forward, reverse, file markers (if present) and variable playback speed (seek & time compression/dilation introduced in WMP 9 Series). It supports local playback, streaming playback with multicast streams and progressive downloads. Items in a playlist can be skipped over temporarily at playback time without removing them from the playlist. Full keyboard-based operation is possible in the player. Windows Media Player supports full media management, via the integrated media library introduced first in version 7, which offers cataloguing and searching of media and viewing media metadata. Media can be arranged according to album, artist, genre, date \"et al.\" Windows Media Player 9 Series introduced Quick Access Panel to browse and navigate the entire library through a menu. The Quick Access Panel was also added to the mini mode in version 10 but was entirely removed in version 11. WMP 9 Series also introduced ratings and Auto Ratings. Windows Media Player 10 introduced support for aggregating pictures, Recorded TV shows, and other media into the library. A fully featured tag editor was featured in versions 9-11 of WMP, called the Advanced Tag Editor. However, the feature was removed in Windows Media Player 12. Since WMP 9 Series, the player features dynamically updated \"Auto Playlists\" based on criteria. Auto Playlists are updated every time users open them. WMP 9 Series and later also supports \"Auto Ratings\" which automatically assigns ratings based on the number of times a song is played. Pre-populated auto playlists are included in Windows Media Player 9 Series. Custom Auto Playlists can be created only on Windows XP and later. In Windows Media Player 11, the \"Quick Access Panel\" was removed and replaced with an Explorer-style navigation pane on the left which can be customized for each library to show the user selected media or metadata categories, with contents appearing on the right, in a graphical manner with thumbnails featuring album art or other art depicting the item. Missing album art can be added directly to the placeholders in the Library itself (though the program re-renders all album art imported this way into 1x1 pixel ratio, 200x200 resolution jpegs). There are separate \"Tiles\", \"Icons\", \"Details\" or \"Extended Tiles\" views for \"Music\", \"Pictures\", \"Video\" and \"Recorded TV\" which can be set individually from the navigation bar. Entries for \"Pictures\" and \"Video\" show their thumbnails. Version 11 also introduced the ability to search and display results on-the-fly as characters are being entered, without waiting for \"Enter\" key to be hit. Incremental search results are refined based on further characters that are typed. \"Stacking\" allows graphical representations of how many albums there are in a specific category or folder. The pile appears larger as the category contains more albums. The List pane includes an option to prompt the user to remove items skipped in a playlist upon save or skip them only during playback.", "While playing music, Windows Media Player can show visualizations. The current three visualizations are Alchemy, which was first introduced in version 9, Bars and Waves, which has been used since version 7, and Battery, introduced version 8. \"Musical Colors\" was removed starting with version 9, but is retained if Windows Media Player was upgraded from version 7 or 8. Version 11 and above refrains from having the former \"Ambience\", \"Particle\", \"Plenoptic\", and \"Spikes\" visualizations. The \"Battery\" visualization was similarly removed in later editions of version 12. The reason for their removal was that the visualizations do not support full screen controls (either the visualization gets shifted to the left while there is a thick black bar to the right side of the screen, that there are no full screen controls, or that the visualization have DXE Problems). More visualizations such as \"BlazingColors\", \"ColorCubes\", \"Softie the Snowman,\" and \"Yule Log\" used to be downloadable however, the downloads from Microsoft's website have mostly been taken down.", "The player includes intrinsic support for Windows Media codecs and also WAV and MP3 media formats. On Windows XP and above with WMP 9 Series and later, the Windows Media Audio Professional codec is included which supports multichannel audio at up to 24-bit 192 kHz resolution. Windows Media Player 11 includes the Windows Media Format 11 runtime which adds low bitrate support (below 128 kbit/s for WMA Pro), support for ripping music to \"WMA Pro 10\" and updates the original WMA to version 9.2. Support for any media codec and container format can be added using specific DirectShow filters or Media Foundation codecs (Media Foundation codecs only in Windows Vista and later). The player will not play MP3 files that contain compressed ID3 headers (\"tags\"); trying to do so results in a \"The input media file is invalid\" error message. MP3 playback support was built-in beginning with version 6.1 and audio CD playback was natively supported with version 7. DVD playback features minus the necessary decoders were integrated into Windows Media Player 8 for Windows XP. The player activates DVD and Blu-ray playback functionality with support for menus, titles and chapters, parental controls and audio track language selection if compatible decoders are installed. MPEG-2 and Dolby Digital (AC-3) decoders were included beginning with Windows Media Player 11 on Windows Vista (Home Premium and Ultimate editions only). Windows Media Player 12 adds native support for H.264 and MPEG-4 Part 2 video formats, ALAC, AAC audio and 3GP, MP4 and MOV container formats. Windows Media Player 12 is also able to play AVCHD formats (\".M2TS\" and \".mts\"). As of Windows 10, Windows Media Player 12 can play FLAC, HEVC, ASS and SubRip subtitle, and Matroska container formats.", "Windows Media Player Mobile 10 on Windows Mobile 6.5 supports MP3, ASF, WMA and WMV using WMV or MPEG-4 codecs.", "Windows Media Player features integrated Audio CD-burning support since version 7 as well as data CD burning support since Windows Media Player 9 Series on Windows XP and later. Data CDs can have any of the media formats supported by the player. While burning Data CDs, the media can, optionally, be transcoded into WMA format and playlists can be added to the CD as well. Starting with WMP 9 Series, audio CDs can be burnt with volume leveling. Audio CDs can be ripped as WMA or WMA 10 Pro (WMA 10 Pro in WMP 11 and later) at 48, 64, 96, 128, 160 and 192 kbit/s, WMA lossless (470 to 940 kbit/s) (9 Series on XP and later), WMA variable bitrate (from 40-75 kbit/s up to 240-355 kbit/s), MP3 at 128, 192, 256 and 320 kbit/s, or uncompressed WAV (WAV ripping in WMP 11 and later). Since WMP 9 Series, 20 bit high-resolution CDs (HDCDs) are also supported, if capable audio hardware is present. Audio can be ripped using error correction and ripped audio can be protected with Windows Media DRM. Ripping to MP3 is supported only in Windows Media Player 8 for Windows XP and later if a compatible MP3 encoder is installed. Windows Media Player 10 included the Fraunhofer MP3 Professional encoder. Information on CDs such as album name, artist and track listings can optionally be automatically downloaded from the online Windows Media database when the CD is inserted. Version 11 added support for ripping audio CDs to WAV and WMA 10 Pro formats. With their 2015 implementation in Windows 10, Version 12 also added lossless FLAC and ALAC formats for ripping and playback. For burning, version 11 shows a graphical bar indicating how much space will be used on the disc and introduced \"Disc spanning\" which splits a burn list onto multiple discs in case the content does not fit on one disc.", "Windows Media Player allows the user to connect, share and sync data with portable handheld devices and game consoles since version 7. Media can be optionally transcoded to a format better suited for the target device, automatically, when synchronizing. When deleting playlists from devices, Windows Media Player can automatically remove their contents. Devices can be formatted using Windows Media Player 9 Series and later. Version 10 and later support the Media Transfer Protocol and Auto Sync. Auto Sync allows users to specify criteria such as recently added music or highest rated songs, by which media will be automatically synchronized with the portable device and other advanced features like setting the clock on the portable device automatically, communicating with the device to retrieve the user's preferences. Windows Media Player 10 also introduced the UMDF-based \"Windows Portable Devices\" API. Version 11 has improved synchronization features for loading content onto PlaysForSure-compatible portable players. WMP 11 supports reverse-synchronization, by which media present on the portable device can be replicated back to the PC. \"Shuffle Sync\" can be used to randomize content synced with the portable device, \"Multi PC Sync\" to synchronize portable device content across multiple PCs and \"Guest Sync\" to synchronize different content from multiple PCs with the portable device. Portable devices appear in the navigation pane of the library where their content can be browsed and searched. Windows Media Player's 'Sync' function has options that allow it to be set to automatically down-convert (transcode) high bit-rate song files to a lower bit-rate. This down-conversion function is switched on by default. This is useful for providing low bit-rate files to those portable devices that need them, and to save space on portable devices with smaller storage capacities. For high bit-rate capable devices with sufficient storage capabilities, the down conversion process can be omitted. In versions 11 (2006) and 12 (2009), the Quality settings that the user has selected in the Windows Media Player settings for Sync, for that specific portable device, are used to control the quality (bit-rate) of files that are copied to the portable device. Leaving the Quality settings to Automatic will often result in 192kbs files being copied to the portable device. Manual settings can also be made. 192kbs is the highest quality down-conversion bit-rate that can be manually selected when the Sync function's down-conversion function is turned on. Lower bit-rates can also be selected. For portable devices that can handle high bit-rate files, the best quality files are obtained by leaving the down-conversion process switched off (unchecked) for that specific device. In Windows Media Player Version 11, switching off the down-conversion function is done in the Quality tab of the Advanced Options of the Sync settings for the device. In Windows Media Player Version 12, switching off the down-conversion function is done in the Quality tab of the Properties for the device in the Select Settings for the device in the Sync Options menu. When set up in such a way, Windows Media Player's 'Sync' function can be used to sync unchanged high bit-rate song files to suitable portable devices (i.e. those capable of using file formats such as WMA Lossless, mp3-360kbs, etc.). For example, some users have created large song libraries on their PCs containing.wma formatted song files using the high bit-rate WMA Lossless (WMA-LL) protocol, or using other high bit-rate song file formats. The WMA-LL protocol is selectable in Windows Media Player as an option when ripping songs from CDs. The resulting bit-rates seen on ripped WMA-LL files are often 3 to 6 times higher than 192kbs, and can typically fall anywhere in the range of 600kbs to 1200kbs, depending on the quality of the source file that was present on the CD in the first place. The sound quality is much improved over the default rate, although the file size is larger. At the time that Versions 11 and 12 were released, the capabilities and capacities of portable devices typically required down-conversion of the bit-rates of the files placed on the portable devices. Thus, Sync down-conversion was turned on by default. This was to ensure playability of the files and to ensure that the file sizes were small enough to efficiently fit a reasonably large selection of songs on the portable device. In recent years (circa 2012), portable devices became available that could natively play these Windows Media Player produced high bit-rate WMA-LL files (and others), and that have storage capacities suitable for large collections of high bit-rate song files. This made it much more practicable and desirable to use software programs such as Windows Media Player to synchronize previously PC-bound libraries of high bit-rate songs to these new portable devices.", "Windows Media Player features universal brightness, contrast, saturation and hue adjustments and pixel aspect ratio for supported video formats. It also includes a 10-band graphic equalizer with presets and SRS WOW audio post-processing system. Windows Media Player can also have attached audio and video DSP plug-ins which process the output audio or video data. \"Video Smoothing\" was introduced in WMP 9 Series (Windows XP and later only) which upscales frame-rate by interpolating added frames, in effect giving a smoother playback on low-framerate videos. The player supports subtitles and closed-captioning for local media, video on demand streaming or live streaming scenarios. Typically Windows Media captions support the SAMI file format but can also carry embedded closed caption data. The player can use video overlays or VMR (Video Mixing Renderer) surfaces, if the video card supports them. In Windows XP, it uses VMR7 by default, but can also be made to use the more advanced YUV mixing mode by enabling the \"Use high quality mode\" option in Advanced Performance settings. This turns on deinterlacing, scaling and improved color accuracy. WMP 9 Series introduced native playback for deinterlacing for TV output. Version 9 introduced DXVA accelerated playback. Version 11 introduced improved support for DirectX accelerated decoding of WMV video (DXVA decoding). Up to version 11, it supported static lyrics and \"Synchronized Lyrics\", by which different lines of lyrics can be time-stamped, so that they display only at those times. Synchronized Lyrics also were accessible through the Advanced Tag Editor which was removed in version 12. Since Windows Media Player 9 Series, the player supports crossfading, audio dynamic range (Quiet Mode) for WMA Pro and WMA Lossless, and auto volume leveling for certain media which includes volume level/gain information such as MP3 or Windows Media. The player also supports extensive configurable privacy and security settings.", "The player has Windows Explorer shell integration to add files and playlist to the \"Now Playing\" pane and other playlists can be controlled from the Windows Explorer shell itself, via right-click menu. The My Music folder also includes a separate \"My Playlists\" folder where playlists are maintained. When the player is closed and reopened, simply clicking the play button restores the last playlist even if it was not saved. Starting with Windows Media Player 10, the playlist pane is also visible from the Library view. AutoPlay handlers in Windows expose various Windows Media Player tasks. Up to version 11, it featured a taskbar-mounted \"Mini mode\" in which the most common media control buttons are presented as a toolbar on the Windows taskbar. Flyout windows can display media information, the active visualization or the video being played back. Mini-mode was introduced as a shell player powertoy for Windows Media Player 8 in Windows XP and integrated later into WMP 9 Series. Mini-mode has been removed in Windows Media Player 12 in favor of controls in the taskbar's interactive thumbnail preview which lacks volume control, a progress bar and information displayed whenever a new song is played. The user interface has been redesigned in Windows Media Player 12 such that the \"Now Playing\" view plays media in a separate minimalist window with floating playback controls, and also gives access to the current playlist, visualizations, and enhancements. Enhancements are housed in individual undocked windows. The library view includes the rest of the media management functions. It also can preview songs from the library when users hover over the media file and click the Preview button. Windows Media Player 12 can play unprotected songs from the iTunes library. The taskbar-integrated Mini-player has been replaced with controls in the taskbar's interactive thumbnail preview (called the \"Thumbnail Toolbar\"), albeit minus the volume control function, track and album information shown whenever a new song is played and the progress bar. The taskbar icon also supports jump lists introduced in Windows 7.", "The player has had skinning support since Windows Media Player (WMP) 7 and includes a color chooser since the WMP 9 Series. Not all functions are usually exposed in skin mode. Windows Media Player 10 allows setting the video border color. Color chooser has been removed in WMP 12. It supports visualizations and \"Info Center View\" (Info Center View in WMP 9 Series and later) which displays media metadata fetched from the internet. Full screen visualizations are supported in WMP 9 Series and later. It supports Background plug-ins, window plug-ins and \"Now Playing\" plug-ins to control media playback besides DSP and renderer plug-ins. Plug-in support was introduced in WMP 9 Series.", "The player integrates web-browsing support to browse online music stores, shop for music and tune to internet radio stations since version 7. It provides an embeddable ActiveX control for Internet Explorer so that developers can play Windows Media on web pages. Windows Media Player 10 and later feature integration with a large number of online music stores and selecting a music store switches the Info Center view, radio and other online features to use services from that store. Purchased music from a particular store appears in a separate library node under the respective category.", "Previously, Microsoft had released Windows Media Connect for Windows XP to stream media content with its built-in UPnP media server. With version 11 of Windows Media Player, Media Sharing was integrated and allows content (Music, Pictures, Video) to be streamed to and from Universal Plug and Play (UPnP) AV enabled devices such as the PS3, Xbox 360, and Roku SoundBridge. This includes DRM protected PlaysForSure content. WMP 11 on Windows Vista can also act as a client to connect to remote media libraries using this feature; this is not available on the Windows XP version. With version 12, media streaming was further improved. While previous versions streamed media to UPnP compliant devices (Digital Media Server role) and could play media by fetching it from a network share (Digital Media Player role), Windows Media Player 12 can access media from the shared media libraries on the network or HomeGroup, stream media to DLNA 1.5 compliant devices and allows itself (once the remote control option is turned on) to be remotely controlled by Digital Media Controller devices which stream media (Digital Media Renderer role). Similarly, the \"Play To\" feature once enabled for remote PCs, by turning on remote control of the player, allows compliant devices and computers to be discovered and controlled remotely from a computer running Windows Media Player 12 (Digital Media Controller role). If the devices do not support the streamed format, Windows Media Player 12 transcodes the format on-the-fly. Media from a home network can also be streamed over the internet using an \"Online ID Provider\" service, which handles discovery of the computer's IP address, authorization, security, connectivity and Quality of Service issues.", "Windows Media Player also features skins. Currently, Windows Media Player has two default skins: \"Corporate\", which was first introduced in version 8, and \"Revert\", which first shipped with version 9. In versions 7 and 8, there were many unusual skins such as \"Heart\", \"Headspace\", \"Canvas\", \"Goo\", and \"Atomic\", which were removed starting with version 9, but are retained if the player is upgraded, although some can still be downloaded from an archive of the Microsoft website. \"QuickSilver\", \"Compact\", and \"9SeriesDefault\" were removed starting with version 11, but are similarly retained if upgraded from version 9 or 10. This Corporate skin is not deletable.", "Microsoft Windows Media Runtime in Windows 2000, Windows XP, Windows Vista and Windows Server contained a bug that permitted \"remote code execution if a user opened a specially crafted media file\". Such a file would allow the attacker to \"then install programs; view, change, or delete data; or create new accounts with full user rights\", if the account on which the file was played had administrator privileges. The problem was addressed in a critical update issued on September 8, 2009.", "Microsoft has also released versions of Windows Media Player for other platforms including Windows Mobile, classic Mac OS, Mac OS X, Palm-size PC, Handheld PC, and Solaris. Of these, only the Windows Mobile edition continues to be actively developed and supported by Microsoft. Version 1 of the Zune software was also based on Windows Media Player; later versions are not.", "Windows Media Player for Pocket PC was first announced on January 6, 2000, and has been revised on a schedule roughly similar to that of the Windows version. Currently known as \"Media Player 10 Mobile\", this edition (released in October 2004) closely resembles the capabilities of the Windows version of WMP 10, including playlist capabilities, a media library, album art, WMA Lossless playback, support for DRM-protected media, video playback at 640×480 with stereo sound, and the same Energy Blue interface aesthetics also seen in Windows XP Media Center Edition 2005. It also supports synchronization with the desktop version of WMP 10, and additionally supports synchronizing and transcoding of recorded television shows from Media Center. Media Player 10 Mobile is not available as a download from Microsoft; distribution is done solely through OEM partners, and is typically included on devices based on Windows Mobile. Windows Mobile 6 includes a copy of Windows Media Player 10 Mobile, but with a similar (but not quite identical) theme as Windows Media Player 11.", "Version 9 was the final version of Windows Media Player to be released for Mac OS X before development was canceled by Microsoft. It was developed by the Windows Media team at Microsoft instead of the Macintosh Business Unit and released in 2003. On release the application lacked many basic features that were found in other media players such as Apple's iTunes and QuickTime. It also lacked support for many media formats that version 9 of the Windows counterpart supported on release 10 months earlier. The Mac version supported only Windows Media encoded media (up to version 9) enclosed in the ASF format, lacking support for all other formats such as MP4, MPEG, and Microsoft's own AVI format. On the user interface front, it did not prevent screensavers from running during playback, it did not support file drag-and-drop, nor did it support playlists. While Windows Media Player 9 had added support for some files that use the WMV9 codec (also known as the WMV3 codec by the FourCC), in other aspects it was seen as having degraded in features from previous versions. On January 12, 2006 Microsoft announced it had ceased development of Windows Media Player for Mac. Microsoft now distributes a third-party plugin called WMV Player (produced and maintained by Flip4Mac) which allows some forms of Windows Media to be played within Apple's QuickTime Player and other QuickTime-aware applications.", "In March 2004, the European Commission in the European Union Microsoft antitrust case fined Microsoft €497 million and ordered the company to provide a version of Windows without Windows Media Player, claiming Microsoft \"broke European Union competition law by leveraging its near monopoly in the market for PC operating systems onto the markets for work group server operating systems and for media players\". The company has made available a compliant version of its flagship operating system under the negotiated name \"Windows XP N\", though the product has not been very successful. Windows Vista, Windows 7 and Windows 8 are also available in \"N\" editions. However, it is possible to either install Windows Media Player (XP/Vista) or the Media Restore Pack through Windows Update (Vista) to add the media player.", "Prior to the release of Windows Media Player in Windows 98 Second Edition, separate programs, CD Player, Deluxe CD Player, DVD Player and Media Player, were included in old versions of Microsoft Windows for playback of media files." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Lynx II.", "Decline.", "Features.", "Reception.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Lynx system was originally developed by Epyx as the Handy Game. In 1986, two former Amiga designers, R. J. Mical and Dave Needle, had been asked by former manager at Amiga, David Morse, if they could come up with a design for a portable gaming system. Morse now worked at Epyx, a game software company that had a recent string of hit games. Morse's son had asked him if he could make a portable gaming system, prompting a meeting with Mical and Needle to discuss the idea. Morse convinced Mical and Needle to develop the idea and they were hired by Epyx to be a part of the design team. Planning and design of the console began in 1986 and was completed in 1987. Epyx first showed the Handy system at the Winter Consumer Electronics Show (CES) in January 1989. Facing financial difficulties, Epyx sought out partners. Nintendo, Sega, and other companies declined, but Atari and Epyx eventually agreed that Atari would handle production and marketing, while Epyx would handle software development. Epyx declared bankruptcy by the end of the year, and Atari essentially owned the entire project; both Atari and others, however, had to purchase Amigas from Atari archrival Commodore to develop Lynx software. The Handy was designed to run games from the cartridge format, and the game data must be copied from ROM to RAM before it can be used. Thus, less RAM is then available and each game's initial loading is slow. There are trace remnants of a cassette tape interface physically capable of being programmed to read a tape. Lynx developers have noted that \"there is still reference of the tape and some hardware addresses\" and an updated vintage Epyx manual describes the bare existence of what could be utilized for tape support. A 2009 retrospective interview clarifies that although some early reports claimed that games were loaded from tape, Mical says there was no truth in them: \"We did think about hard disk a little.\" Atari changed the internal speaker and removed the thumb-stick on the control pad before releasing it as the Lynx, initially retailing in the US at. Atari then showed the Lynx to the press at the Summer 1989 CES as the \"Portable Color Entertainment System\", which was changed to \"Lynx\" when actual consoles were distributed to resellers. The Lynx started off successfully. Atari reported that they had sold 90% of the 50,000 units it shipped in its launch month in the U.S. with a limited launch in New York. US sales in 1990 were approximately 500,000 units according to the Associated Press. In late 1991, it was reported that Atari sales estimates were about 800,000, which Atari claimed was within their expected projections. Lifetime sales by 1995 amounted to fewer than 7 million units when combined with the Game Gear. In comparison, the Game Boy sold 16 million units by 1995 because it was more rugged, cost half as much, had much longer battery life, was bundled with \"Tetris\", and had a superior software library. As with the actual console units, the game cartridges themselves evolved over the first year of the console's release. The first generation of cartridges were flat, and were designed to be stackable for ease of storage. However, this design proved to be very difficult to remove from the console and was replaced by a second design. This style, called \"tabbed\" or \"ridged\", used the same basic design as the original cartridges with the addition of two small tabs on the cartridge's underside to aid in removal. The original flat style cartridges could be stacked on top of the newer cartridges, but the newer cartridges could not be easily stacked on each other, nor were they stored easily. Thus a third style, the \"curved lip\" style was produced, and all official and third-party cartridges during the console's lifespan were released (or re-released) using this style. In May 1991, Sega launched its Game Gear portable gaming handheld. Also a color handheld, in comparison to the Lynx it had a higher cost and shorter battery life (3–4 hours as opposed to 4-5 for the Lynx), but it was slightly smaller and was backed up by significantly more games. Retailers such as Game and Toys R Us continued to sell the Lynx well into the mid-1990s on the back of the Atari Jaguar launch, helped by magazines such as \"Ultimate Future Games\" who continued to cover the Lynx alongside the new generation of 32-bit and 64-bit consoles.", "During 1990, the Lynx had moderate sales. In July 1991, Atari introduced the Lynx II with a new marketing campaign, new packaging, slightly improved hardware, better battery life and a new sleeker look. The new system (referred to within Atari as the \"Lynx II\") featured rubber hand grips and a clearer backlit color screen with a power save option (which turned off the LCD panel's backlighting). It also replaced the monaural headphone jack of the original Lynx with one wired for stereo. The new packaging made the Lynx available without any accessories, dropping the price to $99. Although sales improved, Nintendo still dominated the handheld market.", "In 1993, Atari started shifting its focus away from the Lynx in order to prepare for the launch of the Jaguar. A few games were released during this time, including \"Battlezone 2000\". Support for the Lynx would not be formally discontinued until 1995. After the launch of the Sega Saturn and Sony PlayStation drastically caused the commercial failure of the Jaguar that same year, Atari terminated all internal game and hardware development and, in 1996, agreed to reverse merge with JTS, Inc., thus the Atari brand would leave the gaming market for good; the Atari properties were soon sold to Hasbro Interactive in 1998.", "The Atari Lynx's innovative features include being the first color handheld, with a backlit display, a switchable right-handed/left-handed (upside down) configuration, and the ability to network with up to 15 other units via its Comlynx system (though most games would network eight or fewer players). Comlynx was originally developed to run over infrared links (and was codenamed RedEye). This was changed to a cable-based networking system before the final release. According to Peter Engelbrite, when players walked through the beam, the link would be interrupted. The maximum stable connection allowed was eight players. Engelbrite also developed the first recordable eight-player co-op game, and the only eight-player game for the Atari Lynx, \"Todd's Adventures in Slime World\", using the Comlynx system. Each Lynx needed a copy of the game, and one cable could connect two machines. The cables could be connected into a chain. The Lynx was cited as the \"first gaming console with hardware support for zooming and distortion of sprites\". Featuring a 4096 color palette and integrated math and graphics co-processors (including a blitter unit), its pseudo-3D color graphics display was said to be the key defining feature in the system's competition against Nintendo's monochromatic Game Boy. The fast pseudo-3D graphics features were made possible on a minimal hardware system by co-designer Dave Needle having \"invented the technique for planar expansion/shrinking capability\" and using stretched, textured, triangles instead of full polygons.", "The game system was reviewed in 1990 in \"Dragon\", which gave the Lynx 5 out of 5 stars. The review states that the Lynx \"throws the into the prehistoric age\", and praises the built-in object scaling capabilities, the multiplayer feature of the ComLynx cable, and the strong set of launch games. The infrequency of Lynx software releases and the system's minimal marketing budget have been cited as the main factors in its commercial failure.", "Telegames released a number of games in the second half of the 1990s, including a port of \"Raiden\" and a platformer called \"Fat Bobby\" in 1997, as well as an action sports game called \"Hyperdrome\" in 1999. In 1999, Hasbro, which would continue to hold on to the Atari properties until 2000, released all development rights on the Lynx, as well as all patents relating to the Jaguar, into the public domain, and thus the two platforms were declared open to everyone. In 2008, Atari was honored at the 59th Annual Technology & Engineering Emmy Awards for pioneering the development of handheld games with its Lynx game unit. Lynx games by independent developers include \"T-Tris\" (the first Lynx game with save-game feature), \"Alpine Games\", and \"Zaku\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Name of the lower portion.", "Geography.", "History." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The name of the river comes from a Proto-Indo-European root \"*nr\" primarily associated with \"water\" (compare Neretva, Neris, Ner and Nur) or from a Lithuanian language verb \"nerti\" primarily associated with \"dive\" and \"flood\".", "The portion of the river between the junctions with the Western Bug and the Vistula is also known as the Bugonarew, Narwio-Bug, Narwo-Bug, Bugo-Narew, Narwiobug or Narwobug. At the confluence near Zegrze the Bug is 1.6x longer, drains a 1.4x larger basin, and has a slightly higher average discharge (158 m3/s at Wyszków vs 146 m3/s at Pułtusk for the Narew, both ~25 km above the junction). Thus the Bugonarew was often considered part of the Bug river and the Narew a right tributary. On December 27, 1962, Prime Minister Józef Cyrankiewicz abolished the name \"Bugonarew\" soon after the Zegrze Reservoir had been constructed. Since then the river is officially part of the Narew, and the Bug became a left tributary. The name Bugonarew however is continued to be used, especially by the inhabitants of local towns, such as Pułtusk.", "The Narew flows through the geographical region of Europe known as the \"Wysoczyzny Podlasko – Bialoruskie\" (English: Podlasie and Belarus Plateau) located within the Podlaskie Voivodeship and Masovian Voivodeship of Poland and the Hrodna Voblast of Belarus. The Narew is the fifth longest Polish river.", "On August 23, 1939, the Soviet Union and Germany signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, agreeing to divide Poland along the Narew, Vistula (Wisła), and San rivers. On September 6, 1939, Polish military forces attempted to use the Narew as a defense line against German attack during the German invasion of Poland. This was abandoned the next day in favor of the Bug as German forces had already penetrated the defenses. The Battle of Wizna was fought along the banks of the river between September 7 and September 10, 1939, between the forces of Poland and Germany during the initial stages of Invasion of Poland. Because it consisted of a small force holding a piece of fortified territory against a vastly larger invasion for three days at great cost before being annihilated with no known survivors, Wizna is sometimes referred to as a Polish Thermopylae in Polish culture. On September 17, 1939, the Soviet Union invaded Poland. By 28 September, the Soviet Army had reached the line of the rivers Narew, Bug River, Vistula and San – completing the division of Poland as negotiated in advance." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Origin and early youth.", "College days.", "Love affairs.", "Military service.", "Betrothal, marriage and family life.", "Child mortality.", "Travels of a transferee.", "Eichendorff as civil servant.", "Death and burial.", "Growth of a Romanticist.", "Artistic influences.", "Eichendorff’s poetical style.", "Range.", "Naturalness and artificiality.", "Emblematic imagery.", "Main motifs.", "Religiosity.", "Eichendorff’s own résumé.", "Legacy.", "Set into music." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Eichendorff, a descendant of an old noble family, was born in 1788 at Schloß Lubowitz near Ratibor (now Racibórz, Poland) in Upper Silesia, at that time part of the Kingdom of Prussia. His parents were the Prussian officer Adolf Freiherr von Eichendorff (1756-1818) and his wife, Karoline née Freiin von Kloche (1766-1822), who came from an aristocratic Roman Catholic family. Eichendorff sold the family estates in Deutsch-Krawarn, Kauthen, and Wrbkau and acquired Lubowitz Castle from his mother-in-law. The castle's Rococo reconstruction, which was begun by her, was very expensive and almost bankrupted the family. Young Joseph was close to his older brother Wilhelm (1786-1849). From 1793-1801 they were home-schooled by tutor Bernhard Heinke. Joseph began writing diaries as early as 1798, witnesses to his budding literary career. The diaries present many insights into the development of the young writer, ranging from simple statements about the weather to notes about finances to early poems. At a young age, Eichendorff was already well aware of his parents' financial straits. On 19 June 1801, the thirteen-year old noted in his diary: \"Father travelled to Breslau, on the run from his creditors,\" adding on 24 June, \"mom become terribly faint.\" With his brother Wilhelm, Joseph attended the Catholic Matthias Gymnasium in Breslau (1801-1804). While previously preferring chapbooks, he was now introduced to the poetry of Matthias Claudius and Voltaire's \"La Henriade\", an epic poem about the last part of the wars of religion and Henry IV of France in ten songs. In 1804 his sister Luise Antonie Nepomucene Johanna was born (died 1883), who was to become a friend of Austrian writer Adalbert Stifter. After their final exams, both brothers attended lectures at the University of Breslau and the Protestant Maria-Magdalena-Gymnasium. Eichendorff's diary from this time shows that he valued formal education much less than the theatre, recording 126 plays and concerts visited. His love for Mozart also goes back to these days. Joseph himself seems to have been a talented actor and his brother Wilhelm a good singer and guitar player.", "Together with his brother Wilhelm, Joseph studied law and the humanities in Halle an der Saale (1805–1806), a city near Jena, which was a focal point of the \"Frühromantik\" (Early Romantics). The brothers frequently attended the theatre of Lauchstädt, 13 km where the Weimar court theatrical company performed plays by Goethe. In October 1806 Napoleon's troops took Halle and teaching at the university ceased. To complete their studies, Wilhelm and Joseph went to the University of Heidelberg in 1807, another important centre of Romanticism. Here Eichendorff befriended romantic poet Otto Heinrich von Loeben (1786-1825), met Achim von Arnim (1781-1831) and possibly Clemens Brentano (1778-1842). In Heidelberg, Eichendorff heard lectures by Joseph Görres, a leading member of the Heidelberg Romantic group, a \"hermitic magician\" and \"formative impression\", as Eichendorff later explained. In 1808 the brothers finished their degrees, after which they undertook an educational journey to Paris, Vienna, and Berlin. In Berlin they came into closer contact with Romantic writers such as Clemens Brentano, Adam Müller, and Heinrich von Kleist. In order to further their professional prospects, they travelled to Vienna in 1810, where they concluded their studies with a state examination diploma. Wilhelm procured employment in the Austrian civil service, while Joseph went back home to help his father with managing the estate.", "From Eichendorff's diaries we know about his love for a girl, Amalie Schaffner, and another love affair in 1807-08 during his student days in Heidelberg with one Käthchen Förster. His deep sorrow about the unrequitted love for the nineteen-year-old daughter of a cellarman inspired Eichendorff to one of his most famous poems, \"Das zerbrochene Ringlein\" (\"The Broken Ring\").", "In his deep desperation over this unhappy infatuation, Eichendorff craved death in military exploits as mentioned in his poem Das zerbrochene Ringlein: Although Chase's translation weakens the second line from \"blut’ge Schlacht\" (\"bloody battle\") to \"\"in fight\"\" this, actually, happens to be much closer to the historical truth, since Eichendorff's participation in the Lützow Free Corps seems to be a myth - in spite of some authorities asserting the contrary. In 1813, when conflict flared up again, Eichendorff tried to join the struggle against Napoleon, however he lacked the funds to purchase a uniform, gun, or horse, and, when he finally managed to get the money necessary, the war was all but over.", "His parents, in order to save the indebted family estate, hoped that Eichendorff would marry a wealthy heiress, however he fell in love with Aloysia von Larisch (1792-1855), called ‚Luise’, the seventeen-year-old daughter of a prominent, yet impoverished Catholic family of nobles. The betrothal took place in 1809, the same year Eichendorff went to Berlin to take up a profession there. In 1815, the couple was married in Breslau's St. Vinzenz church and that same year Eichendorff's son Hermann was born, followed in 1819 by their daughter Therese. In 1818, Eichendorff's father died and in 1822 his mother. The death of his mother resulted in the final loss of all the family's estates in Silesia.", "During the period, infant mortality was very high. Both Eichendorff's brother Gustav (born 1800) and his sister Louise Antonie (born 1799) died in 1803 at a very young age, as did two of Eichendorff's daughters between 1822 and 1832. The poet expressed the parental sorrow after this loss in the famous cycle \"Auf meines Kindes Tod\". One of the poems in this series conveys an especially powerful sense of loss in this era:", "With his literary figure of the \"Good-for-Nothing\" Eichendorff created \"the\" paradigm of the wanderer. The motif itself had been central to romanticism since Wilhelm Heinrich Wackenroder and Ludwig Tieck undertook their famous \"Pfingstwanderung\" (Whitsun excursion) in the Fichtelgebirge in 1793, an event that began the Romantic movement. Travels through Germany, Austria, and France rounded off Eichendorff's education, however, he himself was not much of a hiker. Apart from some extensive marches on foot during his school and college days (for example from Halle to Leipzig, in order to see popular actor Iffland), he only undertook one lengthy tour, traversing for seventeen days the Harz mountains with his brother in 1805, a trip partly undertaken using the stagecoach, as witnessed by his diary. Eichendorff was less of a romantic wanderer, but rather displaced again and again by changes of location necessitated by his official activities. The following trips, mainly undertaken by coach or boat, are documented:", "Eichendorff worked in various capacities as Prussian government administrator. His career began in 1816 as unpaid clerk in Breslau. In November 1819, he was appointed assessor and in 1820 consistorial councilor for West and East Prussia in Danzig, with an initial annual salary of 1200 thalers. In April 1824, Eichendorff was relocated to Königsberg as \"Oberpräsidialrat\" (chief administrator) with an annual salary of 1600 thalers. In 1821, Eichendorff was appointed school inspector and, in 1824, \"Oberpräsidialrat\" in Königsberg. In 1831, he moved his family to Berlin, where he worked as Privy Councilor for the Foreign Ministry until his retirement in 1844.", "Eichendorff's brother Wilhelm died in 1849 in Innsbruck. That same year, there was a Republican uprising and the Eichendorff's fled to Meißen and Köthen, where a little house was purchased for his daughter Therese (now a von Besserer-Dahlfingen) in 1854. In 1855, he was much affected by the death of his wife. In September he traveled to Sedlnitz for the christening of his grandchild. Shortly after he made his very last trip, dying of pneumonia on 26 November 1857 in Neiße. He was buried the next day with his wife.", "", "The two writers who had the greatest early influence on Eichendorff's artistic development were Friedrich Schlegel, who established the term \"romantisch\" (romantic) in German literature, and Joseph Görres. While the writers who gathered around Schlegel inclined more to philosophy and aesthetic theory, the adherents of Görres became mainly known as writers of poetry and stories. Both movements, however, greatly influenced intellectual life in Germany by emphasising the individual, the subjective, the irrational, the imaginative, the personal, the spontaneous, the emotional, the visionary, and the transcendental over classical precepts. One of their fundamental ideas was the \"unity of poetry and life\". Eichendorff shared Schlegel's view that the world was a naturally and eternally \"self-forming artwork\", Eichendorff himself used the metaphor that \"nature [was] a great picture book, which the good Lord has pitched for us outside.\" Arnim's and Brentano's studies and interpretations of the \"Volkslied\" (folk song) deeply influenced Eichendorff's own poetry and poetology. Arnim's and Brentano's anthology \"Des Knaben Wunderhorn: Alte deutsche Lieder\", a collection of songs about love, soldiers, wandering, as well as children's songs, was an important source for the Romantic movement. Similar to other early 19th-century anthologists such as Thomas Percy, Arnim and Brentano edited and rewrote the poems in they collected. \"Everything in the world happens because of poetry, to live life with an increased sense and history is the expression of this general poetry of the human race, the fate performs this great spectacle,\" is what Arnim said in a letter to Brentano (9 July 1802).", "", "Although Eichendorffs poetry includes many metric forms ranging from very simple elegiac couplets and stanzas to sonnets, his main artistic focus was on poems imitating folk songs. A comparison of forms shows that Eichendorff's \"lyricism\" is \"directly influenced by Brentano and Arnim\".", "Following the model of \"Des Knaben Wunderhorn\", Eichendorff uses simple words ('naturalness'), adding more meaning ('artificiality') than dictionary definitions would indicate. In this sense, \"His words are rich in connotative power, in imaginative appeal and in sound.\"", "Certain expressions and formulas used by Eichendorff, which are sometimes characterised by critics as pure cliché, actually represent a conscious reduction in favour of emblematics. In Görres’ poetology \"nature is speaking\" us. But before it can happen, the wonderful song sleeping in each thing must be woken up by the poet's word: One notable example used by Eichendorff is the \"Zauberwort\" (magic word) - and one of Eichendorff's most celebrated poems, the four-line stanza \"Wünschelrute\" (divining rod), is about finding such a \"Zauberwort\":", "The titles of Eichendorff’s poems show that, besides the motif of wandering, the two other main motifs of his poetry were the passing of time (transience) and nostalgia. Time, for Eichendorff, is not just a natural phenomenon but, as Marcin Worbs elaborated: \"Each day and each of our nights has a metaphysical dimension.\" The morning, on the other hand, evokes the impression that \"all nature had been created just in this very moment,\" while the evening often acts as a \"mysterium mortis\" with the persona poderiung on transience and death. Eichendorff's other main motif, nostalgia, is described by some critic as a phenomenon of infinity. However, there is a number of different interpretations. According to Helmut Illbruck: The \"simple-minded Taugenichts (...) feels continually homesick and can never come to rest.\" Katja Löhr distinguishes between nostalgia as an emotion consisting of two components — longing and melancholy: \"The inner emotion of longing is to long for, the inner emotion of melancholy is to mourn. As an expression of deep reflection, longing corresponds with intuition (\"Ahnen\"), grieving with memory.\" Theodor W. Adorno, who set out to rescue Eichendorff from his misled conservative admirers, attested: \"He was not a poet of the homeland, but rather a poet of homesickness\". In sharp contrast, Natias Neutert saw in Eichendorff's nostalgia a dialectical unity of an \"unstable equilibrium of homesickness and wanderlust at once\".", "For a long time it had been argued that Eichendorff's view of Romanticism had been subordinate to religious beliefs. More recently, however, Christoph Hollender has pointed that Eichendorff's late religious and political writings were commissioned works, while his poetry represents a highly personal perspective.", "Eichendorff summed up the Romantic epoch stating that it \"soared like a magnificent rocket sparkling up into the sky, and after shortly and wonderfully lighting up the night, it exploded overhead into a thousand colorful stars.\"", "\"While other authors (such as Ludwig Tieck, Caroline de la Motte Fouqué, Clemens Brentano and Bettina von Arnim) adapted the themes and styles of their writing to the emerging realism, Eichendorff \"stayed true to the emblematic universe of his literary Romanticism right through to the 1850s,\" Adorno stated: \"Unconsciously Eichendorff’s unleashed romanticism leads right up to the threshold of modernism\".", "With approximately 5000 musical settings, Eichendorff is the most popular German poet set into music.\"The magical, enchanting lyricism of his poetry almost seems to be music itself,\" as it is praised. His poems have been set to music by many composers, including Schumann, Mendelssohn, Johannes Brahms, Hugo Wolf, Richard Strauss, Hans Pfitzner, Hermann Zilcher, Alexander Zemlinsky, Max Reger, and even Friedrich Nietzsche. His poems also inspired orchestral music, such as Reger's \"Eine romantische Suite\" as well as electronic arrangements by Qntal. Institut für Germanistik, D-93040 Regensburg" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "Consolidated Aircraft (and later Convair) had their headquarters in San Diego, California, on the border of Lindbergh Field (KSAN). Consolidated's first design was one of those purchased by Fleet from Dayton-Wright, the TW-3 primary trainer, sold to the U.S. Army as the PT-1 Trusty. In September 1924 the company moved from the Gallaudet plant in Connecticut to new facilities in Buffalo, New York, and in the same year won a U.S. Navy contract for a naval version of the PT-1 designated the NY-1. In September 1935 Consolidated moved across the country to its new \"Building 1\", a continuous flow factory in San Diego, California. The first production PBY Catalina was launched in San Diego Bay in 1936, and the first XPB2Y-1 Coronado test aircraft made its first flight in 1937. Consolidated vice president Edgar Gott was responsible for securing the company's contract to design and build the B-24 Liberator bomber. The XB-24 Liberator prototype made its first flight in December 1939, and the first production order was from the French in 1940, just days before their surrender to Germany; six of these YB-24 Liberators were designated LB-30A and ferried to Britain. By the fall of 1941, Consolidated was San Diego's largest employer with 25,000 employees, which eventually expanded to 45,000 by the following year. In November 1941, Fleet sold his 34.26% interest in Consolidated for $10.9 million to Victor Emanuel, the president of AVCO, with the idea that Consolidated would be merged with AVCO's Vultee subsidiary. In 1943, Consolidated merged with Vultee Aircraft to form Consolidated-Vultee Aircraft or Convair. In March 1953, General Dynamics purchased a majority interest in Convair, where it continued to produce aircraft or aircraft components until being sold to McDonnell Douglas in 1994. McDonnell Douglas shut down the division after just two years of operations in 1996." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Genealogy.", "Counterparts.", "Initiatory dance.", "Ecstatics.", "Other functions." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The name Korybantes is of uncertain etymology. Edzard Johan Furnée and R. S. P. Beekes have suggested a Pre-Greek origin. Others refer the name to *κορυβή (\"korybé\"), the Macedonian version of κορυφή (\"koryphé\") \"crown, top, mountain peak\", explaining their association with mountains, particularly Olympus.", "The Korybantes were the offspring of Apollo and Muse Thalia or Rhytia (Rhetia). One account attests the parentage to Zeus and Muse Calliope.", "The Kuretes or Kouretes () were nine dancers who venerate Rhea, the Cretan counterpart of Cybele. A fragment from Strabo's Book VII gives a sense of the roughly analogous character of these male confraternities, and the confusion rampant among those not initiated: Many assert that the gods worshipped in Samothrace as well as the Kurbantes and the Korybantes and in like manner the Kouretes and the Idaean Daktyls are the same as the Kabeiroi, but as to the Kabeiroi they are unable to tell who they are.", "These armored male dancers kept time to a drum and the rhythmic stamping of their feet. Dance, according to Greek thought, was one of the civilizing activities, like wine-making or music. The dance in armor (the \"Pyrrhic dance\" or pyrrhichios [Πυρρίχη]) was a male coming-of-age initiation ritual linked to a warrior victory celebration. Both Jane Ellen Harrison and the French classicist Henri Jeanmaire have shown that both the Kouretes (Κουρῆτες) and Cretan Zeus, who was called \"the greatest \"kouros\" (κοῦρος)\", were intimately connected with the transition of boys into manhood in Cretan cities. The English \"Pyrrhic Dance\" is a corruption of the original \"Pyrríkhē\" or the \"Pyrríkhios Khorós\" \"Pyrrhichian Dance\". It has no relationship with the king Pyrrhus of Epirus, who invaded Italy in the 3rd century BC, and who gave his name to the Pyrrhic victory, which was achieved at such cost that it was tantamount to a defeat.", "The Phrygian Korybantes were often confused by Greeks with other ecstatic male confraternities, such as the Idaean Dactyls or the Cretan Kouretes, spirit-youths (\"kouroi\") who acted as guardians of the infant Zeus. In Hesiod's telling of Zeus's birth, when Great Gaia came to Crete and hid the child Zeus in a \"steep cave\", beneath the secret places of the earth, on Mount Aigaion with its thick forests; there the Cretan Kouretes' ritual clashing spears and shields were interpreted by Hellenes as intended to drown out the infant god's cries, and prevent his discovery by his cannibal father Cronus. Emily Vermeule observed, This myth is Greek interpretation of mystifying Minoan ritual in an attempt to reconcile their Father Zeus with the Divine Child of Crete; the ritual itself we may never recover with clarity, but it is not impossible that a connection exists between the Kouretes' weapons at the cave and the dedicated weapons at Arkalochori\". Among the offerings recovered from the cave, the most spectacular are decorated bronze shields with patterns that draw upon north Syrian originals and a bronze gong on which a god and his attendants are shown in a distinctly Near Eastern style. Korybantes also presided over the infancy of Dionysus, another god who was born as a babe, and of Zagreus, a Cretan child of Zeus, or child-doublet of Zeus. The wild ecstasy of their cult can be compared to the female Maenads who followed Dionysus. Ovid, in \"Metamorphoses\", says the Kouretes were born from rainwater (Uranus fertilizing Gaia). This suggests a connection with the Hyades.", "The scholar Jane Ellen Harrison writes that besides being guardians, nurturers, and initiators of the infant Zeus, the Kouretes were primitive magicians and seers. She also writes that they were metal workers and that metallurgy was considered an almost magical art. There were several \"tribes\" of Korybantes, including the Cabeiri, the Korybantes Euboioi, the Korybantes Samothrakioi. Hoplodamos and his Gigantes were counted among Korybantes, and Titan Anytos was considered a Kourete. Homer referred to select young men as \"kouretes\", when Agamemnon instructs Odysseus to pick out \"kouretes\", the bravest among the Achaeans to bear gifts to Achilles. The Greeks preserved a tradition down to Strabo's day, that the Kuretes of Aetolia and Acarnania in mainland Greece had been imported from Crete." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "In mythology and philosophy.", "Socrates.", "Plato and Proclus.", "Categories." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Daemons are benevolent or benign nature spirits, beings of the same nature as both mortals and deities, similar to ghosts, chthonic heroes, spirit guides, forces of nature, or the deities themselves (see Plato's \"Symposium\"). According to Hesiod's myth, \"great and powerful figures were to be honoured after death as a daimon...\" A \"daimon\" is not so much a type of quasi-divine being, according to Burkert, but rather a non-personified \"peculiar mode\" of their activity. In Hesiod's \"Theogony\", Phaëton becomes an incorporeal \"daimon\" or a divine spirit, but, for example, the ills released by Pandora are deadly deities, \"keres\", not \"daimones\". From Hesiod also, the people of the Golden Age were transformed into \"daimones\" by the will of Zeus, to serve mortals benevolently as their guardian spirits; \"good beings who dispense riches...[nevertheless], they remain invisible, known only by their acts\". The \"daimones\" of venerated heroes were localized by the construction of shrines, so as not to wander restlessly, and were believed to confer protection and good fortune on those offering their respects. One tradition of Greek thought, which found agreement in the mind of Plato, was of a daimon which existed within a person from their birth, and that each individual was obtained by a singular daimon prior to their birth by way of lot. In the Old Testament, evil spirits appear in the book of Judges and in Kings. In the Septuagint, made for the Greek-speaking Jews of Alexandria, the Greek \"ángelos\" (ἄγγελος \"messenger\") translates the Hebrew word \"mal'ak\", while \"daimónion\" (δαιμόνιον; pl. \"daimónia\" (δαιμόνια)), which carries the meaning of a natural spirit that is less than divine (see supernatural), translates the Hebrew word \"shedim\" as well as the word \"se'irim\" in some verses and words for idols (foreign deities), and describes the being Asmodeus in the Book of Tobit. The use of \"daimōn\" in the New Testament's original Greek text caused the Greek word to be applied to the Judeo-Christian concept of an evil spirit by the early second century AD.", "Homer's use of the words \"theoí\" (θεοί \"gods\") and \"daímones\" (δαίμονες) suggests that, while distinct, they are similar in kind. Later writers developed the distinction between the two. Plato in \"Cratylus\" speculates that the word \"daimōn\" (δαίμων \"deity\") is synonymous to \"daēmōn\" (δαήμων \"knowing or wise\"), however, it is more probably \"daiō\" (δαίω \"to divide, to distribute destinies, to allot\").", "In Plato's Symposium, the priestess Diotima teaches Socrates that love is not a deity, but rather a \"great daemon\" (202d). She goes on to explain that \"everything daemonic is between divine and mortal\" (202d–e), and she describes daemons as \"interpreting and transporting human things to the gods and divine things to men; entreaties and sacrifices from below, and ordinances and requitals from above...\" (202e). In Plato's \"Apology of Socrates\", Socrates claimed to have a \"daimonion\" (literally, a \"divine something\") that frequently warned him—in the form of a \"voice\"—against mistakes but never told him what to do. The Platonic Socrates, however, never refers to the \"daimonion\" as a \"daimōn\"; it was always referred to as an impersonal \"something\" or \"sign\". By this term he seems to indicate the true nature of the human soul, his newfound self-consciousness. Paul Shorey sees the \"daimonion\" not as an inspiration but as \"a kind of \"spiritual tact\" checking Socrates from any act opposed to his true moral and intellectual interests.\" Regarding the charge brought against Socrates in 399, Plato surmised \"Socrates does wrong because he does not believe in the gods in whom the city believes, but introduces other daemonic beings...\" Burkert notes that \"a special being watches over each individual, a \"daimon\" who has obtained the person at his birth by lot, is an idea which we find in Plato, undoubtedly from earlier tradition. The famous, paradoxical saying of Heraclitus is already directed against such a view: 'character is for man his daimon'\".", "In the ancient Greek religion, daimon designates not a specific class of divine beings, but a peculiar mode of activity: it is an occult power that drives humans forward or acts against them. Since daimon is the veiled countenance of divine activity, every deity can act as daimon. A special knowledge of daimones is claimed by Pythagoreans, whereas for Plato, daimon is a spiritual being who watches over each individual, and is tantamount to a higher self, or an angel. While Plato is called ‘divine’ by Neoplatonists, Aristotle is regarded as daimonios, meaning ‘an intermediary to deities' – therefore Aristotle stands to Plato as an angel to a deity. For Proclus, daimones are the intermediary beings located between the celestial objects and the terrestrial inhabitants.", "The Hellenistic Greeks divided daemons into good and evil categories: \"agathodaímōn\" (ἀγαθοδαίμων \"noble spirit\"), from \"agathós\" (ἀγαθός \"good, brave, noble, moral, lucky, useful\"), and \"kakodaímōn\" (κακοδαίμων \"malevolent spirit\"), from \"kakós\" (κακός \"bad, evil\"). They resemble the Arabic jinni (or genie), and in their humble efforts to help mediate the good and ill fortunes of human life, they resemble the Christian guardian angel and adversarial demon, respectively. \"Eudaimonia\" (εὐδαιμονία) came to mean \"well-being\" or \"happiness\". The comparable Roman concept is the \"genius\" who accompanies and protects a person or presides over a place (see \"genius loci\"). A distorted view of Homer's daemon results from an anachronistic reading in light of later characterizations by Plato and Xenocrates, his successor as head of the Academy, of the daemon as a potentially dangerous lesser spirit: Burkert states that in the \"Symposium\", Plato has \"laid the foundation\" that would make it all but impossible to imagine the \"daimon\" in any other way with Eros, who is neither god nor mortal but a mediator in between, and his metaphysical doctrine of an <poem>incorporeal, pure actuality, \"energeia\"... identical to its performance: ‘thinking of thinking’, \"noesis noeseos\" is the most blessed existence, the highest origin of everything. ‘This is the god. On such a principle heaven depends, and the cosmos.’ The highest, the best is one; but for the movement of the planets a plurality of unmoved movers must further be assumed. In the monotheism of the mind, philosophical speculation has reached an end-point. That even this is a self-projection of a human, of the thinking philosopher, was not reflected on in ancient philosophy. In Plato there is an incipient tendency toward the apotheosis of \"nous\".... He needs a closeness and availability of the divine that is offered neither by the stars nor by metaphysical principles. Here a name emerged to fill the gap, a name which had always designated the incomprehensible yet present activity of a higher power, \"daimon\".</poem> Daemons scarcely figure in Greek mythology or Greek art: they are felt, but their unseen presence can only be presumed, with the exception of the \"agathodaemon\", honored first with a libation in ceremonial wine-drinking, especially at the sanctuary of Dionysus, and represented in iconography by the chthonic serpent. Burkert suggests that, for Plato, theology rests on two Forms: the Good and the Simple; which \"Xenocrates unequivocally called the unity god\" in sharp contrast to the poet's gods of epic and tragedy. Although much like the deities, these figures were not always depicted without considerable moral ambiguity: <poem>\"On this account, the other traditional notion of the daemon as related to the souls of the dead is elided in favour of a spatial scenario which evidently also graduated in moral terms; though [Plato] says nothing of that here, it is a necessary inference from her account, just as Eros is midway between deficiency and plenitude.... Indeed, Xenocrates... explicitly understood \"daemones\" as ranged along a scale from good to bad.... [Plutarch] speaks of ‘great and strong beings in the atmosphere, malevolent and morose, who rejoice in [unlucky days, religious festivals involving violence against the self, etc.], and after gaining them as their lot, they turn to nothing worse.’... The use of such malign daemones by human beings seems not to be even remotely imagined here: Xenocrates' intention was to provide an explanation for the sheer variety of polytheistic religious worship; but it is the potential for moral descrimination offered by the notion of \"daemones\" which later... became one further means of conceptualizing what distinguishes dominated practice from civic religion, and furthering the transformation of that practice into intentional profanation... Quite when the point was first made remains unanswerable. Much the same thought as [Plato's] is to be found in an explicitly Pythagorean context of probably late Hellenistic composition, the \"Pythagorean Commentaries\", which evidently draws on older popular representations: ‘The whole air is full of souls. We call them \"daemones\" and heroes, and it is they who send dreams, signs and illnesses to men; and not only men, but also to sheep and other domestic animals. It is towards these \"daemones\" that we direct purifications and apotropaic rites, all kinds of divination, the art of reading chance utterances, and so on.’... This account differs from that of the early Academy in reaching back to the other, Archaic, view of \"daemones\" as souls, and thus anticipates the views of Plutarch and Apuleius in the Principate... It clearly implies that \"daemones\" can cause illness to livestock: this traditional dominated view has now reached the intellectuals\".</poem> In the Hellenistic ruler cult that began with Alexander the Great, it was not the ruler, but his guiding \"daemon\" that was venerated. In the Archaic or early Classical period, the \"daimon\" had been democratized and internalized for each person, whom it served to guide, motivate, and inspire, as one possessed of such good spirits. Similarly, the first-century Roman imperial cult began by venerating the \"genius\" or \"numen\" of Augustus, a distinction that blurred in time." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Development.", "Origins.", "Prototype and design revision.", "Production.", "Further development.", "Design.", "Operational history.", "Variants.", "Total built.", "Aircraft on display." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "In October 1932, the British Air Ministry invited Vickers to tender for the recently issued Specification B.9/32, which sought a twin-engine medium daylight bomber. In response, Vickers conducted a design study, led by Chief Designer Rex Pierson Early on, Vickers' chief structures designer Barnes Wallis proposed the use of a geodesic airframe, inspired by his previous work on airships and the single-engined Wellesley light bomber. During structural testing performed at the Royal Aircraft Establishment, Farnborough, the proposed structure demonstrated not only the required strength factor of six, but reached 11 without any sign of failure, proving the geodesic airframe to possess a strength far in excess of normal levels. This strength allowed for the structure design to be further developed to reduce the size of individual members and adopt simplified standard sections of lighter construction. Vickers studied and compared the performance of various air- and liquid-cooled engines to power the bomber, including the Bristol Pegasus IS2, Pegasus IIS2, and Armstrong Siddeley Tiger radials, and the Rolls-Royce Goshawk I inline. The Pegasus was selected as the engine for air-cooled versions of the bomber, while the Goshawk engine was chosen for the liquid-cooled engine variant. On 28 February 1933, two versions of the aircraft, one with each of the selected powerplants, were submitted to the tender. In September 1933, the Air Ministry issued a pilot contract for the Goshawk-powered version. In August 1934, Vickers proposed to use either the Pegasus or the sleeve-valve Bristol Perseus engines instead of the evaporative-cooled Goshawk, which promised improvements in speed, climb rate, ceiling, and single-engine flight capabilities without any major increase in all-up weight; the Air Ministry accepted the proposed changes. Other refinements of the design had also been implemented and approved, such as the adoption of variable-pitch propellers, and the use of Vickers-produced gun turrets in the nose and tail positions. By December 1936, the specification had been revised to include front, rear, and midship wind-protected turret mountings. Other specification changes included modified bomb undershields and the inclusion of spring-loaded bomb bay doors. The proposal had also been developed further, a mid-wing arrangement was adopted instead of a shoulder-mounted wing for greater pilot visibility during formation flight and improved aerodynamic performance, as well as a substantially increased overall weight of the aircraft. Design studies were also conducted on behalf of the Air Ministry into the adoption of the Rolls-Royce Merlin engine. In spite of a traditional preference of the establishment to strictly adhere to the restrictive tare weight for the aircraft established in the tender, both Pierson and Wallis firmly believed that their design should adopt the most powerful engine available. Perhaps in response to pressure from Vickers, the Air Ministry overlooked, if not openly accepted, the removal of the tare weight restriction, as between the submission of the tender in 1933 and the flight of the first prototype in 1936, the tare weight eventually rose from to. The prescribed bomb load and range requirements were routinely revised upwards by the Air Ministry; by November 1935, figures within the Ministry were interested in the possibility of operating the aircraft at an all-up weight of, which aviation author C.F. Andrews stated to be \"a very high figure for a medium bomber of those days\". During the development phase of the aircraft, \"the political and military climate of Europe was changing rapidly. The threats of the dictators of Germany and Italy began to exert pressure on the British Government to make a reappraisal of the strength of its armed forces, especially that of the Royal Air Force\". By 1936, the need for a high priority to be placed on the creation of a large bomber force, which would form the spearhead of British offensive power, had been recognised; accordingly, a new command organisation within the RAF, Bomber Command, was formed that year to deliver upon this requirement.", "In early 1936, an initial prototype, \"K4049\", which was originally designated as a \"Type 271\", was assembled. The prototype could accommodate a payload of nine 250lb or 500lb bombs, and both nose and tail gun positions were fitted with hand-operated turrets furnished with a single gun in each, provisions for a third retractable gun in a dorsal position were also present. It had provisions for a crew of four, along with a fifth position for performing special duties. On 5 June 1936, the name \"Crecy\" was initially chosen for the type, and it was publicly displayed as such. On 15 August 1936, the aircraft was accepted for production. On 8 September 1936, the name \"Wellington\" was adopted for the type; it fitted with Air Ministry nomenclature of naming bombers after towns and also followed on from the Vickers Wellesley in referring to the Napoleonic War general Arthur Wellesley, the Duke of Wellington. On 12 December 1936, a corresponding works order was issued for the Wellington. On 15 June 1936, \"K4049\" conducted its maiden flight from Brooklands. Vickers chief test pilot Joseph Summers flew \"K4049\" on its first flight, accompanied by Wallis and Trevor Westbrook. The aircraft soon came to be largely regarded as being an advanced design for its era and proved to have considerable merit during its flight trials. On 19 April 1937, \"K4049\" was destroyed by an accident during a service test flight by Maurice Hare. The cause was the failure of the elevator's horn balance due to excessive slipstream exposure, leading to the aircraft inverting and rapidly descending into terrain. It was completely destroyed in the crash, which also resulted in the death of Smurthwaite the navigator. The horn balances would later be deleted, and thus not feature on production aircraft. In addition to the prototype, refinement of the Wellington's design was influenced by the issuing of Specifications B.3/34 and B.1/35, the latter of which had led to the parallel development of a larger bomber aircraft, the Vickers Warwick. According to Andrews, the Wellington was practically redesigned to form the first production model of the aircraft, during which extensive details attributed to the Warwick were added, such as the deepening of the fuselage, the lengthening of the nose, a reshaped horizontal tail unit, and an increased crew complement for four to five members. Other changes made included the adoption of a retractable tailwheel and constant-speed propellers; the Air Ministry also requested the adoption of a Nash & Thompson-design ventral turret in place of the Vickers design. On 23 December 1937, the first production \"Wellington Mk I\", \"L4212\", conducted its first flight; \"L4212\" subsequently participated in an intensive flight programme. Flight trials with \"L4212\" confirmed the aerodynamic stability initially encountered by \"K4049\", but also revealed the aircraft to be nose-heavy during dives, which was attributed to the redesigned elevator. Accordingly, modifications, including the interlinking of the flaps and the elevator trim tabs, were successfully trialled on \"L4212\" to resolve the issue.", "In August 1936, an initial order for 180 \"Wellington Mk I\" aircraft, powered by a pair of 1,050 hp (780 kW) Bristol Pegasus radial engines, was received by Vickers; it had been placed so rapidly that the order occurred prior to the first meeting intended to decide the details of the production aircraft. In October 1937, another order for a further 100 Wellington Mk Is, produced by the Gloster Aircraft Company, was issued; it was followed by an order for 100 \"Wellington Mk II\" aircraft, which were instead powered by a pair of Rolls-Royce Merlin X V12 engines. Yet another order was placed for 64 Wellingtons produced by Armstrong Whitworth Aircraft. With this flurry of order and production having been assured by the end of 1937, Vickers set about simplifying the manufacturing process of the aircraft and announced a target of building one Wellington per day. Construction took longer to build due to the geodesic fuselage in comparison to other designs using monocoque approach, leading to criticism of the Wellington. In particular, it was difficult to cut holes in the fuselage for access or equipment fixtures; to aid manufacturing, the Leigh light was deployed through the mounting for the absent FN9 ventral turret. In the late 1930s, Vickers built Wellingtons at a rate of one per day at Weybridge and 50 a month at Broughton in North Wales. Many of the employees on the production lines were only semi-skilled and new to aircraft construction. Peak wartime production in 1942 saw monthly rates of 70 at Weybridge, 130 at Broughton and 102 at Blackpool. Shadow factories were set up to produce parts for the Wellington all over the British Isles. In October 1943, as a propaganda and morale-boosting exercise, workers at Broughton gave up their weekend to build Wellington number LN514 rushed by the clock. The bomber was assembled in 23 hours 50 minutes, and took off after 24 hours 48 minutes, beating the record of 48 hours set by a factory in California. Each Wellington was usually built within 60 hours. It was filmed for the Ministry of Information for a newsreel \"Worker's Week-End\", and was broadcast in both Britain and America. It was the first time in aviation history that an aircraft manufacturer anywhere in the world had attempted such a feat with a metal aircraft of this scale. A total of 180 Wellington Mk I aircraft were built; 150 for the RAF and 30 for the Royal New Zealand Air Force (RNZAF) (which were transferred to the RAF on the outbreak of war and used by 75 Squadron). In October 1938, the Mk I entered service with 9 Squadron. The Wellington was initially outnumbered by the Handley Page Hampden (also ordered by the Ministry to B.9/32) and the Armstrong Whitworth Whitley (to B.34/3 for a 'night' bomber) but outlasted both rival aircraft in service. The Wellington went on to be built in 16 separate variants, in addition to two training conversions after the war. The number of Wellingtons built totalled 11,462 of all versions, a greater quantity produced than any other British bomber. On 13 October 1945, the last Wellington to be produced rolled out.", "The Wellington Mk I was quickly superseded by several successive variants featuring various improvements. Improvements to the turrets and the strengthening of the undercarriage quickly resulted in the \"Wellington Mk IA\". According to Andrews, the IA model bore more similarities to the later \"Wellington Mk II\" than to its Mk I predecessor. Due to armament difficulties encountered that left the Wellington with weaker than intended defences, the \"Wellington Mk IB\" was proposed for trials, but appears to have been unbuilt. Further development of various aspects of the aircraft, such as the hydraulics and electrical systems, along with a revision of the ventral turret gun, led to the \"Wellington Mk IC\". In January 1938, design work on what would become the \"Wellington Mk II\" formally commenced. The principal change on this model was the adoption of the Merlin engine in place of the Pegasus XVIII; other modifications included hydraulic and oxygen system revisions along with the installation of cabin heating and an astrodome. On 3 March 1939, \"L4250\", the prototype Mk II, performed its maiden flight; this had been delayed due to production delays of its Merlin X engines. Stability and balance issues were encountered during flight tests of the prototype, resulting in further changes such as the enlargement of the tailplane. By late 1939, the Mk II was capable of delivering superior performance to the Mk IC, such as higher cruising and top speeds, increased all-up weight or alternatively greater range, and a raised ceiling.", "The Vickers Wellington was a twin-engined long-range medium bomber, initially powered by a pair of Bristol Pegasus radial engines, which drove a pair of de Havilland two-pitch propellers. Various different engines and propeller configurations were used on different variants of the aircraft, which included several models of both the Bristol Hercules and the iconic Rolls-Royce Merlin engines. Recognisable characteristics of the Wellington include the high aspect ratio of its tapered wing, the depth of its fuselage, and the use of a tall single vertical stabiliser on its tail unit, which reportedly aided in recognition of the type. The Wellington typically had a crew of five. The bomb-aimer was located within the aircraft's nose. The Wellington could be fitted with dual flight controls, and specialised dual-control conversion sets were developed for the purpose of performing training upon the type. The cockpit also contained provisions for heating and de-icing equipment, which was introduced on later models of the Wellington. The Wellington Mk I had a maximum offensive bomb load of, more than one-fifth of the overall aircraft's all-up weight. Additional munitions and an expanded bombing capacity were a recurring change made in many of the subsequent variants of the Wellington developed during the war, including the carrying of ever-larger bombs. Defensive armaments comprised the forward and tail turret gun positions, along with a retractable revolving ventral turret. Due to the high cruising speeds of the Wellington, it had been realised that fully enclosed turrets, as opposed to semi-enclosed or exposed turrets, would be necessary; the turrets were also power-operated in order to traverse with the speed and manoeuvrability necessary to keep up with the new generations of opposing fighter aircraft. Due to the specialised nature of increasingly advanced turrets, these were treated as ancillary equipment, being designed and supplied independently and replacing Vickers' own turrets developed for the aircraft. The turrets initially used a Nash & Thompson control unit, while each position was equipped with a pair of.303 in (7.7 mm) Browning machine guns. On many Wellington variants, the Vickers-built ventral turret of the Mk I was replaced by a Nash & Thompson-built counterpart as standard. A key innovation of the Wellington was its geodesic construction, devised by aircraft designer and inventor Barnes Wallis. The fuselage was built from 1,650 elements, consisting of duralumin W-beams which formed into a metal framework. Wooden battens were screwed to the beams and were covered with Irish linen; the linen, treated with layers of dope, formed the outer skin of the aircraft. The construction proved to be compatible with significant adaptations and alterations including greater all-up weight, larger bombs, tropicalisation, and the addition of long-range fuel tanks. The metal lattice gave the structure considerable strength, with any single stringer able to support a portion of load from the opposite side of the aircraft. Heavily damaged or destroyed beams on one side could still leave the aircraft structure viable; as a result, Wellingtons with huge areas of framework missing were often able to return home when other types would not have survived, leading to stories of the aircraft's 'invulnerability'. The effect was enhanced by the fabric skin occasionally burning off leaving the naked frames exposed. A further advantage of the geodesic construction of the wings was its enabling of a unique method for housing the fuel, with each wing containing three fuel tanks within the unobstructed space provided between the front and rear spars outboard of the engines. A disadvantage of the geodesic fuselage structure was its insufficient lengthwise stiffness: when fitted with attachment for towing cargo gliders, its structure \"gave\" and stretched slightly. So, while the airframe continued to be structurally sound, the forces in the long control runs of cables and push-pull rods to the empennage grew considerably, affecting controllability of the aeroplane. This is the reported reason why Wellingtons (and Warwicks for that matter) were not used as glider tugs.", "On 3 September 1939, the eve of the outbreak of the Second World War, No. 3 Group of Bomber Command comprised eight squadrons (No. 9, No. 37, No. 37 No. 38, No. 99, No. 115 and No. 149 Squadrons), alongside two reserve squadrons (No. 214 and No. 215 squadrons), that were equipped with a mixture of Wellington Mk I and Mk IA aircraft. On 4 September 1939, less than 24 hours after the commencement of hostility, a total of 14 Wellingtons of No. 9 and No. 149 Squadrons, alongside a number of Bristol Blenheim aircraft, performed the first RAF bombing raid of the war, targeting German shipping at Brunsbüttel. The bombing of the harbour itself had not been permitted by the Chamberlain War Cabinet for fear of injuring civilians. The effectiveness of the raid was diminished by a combination of poor weather and high amounts of anti-aircraft fire. During this opening raid, a pair of Wellingtons became the first aircraft to be lost on the Western Front. On 3 December 1939, 24 Wellingtons of No. 38, No. 115 and No. 147 Squadrons attacked the German fleet moored at Heligoland. The bombing commenced from high altitude and, while results of the bombing itself proved negligible in terms of damage, the ability of a formation of Wellingtons to adequately penetrate strongly defended hostile airspace was validated. On 14 December 1939, 12 Wellingtons of No. 99 Squadron conducted a low-level raid upon German shipping at the Schillig Roads and Wilhelmshaven. Encountering enemy fire from warships, flak, and \"Luftwaffe\" aircraft, the Wellington formation lost five aircraft, along with another that crashed near its base, while only one enemy fighter was downed. On 18 December 1939, 24 Wellingtons of No. 9, No. 37 and No. 149 Squadrons participated in the Battle of the Heligoland Bight against the German fleet and naval bases in both the Schillig Roads and Wilhelmshaven. The Wellingtons were unable to deploy their bombs as all vessels were in harbour, thus restrictions on endangering civilians prevented their engagement. Having been alerted by radar, \"Luftwaffe\" fighter aircraft intercepted the incoming bombers near to Heligoland and continuously attacked the formation much of the way home. In total, 12 of the bombers were destroyed and a further three were badly damaged. Defensive fire from the turrets downed four aircraft. The action at Heligoland highlighted the Wellington's vulnerability to attacking fighters, possessing neither self-sealing fuel tanks nor sufficient defensive armament. In particular, while the nose and tail turrets protected against attacks from the front and rear, the Wellington had no defences against attacks from the beam and above, as it had not been believed that such attacks were possible owing to the high speed of aircraft involved. As a consequence of the losses taken, the tactic of unescorted day bombing was abandoned, and Bomber Command decided to use the Wellington force to attack German communications and industrial targets instead. Another key decision made was to switch the Wellington to night operations; on 25 August 1940, the type participated in the first night raid on Berlin. During the First 1,000 bomber raid, on Cologne, conducted on 30 May 1942, 599 out of 1,046 RAF aircraft dispatched were Wellingtons; of these, 101 were flown by Polish aircrews. During operations under Bomber Command, Wellingtons flew a total of 47,409 operations, dropped 41,823 tons (37,941 tonnes) of bombs and lost 1,332 aircraft in action. In one high-profile incident, a German Messerschmitt Bf 110 night-fighter attacked a Wellington returning from an attack on Münster, causing a fire at the rear of the starboard engine. The second pilot, Sergeant James Allen Ward (RNZAF) climbed out of the fuselage, kicked holes in the doped fabric of the wing for foot and hand holds to reach the starboard engine and smothered the burning upper wing covering. He and the aircraft returned home safely and Ward was awarded the Victoria Cross. The Wellington was also adopted by Coastal Command, in which it contributed to the Battle of the Atlantic. It was used to carry out anti-submarine duties; on 6 July 1942, a Wellington sank its first enemy vessel. Specialised variants, fitted with a 48 ft (14.63 m) diameter metal hoop, were used for exploding enemy mines by generating a powerful magnetic field as it passed over them. In 1944, Wellingtons of Coastal Command were deployed to Greece and performed various support duties during the British intervention in the Greek Civil War. A few Wellingtons were operated by the Hellenic Air Force. While the Wellington was superseded in the European Theatre, it remained in operational service for much of the war in the Middle East and in 1942, Wellingtons based in India became the RAF's first long-range bomber operating in the Far East. It was particularly effective with the South African Air Force in North Africa. The Wellington also served in anti-submarine duties with 26 Squadron SAAF based in Takoradi, Gold Coast (now Ghana). In late 1944, a radar-equipped Wellington XIV from 407 Sqn. RCAF was modified for use by the RAF's Fighter Interception Unit as what would now be described as an airborne early warning and control aircraft. It operated at an altitude of over the North Sea to control a de Havilland Mosquito and a Bristol Beaufighter fighter intercepting Heinkel He 111 bombers flying from Dutch airbases and carrying out airborne launches of the V-1 flying bomb. The FIU operators on the Wellington would search for the He 111 aircraft climbing to launch altitude, then direct the Beaufighter to the bomber, while the Mosquito would attempt to intercept the V-1 if launched. The Wellington is listed in the appendix to the novel \"KG 200\" as one flown by the German secret operations unit KG 200, which also tested, evaluated and sometimes clandestinely operated captured enemy aircraft during the Second World War.", "", "A total number of 11,461 aircraft is most often quoted, notably by Andrews & Morgan (1988); however, they appear to have totalled incorrectly as, using their own data, the total is 11,462. There is some question over several individual aircraft, so the actual total may be a few either side of this figure. In combination, the Wellingtons and 846 Warwicks represent over 75% of the total number of aircraft built by the Vickers-Armstrongs company.", "There are two complete surviving Vickers Wellingtons preserved in the United Kingdom. Some other substantial parts also survive. On 15 September 2016, after having its outer wings removed the day before, N2980 was towed from the Bellman hangar in which it was restored and where it had been displayed for nearly 30 years. This move was the first time that 'R' for 'Robert' had moved on its undercarriage since its last flight in 1940. The aircraft was exhibited in a temporary building while the Bellman hangar was relocated and restored until taken off display and moved back into the latter building on 25 July 2017. The aeroplane is the centre-piece of the 'Brooklands Aircraft Factory' exhibition about the aircraft industry at Brooklands, which was formally opened on 13 November 2017. This aircraft made the last flight of a Wellington, from Aston Down to Wisley, in January 1955. The RAF Museum later refitted the front gun turret in keeping with its original build as a B.X (wartime mark numbers used Roman numerals, Arabic numerals were adopted postwar). In Autumn 2010, this aircraft was taken to the RAF Museum's site at Cosford for restoration which is currently ongoing." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Course.", "History of the region." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "\"San\" in proto-Indoeuropean languages means \"speed\" or \"rapid stream\". In Celtic languages, \"San\" means \"river\".", "The San arises in the Carpathian Mountains near the village of Sianky, at an elevation of 900 metres, exactly on the Polish-Ukrainian border () and on the continental watershed, and forms the border between Poland and Ukraine for approximately its first 50 km. Poland's largest artificial lake, Lake Solina, was created by a dam on the San River near Lesko.", "Historical records first mention the river in 1097 as \"Sanъ\", \"reku Sanъ\", \"k Sanovi\"; then as \"nad Sanomъ\" (1152) and \"Sanu\" (1287). On the old maps of the Ruthenian Voivodeship, Poland 1339–1772: \"San\" (1339), San (1372), \"Szan\" (1406), \"Sanok\" (1438), \"Saan\" (1439), \"Sayn\" (1445), \"San\" (1467), \"Szan\" (1517), \"Schan\" (1526). Humans had first settled the southeastern region of present-day Poland (the Subcarpathian Voivodeship or \"Podkarpacie\") in prehistoric times. In the pre-Roman era various tribes, including the Celts, Goths and Vandals (Przeworsk culture and Puchov culture) overran the area. After the fall of the Roman Empire, Hungarians and Slavs invaded the area. The San valley must have become an important trade-route and axis of human settlement as early as the 9th or 10th century. The region subsequently became part of the Great Moravian state. Upon the invasion of the Hungarian tribes into the heart of the Great Moravian Empire around 899, the Lendians of the area declared their allegiance to the Hungarian Empire. The region then became a site of contention between Poland, Kievan Rus and Hungary starting in around the 9th century. This area was mentioned for the first time in 981 (by Nestor), when Volodymyr the Great of Kievan Rus took the area over on his way into Poland. In 1018 it returned to Poland, in 1031 reverted to Rus, and in 1340 was recovered by Casimir III of Poland. During the years 966–1018, 1340–1772 (the Ruthenian Voivodeship) and 1918–1939, the region was part of Poland. Between 1772 and 1918 it belonged to the Austrian empire, which became the Austro-Hungarian empire when the double monarchy was introduced. This region, including the area west and east of the Subcarpathian Voivodship, was controlled by Austria for almost 120 years. During that time it was known as Galicia. The San River, which saw many battles in its history, was a battle site during the start of World War II in Europe. At the outset of the German invasion of Poland, Polish forces attempted to defend a line along the San from September 6, 1939, until German forces broke out of their bridgeheads on September 12, 1939." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early years.", "Career.", "Personal life.", "Tribute." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Ramsay was born at 2 Clifton Street in Glasgow on 2 October 1852, the son of civil engineer and surveyor, William C. Ramsay, and his wife, Catherine Robertson. The family lived at 2 Clifton Street in the city centre, a three-storey and basement Georgian townhouse. The family moved to 1 Oakvale Place in the Hillhead district in his youth. He was a nephew of the geologist Sir Andrew Ramsay. He was educated at Glasgow Academy and then apprenticed to Robert Napier, shipbuilder in Govan. However, he instead decided to study Chemistry at the University of Glasgow, matriculating in 1866 and graduating 1869. He then undertook practical training with the chemist Thomas Anderson and then went to study in Germany at the University of Tübingen with Wilhelm Rudolph Fittig where his doctoral thesis was entitled \"Investigations in the Toluic and Nitrotoluic Acids\". Ramsay went back to Glasgow as Anderson's assistant at the Anderson College. He was appointed as Professor of Chemistry at the University College of Bristol in 1879 and married Margaret Buchanan in 1881. In the same year he became the Principal of University College, Bristol, and somehow managed to combine that with active research both in organic chemistry and on gases.", "In 1887 he succeeded Alexander Williamson as the chair of Chemistry at University College London (UCL). It was here at UCL that his most celebrated discoveries were made. As early as 1885–1890 he published several notable papers on the oxides of nitrogen, developing the skills that he needed for his subsequent work. On the evening of 19 April 1894 Ramsay attended a lecture given by Lord Rayleigh. Rayleigh had noticed a discrepancy between the density of nitrogen made by chemical synthesis and nitrogen isolated from the air by removal of the other known components. After a short conversation he and Ramsay decided to investigate this. In August Ramsay told Rayleigh he had isolated a new, heavy component of air, which did not appear to have any chemical reactivity. He named this inert gas \"argon\", from the Greek word meaning \"lazy\". In the following years, working with Morris Travers, he discovered neon, krypton, and xenon. He also isolated helium, which had only been observed in the spectrum of the sun, and had not previously been found on earth. In 1910 he isolated and characterised radon. During 1893–1902 Ramsay collaborated with Emily Aston, a British chemist, in experiments on mineral analysis and atomic weight determination. Their work included publications on the molecular surface energies of mixtures of non-associating liquids. He was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath (KCB) in the 1902 Coronation Honours list published on 26 June 1902, and invested as such by King Edward VII at Buckingham Palace on 24 October 1902. In 1904 Ramsay received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. Ramsay's standing among scientists led him to become an adviser to the Indian Institute of Science. He suggested Bangalore as the location for the institute. Ramsay endorsed the Industrial and Engineering Trust Ltd., a company that claimed it could extract gold from seawater, in 1905. It bought property on the English coast to begin its secret process. The company never produced any gold. Ramsay was the president of the British Association in 1911–1912.", "In 1881 Ramsay was married to Margaret Johnstone Marshall (née Buchanan), daughter of George Stevenson Buchanan. They had a daughter, Catherine Elizabeth (Elska) and a son, William George, who died at 40. Ramsay lived in Hazlemere, Buckinghamshire, until his death. He died in High Wycombe, Buckinghamshire, on 23 July 1916 from nasal cancer at the age of 63 and was buried in Hazlemere parish church. A blue plaque at number 12 Arundel Gardens, Notting Hill, commemorates his life and work. The Sir William Ramsay School in Hazlemere and Ramsay grease are named after him.", "On October 2, 2019, Google celebrated his 167th birthday with a Google Doodle." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Idaean Dactyls.", "Rhodian Dactyls.", "Cretan Dactyls." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Dactyls of Mount Ida in Crete invented the art of working metals into usable shapes with fire; Walter Burkert surmises that, as the societies of lesser gods mirrored actual cult associations, guilds of smiths corresponded to the \"daktyloi\" in real life. According to Hesiod, they also discovered iron in Crete. Three Phrygian Dactyls, in the service of the Great Mother as Adraste (), are usually named Acmon (the anvil), Damnameneus (the hammer), and Celmis (casting). Of Celmis, Ovid (in \"Metamorphoses\" iv) made a story that when Rhea was offended at this childhood companion of Zeus, she asked Zeus to turn him to diamond-hard adamant, like a tempered blade. Zeus obliged. Later Greek attempts to justify and rationalize the relationships of Dactyls, Curetes and Corybantes were never fully successful. Strabo says of the mythographers: \"And they suspect that both the Kouretes and the Korybantes were offspring of the \"Daktyloi Idaioi\"; at any rate, the first hundred men born in Crete were called Idaian Daktyloi, they say, and these were born of nine Kouretes, for each of these begot ten children who were called Idaian Daktyloi.\" The Cabeiri (), whose sacred place was on the island of Samothrace, were understood by Diodorus Siculus to have been Idaean dactyls who had come west from Phrygia and whose magical practices had made local converts to their secret cult. An Idaean dactyl named Herakles (perhaps the earliest embodiment of the later hero) originated the Olympic Games by instigating a race among his four \"finger\" brothers. This Herakles was the \"thumb\"; his brothers were Aeonius (forefinger), Epimedes (middle finger), Iasus (ring finger/healing finger), and Idas or Acesidas (little finger).", "On Rhodes, Telchines were the name given to similar chthonic men, nine in number, remembered by Greeks as dangerous Underworld smiths and magicians, and multiplied into an entire autochthonous race that had reared Poseidon but had been supplanted by Apollo in his Helios role.", "In Crete, three Dactyls bore names suggestive of healing: Paionios (later associated with Asclepius), Epimedes, and Iasios. It was said that they had introduced the smithing of copper and iron. Of Iasion it was told (Hesiod, \"Theogony\" 970) that he lay with Demeter, a stand-in for Rhea, in a thrice-ploughed field and the Goddess brought forth Ploutos, \"wealth\", in the form of a bountiful harvest. Zeus struck down this impious archaic figure with a thunderbolt. This is all of the public version of this myth that survives. Doubtless, initiates must have known more." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Mythology." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "Asteria was an inhabitant of Olympus, and like her sister Leto was beloved by Zeus. In order to escape the amorous advances of the god, who in the form of an eagle pursued her, she transformed herself into a quail (ortux) and flung herself into the Aegean Sea. It was there that Asteria metamorphosed into the island Asteria (the island which had fallen from heaven like a star) or the \"quail island\" Ortygia. This then became identified with the island of Delos, which was the only piece on earth to give refuge to the fugitive Leto when, pregnant with Zeus's children, she was pursued by vengeful Hera. According to Hyginus, Leto was borne by the north wind Boreas at the command of Zeus to the floating island, at the time when Python was pursuing her, and there clinging to an olive, she gave birth to Apollo and Artemis. On the island of Delos Asteria married Perses and gave birth to their child Hecate. A different version was added by the poet Nonnus who recounted that, after Asteria was pursued by Zeus but turned herself into a quail and leaped into the sea, Poseidon instead took up the chase. In the madness of his passion, he hunted the chaste goddess to and fro in the sea, riding restless before the changing wind and thus she transformed herself into the desert island of Delos with the help of her nephew Apollo who rooted her in the waves immovable. In the rare account where Asteria was the mother of Heracles by Zeus, the Phoenicians sacrifice quails to the hero because when he went into Libya and was killed by Typhon, Iolaus brought a quail to him, and having put it close to him, he smelt it and came to life again." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Founder viewpoints.", "Planning for succession of editor-in-chief.", "Nature of the project.", "Fork of Wikipedia.", "Project goal.", "Policies and structure.", "Content.", "History.", "Pilot project.", "Inauguration.", "Later developments." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Sanger said in a 17 October 2006 press release that Citizendium \"will soon attempt to unseat Wikipedia as the go-to destination for general information online\". In August 2007, he captioned its pages: \"The world needs a more credible free encyclopedia.\" The project began its pilot phase in October and November 2006. On 18 January 2007, a change of plans was announced. Sanger announced on the CZ mailing list that only articles marked \"CZ Live\", those which have been or will soon be worked on by Citizendium contributors, would remain on the site, and all other articles forked from Wikipedia would be deleted. Not all Citizendium contributors were supportive of this change, but Sanger emphasized that this deletion was \"an experiment\" and a new set of Wikipedia articles could be uploaded if the experiment were deemed unsuccessful.", "In May 2009, Sanger reduced his direct activity at Citizendium, and, in a message on 30 July 2009, he reminded those on the Citizendium-l mailing list of his previously declared intention not to serve as editor-in-chief for more than two or three years after the start of the project. Sanger has reiterated his call for the Citizendium community to prepare an orderly process for choosing a new editor-in-chief. Sanger said that he was spending more time on his WatchKnow project, partly because he needs to earn an income—he said the \"Citizendium project doesn't earn me a dime\"—and partly because the Citizendium community had demonstrated that it could function effectively without his close, daily involvement, and because \"there are squeakier wheels in my life just now\". He added that stepping aside may \"precipitate something of a constitutional crisis, considering that we [Citizendium] never adopted a proper charter\". Citizendium finally ratified its charter in September 2010. On 22 September 2010, Sanger stepped down as editor-in-chief and subsequently gave up editorial powers and rights to the project.", "", "According to statements and essays on Citizendium, the project was initially intended to begin as a fork of Wikipedia, carrying a copy of each article—under the rules of the GNU Free Documentation License—as it existed on Wikipedia at the time of Citizendium's launch. However, after initiating the idea of not forking, and then soliciting comments on the matter from Citizendium mailing list and web forum members, Sanger said that a complete fork at launch was not a \"foregone conclusion\". On 18 January 2007, Sanger announced that the pilot would, as an experiment, only carry articles that had been, or would soon be, worked on by Citizendium contributors, instead of a complete set of Wikipedia articles. He stated that the experiment \"represents a reconception of our project's basic aim\". No announcement was made on Citizendium editions in languages other than English, but Sanger stated that they may be forthcoming after the English-language version was established and successfully working. In a review of Andrew Keen's book \"The Cult of the Amateur\", Sanger comments ironically on Keen's favorable treatment of Citizendium: \"The first example of a'solution' he offers is the Citizendium, or the Citizens' Compendium, which I like to describe briefly as Wikipedia with editors and real names. But how can Citizendium be a solution to the problems he raises, if it has experts working without pay, and the result is free? If it succeeds, won't it contribute to the decline of reference publishing?\"", "The stated aim of the project is to create a \"new compendium of knowledge\" based on the contributions of \"intellectuals\", defined as \"educated, thinking people who read about science or ideas regularly\". Citizendium aimed to foster an expert culture and a community that encourages participants (to be called \"authors\") to \"respect\" the expert contributions (by what he referred to as a \"gentle process of guidance\"). Experts are required to verify their qualifications openly, for transparency and publicly accepted authority. This contrasts with the open and largely anonymous nature of Wikipedia, where subject specialists have neither any verifiable special knowledge of their subject nor agreed special status. Sanger stated that editors would \"not\" have pre-approval rights over edits by ordinary authors, though editors would have somewhat undefined authority over articles that fall within their specific area of expertise.", "Unlike Wikipedia, Citizendium does not allow anonymous editing. Participants must register under their real names with a working email address. Sanger decided that Citizendium administrators would be called \"constables\", and need a bachelor's degree to qualify. He also instituted a minimum \"maturity\" requirement—25 years of age—for constables. The \"head\" constable is the \"Chief Constable\" (D. Matt Innis), and the head editor is the \"Managing Editor\". Originally, Sanger operated as \"Editor-in-Chief\", the \"main individual in charge\", part of and answerable to a \"Board of Directors\". Sanger stated that final decisions about management structure will not be made \"until more of the (future) primary stakeholders are on the scene\". Citizendium articles are subject to an \"approval\" process after they have achieved reasonable quality. An \"editor\" can determine when an article is ready to be approved. Initially the project phased under the Tides Center as an incubator project and then was supposed to be carried out under the auspices of the Citizendium Foundation, but in 2020, treasurer of the project stated that the foundation was never registered.", "Citizendium original articles are available under the Creative Commons Attribution ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License (CC BY-SA). \"Articles that originated in part from Wikipedia are also available under the GNU Free Documentation License version 1.2. The decision was announced on 21 December 2007, about a year after the launch of the pilot project.", "", "The project was announced by Sanger on 15 September 2006, at the Wizards of OS 4 conference in Berlin. He gave no deadline for the full launch of the wiki. However, on 2 October 2006, Sanger released a pilot project announcement that envisioned a fully functioning wiki within \"one to two months\". In an apparent attempt to quicken the pace of the project, on 2 October 2006, Citizendium web forum moderator Peter Hitchmough suggested what he called an \"alpha test\" of the concept. Hitchmough proposed the forking of a limited number of Wikipedia articles to a site where Citizendium web forum and mailing list members could \"rewrite a complete section\" of Wikipedia content. Larry Sanger reacted enthusiastically to the idea and at first suggested his already existing Textop wiki as the site for the alpha test. Sanger later posted that Textop would not be a good choice, but showed continued interest in the proposal. He envisioned a \"restricted-access\" wiki where the idea could be tried and requested further discussion. No access to the pilot version of Citizendium, even read-only, was allowed to the general public. Sanger stated: \"Only invited people will be able to view and edit the pilot project wiki.\" Sanger also said that constables for the pilot project will be chosen by the chief constable. In a press release on 17 October 2006, Sanger announced: \"the fledgling Citizendium Foundation will launch a six-week pilot project open to potential contributors by invitation\". Several editors and other project leaders were named. It was also announced that the Citizendium Foundation had \"started the process of applying for 501(c)(3) status [non-profit status]\" and had \"received a firm commitment for a significant seed grant from a foundation, as well as small personal donations\". In a follow-up post to the press release, Sanger said that the initial group allowed access to the pilot would consist of \"ten editors, three constables, six authors, and me.\" The pilot project began operations on 23 October 2006. On 8 November, Larry Sanger reported that 263 user names had access to the pilot wiki, 183 articles on the wiki were \"live\" (meaning \"someone is or intends to be working on them\") and there were about 300 total edits to the wiki on 7 November. In a 17 January 2007 post to the Citizendium forum, Sanger stated that \"we have had only 10–20 (very) active people out of 500 accounts created\". As a result, Sanger decided to delete all articles besides those marked \"CZ live\" from the pilot project in an attempt to motivate greater participation. On 22 January 2007, Citizendium experimented with a new self-registration procedure: read/write access was granted automatically after creation of the account. There were a few instances of vandalism after this change, though the vandalism was quickly reverted. On 19 January, Sanger announced the formal organization of Citizendium as a legal non-profit organization. On 16 February 2007, in response to rising site vandalism, automatic account creation was put on hold while increased protections were being put in place to counter vandalism. The next day, page moves were limited to constables as an additional measure against vandalism. In addition, Sanger continued the process of un-forking the Citizendium from Wikipedia by inviting contributors to delete any Wikipedia content that had changed only superficially since it was imported.", "On 25 March 2007, Citizendium ended its pilot phase and went live, into its beta phase, and the site became publicly readable. The launch coincided with a feature-length Associated Press article that ran widely, with a title in \"USA Today\" of \"Citizendium aims to be better Wikipedia\". The day prior to launch, Sanger released an essay, \"Why the Citizendium Will (Probably) Succeed\" in which he stated that activity at Citizendium grew from 100 edits a day in the first month to over 500 prior to launch. After the launch, on 27 March 2007, a press release quotes Sanger as saying \"You don't have to choose between content and accountability. We have shown that we can create open and credible content. We can, in fact, be open to all sorts of participants, but still hold people to higher standards of content and behavior as a community.\" Sometime after the launch, it was noted that Citizendium's family-friendly policy would mean the project would likely tend to avoid articles on slang terms for sexual activity, and particularly explicit articles on sexual practices. The Citizendium has a \"professionalism\" policy for editors, which Sanger said is different from most online communities. On 29 June 2007, Sanger announced an initiative via the project-wide mailing list that he dubbed \"Citizendium 2.0\". Characterizing his comments as a \"project planning document\", Sanger detailed a series of initiatives designed to launch Citizendium into its next phase of development. The document outlined plans for a judicial board, an advisory board, a personnel manager, a new chairman of the editorial council, wider participation in the project by volunteers, a system of subpages for articles, and an expanded article checklist.", "At the project's first anniversary in September 2007, Citizendium included 3,000 articles written and revised by 2,000 people. A number of media reports appeared in late October and early November 2007 about the anniversary of Citizendium. An article in the \"Financial Times\" quoted Larry Sanger predicting strong growth for the project: \"At some point, possibly very soon, the Citizendium will grow explosively – say, quadruple the number of its active contributors, or even grow by an order of magnitude. And it will experience that growth over the course of a month or two, and its growth will continue to accelerate from that higher rate.\" (See chart at right; active contributors slowly went upwards during the remainder of 2007, then bubbled higher in the first quarter of 2008, but after that point steadily declined.) Citizendium was honored on 5 December 2007, as an award finalist of the Society for New Communications Research. The Society describes itself as a nonprofit global think-tank \"dedicated to the advanced study of new communications tools, technologies and emerging modes of communication, and their effect on traditional media, professional communications, business, culture and society\". The Society chose Citizendium for an award because it considered it \"a leading organization\" in these respects. Library writer Walt Crawford noted in April 2009 that Citizendium appeared to be in an \"extended lull\", with a constant rate of creation of new articles at around 13–14 per day and a decline in the number of active authors. In August 2009, Richard Waters wrote in the \"Financial Times\" technology blog: \"At best, Citizendium could be called a qualified success. Launched in March 2007, as of August 2009 it had 11,810 articles – 2,999,674 fewer than the English-language version of Wikipedia.\" Mathieu O'Neil, Principal Researcher at the Australian Department of Broadband, Communication and the Digital Economy, wrote in a March 2010 article on crowdsourcing that \"new participants to Wikipedia know that their contributions will have a significant audience; becoming a Wikipedia editor is trivial and instantaneous; since it lacks this immediate quality, Citizendium failed to attract the crowd\". In March 2010, the project had 90 contributors who made at least one edit, with a core of 25 contributors who made more than 100 edits. Median word count dropped from 468 words per article in October 2007 to 151 in May 2010. In June 2010, the number of users making 1, 20 or 100 edits per month all were at their lowest point since the project went public in March 2007. By October 2011, only about a dozen members made edits on a typical day, and an \"Ars Technica\" headline called the Citizendium project \"dead in the water\". In September 2015, only seven editors had been active in the previous 30 days. As of September 2017, there was an average of 5 edits made per day. In November 2016, a referendum was held to abolish the governing Citizendium Charter and the Council in favor of Wikipedia-style discussion and consensus. It attracted nine votes, and was passed. A new Managing Editor was to be elected at the same time, but there were no nominations. At the beginning of 2020, a discussion began to determine whether Citizendium should be shut down. Mails have been sent from the treasurer to Larry Sanger without answer." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Holy Biblical source.", "In Western (Latin) tradition.", "Byzantine Christian use.", "Slavonic versions.", "Latin Church Catholic use.", "Anglican use.", "Lutheran use.", "Musical settings." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The prayer incorporates two greetings to Mary in Saint Luke's Gospel: \"Hail, full of grace, the Lord is with thee.\" and \"Blessed art thou amongst women and blessed is the fruit of thy womb.\" In mid-13th-century Western Europe the prayer consisted only of these words with the single addition of the name \"Mary\" after the word \"Hail\", as is evident from the commentary of Saint Thomas Aquinas on the prayer. The first of the two passages from Saint Luke's Gospel is the greeting of the Angel Gabriel to Mary, originally written in Koine Greek. The opening word of greeting,, \"chaíre\", here translated \"Hail\", literally has the meaning \"rejoice\" or \"be glad\". This was the normal greeting in the language in which Saint Luke's Gospel is written and continues to be used in the same sense in Modern Greek. Accordingly, both \"Hail\" and \"Rejoice\" are valid English translations of the word (\"Hail\" reflecting the Latin translation, and \"Rejoice\" reflecting the original Greek). The word, (\"kecharitōménē\"), here translated as \"full of grace\", admits of various translations. Grammatically, the word is the feminine perfect passive participle of the verb, \"charitóō\", which means \"to show, or bestow with, grace\" and here, in the passive voice, \"to have grace shown, or bestowed upon, one\". The text also appears in the account of the annunciation contained in the apocryphal Infancy Gospel of Matthew, in chapter 9. The second passage is taken from Elizabeth's greeting to Mary in Luke 1:42, \"Blessed art thou among women, and blessed is the fruit of thy womb.\" Taken together, these two passages are the two times Mary is greeted in the Chapter 1 of Luke.", "After considering the use of similar words in Syriac, Greek and Latin in the 6th century, Herbert Thurston, writing in the \"Catholic Encyclopedia\" concludes that \"there is little or no trace of the Hail Mary as an accepted devotional formula before about 1050\", (though a later pious tale attributed to Ildephonsus of Toledo (fl. 7th century) the use of the first part, namely the angel's greeting to Mary, without that of Elizabeth, as a prayer). All the evidence suggests that it took its rise from certain versicles and responsories occurring in the Little Office of the Blessed Virgin Mary, which just at that time was coming into favour among the monastic orders. Saint Thomas Aquinas spoke of the name \"Mary\" as the only word added at his time to the Biblical text, to indicate the person who was \"full of grace.\" But at about the same time the name \"Jesus\" was also added, to specify who was meant by the phrase \"the fruit of thy womb\". The Western version of the prayer is thus not derived from the Greek version: even the earliest Western forms have no trace of the Greek version's phrases: \"Mother of God and Virgin\" and \"for thou hast given birth to the Saviour of our souls.\" To the greeting and praise of Mary of which the prayer thus consisted, a petition \"Holy Mary, Mother of God, pray for us sinners now and at the hour of our death. Amen.\" was added later. The petition first appeared in print in 1495 in Girolamo Savonarola's \"Esposizione sopra l'Ave Maria\". The \"Hail Mary\" prayer in Savonarola's exposition reads: \"Hail Mary, full of grace, the Lord is with thee; blessed art thou amongst women, and blessed is the fruit of thy womb, Jesus. Holy Mary, Mother of God, pray for us sinners, now and at the hour of our death. Amen.\" The petition was commonly added around the time of the Council of Trent. The Dutch Jesuit St. Petrus Canisius is credited with adding in 1555 in his Catechism the sentence Eleven years later, the sentence was included in the Catechism of the Council of Trent of 1566. The catechism says that to the first part of the Hail Mary, by which \"we render to God the highest praise and return Him most gracious thanks, because He has bestowed all His heavenly gifts on the most holy Virgin... the Church of God has wisely added prayers and an invocation addressed to the most holy Mother of God... we should earnestly implore her help and assistance; for that she possesses exalted merits with God, and that she is most desirous to assist us by her prayers, no one can doubt without impiety and wickedness.\" Soon after, in 1568 Pope Pius V included the full form as now known in his revision of the Roman Breviary. The current Latin version is thus as follows, with accents added to indicate how the prayer is said in the current ecclesiastical pronunciation of Latin, as well as macrons to indicate the Classical vowel lengths: Because recitation of the Angelus, a prayer within which the Hail Mary is recited three times, is usually accompanied by the ringing of the Angelus bell, words from the Ave Maria was often inscribed on bells.", "The Hail Mary prayer of the Eastern Orthodox Church and Byzantine Rite Catholic Churches is similar to the first part of the Latin Church form, with the addition of a very brief opening phrase and a short concluding phrase. It is well known and often used, though not quite as frequently as in the Western Church. It appears in several canons of prayer. It is typically sung thrice at the end of Vespers during an All-Night Vigil, and occurs many times in the course of daily prayer. The Greek text, of which those in other languages are translations, is: To the Biblical texts this adds the opening invocation \"Theotokos Virgin\", the name \"Mary\", and the concluding phrase \"because it was the Saviour of our souls that thou borest\". Another English rendering of the same text reads:", "There exist two variant versions in Church Slavonic: The first is the older, and remains in use by the Old Believers as well as those who follow the Ruthenian recension (among them the Ukrainian Greek-Catholic Church and the Ruthenian Catholic Church). The second, corresponding more closely to the Greek, appeared in 1656 under the liturgical reforms of Patriarch Nikon of Moscow, and is in use by the Russian Orthodox Church, the Serbian Orthodox Church, the Bulgarian Orthodox Church and the Ukrainian Orthodox Church).", "The Hail Mary is the last prayer in Appendix V of the Roman Missal, the last of seven prayers under the heading “Thanksgiving After Mass”. There it appears with \"with you\" instead of the traditional \"with thee\", \"are you\" instead of the traditional \"art thou\" and \"your womb\" in place of the traditional \"thy womb\": Hail, Mary, full of grace, the Lord is with you;<br> blessed are you among women,<br> and blessed is the fruit of your womb, Jesus.<br> Holy Mary, Mother of God,<br> pray for us sinners<br> now and at the hour of our death.<br> Amen.<br> The Hail Mary is the central part of the Angelus, a devotion generally recited thrice daily by many Catholics, as well as broad & high church Anglicans, and Lutherans who usually omit the second half. The Hail Mary is an essential element of the Rosary, a prayer method in use especially among Roman Rite (Western) Catholics. The Eastern Catholic Churches say a similar version. The Rosary consists traditionally of three sets of five Mysteries, each Mystery being meditated on while reciting a decade (a set of ten) of Ave Marias. The 150 Ave Marias of the Rosary thus echo the 150 psalms. These Mysteries concern events of Jesus' life during his childhood (Joyful Mysteries), Passion (Sorrowful Mysteries), and from his Resurrection onwards (Glorious Mysteries). Another set, the Luminous Mysteries, is of comparatively recent origin, having been proposed by Pope John Paul II in 2002. Each decade of Ave Marias is preceded by the Our Father (\"Pater Noster\" or \"The Lord's Prayer\") and followed by the Glory Be (\"Gloria Patri\") (Doxology). The repetition of the fixed-language prayers assists recitation from the heart rather than the head. Pope Paul V said that \"the Rosary is a treasure of graces... Even for those souls who pray without meditating, the simple act of taking the beads in hand to pray is already a remembrance of God – of the supernatural\".", "Some Anglicans also employ the Hail Mary in devotional practice. Anglo-Catholic Anglicanism uses the prayer in much the same way as Roman Catholics, including use of the Rosary and the recitation of the Angelus. Some Anglican churches contain statues of the Virgin Mary, and the faithful use devotional prayers including the Hail Mary. That manifestation of veneration of Mary, decried by certain Protestants as worship, was largely removed from Anglican churches during the English Reformation but was reintroduced to some extent during the Oxford Movement of the mid-1800s.", "Martin Luther believed that Mary should be held in highest reverence. Although he did not agree with Mary's veneration, he did advocate the use of the first half of the Hail Mary (that is, \"Hail Mary, full of grace, the Lord is with thee. Blessed art thou amongst women and blessed is the fruit of thy womb, Jesus.\") as a sign of reverence for and devotion to the Virgin. Only after his death was the second part (\"Holy Mary, Mother of God, pray for us sinners now and at the hour of our death\") added.", "The Hail Mary, Ave Maria in Latin, has been set to music numerous times. The title \"Ave Maria\" has been given also to musical compositions that are not settings of the prayer. One of the most famous is the version by Franz Schubert (1825), composed as \"Ellens dritter Gesang\" (Ellen's Third Song), D839, part 6 of his Opus 52, a setting of seven songs from Walter Scott's popular epic poem \"The Lady of the Lake\", translated into German by Adam Storck. Although it opens with the greeting \"Ave Maria\" (\"Hail Mary\"), the text was not that of the traditional prayer, but nowadays it is commonly sung with words of the prayer. Its music was used in the final segment of Walt Disney's \"Fantasia\". The version by Charles Gounod (1859), adding melody and words to Johann Sebastian Bach's first prelude from \"The Well-Tempered Clavier\", omits the words \"Mater Dei\" (Mother of God). Anton Bruckner wrote three different settings, the best known being a motet for seven voices. Antonín Dvořák's version was composed in 1877. Another setting of Ave Maria was written by Giuseppe Verdi for his 1887 opera \"Otello\". Russian composer César Cui, who was raised Roman Catholic, set the text at least three times: as the \"Ave Maria\", op. 34, for one or two women's voices with piano or harmonium (1886), and as part of two of his operas: \"Le flibustier\" (premiered 1894) and \"Mateo Falcone\" (1907). Settings also exist by Mozart, Liszt, Byrd, Elgar, Saint-Saëns, Rossini, Brahms, Stravinsky, Mascagni, Lauridsen, David Conte and Perosi as well as numerous versions by less well-known composers, such as J. B. Tresch and Ninel Samokhvalova. In the Renaissance, this text was also set by numerous composers, including Josquin des Prez, Orlando di Lasso, Tomás Luis de Victoria, and Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina. Before the Council of Trent there were actually different versions of the text, so the earlier composers in the period sometimes set versions of the text different from the ones shown above. Josquin des Prez, for example, himself set more than one version of the Ave Maria. Here is the text of his motet Ave Maria... Virgo serena, which begins with the first six words above and continues with a poem in rhymed couplets. The much anthologized \"Ave Maria\" by Jacques Arcadelt is actually a 19th-century arrangement by Pierre-Louis Dietsch, loosely based on Arcadelt's three part madrigal \"Nous voyons que les hommes\". In the 20th century, Franz Biebl composed Ave Maria (Angelus Domini), actually a setting of the Angelus prayer, in which the Ave Maria is repeated three times, but the second part only once as the climax. In Slavonic, the text was also a popular subject for setting to music by Eastern European composers. These include Rachmaninov, Stravinsky, Bortniansky, Vavilov (his version often misattributed to Caccini), Mikhail Shukh, Lyudmyla Hodzyumakha and others. A famous setting for the Orthodox version of the prayer in Church Slavonic (Bogoroditsye Djevo) was composed by Sergei Rachmaninoff in his \"All-Night Vigil\". Since Protestant Christianity generally avoids any special veneration of Mary, musical settings of the prayer are sometimes sung to other texts that preserve the word boundaries and syllable stresses." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "See also." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Aero Vodochody has been active since its founding in 1919. Between 1929 and 1951, its subsidiary, Aero, manufactured a range of small and medium-sized cars with two-stroke engines, it also briefly produced the Škoda 150 truck between 1946–47 under licence. During the 1950s, Aero Vodochody developed the L-29 Delfintrainer aircraft; it was Czechoslovakia's first indigenously designed jet-powered aircraft. The L-29 is believed to have likely been the biggest aircraft industrial programme to take place across any of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON) countries except for the Soviet Union itself. During the course of the programme, in excess of 3,000 L-29s were produced; of these, around 2,000 were reported to have been delivered to the Soviet Union, where it served as the standard trainer for the Soviet Air Force. Of the others, which included both armed and unarmed models, many aircraft were delivered to the various COMECON countries while others were exported to various overseas nations, including Egypt, Syria, Indonesia, Nigeria and Uganda. Reportedly, the type has been used in active combat during several instances, perhaps the most high-profile being the Nigerian Civil War of the late 1960s and of Egyptian L-29s against Israeli tanks during the brief Yom Kippur War of 1973. The L-39 Albatros was designed during the 1960s as a replacement for the Aero L-29 Delfín as a principal training aircraft. Several specialised variants of the base L-39 design were quickly introduced. In 1972, a purpose-built target tug variant, the L-39V, conducted its initial flight. During 1975, the first \"L-39ZO\" training/light combat model, which was equipped with four underwing hardpoints as well as a strengthened wing and modified landing gear, performed its first flight. In 1977, the first \"L-39ZA\" light combat variant, which was fitted with a single Gryazev-Shipunov GSh-23 cannon mounted underneath the fuselage in addition to the four hardpoints and strengthening of the L-39ZO, made its maiden flight. According to aerospace publication Flight International, roughly 200 L-39s were being sold each year upon the jet trainer market during the late 1980s. Sales of the L-39 declined during the 1990s. This downturn has been attributed to the loss of the captive Warsaw Pact trainer market, to which a substantial proportion of the total aircraft manufactured had been historically sold to; allegations about Czechoslovak banks being unable to finance the defense industry and inaction on the part of the Czechoslovak government; and concerns over the quality of manufacturing standards. During 1996, production of the L-39 was terminated. Aero Vodochody has developed several improved variants of the L-39 to take its place, and has continued extensive support and overhaul operations for existing L-39 customers. The L-59 Super Albatros was derived from the L-39, being originally designated as the \"L-39MS\". Aero only produced a handful of L-59s before discontinuing production. Another derivative of the L-39 Albatros was the L-159 Alca, a modernised combat-oriented version. Originally, Aero Vodochody had intended to develop the L-159 in partnership with Elbit, but the Czech Ministry of Defense instead selected Rockwell Collins to partner on the program. During the 2010s, Aero Vodochody was engaged in the manufacture of the L-159 advanced light combat aircraft and the Sikorsky S-76 helicopter. It has also an active presence in the aerostructures sector, producing the center wing box of the Alenia C-27J Spartan airlifter, door subassemblies for the Embraer 170 and Embraer 190 airliners, the cockpit of the Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawk helicopter, gun bay doors for the Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet fighter, subassemblies and various elements of the Airbus A320 family airliner, and fixed leading edge kits for the Boeing 767 airliner. The company is reportedly likely to upgrade the runway at its Vodochody Airport near Prague to international airport standards, allowing it to better serve the low-cost air carriers and charter flights that service Prague. During July 2014, Aero Vodochody presented the L-39NG programme at the Farnborough Airshow. By April 2015, a partnership had formed between Aero Vodochody, American defence contractor Draken International and engine manufacturer Williams International to undertake the programme and to properly prepare the L-39NG to compete on the North American market. The L-39NG is being developed and marketed in two stages. The L-39NG upgrade program (Stage 1) contains an installation of FJ44-4M engine and optionally the Stage 2 avionics to existing L-39 Albatros. The second phase (Stage 2) represents newly built L-39NG aircraft with the possible use of components from the previous upgrade to Stage 1, once the original airframe reaches the end of its life. The first stage was formally completed om 14 September 2015 with the maiden flight of the L-39NG technology demonstrator (L-39CW). On 20 November 2017, Aero Vodochody announced the completion of development of the L-39CW; on 14 March 2018, they announced that the L-39CW, equipped with both the new engine and the new avionics, had received type certification.", "Aero (automobile)" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Evolution and function.", "Development.", "Sexual selection.", "Heritability and reproductive advantage.", "Protection against predation.", "Diversification.", "Capreolinae.", "Exploitation by other species.", "Ecological role.", "Trophy hunting.", "Shed antler hunting.", "Carving for decorative and tool uses.", "Ceremonial roles.", "Dietary usage." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Antler comes from the Old French \"antoillier \" (see present French : \"Andouiller\", from\" ant-, \"meaning before,\" oeil, \"meaning eye and\" -ier\", a suffix indicating an action or state of being) possibly from some form of an unattested Latin word \"*anteocularis\", \"before the eye\" (and applied to the word for \"branch\" or \"horn\").", "Antlers are unique to cervids. The ancestors of deer had tusks (long upper canine teeth). In most species, antlers appear to replace tusks. However, two modern species (the musk deer and the water deer) have tusks and no antlers and the muntjac has small antlers and tusks. Antlers are usually found only on males. Only reindeer (known as caribou in North America) have antlers on the females, and these are normally smaller than those of the males. Nevertheless, fertile does from other species of deer have the capacity to produce antlers on occasion, usually due to increased testosterone levels. The \"horns\" of a pronghorn (which is not a cervid but a giraffoid) meet some of the criteria of antlers, but are not considered true antlers because they contain keratin.", "Each antler grows from an attachment point on the skull called a pedicle. While an antler is growing, it is covered with highly vascular skin called velvet, which supplies oxygen and nutrients to the growing bone. Antlers are considered one of the most exaggerated cases of male secondary sexual traits in the animal kingdom, and grow faster than any other mammal bone. Growth occurs at the tip, and is initially cartilage, which is later replaced by bone tissue. Once the antler has achieved its full size, the velvet is lost and the antler's bone dies. This dead bone structure is the mature antler. In most cases, the bone at the base is destroyed by osteoclasts and the antlers fall off at some point. As a result of their fast growth rate, antlers are considered a handicap since there is an immense nutritional demand on deer to re-grow antlers annually, and thus can be honest signals of metabolic efficiency and food gathering capability. In most arctic and temperate-zone species, antler growth and shedding is annual, and is controlled by the length of daylight. Although the antlers are regrown each year, their size varies with the age of the animal in many species, increasing annually over several years before reaching maximum size. In tropical species, antlers may be shed at any time of year, and in some species such as the sambar, antlers are shed at different times in the year depending on multiple factors. Some equatorial deer never shed their antlers. Antlers function as weapons in combats between males, which sometimes cause serious wounds, and as dominance and sexual displays.", "The principal means of evolution of antlers is sexual selection, which operates via two mechanisms: male-to-male competition (behaviorally, physiologically) and female mate choice. Male-male competition can take place in two forms. First, they can compete behaviorally where males use their antlers as weapons to compete for access to mates; second, they can compete physiologically where males present their antlers to display their strength and fertility competitiveness to compete for access to mates. Males with the largest antlers are more likely to obtain mates and achieve the highest fertilization success due to their competitiveness, dominance and high phenotypic quality. Whether this is a result of male-male fighting or display, or of female choosiness differs depending on the species as the shape, size, and function of antlers vary between species.", "There is evidence to support that antler size influences mate selection in the red deer, and has a heritable component. Despite this, a 30-year study showed no shift in the median size of antlers in a population of red deer. The lack of response could be explained by environmental covariance, meaning that lifetime breeding success is determined by an unmeasured trait which is phenotypically correlated with antler size but for which there is no genetic correlation of antler growth. Alternatively, the lack of response could be explained by the relationship between heterozygosity and antler size, which states that males heterozygous at multiple loci, including MHC loci, have larger antlers. The evolutionary response of traits that depend on heterozygosity is slower than traits that are dependent on additive genetic components and thus the evolutionary change is slower than expected. A third possibility is that the costs of having larger antlers (resource use, and mobility detriments, for instance) exert enough selective pressure to offset the benefit of attracting mates; thereby stabilizing antler size in the population.", "If antlers functioned only in male–male competition for mates, the best evolutionary strategy would be to shed them immediately after the rutting season, both to free the male from a heavy encumbrance and to give him more time to regrow a larger new pair. Yet antlers are commonly retained through the winter and into the spring, suggesting that they have another use. Wolves in Yellowstone National Park are 3.6 times more likely to attack individual male elk without antlers, or groups of elk in which at least one male is without antlers. Half of all male elk killed by wolves lack antlers, at times in which only one quarter of all males have shed antlers. These findings suggest that antlers have a secondary function in deterring predation.", "The diversification of antlers, body size and tusks has been strongly influenced by changes in habitat and behavior (fighting and mating).", "Reindeer (genus Rangifer, whose sole member species \"R. tarandus\" comprises several distinctive subspecies of reindeer and caribou) use their antlers to clear away snow so they can eat the vegetation underneath. This is one possible reason that females of this species evolved antlers. Another possible reason is for female competition during winter foraging. Male and female reindeer antlers differ in several respects. Males shed their antlers prior to winter, while female antlers are retained throughout winter. Also, female antler size plateaus at the onset of puberty, around age three, while males' antler size increases during their lifetime. This likely reflects the differing life history strategies of the two sexes, where females are resource limited in their reproduction and cannot afford costly antlers, while male reproductive success depends on the size of their antlers because they are under directional sexual selection. In moose, antlers may act as large hearing aids. Equipped with large, highly adjustable external ears, moose have highly sensitive hearing. Moose with antlers have more sensitive hearing than moose without, and a study of trophy antlers with an artificial ear confirmed that the large flattened (palmate) antler behaves like a parabolic reflector.", "", "Discarded antlers represent a source of calcium, phosphorus and other minerals and are often gnawed upon by small animals, including squirrels, porcupines, rabbits and mice. This is more common among animals inhabiting regions where the soil is deficient in these minerals. Antlers shed in oak forest inhabited by squirrels are rapidly chewed to pieces by them.", "Antlered heads are prized as trophies with larger sets being more highly prized. The first organization to keep records of sizes was Rowland Ward Ltd., a London taxidermy firm, in the early 20th century. For a time only total length or spread was recorded. In the middle of the century, the Boone and Crockett Club and the Safari Club International developed complex scoring systems based on various dimensions and the number of tines or points, and they keep extensive records of high-scoring antlers. Deer bred for hunting on farms are selected based on the size of the antlers. Hunters have developed terms for antler parts: beam, palm, brow, bez or bay, trez or tray, royal, and surroyal. These are the main shaft, flattened center, first tine, second tine, third tine, fourth tine, and fifth or higher tines, respectively. The second branch is also called an advancer. In Yorkshire in the United Kingdom roe deer hunting is especially popular due to the large antlers produced there. This is due to the high levels of chalk in Yorkshire. The chalk is high in calcium which is ingested by the deer and helps growth in the antlers.", "Gathering shed antlers or \"sheds\" attracts dedicated practitioners who refer to it colloquially as \"shed hunting\", or \"bone picking\". In the United States, the middle of December to the middle of February is considered shed hunting season, when deer, elk, and moose begin to shed. The North American Shed Hunting Club, founded in 1991, is an organization for those who take part in this activity. In the United States in 2017 sheds fetch around US$10 per pound, with larger specimens in good condition attracting higher prices. The most desirable antlers have been found soon after being shed. The value is reduced if they have been damaged by weathering or being gnawed by small animals. A matched pair from the same animal is a very desirable find but often antlers are shed separately and may be separated by several miles. Some enthusiasts for shed hunting use trained dogs to assist them. Most hunters will follow 'game trails' (trails where deer frequently run) to find these sheds or they will build a shed trap to collect the loose antlers in the late winter/early spring. In most US states, the possession of or trade in parts of game animals is subject to some degree of regulation, but the trade in antlers is widely permitted. In the national parks of Canada, the removal of shed antlers is an offense punishable by a maximum fine of C$25,000, as the Canadian government considers antlers to belong to the people of Canada and part of the ecosystems in which they are discarded.", "Antler has been used through history as a material to make tools, weapons, ornaments, and toys. It was an especially important material in the European Late Paleolithic, used by the Magdalenian culture to make carvings and engraved designs on objects such as the so-called Bâton de commandements and the \"Bison Licking Insect Bite\". In the Viking Age and medieval period, it formed an important raw material in the craft of comb-making. In later periods, antler—used as a cheap substitute for ivory—was a material especially associated with equipment for hunting, such as saddles and horse harness, guns and daggers, powder flasks, as well as buttons and the like. The decorative display of wall-mounted pairs of antlers has been popular since medieval times at least. The Netsilik Inuit people made bows and arrows using antler, reinforced with strands of animal tendons braided to form a cable-backed bow. Several American Indian tribes also used antler to make bows, gluing tendons to the bow instead of tying them as cables. An antler bow, made in the early 19th century, is on display at Brooklyn Museum. Its manufacture is attributed to the Yankton Sioux. Through history large deer antler from a suitable species (e.g. red deer) were often cut down to its shaft and its lowest tine and used as a one-pointed pickax.", "Antler headdresses were worn by shamans and other spiritual figures in various cultures, and for dances; 21 antler \"frontlets\" apparently for wearing on the head, and over 10,000 years old, have been excavated at the English Mesolithic site of Starr Carr. Antlers are still worn in traditional dances such as Yaqui deer dances and carried in the Abbots Bromley Horn Dance.", "In the velvet antler stage, antlers of elk and deer have been used in Asia as a dietary supplement or alternative medicinal substance for more than 2,000 years. Recently, deer antler extract has become popular among Western athletes and body builders because the extract, with its trace amounts of IGF-1, is believed to help build and repair muscle tissue; however, one double-blind study did not find evidence of intended effects. Elk, deer, and moose antlers have also become popular forms of dog chews that owners purchase for their pet canines." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Formative years.", "Artistic independence.", "Works.", "Early figures: the inspiration of Italy.", "\"The Gates of Hell\".", "\"The Burghers of Calais\".", "Commissions and controversy.", "Other works.", "Aesthetic.", "Method.", "Later years (1900–1917).", "United States.", "Great Britain.", "Legacy.", "Forgeries." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Rodin was born in 1840 into a working-class family in Paris, the second child of Marie Cheffer and Jean-Baptiste Rodin, who was a police department clerk. He was largely self-educated, and began to draw at age 10. Between ages 14 and 17, he attended the \"Petite École\", a school specializing in art and mathematics where he studied drawing and painting. His drawing teacher Horace Lecoq de Boisbaudran believed in first developing the personality of his students so that they observed with their own eyes and drew from their recollections, and Rodin expressed appreciation for his teacher much later in life. It was at Petite École that he", "Rose Beuret and Rodin returned to Paris in 1877, moving into a small flat on the Left Bank. Misfortune surrounded Rodin: his mother, who had wanted to see her son marry, was dead, and his father was blind and senile, cared for by Rodin's sister-in-law, Aunt Thérèse. Rodin's eleven-year-old son Auguste, possibly developmentally delayed, was also in the ever-helpful Thérèse's care. Rodin had essentially abandoned his son for six years, and would have a very limited relationship with him throughout his life. Father and son joined the couple in their flat, with Rose as caretaker. Charges of fakery surrounding \"The Age of Bronze\" continued. Rodin increasingly sought soothing female companionship in Paris, and Rose stayed in the background.", "In 1864, Rodin submitted his first sculpture for exhibition, \"The Man with the Broken Nose\", to the Paris Salon. The subject was an elderly neighborhood street porter. The unconventional bronze piece was not a traditional bust, but instead the head was \"broken off\" at the neck, the nose was flattened and crooked, and the back of the head was absent, having fallen off the clay model in an accident. The work emphasized texture and the emotional state of the subject; it illustrated the \"unfinishedness\" that would characterize many of Rodin's later sculptures. The Salon rejected the piece.", "In Brussels, Rodin created his first full-scale work, \"The Age of Bronze\", having returned from Italy. Modeled after a Belgian soldier, the figure drew inspiration from Michelangelo's \"Dying Slave\", which Rodin had observed at the Louvre. Attempting to combine Michelangelo's mastery of the human form with his own sense of human nature, Rodin studied his model from all angles, at rest and in motion; he mounted a ladder for additional perspective, and made clay models, which he studied by candlelight. The result was a life-size, well-proportioned nude figure, posed unconventionally with his right hand atop his head,", "A commission to create a portal for Paris' planned Museum of Decorative Arts was awarded to Rodin in 1880. Although the museum was never built, Rodin worked throughout his life on \"The Gates of Hell\", a monumental sculptural group depicting scenes from Dante's \"Inferno\" in high relief. Often lacking a clear conception of his major works, Rodin compensated with hard work and a striving for perfection. He conceived \"The Gates\" with the \"surmoulage\" controversy still in mind: \"...I had made the \"St. John\" to refute [the charges of casting from a model], but it only partially succeeded. To prove completely that I could model from life as well as other sculptors, I determined...to make the sculpture on the door of figures smaller than life.\" Laws of composition gave way to", "The town of Calais had contemplated a historical monument for decades when Rodin learned of the project. He pursued the commission, interested in the medieval motif and patriotic theme. The mayor of Calais was tempted to hire Rodin on the spot upon visiting his studio, and soon the memorial was approved, with Rodin as its architect. It would commemorate the six townspeople of Calais who offered their lives to save their fellow citizens. During the Hundred Years' War, the army of King Edward III besieged Calais, and Edward ordered that the town's population be killed \"en masse\". He agreed to spare them if six of the principal citizens would come to him prepared to die, bareheaded and barefooted and with ropes around their necks. When they came, he ordered that they be executed, but pardoned them when his queen, Philippa of Hainault, begged him to spare their lives. \"The Burghers of Calais\" depicts the men as they are leaving for the king's camp, carrying keys to the town's gates and citadel. Rodin began the project in 1884, inspired by the chronicles of the", "Commissioned to create a monument to French writer Victor Hugo in 1889, Rodin dealt extensively with the subject of \"artist and muse\". Like many of Rodin's public commissions, \"Monument to Victor Hugo\" was met with resistance because it did not fit conventional expectations. Commenting on Rodin's monument to Victor Hugo, \"The Times\" in 1909 expressed that \"there is some show of reason in the complaint that [Rodin's] conceptions are sometimes unsuited to his medium, and that in such cases they overstrain his vast technical powers\". The 1897 plaster model was not cast in bronze until 1964. The \"Société des Gens des Lettres\", a Parisian organization of writers, planned a monument to French novelist Honoré de Balzac immediately after his death in 1850. The society commissioned Rodin to create the memorial in 1891, and Rodin spent years developing the concept for his sculpture. Challenged in finding an appropriate representation of Balzac given the author's rotund physique, Rodin produced many studies: portraits, full-length figures in the nude,", "The popularity of Rodin's most famous sculptures tends to obscure his total creative output. A prolific artist, he created thousands of busts, figures, and sculptural fragments over more than five decades. He painted in oils (especially in his thirties) and in watercolors. The Musée Rodin holds 7,000 of his drawings and prints, in chalk and charcoal, and thirteen vigorous drypoints. He also produced a single lithograph. Portraiture was an important component of Rodin's oeuvre, helping him to win acceptance and financial independence. His", "Rodin was a naturalist, less concerned with monumental expression than with character and emotion. Departing with centuries of tradition, he turned away from the idealism of the Greeks, and the decorative beauty of the Baroque and neo-Baroque movements. His sculpture emphasized the individual and the concreteness of flesh, and suggested emotion through detailed, textured surfaces, and the interplay of light and shadow. To a greater degree than his contemporaries, Rodin believed that an individual's character was revealed by his physical features. Rodin's talent for surface modeling allowed him to let every part of the body speak for the whole. The male's passion in \"The Thinker\" is suggested by the grip of his toes on the rock, the rigidness of his back, and the differentiation of his hands. Speaking of \"The Thinker\", Rodin illuminated his aesthetic: \"What makes my Thinker think is that he thinks not only with his brain, with his knitted brow, his distended nostrils and compressed lips, but with every muscle of his arms, back, and legs, with his clenched fist and gripping toes.\" Sculptural fragments to Rodin were autonomous works, and he considered them the essence of his artistic statement. His fragments – perhaps lacking arms, legs, or a head – took sculpture further from its traditional role of portraying likenesses, and into a realm where forms existed for their own sake. Notable examples are \"The Walking Man\", \"Meditation without Arms\", and \"Iris, Messenger of the Gods\". Rodin saw suffering and conflict as hallmarks of modern art. \"Nothing, really, is more moving than the maddened beast, dying from unfulfilled desire and asking in vain for grace to quell its passion.\" Charles Baudelaire echoed those themes, and was among Rodin's favorite poets. Rodin enjoyed music, especially the opera composer Gluck, and wrote a book about French cathedrals. He owned a work by the as-yet-unrecognized Van Gogh, and admired the forgotten El Greco.", "Instead of copying traditional academic postures, Rodin preferred his models to move naturally around his studio (despite their nakedness). The sculptor often made quick sketches in clay that were later fine-tuned, cast in plaster, and cast in bronze or carved from marble. Rodin's focus was on the handling of clay. George Bernard Shaw sat for a portrait and gave an idea of Rodin's technique: \"While he worked, he achieved a number of miracles. At the end of the first fifteen minutes, after having given a simple idea of the human form", "By 1900, Rodin's artistic reputation was entrenched. Gaining exposure from a pavilion of his artwork set up near the 1900 World's Fair (\"Exposition Universelle\") in Paris, he received requests to make busts of prominent people internationally, while his assistants at the atelier produced duplicates of his works. His income from portrait commissions alone totaled probably 200,000 francs a year. As Rodin's fame grew, he attracted many followers, including the German poet Rainer Maria Rilke, and authors Octave Mirbeau, Joris-Karl Huysmans, and Oscar Wilde. Rilke stayed with Rodin in 1905 and 1906, and did administrative work for him; he would later write a laudatory monograph on the sculptor. Rodin and Beuret's modest country estate in Meudon, purchased in 1897, was a host to such visitors as King Edward, dancer Isadora Duncan, and harpsichordist Wanda Landowska. Rodin moved to the city in 1908, renting the main floor of the Hôtel Biron, an 18th-century townhouse. He left Beuret in Meudon, and began an affair with the American-born Duchesse de Choiseul. From 1910, he mentored the Russian sculptor, Moissey Kogan.", "While Rodin was beginning to be accepted in France by the time of \"The Burghers of Calais\", he had not yet conquered the American market. Because of his technique and the frankness of some of his work, he did not have an easy time selling his work to American industrialists. However, he came to know Sarah Tyson Hallowell (1846–1924), a curator from Chicago who visited Paris to arrange exhibitions at the large Interstate Expositions of the 1870s and 1880s. Hallowell was not only a curator but an adviser and a facilitator who was trusted by a number of prominent American collectors to suggest works for their collections, the most prominent of these being the Chicago hotelier Potter Palmer and his wife, Bertha Palmer (1849–1918). The next opportunity for Rodin in America was the 1893 Chicago World's Fair. Hallowell wanted to help promote Rodin's work and he suggested a solo exhibition, which she wrote him was \"beaucoup moins beau que l'original\" but impossible, outside the rules. Instead, she suggested he send", "After the start of the 20th century, Rodin was a regular visitor to Great Britain, where he developed a loyal following by the beginning of the First World War. He first visited England in 1881, where his friend, the artist Alphonse Legros, had introduced him to the poet William Ernest Henley. With his personal connections and enthusiasm for Rodin's art, Henley was most responsible for Rodin's reception in Britain. (Rodin later returned the favor by sculpting a that was used as the frontispiece to Henley's collected works and, after his death, on his monument in London.) Through Henley, Rodin met Robert Louis Stevenson and Robert Browning, in whom he found further support. Encouraged by the enthusiasm of British artists, students, and high society for his art, Rodin donated a significant selection of his works to the nation in 1914. After the revitalization of the Société Nationale des Beaux-Arts in 1890, Rodin served as the body's vice-president. In 1903, Rodin was elected president of the International Society of Painters, Sculptors, and Engravers. He replaced its former president, James Abbott McNeill Whistler, upon Whistler's death. His election to the prestigious position was largely due", "Rodin willed to the French state his studio and the right to make casts from his plasters. Because he encouraged the edition of his sculpted work, Rodin's sculptures are represented in many public and private collections. The Musée Rodin was founded in 1916 and opened in 1919 at the Hôtel Biron, where Rodin had lived, and it holds the largest Rodin collection, with more than 6,000 sculptures and 7,000 works on paper. The French order \"Légion d'honneur\" made him a Commander, and he received an honorary doctorate from the University of Oxford. During his lifetime, Rodin was compared to Michelangelo, and was widely recognized as the greatest artist of the era. In the three decades following his death, his popularity waned with changing aesthetic values. Since the 1950s, Rodin's reputation has re-ascended; he is recognized as the most important sculptor of the modern era, and has been the subject of much scholarly work. The sense of incompletion offered by some of his sculpture, such as \"The Walking Man\", influenced the increasingly abstract sculptural forms of the 20th century. Rodin restored an ancient role of sculpture – to capture the physical and intellectual force of the human subject – and he freed sculpture from the repetition of traditional patterns, providing the foundation for greater experimentation in the 20th century. His popularity is ascribed to his emotion-laden representations of ordinary men and women – to his ability to find the beauty and pathos in the human animal. His most popular works, such as \"The Kiss\" and \"The Thinker\", are widely used outside the fine arts as symbols of human emotion and character. To honor Rodin's artistic legacy, the Google search engine homepage displayed a Google Doodle featuring \"The Thinker\" to celebrate his 172nd birthday on 12 November 2012. Rodin had enormous artistic influence. A whole generation of sculptors studied in his workshop. These include Gutzon Borglum, Antoine Bourdelle, Constantin Brancusi, Camille Claudel, Charles Despiau, Malvina Hoffman, Carl Milles, François Pompon, Rodo, Gustav Vigeland, Clara Westhoff and Margaret Winser, even though Brancusi later rejected his legacy. Rodin also promoted the work of other sculptors, including Aristide Maillol and Ivan Meštrović whom Rodin once called \"the greatest phenomenon amongst sculptors.\" Other sculptors whose work has been described as owing to Rodin include Joseph Csaky, Alexander Archipenko, Joseph Bernard, Henri Gaudier-Brzeska, Georg Kolbe, Wilhelm Lehmbruck, Jacques Lipchitz, Pablo Picasso, Adolfo Wildt, and Ossip Zadkine. Henry Moore acknowledged Rodin's seminal influence on his work. Several films have been made featuring Rodin as a prominent character or presence. These include \"Camille Claudel\", a 1988 film in which Gérard Depardieu portrays Rodin, \"Camille Claudel 1915\" from 2013, and \"Rodin\", a 2017 film starring Vincent Lindon as Rodin.", "The relative ease of making reproductions has also encouraged many forgeries: a survey of expert opinion placed Rodin in the top ten most-faked artists. Rodin fought against forgeries of his works as early as 1901, and since his death, many cases of organized, large-scale forgeries have been revealed. A massive forgery was discovered by French authorities in the early 1990s and led to the conviction of art dealer Guy Hain. To deal with the complexity of bronze reproduction, France has promulgated several laws since 1956 which limit reproduction to twelve casts" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Taxonomy.", "Subspecies.", "Physical characteristics.", "Behavior.", "Social structure and home range.", "Hunting and diet.", "Reproduction and life cycle.", "Tracks.", "Ecology.", "Distribution and habitat.", "Conservation.", "Importance in human culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "There had been debate over whether to classify this species as \"Lynx rufus\" or \"Felis rufus\" as part of a wider issue regarding whether the four species of \"Lynx\" should be given their own genus, or be placed as a subgenus of \"Felis\". The genus \"Lynx\" is now accepted, and the bobcat is listed as \"Lynx rufus\" in modern taxonomic sources. Johnson et al. reported \"Lynx\" shared a clade with the puma, leopard cat (\"Prionailurus\"), and domestic cat (\"Felis\") lineages, dated to 7.15 million years ago (mya); \"Lynx\" diverged first, approximately 3.24 million years ago. The bobcat is believed to have evolved from the Eurasian lynx, which crossed into North America by way of the Bering Land Bridge during the Pleistocene, with progenitors arriving as early as 2.6 million years ago. The first wave moved into the southern portion of North America, which was soon cut off from the north by glaciers. This population evolved into modern bobcats around 20,000 years ago. A second population arrived from Asia and settled in the north, developing into the modern Canada lynx. Hybridization between the bobcat and the Canada lynx may sometimes occur.", "13 bobcat subspecies have been historically recognized based on morphological characteristics: This subspecies division has been challenged, given a lack of clear geographic breaks in their ranges and the minor differences between these subspecies. The latest revision of cat taxonomy in 2017, by the Cat Classification Taskforce of the Cat Specialist Group recognises only two subspecies, based on phylogeographic and genetic studies, although the status of the Mexican bobcat (\"Lynx rufus esquinapae\" syn. \"Lynx rufus oaxacensis\") remains under review:", "The bobcat resembles other species of the midsize genus \"Lynx\", but is on average the smallest of the four. Its coat is variable, though generally tan to grayish-brown, with black streaks on the body and dark bars on the forelegs and tail. Its spotted patterning acts as camouflage. The ears are black-tipped and pointed, with short, black tufts. Generally, an off-white color is seen on the lips, chin, and underparts. Bobcats in the desert regions of the southwest have the lightest-colored coats, while those in the northern, forested regions are darkest. Kittens are born well-furred and already have their spots. A few melanistic bobcats have been sighted and captured in Florida. They appear black, but may still exhibit a spot pattern. The face appears wide due to ruffs of extended hair beneath the ears. Bobcat eyes are yellow with round, black pupils. The nose of the bobcat is pinkish-red, and it has a base color of gray or yellowish- or brownish-red on its face, sides, and back. The pupils are round, black circles and will widen during nocturnal activity to maximize light reception. The cat has sharp hearing and vision, and a good sense of smell. It is an excellent climber, and swims when it needs to, but normally avoids water. However, cases of bobcats swimming long distances across lakes have been recorded. The adult bobcat is long from the head to the base of its distinctive stubby tail, averaging ; the tail, which appears “bobbed” and gives the species its name, adds An adult stands about at the shoulders. Adult males can range in weight from, with an average of ; females at, with an average of. The largest bobcat accurately measured on record weighed, although unverified reports have them reaching. Furthermore, a June 20, 2012 report of a New Hampshire roadkill specimen listed the animal's weight at. The largest-bodied bobcats are from eastern Canada and northern New England of the subspecies \"L. r. gigas\", while the smallest are from the southeastern subspecies \"L. r. floridanus\", particularly those in the southern Appalachians. The bobcat is muscular, and its hind legs are longer than its front legs, giving it a somewhat irregular gait. At birth, it weighs and is about in length. By its first birthday, it weighs about. The cat is larger in its northern range and in open habitats. A morphological size comparison study in the eastern United States found a divergence in the location of the largest male and female specimens, suggesting differing selection constraints for the sexes.", "The bobcat is crepuscular, and is active mostly during twilight. It keeps on the move from three hours before sunset until about midnight, and then again from before dawn until three hours after sunrise. Each night, it moves from along its habitual route. This behavior may vary seasonally, as bobcats become more diurnal during fall and winter in response to the activity of their prey, which are more active during the day in colder weather.", "Bobcat activities are confined to well-defined territories, which vary in size depending on the sex and the distribution of prey. The home range is marked with feces, urine scent, and by clawing prominent trees in the area. In its territory, the bobcat has numerous places of shelter, usually a main den, and several auxiliary shelters on the outer extent of its range, such as hollow logs, brush piles, thickets, or under rock ledges. Its den smells strongly of the bobcat. The sizes of bobcats' home ranges vary significantly; a World Conservation Union (IUCN) summary of research suggests ranges from. One study in Kansas found resident males to have ranges of roughly, and females less than half that area. Transient bobcats were found to have both larger (roughly ) and less well-defined home ranges. Kittens had the smallest range at about. Dispersal from the natal range is most pronounced with males. Reports on seasonal variation in range size have been equivocal. One study found a large variation in male range sizes, from in summer up to in winter. Another found that female bobcats, especially those which were reproductively active, expanded their home range in winter, but that males merely shifted their range without expanding it, which was consistent with numerous earlier studies. Other research in various American states has shown little or no seasonal variation. Like most felines, the bobcat is largely solitary, but ranges often overlap. Unusual for cats, males are more tolerant of overlap, while females rarely wander into others' ranges. Given their smaller range sizes, two or more females may reside within a male's home range. When multiple territories overlap, a dominance hierarchy is often established, resulting in the exclusion of some transients from favored areas. In line with widely differing estimates of home range size, population density figures are divergent, from one to 38 bobcats per in one survey. The average is estimated at one bobcat per. A link has been observed between population density and sex ratio. One study noted a dense, unhunted population in California had a sex ratio of 2.1 males per female. When the density decreased, the sex ratio skewed to 0.86 males per female. Another study observed a similar ratio, and suggested the males may be better able to cope with the increased competition, and this helped limit reproduction until various factors lowered the density.", "The bobcat is able to survive for long periods without food, but eats heavily when prey is abundant. During lean periods, it often preys on larger animals, which it can kill and return to feed on later. The bobcat hunts by stalking its prey and then ambushing with a short chase or pounce. Its preference is for mammals weighing about. Its main prey varies by region. In the eastern United States, it is the eastern cottontail species, and in the north it is the snowshoe hare. When these prey species exist together, as in New England, they are the primary food sources of the bobcat. In the far south, the rabbits and hares are sometimes replaced by cotton rats as the primary food source. Birds up to the size of an adult swan are also taken in ambushes, along with their fledglings and eggs. The bobcat is an opportunistic predator that, unlike the more specialized Canada lynx, readily varies its prey selection. Diet diversification positively correlates to a decline in numbers of the bobcat's principal prey; the abundance of its main prey species is the main determinant of overall diet. The bobcat hunts animals of different sizes, and adjusts its hunting techniques accordingly. With small animals, such as rodents (including squirrels), birds, fish including small sharks, and insects, it hunts in areas known to be abundant in prey, and will lie, crouch, or stand, and wait for victims to wander close. It then pounces, grabbing its prey with its sharp, retractable claws. For slightly larger animals, such as geese, rabbits, and hares, it stalks from cover and waits until prey comes within before rushing in to attack. Less commonly, it feeds on larger animals, such as young ungulates, and other carnivores, such as fishers (primarily female), foxes, minks, martens, skunks, small dogs, and domesticated cats. Bobcats are considered the major predatory threat to the endangered whooping crane. Bobcats are also occasional hunters of livestock and poultry. While larger species, such as cattle and horses, are not known to be attacked, bobcats do present a threat to smaller ruminants, such as sheep and goats. According to the National Agricultural Statistics Service, bobcats killed 11,100 sheep in 2004, comprising 4.9% of all sheep predator deaths. However, some amount of bobcat predation may be misidentified, as bobcats have been known to scavenge on the remains of livestock kills by other animals. It has been known to kill deer, especially in winter when smaller prey is scarce, or when deer populations become more abundant. One study in the Everglades showed a large majority of kills (33 of 39) were fawns, but prey up to eight times the bobcat's weight could be successfully taken. It stalks the deer, often when the deer is lying down, then rushes in and grabs it by the neck before biting the throat, base of the skull, or chest. On the rare occasions a bobcat kills a deer, it eats its fill and then buries the carcass under snow or leaves, often returning to it several times to feed. The bobcat prey base overlaps with that of other midsized predators of a similar ecological niche. Research in Maine has shown little evidence of competitive relationships between the bobcat and coyote or red fox; separation distances and territory overlap appeared random among simultaneously monitored animals. However, other studies have found bobcat populations may decrease in areas with high coyote populations, with the more social inclination of the canid giving them a possible competitive advantage. With the Canada lynx, however, the interspecific relationship affects distribution patterns; competitive exclusion by the bobcat is likely to have prevented any further southward expansion of the range of its felid relative.", "The average bobcat lifespan is 7 years long and rarely exceeds 10 years. The oldest wild bobcat on record was 16 years old, and the oldest captive bobcat lived to be 32. Bobcats generally begin breeding by their second summer, though females may start as early as their first year. Sperm production begins each year by September or October, and the male is fertile into the summer. A dominant male travels with a female and mates with her several times, generally from winter until early spring; this varies by location, but most mating takes place during February and March. The pair may undertake a number of different behaviors, including bumping, chasing, and ambushing. Other males may be in attendance, but remain uninvolved. Once the male recognizes the female is receptive, he grasps her in the typical felid neck grip and mates with her. The female may later go on to mate with other males, and males generally mate with several females. During courtship, the otherwise silent bobcat may let out loud screams, hisses, or other sounds. Research in Texas has suggested establishing a home range is necessary for breeding; studied animals with no set range had no identified offspring. The female has an estrous cycle of 44 days, with the estrus lasting five to ten days. Bobcats remain reproductively active throughout their lives. The female raises the young alone. One to six, but usually two to four, kittens are born in April or May, after roughly 60 to 70 days of gestation. Sometimes, a second litter is born as late as September. The female generally gives birth in an enclosed space, usually a small cave or hollow log. The young open their eyes by the ninth or tenth day. They start exploring their surroundings at four weeks and are weaned at about two months. Within three to five months, they begin to travel with their mother. They hunt by themselves by fall of their first year, and usually disperse shortly thereafter. In Michigan, however, they have been observed staying with their mother as late as the next spring.", "Bobcat tracks show four toes without claw marks, due to their retractable claws. The tracks can range in size from ; the average is about 1.8 inches. When walking or trotting, the tracks are spaced roughly apart. The bobcat can make great strides when running, often from. Like all cats, the bobcat 'directly registers', meaning its hind prints usually fall exactly on top of its fore prints. Bobcat tracks can be generally distinguished from feral or house cat tracks by their larger size: about 2.0 in (13 cm2) versus 1.5 in (10 cm2).", "The adult bobcat has relatively few predators other than humans. However seldomly, it may be killed in interspecific conflict by several larger predators or fall prey to them. Cougars and gray wolves can kill adult bobcats, a behavior repeatedly observed in Yellowstone National Park as well as elsewhere. Coyotes have killed adult bobcats and kittens. At least one confirmed observation of a bobcat and an American black bear \"(Ursus americanus)\" fighting over a carcass is confirmed. Like other \"Lynx\" species, bobcats probably avoid encounters with bears, in part because they are likely to lose kills to them or may be rarely be attacked by them. Bobcat remains have occasionally been found in the resting sites of male fishers. American alligators (\"Alligator mississippensis\") have been filmed opportunistically preying on adult bobcats in the southeast United States. Kittens may be taken by several predators, including owls (almost entirely great horned owls), eagles, foxes, and bears, as well as other adult male bobcats; when prey populations are not abundant, fewer kittens are likely to reach adulthood. Golden eagles (\"Aquila chrysaetos\") have been reportedly observed preying on bobcats. Diseases, accidents, hunters, automobiles, and starvation are the other leading causes of death. Juveniles show high mortality shortly after leaving their mothers, while still perfecting their hunting techniques. One study of 15 bobcats showed yearly survival rates for both sexes averaged 0.62, in line with other research suggesting rates of 0.56 to 0.67. Cannibalism has been reported; kittens may be taken when prey levels are low, but this is very rare and does not much influence the population. The bobcat may have external parasites, mostly ticks and fleas, and often carries the parasites of its prey, especially those of rabbits and squirrels. Internal parasites (endoparasites) are especially common in bobcats. One study found an average infection rate of 52% from \"Toxoplasma gondii\", but with great regional variation. One mite in particular, \"Lynxacarus morlani\", has to date been found only on the bobcat. Parasites' and diseases' role in the mortality of the bobcat is still unclear, but they may account for greater mortality than starvation, accidents, and predation.", "The bobcat is an adaptable animal. It prefers woodlands—deciduous, coniferous, or mixed—but unlike the other \"Lynx\" species, it does not depend exclusively on the deep forest. It ranges from the humid swamps of Florida to desert lands of Texas or rugged mountain areas. It makes its home near agricultural areas, if rocky ledges, swamps, or forested tracts are present; its spotted coat serves as camouflage. The population of the bobcat depends primarily on the population of its prey; other principal factors in the selection of habitat type include protection from severe weather, availability of resting and den sites, dense cover for hunting and escape, and freedom from disturbance. The bobcat's range does not seem to be limited by human populations, as long as it can find a suitable habitat; only large, intensively cultivated tracts are unsuitable for the species. The animal may appear in back yards in \"urban edge\" environments, where human development intersects with natural habitats. If chased by a dog, it usually climbs up a tree. The historical range of the bobcat was from southern Canada, throughout the United States, and as far south as the Mexican state of Oaxaca, and it still persists across much of this area. In the 20th century, it was thought to have lost territory in the US Midwest and parts of the Northeast, including southern Minnesota, eastern South Dakota, and much of Missouri, mostly due to habitat changes from modern agricultural practices. While thought to no longer exist in western New York and Pennsylvania, multiple confirmed sightings of bobcats (including dead specimens) have been recently reported in New York's Southern Tier and in central New York, and a bobcat was captured in 2018 on a tourist boat in Downtown Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. In addition, bobcat sightings have been confirmed in northern Indiana, and one was recently killed near Albion, Michigan. In early March 2010, a bobcat was sighted (and later captured by animal control authorities) in a parking garage in downtown Houston. By 2010, bobcats appear to have recolonized many states, occurring in every state except Delaware. Its population in Canada is limited due to both snow depth and the presence of the Canadian lynx. The bobcat does not tolerate deep snow, and waits out heavy storms in sheltered areas; it lacks the large, padded feet of the Canadian lynx and cannot support its weight on snow as efficiently. The bobcat is not entirely at a disadvantage where its range meets that of the larger felid: displacement of the Canadian lynx by the aggressive bobcat has been observed where they interact in Nova Scotia, while the clearing of coniferous forests for agriculture has led to a northward retreat of the Canadian lynx's range to the advantage of the bobcat. In northern and central Mexico, the cat is found in dry scrubland and forests of pine and oak; its range ends at the tropical southern portion of the country.", "It is listed in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), which means it is not considered threatened with extinction, but hunting and trading must be closely monitored. The animal is regulated in all three of its range countries, and is found in a number of protected areas of the United States, its principal territory. Estimates from the US Fish and Wildlife Service placed bobcat numbers between 700,000 and 1,500,000 in the US in 1988, with increased range and population density suggesting even greater numbers in subsequent years; for these reasons, the U.S. has petitioned CITES to remove the cat from Appendix II. Populations in Canada and Mexico remain stable and healthy. It is listed as least concern on the IUCN Red List, noting it is relatively widespread and abundant, but information from southern Mexico is poor. The species is considered endangered in Ohio, Indiana, and New Jersey. It was removed from the threatened list of Illinois in 1999 and of Iowa in 2003. In Pennsylvania, limited hunting and trapping are once again allowed, after having been banned from 1970 to 1999. The bobcat also suffered population decline in New Jersey at the turn of the 19th century, mainly because of commercial and agricultural developments causing habitat fragmentation; by 1972, the bobcat was given full legal protection, and was listed as endangered in the state in 1991. \"L. r. escuinipae\", the subspecies found in Mexico, was for a time considered endangered by the US Fish and Wildlife Service, but was delisted in 2005. The bobcat has long been valued both for fur and sport; it has been hunted and trapped by humans, but has maintained a high population, even in the southern United States, where it is extensively hunted. In the 1970s and 1980s, an unprecedented rise in price for bobcat fur caused further interest in hunting, but by the early 1990s, prices had dropped significantly. Regulated hunting still continues, with half of mortality of some populations being attributed to this cause. As a result, the rate of bobcat deaths is skewed in winter, when hunting season is generally open. Urbanization can result in the fragmentation of contiguous natural landscapes into patchy habitat within an urban area. Animals that live in these fragmented areas often have reduced movement between the habitat patches, which can lead to reduced gene flow and pathogen transmission between patches. Animals such as the bobcat are particularly sensitive to fragmentation because of their large home ranges. A study in coastal Southern California has shown bobcat populations are affected by urbanization, creation of roads, and other developments. The populations may not be declining as much as predicted, but instead the connectivity of different populations is affected. This leads to a decrease in natural genetic diversity among bobcat populations. For bobcats, preserving open space in sufficient quantities and quality is necessary for population viability. Educating local residents about the animals is critical, as well, for conservation in urban areas. In bobcats using urban habitats in California, the use of rodenticides has been linked to both secondary poisoning by consuming poisoned rats and mice, and to increased rates of severe mite infestation (known as notoedric mange), as an animal with a poison-weakened immune system is less capable of fighting off mange. Liver autopsies in California bobcats that have succumbed to notoedric mange have revealed chronic rodenticide exposure. Alternative rodent control measures such as vegetation control and use of traps have been suggested to alleviate this issue.", "Stories featuring the bobcat, in many variations, are found in some Indigenous cultures of North America (with parallels in South America). A story from the Nez Perce, for instance, depicts lynx and coyote as opposed, antithetical beings. However, another version depicts them with equality and identicality. In a Shawnee tale, the bobcat is outwitted by a rabbit, which gives rise to its spots. After trapping the rabbit in a tree, the bobcat is persuaded to build a fire, only to have the embers scattered on its fur, leaving it singed with dark brown spots. The Mohave believed dreaming habitually of beings or objects would afford them their characteristics as supernatural powers. Dreaming of two deities, cougar and lynx, they thought, would grant them the superior hunting skills of other Tribes. European colonizers to the Americas also admired the cat, both for its ferocity and its grace, and in the United States, it \"rests prominently in the anthology of... national folklore.\" Grave artifacts from dirt domes excavated in the 1980s along the Illinois River revealed a complete skeleton of a young bobcat along with a collar made of bone pendants and shell beads that had been buried by the Hopewell culture. The type and place of burial indicate a tamed and cherished pet or possible spiritual significance. The Hopewell normally buried their dogs, so the bones were initially identified as remains of a puppy, but dogs were usually buried close to the village and not in the mounds themselves. This is the only wild cat decorated burial on the archaeological record." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Background.", "Development.", "Applications.", "Characteristics.", "User interface.", "Processors in embedded systems.", "Ready-made computer boards.", "ASIC and FPGA solutions.", "Peripherals.", "Tools.", "Debugging.", "Tracing.", "Reliability.", "High vs. low volume.", "Embedded software architectures.", "Simple control loop.", "Interrupt-controlled system.", "Cooperative multitasking.", "Preemptive multitasking or multi-threading.", "Microkernels and exokernels.", "Monolithic kernels.", "Additional software components.", "Domain-specific architectures." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The origins of the microprocessor and the microcontroller can be traced back to the MOS integrated circuit, which is an integrated circuit chip fabricated from MOSFETs (metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors) and was developed in the early 1960s. By 1964, MOS chips had reached higher transistor density and lower manufacturing costs than bipolar chips. MOS chips further increased in complexity at a rate predicted by Moore's law, leading to large-scale integration (LSI) with hundreds of transistors on a single MOS chip by the late 1960s. The application of MOS LSI chips to computing was the basis for the first microprocessors, as engineers began recognizing that a complete computer processor system could be contained on several MOS LSI chips. The first multi-chip microprocessors, the Four-Phase Systems AL1 in 1969 and the Garrett AiResearch MP944 in 1970, were developed with multiple MOS LSI chips. The first single-chip microprocessor was the Intel 4004, released in 1971. It was developed by Federico Faggin, using his silicon-gate MOS technology, along with Intel engineers Marcian Hoff and Stan Mazor, and Busicom engineer Masatoshi Shima.", "One of the very first recognizably modern embedded systems was the Apollo Guidance Computer, developed ca. 1965 by Charles Stark Draper at the MIT Instrumentation Laboratory. At the project's inception, the Apollo guidance computer was considered the riskiest item in the Apollo project as it employed the then newly developed monolithic integrated circuits to reduce the computer's size and weight. An early mass-produced embedded system was the Autonetics D-17 guidance computer for the Minuteman missile, released in 1961. When the Minuteman II went into production in 1966, the D-17 was replaced with a new computer that represented the first high-volume use of integrated circuits. Since these early applications in the 1960s, embedded systems have come down in price and there has been a dramatic rise in processing power and functionality. An early microprocessor, the Intel 4004 (released in 1971), was designed for calculators and other small systems but still required external memory and support chips. By the early 1980s, memory, input and output system components had been integrated into the same chip as the processor forming a microcontroller. Microcontrollers find applications where a general-purpose computer would be too costly. As the cost of microprocessors and microcontrollers fell the prevalence of embedded systems increased. Today, a comparatively low-cost microcontroller may be programmed to fulfill the same role as a large number of separate components. With microcontrollers, it became feasible to replace, even in consumer products, expensive knob-based analog components such as potentiometers and variable capacitors with up/down buttons or knobs read out by a microprocessor. Although in this context an embedded system is usually more complex than a traditional solution, most of the complexity is contained within the microcontroller itself. Very few additional components may be needed and most of the design effort is in the software. Software prototype and test can be quicker compared with the design and construction of a new circuit not using an embedded processor.", "Embedded systems are commonly found in consumer, industrial, automotive, home appliances, medical, commercial and military applications. Telecommunications systems employ numerous embedded systems from telephone switches for the network to cell phones at the end user. Computer networking uses dedicated routers and network bridges to route data. Consumer electronics include MP3 players, television sets, mobile phones, video game consoles, digital cameras, GPS receivers, and printers. Household appliances, such as microwave ovens, washing machines and dishwashers, include embedded systems to provide flexibility, efficiency and features. Advanced HVAC systems use networked thermostats to more accurately and efficiently control temperature that can change by time of day and season. Home automation uses wired- and wireless-networking that can be used to control lights, climate, security, audio/visual, surveillance, etc., all of which use embedded devices for sensing and controlling. Transportation systems from flight to automobiles increasingly use embedded systems. New airplanes contain advanced avionics such as inertial guidance systems and GPS receivers that also have considerable safety requirements. Various electric motors — brushless DC motors, induction motors and DC motors — use electronic motor controllers. Automobiles, electric vehicles, and hybrid vehicles increasingly use embedded systems to maximize efficiency and reduce pollution. Other automotive safety systems include anti-lock braking system (ABS), Electronic Stability Control (ESC/ESP), traction control (TCS) and automatic four-wheel drive. Medical equipment uses embedded systems for vital signs monitoring, electronic stethoscopes for amplifying sounds, and various medical imaging (PET, SPECT, CT, and MRI) for non-invasive internal inspections. Embedded systems within medical equipment are often powered by industrial computers. Embedded systems are used in transportation, fire safety, safety and security, medical applications and life-critical systems. Unless connected to wired or wireless networks via on-chip 3G cellular or other methods for IoT monitoring and control purposes, these systems can be isolated from hacking and thus be more secure. For fire safety, the systems can be designed to have a greater ability to handle higher temperatures and continue to operate. In dealing with security, the embedded systems can be self-sufficient and be able to deal with cut electrical and communication systems. A new class of miniature wireless devices called motes are networked wireless sensors. Wireless sensor networking, WSN, makes use of miniaturization made possible by advanced IC design to couple full wireless subsystems to sophisticated sensors, enabling people and companies to measure a myriad of things in the physical world and act on this information through IT monitoring and control systems. These motes are completely self-contained, and will typically run off a battery source for years before the batteries need to be changed or charged. Embedded Wi-Fi modules provide a simple means of wirelessly enabling any device that communicates via a serial port.", "Embedded systems are designed to do some specific task, rather than be a general-purpose computer for multiple tasks. Some also have real-time performance constraints that must be met, for reasons such as safety and usability; others may have low or no performance requirements, allowing the system hardware to be simplified to reduce costs. Embedded systems are not always standalone devices. Many embedded systems consist of small parts within a larger device that serves a more general purpose. For example, the Gibson Robot Guitar features an embedded system for tuning the strings, but the overall purpose of the Robot Guitar is, of course, to play music. Similarly, an embedded system in an automobile provides a specific function as a subsystem of the car itself. The program instructions written for embedded systems are referred to as firmware, and are stored in read-only memory or flash memory chips. They run with limited computer hardware resources: little memory, small or non-existent keyboard or screen.", "Embedded systems range from no user interface at all, in systems dedicated only to one task, to complex graphical user interfaces that resemble modern computer desktop operating systems. Simple embedded devices use buttons, LEDs, graphic or character LCDs (HD44780 LCD for example) with a simple menu system. More sophisticated devices that use a graphical screen with touch sensing or screen-edge buttons provide flexibility while minimizing space used: the meaning of the buttons can change with the screen, and selection involves the natural behavior of pointing at what is desired. Handheld systems often have a screen with a \"joystick button\" for a pointing device. Some systems provide user interface remotely with the help of a serial (e.g. RS-232, USB, I2C, etc.) or network (e.g. Ethernet) connection. This approach gives several advantages: extends the capabilities of embedded system, avoids the cost of a display, simplifies BSP and allows one to build a rich user interface on the PC. A good example of this is the combination of an embedded web server running on an embedded device (such as an IP camera) or a network router. The user interface is displayed in a web browser on a PC connected to the device, therefore needing no software to be installed.", "Examples of properties of typical embedded computers, when compared with general-purpose counterparts, are low power consumption, small size, rugged operating ranges, and low per-unit cost. This comes at the price of limited processing resources, which make them significantly more difficult to program and to interact with. However, by building intelligence mechanisms on top of the hardware, taking advantage of possible existing sensors and the existence of a network of embedded units, one can both optimally manage available resources at the unit and network levels as well as provide augmented functions, well beyond those available. For example, intelligent techniques can be designed to manage power consumption of embedded systems. Embedded processors can be broken into two broad categories. Ordinary microprocessors (μP) use separate integrated circuits for memory and peripherals. Microcontrollers (μC) have on-chip peripherals, thus reducing power consumption, size and cost. In contrast to the personal computer market, many different basic CPU architectures are used since the software is custom-developed for an application and is not a commodity product installed by the end user. Both Von Neumann, as well as various degrees of Harvard architectures, are used. RISC as well as non-RISC processors are found. Word lengths vary from 4-bit to 64-bits and beyond, although the most typical remain 8/16-bit. Most architectures come in a large number of different variants and shapes, many of which are also manufactured by several different companies. Numerous microcontrollers have been developed for embedded systems use. General-purpose microprocessors are also used in embedded systems, but generally, require more support circuitry than microcontrollers.", "PC/104 and PC/104+ are examples of standards for \"ready-made\" computer boards intended for small, low-volume embedded and ruggedized systems, mostly x86-based. These are often physically small compared to a standard PC, although still quite large compared to most simple (8/16-bit) embedded systems. They often use DOS, Linux, NetBSD, or an embedded real-time operating system such as MicroC/OS-II, QNX or VxWorks. Sometimes these boards use non-x86 processors. In certain applications, where small size or power efficiency are not primary concerns, the components used may be compatible with those used in general-purpose x86 personal computers. Boards such as the VIA EPIA range help to bridge the gap by being PC-compatible but highly integrated, physically smaller or have other attributes making them attractive to embedded engineers. The advantage of this approach is that low-cost commodity components may be used along with the same software development tools used for general software development. Systems built in this way are still regarded as embedded since they are integrated into larger devices and fulfill a single role. Examples of devices that may adopt this approach are ATMs and arcade machines, which contain code specific to the application. However, most ready-made embedded systems boards are not PC-centered and do not use the ISA or PCI busses. When a system-on-a-chip processor is involved, there may be little benefit to having a standardized bus connecting discrete components, and the environment for both hardware and software tools may be very different. One common design style uses a small system module, perhaps the size of a business card, holding high density BGA chips such as an ARM-based system-on-a-chip processor and peripherals, external flash memory for storage, and DRAM for runtime memory. The module vendor will usually provide boot software and make sure there is a selection of operating systems, usually including Linux and some real-time choices. These modules can be manufactured in high volume, by organizations familiar with their specialized testing issues, and combined with much lower volume custom mainboards with application-specific external peripherals. Implementation of embedded systems has advanced so that they can easily be implemented with already-made boards that are based on worldwide accepted platforms. These platforms include, but are not limited to, Arduino and Raspberry Pi.", "A common array for very-high-volume embedded systems is the system on a chip (SoC) that contains a complete system consisting of multiple processors, multipliers, caches and interfaces on a single chip. SoCs can be implemented as an application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC) or using a field-programmable gate array (FPGA).", "Embedded systems talk with the outside world via peripherals, such as:", "As with other software, embedded system designers use compilers, assemblers, and debuggers to develop embedded system software. However, they may also use some more specific tools: Software tools can come from several sources: As the complexity of embedded systems grows, higher-level tools and operating systems are migrating into machinery where it makes sense. For example, cellphones, personal digital assistants and other consumer computers often need significant software that is purchased or provided by a person other than the manufacturer of the electronics. In these systems, an open programming environment such as Linux, NetBSD, OSGi or Embedded Java is required so that the third-party software provider can sell to a large market. Embedded systems are commonly found in consumer, cooking, industrial, automotive, and medical applications. Some examples of embedded systems are MP3 players, mobile phones, video game consoles, digital cameras, DVD players, and GPS. Household appliances, such as microwave ovens, washing machines and dishwashers, include embedded systems to provide flexibility and efficiency.", "Embedded debugging may be performed at different levels, depending on the facilities available. The different metrics that characterize the different forms of embedded debugging are: does it slow down the main application, how close is the debugged system or application to the actual system or application, how expressive are the triggers that can be set for debugging (e.g., inspecting the memory when a particular program counter value is reached), and what can be inspected in the debugging process (such as, only memory, or memory and registers, etc.). From simplest to most sophisticated they can be roughly grouped into the following areas: Unless restricted to external debugging, the programmer can typically load and run software through the tools, view the code running in the processor, and start or stop its operation. The view of the code may be as HLL source-code, assembly code or mixture of both. Because an embedded system is often composed of a wide variety of elements, the debugging strategy may vary. For instance, debugging a software- (and microprocessor-) centric embedded system is different from debugging an embedded system where most of the processing is performed by peripherals (DSP, FPGA, and co-processor). An increasing number of embedded systems today use more than one single processor core. A common problem with multi-core development is the proper synchronization of software execution. In this case, the embedded system design may wish to check the data traffic on the busses between the processor cores, which requires very low-level debugging, at signal/bus level, with a logic analyzer, for instance.", "Real-time operating systems (RTOS) often supports tracing of operating system events. A graphical view is presented by a host PC tool, based on a recording of the system behavior. The trace recording can be performed in software, by the RTOS, or by special tracing hardware. RTOS tracing allows developers to understand timing and performance issues of the software system and gives a good understanding of the high-level system behaviors.", "Embedded systems often reside in machines that are expected to run continuously for years without errors, and in some cases recover by themselves if an error occurs. Therefore, the software is usually developed and tested more carefully than that for personal computers, and unreliable mechanical moving parts such as disk drives, switches or buttons are avoided. Specific reliability issues may include: A variety of techniques are used, sometimes in combination, to recover from errors—both software bugs such as memory leaks, and also soft errors in the hardware:", "For high volume systems such as portable music players or mobile phones, minimizing cost is usually the primary design consideration. Engineers typically select hardware that is just “good enough” to implement the necessary functions. For low-volume or prototype embedded systems, general-purpose computers may be adapted by limiting the programs or by replacing the operating system with a real-time operating system.", "In 1978 National Electrical Manufacturers Association released a standard for programmable microcontrollers, including almost any computer-based controllers, such as single board computers, numerical, and event-based controllers. There are several different types of software architecture in common use today.", "In this design, the software simply has a loop. The loop calls subroutines, each of which manages a part of the hardware or software. Hence it is called a simple control loop or control loop.", "Some embedded systems are predominantly controlled by interrupts. This means that tasks performed by the system are triggered by different kinds of events; an interrupt could be generated, for example, by a timer in a predefined frequency, or by a serial port controller receiving a byte. These kinds of systems are used if event handlers need low latency, and the event handlers are short and simple. Usually, these kinds of systems run a simple task in a main loop also, but this task is not very sensitive to unexpected delays. Sometimes the interrupt handler will add longer tasks to a queue structure. Later, after the interrupt handler has finished, these tasks are executed by the main loop. This method brings the system close to a multitasking kernel with discrete processes.", "A non-preemptive multitasking system is very similar to the simple control loop scheme, except that the loop is hidden in an API. The programmer defines a series of tasks, and each task gets its own environment to “run” in. When a task is idle, it calls an idle routine, usually called “pause”, “wait”, “yield”, “nop” (stands for \"no operation\"), etc. The advantages and disadvantages are similar to that of the control loop, except that adding new software is easier, by simply writing a new task, or adding to the queue.", "In this type of system, a low-level piece of code switches between tasks or threads based on a timer (connected to an interrupt). This is the level at which the system is generally considered to have an \"operating system\" kernel. Depending on how much functionality is required, it introduces more or less of the complexities of managing multiple tasks running conceptually in parallel. As any code can potentially damage the data of another task (except in larger systems using an MMU) programs must be carefully designed and tested, and access to shared data must be controlled by some synchronization strategy, such as message queues, semaphores or a non-blocking synchronization scheme. Because of these complexities, it is common for organizations to use a real-time operating system (RTOS), allowing the application programmers to concentrate on device functionality rather than operating system services, at least for large systems; smaller systems often cannot afford the overhead associated with a \"generic\" real-time system, due to limitations regarding memory size, performance, or battery life. The choice that an RTOS is required brings in its own issues, however, as the selection must be made prior to starting to the application development process. This timing forces developers to choose the embedded operating system for their device based upon current requirements and so restricts future options to a large extent. The restriction of future options becomes more of an issue as product life decreases. Additionally, the level of complexity is continuously growing as devices are required to manage variables such as serial, USB, TCP/IP, Bluetooth, Wireless LAN, trunk radio, multiple channels, data and voice, enhanced graphics, multiple states, multiple threads, numerous wait states and so on. These trends are leading to the uptake of embedded middleware in addition to a real-time operating system.", "A microkernel is a logical step up from a real-time OS. The usual arrangement is that the operating system kernel allocates memory and switches the CPU to different threads of execution. User-mode processes implement major functions such as file systems, network interfaces, etc. In general, microkernels succeed when task switching and intertask communication is fast and fail when they are slow. Exokernels communicate efficiently by normal subroutine calls. The hardware and all the software in the system are available to and extensible by application programmers.", "In this case, a relatively large kernel with sophisticated capabilities is adapted to suit an embedded environment. This gives programmers an environment similar to a desktop operating system like Linux or Microsoft Windows, and is therefore very productive for development; on the downside, it requires considerably more hardware resources, is often more expensive, and, because of the complexity of these kernels, can be less predictable and reliable. Common examples of embedded monolithic kernels are embedded Linux, VXWorks and Windows CE. Despite the increased cost in hardware, this type of embedded system is increasing in popularity, especially on the more powerful embedded devices such as wireless routers and GPS navigation systems. Here are some of the reasons:", "In addition to the core operating system, many embedded systems have additional upper-layer software components. These components consist of networking protocol stacks like CAN, TCP/IP, FTP, HTTP, and HTTPS, and also included storage capabilities like FAT and flash memory management systems. If the embedded device has audio and video capabilities, then the appropriate drivers and codecs will be present in the system. In the case of the monolithic kernels, many of these software layers are included. In the RTOS category, the availability of the additional software components depends upon the commercial offering.", "In the automotive sector, AUTOSAR is a standard architecture for embedded software." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Prelude.", "Failed diplomacy.", "The 1976 military coup and the Argentine junta.", "Argentine invasion.", "Initial British response.", "United Nations Security Council Resolution 502.", "Position of third-party countries.", "British task force.", "Air and sea battles.", "Land battles.", "San Carlos – Bomb Alley.", "Goose Green.", "Special forces on Mount Kent.", "Bluff Cove and Fitzroy.", "Fall of Stanley.", "Recapture of South Sandwich Islands.", "Casualties.", "Red Cross Box.", "British casualty evacuation.", "Aftermath.", "Military analysis.", "Memorials.", "Minefields.", "Press and publicity.", "Argentina.", "United Kingdom.", "Cultural impact." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "In 1965, the United Nations called upon Argentina and the United Kingdom to reach a settlement of the sovereignty dispute. The UK Foreign and Commonwealth Office (FCO) regarded the islands as a nuisance and barrier to UK trade in South America, so, whilst confident of British sovereignty, was prepared to cede the islands to Argentina. When news of a proposed transfer broke in 1968, elements sympathetic with the plight of the islanders were able to organise an effective Parliamentary lobby to frustrate the FCO plans. Negotiations continued but in general failed to make meaningful progress; the islanders steadfastly refused to consider Argentine sovereignty on one side, whilst Argentina would not compromise over", "In the period leading up to the war—and, in particular, following the transfer of power between the military dictators General Jorge Rafael Videla and General Roberto Eduardo Viola late in March 1981—Argentina had been in the midst of devastating economic stagnation and large-scale civil unrest against the military \"junta\" that had been governing the country since 1976. In December 1981 there was a further change in the Argentine military regime, bringing to office a new \"junta\" headed by General Leopoldo Galtieri (acting president), Air Brigadier Basilio Lami Dozo and Admiral Jorge Anaya. Anaya was the main architect and supporter of a military solution for the long-standing claim over the islands, calculating that the United Kingdom would never respond militarily. By opting for military action, the Galtieri government hoped to mobilise the long-standing patriotic feelings of Argentines towards the islands, and thus divert public attention from the country's chronic economic problems and the", "On 2 April 1982 Argentine forces mounted amphibious landings, known as Operation Rosario, on the Falkland Islands. The invasion was met with a nominal defence organised by the Falkland Islands' Governor Sir Rex Hunt, giving command to Major Mike Norman of the Royal Marines. The events of the invasion included the landing of Lieutenant Commander Guillermo Sanchez-Sabarots' Amphibious Commandos Group, the attack on Moody Brook barracks, the engagement between the troops of Hugo Santillan and Bill Trollope at Stanley, and the final engagement and surrender at Government House.", "The British had already taken action prior to the 2 April invasion. In response to events on South Georgia, on 29 March, Ministers decided to send the Royal Fleet Auxiliary (RFA) \"Fort Austin\" south from the Mediterranean to support HMS \"Endurance\", and the submarine from Gibraltar, with ordered south from Scotland the following day. Lord Carrington had wished to send a third submarine, but the decision was deferred due to concerns about the impact on operational commitments. Coincidentally, on 26 March, the submarine left Gibraltar and it was assumed in the press it was heading south. There has since been speculation that the effect of those reports was to panic the Argentine junta into invading the Falklands before nuclear-powered submarines could be deployed. The following day, during a crisis meeting headed by the Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher, the Chief of the Naval Staff, Admiral Sir Henry Leach, advised them that \"Britain could and should send a task force if the islands are invaded\". On 1 April, Leach sent orders to a Royal Navy force carrying out exercises in the Mediterranean to", "On 31 March 1982, the Argentine ambassador to the UN, Eduardo Roca, tried garnering support against a British military build-up designed to thwart earlier UN resolutions calling for both countries to resolve their Falklands dispute through discussion. He did this because Argentina, based on inadequate intelligence gathering, was convinced a British task force was already on its way to the South Atlantic, and because of Britain's threat to use HMS Endurance to remove the scrap-metal workers from South Georgia. Any Argentine military action could then be justified as trying to counter Britain's use of force to evade complying with the earlier UN resolution. This Argentine approach to portray Britain as the aggressor came to nothing. On 1 April, London told the UK", "The UK received further political support from member countries of the Commonwealth of Nations and the European Economic Community. Australia, Canada, and New Zealand withdrew their diplomats from Buenos Aires. The EEC also provided economic support by imposing economic sanctions on Argentina. Argentina itself was politically backed by a majority of countries in Latin America (though, notably, not Chile). Some members of the Non-Aligned Movement also backed Argentina's position. The New Zealand government expelled the Argentine ambassador following the invasion. The Prime Minister, Robert Muldoon, was in London when the war broke out and in an opinion piece published in \"The Times\" he said: \"The military rulers of Argentina must not be appeased... New Zealand will back Britain all the way.\" Broadcasting on the BBC World Service, he told the Falkland Islanders: \"This is Rob Muldoon. We are thinking of you and we are giving our full and total", "The British government had no contingency plan for an invasion of the islands, and the task force was rapidly put together from whatever vessels were available. The nuclear-powered submarine set sail from France on 4 April, whilst the two aircraft carriers and, in the company of escort vessels, left Portsmouth only a day later. On its return to Southampton from a world cruise on 7 April, the ocean liner was requisitioned and set sail two days later with 3 Commando Brigade aboard. The ocean liner \"Queen Elizabeth 2\" was also requisitioned and left Southampton on 12 May with 5th Infantry Brigade on board. The whole task force eventually comprised 127 ships: 43 Royal Navy vessels, 22 Royal Fleet Auxiliary ships and 62 merchant ships. The retaking of the Falkland Islands was considered extremely difficult. The chances of a British counter-invasion succeeding were assessed by the US Navy, according to historian Arthur L. Herman, as \"a military impossibility\". Firstly, the British were significantly constrained by the disparity in deployable air cover. The British had 42 aircraft (28 Sea Harriers and 14 Harrier GR.3s) available for air combat operations, against approximately 122 serviceable jet fighters, of which about 50 were used as air superiority fighters and the remainder as strike aircraft, in Argentina's air forces during the war. Crucially, the British lacked airborne early warning and control (AEW) aircraft. Planning also considered the Argentine surface fleet and the threat posed by Exocet-equipped vessels or the two Type 209 submarines. By mid-April, the Royal Air Force had set up the airbase of RAF Ascension Island, co-located with Wideawake Airfield on the mid-Atlantic British overseas territory of Ascension Island, including a sizeable force of Avro Vulcan B Mk 2 bombers, Handley Page Victor K Mk 2 refuelling aircraft, and McDonnell Douglas Phantom FGR Mk 2 fighters to protect them. Meanwhile, the main British naval task force arrived at Ascension to prepare for active service. A small force had already been sent south to recapture South Georgia. Encounters began in April; the British Task Force was shadowed by Boeing 707 aircraft of the Argentine Air Force during their travel to the south. Several of these flights were intercepted by Sea Harriers outside the British-imposed exclusion zone; the unarmed 707s were not attacked because diplomatic moves were still in progress and the UK had not yet decided to commit itself to armed force. On 23 April, a Brazilian commercial Douglas DC-10 from VARIG Airlines en route to South Africa was intercepted by British Harriers who visually identified the civilian plane.", "At sea, the paucity of the British ships' anti-aircraft defences was demonstrated in the sinking of on 21 May, on 24 May, and (struck by two AM39 Exocets) on 25 May along with a cargo of helicopters, runway-building equipment and tents. The loss of all but one of the Chinook helicopters being carried by the Atlantic Conveyor as well as their maintenance equipment and facilities was a severe blow from a logistical perspective. Also lost on this day was, a sister to, whilst in company with after being ordered to act as a decoy to draw away Argentine aircraft from other ships at San Carlos Bay. and were badly damaged. However, many British ships escaped being sunk because of weaknesses of the Argentine pilots' bombing tactics described below. To avoid the highest concentration of British air defences, Argentine pilots released ordnance from very low altitude, and hence their bomb fuzes did not have sufficient time to arm before impact. The low release of the retarded bombs (some of which the British had sold to the Argentines years earlier) meant that many never exploded, as there was insufficient time in the air for them to arm themselves. A simple free-fall bomb in a low-altitude release impacts almost directly below the aircraft, which is then within", "", "During the night of 21 May, the British Amphibious Task Group under the command of Commodore Michael Clapp (Commodore, Amphibious Warfare – COMAW) mounted Operation Sutton, the amphibious landing on beaches around San Carlos Water, on the northwestern coast of East Falkland facing onto Falkland Sound. The bay, known as \"Bomb Alley\" by British forces, was the scene of repeated air attacks by low-flying Argentine jets. The men of 3 Commando Brigade were put ashore as follows: 2nd Battalion, Parachute Regiment (2 Para) from the RORO ferry \"Norland\" and 40 Commando Royal Marines from the amphibious ship were landed at San Carlos (Blue Beach), 3rd Battalion, Parachute Regiment (3 Para) from the amphibious", "From early on 27 May until 28 May, 2 Para (approximately 500 men), with naval gunfire support from and artillery support from 8 Commando Battery, Royal Artillery, approached and attacked Darwin and Goose Green, which was held by the Argentine 12th Infantry Regiment. After a tough struggle that lasted all night and into the next day, the British won the battle; in all, 17 British and 47 Argentine soldiers were killed. A total of 961 Argentine troops (including 202", "Meanwhile, 42 Commando prepared to move by helicopter to Mount Kent. Unknown to senior British officers, the Argentine generals were determined to tie down the British troops in the Mount Kent area, and on 27 and 28 May they sent transport aircraft loaded with Blowpipe surface-to-air missiles and commandos (602nd Commando Company and 601st National Gendarmerie Special Forces Squadron) to Stanley. This operation was known as \"Autoimpuesta\" (\"Self-determination initiative\"). For the next week, the SAS and the Mountain and Arctic Warfare Cadre (M&AWC)", "By 1 June, with the arrival of a further British troops of the 5th Infantry Brigade, the new British divisional commander, Major General Jeremy Moore RM, had sufficient force to start planning an offensive against Stanley. During this build-up, the Argentine air assaults on the British naval forces continued, killing 56. Of the dead, 32 were from the Welsh Guards on RFA \"Sir Galahad\" and RFA \"Sir Tristram\" on 8 June. According to Surgeon-Commander Rick Jolly of the Falklands Field Hospital, more than 150 men suffered burns and injuries of some kind in the attack, including, famously, Simon Weston. The Guards were sent to support an advance along the southern approach to Stanley. On 2 June, a small advance party of 2 Para moved to Swan Inlet house in a number of Army Westland Scout helicopters. Telephoning ahead to Fitzroy, they discovered that the area was clear of Argentines and (exceeding their authority) commandeered the one remaining", "On the night of 11 June, after several days of painstaking reconnaissance and logistic build-up, British forces launched a brigade-sized night attack against the heavily defended ring of high ground surrounding Stanley. Units of 3 Commando Brigade, supported by naval gunfire from several Royal Navy ships, simultaneously attacked in the Battle of Mount Harriet, Battle of Two Sisters, and Battle of Mount Longdon. Mount Harriet was taken at a cost of 2 British and 18 Argentine soldiers. At Two Sisters, the British faced both enemy resistance and friendly fire, but managed to capture their objectives. The toughest battle was at Mount Longdon. British forces were bogged down by rifle, mortar, machine gun, artillery fire, sniper fire, and ambushes. Despite this, the British continued their advance. During this battle, 13 were killed when, straying too close to shore while returning from the gun line, was struck by an improvised trailer-based", "On 20 June, the British retook the South Sandwich Islands, which involved accepting the surrender of the Southern Thule Garrison at the", "In total, 907 were killed during the 74 days of the conflict: Of the 86 Royal Navy personnel, 22 were lost in, 19 + 1 lost in, 19 + 1 lost in and 13 lost in. Fourteen naval cooks were among the dead, the largest number from any one branch in the Royal Navy. Thirty-three of the British Army's dead came from the Welsh Guards (32 of which died on the RFA \"Sir Galahad\" in the Bluff Cove Air Attacks), 21 from the 3rd Battalion, the Parachute Regiment, 18 from the 2nd Battalion, the Parachute Regiment, 19 from the Special Air Service, 3 from Royal Signals and 8 from each of the Scots Guards and Royal Engineers. The 1st battalion/7th Duke of Edinburgh's Own Gurkha Rifles lost one man. Two more British deaths may be attributed to Operation Corporate, bringing the total to 260: There were Argentine and 777 British non-fatal casualties.", "Before British offensive operations began, the British and Argentine governments agreed to establish an area on the high seas where both sides could station hospital ships without fear of attack by the other side. This area, a circle 20 nautical miles in diameter, was referred to as the Red Cross Box (), about north of Falkland Sound. Ultimately, the British stationed four ships (, and and the primary hospital ship SS \"Uganda\") within the box, while the Argentines stationed three (, and ). The hospital ships were non-warships converted to serve as hospital ships. The three British naval vessels were survey vessels and \"Uganda\"", "\"Hydra\" worked with \"Hecla\" and \"Herald\" to take casualties from \"Uganda\" to Montevideo, Uruguay, where a fleet of", "This brief war brought many consequences for all the parties involved, besides the considerable casualty rate and large materiel loss, especially of shipping and aircraft, relative to the deployed military strengths of the opposing sides. In the United Kingdom, Margaret Thatcher's popularity increased. The success of the Falklands campaign was widely regarded as a factor in the turnaround in fortunes for the Conservative government, who had been trailing behind the SDP-Liberal Alliance in the opinion polls for months before the conflict began, but after the success in the Falklands the Conservatives returned to the top of the opinion polls by a wide margin and went on to win the following year's general election by a landslide. Subsequently, Defence Secretary Nott's proposed cuts to the Royal Navy were abandoned. The islanders subsequently had full British citizenship restored in 1983, their lifestyle was improved by investments the UK made after the war and by the liberalisation of economic measures that had been stalled through fear of angering Argentina. In 1985, a new constitution was enacted promoting self-government, which has continued to devolve power to the islanders. In Argentina, defeat in the Falklands War meant that a possible war with Chile was avoided. Further, Argentina returned to a democratic government in the 1983 general election, the first free general election since 1973. It also had a major social impact, destroying the military's image as the \"moral reserve of the nation\" that they had maintained through most of the 20th century. Various figures have been produced for the number of veterans who have committed suicide since the war. Some studies have estimated that 264 British veterans and 350–500 Argentine veterans have committed suicide since 1982. However, a detailed study of British veterans of the war commissioned by the UK Ministry of Defence found that only 95 had died from \"intentional self-harm and events of undetermined intent (suicides and open verdict deaths)\", a proportion lower than would be expected within the general population over the same period.", "Militarily, the Falklands conflict remains one of the largest air-naval combat operations between modern forces since the end of the Second World War. As such, it has been the subject of intense study by military analysts and historians. The most significant \"lessons learned\" include: the vulnerability of", "There are several memorials on the Falkland Islands themselves, the most notable of which is the 1982 Liberation Memorial, unveiled in 1984 on the second anniversary of the end of the war. It lists the names of the 255 British military personnel who died during the war and is located in front of the Secretariat Building in Stanley, overlooking Stanley Harbour. The Memorial was funded entirely by the Islanders and is inscribed with the words \"In Memory of Those Who Liberated Us\". In addition to memorials on the islands, there is a memorial", ", there were 113 uncleared minefields on the Falkland Islands and unexploded ordnance (UXOs) covering an area of. Of this area, on the Murrell Peninsula were classified as being \"suspected minefields\"—the area had been heavily pastured for the previous 25 years without incident. It was estimated that these minefields had anti-personnel mines and anti-tank mines. No human casualties from mines or UXO have been reported in the Falkland Islands since 1984, and no civilian mine casualties have ever occurred on the islands. The UK reported six military personnel were injured in 1982 and a further two injured in 1983. Most military accidents took place while clearing the minefields in", "", "Selected war correspondents were regularly flown to Port Stanley in military aircraft to report on the war. Back in Buenos Aires, newspapers and magazines faithfully reported on \"the heroic actions of the largely conscript army and its successes\". Officers from the intelligence services were attached to the newspapers and 'leaked' information confirming the official communiqués from the government. The glossy magazines \"Gente\" and \"Siete Días\" swelled to 60 pages with colour photographs of British warships in flames—many of them faked—and bogus eyewitness reports of the Argentine commandos' guerrilla war on South Georgia (6 May) and an already dead Pucará pilot's attack on HMS \"Hermes\" (Lt. Daniel Antonio Jukic had been killed at Goose Green during a British air strike on 1 May). Most of the faked photos actually came from", "Seventeen newspaper reporters, two photographers, two radio reporters and three television reporters with five technicians sailed with the Task Force to the war. The Newspaper Publishers' Association selected them from among 160 applicants, excluding foreign media. The hasty selection resulted in the inclusion of two journalists among the war reporters who were interested only in Queen Elizabeth II's son Prince Andrew, who was serving in the conflict. The Prince flew a helicopter on multiple missions, including Anti-Surface Warfare, Exocet missile decoy and casualty evacuation. Merchant vessels had the civilian Inmarsat uplink, which enabled written telex and voice report transmissions via satellite. had a facsimile machine that was used to upload 202 pictures from the South Atlantic over the course of the war. The Royal Navy leased bandwidth on the U.S. Defense Satellite Communications System for worldwide communications. Television demands a thousand times the data rate of telephone, but the Ministry of", "There were wide-ranging influences on popular culture in both the UK and Argentina, from the immediate postwar period to the present. The Argentine writer Jorge Luis Borges described the war as \"a fight between two bald men over a comb\". The words \"yomp\" and \"Exocet\" entered the British vernacular as a result of the war. The Falklands War also provided material for theatre, film and TV drama and influenced the output of musicians. In Argentina, the military government banned the broadcasting of music in the English language, giving way to the rise of local rock musicians." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Fictional biography.", "Adaptations.", "Concept and creation.", "Interpretations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Gimli was born in the Ered Luin (Blue Mountains) in the Third Age. His father was Glóin, one of the former companions of the hobbit, Bilbo Baggins. Gimli had wanted to accompany his father and the others in the company of Thorin Oakenshield on their quest to reclaim Erebor (the Lonely Mountain), but at age 62 he was deemed too young. He was a remote descendant of Durin the Deathless, chief of the Seven Fathers of the Dwarves and ancestor to the Dwarven people to which Gimli belonged, the Longbeards. Gimli was of the royal line, but not close to the succession; he was the third cousin once removed of Dáin II Ironfoot, king of Durin's Folk, and the first cousin once removed of Balin, also one of Bilbo's former companions, and later briefly Lord of Moria. Gimli is first seen at the Council of Elrond Half-elven. Gimli and his father were at to bring news of their home, Erebor, and to warn that the Dark Lord Sauron was searching for Bilbo. There they learned that Bilbo's kinsman Frodo was now the bearer of the One Ring, the greatest of the Ring of Power, forged by Sauron. The Council decided to have it destroyed by casting it into the volcanic Mount Doom in Sauron's domain of Mordor. Frodo volunteered for the task, and Elrond chose Gimli and seven others of varying races to aid him in his task. Thus, the Fellowship of the Ring was formed. Within the Fellowship there was initially friction between Gimli and the elf Legolas: their races bore an old grudge against each other over the Necklace of the Dwarves and the destruction of Doriath, and more recently Thranduil, Legolas' father, had once imprisoned Gimli's father Glóin (as described in \"The Hobbit\"). When the company was forced to enter the ancient underground Dwarf-realm, the Mines of Moria, Gimli was at first enthusiastic and hoped to find Balin's recently established colony of his people there. However, Moria was still inhabited by Orcs, Cave Trolls, and a Balrog: Balin and his folk had all been killed. The Fellowship found his tomb and a chronicle of events in the Chamber of Mazarbul; Orcs discovered their presence, and they had to fight their way out. The Fellowship's leader, the Wizard Gandalf, died fighting the Balrog, but the rest of the Fellowship escaped the Mines. Aragorn, a Ranger, then led them to the forest of Lothlórien, populated by Elves hostile to Dwarves. Gimli was told he had to be blindfolded if he was to enter the forest, and his refusal nearly led to a violent situation, defused only when Aragorn arranged for the entire Fellowship to be blindfolded. Gimli's opinion of Elves changed when he met Galadriel, co-ruler of Lothlórien: her beauty, kindness, and understanding impressed Gimli so much that, when given the opportunity to ask for whatever he wished, he responded that being able to see her and hear her gentle words was gift enough. When pressed further, he admitted that he desired a single strand of her golden hair, to be an heirloom of his house, but that he could not ask for such a gift. Galadriel was so moved by his bold yet courteous request that she gave him not one, but three of her hairs. She also subsequently gave Gimli the name \"Lockbearer\" as a result. By the end of the sojourn in Lothlórien, Gimli had formed his unlikely friendship with Legolas. At Amon Hen, the company was sundered, for Boromir, son of the Steward of Gondor, tried to take the Ring and use it for Gondor and his own gain in their ongoing war against Sauron. Frodo fled at this and went ahead, accompanied only by his gardener Samwise Gamgee. The Fellowship was scattered while looking for Frodo, and the two other hobbits of the party, Merry Brandybuck and Pippin Took, were captured by Orcs. Boromir was mortally wounded defending them, and it fell to Gimli, Aragorn and Legolas to set him on a funeral boat. They decided to go after Merry and Pippin, for Frodo's mission was out of their hands. After running a great distance in a few days to the land of Rohan, they met Éomer, nephew of Rohan's King Théoden, with a troop of cavalry. They had killed all the Orcs the Three Hunters were pursuing. When Éomer spoke ill of the name Galadriel, having been told false rumours about her, Gimli responded harshly: Aragorn calmed the quarrel. After being informed about the situation in Rohan, Gimli and the others continued their search for the hobbits, and they came across a resurrected Gandalf, now Gandalf the White, in Fangorn Forest. He assured them that the hobbits were now safe. Gandalf led them to Rohan's capital, Edoras, where he roused King Théoden out of inaction and exposed his counsellor, Gríma Wormtongue, as a spy for Sauron's ally Saruman. Gimli proved his valour in combat in the ensuing Battle of Helm's Deep against Saruman's forces. He and Legolas engaged in an Orc-slaying contest (Gimli won by one; he killed 42 to Legolas's 41); he received a minor head injury and his axe was notched on the iron collar of the forty-first Orc. During the battle, Gimli saved Éomer's life by killing two orcs and driving off two others. Later, Gimli's vivid description of the Glittering Caves of Aglarond moved Legolas to promise to visit the caves when the War was over. Their friendship was a model for overcoming prejudice; they even rode together on the same horse. After their victory, Gimli and the others went to Saruman's stronghold of Isengard, where Gandalf cast Saruman out of the Order of Wizards and broke his staff. During this conversation, Gimli saw through Saruman's lies with the words \"This wizard's words stand on their heads\". Gimli then accompanied Aragorn, Legolas, a company of Rangers of the North, and Elrond's sons Elladan and Elrohir on the Paths of the Dead. At the stone of Erech, Aragorn summoned the Dead Men of Dunharrow, spirits bound by oath to fight for the king of Gondor, which Aragorn rightfully was. Gimli witnessed the Dead rout invaders at Pelargir in south Gondor by the power of fear alone. After Aragorn declared the spirits' oath fulfilled, the men of south Gondor gathered to his banner, and they sailed in the enemy's abandoned ships to relieve the siege of Gondor's capital Minas Tirith. Their arrival led to victory in the Battle of the Pelennor Fields. Gimli alone represented the Dwarves in the final battle against Sauron, the Battle of the Morannon in front of the Black Gate of Mordor. There he recognized Pippin Took's feet underneath a troll and saved the young hobbit's life. Before the host of Gondor could be overwhelmed, the Ring was destroyed, and Sauron was defeated. After the War, Gimli led a large number of Durin's folk south to establish a new Dwarf-realm at Aglarond, and he became the first Lord of the Glittering Caves. The Dwarves of the Glittering Caves built \"great works\" in Rohan and Gondor, and replaced the ruined gate of Minas Tirith with a new one made of \"mithril\" and steel. According to the Red Book of Westmarch, after Aragorn's death in the Fourth Age, Gimli (then 262 years old, past mid-life for a Dwarf) sailed with Legolas into the West, becoming the first dwarf in the Undying Lands.", "Gimli was voiced by David Buck in Ralph Bakshi's 1978 animated version of \"The Lord of the Rings\". Here he is drawn as being almost as tall as the rest of the non-hobbit members of the Fellowship. Gimli does not appear in the 1980 animated version of \"The Return of the King\". He is portrayed by Tomi Salmela in the 1993 Finnish miniseries \"Hobitit\". In Peter Jackson's film trilogy (2001–2003) Gimli is played by John Rhys-Davies, who portrayed the character as having a Scottish accent. Rhys-Davies happened to be taller than the actors playing the Hobbits, who were only (actor Elijah Wood, playing Frodo Baggins) and (actors Sean Astin, Billy Boyd, and Dominic Monaghan, playing Sam Gamgee, Pippin Took, and Merry Brandybuck) while Rhys-Davies is. Thus in scenes where Gimli and the Hobbits appear together, their respective sizes remain in proportion, whereas in scenes where they have to interact with human-sized characters, tricks of scale had to be employed, especially since John Rhys-Davies is also taller than Viggo Mortensen and Orlando Bloom (who played Aragorn and Legolas respectively), both of whom are. Gimli wears a heavy helmet at the outset instead of getting one in Rohan as in the book, as well as wielding various axes of different shapes and uses (ex. small throwing axes, a walking axe, and a double-headed axe he obtains in Moria). In the book, he bears only one axe throughout. In the movies, Gimli's more prosaic and blunt style contrasted to Aragorn and Legolas is somewhat exaggerated, and he often provides the defusing comic relief, with much of the humour based on heightism. Another major source of comic relief is his competitive, if friendly, feud with Legolas beginning in the course of \"\", which is well continued into \"\" where Gimli consistently finds himself out-achieved, especially when Legolas slays an Oliphaunt by himself. In the Hobbit movie series, Gimli is mentioned in \"\" when Legolas inspects a locket containing pictures of Glóin's family and believes the image of young Gimli to be a goblin, infuriating Glóin. On stage, in the United States, Gimli was portrayed by Elizabeth Harris in the Cincinnati stage productions of \"The Fellowship of the Ring\" (2001), \"The Two Towers\" (2002), and \"The Return of the King\" (2003) for Clear Stage Cincinnati. At Chicago's Lifeline Theatre, Gimli was played on-stage by Brooks Darrah in \"The Two Towers\" (1999). In Canada, Gimli was portrayed by Ross Williams in the 3-hour Toronto stage production of \"The Lord of the Rings\", which opened in 2006. In The Lord of the Rings: The Musical he was played by Sévan Stephan throughout its London run.", "The name \"Gimli\" first appeared in Tolkien's works in \"The Tale of Tinúviel\", the earliest version of the story of Beren and Lúthien Tinúviel, found in the second volume of \"The Book of Lost Tales\". Here, the name belongs to an aged elf, a prisoner along with Beren in the kitchens of Tevildo, Prince of Cats (forerunner of Sauron). During the writing of \"The Lord of the Rings\", as told in \"The Return of the Shadow\", Gimli's character was first named \"Frar\", then \"Burin\", and he was the son of Balin.", "The Tolkien scholar Tom Shippey writes that Tolkien at times uses Gimli to generate the reaction he wants from the reader. Shippey is critical of this use of characters as \"'internal reflectors' of embarrassment or suspicion\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Preparations.", "1999.", "2000.", "2001.", "2002.", "2003.", "Peak in 2004.", "2005: Poor start and controversy.", "Speed record attempt." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "British American Tobacco (BAT) had been involved in Formula One for many years, with several of its brands being displayed on F1 cars run by various teams. In 1997, the corporation was convinced by Craig Pollock to provide most of the equity to purchase the Tyrrell Formula One team for GB£30 million. Pollock, Adrian Reynard and Rick Gorne were the minority partners. The deal was announced on 2 December 1997. The team was still officially known as Tyrrell in 1998, before it became BAR the following year.", "On 23 July 1998, BAR announced the signing of 1997 World Champion Jacques Villeneuve away from Williams with a lucrative contract for the 1999 season. Pollock had managed Villeneuve throughout his racing career. Villeneuve was joined by F1 rookie Ricardo Zonta. The car's chassis was built by Reynard Motorsport at a new factory in Brackley and was powered by Supertec (rebadged Renault) engines. At the launch of their new car, BAR unveiled separate liveries for their cars; Villeneuve's car painted in a white and red Lucky Strike livery and Zonta's carrying a blue and yellow 555 livery. The FIA deemed the dual liveries illegal under F1 regulations which state that a team's cars must carry largely identical liveries. BAR lodged a complaint with the International Chamber of Commerce (as permitted under F1's regulations) but simultaneously lodged a complaint with the European Commission. Pollock was summoned to the World Motor Sport Council to explain the team's behaviour. A potential fine and/or ban was averted when Pollock agreed to abide by the F1 arbitration process, admitted that in filing the complaint to the EC his lawyers had acted independently and that declarations made in the claim did not reflect his personal views. He also apologised to the Council and reiterated his acceptance of the FIA's authority. To get around the ban, BAR ran one side of their cars painted in the Lucky Strike colours, and the other side in the blue and yellow of 555. BAR reverted to a more traditional style of livery for 2000 onwards. BAR had the slogan of \"A tradition of excellence\", which was viewed as humorous by pundits as the team had no history and therefore no such tradition at all. Adrian Reynard also made an ambitious claim that the team would win a race in their debut season.", "In a disastrous maiden season, BAR failed to score a single point in the Constructors' Championship. The car was relatively quick and often qualified in the midfield, Villeneuve even ran in 3rd place in the Spanish Grand Prix for a short while. However, the car suffered from chronic unreliability, Villeneuve started the year with 11 straight retirements, and failed to finish a race until the Belgian Grand Prix that August. Zonta missed three races due to an injury and managed only a best finish of 8th. Mika Salo, who filled in for Zonta while he was hurt, provided the team with its best finish of 7th. Thanks to the backing from BAT, British American Racing benefitted from significant funding and a lavish budget in their opening season, but it was reported that by halfway through the season, they had already overspent that budget by enough to keep Formula 1 minnows Minardi racing for several years.", "During the 1999 season, BAR announced that Honda was to supply them with engines beginning in 2000. The Honda deal not only meant they would supply engines, but that Honda staff would work with the team at their Brackley base. Honda had planned to enter Formula One as a factory team, but relented. It was the first time Honda had been directly involved in Formula One since 1992. BAR did not have exclusive use of Honda engines, though, as Jordan Grand Prix were using Mugen Honda units. The following year, Jordan were given factory Honda engines, but the engine manufacturers could not supply two teams forever. This prompted a battle between BAR and Jordan for the use of Honda engines in the long term. The car was once again designed in co-operation with Adrian Reynard despite talk of tension between him and team principal Craig Pollock. At the launch of the 002 car, Pollock himself described the 2000 season as a chance to \"wipe the slate clean\" following their awful first season and admitted that the team had made many mistakes in their first season. In 2000, the new Honda powered BAR did show a significant improvement. It proved to be considerably more reliable than the team's previous effort, but the team still only had a best finish of 4th and the victory they had promised in 1999 still eluded them. At the end of the season, the team finished 5th in the Constructors' Championship. The progression and improvement of the team was enough to convince Villeneuve to remain at the team.", "Villeneuve reached the podium twice in 2001 for BAR, but neither his nor new teammate Olivier Panis's results were consistent enough.", "Under pressure from British American Tobacco, Pollock resigned on the eve of the launch of the 2002 car and was replaced as team principal by David Richards. Richards' Prodrive company was also awarded a five-year management contract to run BAR. BAT and Prodrive had a prior relationship with BAT sponsoring Subaru's World Rally Championship team, operated by Prodrive. 2002 was a transient season for BAR. A significant proportion of the workforce was culled while technical director Malcolm Oastler and designer Andy Green left. Villeneuve still struggled to score points and Panis also failing to reach expectations. BAR signed a deal to become Honda's only team in 2003, despite finishing behind Honda's other team, Jordan, in both 2001 and 2002.", "BAR brought in Jenson Button to replace Panis for the 2003 Formula One season. Villeneuve's contract negotiation arguments with David Richards eventually ended with him being replaced before the end of the season by Japanese driver Takuma Sato. Honda has traditionally liked its teams to field Japanese drivers for publicity reasons in the car manufacturer's home country. Jenson Button led a race for the first time at the 2003 United States Grand Prix. The team struggled due to its use of Bridgestone tyres. In the off-season they changed to rival company Michelin.", "Early in 2004, the team saw a further upswing in its fortunes, Button scoring many podium finishes. He also took their first pole position, at San Marino. The Honda RA004E engine was reputed to produce slightly over in \"Suzuka Special\" form, and was certainly one of the most powerful, if not the most powerful engine in Formula One. BAR finished the season in 2nd place in the Constructors' Championship, beating every team except for Ferrari. Despite this, BAR's first win still eluded them. During the course of the 2004 season, a dispute with WilliamsF1 threatened to overshadow BAR's on-track performance. Both teams believed they had a valid contract for Button in 2005. The issue finally went to the Contract Recognition Board, which found in favour of BAR. Button was to drive for BAR in 2005, but signed a contract to join Williams for 2006. With increasing restrictions being placed upon tobacco companies' opportunities to advertise in Formula One, rumours suggested that BAT would try to sell the team. In mid-November 2004, BAR announced that Honda had purchased 45% and, as part of the deal, David Richards left to be replaced by Nick Fry as team principal. Prodrive's management contract was also terminated early.", "The start of the 2005 season didn't go according to plan for BAR, as they struggled in the \"flyaway\" races at the start of the season. Just as they became competitive, in San Marino, BAR Honda was disqualified for running with illegal cars. The allegation was that the cars were able to race with their total weight below 605 kg (1323 lb), the minimum weight required for a Formula 1 car. BAR disputed this, saying that the engine required a minimum of of fuel to work, thus keeping them above the minimum weight. Their interpretation of the rules was that this limit applies only during the race, not during the post-race scrutineering. The FIA, and later the court, disagreed. In addition to the disqualification, the team was banned for two races, a period which included the lucrative Monaco Grand Prix. The team initially indicated that they planned to fight the decision before a regular civil court but later decided to accept the verdict. Max Mosley, the president of the FIA, saw the sanction as very lenient; he had wanted the team to be banned for the rest of the season. However, they were unable to prove deliberate intent to cheat, as they had with BAR's predecessor, Tyrrell, in the 1984 season. When BAR returned at the European Grand Prix, the team struggled to find its feet. In stark contrast to the previous season, BAR failed to score a single point until the midway point, at the 2005 French Grand Prix, not helped by the team's use of Michelin tyres causing them to not start the 2005 United States Grand Prix. Takuma Sato had a particularly poor season, scoring just one point, and subsequently, his contract was not renewed by BAR at the end of the season. Sato was replaced in the new Honda team by former Ferrari driver Rubens Barrichello. Still, the team showed its grit by steadily developing the car, allowing Button to score in each of the last 10 races of the season, culminating in 2 podium positions. Confirmation of this improvement was shown in a skilful pass made by Jenson Button, overtaking Jacques Villeneuve at the fast Pouhon corner at Spa-Francorchamps, in the rain, and around the outside. At the end of 2005, Honda obtained 100% ownership of BAR from British American Tobacco, completing their ambition to become a full F1 manufacturer team. In addition, Jenson Button's Williams contract was bought out for US$30 million, and Button signed a multi-year contract with Honda. Following the sale of the team to Honda, BAT would return to Formula One in, sponsoring McLaren in a \"global partnership\" agreement under its \"A Better Tomorrow\" campaign, relating to electronic cigarettes and related alternative smoking products.", "BAR tested a modified BAR-Honda 007 car which they intended to use in an attempt to set the land speed record for a car meeting FIA Formula One regulations. The team aimed for, and were planning to attempt the record at Bonneville Salt Flats. The driver for this project was Alan van der Merwe. The modified chassis performed a shakedown test on the long runway at Mojave Airport in California, on 5 November 2005, under the supervision of safety co-ordinator executive, Jamie Hardwick. The four published times recorded in this test were,, and. However, these tests did not constitute the record attempt itself and waterlogging of the salt flats resulted in the attempt being postponed. The chassis was used by BAR's successor, Honda, to set a new record the following year." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Century of partitions: 1815 Congress of Vienna.", "Restored Poland after the First World War.", "Occupation of Poland by Nazi Germany.", "After World War II in the Polish People's Republic.", "Geography.", "Climate.", "Districts.", "Demographics.", "Places of interest.", "Economy and infrastructure.", "Transport.", "Airport.", "Public Transport.", "Rail.", "Education.", "National Film School in Łódź.", "Culture.", "Łódź in literature and cinema.", "Sport.", "Horticultural Expo 2024.", "International relations.", "Twin towns – sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Łódź first appears in the written record in a 1332 document giving the village of \"Łodzia\" to the bishops of Włocławek. In 1423 King Władysław II Jagiełło officially granted city rights to the village of \"Łódź\". From then until the 18th century the town remained a small settlement on a trade route between the provinces of Masovia and Silesia. In the 16th century the town had fewer than 800 inhabitants, mostly working on the surrounding grain farms. With the second partition of Poland in 1793, Łódź became part of the Kingdom of Prussia's province of South Prussia, and was known in German as \"Lodsch\". In 1798 the Prussians nationalised the town, and it lost its status as a town of the bishops of Kuyavia. In 1806 Łódź joined the Napoleonic Duchy of Warsaw and in 1810 it had approximately 190 inhabitants. After the 1815 Congress of Vienna treaty it became part of the Congress Kingdom of Poland, a client state of the Russian Empire.", "In the 1815 treaty, it was planned to renew the dilapidated town and with the 1816 decree by the Czar a number of German immigrants received territory deeds for them to clear the land and to build factories and housing. Their incentives for settlement included \"exemption from tax obligations for a period of six years, free materials to build houses, perpetual lease of land for construction, exemption from military service or duty-free transport of the immigrants’ livestock.\" In 1820 Stanisław Staszic aided in changing the small town into a modern industrial centre. The immigrants came to the \"Promised Land\" (\"Ziemia obiecana\", the city's nickname) from all over Europe. Mostly they arrived from Saxony, Silesia and Bohemia, but also from countries as far away as Portugal, England, France and Ireland. The first cotton mill opened in 1825, and 14 years later the very first steam-powered factory in both Poland and the Russian Empire commenced operations. In 1839, over 78% of the population was German, and German schools and churches were established. A constant influx of workers, businessmen and craftsmen from all over Europe transformed Łódź into the main textile production centre of the mighty Russian Empire spanning from East-Central Europe all the way to Alaska. As long as the town was small, the majority of the town's population was German speaking. Three groups then dominated the city's population and contributed the most to the city's development: Germans, Poles, and Jews, who started to arrive from 1848. Many of the Łódź craftspeople were weavers from Upper and Lower Silesia. In 1850, Russia abolished the customs barrier between Congress Poland and Russia proper and therefore industry in Łódź could now develop freely with a huge Russian market not far away. Eventually the city became the second-largest city of Congress Poland. In 1865 the first railroad line opened (to Koluszki, branch line of the Warsaw–Vienna railway), and soon the city had rail links with Warsaw and Białystok. One of the most important industrialists of Łódź was Karl Wilhelm Scheibler. In 1852 he came to Łódź and with Julius Schwarz together started buying property and building several factories. Scheibler later bought out Schwarz's share and thus became sole owner of a large business. After he died in 1881 his widow and other members of the family decided to pay homage to his memory by erecting a chapel, intended as a mausoleum with family crypt, in the Lutheran part of the Łódź cemetery on \"ulica Ogrodowa\" (later known as The Old Cemetery). Between 1823 and 1873, the city's population doubled every ten years. The years 1870–1890 marked the period of most intense industrial development in the city's modern history. Many of the industrialists were of Jewish ethnicity. Łódź also soon became a major centre of the socialist movement. In 1892 a huge strike paralyzed most of the factories and manufacturing plants. According to the Russian census of 1897, in which Łódź figured as the fifth-largest city of the Russian Empire, out of the total population of 315,000, Jews constituted 99,000 (around 31% percent). During the 1905 Revolution, in what became known as the June Days or Łódź insurrection, Tsarist police killed hundreds of workers. By 1913, the Poles constituted almost half of the population (49.7%), the German minority had fallen to 14.8%, and the Jews made up 34%, out of some 506,000 inhabitants. Despite the air of impending crisis preceding World War I, the city grew constantly until 1914. By that year it had become one of the most densely populated as well as one of the most polluted industrial cities in the world—. A major battle was fought near the city in late 1914, and as a result the city came under German occupation after 6 December but with Polish independence restored in November 1918 the local population liberated the city and disarmed the German troops. In the aftermath of World War I, Łódź lost approximately 40% of its inhabitants, mostly owing to draft, diseases, pollution and primarily because of the mass expulsion of the city's German population back to Germany.", "In 1922, following the establishment of the Second Polish Republic, Łódź became the capital of the Łódź Voivodeship, but the period of rapid growth had ceased. The Great Depression of the 1930s and the \"Customs war\" with Germany closed western markets to Polish textiles while the Bolshevik Revolution (1917) and the Civil War in Russia (1918–1922) put an end to the most profitable trade with the East. The city became a scene of a series of huge workers' protests and riots in the interbellum. On 13 September 1925 a new airport, Lublinek Airport, began operations on the outskirts of the city. In the interwar years Łódź continued to be a diverse and multicultural city, with the 1931 Polish census showing that the total population of roughly 604,000 included 375,000 (59%) Poles, 192,000 (32%) Jews and 54,000 (9%) Germans (determined from the main language used). By 1939, the Jewish minority had grown to well over 200,000.", "During the invasion of Poland, the Polish forces of General Juliusz Rómmel's Łódź Army defended the city against initial German attacks. The \"Wehrmacht\" nevertheless captured the city on 8 September. Despite plans for the city to become a Polish enclave attached to the General Government, the Nazi hierarchy respected the wishes of many ethnically German residents and of the \"Reichsgau Wartheland\" governor Arthur Greiser by annexing the city to the Reich in November 1939. Many Germans in the city, however, refused to sign the \"Volksliste\" and become \"Volksdeutsche\"; they were deported by the General Government. The city was given the new name of \"Litzmannstadt\" after Karl Litzmann, the German general who had captured it during World War I. The Nazi authorities soon established the Łódź Ghetto (\"Ghetto Litzmannstadt\") in the city and populated it with more than 200,000 Jews from the Łódź area. As Jews were deported from Litzmannstadt for extermination, others were brought in. Several concentration camps and death camps arose in the city's vicinity for the non-Jewish inhabitants of the regions, among them the infamous Radogoszcz prison and several minor camps for the Romani people and for Polish children. Due to the value of the goods that the ghetto population produced for the German military and various civilian contractors, it was the last major ghetto to be liquidated, in August 1944. While occupied, thousands of new ethnic German \"Volksdeutsche\" came to Łódź from all across Europe, many of whom were repatriated from Russia during the time of Hitler's alliance with the Soviet Union before Operation Barbarossa. In January 1945, most of the German population fled the city for fear of the Red Army. The city also suffered tremendous losses due to the German policy of requisition of all factories and machines and transporting them to Germany. Thus, despite relatively small losses due to fighting and aerial bombardment, Łódź was deprived of most of its industrial infrastructure. Prior to World War II, Łódź's Jewish community numbered around 233,000 and accounted for one-third of the city's total population. The community was almost entirely wiped out in the Holocaust. By the end of the war, the city and its environs had lost approximately 420,000 of its pre-war inhabitants, including approximately 300,000 Polish Jews. On 1 August 1944 the Warsaw Uprising erupted, and the fate of the remaining inhabitants of the Łódź Ghetto was sealed. During the last phase of its existence, some 25,000 inmates were murdered at Chełmno; their bodies burned immediately after death. As the front approached, German officials decided to deport the remaining Jews to Auschwitz-Birkenau aboard Holocaust trains. A handful of people were left alive in the ghetto to clean it up.<ref name=\"S.J./H.E.A.R.T\"></ref> Others remained in hiding with the Polish rescuers. When the Soviet army entered Łódź on 19 January 1945, only 877 Jews were still alive, 12 of whom were children. Of the 223,000 Jews in Łódź before the invasion, only 10,000 survived the Holocaust in other places. The Soviet Red Army entered the city on 18 January 1945. According to Marshal Katukov, whose forces participated in the operation, the Germans retreated so suddenly that they had no time to evacuate or destroy any of the factories, as they had in other cities. Łódź subsequently became part of the Polish People's Republic.", "At the end of World War II, Łódź had fewer than 300,000 inhabitants. However the number began to grow as refugees from Warsaw and territories annexed by the Soviet Union migrated. Until 1948 the city served as a \"de facto\" capital of Poland, since events during and after the Warsaw Uprising had thoroughly destroyed Warsaw, and most of the government and country administration resided in Łódź. Some planned moving the capital there permanently; however, this idea did not gain popular support and in 1948 the reconstruction of Warsaw began. Under the Polish Communist regime many of the rich industrialist and business magnate families lost their wealth when the authorities nationalised private companies. Once again the city became a major centre of industry. A number of extensive panel block housing estates (including Retkinia, Teofilów, Widzew, Radogoszcz and Chojny) were constructed between 1960 and 1990, covering an area of almost and accommodating a large part of the city's population. In mid-1981 Łódź became famous for its massive hunger demonstration of local mothers and their children. In 1988 the population of the city peaked to 854,261, gradually dropping ever since. After the period of economic transition during the 1990s, most enterprises were again privatised.", "", "Łódź has a humid continental climate (\"Dfb\" in the Köppen climate classification).", "Łódź was previously subdivided into five boroughs (dzielnica): Bałuty, Widzew, Śródmieście, Polesie, Górna. However, the city is now divided into 36 osiedla (districts): Bałuty-Centrum, Bałuty-Doły, Bałuty Zachodnie, Julianów-Marysin-Rogi, Łagiewniki, Radogoszcz, Teofilów-Wielkopolska, Osiedle Wzniesień Łódzkich, Chojny, Chojny-Dąbrowa, Górniak, Nad Nerem, Piastów-Kurak, Rokicie, Ruda, Wiskitno, Osiedle im. Józefa Montwiłła-Mireckiego, Karolew-Retkinia Wschód, Koziny, Lublinek-Pienista, Retkinia Zachód-Smulsko, Stare Polesie, Zdrowie-Mania, Złotno, Śródmieście-Wschód, Osiedle Katedralna, Andrzejów, Dolina Łódki, Mileszki, Nowosolna, Olechów-Janów, Stary Widzew, Stoki, Widzew-Wschód, Zarzew, and Osiedle nr 33.", "Łódź was Poland's second largest city until 2007, when it lost its position to Kraków. This is because alongside the entire region of Łódź Voivodeship, the city is experiencing substantial population decline. Since the population peak of 1988, when the number of inhabitants reached 854,261, Łódź has lost more than 150,000 residents. Such a dramatic change results mainly from low fertility rates and low life expectancy on the one hand, and a negative migration balance on the other. A major factor behind the shrinkage of the city was the transition from socialist to market-based economy after 1989 and the resulting economic crisis, but the economic growth following Poland's accession to the European Union in 2004 has not reversed the trend. The process of suburbanization also contributes to it, with a number of non-urban areas in counties surrounding Łódź steadily increasing in population. While the 'fringe area' around Łódź is expected to register an insignificant growth of less than 2,000 people until 2050, the population of the city proper by the middle of the 21st century is estimated to drop below the level of 500,000. The ongoing ageing and depopulation of Łódź is a major challenge for the future development of the city, putting strain on social infrastructure and medical services. Łódź has one of the highest feminization rates among Poland's major cities, a legacy of the city's industrial past, when the textile factories attracted large numbers of female employees. The rising age of the population, coupled with a longer life expectancy among women, further exacerbates the disproportion.", "The most notable and recognizable landmark of the city is Piotrkowska Street, which remains the high-street and main tourist attraction in the city, runs north to south for a little over. This makes it one of the longest commercial streets in the world. Most of the building façades, many of which date back to the 19th century, have been renovated. It is the site of most restaurants, bars and cafes in Łódź's city centre. Many neglected tenement houses throughout the entire city centre have been renovated in recent years as part of the ongoing revitalization project run by the local authorities. The best example of urban regeneration in Łódź is the Manufaktura complex, occupying a large area of a former cotton factory dating back to the nineteenth century. The site, which was the heart of Izrael Poznański's industrial empire, now hosts a shopping mall, numerous restaurants, 4-star hotel, multiplex cinema, factory museum, bowling and fitness facilities and a science exhibition centre. Opened in 2006, it quickly became a centre of cultural entertainment and shopping, as well as a recognizable city landmark attracting both domestic and foreign tourists. The city is also likely to receive a large boost in terms of tourism once the massive revitalization project of the city's downtown (worth 4 billion PLN) is completed. The local government's efforts to transform the former industrial city into a thriving urban environment and tourist destination formed the basis for the city's failed bid to organise the 2022 International EXPO exhibition on the subject of urban renewal. Łódź has one of the best museums of modern art in Poland. \"Muzeum Sztuki\" has three branches, two of which (ms1 and ms2) display collections of 20th and 21st century art. The newest addition to the museum, ms2 was opened in 2008 in the Manufaktura complex. The unique collection of the Museum is presented in an unconventional way: instead of a chronological lecture on the development of art, works of art representing various periods and movements are arranged into a story touching themes and motifs important for the contemporary public. The third branch of \"Muzeum Sztuki\", located in one of the city's many industrial palaces, also has more traditional art on display, presenting works by European and Polish masters such as Stanisław Wyspiański and Henryk Rodakowski. Among the 14 registered museums to be found in Łódź, there is the independent Book Art Museum, awarded the American Printing History Association's Institutional Award for 2015 for its outstanding contribution to the study, recording, preservation and dissemination of printing history in Poland over the last 35 years. Other notable museums include the Central Museum of Textiles with its open-air display of wooden architecture, the Cinematography Museum, located in Scheibler Palace, and the Museum of Independence Traditions, occupying the building of a historical Tsarist prison from the late 19th century. A more unusual establishment, the \"Dętka\" museum offers tourists a chance to visit the municipal sewer designed in the early years of the 20th century by the British engineer William Heerlein Lindley. Łódź also provides plenty of green spaces for recreation. Woodland areas cover 9.61% of the city, with parks taking up an additional 2.37% of the area of Łódź (as of 2014). \"Las Łagiewnicki\" (Łagiewnicki Forest), the largest forest within city limits, is referred to in scholarship as \"the largest forested area within the administrative borders of any city in Europe.\" It has an area of 1,245 ha and is cut across by a number of hiking trails that traverse the hilly landscape on the western edge of Łódź Hills Landscape Park. A \"natural complex which has remained nearly intact as oak-hornbeam and oak woodland,\" the forest is also rich in history, and its attractions include a Franciscan friary dating back to the early 18th century and two 17th-century wooden chapels. Out of a total of 44 parks in Łódź (as of 2014), 11 have historical status, the oldest of them dating back to the middle of the 19th century. The largest of these, Józef Piłsudski Park (188,21 ha), is located near the Łódź Zoo and the city's botanical garden, and together with them it comprises an extensive green complex known as \"Zdrowie\" serving the recreational needs of the city. Another notable park located in Łódź is the Józef Poniatowski Park. The Jewish Cemetery at Bracka Street, one of the largest of its kind in Europe, was established in 1892. After the invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany in 1939, this cemetery became a part of Łódź's \"eastern territory\" known as the enclosed Łódź ghetto (\"Ghetto Field\"). Between 1940 and 1944, approximately 43,000 burials took place within the grounds of this rounded-up cemetery. In 1956, a monument by Muszko in memory of the victims of the Łódź Ghetto was erected at the cemetery. It features a smooth obelisk, a menorah, and a broken oak tree with leaves stemming from the tree (symbolizing death, especially death at a young age). the cemetery has an area of 39.6 hectare. It contains approximately 180,000 graves, approximately 65,000 labelled tombstones, ohels and mausoleums. Many of these monuments have significant architectural value; 100 of these have been declared historical monuments and have been in various stages of restoration. The mausoleum of Izrael and Eleanora Poznanski is perhaps the largest Jewish tombstone in the world and the only one decorated with mosaics.", "Before 1990, the economy of Łódź was heavily reliant on the textile industry, which had developed in the city in the nineteenth century owing to the abundance of rivers used to power the industry's fulling mills, bleaching plants and other machinery. Because of the growth in this industry, the city has sometimes been called the \"Polish Manchester\" and the \"lingerie capital of Poland\". As a result, Łódź grew from a population of 13,000 in 1840 to over 500,000 in 1913. By the time right before World War I Łódź had become one of the most densely populated industrial cities in the world, with 13,280 inhabitants per km, and also one of the most polluted. The textile industry declined dramatically in 1990 and 1991, and no major textile company survives in Łódź today. However, countless small companies still provide a significant output of textiles, mostly for export to Russia and other countries of the former Soviet Union. Łódź is no longer a significant industrial centre, but it has become a major hub for the business services sector in Poland owing to the availability of highly-skilled workers and active cooperation between local universities and the business sector. The city benefits from its central location in Poland. A number of firms have located their logistics centres in the vicinity. Two motorways, A1 spanning from the north to the south of Poland, and A2 going from the east to the west, intersect northeast of the city., the A2 is complete to Warsaw and the northern section of A1 is largely completed. With these connections, the advantages of the city's central location should increase even further. Work has also begun on upgrading the railway connection with Warsaw, which reduced the 2-hour travel time to make the journey 1.5 hours in 2009. As of 2018, travel time from Łódź to Warsaw is around 1.2 hours with the modern Pesa SA Dart trains. Recent years have seen many foreign companies opening and establishing their offices in Łódź. The Indian IT company Infosys has one of its centres in the city. In January 2009 Dell announced that it will shift production from its plant in Limerick, Ireland to its plant in Łódź, largely because the labour costs in Poland are a fraction of those in Ireland. The city's investor friendly policies have attracted 980 foreign investors by January 2009. Foreign investment was one of the factors which decreased the unemployment rate in Łódź to 6.5 percent in December 2008, from 20 percent four years earlier.", "Łódź is situated near the geographical centre of Poland, only a short distance away from the motorway junction in Stryków where the two main north-south (A1) and east-west (A2) Polish transport corridors meet, which positions the city on two of the ten major trans-European routes: from Gdańsk to Žilina and Brno and from Berlin to Moscow via Warsaw. It is also part of the New Silk Road, a regular cargo rail connection with the Chinese city of Chengdu operating since 2013. Łódź is served by the national motorway network, an international airport, and long-distance and regional railways. It is at the centre of a regional and commuter rail network operating from the city's various train stations. Bus and tram services are operated by a municipal public transport company. There are of bicycle routes throughout the city. Major roads include:", "The city has an international airport: Łódź Władysław Reymont Airport located from the city centre. Flights connect the city with destinations in Europe including Turkey. In 2014 the airport handled 253,772 passengers. It is the 8th largest airport in Poland.", "The Municipal Transport Company – Łódź (Miejskie Przedsiębiorstwo Komunikacyjne – Łódź), owned by the Łódź City Government, is responsible for operating 58 bus routes and 19 tram lines.", "Łódź has a number of long distance and local railway stations. There are two main stations in the city, but with no direct rail connection between them—a legacy of 19th-century railway network planning. Originally constructed in 1866, the centrally-located Łódź Fabryczna was a terminus station for a branch line of the Warsaw-Vienna railway, whereas Łódź Kaliska was built more than thirty years later on the central section of the Warsaw-Kalisz railway. For this reason most intercity train traffic goes to this day through Łódź Kaliska station, despite its relative distance from the city centre, and Łódź Fabryczna serves mainly as a terminal station for trains to Warsaw. The situation will be remedied in 2021 after the construction of a tunnel connecting the two, which is likely to make Łódź Poland's main railway hub. The tunnel will additionally serve Łódź Commuter Railway, providing a rapid transit system for the city, dubbed the Łódź Metro by the media and local authorities. Two new stations are to be constructed on the underground line, one serving the needs of the Manufaktura complex and the other located in the area of Piotrkowska Street. In December 2016, a few years after the demolition of the old building of Łódź Fabryczna station, a new underground station was opened. It is considered to be the largest and most modern of all train stations in Poland and is designed to handle increased traffic after the construction of the tunnel. It also serves as a multimodal transport hub, featuring an underground intercity bus station, and is integrated with a new transport interchange serving taxis and local trams and buses. The construction of the new Łódź Fabryczna station was part of a broader project of urban renewal known as Nowe Centrum Łodzi (New Centre of Łódź). The third-largest train station in Łódź is Łódź Widzew. There are also many other stations and train stops in the city, many of which were upgraded as part of the Łódzka Kolej Aglomeracyjna commuter rail project. The rail service, founded as part of a major regional rail upgrade and owned by Łódź Voivodeship, operates on routes to Kutno, Sieradz, Skierniewice, Łowicz, and on selected days to Warsaw, with plans for further expansion after the construction of the tunnel.", "Łódź is a thriving center of academic life. Currently Łódź hosts three major state-owned universities, six higher education establishments operating for more than a half of the century, and a number of smaller schools of higher education. The tertiary institutions with the most students in Łódź include: In the 2018 general ranking of state-owned tertiary education institutions in Poland, the University of Łódź came 20th (6th place among universities) and Lodz University of Technology 12th (6th place among technical universities). The Medical University of Łódź was ranked 5th among Polish medical universities. Leading courses taught in Łódź include administration (UŁ - 3rd place), law (UŁ - 4th place) and biology (UŁ - 4th place). There is also a number of private-owned institutions of higher learning in Łódź. The largest of these are the University of Social Sciences (\"Społeczna Akademia Nauk\") and the University of Humanities and Economics in Łódź (\"Akademia Humanistyczno-Ekonomiczna w Łodzi\"). In the 2018 ranking of private universities in Poland the former was ranked 9th, and the latter 23rd.", "\"Leon Schiller National Higher School of Film, Television and Theatre\" in Łódź (\"Państwowa Wyższa Szkoła Filmowa, Telewizyjna i Teatralna im. Leona Schillera w Łodzi\") is the most notable academy for future actors, directors, photographers, camera operators and TV staff in Poland. It was founded on 8 March 1948 and was initially planned to be moved to Warsaw as soon as the city was rebuilt following the Warsaw Uprising. However, in the end the school remained in Łódź and today is one of the best-known institutions of higher education in the city. At the end of the Second World War Łódź remained the only large Polish city besides Kraków which war had not destroyed. The creation of the National Film School gave Łódź a role of greater importance from a cultural viewpoint, which before the war had belonged exclusively to Warsaw and Kraków. Early students of the School include the directors Andrzej Munk, Andrzej Wajda, Kazimierz Karabasz (one of the founders of the so-called Black Series of Polish Documentary) and Janusz Morgenstern, who at the end of the 1950s became famous as one of the founders of the Polish Film School of Cinematography.", "", "Three major novels depict the development of industrial Łódź: Władysław Reymont's \"The Promised Land\" (1898), Joseph Roth's \"Hotel Savoy\" (1924) and Israel Joshua Singer's \"The Brothers Ashkenazi\" (1937). Roth's novel depicts the city on the eve of a workers' riot in 1919. Reymont's novel was made into a film by Andrzej Wajda in 1975. In the 1990 film \"Europa Europa\", Solomon Perel's family flees pre-World War II Berlin and settles in Łódź. Scenes of David Lynch's 2006 film \"Inland Empire\" were shot in Łódź. Paweł Pawlikowski's film \"Ida\" was partially shot in Łódź. Sections of Harry Turtledove's \"Worldwar\" alternate history series take place in Łódź, and, in John Birmingham's \"Axis of Time\" alternate history trilogy, Łódź gains the unfortunate historical notoriety of becoming the first city to be destroyed by an Atomic Bomb when the USSR destroys the city on 5 June 1944.", "The city has experience as a host for international sporting events such as the 2009 EuroBasket, and it will be one of the six host cities of the 2019 FIFA U-20 World Cup, with the opening and final to take place at Stadion Widzewa. Łódź will also host the sixth edition of the European Universities Games in 2022. Under communism it was common for clubs to participate in many different sports for all ages and sexes. Many of these traditional clubs still survive today. Originally they were owned directly by a public body, but now they are independently operated by clubs or private companies. However they get public support through the cheap rent of land and other subsidies from the city. Some of their sections have gone professional and separated from the clubs as private companies. For example, Budowlani S.A is a private company that owns the only professional rugby team in Łódź, while Klub Sportowy Budowlani remains a community amateur club. In Ekstraklasa of Polish beach soccer Łódź have three professional clubs: Grembach, KP and.", "Łódź will host the \"Horticultural Expo\" in 2024. Łódź bid for the Specialized Expo 2022/2023 but lost out to Buenos Aires, Argentina.", "Łódź is home to nine foreign consulates, all of which are Honorary. They are subordinate to the following states main representation in Poland: French, Danish, German, Austrian, British, Belgian, Latvian, Hungarian and Moldavian.", "Łódź is twinned with: Łódź belongs also to the Eurocities network." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Areas of study.", "Critical political geography." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "The origins of political geography lie in the origins of human geography itself, and the early practitioners were concerned mainly with the military and political consequences of the relationships between physical geography, state territories, and state power. In particular there was a close association with both regional geography, with its focus on the unique characteristics of regions, and environmental determinism, with its emphasis on the influence of the physical environment on human activities. This association found expression in the work of the German geographer Friedrich Ratzel, who in 1897 in his book \"Politische Geographie\", developed the concept of Lebensraum (living space) which explicitly linked the cultural growth of a nation with territorial expansion, and which was later used to provide academic legitimisation for the imperialist expansion of the German Third Reich in the 1930s. The British geographer Halford Mackinder was also heavily influenced by environmental determinism and in developing his concept of the 'geographical pivot of history' or the Heartland Theory (in 1904) he argued that the era of sea power was coming to an end and that land based powers were in the ascendant, and, in particular, that whoever controlled the heartland of 'Euro-Asia' would control the world. This theory involved concepts diametrically opposed to the ideas of Alfred Thayer Mahan about the significance of \"sea power\" in world conflict. The heartland theory hypothesized the possibility of a huge empire being created which didn't need to use coastal or transoceanic transport to supply its military–industrial complex, and that this empire could not be defeated by the rest of the world allied against it. This perspective proved influential throughout the period of the Cold War, underpinning military thinking about the creation of buffer states between East and West in central Europe. The heartland theory depicted a world divided into a \"Heartland\" (Eastern Europe/Western Russia); \"World Island\" (Eurasia and Africa); \"Peripheral Islands\" (British Isles, Japan, Indonesia and Australia) and \"New World\" (The Americas). Mackinder argued that whoever controlled the Heartland would have control of the world. He used these ideas to politically influence events such as the Treaty of Versailles, where buffer states were created between the USSR and Germany, to prevent either of them controlling the Heartland. At the same time, Ratzel was creating a theory of states based around the concepts of Lebensraum and Social Darwinism. He argued that states were analogous to 'organisms' that needed sufficient room in which to live. Both of these writers created the idea of a political and geographical science, with an objective view of the world. Prior to World War II political geography was concerned largely with these issues of global power struggles and influencing state policy, and the above theories were taken on board by German geopoliticians (see Geopolitik) such as Karl Haushofer who - perhaps inadvertently - greatly influenced Nazi political theory, which was a form of politics seen to be legitimated by such'scientific' theories. The close association with environmental determinism and the freezing of political boundaries during the Cold War led to a significant decline in the perceived importance of political geography, which was described by Brian Berry in 1968 as a'moribund backwater'. Although at this time in most other areas of human geography new approaches, including quantitative spatial science, behavioural studies, and structural Marxism, were invigorating academic research these were largely ignored by political geographers whose main point of reference remained the regional approach. As a result, most of the political geography texts produced during this period were descriptive, and it was not until 1976 that Richard Muir could argue that political geography was no longer a dead duck, but could in fact be a phoenix.", "From the late-1970s onwards, political geography has undergone a renaissance, and could fairly be described as one of the most dynamic of the sub-disciplines today. The revival was underpinned by the launch of the journal \"Political Geography Quarterly\" (and its expansion to bi-monthly production as \"Political Geography\"). In part this growth has been associated with the adoption by political geographers of the approaches taken up earlier in other areas of human geography, for example, Ron J. Johnston's (1979) work on electoral geography relied heavily on the adoption of quantitative spatial science, Robert Sack's (1986) work on territoriality was based on the behavioural approach, Henry Bakis (1987) showed the impact of information and telecommunications networks on political geography, and Peter Taylor's (e.g. 2007) work on World Systems Theory owed much to developments within structural Marxism. However, the recent growth in vitality and importance of this sub-discipline is also related to the changes in the world as a result of the end of the Cold War. With the emergence of a new world order (which as yet, is only poorly defined) and the development of new research agendas, such as the more recent focus on social movements and political struggles, going beyond the study of nationalism with its explicit territorial basis. There has also been increasing interest in the geography of green politics (see, for example, David Pepper's (1996) work), including the geopolitics of environmental protest, and in the capacity of our existing state apparatus and wider political institutions, to address any contemporary and future environmental problems competently. Political geography has extended the scope of traditional political science approaches by acknowledging that the exercise of power is not restricted to states and bureaucracies, but is part of everyday life. This has resulted in the concerns of political geography increasingly overlapping with those of other human geography sub-disciplines such as economic geography, and, particularly, with those of social and cultural geography in relation to the study of the politics of place (see, for example, the books by David Harvey (1996) and Joe Painter (1995)). Although contemporary political geography maintains many of its traditional concerns (see below) the multi-disciplinary expansion into related areas is part of a general process within human geography which involves the blurring of boundaries between formerly discrete areas of study, and through which the discipline as a whole is enriched. In particular, contemporary political geography often considers:", "Critical political geography is mainly concerned with the criticism of traditional political geographies vis-a-vis modern trends. As with much of the move towards 'Critical geographies', the arguments have drawn largely from postmodern, post structural and postcolonial theories. Examples include:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Career.", "Early work.", "Star Trek.", "\"Star Trek: The Next Generation\".", "\"Star Trek: Voyager\".", "\"Star Trek: Enterprise\".", "\"Star Trek: Picard\".", "Other work.", "Personal life." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Marina Sirtis was born in Hackney, London, the daughter of working-class Greek parents, Despina, a tailor's assistant, and John Sirtis. She was brought up in Harringay, North London. When she was three years old, Sirtis says, the teenaged sons of her babysitter sexually molested her. Sirtis suffered from an eating disorder, which emerged due to the trauma of the assault. After suffering from the disorder for 20 years, she went into therapy in the 1990s and was able to manage the trauma and learn to eat healthily again. While still in secondary school, Sirtis secretly auditioned for drama school against her parents' wishes, ultimately being accepted to the Guildhall School of Music and Drama. In 1976, at the age of 21, Sirtis graduated from Guildhall and began her career by joining the Connaught Theatre. In 1986, Sirtis emigrated to the United States, settling in Los Angeles to boost her career. She later became a naturalized US citizen.", "", "Sirtis started her career as a member of the repertory company at the Connaught Theatre, Worthing, West Sussex, in 1976. Directed by Nic Young, she appeared in Joe Orton's \"What the Butler Saw\" and as Ophelia in \"Hamlet\". Before her role in \"Star Trek\", Sirtis was featured in supporting roles in several films. In the 1983, Faye Dunaway film, \"The Wicked Lady\", she engaged in a whip fight with Dunaway. In the Charles Bronson sequel \"Death Wish 3\", Sirtis' character is a rape victim. In the film \"Blind Date\", she appears as a prostitute who is murdered by a madman. Other early works include numerous guest-starring roles on British television series. Sirtis appeared in \"Raffles\" (1977), \"Who Pays the Ferryman\" (1977), \"Hazell\" (1978), \"Minder\" (1979), the Jim Davidson sitcom \"Up the Elephant and Round the Castle\" (1985), and \"The Return of Sherlock Holmes\" (1986). She also played the flight attendant in a 1979 Cinzano Bianco television commercial starring Leonard Rossiter and Joan Collins, in which Collins was splattered with drink.", "", "In 1986, Sirtis relocated to the United States. When casting \"\", Gene Roddenberry was inspired to ask the exotic-looking Sirtis to audition for a role after seeing the film \"Aliens\" with Bob Justman, which featured the prominent Latina character Vasquez, played by Jenette Goldstein. Sirtis and Denise Crosby initially tried out for each other's eventual roles on \"The Next Generation\". Sirtis' character was going to be named Lt. Macha Hernandez, the Security Chief. Gene Roddenberry decided to switch them, and Macha Hernandez became Tasha Yar. Sirtis recalls that on the day she received the call offering her the role, she was actually packing to return to Britain, because her six-month visa had expired. Deanna Troi is a half-human, half-Betazoid. Her Betazoid abilities allow her to read the emotions of others. Her position on the Enterprise-D is ship's counselor, looking after the crew's well-being and serving as trusted advisor to Captain Picard, with a position next to him on the bridge. Initially, the writers found it difficult to write for Troi and even left her out of four first-season episodes. Sirtis felt her job was in jeopardy after the first season, but was overjoyed when Roddenberry took her aside at Jonathan Frakes' wedding and told her that the season-two would centre on Troi. Sirtis appeared in all seven seasons of \"\", and her character was developed from a more passive therapist to a tougher Starfleet officer. She has stated her favourite episode is season six's \"\", in which she is kidnapped and surgically altered to pose as a Romulan. Troi's switching to a standard Starfleet uniform in the same season in \"\" elevated the character's dignity in Sirtis' eyes, and her enthusiasm in playing her, with Sirtis commenting, \"It covered up my cleavage and, consequently, I got all my brains back, because when you have a cleavage you can't have brains in Hollywood. So I got all my brains back and I was allowed to do things that I hadn't been allowed to do for five or six years. I went on away teams, I was in charge of staff, I had my pips back, I had phasers, I had all the equipment again, and it was fabulous. I was absolutely thrilled.\" During her time on the show, she became close friends with her co-stars Jonathan Frakes (who played Commander Riker), Michael Dorn (Lieutenant Worf) and Brent Spiner (who played Lieutenant Commander Data). The latter cast members were groomsmen at her wedding. She wore black-coloured contact lenses during the seven-year run of \"Star Trek: The Next Generation\" and the subsequent films because her character had black eyes. Her own eyes are light brown. She usually wore hairpieces for her role as Troi. Sirtis' real hair was slightly shorter, and although curly, was not as bouffant as her character's. However, Sirtis' real hair was used in the pilot episode, and also in the first six episodes of season six, in which Troi sported a more natural looking pony-tailed style. She was also asked to create an accent (described as a mixture of Eastern European and Israeli) for her character, although her natural accent is Cockney. Over time, the accent was adjusted and became more Americanized. Sirtis has reprised her character in the feature films, \"Star Trek Generations\" (1994), \"Star Trek First Contact\" (1996), \"Star Trek Insurrection\" (1998), and \"Star Trek Nemesis\" (2002). Sirtis was delighted to get the chance to do some comedy in \"Star Trek: First Contact\" and said, \"I loved it because it opened the door to a different side of Troi we'd never seen before. That door has stayed open and that whole kind of wacky, zany Troi thing has continued into the next movie, which is great for me because I like to do things that are different.\" Sirtis stated of her role in \"Star Trek: Nemesis\", \"I sort of had an inkling that I was going to have a good part in this film because John Logan was such a big fan of the character. So I knew that he would do her some justice.\"", "Sirtis also appeared in \"\" for three episodes toward the end of the series (1999 and 2000).", "Sirtis appeared in the series finale of \"\" (2005).", "Sirtis returned to her role as Deanna Troi in Star Trek: Picard's episode \"Nepenthe\".", "While filming \"Star Trek: The Next Generation\", Sirtis returned to the UK during the hiatus between seasons three and four in 1990 to film a drama special entitled \"One Last Chance\" for the BBC. In 1992, she appeared in an episode of the short-lived series \"The Fifth Corner\" and had a cameo in the horror/fantasy movie \"\". After the end of \"Star Trek: The Next Generation\" in 1994, Sirtis continued to work regularly. Her first role was a departure from previous work, an abused wife in the series \"Heaven Help Us\". She provided the voice of Demona in the animated Disney television series \"Gargoyles\" for two seasons starting in 1994. Her \"Next Generation\" co-stars, Frakes (as the voice of David Xanatos), Spiner and Dorn, also lent their voices to the show. She voiced the character again for an episode of the unmade animated series \"\". In 1996, Sirtis starred as a villainous police detective in the British made-for-television movie, \"Gadgetman\". She played a villainess once again when she guest-starred as a race-track owner under investigation following the death of a driver in \"\" in 1998. The independent movie \"Paradise Lost\", with Sirtis in a starring role, was released in 1999. Beginning in 1999, Sirtis returned to science-fiction television in a number of roles starting with \"The Outer Limits\". The same year, she appeared in \"\", originally created by Gene Roddenberry. In 2000, she played a Russian scientist in \"Stargate SG-1\". Sirtis was interviewed in the October 2000 issue of \"SFX\" magazine in the UK; the cover stated, \"Marina Sirtis is Everywhere\", also referring to her reprisal of her character Deanna Troi on \"Star Trek: Voyager\". In 2001, Sirtis made a highly publicised appearance on the long-running British hospital drama \"Casualty\". She played a politician with controversial views on the National Health Service. When she meets with a man with whom she is having an affair at a hotel, she is caught in an explosion. She appeared in the made-for-television movies \"Terminal Error\" in 2002 and \"Net Games\" in 2003. Also in 2003, she guest-starred in the ABC series \"Threat Matrix\" playing a biological-weapons scientist from Iraq. Sirtis starred in the movie \"Spectres\" in 2004, and at ShockerFest International Film Festival, she won the best actress award. Sirtis had a minor role in the Academy Award-winning ensemble film \"Crash\" as the wife of the Persian shopkeeper. Following this, she played another Middle Eastern role on the series \"The Closer\" in 2005. In 2006, she had a three-episode recurring role as a love match-maker on \"Girlfriends\", and she guest-starred in \"Without a Trace\". In 2007, Sirtis starred in the SyFy channel production of \"Grendel\", where she played Queen Onela. Independent movies \"Trade Routes\", \"The Deep Below\", and \"Lesser of Three Evils\" were released. She provided the voice for Matriarch Benezia in the critically acclaimed video game \"Mass Effect\" on Xbox 360, PlayStation 3 and PC. In 2008, she made a guest appearance in an episode of the \"Casualty\" spin-off show \"Holby City\". The same year, the sci-fi/drama movie \"Inalienable\", written by \"Star Trek\" alumnus Walter Koenig, was released. Sirtis said of her role, \"I actually play the Deputy Attorney General of the United States, so I'm a bad guy, a mean lawyer, which was fantastic.\" The direct-to-DVD sequels \"Green Street 2\" and \"The Grudge 3\", featuring Sirtis, were released in 2009. She co-starred in the British movie \"31 North 62 East\" as the prime minister's top aide; it had a limited theatrical release in the UK. Sirtis guest-starred in the first episode of the short-lived hospital drama \"Three Rivers\". She returned to SyFy in December 2009 in the disaster movie \"Annihilation Earth\". In 2010, Sirtis guest-starred as a Swiss doctor in two episodes of ABC Family's \"Make It or Break It\". In May 2010, Sirtis announced that she would be providing the voice for comic-book villainess Queen Bee in the \"Young Justice\" animated series. She provided her voice for a number of episodes from 2011 until its cancellation in 2013. In March 2011, Sirtis guest-starred on an episode of \"Grey's Anatomy\". She played an Iranian mother who was at the hospital to participate in a medical trial for Alzheimer's disease. In September 2011, fans started a group to lobby for Sirtis to appear on \"Doctor Who\". A few weeks later at the Montreal Comiccon, she acknowledged the group and her desire to be on the show. In 2012, the vampire movie \"Speed Demons\", in which Sirtis co-starred, was released to pay-per-view services. The same year, she played a fortune teller in the \"Castlevania\" fan-made series posted on YouTube. She accepted a recurring role as director of Mossad on \"NCIS\". Her character, Orli Elbaz, succeeds Eli David (portrayed by Michael Nouri) and was introduced in the season-10 episode \"Berlin\", which aired in April 2013. She subsequently appeared in the second episode of season 11, which aired in early October 2013, and in the season 13 finale \"Family First\". Sirtis voiced the Enterprise's computer in the first episode in the web series \"Star Trek Continues\". In 2014, she co-starred in the SyFy channel horror movie \"Finders Keepers\". The following year, she appeared in the British film \"A Dark Reflection\", and in 2016, Sirtis starred in the Hallmark Channel movie \"My Summer Prince\". In 2019, Sirtis made her London West End stage debut in \"Dark Sublime\", playing the character of Marianne, a jobbing actor and now-forgotten icon of a British sci-fi TV show, whose encounter with a fan changes both of their lives.", "Sirtis married Michael Lamper, an actor and rock guitarist, in 1992. Lamper died in his sleep on 7 December 2019." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Types.", "Design.", "Components.", "Engines.", "Propellant.", "Uses.", "Military.", "Science and research.", "Spaceflight.", "Rescue.", "Hobby, sport, and entertainment.", "Noise.", "Physics.", "Operation.", "Forces on a rocket in flight.", "Drag.", "Net thrust.", "Total impulse.", "Specific impulse.", "Delta-v (rocket equation).", "Mass ratios.", "Staging.", "Acceleration and thrust-to-weight ratio.", "Energy.", "Energy efficiency.", "Oberth effect.", "Safety, reliability and accidents.", "Costs and economics.", "See also.", "Notes.", "External links." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The first gunpowder-powered rockets evolved in medieval China under the Song dynasty by the 13th century. The Mongols adopted Chinese rocket technology and the invention spread via the Mongol invasions to the Middle East and to Europe in the mid-13th century. Rockets are recorded in use by the Song navy in a military exercise dated to 1245. Internal-combustion rocket propulsion is mentioned in a reference to 1264, recording that the \"ground-rat\", a type of firework, had frightened the Empress-Mother Gongsheng at a feast held in her honor by her son the Emperor Lizong. Subsequently, rockets are included in the military treatise \"Huolongjing\", also known as the Fire Drake Manual, written by the Chinese artillery officer Jiao Yu in the mid-14th century. This text mentions the first known multistage rocket, the 'fire-dragon issuing from the water' (Huo long chu shui), thought to have been used by the Chinese navy. Medieval and early modern rockets were used militarily as incendiary weapons in sieges. Between 1270 and 1280, Hasan al-Rammah wrote \"al-furusiyyah wa al-manasib al-harbiyya\" (\"The Book of Military Horsemanship and Ingenious War Devices\"), which included 107 gunpowder recipes, 22 of them for rockets. In Europe, Konrad Kyeser described rockets in his military treatise \"Bellifortis\" around 1405. The name \"rocket\" comes from the Italian \"rocchetta\", meaning \"bobbin\" or \"little spindle\", given due to the similarity in shape to the bobbin or spool used to hold the thread to be fed to a spinning wheel. Leonhard Fronsperger and Conrad Haas adopted the Italian term into German in the mid-16th century; \"rocket\" appears in English by the early 17th century. \"Artis Magnae Artilleriae pars prima\", an important early modern work on rocket artillery, by Kazimierz Siemienowicz, was first printed in Amsterdam in 1650. The Mysorean rockets were the first successful iron-cased rockets, developed in the late 18th century in the Kingdom of Mysore (part of present-day India) under the rule of Hyder Ali. The Congreve rocket was a British weapon designed and developed by Sir William Congreve in 1804. This rocket was based directly on the Mysorean rockets, used compressed powder and was fielded in the Napoleonic Wars. It", "Rocket vehicles are often constructed in the archetypal tall thin", "A rocket design can be as simple as a cardboard tube filled with black powder, but to make an efficient, accurate rocket or missile involves overcoming a number of difficult problems. The main difficulties include cooling the combustion chamber, pumping the fuel (in the case of a liquid fuel), and controlling and correcting the direction of motion.", "Rockets consist of a propellant, a place to put propellant (such as a propellant tank), and a nozzle. They may also have one or more rocket engines, directional stabilization device(s) (such as fins, vernier engines or engine gimbals for thrust vectoring, gyroscopes) and a structure (typically monocoque) to", "Rocket engines employ the principle of jet propulsion. The rocket engines powering rockets come in a great variety of different types; a comprehensive list can be found in rocket engine. Most current rockets are chemically powered rockets (usually internal combustion engines, but some employ a decomposing monopropellant) that emit a hot exhaust gas. A rocket engine can use gas propellants, solid propellant, liquid propellant, or a hybrid mixture of both solid and liquid. Some rockets use heat or pressure that is supplied from a source other than the chemical reaction of", "Rocket propellant is mass that is stored, usually in some form of propellant tank or casing, prior to being used as the propulsive mass that is ejected from a rocket engine in the form of a fluid jet to produce thrust. For chemical rockets often the propellants are a fuel such as liquid hydrogen or kerosene burned with an oxidizer such as liquid oxygen or nitric acid to produce large volumes of very hot", "Rockets or other similar reaction devices carrying their own propellant must be used when there is no other substance (land, water, or air) or force (gravity, magnetism, light) that a vehicle may usefully employ for propulsion, such as in space. In these circumstances, it is necessary to carry all the propellant to be used. However, they are also useful in other situations:", "Some military weapons use rockets to propel warheads to their targets. A rocket and its payload together are generally referred to as a \"missile\" when the weapon has a guidance system (not all missiles use rocket engines, some use other engines such as jets) or as a \"rocket\" if it", "Sounding rockets are commonly used to carry instruments that take readings from to above the surface of the", "Larger rockets are normally launched from a launch pad that provides stable support until a few seconds after ignition. Due to their high exhaust velocity——rockets are particularly useful when very high speeds are required, such as orbital speed at approximately.", "Rockets were used to propel a line to a stricken ship so that a Breeches buoy can be used to rescue those on board. Rockets are also used to launch emergency flares. Some crewed rockets, notably the Saturn V and Soyuz have launch escape systems. This is a small, usually solid rocket that is capable of pulling the crewed capsule away from the main vehicle towards safety at a moments notice. These types of systems have been operated several times, both in testing and in flight, and operated correctly each time.", "A model rocket is a small rocket designed to reach low altitudes (e.g., for model) and be recovered by a variety of means. According to the United States National Association of Rocketry (nar) Safety Code, model rockets are constructed of paper, wood, plastic and other lightweight materials. The code also provides guidelines for motor use, launch site selection, launch methods, launcher placement, recovery system design and deployment and more. Since the early 1960s, a copy of the Model Rocket Safety Code has been provided with most model rocket kits and motors. Despite its inherent association with extremely flammable substances and objects with a pointed tip traveling at high speeds, model rocketry historically has proven to be a very safe hobby and has been credited as a significant source of inspiration for", "Rocket exhaust generates a significant amount of acoustic energy. As the supersonic exhaust collides with the ambient air, shock waves are formed. The sound intensity from these shock waves depends on the size of the rocket as well as the exhaust velocity. The sound intensity of large, high performance rockets could potentially kill at close range. The Space Shuttle generated 180 dB of noise around its base. To combat this, NASA developed a sound suppression system which can flow water at rates up to 900,000 gallons per minute (57 m/s) onto the launch pad. The water reduces the noise level from 180 dB down to 142", "", "The effect of the combustion of propellant in the rocket engine is to increase the internal energy of the resulting gases, utilizing the stored chemical energy in the fuel. As the internal energy increases, pressure increases, and a nozzle is utilized to convert this energy into a directed kinetic energy. This produces thrust against the ambient environment to which these gases are released. The ideal direction of motion of the exhaust is in the direction so as to cause thrust. At the top end of the combustion chamber the hot, energetic gas fluid cannot move forward, and so,", "The general study of the forces on a rocket is part of the field of ballistics. Spacecraft are further studied in the subfield of astrodynamics. Flying rockets are primarily affected by the following: In addition, the inertia and centrifugal pseudo-force can be significant due to the path of the rocket around the center of a celestial body; when high enough speeds in the right direction and altitude are achieved a stable orbit or escape velocity is obtained. These forces, with a stabilizing tail (the \"empennage\") present will, unless deliberate control efforts are made, naturally cause the vehicle to follow a roughly parabolic trajectory termed a gravity turn, and this trajectory is often used at least during the initial part of a launch. (This is true even if the rocket engine is mounted at the nose.) Vehicles can thus maintain low or even zero angle of attack, which minimizes transverse stress on the launch vehicle, permitting a weaker, and hence lighter, launch vehicle.", "Drag is a force opposite to the direction of the rocket's motion relative to any air it is moving through. This slows the speed of the vehicle and produces structural loads. The deceleration forces for fast-moving rockets are calculated using the drag equation. Drag can be minimised by an", "A typical rocket engine can handle a significant fraction of its own mass in propellant each second, with the propellant leaving the nozzle at several kilometres per second. This means that the thrust-to-weight ratio of a rocket engine, and often the entire vehicle can be very high, in extreme cases over 100. This compares with other jet propulsion engines that can exceed 5 for some of the better engines. It can be shown that the net thrust of a rocket is: where: The effective exhaust velocity formula_4 is more or less the speed the exhaust leaves the vehicle, and in the vacuum of space, the effective exhaust velocity is often equal to the actual average exhaust speed along the thrust axis. However, the effective exhaust velocity allows for various losses, and notably, is reduced when operated within an atmosphere. The rate of propellant flow through a rocket engine is often deliberately varied over a flight, to provide a way to control the thrust and thus the airspeed of the vehicle. This, for example, allows minimization of aerodynamic losses and can limit the increase of \"g\"-forces due to the reduction in propellant load.", "Impulse is defined as a force acting on an object over time, which in the absence of opposing forces (gravity and aerodynamic drag), changes the momentum (integral of mass and velocity) of the object. As such, it is", "As can be seen from the thrust equation, the effective speed of the exhaust controls the amount of thrust produced from a particular quantity of fuel burnt per second. An equivalent measure, the net impulse per weight unit of propellant expelled, is called specific Impulse, formula_7, and this is one of", "The delta-v capacity of a rocket is the theoretical total change in velocity that a rocket can achieve without any external interference (without air drag or gravity or other forces). When formula_12 is constant, the delta-v that a rocket vehicle can provide can be calculated from the Tsiolkovsky rocket equation: where: When launched from the Earth practical delta-vs for a single", "Almost all of a launch vehicle's mass consists of propellant. Mass ratio is, for any 'burn', the ratio between the rocket's initial mass and its final mass. Everything else being equal, a high mass ratio is desirable for good performance, since it indicates that the rocket is lightweight and hence performs better, for essentially the same reasons that low weight is desirable in sports cars. Rockets as a group have the highest thrust-to-weight ratio of any type of engine; and this helps vehicles achieve high mass ratios, which improves the performance of flights. The higher the ratio, the less engine mass is needed to be carried. This permits", "Thus far, the required velocity (delta-v) to achieve orbit has been unattained by any single rocket because the propellant, tankage, structure, guidance, valves and engines and so on, take a particular minimum percentage of take-off mass that is too great for the propellant it carries to achieve that delta-v carrying reasonable payloads. Since Single-stage-to-orbit has so far not been achievable, orbital rockets always have more than one stage. For example, the first stage of the Saturn V, carrying the weight of the upper stages, was able to", "From Newton's second law, the acceleration, formula_19, of a vehicle is simply: Where m is the instantaneous mass of the vehicle and formula_21 is the net force acting on the rocket (mostly thrust but air drag and other forces can play a part.) As the remaining propellant decreases, rocket vehicles become lighter and their acceleration tends to increase until the propellant is exhausted. This means that much of the speed change occurs towards the end of the burn when the vehicle is much lighter. However, the thrust can be throttled to offset or vary this if needed. Discontinuities in acceleration also occur when stages burn out, often starting at a lower acceleration with each new stage firing. Peak accelerations", "", "Rocket launch vehicles take-off with a great deal of flames, noise and drama, and it might seem obvious that they are grievously inefficient. However, while they are far from perfect, their energy efficiency is not as bad as might be supposed. The energy density of a typical rocket propellant is often around one-third that of conventional hydrocarbon fuels; the bulk of the mass is (often relatively inexpensive) oxidizer. Nevertheless, at take-off the rocket has a great deal of energy in the fuel and oxidizer stored within the vehicle. It is of course desirable that as much of the energy of the propellant end up as kinetic or potential energy of the body of the rocket as possible. Energy from the fuel is lost in air drag", "One subtle feature of rockets relates to energy. A rocket stage, while carrying a given load, is capable of giving a particular delta-v. This delta-v means that the speed increases (or decreases) by a particular amount, independent of the initial speed. However, because kinetic energy is a square law on speed, this means that the faster the rocket is travelling before the burn the more orbital energy it gains or loses. This fact is used in interplanetary travel. It means that the amount of delta-v to reach other planets, over and above that to reach escape velocity can be much less if the delta-v is applied when the rocket is travelling at high speeds, close to the Earth or other planetary surface; whereas waiting until the rocket has slowed at altitude multiplies up the effort required to achieve the desired trajectory.", "The reliability of rockets, as for all physical systems, is dependent on the quality of engineering design and construction. Because of the enormous chemical energy in rocket propellants (greater energy by weight than explosives, but lower than gasoline), consequences of accidents", "The costs of rockets can be roughly divided into propellant costs, the costs of obtaining and/or producing the 'dry mass' of the rocket, and the costs of any required support equipment and facilities. Most of the takeoff mass of a rocket is normally propellant. However propellant is seldom more than a few times more expensive than gasoline per kilogram (as of 2009 gasoline was about or less), and although substantial amounts are needed, for all but the very cheapest rockets, it turns out that the propellant costs are usually comparatively small, although not completely negligible. With liquid oxygen costing and liquid hydrogen, the Space Shuttle in 2009 had a liquid propellant expense of approximately $1.4 million for each launch that cost $450 million from other expenses (with 40% of the mass of propellants used by it being liquids in the external fuel tank, 60% solids in the SRBs). Even though a rocket's non-propellant, dry mass is often only between 5–20% of total mass, nevertheless this cost dominates. For hardware with the performance used in orbital launch vehicles, expenses of $2000–$10,000+ per kilogram of dry weight are common, primarily from engineering, fabrication, and testing; raw materials amount to typically around 2% of total expense. For most rockets except reusable ones (shuttle engines) the engines need not function more than a few minutes, which simplifies design. Extreme performance requirements for rockets reaching orbit correlate with high cost, including intensive quality control to ensure reliability despite the limited safety factors allowable for weight reasons. Components produced in small numbers if not individually machined can prevent amortization of R&D and facility costs over mass production to the degree seen in more pedestrian manufacturing. Amongst liquid-fueled rockets, complexity can be influenced by how much hardware must be lightweight, like pressure-fed engines can have two orders of magnitude lesser part count than pump-fed engines but lead to more weight by needing greater tank pressure, most often used in just small maneuvering thrusters as a consequence. To change the preceding factors for orbital launch vehicles, proposed methods have included mass-producing simple rockets in large quantities or on large scale, or developing reusable rockets meant to fly very frequently to amortize their up-front expense over many payloads, or reducing rocket performance requirements by constructing a non-rocket spacelaunch system for part of the velocity to orbit (or all of it but with most methods involving some rocket use). The costs of support equipment, range costs and launch pads generally scale up with the size of the rocket, but vary less with launch rate, and so may be considered to be approximately a fixed cost. Rockets in applications other than launch to orbit (such as military rockets and rocket-assisted take off), commonly not needing comparable performance and sometimes mass-produced, are often relatively inexpensive.", "Lists General Rocketry Propulsion and Propellant", "", "Governing agencies Information sites" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Uses and applications.", "Internal version.", "Spherical version.", "Kinematics." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The name, Geneva drive, is derived from the device's earliest application in mechanical watches, which were popularized in Geneva, being the classical origin of watchmaking industry. The \"Geneva drive\" is also called a \"Maltese cross mechanism\" due to the visual resemblance when the rotating wheel has four spokes, since they can be made small, and are able to withstand substantial mechanical stress. These mechanisms are frequently used in mechanical watches. In the most common arrangement of the Geneva drive, the client wheel has four slots and thus advances the drive by one step at a time (each step being 90 degrees) for each full rotation of the master wheel. If the steered wheel has \"n\" slots, it advances by 360°/\"n\" per full rotation of the propeller wheel. Because the mechanism needs to be well lubricated, it is often enclosed in an oil capsule.", "One application of the Geneva drive is in film movie projectors and movie cameras, where the film is pulled through an exposure gate with periodic starts and stops. The film advances frame by frame, each frame standing still in front of the lens for a portion of the frame cycle (typically at a rate of 24 cycles per second), and rapidly accelerating, advancing, and decelerating during the rest of the cycle. This intermittent motion is implemented by a Geneva drive, which in turn actuates a claw that engages sprocket holes in the film. The Geneva drive also provides a precisely repeatable stopped position, which is critical to minimizing jitter in the successive images. (Modern film projectors may also use an electronically controlled indexing mechanism or stepper motor, which allows for fast-forwarding the film.) The first uses of the Geneva drive in film projectors go back to 1896 to the projectors of Oskar Messter and Max Gliewe and the \"Teatrograph\" of Robert William Paul. Previous projectors, including Thomas Armat's projector, marketed by Edison as the \"Vitascope\", had used a \"beater mechanism\", invented by Georges Demenÿ in 1893, to achieve intermittent film transport. Geneva wheels having the form of the driven wheel were also used in mechanical watches, but not in a drive, rather to limit the tension of the spring, such that it would operate only in the range where its elastic force is nearly linear. If one of the slots of the driven wheel is occluded, the number of rotations the drive wheel can make is limited. In watches, the \"drive\" wheel is the one that winds up the spring, and the Geneva wheel with four or five spokes and one closed slot prevents overwinding (and also complete unwinding) of the spring. This so-called Geneva stop or \"Geneva stop work\" was the invention of 17th or 18th century watchmakers. Other applications of the Geneva drive include the pen change mechanism in plotters, automated sampling devices, banknote counting machines, and many forms of indexable equipment used in manufacturing (such as the tool changers in CNC machines; the turrets of turret lathes, screw machines, and turret drills; some kinds of indexing heads and rotary tables; and so on). The Iron Ring Clock uses a Geneva mechanism to provide intermittent motion to one of its rings. A Geneva drive was used to change filters in the Dawn mission framing camera used to image the asteroid 4 Vesta in 2011. It was selected to ensure that should the mechanism fail at least one filter would be usable.", "An internal Geneva drive is a variant on the design. The axis of the drive wheel of the internal drive can have a bearing only on one side. The angle by which the drive wheel has to rotate to effect one step rotation of the driven wheel is always smaller than 180° in an external Geneva drive and always greater than 180° in an internal one, where the switch time is therefore greater than the time the driven wheel stands still. The external form is the more common, as it can be built smaller and can withstand higher mechanical stresses.", "Another variant is the spherical Geneva drive.", "The figure shows the motion curves for an external four-slot Geneva drive, in arbitrary units. A discontinuity appears in the acceleration when the drive pin enters and leaves the slot, occurring at the instant the rigid bearing surfaces make contact or separate. This generates an \"infinite\" peak of jerk (Dirac peak), and therefore vibrations." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Prelude.", "Opposing forces.", "Strategic and tactical considerations.", "Battle.", "Aftermath." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In the decade following his accession in 359 BC, the Macedonian king, Philip II, had rapidly strengthened and expanded his kingdom into Thrace and Chalkidiki on the northern coast of the Aegean Sea. He was aided in this process by the distraction of Athens and Thebes, the two most powerful city-states in Greece at that point, by events elsewhere. In particular, these events included the Social War between Athens and her erstwhile allies (357–355 BC), and the Third Sacred War which erupted in central Greece in 356 BC between the Phocians and the other members of the Delphic Amphictyonic League. Much of Philip's expansion during this period was at the nominal expense of the Athenians, who considered the north Aegean coast as their sphere of influence, and Philip was at war with Athens from 356–346 BC. Philip was not originally a belligerent in the Sacred War, but became involved at the request of the Thessalians. Seeing an opportunity to expand his influence, Philip obliged, and in 353 or 352 BC won a decisive victory over the Phocians at the Battle of Crocus Field in Thessaly. In the aftermath, Philip was made \"archon\" of Thessaly, which gave him control of the levies and revenues of the Thessalian Confederation, thereby greatly increasing his power. However, Philip did not intervene further in the Sacred War until 346 BC. Early in that year, the Thebans, who had borne the brunt of the Sacred War, together with the Thessalians, asked Philip to assume the \"leadership of Greece\" and join them in fighting the Phocians. Philip's power was by now so great that ultimately the Phocians did not even attempt to resist, and instead surrendered to him; Philip was thus able to end a particularly bloody war without any further fighting. Philip allowed the Amphictyonic council the formal responsibility of punishing the Phocians, but ensured that the terms were not overly harsh; nevertheless, the Phocians were expelled from the Amphictyonic League, all their cities were destroyed, and they were resettled in villages of no more than fifty houses. By 346 BC, the Athenians were war-weary, unable to match Philip's strength, and had begun to contemplate the necessity of making peace. Nevertheless, when it became apparent that Philip would march south that year, the Athenians originally planned to help the Phocians (whom they were allied to) keep Philip out of central Greece, by occupying the pass of Thermopylae, where Philip's superior numbers would be of little benefit. The Athenians had successfully used this tactic to prevent Philip attacking Phocis itself after his victory at Crocus Field. The occupation of Thermopylae was not only for the benefit of Phocis; excluding Philip from central Greece also prevented him from marching on Athens itself. However, by the end of February, the general Phalaikos was restored to power in Phocis, and he refused to allow the Athenians access to Thermopylae. Suddenly unable to guarantee their own security, the Athenians were forced instead into making peace with Philip. Their peace treaty, known as the Peace of Philocrates, made Athens a reluctant ally of Macedon. For the Athenians, the treaty had been expedient, but it was never popular. Philip's actions in 346 BC had expanded his influence over all Greece, and although he had brought peace, he had come to be seen as the enemy of the traditional liberty of the city-states. The orator and politician Demosthenes had been a principal architect of the Peace of Philocrates, but almost as soon as it was agreed, he wished to be rid of it. Over the next few years, Demosthenes became leader of the \"war-party\" in Athens, and at every opportunity he sought to undermine the peace. From 343 BC onwards, in order to try to disrupt the peace, Demosthenes and his followers used every expedition and action of Philip to argue that he was breaking the peace. Conversely, there was at first a substantial body of feeling in Athens, led by Aeschines, that the peace, unpopular though it was, should be maintained and developed. Towards the end of the decade however, the \"war party\" gained the ascendancy, and began to openly goad Philip; in 341 BC for instance, the Athenian general Diopeithes ravaged the territory of Philip's ally Cardia, even though Philip demanded that they desist. Philip's patience finally ran out when the Athenians formed an alliance with Byzantium, which Philip was at that time besieging, and he wrote the Athenians declaring war. Shortly afterward Philip broke off the siege of Byzantium; Cawkwell suggests that Philip had decided to deal with Athens once and for all. Philip went on campaign against the Scythians, and then began to prepare for war in southern Greece.", "Philip's forthcoming campaign in southern Greece became linked with a new, fourth, Sacred War. The citizens of Amphissa in Ozolian Locris had begun cultivating land sacred to Apollo on the Crisaean Plain south of Delphi; after some internal bickering the Amphictyonic council decided to declare a sacred war against Amphissa. A Thessalian delegate proposed that Philip should be made leader of the Amphictyonic effort, which therefore gave Philip a pretext to campaign in southern Greece; it is, however, probable that Philip would have gone ahead with his campaign anyway. At the start of 339 BC, the Thebans had seized the town of Nicaea near Thermopylae, which Philip had garrisoned in 346 BC. Philip does not appear to have treated this as a declaration of war, but it nevertheless presented him with a significant problem, blocking the main route. However, a second route into central Greece was available, leading over the shoulder of Mount Callidromos and descending into Phocis. However, the Athenians and Thebans had either forgotten the existence of this road, or believed that Philip would not use it; the subsequent failure to guard this road allowed Philip to slip into central Greece unhindered. Philip's relatively lenient treatment of the Phocians at the end of the Third Sacred War in 346 BC now bore fruit. Reaching Elatea, he ordered the city to be re-populated, and during the next few months the whole Phocian Confederation was restored to its former state. This provided Philip with a base in Greece, and new, grateful allies in the Phocians. Philip probably arrived in Phocis in November 339 BC, but the Battle of Chaeronea did not occur until August 338 BC. During this period Philip discharged his responsibility to the Amphicytonic council by settling the situation in Amphissa. He tricked a force of 10,000 mercenaries who were guarding the road from Phocis to Amphissa into abandoning their posts, then took Amphissa and expelled its citizens, turning it over to Delphi. He probably also engaged in diplomatic attempts to avoid further conflict in Greece, although if so, he was unsuccessful. When news first arrived that Philip was in Elatea, just three days march away, there was panic in Athens. In what Cawkwell describes as his proudest moment, Demosthenes alone counseled against despair, and proposed that the Athenians should seek an alliance with the Thebans; his decree was passed, and he was sent as ambassador. Philip had also sent an embassy to Thebes, requesting that the Thebans join him, or at least allow him to pass through Boeotia unhindered. Since the Thebans were still not formally at war with Philip, they could have avoided the conflict altogether. However, in spite of Philip's proximity, and their traditional enmity with Athens, they chose to ally with the Athenians, in the cause of liberty for Greece. The Athenian army had already pre-emptively been sent in the direction of Boeotia, and was therefore able to join the Thebans within days of the alliance being agreed. The details of the campaign leading up to Chaeronea are almost completely unknown. Philip was presumably prevented from entering Boeotia by way of Mount Helicon, as the Spartans had done in the run-up to the Battle of Leuctra; or by any of the other mountain passes that led into Boeotia from Phocis. There were certainly some preliminary skirmishes; Demosthenes alludes to a \"winter battle\" and \"battle on the river\" in his speeches, but no other details are preserved. Finally, in August 338 BC, Philip's army marched straight down the main road from Phocis to Boeotia, to assault the main allied army defending the road at Chaeronea.", "According to Diodorus, the Macedonian army numbered roughly 30,000 infantry and 2,000 cavalry, a figure generally accepted by modern historians. Philip took command of the right wing of the Macedonian army and placed his 18-year-old son Alexander (the future conqueror of the Persian Empire) in command of the left wing, accompanied by a group of Philip's experienced generals. The allied army included contingents from Achaea, Corinth, Chalcis, Epidaurus, Megara, and Troezen, with the majority of troops being supplied by Athens and Thebes. The Athenian contingent was led by the generals Chares and Lysicles, and the Thebans by Theagenes. No source provides exact numbers for the allied army, although Justin suggests that the southern Greeks were \"far superior in number of soldiers\"; the modern view is that the numbers of the city states that fought were approximately equal to those of the Macedonians. The Athenians took up positions on the left wing, the Thebans on the right, and the other allies in the centre. Athenian aristocrat Philippides of Paiania, campaigned for Philip's cause with his associates during the battle in Thebes, Eleuthera and Tanagra. Philippides was later prosecuted by Hypereides for his pro-Macedonian actions after the defeat.", "The allied army of Athens and Thebes had taken up a position near Chaeronea, astride the main road. On the left flank, the allied line lay across the foothills of Mount Thurion, blocking the side-road that led to Lebedea, while on the right, the line rested against the Kephisos River, near a projecting spur of Mount Aktion. The allied line, which was about 2.5 miles in length, was thus secure on both flanks. Moreover, the allied line seems to have slanted north-eastwards across the plain in between, so that it did not face the direction of Macedonian advance full-square. This prevented Philip from attempting to concentrate his force on the allied right wing, since the advanced position of the left wing would then threaten Philip's right. Although Philip could attempt to concentrate his force against the southern Greek left, the troops there occupied high ground, and any attack would be difficult. Since the southern Greeks could remain on the defensive, having only to prevent Philip's advance, their position was therefore strategically and tactically very strong.", "Details of the battle itself are scarce, with Diodorus providing the only formal account. He says that \"once joined, the battle was hotly contested for a long time and many fell on both sides, so that for a while the struggle permitted hopes of victory to both.\" He then recounts that the young Alexander, \"his heart set on showing his father his prowess\" succeeded in rupturing the allied line aided by his companions, and eventually put the right wing to flight; meanwhile, Philip advanced in person against the left wing and also put it to flight. This brief account can be filled out, if Polyaenus's account of the battle is to be believed. Polyaenus collected many snippets of information on warfare in his \"Strategems\"; some are known from other sources to be reliable, while others are demonstrably false. In the absence of other evidence, it is unclear whether his passage regarding Chaeronea is to be accepted or rejected. Polyaenus suggests that Philip engaged the allied left, but then withdrew his troops; the Athenians on the left followed and, when Philip held the high ground, he stopped retreating and attacked the Athenians, eventually routing them. In another'stratagem', Polyaenus suggests that Philip deliberately prolonged the battle, to take advantage of the rawness of the Athenian troops (his own veterans being more used to fatigue) and delayed his main attack until the Athenians were exhausted. This latter anecdote also appears in the earlier \"Stratagems\" of Frontinus. Polyaenus's accounts have led some modern historians to tentatively propose the following synthesis of the battle. After the general engagement had been in progress for some time, Philip had his army perform a wheeling manoeuver, with the right wing withdrawing, and the whole line pivoting around its centre. At the same time, wheeling forward, the Macedonian left wing attacked the Thebans on their right and punched a hole in the allied line. On the allied left, the Athenians followed Philip, their line becoming stretched and disordered; the Macedonians then turned, attacked and routed the tired and inexperienced Athenians. The southern Greek right wing, under the assault of the Macedonian troops under Alexander's command, then also routed, ending the battle. Many historians, including Hammond and Cawkwell, place Alexander in charge of the Companion Cavalry during the battle, perhaps because of Diodorus's use of the word \"companions\". However, there is no mention of cavalry in any ancient account of the battle, nor does there seem to have been space for it to operate against the flank of the southern Greek army. Plutarch says that Alexander was the \"first to break the ranks of the Sacred Band of the Thebans\", the elite of the Theban infantry, who were stationed on the extreme right of the battle line. However, he also says that the Sacred Band had \"met the spears of [the Macedonian] phalanx face to face\". This, together with the improbability that a head-on cavalry charge against the spear-armed Thebans could have succeeded, has led Gaebel and others to suggest that Alexander must have been commanding a portion of the Macedonian phalanx at Chaeronea. Diodorus says that more than 1,000 Athenians died in the battle, with another 2,000 taken prisoner, and that the Thebans fared similarly. Plutarch suggests that all 300 of the Sacred Band were killed at the battle, having previously been seen as invincible. In the Roman period, the 'Lion of Chaeronea', an enigmatic monument on the site of the battle, was believed to mark the resting place of the Sacred Band. Modern excavations found the remains of 254 soldiers underneath the monument; it is therefore generally accepted that this was indeed the grave of the Sacred Band, since it is unlikely that every member was killed.", "Cawkwell suggests that this was one of the most decisive battles in ancient history. Since there was now no army which could prevent Philip's advance, the war effectively ended. In Athens and Corinth, records show desperate attempts to re-build the city walls, as they prepared for siege. However, Philip had no intention of besieging any city, nor indeed of conquering it. He wanted the southern Greeks as his allies for his planned campaign against the Persians, and he wanted to leave a stable Greece in his rear when he went on campaign; further fighting was therefore contrary to his aims. Philip marched first to Thebes, which surrendered to him; he expelled the Theban leaders who had opposed him, recalled those pro-Macedonian Thebans who had previously been exiled, and installed a Macedonian garrison. He also ordered that the Boeotian cities of Plataea and Thespiae, which Thebes had destroyed in previous conflicts, be re-founded. Generally, Philip treated the Thebans severely, making them pay for the return of their prisoners, and even to bury their dead; he did not, however, dissolve the Boeotian Confederacy. By contrast, Philip treated Athens very leniently; although the Second Athenian League was dissolved, the Athenians were allowed to keep their colony on Samos, and their prisoners were freed without ransom. Philip's motives are not entirely clear, but one likely explanation is that he hoped to use the Athenian navy in his campaign against Persia, since Macedon did not possess a substantial fleet; he therefore needed to remain on good terms with the Athenians. Philip also made peace with the other combatants; Corinth and Chalcis, which controlled important strategic locations both received Macedonian garrisons. He then turned to deal with Sparta, which had not taken part in the conflict, but was likely to take advantage of the weakened state of the other Greek cities to try to attack its neighbours in the Peloponnese. The Spartans refused Philip's invitation to engage in discussions, so Philip ravaged Lacedaemonia, but did not attack Sparta itself. Philip seems to have moved around in the months after the battle, making peace with the states that opposed him, dealing with the Spartans, and installing garrisons; his movements also probably served as a demonstration of force to the other cities, that they should not try to oppose him. In mid 337 BC, he seems to have camped near Corinth, and began the work to establish a league of the city-states, which would guarantee peace in Greece, and provide Philip with military assistance against Persia. The result, the League of Corinth, was formed in the latter half of 337 BC at a congress organised by Philip. All states signed up to the league, with the exception of Sparta. The principal terms of the concord were that all members became allied to each other, and to Macedon, and that all members were guaranteed freedom from attack, freedom of navigation, and freedom from interference in internal affairs. Philip, and the Macedonian garrisons installed, would act as the 'keepers of the peace'. At Philip's behest, the synod of the league then declared war on Persia, and voted Philip as \"Strategos\" for the forthcoming campaign. An advance Macedonian force was sent to Persia in early 336 BC, with Philip due to follow later in the year. However, before he could depart, Philip was assassinated by one of his bodyguards. Alexander therefore became King of Macedon, and in a series of campaigns lasting from 334 to 323 BC, he conquered the whole Persian Empire." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Sources.", "Background.", "Prelude.", "Opposing forces.", "Antigonids.", "Allies.", "Strategic and tactical considerations.", "Battle.", "Deployment.", "Initial phase.", "Second phase.", "Aftermath." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Diodorus Siculus is the principal source for the history of the Diadochi, in his 'Library of history' (\"Bibliotheca historica\"). Diodorus is often derided by modern historians for his style and inaccuracies, but he preserves many details of the ancient period found nowhere else. Diodorus worked primarily by epitomizing the works of other historians, omitting many details where they did not suit his purpose, which was to illustrate moral lessons from history. However, since Diodorus provides the only continuous narrative for the history of the \"Diadochi\", we have no alternative but to rely on his account. Unfortunately, from book XXI onwards (301 BC), including the actual Battle of Ipsus, the \"Bibliotheca\" only exists in fragments. Nevertheless, Diodorus provides extensive details of the Fourth War of the Diadochi leading up to Ipsus. It is generally thought that Diodorus's source for much of this period was the now-lost history of the Diadochi written by Hieronymus of Cardia. Hieronymus was a friend of Eumenes, and later became a member of the Antigonid court; he was therefore very much familiar and contemporary with the events he described, and possibly a direct eyewitness to some. The only full description of the battle available is in Plutarch's \"Life of Demetrius\". Plutarch was writing some 400 years after the events in question, and is therefore a secondary source, but he often names his sources, which allows some degree of verification of his statements. Plutarch was also primarily interested in moral lessons from history, rather than actually detailing history in depth, and thus his description of the battle does not go into great detail.", "In the aftermath of the Second War of the Diadochi (315 BC), the aging satrap Antigonus Monophthalmus had been left in undisputed control of the Asian territories of the Macedonian empire (Asia Minor, Syria and the vast eastern satrapies). This left Antigonus in prime position to claim overall rule over the Macedonian empire. Antigonus's growing power alarmed the other major Successors, resulting in the eruption of the Third War of the Diadochi in 314 BC, in which Antigonus faced a coalition of Cassander (ruler of Macedonia), Lysimachus (ruler of Thrace) and Ptolemy (ruler of Egypt). This war ended in a compromise peace in 311 BC, after which Antigonus attacked Seleucus, who was attempting to re-establish himself in the eastern Satrapies of the empire. The resulting Babylonian War lasted from 311 to 309 BC, and resulted in defeat for Antigonus, allowing Seleucus to re-claim the satrapy of Babylonia and overlordship of the territories to the east. While Antigonus was distracted elsewhere, Ptolemy had been expanding his power into the Aegean Sea and to Cyprus. Antigonus thus resumed the war with Ptolemy in 308 BC, beginning the Fourth War of the Diadochi. Antigonus sent his son Demetrius to regain control of Greece, and in 307 BC he took Athens, expelling Demetrius of Phaleron, Cassander's governor, and proclaiming the city free again. Demetrius then turned his attention to Ptolemy, invading Cyprus and defeating Ptolemy's fleet at the Battle of Salamis-in-Cyprus. In the aftermath of this victory, Antigonus and Demetrius both assumed the crown of Macedon, in which they were shortly followed by Ptolemy, Seleucus, Lysimachus, and eventually Cassander. In 306, Antigonus attempted to invade Egypt, but storms prevented Demetrius's fleet from supplying him, and he was forced to return home. With Cassander and Ptolemy both weakened, and Seleucus still occupied by attempting to assert his control over the East, Antigonus and Demetrius now turned their attention to Rhodes, which was besieged by Demetrius's forces in 305 BC. The island was reinforced by troops from Ptolemy, Lysimachus, and Cassander. Ultimately, the Rhodians reached a compromise with Demetrius – they would support Antigonus and Demetrius against all enemies, save their ally Ptolemy. Ptolemy took the title of Soter (\"Savior\") for his role in preventing the fall of Rhodes, but the victory was ultimately Demetrius's, as it left him with a free hand to attack Cassander in Greece. Demetrius thus returned to Greece and set about liberating the cities of Greece, expelling Cassander's garrisons, and the pro-Antipatrid oligarchies. This occupied much of Demetrius's efforts in 303 and 302 BC. Seeing that Demetrius's war effort was aimed at destroying his power in Greece, and ultimately in Macedonia, Cassander tried to come to terms with Antigonus. However, Antigonus rejected these advances, intent on forcing Cassander's complete surrender. Cassander therefore held counsel with Lysimachus, and they agreed on a joint strategy that included sending envoys to Ptolemy and Seleucus, asking them to join in combatting the Antigonid threat. Seeking to take the initiative, Cassander sent a significant portion of the Macedonian army under Prepelaus to Lysimachus, which was to be used in joint operations in Asia Minor. Meanwhile, Cassander took the rest of the Macedonian army into Thessaly to confront Demetrius.", "Lysimachus crossed over the Hellespont in 302 BC, intending to take advantage of Antigonus's absence in Syria by overrunning Asia Minor. The cities of Lampsakos and Parion submitted to him, but he had to storm Sigeion, after which he installed a garrison there. He then sent Prepelaus with 7,000 men to attack Aeolis and Ionia, while he besieged Abydos. This siege was unsuccessful however, since Demetrius sent the city reinforcements from Greece by sea. Lysimachus instead went on to win over Hellespontine Phrygia, and then captured the major administrative centre of Synnada. Meanwhile, Prepelaus captured Adramyttion, Ephesos, Teos, and Colophon; he could not however capture Erythrae or Clazomenae, again due to sea-borne reinforcements. Finally, Prepelaus moved inland and captured Sardis, another major administrative centre. When Antigonus received news of the invasion, he abandoned preparations for a great festival to be held in Antigonia, and quickly began to march his army northwards from Syria, through Cilicia, Cappadocia, Lycaonia, and into Phrygia. Lysimachus, hearing of the approach of Antigonus's army, held counsel with his officers, and decided to avoid open battle until Seleucus's arrival. The allies thus defended their camp with entrenchments and palisades, and when Antigonus arrived offering battle, they remained within the camp. Antigonus therefore moved to cut off the allies provisions, forcing Lysimachus to abandon the camp and make a night-time march of some 40 miles to Dorylaion. There, the allies built a new, triple-palisaded camp amongst the hills, with relatively easy access to food and water. Antigonus followed closely behind, and laid siege to the allied camp, bringing up catapults for the assault. Lysimachus sent sorties to try and disrupt the siege-works, but the Antigonid forces always ended with the upper hand in ensuing skirmishes. With the siege works nearing completion and food running low, Lysimachus decided to abandon the camp, and marched away during a night-time storm. Antigonus again attempted to follow, but as winter approached with further rain, conditions became difficult, and he abandoned pursuit and dispersed his men into winter quarters instead. The allied army marched on into Bithynia and went into winter quarters in and around the city of Heraclea. Whilst settling his army for the winter, Antigonus heard the news that Seleucus was en route from the eastern satrapies to support Lysimachus. He therefore dispatched messengers to Demetrius, ordering him to bring his army over to Asia to reinforce the Antigonid forces. Demetrius had in the meantime continued his campaign in Greece, and although Cassander had blocked the land-passes, Demetrius had entered Thessaly by sea. There had followed a somewhat inconsequential campaign of manoeuvre between the two armies in Thessaly, before Demetrius received his father's messages asking for reinforcements. Demetrius thus hastily arranged a truce with Cassander, and took his army by sea across the Aegean to Ephesos. He recaptured Ephesos, and marched north to the Hellespont, where he established a strong garrison and fleet to prevent European reinforcements reaching the allied army in Asia. Demetrius then also dispersed his army into winter quarters. In the absence of Demetrius, Cassander now felt able to send further reinforcements to Lysimachus, under the command of his brother, Pleistarchus. Since Demetrius was guarding the easy crossing points at the Hellespont and the Bosphorus, Pleistarchus attempted to ship his men directly across the Black Sea to Heraclea, using the port of Odessos. The men had to be sent in batches due to a lack of ships, and although the first batch arrived safely, the second shipment was intercepted by Demetrius's fleet, and the third wrecked in a storm. Pleistarchus himself narrowly survived the wreck of his command ship, eventually being carried to Heraclea to recuperate over the winter. Similarly, the concentration of Antigonid forces in Asia now made Ptolemy feel secure enough to bring an army out of Egypt to try to conquer Coele Syria. He captured a number of cities, but while laying siege to Sidon, he was brought false reports of an Antigonid victory, and told that Antigonus was marching south into Syria. He thus garrisoned the cities he had captured, and retreated into Egypt. At around the same time, Seleucus appears to have finished his march from the east, arriving in Cappadocia with his army, which he then sent into winter quarters. Diodorus completes book XX of his Library at this point, saying that he will describe the battle between the Kings at the start of the next book. However, only fragments remain of books XXI onwards, and although some fragments of his description of the battle do remain, they do not form a coherent narrative. In his description of the battle, Plutarch does not describe the preliminary manoeuvring that must have occurred in 301 BC before the battle, so it is unclear how events unfolded. Lysimachus and Seleucus were probably anxious to bring Antigonus to battle, since their respective power-centres in Thrace and Babylon were vulnerable in their prolonged absence. The armies eventually met in battle around 50 miles north-east of Synnada, near the village of Ipsus. Antigonus was aware of Ptolemy's raid on Syria the previous year, and thus would have been loath to be cut off from Syria and his capital in Antigonia, and thus moved to intercept the allied army. The exact location of the battle is unknown, but it occurred in a large open plain, well-suited for both the allied preponderance of elephants and the Antigonid superiority in cavalry numbers and training.", "", "According to Plutarch, Antigonus's army before the battle numbered around 70,000 infantry, 10,000 cavalry and 75 war elephants. The majority of this number were presumably supplied by Antigonus's army that marched from Syria, since Demetrius's army in Greece had no elephants and only 1,500 cavalry. Diodorus claims that Demetrius's had approximately 56,000 infantry in Greece (8,000 Macedonian phalangites, 15,000 mercenaries, 25,000 troops from Greek cities and 8,000 light troops), but it is unclear what proportion of this infantry accompanied him to Asia. Based on other battles between the Diadochi, modern experts estimate that of the 70,000 Antigonid infantry, perhaps 40,000 were phalangites and 30,000 were light troops of various kinds.", "Plutarch gives a total of 64,000 infantry for the allies, with 10,500 cavalry, 400 elephants and 120 scythed chariots. Diodorus claims that Seleucus brought 20,000 infantry, 12,000 cavalry (including mounted archers), 480 elephants and more than a hundred scythed chariots with him from the eastern satrapies. The numbers of elephants and chariots supposed to be present at the battle are therefore relatively consistent between these sources. However, Seleucus's cavalry component according to Diodorus is alone larger than Plutarch's claims for the whole allied cavalry, and Lysimachus must have had at least some cavalry; he sent at least 1,000 horsemen with Prepelaus the previous year. Modern experts thus estimate the total number of allied cavalry at 15,000. Of the 44,000 non-Seleucid infantry, it is unclear what proportion were supplied by Cassander and Lysimachus respectively. Cassander sent 12,000 men under Pleistarchus, of which two-thirds were lost in crossing the Black Sea, but it is not clear how many men were in the initial dispatch of troops send under Prepelaus. Modern experts estimate that, of the allies' total infantry, perhaps 30,000–40,000 were phalangites, with the remainder being light troop types.", "In terms of overall strategy, it is clear that both sides had resolved on battle; for the allies, it represented the best chance of stopping Antigonid expansion, rather than allowing themselves to be defeated piecemeal. For Antigonus, the chance to defeat all his enemies at once could not be passed up, even if he would have preferred to defeat them individually. However, little is known about the specific strategic considerations facing the two sides before the battle, as the precise circumstances and location of the engagement remain uncertain. As mentioned above, it has been suggested that the allied army was trying to cut Antigonus's lines of communication with Syria, in order to prompt him into battle, but this is only one of several possible scenarios. Tactically, both sides faced the common problem of the wars fought amongst the Successors; how to defeat an army equipped in the same manner and using the same basic tactics. The Diadochi seem to have been inherently conservative, and continued to favour a strong attack with cavalry on the right wing of the battle-line (tactics commonly used by both Philip and Alexander) as the principal tactical thrust – even though they must have been aware of the likelihood their opponents would perform the same maneuver on the opposite side of the battlefield. When armies were numerically even and deploying the same tactics, gaining a clear advantage was difficult. The use of novel weapons, such as war elephants and scythed chariots, to change the tactical balance was one approach used by the Diadochi, but such innovations were readily copied. Thus, both sides at Ipsus had war elephants, although thanks to Seleucus, the allies were able to field an unusually high number, in addition to scythed chariots. Both sides therefore sought an open battlefield; the allies in order to use their elephants to full potential, and the Antigonids to allow full use of their strong cavalry arm. For the Antigonids, strong in both infantry and cavalry, the tactical situation was straightforward, and followed the template Successor tactic of a massive cavalry assault on the right wing. For the allies, weaker in infantry, the tactics would have been to maximize their overwhelming superiority in elephants, though it is not clear exactly how they intended to do this. Nevertheless, the elephants played a pivotal role in the battle.", "", "Both sides probably deployed their troops in a standard Macedonian formation, with the phalanx of heavy infantry in the centre of the battle line. In front, and to the sides of the phalanx, light infantry were deployed to act as skirmishers and to protect the flanks of the phalanx; cavalry was split between the two wings. In the Antigonid line, Demetrius commanded the best of the cavalry, stationed on the right wing. Antigonus, with his personal bodyguard was positioned in the centre behind the phalanx. The 75 elephants were deployed in front of the battle-line with their infantry guards. The situation with the allied deployment is less clear. Plutarch states that Seleucus's son Antiochus was in command of the cavalry on the left wing, traditionally the weaker wing in the Macedonian system, intended only to skirmish. However, it has been suggested that on this occasion the allied cavalry were evenly split between the two wings. We do not know who commanded the right wing, nor where Lysimachus, Seleucus or Pleistarchus were stationed. It is clear that some of Seleucus's elephants were placed in front of the battle line, but not how many, though a figure of 100 is often suggested. It has been suggested that Seleucus retained command of the majority of his elephants in a tactical reserve, but the use of such a large reserve would have been unprecedented in battles amongst the successors. Furthermore, it would have meant shunning an opportunity to deploy the major tactical advantage held by the allies. As modern sources point out, understanding this 'elephant problem' is key to understanding the outcome of the battle, but the ancient sources do not allow the point to be resolved.", "The battle seems to have begun in earnest with a clash of the elephants from both sides. Diodorus says that \"the elephants of Antigonus and Lysimachus fought as if nature had matched them equally in courage and strength\", suggesting that they were also equal in number (and supporting the idea of a large reserve of elephants on the allied side). Demetrius then launched the principal Antigonid thrust, manoeuvering his cavalry round the elephants, and attacking the allied cavalry under Antiochus. Plutarch says that Demetrius \"fought brilliantly and routed his enemy\". However it is also clear that Demetrius allowed the pursuit of the routed allied cavalry to go too far, resulting in his men becoming isolated from the battlefield.", "It is not explicitly stated by Plutarch, but it has been assumed that the two phalanxes engaged each other during the battle. If this was the case, then the Antigonid strategy would have been for Demetrius to take his cavalry and attack the rear of the allied phalanx; or alternatively, return to station on the right wing and protect the Antigonid phalanx's flank. However, Demetrius found himself unable to return to the battlefield because of the deployment of 300 elephants in his path. The ancient sources repeatedly emphasise the effect of elephants on horses, which are alarmed by the smell and noise of elephants and are loath to approach them. Demetrius would not have been able to take his horses through the line of elephants, nor manoeuvre around such a large quantity of elephants. This 'elephant manoeuvre' was the decisive moment in the battle, but it is not clear how it came about; Plutarch only says that \"the [allied] elephants were thrown in his way\". If the elephants had indeed been held in reserve, then it might have been relatively straightforward to deploy them, but as discussed, it is not clear why so many elephants would have been held in reserve. However, it is also possible that the deployment of the elephants was a piece of improvisation during the battle, though moving such a large number of elephants in such a coordinated manoeuvre in the middle of the battle would have been difficult. Since he was the only allied commander with significant experience of handling elephants, it has been assumed that Seleucus was responsible for this manoeuvre. With Demetrius now isolated from the battlefield, the Antigonid phalanx was exposed on its right flank. Plutarch describes what followed: The Antigonid phalanx and Allied phalanx engaged in a stiff and chaotic fight. This move against the Antigonid right flank probably involved detaching cavalry from the allies own right wing, including Seleucus's horse-archers, who could rain down missiles on the immobile phalanx. The morale of the troops appears to have collapsed, and it seems that some of the heavy infantry either defected to the allied side or otherwise fled. Antigonus, stationed in the centre, tried to rally his men, hoping for Demetrius's return. However, he was gradually surrounded by allied infantry and eventually killed by several javelins thrown by allied skirmishers. With the death of its commander, the Antigonid battle-line dissolved, and the battle effectively ended.", "From the wreck of the Antigonid army, Demetrius managed to recover 5,000 infantry and 4,000 cavalry, and escaped with them to Ephesos. Despite the expectation that he would raid the Ephesian treasury, Demetrius instead immediately set sail for Greece \"putting his chief remaining hopes in Athens\". However, he was to be disappointed; the Athenians had voted not to allow any of the kings into Athens. Concealing his wrath, he asked the Athenians for the return of his ships that were moored there, and then sailed on to the Isthmus of Corinth. He found that everywhere his garrisons were being expelled, and his erstwhile allies defecting to the other kings. He left Pyrrhus of Epirus (at that time part of the Antigonid faction) in charge of the Antigonid cause in Greece, and himself sailed to the Thracian Chersonesos. The last chance to reunite the Alexandrine Empire had already been passed when Antigonus lost the Babylonian War and two thirds of his empire. Ipsus confirmed this failure. As Paul K. Davis writes, \"Ipsus was the high point of the struggle among Alexander the Great’s successors to create an international Hellenistic empire, which Antigonus failed to do.\" Instead, the empire was carved up between the victors, with Ptolemy retaining Egypt, Seleucus expanding his power to eastern Asia Minor, and Lysimachus receiving the remainder of Asia Minor. Eventually Seleucus would defeat Lysimachus at the Battle of Corupedium in 281 BC, but he was assassinated shortly afterward. Ipsus finalized the breakup of an empire, which may account for its obscurity; despite that, it was still a critical battle in classical history and decided the character of the Hellenistic age." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Principles of operation.", "AWS at signals.", "AWS for speed warnings.", "History.", "Early devices.", "GWR automatic train control.", "Strowger–Hudd system.", "Network Rail.", "Limitations.", "Bi-directional operation.", "Other countries." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Information is conveyed by electromagnetic induction to the moving train through equipment fixed in the middle of the track, known as an \"AWS magnet\". The system works by the train detecting sequences and polarities of magnetic fields passing between the track equipment and the train equipment via a receiver under the train. Multiple unit trains have a receiver at each end. Vehicles that can operate singly (single car DMUs and locomotives) only have one; this could be either at the front or rear depending on the direction the vehicle is travelling in. The equipment on a train consists of;", "As the train passes over an AWS magnet, the'sunflower' indicator in the driver's cab will change to \"all black\". If the signal being approached is displaying a 'clear' for a semaphore or green for a multiple aspect colour light signal, the AWS will sound a bell (modern locomotives and multiple units use an electronic sounder that gives a distinctive 'ping') and leave the visual indicator black. This lets the driver know that the next signal is showing 'clear' and that the AWS system is working. If the signal being approached is displaying a restrictive aspect (red, yellow or double yellow in colour-light installations or a distant semaphore at caution (horizontal)), the AWS will sound a continuous horn or buzzer. The driver then has approximately 2 seconds to cancel the warning by pressing and releasing the AWS/TPWS acknowledgement button (if a driver should collapse onto the button or keep it held down, the AWS will not be cancelled). On cancelling the warning, the horn then stops and the visual indicator changes to a pattern of black and yellow spokes, which persists until the next AWS magnet and reminds the driver of the restrictive aspect. As a fail-safe mechanism, if the driver fails to cancel the warning in time, the emergency brake will apply and bring the train to a stand. When this occurs the red \"Brake demand\" light will flash on the AWS/TPWS Driver machine interface. The driver must now push the AWS/TPWS acknowledgement button, and the brakes will release after a safety time out period has elapsed. AWS is provided at most main aspect signals on running lines, though there are some exceptions:", "The system works in the same way as for signals, except that a fixed magnet positioned between the running rails is located at the service braking distance before the speed reduction. The single magnet will always cause a horn (caution) to sound in the cab, which the driver must cancel to prevent the emergency brake applying. Beyond the magnet, a lineside warning board will advise the driver of the speed requirement ahead.", "", "Early devices used a mechanical connection between the signal and the locomotive. In 1840, the locomotive engineer Edward Bury experimented with a system whereby a lever at track level, connected to the signal, sounded the locomotive's whistle and turned a cab-mounted red lamp. Ten years later, Colonel William Yolland of the Railway Inspectorate was calling for a system that not only alerted the driver but also automatically applied the brakes when signals were passed at danger but no satisfactory method of bringing this about was found. In 1873, United Kingdom Patent No. 3286 was granted to Charles Davidson and Charles Duffy Williams for a system in which, if a signal were passed at danger, a trackside lever operated the locomotive's whistle, applied the brake, shut off steam and alerted the guard. Numerous similar patents followed but they all bore the same disadvantage – that they could not be used at higher speeds for risk of damage to the mechanism – and they came to nothing. In Germany, the Kofler system used arms projecting from signal posts to connect with a pair of levers, one representing \"caution\" and the other \"stop\", mounted on the locomotive cab roof. To address the problem of operation at speed, the sprung mounting for the levers was connected directly to the locomotive's axle box to ensure correct alignment. When Berlin's S-Bahn was electrified in 1929, a development of this system, with the contact levers moved from the roofs to the sides of the trains, was installed at the same time. The first useful device was invented by Vincent Raven of the North Eastern Railway in 1895, patent number 23384. Although this provided audible warning only, it did indicate to the driver when points ahead were set for a diverging route. By 1909, the company had installed it on about 100 miles of track. In 1907 Frank Wyatt Prentice patented a radio signalling system using a continuous cable laid between the rails energized by a spark generator to relay \"Hertzian Waves\" to the locomotive. When the electrical waves were active they caused metal filings in a coherer on the locomotive to clump together and allow a current from a battery to pass. The signal was turned off if the block were not \"clear\"; no current passed through the coherer and a relay turned a white or green light in the cab to red and applied the brakes. The LSWR installed the system on its Hampton Court Branch in 1911, but shortly after removed it when the line was electrified.", "The first system to be put into wide use was developed in 1905 by the Great Western Railway and protected by UK patents 12661 and 25955. Its benefits over previous systems were that it could be used at high speed and that it sounded a confirmation in the cab when a signal was passed at clear. In the final version of the GWR system, the locomotives were fitted with a solenoid-operated valve into the vacuum train pipe, maintained in the closed position by a battery. At each distant signal, a long ramp was placed between the rails. This ramp consisted of a straight metal blade set edge-on, almost parallel to the direction of travel (the blade was slightly offset from parallel so in its fixed position it would not wear a groove into the locomotives' contact shoes), mounted on a wooden support. As the locomotive passed over the ramp, a sprung contact shoe beneath the locomotive was lifted and the battery circuit holding closed the brake valve was broken. In the case of a clear signal, current from a lineside battery energising the ramp (but at opposite polarity) passed to the locomotive through the contact and maintained the brake valve in the closed position, with the reversed-polarity current ringing a bell in the cab. To ensure that the mechanism had time to act when the locomotive was travelling at high speed, and the external current therefore supplied only for an instant, a \"slow releasing relay\" both extended the period of operation and supplemented the power from the external supply with current from the locomotive battery. Each distant signal had its own battery, operating at 12.5 V or more; the resistance if the power came directly from the controlling signal box was thought too great (the locomotive equipment required 500 mA). Instead, a 3 V circuit from a switch in the signal box operated a relay in the battery box. When the signal was at 'danger', the ramp battery was disconnected and so could not replace the locomotive's battery current: the brake valve solenoid would then be released and a horn sounded in the cab. The driver was then expected to cancel the warning and apply the brakes under his own control. In normal use the locomotive battery was subject to constant drain holding closed the valve in the vacuum train pipe so to keep this to a minimum an automatic cut-off switch was incorporated which disconnected the battery when the locomotive was not in use and the vacuum in the train pipe had dropped away. It was possible for specially equipped GWR locomotives to operate over shared lines electrified on the third-rail principle (Smithfield Market, Paddington Suburban and Addison Road). At the entrance to the electrified sections a particular, high-profile contact ramp ( instead of the usual ) raised the locomotive's contact shoe until it engaged with a ratchet on the frame. A corresponding raised ramp at the end of the electrified section released the ratchet. It was found, however, that the heavy traction current could interfere with the reliable operation of the on-board equipment when traversing these routes and it was for this reason that, in 1949, the otherwise \"well proven\" GWR system was not selected as the national standard (see below). Notwithstanding the heavy commitment of maintaining the lineside and locomotive batteries, the GWR installed the equipment on all its main lines. For many years, Western Region (successors to the GWR) locomotives were dual fitted with both GWR ATC and BR AWS system.", "By the 1930s, other railway companies, under pressure from the Ministry of Transport, were considering systems of their own. A non-contact method based on magnetic induction was preferred, to eliminate the problems caused by snowfall and day-to-day wear of the contacts which had been discovered in existing systems. The Strowger-Hudd system of Alfred Ernest Hudd (1958) used a pair of magnets, one a permanent magnet and one an electro-magnet, acting in sequence as the train passed over them. Hudd patented his invention and offered it for development to the Automatic Telephone Manufacturing Company of Liverpool (a subsidiary of the Strowger Automatic Telephone Exchange Company of Chicago). It was tested by the Southern Railway, London and North Eastern Railway and the London, Midland and Scottish Railway but these trials came to nothing. In 1948 Hudd, now working for the LMS, equipped the London, Tilbury and Southend line, a division of the LMS, with his system. It was successful and British Railways developed the mechanism further by providing a visual indication in the cab of the aspect of the last signal passed. In 1956, the Ministry of Transport evaluated the GWR, LTS and BR systems and selected the one developed by BR as standard for Britain's railways. This was in response to the Harrow and Wealdstone accident in 1952.", "Network Rail (NR) AWS consists of: The system works on a set/reset principle. When the signal is at 'clear' or green (\"off\"), the electromagnet is energised. As the train passes, the permanent magnet sets the system. A short time later, as the train moves forward, the electromagnet resets the system. Once so reset, a bell is sounded (a chime on newer stock) and the indicator is set to all black if it is not already so. No acknowledgement is required from the driver. The system must be reset within one second of being set, otherwise it behaves as for a caution indication. An additional safeguard is included in the distant-signal control wiring to ensure the AWS \"clear\" indication is only given when the distant is proved \"off\" – mechanical semaphore distants have a contact in the electromagnet coil circuit closed only when the arm is raised or lowered by at least 27.5 degrees. Colour-light signals have a current sensing relay in the lamp lighting circuit to prove the signal alight, this is used in combination with the relay controlling the green aspect to energise the AWS electro-magnet. In a Solid State Interlocking the signal module has a \"Green-Proved\" output from its driver electronics that is used to energise the electromagnet. When the distant signal is at 'caution' or yellow (on), the electro-magnet is de-energised. As the train passes, the permanent magnet sets the system. However, since the electromagnet is de-energised, the system is not reset. After the one-second delay within which the system can be reset, a horn warning is given until the driver acknowledges by pressing a plunger. If the driver fails to acknowledge the warning within 2.75 seconds, the brakes are automatically applied. If the driver does acknowledge the warning, the indicator disk changes to yellow and black, to remind the driver that he has acknowledged a warning. The yellow and black indication persists until the next signal and serves as a reminder between signals that the driver is proceeding under caution. The one-second delay before the horn sounds allows the system to operate correctly down to speeds as low as. Below this speed, the caution horn warning will always be given, but it will be automatically cancelled when the electromagnet resets the system if the driver has not already done so. The display will indicate all black once the system resets. The system is fail-safe since, in the event of a loss of power, only the electro-magnet is affected and therefore all trains passing will receive a warning. The system suffers one drawback in that on single track lines, the track equipment will set the AWS system on a train travelling in the opposite direction from that for which the track equipment is intended but not reset it as the electromagnet is encountered before the permanent magnet. To overcome this, a suppressor magnet may be installed in place of an ordinary permanent magnet. When energised, its suppressing coil diverts the magnetic flux from the permanent magnet so that no warning is received on the train. The suppressor magnet is fail-safe since loss of power will cause it to act like an ordinary permanent magnet. A cheaper alternative is the installation of a lineside sign that notifies the driver to cancel and ignore the warning. This sign is a blue square board with a white St Andrew's cross on it (or a yellow board with a black cross, if provided in conjunction with a temporary speed restriction). With mechanical signalling, the AWS system was installed only at distant signals but, with multi-aspect signalling, it is fitted at all main line signals. All signal aspects, except green, cause the horn to sound and the indicator disc to change to yellow on black. AWS equipment without electromagnets are fitted at locations where a caution signal is invariably required or where a temporary caution is needed (for example, a temporary speed restriction). This is a secondary advantage of the system because temporary AWS equipment need only contain a permanent magnet. No electrical connection or supply is needed. In this case, the caution indication in the cab will persist until the next green signal is encountered. To verify that the on-train equipment is functioning correctly motive power depot exit lines are fitted with a 'Shed Test Inductor' that produces a caution indication for vehicles entering service. Due to the low speed used on such lines the size of the track equipment is reduced from that found on the operational network. 'Standard Strength' magnets are used everywhere except in DC third rail electrification areas and are painted yellow. The minimum field strength to operate the on-train equipment is 2 milliteslas (measured above the track equipment casing). Typical track equipment produces a field of 5 mT (measured under the same conditions). Shed Test Inductors typically produce a field of 2.5 mT (measured under the same conditions). Where DC third rail electrification is installed 'Extra Strength' magnets are fitted and are painted green. This is because the current in the third rail produces a magnetic field of its own which would swamp the 'Standard Strength' magnets.", "AWS has only two states; clear and caution. It does not provide any information about what the hazard is. AWS is a warning system which is designed to be cancelled by the driver. It is possible for a driver on a crowded suburban railway to run all day on cautionary aspects. Continually cancelling warnings can lead to a state of conditioning, sometimes called the \"double yellow zombie\" effect, where the driver fails to take appropriate action when necessary. This has led to a number of fatal accidents. It is possible for AWS to develop a wrong-side failure whereby the driver is given no indication or a 'clear' indication instead of a 'caution'. Because of this the rulebook states that \"AWS does not relieve the driver of the responsibility of observing and obeying lineside signals and indicators.\" Also, there is no automatic brake application when a stop signal is passed. The newer TPWS, which is installed at signals where there is a risk of conflicting movements, the approach to reductions of permissible speed of more than a third and buffer stops, overcomes this problem.", "Because the permanent magnet is located in the centre of the track, it operates in both directions. The permanent magnet can be suppressed by an electric coil of suitable strength. Where signals applying to opposing directions of travel on the same line are suitably positioned relative to each other (i.e. facing each other and about 400yds apart), common track equipment may be used, comprising an unsuppressed permanent magnet sandwiched between with both signals' electro-magnets.", "The BR AWS system is also used in:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Symmetry.", "Tiling rectangles.", "Filling boxes.", "Board game.", "Literature.", "Architecture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Pentominoes were formally defined by American professor Solomon W. Golomb starting in 1953 and later in his 1965 book \"\". They were introduced to the general public by Martin Gardner in his October 1965 Mathematical Games column in Scientific American. Golomb coined the term \"pentomino\" from the Ancient Greek / \"pénte\", \"five\", and the -omino of domino, fancifully interpreting the \"d-\" of \"domino\" as if it were a form of the Greek prefix \"di-\" (two). Golomb named the 12 \"free\" pentominoes after letters of the Latin alphabet that they resemble. John Horton Conway proposed an alternate labeling scheme for pentominoes, using O instead of I, Q instead of L, R instead of F, and S instead of N. The resemblance to the letters is more strained, especially for the O pentomino, but this scheme has the advantage of using 12 consecutive letters of the alphabet. It is used by convention in discussing Conway's Game of Life, where, for example, one speaks of the R-pentomino instead of the F-pentomino.", "The F, L, N, P, Y, and Z pentominoes are chiral; adding their reflections (F′, L′, N′, Q, Y′, Z′) brings the number of \"one-sided\" pentominoes to 18. If rotations are also considered distinct, then the pentominoes from the first category count eightfold, the ones from the next three categories (T, U, V, W, Z) count fourfold, I counts twice, and X counts only once. This results in 5×8 + 5×4 + 2 + 1 = 63 \"fixed\" pentominoes. For example, the eight possible orientations of the L, F, N, P, and Y pentominoes are as follows: For 2D figures in general there are two more categories:", "A standard pentomino puzzle is to tile a rectangular box with the pentominoes, i.e. cover it without overlap and without gaps. Each of the 12 pentominoes has an area of 5 unit squares, so the box must have an area of 60 units. Possible sizes are 6×10, 5×12, 4×15 and 3×20. The avid puzzler can probably solve these problems by hand within a few hours. A more challenging task, typically requiring a computer search, is to count the total number of solutions in each case. The 6×10 case was first solved in 1960 by Colin Brian and Jenifer Haselgrove. There are exactly 2339 solutions, excluding trivial variations obtained by rotation and reflection of the whole rectangle, but including rotation and reflection of a subset of pentominoes (which sometimes provides an additional solution in a simple way). The 5×12 box has 1010 solutions, the 4×15 box has 368 solutions, and the 3×20 box has just 2 solutions (one is shown in the figure, and the other one can be obtained from the solution shown by rotating, as a whole, the block consisting of the L, N, F, T, W, Y, and Z pentominoes). A somewhat easier (more symmetrical) puzzle, the 8×8 rectangle with a 2×2 hole in the center, was solved by Dana Scott as far back as 1958. There are 65 solutions. Scott's algorithm was one of the first applications of a backtracking computer program. Variations of this puzzle allow the four holes to be placed in any position. One of the external links uses this rule. Most such patterns are solvable, with the exceptions of placing each pair of holes near two corners of the board in such a way that both corners could only be fitted by a P-pentomino, or forcing a T-pentomino or U-pentomino in a corner such that another hole is created. Efficient algorithms have been described to solve such problems, for instance by Donald Knuth. Running on modern hardware, these pentomino puzzles can now be solved in mere seconds. The solution of tiling rectangles of polyominoes with \"n\" cells exists only for \"n\" = 0, 1, 2 and 5; the first three are trivial.", "A pentacube is a polycube of five cubes. Of the 29 pentacubes, exactly twelve pentacubes are flat (1-layer) and correspond to the twelve pentominoes extruded to a depth of one square. A pentacube puzzle or 3D pentomino puzzle, amounts to filling a 3-dimensional box with the 12 flat pentacubes, i.e. cover it without overlap and without gaps. Since each pentacube has a volume of 5 unit cubes, the box must have a volume of 60 units. Possible sizes are 2×3×10 (12 solutions), 2×5×6 (264 solutions) and 3×4×5 (3940 solutions). Following are one solution of each case. Alternatively one could also consider combinations of five cubes that are themselves 3D, i.e., are not part of one layer of cubes. However, in addition to the 12 extruded pentominoes, 6 sets of chiral pairs and 5 pieces make total 29 pieces, resulting in 145 cubes, which will not make a 3D box (as 145 can only be 29×5×1, which the non-flat pentominoes cannot fit into).", "There are board games of skill based entirely on pentominoes. Such games are often simply called \"Pentominoes\". One of the games is played on an 8×8 grid by two or three players. Players take turns in placing pentominoes on the board so that they do not overlap with existing tiles and no tile is used more than once. The objective is to be the last player to place a tile on the board. This version of Pentominoes is called \"Golomb's Game\". The two-player version has been weakly solved in 1996 by Hilarie Orman. It was proved to be a first-player win by examining around 22 billion board positions. Pentominoes, and similar shapes, are also the basis of a number of other tiling games, patterns and puzzles. For example, the French board game \"Blokus\" is played with 4 colored sets of polyominoes, each consisting of every pentomino (12), tetromino (5), triomino (2) domino (1) and monomino (1). Like the game \"Pentominoes\", the goal is to use all of your tiles, and a bonus is given if the monomino is played on the very last move. The player with the fewest blocks remaining wins. The game of \"Cathedral\" is also based on polyominoes. Parker Brothers released a multi-player pentomino board game called \"Universe\" in 1966. Its theme is based on a deleted scene from the movie \"\" in which an astronaut is playing a two-player pentomino game against the HAL 9000 computer (a scene with a different astronaut playing chess was retained). The front of the board game box features scenes from the movie as well as a caption describing it as the \"game of the future\". The game comes with 4 sets of pentominoes in red, yellow, blue, and white. The board has two playable areas: a base 10x10 area for two players with an additional 25 squares (two more rows of 10 and one offset row of 5) on each side for more than two players. Game manufacturer Lonpos has a number of games that use the same pentominoes, but on different game planes. Their \"101 Game\" has a 5 x 11 plane. By changing the shape of the plane, thousands of puzzles can be played, although only a relatively small selection of these puzzles are available in print.", "The first pentomino problem, written by Henry Dudeney, was published in 1907 in the Canterbury Puzzles. Pentominoes were featured in a prominent subplot of Arthur C. Clarke's novel \"Imperial Earth\", published in 1975. Clarke also wrote an essay in which he described the game and how he got hooked on it. They were also featured in Blue Balliett's \"Chasing Vermeer\", which was published in 2003 and illustrated by Brett Helquist, as well as its sequels, \"The Wright 3\" and \"The Calder Game\". In the New York Times crossword puzzle for June 27, 2012, the clue for an 11-letter word at 37 across was \"Complete set of 12 shapes formed by this puzzle's black squares.\"", "On several occasions, pentominoes had been used as decoration elements for outer walls of Plattenbau buildings, mainly in Eastern Europe. The patterns used were based on solutions of the 6×10 case puzzle." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Career.", "Journalism.", "Directing, producing and screenwriting.", "\"Roger & Me\".", "\"Pets or Meat: The Return to Flint\".", "\"Canadian Bacon\".", "\"The Big One\".", "\"Bowling for Columbine\".", "\"Fahrenheit 9/11\".", "\"Sicko\".", "\"Captain Mike Across America\" and \"Slacker Uprising\".", "\"Capitalism: A Love Story\".", "\"Where to Invade Next\".", "\"Michael Moore in TrumpLand\".", "\"Fahrenheit 11/9\".", "\"Planet of the Humans\".", "Writing.", "Acting.", "Television.", "Music videos.", "Theater.", "Political views.", "Personal life." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Michael Francis Moore was born outside of Flint, Michigan, and raised in Davison by parents Helen Veronica (née Wall) (1921–2002), a secretary, and Francis Richard \"Frank\" Moore, (1921–2014) an automotive assembly-line worker. At that time, the city of Flint was home to many General Motors factories, where his parents and grandfather worked. His uncle LaVerne was one of the founders of the United Automobile Workers labor union and participated in the Flint sit-down strike. Moore was brought up Catholic, and has Irish, and smaller amounts of Scottish and English, ancestry. Some of his ancestors were Quakers. He attended parochial St. John's Elementary School for primary school and later attended St. Paul's Seminary in Saginaw, Michigan, for a year. He then attended Davison High School, where he was active in both drama and debate, graduating in 1972. As a member of the Boy Scouts of America, he achieved the rank of Eagle Scout. At the age of 18, he was elected to the Davison school board. At the time he was the youngest person elected to office in the U.S., as the minimum age to hold public office had just been lowered to 18.", "", "Moore dropped out of the University of Michigan–Flint following his first year (where he wrote for the student newspaper \"The Michigan Times\"). At 22 he founded the alternative weekly magazine \"The Flint Voice\", which soon changed its name to \"The Michigan Voice\" as it expanded to cover the entire state. Popstar Harry Chapin is credited with being the reason the magazine was able to start by performing benefit concerts and donating the money to Moore. Moore crept backstage after a concert to Chapin's dressing room and convinced him to do a concert and give the money to him. Chapin subsequently did a concert in Flint every year. In 1986, when Moore became the editor of \"Mother Jones\", a liberal political magazine, \"The Michigan Voice\" was shut down by the investors and he moved to California. After four months at \"Mother Jones\", Moore was fired. Matt Labash of \"The Weekly Standard\" reported this was for refusing to print an article by Paul Berman that was critical of the Sandinista human rights record in Nicaragua. Moore refused to run the article, believing it to be inaccurate. \"The article was flatly wrong and the worst kind of patronizing bullshit. You would scarcely know from it that the United States had been at war with Nicaragua for the last five years.\" Moore believes that \"Mother Jones\" fired him because of the publisher's refusal to allow him to cover a story on the GM plant closings in his hometown of Flint, Michigan. He responded by putting laid-off GM worker Ben Hamper (who was also writing for the same magazine at the time) on the magazine's cover, leading to his termination. Moore sued for wrongful dismissal, and settled out of court for $58,000, providing him with seed money for his first film, \"Roger & Me\".", "", "The 1989 film \"Roger & Me\" was Moore's first documentary about what happened to Flint, Michigan, after General Motors closed its factories and opened new ones in Mexico where the workers were paid lower wages. The \"Roger\" is Roger B. Smith, former CEO and President of General Motors. Harlan Jacobson, editor of \"Film Comment\" magazine, said that Moore muddled the chronology in \"Roger & Me\" to make it seem that events that took place before G.M.'s layoffs were a consequence of them. Critic Roger Ebert defended Moore's handling of the timeline as an artistic and stylistic choice that had less to do with his credibility as a filmmaker and more to do with the flexibility of film as a medium to express a satiric viewpoint.", "Moore made a follow-up 23-minute documentary film, \"\", that aired on PBS in 1992. It is based on \"Roger & Me\". The film's title refers to Rhonda Britton, a Flint, Michigan resident featured in both the 1989 and 1992 films, who sells rabbits as either pets or meat.", "Moore's 1995 satirical film \"Canadian Bacon\" features a fictional U.S. president (played by Alan Alda) engineering a fake war with Canada in order to boost his popularity. The film is also one of the last featuring Canadian-born actor John Candy. Some commentators in the media felt the film was influenced by the Stanley Kubrick film \"Dr. Strangelove.\"", "Moore's 1997 film \"The Big One\" documents the tour publicizing Moore's book \"Downsize This! Random Threats from an Unarmed American\", in which he criticizes mass layoffs despite record corporate profits. Among others, he targets Nike for outsourcing shoe production to Indonesia.", "Documentary \"Bowling for Columbine\" released in 2002 probes the culture of guns and violence in the United States, taking as a starting point the Columbine High School massacre of 1999. \"Bowling for Columbine\" won the Anniversary Prize at the 2002 Cannes Film Festival and France's César Award as the Best Foreign Film. In the United States, it won the 2002 Academy Award for Documentary Feature. It also enjoyed great commercial and critical success for a film of its type, and has since gone on to be considered one of the greatest documentary films of all-time. At the time of \"Columbine\"s release, it was the highest-grossing mainstream-released documentary (a record now held by Moore's \"Fahrenheit 9/11\").", "Moore's film, \"Fahrenheit 9/11\", released in 2004, examines America in the aftermath of the September 11 attacks, particularly the record of the George W. Bush Administration and alleged links between the families of George W. Bush and Osama bin Laden. \"Fahrenheit\" was awarded the \"Palme d'Or\", the top honor at the 2004 Cannes Film Festival; it was the first documentary film to win the prize since 1956. Moore later announced that \"Fahrenheit 9/11\" would not be in consideration for the 2005 Academy Award for Documentary Feature, but instead for the Academy Award for Best Picture. He stated he wanted the movie to be seen by a few million more people via television broadcast prior to Election Day. According to Moore, \"Academy rules forbid the airing of a documentary on television within nine months of its theatrical release\", and since the November 2 election was fewer than nine months after the film's release, it would have been disqualified for the Documentary Oscar. Regardless, \"Fahrenheit\" did not receive an Oscar nomination for Best Picture. The title of the film alludes to the classic book \"Fahrenheit 451\" about a future totalitarian state in which books are banned; according to the book, paper begins to burn at. The pre-release subtitle of the film confirms the allusion: \"The temperature at which freedom burns.\" As of August 2012, \"Fahrenheit 9/11\" is the highest-grossing documentary of all time, taking in over US$200 million worldwide, including United States box office revenue of almost US$120 million. In February 2011, Moore sued producers Bob and Harvey Weinstein for US$2.7 million in unpaid profits from the film, claiming they used \"Hollywood accounting tricks\" to avoid paying him the money. In February 2012, Moore and the Weinsteins informed the court that they had settled their dispute.", "Moore directed the 2007 film, \"Sicko\", about the American health care system, focusing particularly on the managed-care and pharmaceutical industries. At least four major pharmaceutical companies—Pfizer, Eli Lilly, AstraZeneca, and GlaxoSmithKline—ordered their employees not to grant any interviews or assist Moore. According to Moore in a letter on his website, \"roads that often surprise us and lead us to new ideas—and challenge us to reconsider the ones we began with have caused some minor delays.\" The film premiered at the Cannes Film Festival on May 19, 2007, receiving a lengthy standing ovation, and was released in the U.S. and Canada on June 29, 2007. The film is currently ranked the tenth highest grossing documentary of all time and received an Academy Award nomination for Best Documentary Feature.", "Moore takes a look at the politics of college students in what he calls \"Bush Administration America\" with \"Captain Mike Across America\", which was shot during Moore's 60-city college campus tour in the months leading up to the 2004 presidential election. The film debuted at the Toronto International Film Festival on September 7, 2007. It was later re-edited by Moore into \"Slacker Uprising\" and released for free on the internet on September 23, 2008.", "Released on September 23, 2009, \"\" looks at the financial crisis of 2007–2008 and the U.S. economy during the transition between the incoming Obama Administration and the outgoing Bush Administration. Addressing a press conference at its release, Moore said, \"Democracy is not a spectator sport, it's a participatory event. If we don't participate in it, it ceases to be a democracy. So Obama will rise or fall based not so much on what he does but on what we do to support him.\"", "\"Where to Invade Next\" examines the benefits of progressive social policies in various countries. The film had its premiere at the 2015 Toronto International Film Festival. Godfrey Cheshire, writing for Roger Ebert.com, wrote that \"Moore's surprising and extraordinarily winning \"Where to Invade Next\" will almost surely cast his detractors at Fox News and similar sinkholes into consternation\".", "In \"Michael Moore in TrumpLand\", Moore talks about the 2016 Presidential Election Campaigns. It is a solo performance showing Moore on stage speaking to a seated audience. The film consists of Moore's opinions of the candidates and highlights the Democratic National Candidate Hillary Clinton's strengths and also features a lengthy section on how the Republican National Candidate Donald Trump could win. It was filmed in Wilmington, Ohio, at the Murphy Theatre over the course of two nights in October 2016. The film premiered just eleven days after it was shot at the IFC Center in New York City.", "In May 2017, it was announced that Moore had reunited with Harvey Weinstein to direct his new film about Donald Trump, titled \"Fahrenheit 11/9\", which was released in approximately 1,500 theaters in the United States and Canada on September 21, 2018. Sexual assault allegations against Weinstein prompted Moore to revoke the plan to work with The Weinstein Company, which stalled production. The title refers to the day when Donald Trump officially became President-elect of the United States. In a column for \"Variety\" responding to the film's low opening weekend, \"How Michael Moore Lost His Audience\", sympathetic film critic Owen Gleiberman wrote \"He's like an aging rock star putting out albums that simply don't mean as much to those who were, and are, his core fans\". According to Glenn Greenwald, \"what he’s trying is of unparalleled importance: not to take the cheap route of exclusively denouncing Trump but to take the more complicated, challenging, and productive route of understanding who and what created the climate in which Trump could thrive.\"<ref name=\"Fahrenheit 11/9\"></ref>", "Michael Moore is also executive producer of the 2019 documentary, \"Planet of the Humans\", which was directed by Jeff Gibbs and released on July 31, 2019. The film makes the argument that since the first Earth Day, the condition of the planet has worsened, and questions whether mainstream approaches adopted by industry to mitigate climate change entail environmental impacts whose costs are comparable to or even possibly outweigh the benefits. The film received criticism from a number of climate change experts and activists who variously questioned its claims and the accuracy of figures cited in the film and suggested that the film could play into the hands of the fossil fuel industry. Michael Moore, Jeff Gibbs, and co-producer Ozzie Zehner responded to the critics on an episode of \"Rising\".", "Moore has written and co-written eight non-fiction books, mostly on similar subject matter to his documentaries. \"Stupid White Men\" (2001) is ostensibly a critique of American domestic and foreign policy but, by Moore's own admission, is also \"a book of political humor\". \"Dude, Where's My Country?\" (2003), is an examination of the Bush family's relationships with Saudi royalty, the Bin Laden family, and the, and a call-to-action for liberals in the 2004 election. Several of his works have made bestseller lists.", "Moore has dabbled in acting, following a supporting role in \"Lucky Numbers\" (2000) playing the cousin of Lisa Kudrow's character, who agrees to be part of the scheme concocted by John Travolta's character. He also had a cameo in his \"Canadian Bacon\" as an anti-Canada activist. In 2004, he did a cameo, as a news journalist, in \"The Fever\", starring Vanessa Redgrave in the lead.", "Between 1994 and 1995, he directed and hosted the BBC television series \"TV Nation\", which followed the format of news magazine shows but covered topics they avoid. The series aired on BBC2 in the UK. The series was also aired in the US on NBC in 1994 for 9 episodes and again for 8 episodes on Fox in 1995. His other major series was \"The Awful Truth\", which satirized actions by big corporations and politicians. It aired on the UK's Channel 4, and the Bravo network in the US, in 1999 and 2000. Moore won the Hugh M. Hefner First Amendment Award in Arts and Entertainment for being the executive producer and host of \"The Awful Truth\", where he was also described as \"muckraker, author and documentary filmmaker\". Another 1999 series, \"Michael Moore Live\", was aired in the UK only on Channel 4, though it was broadcast from New York. This show had a similar format to \"The Awful Truth\", but also incorporated phone-ins and a live stunt each week. In 2017, Moore planned to return to prime time network television on Turner/TNT in late 2017 or early 2018 with a program called \"Michael Moore Live from the Apocalypse\". In February 2019, however, the network announced the show would not be produced.", "Moore has directed several music videos, including two for Rage Against the Machine for songs from \"The Battle of Los Angeles\": \"Sleep Now in the Fire\" and \"Testify\". He was threatened with arrest during the shooting of \"Sleep Now in the Fire\", which was filmed on Wall Street; and subsequently the city of New York City denied the band permission to play there, even though the band and Moore had secured a federal permit to perform. Moore also directed the videos for R.E.M. single \"All the Way to Reno (You're Gonna Be a Star)\" in 2001 and the System of a Down song \"Boom!\".", "Moore's Broadway debut, \"The Terms of My Surrender\", an anti-Trump dramatic monologue, premiered on August 10, 2017 at the Belasco Theatre. Donald Trump tweeted his dislike for the show and falsely claimed that it closed early. In the first week the production earned $456,195 in sales and $367,634 in the final week, altogether grossing $4.2 million, falling short of its potential gross. It lasted 13 weeks with 96 performances until October 2017, grossing 49% of its potential. Fox News gave it a negative review, in line with Trump's comments. The show was unenthusiastically praised by The Guardian, said to \"preach to the choir\". The spokesman for \"The Terms of My Surrender\" said that the production may show in San Francisco in early 2018.", "Although Moore has been known for his political activism, he rejects the label as redundant in a democracy: \"I and you and everyone else has to be a political activist. If we're not politically active, it ceases to be a democracy.\" According to John Flesher of the Associated Press, Moore is known for his \"fiery left-wing populism\", and publications such as the Socialist Worker Online have hailed him as the \"new Tom Paine\". In a speech, he said that socialism is democracy and Christianity. However, he later said that economic philosophies from the past were not apt enough to describe today's realities. Moore was a high-profile guest at both the 2004 Democratic National Convention and the 2004 Republican National Convention, chronicling his impressions in \"USA Today\". He was criticized in a speech by Republican Senator John McCain as \"a disingenuous film-maker\". Moore laughed and waved as Republican attendees jeered, later chanting \"four more years\". Moore gestured an L with his index finger and thumb at the crowd, which translates into \"loser\". During September and October 2004, Moore spoke at universities and colleges in swing states during his \"Slacker Uprising Tour\". The tour gave away ramen and underwear to students who promised to vote. One stop during the tour was Utah Valley State College. A fight for his right to speak resulted in massive public debates and a media blitz, eventually resulting in a lawsuit against the college and the resignation of at least one member of the college's student government. The Utah event was chronicled in the documentary film \"This Divided State\". Despite having supported Ralph Nader in the 2000 presidential election, Moore urged Nader not to run in 2004 so as not to split the left vote. On \"Real Time with Bill Maher\", Moore and Bill Maher knelt before Nader to plead with him to stay out of the race. Moore drew attention in 2004 when he used the term \"deserter\" to describe then president George W. Bush while introducing Retired Army Gen. Wesley K. Clark at a Democratic Presidential debate in New Hampshire. Noting that Clark had been a champion debater at West Point, Moore told a laughing crowd, \"I know what you're thinking. I want to see that debate\" between Clark and Bush – \"the general versus the deserter\". Moore said he was referring to published reports in several media outlets including \"The Boston Globe\" which had reported that \"there is strong evidence that Bush performed no military service as required when he moved from Houston to Alabama to work on a U.S. Senate campaign from May to November 1972.\" In 2007, Moore became a contributing journalist at \"OpEdNews\", and by May 2014, had authored over 70 articles published on their website. On April 21, 2008, Moore endorsed Barack Obama for President, stating that Hillary Clinton's recent actions had been \"disgusting.\" Moore was an active supporter of the Occupy Wall Street protest in New York City and spoke with the OWS protesters on September 26, 2011. On October 29, 2011, he spoke at the Occupy Oakland protest site to express his support. Moore praised \"Django Unchained\", tweeting that the movie \"is one of the best film satires ever. A rare American movie on slavery and the origins of our sick racist history.\" Moore's 2011 claims that \"Four hundred obscenely wealthy individuals, 400 little Mubaraks – most of whom benefited in some way from the multi-trillion-dollar taxpayer bailout of 2008 – now have more cash, stock and property than the assets of 155 million Americans combined\" and that these 400 Americans \"have more wealth than half of all Americans combined\" was found to be true by PolitiFact and others. Moore criticized the 2011 military intervention in Libya. After the US troops launched 110 Tomahawk missiles at military targets in Libya, Moore suggested that President Barack Obama should return his Nobel Peace Prize and tweeted in his official Twitter account, \"May I suggest a 50-mile evacuation zone around Obama's Nobel Peace Prize?\" After Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez died in March 2013, Moore praised him for \"eliminating 75 percent of extreme poverty\" while \"[providing] free health and education for all.\" In an op-ed piece for \"The New York Times\" published on December 31, 2013, Moore assessed the Affordable Care Act, calling it \"awful\" and adding that, \"Obamacare's rocky start... is a result of one fatal flaw: The Affordable Care Act is a pro-insurance-industry plan implemented by a president who knew in his heart that a single-payer, Medicare-for-all model was the true way to go.\" Despite his strong critique, however, Moore wrote that he still considers the plan a \"godsend\" because it provides a start \"to get what we deserve: universal quality health care.\" In December 2015, Moore announced his support for Vermont Senator Bernie Sanders in the 2016 United States presidential election. Moore called Sanders a \"force to contend with.\" In January 2016, he officially endorsed Bernie Sanders for president. He also described democratic socialism as \"a true democracy where everyone has a seat at the table, everyone has a voice, not just the rich.\" After Sanders lost the 2016 primaries, Moore urged Americans to vote for Clinton while also correctly predicting that Trump would win the election because the post-industrial Midwestern states would vote for Trump. After Trump was elected, Moore called Trump a \"Russian traitor\", saying his presidency had \"no legitimacy\". In October 2016, Moore criticized Julian Assange and WikiLeaks for publishing leaks from the DNC's emails, saying: \"I think WikiLeaks and I think Assange, they're essentially anarchists and they know, just like a lot of people voting for Trump know, that he's their human Molotov cocktail and they want to blow up the system. It's an anarchic move.\" In November 2016, right after Donald Trump was elected President of the United States, and inspired by the 1980 book, \"Friendly Fascism\", Moore reportedly stated: \"The next wave of fascists will not come with cattle cars and concentration camps, but they'll come with a smiley face and maybe a TV show... That's how the 21st-century fascists will essentially take over.\" On November 12, 2016 Moore participated in NYC anti-Trump rally which was later (in 2018) alleged to have been organized by Russians who were indicted by Robert Mueller for meddling in the 2016 election. Moore started the website TrumpiLeaks in May 2017, to encourage whistleblowers to provide information about Donald Trump. Moore was inspired to create the site after witnessing the firings by Trump of three law enforcement officials, specifically: United States Attorney Preet Bharara, former acting United States Attorney General Sally Yates, and former Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation James Comey. Moore posted a message to his personal website, explaining the motivation of the new venture and that he wanted any information related to: \"crimes, breaches of public trust and misconduct committed by Donald J. Trump and his associates\". He asserted, \"Trump thinks he's above the law\". Moore stated it was his view that Trump had engaged in obstruction of justice, falsehoods to the United States citizenry, promoted violent behavior, and violated the Constitution of the United States. In March 2018, Moore criticized the \"corporate media\", saying \"You turn on the TV, and it's 'Russia, Russia, Russia!' These are all shiny keys to distract us. We should know about the West Virginia strike. What an inspiration that would be. But they don't show this\". In April 2018, Moore taunted Trump by ironically asking him why he had not already fired Robert Mueller. After the Russia–United States summit of July 2018, Moore called for Trump impeachment, saying \"Congress needs no more proof than Trump's admission yesterday that he sides with Putin to impeach and remove him.\" Moore compared Trump to Nazi Germany's dictator Adolf Hitler. On August 10, 2019, Moore tweeted: \"I guess they think a country dumb enough to elect Trump is stupid enough to believe Jeffrey Epstein committed suicide.\" In October 2019, he announced his political endorsement of Bernie Sanders in the 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries.", "Moore married film producer Kathleen Glynn on October 19, 1991. He filed for divorce on June 17, 2013. On July 22, 2014, the divorce was finalized. Moore was raised a Catholic but is no longer a practicing member of the Church. He disagrees with church teaching on subjects such as abortion and same-sex marriage. In an interview with \"The A.V. Club\", when asked if there was a God, he stated, \"Yes, there is. I don't know how you define that, but yeah.\" Following the Columbine High School massacre, Moore acquired a lifetime membership to the National Rifle Association (NRA). Moore said that he initially intended to become the NRA's president to dismantle the organization, but he soon dismissed the plan as too difficult. Gun rights supporters such as Dave Kopel claimed that there was no chance of that happening; David T. Hardy and Jason Clarke wrote that Moore failed to discover that the NRA selects a president not by membership vote but by a vote of the board of directors. In 2005, \"Time\" magazine named Moore one of the world's 100 most influential people. Later in 2005, Moore founded the Traverse City Film Festival held annually in Traverse City, Michigan. In 2009, he co-founded the Traverse City Comedy Festival, also held annually in Traverse City, where Moore helped spearhead the renovation of the historic downtown State Theater." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Prelude.", "Armies.", "Romans.", "Macedonians.", "Battle.", "Aftermath." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In 201 BC, Rome won the Second Punic War against Carthage. Philip V of Macedon had attacked Rome's client states in the Mediterranean for 20 years. The Greek city-states, led by Athens, appealed to Rome for help. In 197 BC the Roman army of Titus Quinctius Flamininus, with his allies from the Aetolian League, marched out towards Pherae in search of Philip, who was at Larissa.", "", "Flamininus had about 25,500 men, thus subdivided: 16,000 legionary infantry, 8,400 light infantry, 1,800 cavalry and 20 war elephants; further it included soldiers from the allied Aetolian League, light infantry from Athamania, and mercenary archers from Crete.", "Philip had about 26,000 men of which 16,000 were phalangites, 2,000 light infantry, 5,500 mercenaries and allies from Crete, Illyria, Thrace, plus 2,000 cavalry. The Thessalian cavalry was led by Heracleides of Gyrton, the Macedonian cavalry by Leon. The mercenaries (except the Thracians) were commanded by Athenagoras and the second infantry corps by Nicanor the Elephant.", "During the march there was a heavy rainstorm, and the morning after there was a fog over the hills and fields separating both camps. Despite this, Philip resumed his march, and his troops became confused and disoriented due to heavy fog. Philip then sent a small force to take the Cynoscephalae Hills (). Flamininus, still unaware of Philip's location, sent out some cavalry and light infantry to reconnoiter, which engaged Philip's troops on the hills. The battle on the hills grew fierce and Flamininus sent 500 cavalry and 2,000 infantry as reinforcements, mostly Aetolians, forcing Philip's men to withdraw further up the hill. Philip now sent more men into the melee, his Macedonian and Thessalian cavalry, who drove the Romans down the hill, until the Aetolian cavalry stabilized the situation. Philip, though reluctant to send his phalanx into the broken, hilly terrain eventually ordered an assault with half the phalanx, 8,000 men, when he heard of the Roman retreat. Flamininus positioned his troops on the field as well. He left his right wing in reserve, with his elephants in front, and personally led the left wing against Philip. Meanwhile, Philip's phalanx had reached the summit, and after joining with their light troops and cavalry which he placed on his right wing, Philip had his phalanx charge down the hill into the oncoming legionaries. As the Roman left was slowly being driven back, Flamininus took command of his right and ordered an assault there. Philip's right wing was now on higher ground than the Roman left, and was at first successful against them. The phalanx drove the Romans down the slope. The Roman legions on the left did not break, and fought fiercely. However Philip's left wing and center, commanded by Nicanor, never managed to form up properly. The Roman right attacked the Macedonians and were more successful than the Roman left. Flamininus concentrated his attack on Nicanor and the Macedonian left. Now that the battle was balanced, Flamininus sent his elephants charging into the phalangites, and they panicked. After breaking through and gaining ground, one of the Roman tribunes in command, stationed on the inside edge of the now advanced Roman right wing, on his own authority, detached twenty maniples (a smaller tactical unit within the legion) of heavy infantry, in total numbering about 2,000 men, spun them around and led them to the left and back to attack the Macedonian center and left wing – from behind and the side. The Macedonian phalangites were unable to re-position themselves and form up to face this new attack as quickly as the Roman maniples could maneuver to exploit the opportunity. The Macedonians raised their sarissas as a symbol of surrender. Either the Romans did not understand this signal, or they just ignored it. There was complete panic in the Macedonian ranks. Now surrounded by both wings of the Roman legion, they suffered heavy casualties and fled.", "After a brief pursuit, Flamininus allowed Philip to escape. According to Polybius and Livy, 8,000 Macedonians had been killed. Livy mentions that other sources claim 32,000 Macedonians were killed and even one writer who due to \"boundless exaggeration\" claims 40,000 but concludes that Polybius is the trustworthy source on this matter. Flamininus also took 5,000 prisoners. The Romans lost about 700 killed. It is generally perceived that with the later Battle of Pydna, this defeat demonstrated the superiority of the Roman legion over the Macedonian phalanx. The phalanx, though very powerful head on, was not as flexible as the Roman manipular formation and thus unable to adapt to changing conditions on the battlefield or break away from an engagement if necessary. This assertion has been challenged by some who point out that the Romans were only able to attain victory by taking advantage of the fact that the Macedonian left wing was not fully formed, although this is also given as evidence of the phalanx's unwieldy nature when compared to the legion. In any case, the result of the battle of Cynoscephalae was a fatal blow to the political aspirations of the Macedonian kingdom; Macedonia would never again be in a position to challenge Rome's geopolitical expansion. Although the peace that followed allowed Philip to keep his kingdom intact, Flamininus proclaimed that other Greek states previously under Macedonian domination were now free. Philip also had to pay 1,000 talents of silver to Rome, disband his navy, most of his army, and send his son to Rome as a hostage." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Overview.", "Etymology and terminology.", "History.", "Chinese influence." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Known as Turan to the Persians, western Turkestan has also been known historically as Sogdiana, \"Ma wara'u'n-nahr\" (by its Arab conquerors), and Transoxiana by Western travelers. The latter two names refer to its position beyond the River Oxus when approached from the south, emphasizing Turkestan's long-standing relationship with Iran, the Persian Empires, and the Umayyad and Abbasid Caliphates. Turkestan is roughly within the regions of Central Asia lying between Siberia on the north; Tibet, Afghanistan, and Iran on the south; the Gobi Desert on the east; and the Caspian Sea on the west. Oghuz Turks (also known as Turkmens), Uzbeks, Kazakhs, Khazars, Kyrgyz, Hazara and Uyghurs are some of the Turkic inhabitants of the region who, as history progressed, have spread further into Eurasia forming such Turkic nations as Turkey, and subnational regions like Tatarstan in Russia and Crimea in Ukraine. Tajiks and Russians form sizable non-Turkic minorities. It is subdivided into Afghan Turkestan and Russian Turkestan in the West, and Xinjiang in the East.", "Of Persian origin (see -stan), the term \"Turkestan\" () has never referred to a single nation state. Iranian geographers first used the word to describe the place of Turkic peoples. \"Turkestan\" is used to describe any place where Turkic peoples lived. On their way southward during the conquest of Central Asia in the 19th century, the Russians under took the city of Turkistan (in present-day Kazakhstan) in 1864. Mistaking its name for the entire region, they adopted the name of \"Turkestan\" () for their new territory.", "The history of Turkestan dates back to at least the third millennium BC. Many artifacts were produced in that period, with much trade being conducted. The region was a focal point for cultural diffusion, as the Silk Road traversed it. Turkestan covered the area of Central Asia and began acquiring a \"Turkic\" identity starting from the 6th century AD with the incipient Turkic migration. Turkic sagas, such as the \"Ergenekon\" legend, and written sources, such as the Orkhon Inscriptions, state that Turkic peoples originated in the nearby Altai Mountains, and, through nomadic settlement, started their long journey westwards. Huns conquered the area after they conquered Kashgaria in the early 2nd century BC. With the dissolution of the Huns' Empire, Chinese rulers took over Eastern Turkestan. Arab forces captured it in the 8th century. The Persian Samanid dynasty subsequently conquered it and the area experienced economic success. The entire territory was held at various times by Turkic forces, such as the Göktürks, until the conquest by Genghis Khan and the Mongols in 1220. Genghis Khan gave the territory to his son Chagatai and the area became the Chagatai Khanate. Timur took over the western portion of Turkestan in 1369, and the area became part of the Timurid Empire. The eastern portion of Turkestan was also called Mogulistan and continued to be ruled by descendants of Genghis Khan.", "In Chinese historiography, the Qara Khitai is most commonly called the \"Western Liao\" (西遼) and is considered to be a legitimate Chinese dynasty, as is the case for the Liao dynasty. The history of the Qara Khitai was included in the \"History of Liao\" (one of the \"Twenty-Four Histories\"), which was compiled officially during the Yuan dynasty by Toqto'a et al. After the Tang dynasty, non-Han Chinese empires gained prestige by connecting themselves with China; the Khitan Gurkans used the title of \"Chinese emperor\", and the empire was also called the \"Khan of Chīn\". The Qara Khitai used the \"image of China\" to legitimize their rule to the Central Asians. The Chinese emperor, together with the rulers of the Turks, Arabs, India and the Byzantine Romans, were known to Islamic writers as the world's \"five great kings\". Qara Khitai kept the trappings of a Chinese state, such as Chinese coins, Chinese imperial titles, the Chinese writing system, tablets, seals, and used Chinese products like porcelein, mirrors, jade and other Chinese customs. The adherence to Liao Chinese traditions has been suggested as a reason why the Qara Khitai did not convert to Islam. Despite the Chinese trappings, there were comparatively few Han Chinese among the population of the Qara Khitai. These Han Chinese had lived in Kedun during the Liao dynasty, and in 1124 migrated with the Khitans under Yelü Dashi along with other people of Kedun, such as the Bohai, Jurchen, and Mongol tribes, as well as other Khitans in addition to the Xiao consort clan. Qara Khitai's rule over the Muslim-majority Central Asia has the effect of reinforcing the view among some Muslim writers that Central Asia was linked to China even though the Tang dynasty had lost control of the region a few hundred years ago. Marwazī wrote that Transoxiana was a former part of China, while Fakhr al-Dīn Mubārak Shāh defined China as part of \"Turkestan\", and the cities of Balāsāghūn and Kashghar were considered part of China. The association of Khitai with China meant that the most enduring trace of the Khitan's power is names that are derived from it, such as Cathay, the medieval Latin appellation for China. Names derived from Khitai are still in use, such as the Russian, Bulgarian, Uzbek and Mongolian names for China. However, the use of \"Khitai\" to mean \"China\" or \"Chinese\" by Turkic speakers within China, such as the Uyghurs, is considered pejorative by the Chinese authorities, who have tried to ban it." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Early life.", "Poetry and song.", "Later life.", "Reception.", "Legacy.", "Performance and recordings.", "Translations.", "Adaptations and associated items.", "Bellmanmuseet.", "Bellmansällskapet.", "External links." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Carl Michael Bellman was born on 4 February 1740 in the Stora Daurerska house, which was one of the finest in the Södermalm district of Stockholm. The house was the property of his maternal grandmother, Catharina von Santen, who had brought up his father, orphaned as a small child. Carl Michael's parents were Johan Arndt Bellman, a civil servant, and Catharina Hermonia, daughter of the priest of the local Maria parish. Her family was wholly Swedish, whereas Johan's family had German origins: they had come from Bremen in about 1660. When Carl Michael was four the family moved to a smaller, single storey dwelling called the Lilla Daurerska house. He briefly went to a local school, but was educated mainly by private tutors. He was the eldest of 15 children who lived long enough for their births to be registered. His parents had intended him to become a priest, but he fell ill with a fever, and on recovering found he could express any thought in rhyming verse. His parents appointed a tutor called Ennes who Bellman called \"a genius\". Bellman was taught French, German, Italian, English and Latin. He read Horace and Boileau; Ennes taught him to write poetry and to translate French and German hymns. He was familiar with stories from the Bible including the Apocrypha, many of which found their way into the songs he composed in later life. However, expenses including the Swedish tradition of hospitality left the family with no money to start him off in life with a journey to the south of Europe, such as to Spain to visit his uncle, Jacob Martin Bellman, who was the Swedish Consul in Cádiz. Carl Michael translated a French book by Du Four and dedicated it to his uncle, but the hint was ignored. Deep in debt, at the end of 1757 the family sent Carl Michael to Sweden's central bank Riksbanken as an unpaid trainee. He had no aptitude for numbers, instead discovering the taverns and brothels which were to figure so largely in his songs. As the banking career was not working out – and as trainees were (after a period with a relaxed regime) again required to sit an exam, for which Bellman was ill-equipped – he took a break in 1758, going to the university of Uppsala, where Linnaeus was professor of botany. The idea of attending lectures was no more congenial than banking, and he stayed only one term; one of his songs (FS 28) records that \"He contemplated Uppsala—the beer stung his mouth—love distracted his wits...\" However, he met young men (such as Carl Bonde) from wealthy and noble families, went drinking with them, and started to entertain them with his songs. Bellman returned to the bank job, and seems quickly to have fallen into financial difficulty: \"a jungle of debts, sureties and bondsmen began to proliferate around him.\" The character of bailiff Blomberg appears in his songs (e.g. FS 14), constantly trying to track down debtors and seize all their property. The law allowed the bankrupt only one way to escape from debtors' prison: to leave Sweden. In 1763, Bellman ran away to Norway. From the safety of Halden (then called Fredrikshald) he writes to the Council applying first for a passport, and then for a safe-conduct, both of which were granted. Meanwhile, his father had first mortgaged the Lilla Daurerska house, and then sold it: the family's finances were no better than his own. Even worse, by April 1764 the Bank had become tired of the riotous behaviour of its young men: its investigations showed that Bellman had been the ringleader, leading them (the Bank wrote) into \"gambling, masquerades, picnics and suchlike\". Bellman resigned, his safe banking career at an end.", "In 1765, Bellman's parents died; deeply moved, he wrote a religious poem. Then his fortunes improved: someone found him a job, first in the Office of Manufactures, then in the Customs, and he was able once again to live happily in Stockholm, observing the people of the city, with at least a modest salary. In 1768 his life's work as we now know it got under way: Bellman mostly played the cittern, becoming the most famous player of this instrument in Sweden. His portrait by Per Krafft shows him playing an oval instrument with twelve strings, arranged as six pairs. His first songs were \"parody songs\", a common form of entertainment at the time. Between 1769 and 1773, Bellman wrote 65 of 82 of his Epistles, as well as many poems. He attempted to publish the poems in 1772, but was unable to obtain the permission of the king, Gustav III, as a political coup intervened. He finally managed to obtain the permission in 1774, but soon discovered that the cost of printing, especially as he was determined to publish the sheet music alongside the text, was prohibitive given his ruinous finances, and he was forced to put off his plans. In 1776 the king gave him a sinecure job as secretary to the national lottery; this supported him for the rest of his life. On 19 December 1777, at the age of 37, he married the 22-year-old Lovisa Grönlund in Klara Church. They had four children, Gustav, Elis, Karl and Adolf; Elis died young. Throughout his life, but especially during the 1770s, Bellman also wrote religious poetry, seeing no conflict with his bacchanalian works; he published collections of his religious poems in 1781 and 1787. He wrote some ten plays (none with particularly strong plots) as divertimentos, some of them later serving as entertainments at the royal court. The plays fill Volume 6 of his collected works. In 1783, Bellman brought out \"The Temple of Bacchus\" (Bacchi Tempel), perhaps hoping to establish his reputation as a poet, rather than the merry entertainer that he was in fact known as at the time; but he always stood out in people's minds as unique, a different kind of writer and performer. Bellman's main works are the 65 \"Fredman's songs\" (\"Fredmans sånger\", 1790) and the 82 \"Fredman's epistles\" (\"Fredmans epistlar\", 1791). Their themes include the pleasures of drunkenness and sex. Against this backdrop, Bellman deals with themes of love, death, and the transitoriness of life. The settings of his songs reflect life in 18th-century Stockholm, but often refer to Greek and Roman mythological characters such as the goddess of love, Venus (or her Swedish equivalent, Fröja), Neptune and his retinue of water-nymphs, the love-god Cupid, the ferryman Charon and Bacchus, the god of wine and pleasure. Many of \"Fredman's Epistles\" are peopled by a cast which includes the clockmaker Jean Fredman, the prostitute or \"nymph\" Ulla Winblad, the alcoholic ex-soldier Movitz, and Father Berg, a virtuoso on several instruments. Some of these were based on living models, others probably not. Ulla Winblad was widely believed to have been closely based on Maria Kristina Kiellström, though the real woman, a silk worker once arrested for alleged prostitution, was not the ideal romantic figure of Bellman's songs. \"Fredman's songs\" also include Old Testament figures such as Noah and Judith. Bellman achieved his effects of rococo elegance and humour through precisely organised incongruity. For example, Epistle 25, \"Blåsen nu alla!\" (All blow now!), begins with Venus crossing the water, as in François Boucher's\"Triumph of Venus\", but when she disembarks, Bellman transforms her into a lustful \"Ulla Winblad\". Similarly, the ornate and civilized minuet melody of \"Ack du min Moder\" (Alas, thou my mother) contrasts with the text: Fredman is lying with a hangover in the gutter outside a tavern, complaining bitterly about life. Ulla Winblad (\"vineleaf\") recurs through the Epistles; Britten Austin comments that The songs are \"most ingeniously\" set to music, the melodies accentuated by the bold construction of music, word pictures and choice of words, while the music brings out a hidden dimension not seen if the words are simply read as verse. The poems themselves, far from being the brilliant improvisations that they appear, are striking in their \"formal virtuosity\". They may be drinking songs in name, but in structure they are tightly woven into a precise metre, situating the \"frenzied bacchanalia within a strict and decorous rococo frame.\" The musicologist James Massengale writes that the technique of reusing tunes in musical parody had already been overused and had fallen into disrepute by Bellman's time, just as his subject matter was initially looked down on. Despite this, Massengale argues Massengale observes that Bellman was \"fully aware of the complexity of the musical-poetic problem; his poems were not simply talented improvisations.\" and points out that Bellman was \"also interested in concealing this complexity\", with the discrepancies between the music and the poetry \"\"apparently\" resolved\". Bellman was a gifted entertainer and mimic. He was able to In 1790, the Swedish Academy awarded Bellman its annual Lundblad prize of 50 Riksdaler for the most interesting piece of literature of the year. Although \"Fredman's Epistles\" was neither exactly literature as understood by the academy, nor meeting the standards of elegant taste, the poet and critic Johan Henric Kellgren and the King ensured that Bellman won the prize.", "After the assassination of the King at the Stockholm opera in 1792, support for the liberal arts was withdrawn. Bellman, already in poor health from alcoholism, went into decline, drinking increasingly heavily. His drinking very likely contributed to his gout, which troubled him badly in 1790. He also caught tuberculosis: the disease had already killed his mother, and by the winter of 1792, he was seriously ill. As well as being ill, he was imprisoned—after struggling with debts and haunted by the threat of ruin and imprisonment all his life—\"for a wretched[ly small] debt of 150 Rdr\". The rumour was that a former Customs colleague, E. G. Nobelius, had had his advances to Louise Bellman rejected, and in revenge had sued Bellman for the debt, knowing he was penniless: he owed a total of almost 4,000 Riksdaler. On 11 February 1795, he died in his sleep in his house in Gamla Kungsholmsbrogatan. He was buried in Klara churchyard with no gravestone, its location now unknown. The Swedish Academy belatedly placed a memorial in the churchyard in 1851, complete with a bronze medallion by Johan Tobias Sergel.", "King Gustav III called Bellman \"\"Il signor improvisatore\"\" (The master improviser). Bellman has been compared with poets and musicians as diverse as Shakespeare and Beethoven. Åse Kleveland notes that he has been called \"Swedish poetry's Mozart, and Hogarth\", observing that Paul Britten Austin says instead simply that:", "", "Bellman's informal \"Bacchi Orden\" (Order of Bacchus) was replaced in the 1770s by the more structured Bacchanalian society \"\", which still exists in the 21st century. It enabled Bellman to publish his book \"Bacchi Tempel\" in 1783. When the tradition of solo performance of his songs died out, \"Par Bricole\" continued to perform his songs as choral pieces. Bellman's poetry continued to be read and sung throughout the 19th century, contrary to the widespread belief among researchers that he was largely forgotten during this period. His songs were sung especially by the urban bourgeoisie and in fraternities, but also in aristocratic circles and ordinary people in the countryside. The, named after a phrase in Epistle 14, was founded in Uppsala in 1853; the song became their trademark. The \"Epistles\" and \"Songs\" were published in chapbooks, sung at festivals and performed in a variety of concerts and entertainments. Figures such as Fredman, Ulla Winblad and Movitz, as well as Bellman himself were painted on tavern walls and memorabilia such as plates, beer tankards and hipflasks. Curiously, Bellman was celebrated at least as enthusiastically in polite and abstemious circles, though with bowdlerized versions of the songs. Major interpreters of Bellman's songs include Sven-Bertil Taube, who helped to start the 1960s Bellman renaissance; Fred Åkerström, who brought a fresh earthiness to Bellman interpretation; and the Dutch-born Cornelis Vreeswijk, who fitted Bellman to the style of American blues. Other recordings have been made by Evert Taube, and as rock music by Joakim Thåström, Candlemass or Marduk. They are also performed as choral music and as drinking songs. has recreated Bellman's dramatic style complete with period costume.", "Bellman has been translated into at least 20 languages, including English, most notably by Paul Britten Austin, and into German, for example by Hannes Wader. German Communist leader Karl Liebknecht liked Bellman's songs and translated some into German. Hans Christian Andersen was one of the first to translate Bellman into Danish. Bellman's songs have been translated and recorded in Icelandic (by Bubbi), Italian, French, Finnish (for instance by Vesa-Matti Loiri), Russian, Chuvash and Yiddish. English interpretations have been recorded by William Clauson, Martin Best, Freddie Langrind made some Norwegian translations in 2008. Sven-Bertil Taube, Roger Hinchliffe and Martin Bagge. Schoolchildren two hundred years on still learn some of his songs, and several including \"Gubben Noak\" and \"Fjäriln vingad\" are known by heart by many Swedes. Books in English with translations of Bellman's work have been written by Charles Wharton Stork in 1917, Hendrik Willem van Loon in 1939, Paul Britten Austin in 1967 and 1990, and the historian Michael Roberts in 1977–1991. In English the most thorough treatment of Bellman's life is also by Britten Austin. Van Loon's \"The Last of the Troubadours: The Life and Music of Carl Michael Bellman (1740–1795)\" was inspired by a visit to Sweden, and tried to introduce the unknown Bellman to an American audience, but critics felt his version of twenty of the songs was \"stiff and often ungraceful\", not doing justice to their composer.", "Bellman was the subject of an 1844 ballet choreographed by August Bournonville. Bellman features as a character, along with Ulla Winblad and King Gustav III, in the first episode of the Swedish television series \"Nisse Hults historiska snedsteg\" (Nisse Hult's historical slips) by SVT Drama. Bellman appears with his cittern and various objects from \"Fredman's Epistles\" and \"Fredman's Songs\" on a 100 Swedish kronor postage stamp issued in 2014 and designed by Beata Boucht; he was shown on earlier Swedish stamps in 1940 and 1990, commemorating the 200th and 250th anniversaries of his birth, and again in 2006. Bellmansgatan in Stockholm's Södermalm district is named for Bellman; Stieg Larsson places the apartment of his \"Millennium\" trilogy hero Mikael Blomkvist in Bellmansgatan, which Dan Burstein and Arne de Keijzer suggest is meant to provide Bellman associations. Swedish schoolchildren tell Bellman jokes about a person named Bellman, an antihero or modern-day trickster with little or no connection to the poet. The first known Bellman joke is in a book from 1835, which quoted a letter written in 1808 by a contemporary of Bellman. 19th-century Bellman jokes were told by adults and focused on Bellman's life at court; they often related to sex. In the 20th century, the 'Bellman' character became generic, the jokes were told by schoolchildren, and often related to bodily functions. The jokes have been studied by anthropologists and psychologists since the 1950s.", "Stora Henriksvik, also called the Bellman museum (Bellmanmuseet) for its small permanent Bellman exhibition, celebrates his life and work with paintings, replica objects and a beachside café in a 17th-century Stockholm house. The place, beside the beach at Långholm, was in Bellman's time called \"Lilla Sjötullen\" (The Small Lake-Customs House) where farmers from Lake Mälaren had to pay a toll on the goods they were taking to market in Stockholm's \"Gamla stan\". The place is mentioned in Epistle No. 48, \"Solen glimmar blank och trind\".", "The Bellman Society (Bellmansällskapet), founded in Stockholm on the anniversary of Bellman's birth in 1919, fosters interest in Bellman and supports research into the man and his work. To these ends it organises concerts, lectures and excursions. It produces the series of \"Bellmanstudier\", starting in 1924, so far running to 24 volumes, as well as facsimile prints of Bellman documents, essay collections, and's Bellman porcelain. It has published recordings including \"Alla Fredmans Epistlar\" (All Fredman's Epistles) and \"Alla Fredmans Sånger\" (All Fredman's Songs). The Society's newsletter is called \"Hwad behagas?\".", "Swedish English Translations Streaming audio Videos" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Communism.", "Post-Velvet Revolution." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In 1615–1920 the chapel was significantly enlarged to a hall construction with galleries and chapels, and windows in the Late Gothic style were added. In 1620 the new church, a mixture of Gothic and Renaissance styles, was erected by members of the Protestant sect Bohemian Brethren, was consecrated on July 14 of that year, and, after Battle of White Mountain, was (together with the adjoined St. Francis Hospital, \"Na Františku\") entrusted as a Christmas gift by Emperor Ferdinand II to the Brothers Hospitallers of Saint John of God, who to this day own the complex. About a century later Sts. Simon and Jude was remodelled in the High Baroque style, apparent to this day in its interior decorations—altars, statues, the pulpit, tromp d’oeil murals and marquetry, and in the loft was installed a pipe organ by Andreas Wambetsser of north Bohemia, which in combination with the sanctuary's acoustics would attract W. A. Mozart and J. Haydn to perform there. Among artists involved were Ferdinand Maxmilián Brokoff, and V. V. Reiner, author of the main altar piece. The widely read author Alois Jirásek, whose works would later be coopted by the Communist Party and reissued as required textbooks, wrote about the Church of Sts. Simon and Jude and the hospital to which it is adjoined in his 5-volume historical novel \"F. L. Věk\" (1891–1906). In 1847, per Jirásek's account, a medical surgeon named Celestine Opitz performed the world's first operation under anesthesia at St. Francis, consequently enabling the hospital and church to draw support from Tomas Garrigue Masaryk, Edvard Benes and Pope Pius XI. Among Opitz' colleagues at St. Francis was the surgeon/composer Jan Theobald Held, a musical figure made famous by his patriotic characterization in \"F. L. Věk\".", "C. 1950 the church was deconsecrated. Over the next four decades the structure served as a warehouse.", "In 1989–1993, with the fall of communism, the city of Prague endeavored to restore Sts. Simon and Jude, including the installation of floor heating to facilitate comfortable use year-round. The church was never reconsecrated, and the maintenance of Sts. Simon and Jude was handed over to Prague Symphony Orchestra in exchange for its use as a concert hall. In 2000 the historic pipe organ was overhauled by organ builders Jaroslav Tůma and Vladimir Slajch, and the improved instrument was unveiled at an inaugural concert by. \"The sound is clearer, even more lively, thanks to the new old-fashioned bellows,\" Novenko told Prague Post. \"The organ master needs to think in the spirit of the original organ builder. It's a solitary job, much more difficult than building a new organ.\" Nowadays, chamber, choral and organ concerts are held regularly throughout the year." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Medical uses.", "Opioid use disorder.", "Buprenorphine versus methadone.", "Chronic pain.", "Potency.", "Adverse effects.", "Respiratory effects.", "Buprenorphine dependence.", "Pain management.", "Pharmacology.", "Pharmacodynamics.", "Opioid receptor modulator.", "Other actions.", "Pharmacokinetics.", "Chemistry.", "Detection in body fluids.", "History.", "Society and culture.", "Regulation.", "United States.", "Europe.", "Brand names.", "Veterinary medicine.", "Research.", "Depression.", "Cocaine dependence.", "Neonatal abstinence.", "Obsessive–compulsive disorder." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Buprenorphine is used to treat people with opioid use disorder. The combination formulation of buprenorphine/naloxone is generally preferred as naloxone, an opioid antagonist, has a higher bioavailability intravenously and results in acute withdrawal if the formulation is crushed and injected. Prior to starting buprenorphine, individuals should wait long enough after their last dose of opioid until they have some withdrawal symptoms to allow for the medication to bind the receptors, but if taken too soon, buprenorphine can displace other opioids bound to the receptors and precipitate an acute withdrawal. The dose of buprenorphine is then adjusted until symptoms improve, and individuals remain on a maintenance dose through treatment.", "Both buprenorphine and methadone are medications used for detoxification and opioid replacement therapy and appear to have similar effectiveness based on limited data and are safe for pregnant women with opioid use disorder, although preliminary evidence suggests that methadone is more likely to cause neonatal abstinence syndrome. In the US, only designated clinics can prescribe methadone for opioid use disorder in which people starting treatment must follow-up daily, which may be appropriate for those requiring a more structured environment. Alternatively, buprenorphine can be prescribed by any clinician with a waiver allowing people to receive treatment as a part of their routine care.", "A transdermal patch is available for the treatment of chronic pain. These patches are not indicated for use in acute pain, pain that is expected to last only for a short period of time, or pain after surgery, nor are they recommended for opioid addiction.", "With respect to equianalgesic dosing, when used sublingually, the potency of buprenorphine is about 40 to 70 times that of morphine. When used as a transdermal patch, the potency of buprenorphine may be 100–115 times that of morphine.", "Common adverse drug reactions associated with the use of buprenorphine are similar to those of other opioids and include: nausea and vomiting, drowsiness, dizziness, headache, memory loss, cognitive and neural inhibition, perspiration, itchiness, dry mouth, shrinking of the pupils of the eyes (miosis), orthostatic hypotension, male ejaculatory difficulty, decreased libido, and urinary retention. Constipation and CNS effects are seen less frequently than with morphine.", "The most severe side effect associated with buprenorphine is respiratory depression (insufficient breathing). It occurs more often in those who are also taking benzodiazepines, alcohol, or have underlying lung disease. The usual reversal agents for opioids, such as naloxone, may be only partially effective and additional efforts to support breathing may be required. Respiratory depression may be less than with other opioids, particularly with chronic use. However, in the setting of acute pain management, buprenorphine appears to cause the same rate of respiratory depression as other opioids such as morphine.", "Buprenorphine treatment carries the risk of causing psychological or physical dependence. Buprenorphine has a slow onset and a long half-life of 24 to 60 hours. Once a person has stabilized on the medication, there are three options: continual use, switching to buprenorphine/naloxone, or medically supervised withdrawal.", "It is difficult to achieve acute opioid analgesia in persons using buprenorphine for opioid replacement therapy.", "", "", "Buprenorphine has been reported to possess the following pharmacological activity: In simplified terms, buprenorphine can essentially be thought of as a non-selective, mixed agonist–antagonist opioid receptor modulator, acting as a weak partial agonist of the MOR, an antagonist of the KOR, an antagonist of the DOR, and a relatively low-affinity, very weak partial agonist of the ORL-1. Although buprenorphine is a partial agonist of the MOR, human studies have found that it acts like a full agonist with respect to analgesia in non-opioid-tolerant individuals. Conversely, buprenorphine behaves like a partial agonist of the MOR with respect to respiratory depression. Buprenorphine is also known to bind to with high affinity and antagonize the putative ε-opioid receptor. Full analgesic efficacy of buprenorphine requires both exon 11- and exon 1-associated μ-opioid receptor splice variants. The active metabolites of buprenorphine are not thought to be clinically important in its central nervous system effects.", "Unlike some other opioids and opioid antagonists, buprenorphine binds only weakly to and possesses little if any activity at the sigma receptor. Buprenorphine also blocks voltage-gated sodium channels via the local anesthetic binding site, and this underlies its potent local anesthetic properties. Similarly to various other opioids, buprenorphine has also been found to act as an agonist of the toll-like receptor 4, albeit with very low affinity.", "Buprenorphine is metabolized by the liver, via CYP3A4 (also CYP2C8 seems to be involved) isozymes of the cytochrome P450 enzyme system, into norbuprenorphine (by \"N\"-dealkylation). The glucuronidation of buprenorphine is primarily carried out by UGT1A1 and UGT2B7, and that of norbuprenorphine by UGT1A1 and UGT1A3. These glucuronides are then eliminated mainly through excretion into bile. The elimination half-life of buprenorphine is 20 to 73 hours (mean 37 hours). Due to the mainly hepatic elimination, there is no risk of accumulation in people with renal impairment. One of the major active metabolites of buprenorphine is norbuprenorphine, which, in contrast to buprenorphine itself, is a full agonist of the MOR, DOR, and ORL-1, and a partial agonist at the KOR. However, relative to buprenorphine, norbuprenorphine has extremely little antinociceptive potency (1/50th that of buprenorphine), but markedly depresses respiration (10-fold more than buprenorphine). This may be explained by very poor brain penetration of norbuprenorphine due to a high affinity of the compound for P-glycoprotein. In contrast to norbuprenorphine, buprenorphine and its glucuronide metabolites are negligibly transported by P-glycoprotein. The glucuronides of buprenorphine and norbuprenorphine are also biologically active, and represent major active metabolites of buprenorphine. Buprenorphine-3-glucuronide has affinity for the MOR (K = 4.9 pM), DOR (K = 270 nM) and ORL-1 (K = 36 μM), and no affinity for the KOR. It has a small antinociceptive effect and no effect on respiration. Norbuprenorphine-3-glucuronide has no affinity for the MOR or DOR, but does bind to the KOR (K = 300 nM) and ORL-1 (K = 18 μM). It has a sedative effect but no effect on respiration.", "Buprenorphine is a semi-synthetic analogue of thebaine and is fairly soluble in water, as its hydrochloride salt. It degrades in the presence of light.", "Buprenorphine and norbuprenorphine may be quantitated in blood or urine to monitor use or abuse, confirm a diagnosis of poisoning, or assist in a medicolegal investigation. There is a significant overlap of drug concentrations in body fluids within the possible spectrum of physiological reactions ranging from asymptomatic to comatose. Therefore, it is critical to have knowledge of both the route of administration of the drug and the level of tolerance to opioids of the individual when results are interpreted.", "In 1969, researchers at Reckitt & Colman (now Reckitt Benckiser) had spent 10 years attempting to synthesize an opioid compound \"with structures substantially more complex than morphine [that] could retain the desirable actions whilst shedding the undesirable side effects\". Physical dependence and withdrawal from buprenorphine itself remain important issues since buprenorphine is a long-acting opioid. Reckitt found success when researchers synthesized RX6029 which had showed success in reducing dependence in test animals. RX6029 was named buprenorphine and began trials on humans in 1971. By 1978, buprenorphine was first launched in the UK as an injection to treat severe pain, with a sublingual formulation released in 1982.", "", "", "In the United States, buprenorphine and buprenorphine with naloxone were approved for opioid use disorder by the United States Food and Drug Administration in October 2002. The DEA rescheduled buprenorphine from a Schedule V drug to a Schedule III drug just before approval. The ACSCN for buprenorphine is 9064, and being a Schedule III substance it does not have an annual manufacturing quota imposed by the DEA. The salt in use is the hydrochloride, which has a free base conversion ratio of 0.928. In the years prior to buprenorphine/naloxone's approval, Reckitt Benckiser had lobbied Congress to help craft the Drug Addiction Treatment Act of 2000 (DATA 2000), which gave authority to the Secretary of Health and Human Services to grant a waiver to physicians with certain training to prescribe and administer Schedule III, IV, or V narcotic drugs for the treatment of addiction or detoxification. Prior to the passage of this law, such treatment was not permitted in outpatient settings except for clinics designed specifically for drug addiction. The waiver, which can be granted after the completion of an eight-hour course, is required for outpatient treatment of opioid addiction with buprenorphine. Initially, the number of people each approved physician could treat was limited to ten. This was eventually modified to allow approved physicians to treat up to a hundred people with buprenorphine for opioid addiction in an outpatient setting. This limit was increased by the Obama administration, raising the number of patients to which doctors can prescribe to 275. Still, due to this patient limit and the requisite eight-hour training course, many continuing patients can find it very difficult to get a prescription, despite the drug's effectiveness. New Jersey authorized paramedics to give buprenorphine to people at the scene after they have recovered from an overdose.", "In the European Union, Subutex and Suboxone, buprenorphine's high-dose sublingual tablet preparations, were approved for opioid use disorder treatment in September 2006. In the Netherlands, buprenorphine is a List II drug of the Opium Law, though special rules and guidelines apply to its prescription and dispensation.", "Buprenorphine is available under the trade names Cizdol, Suboxone (with naloxone), Subutex (typically used for opioid use disorder), Zubsolv, Bunavail, Sublocade (monthly injection, approved in the US in 2018), Probuphine, Temgesic (sublingual tablets for moderate to severe pain), Buprenex (solutions for injection often used for acute pain in primary-care settings), Norspan and Butrans (transdermal preparations used for chronic pain). Buprenorphine has been introduced in most European countries as a transdermal formulation (marketed as Transtec) for the treatment of chronic pain not responding to non-opioids.", "It has veterinary medical use for treatment of pain in dogs and cats.", "", "Some evidence supports the use of buprenorphine for depression. Buprenorphine/samidorphan, a combination product of buprenorphine and samidorphan (a preferential μ-opioid receptor antagonist), appears useful for treatment-resistant depression.", "In combination with samidorphan or naltrexone (μ-opioid receptor antagonists), buprenorphine is under investigation for the treatment of cocaine dependence, and recently demonstrated effectiveness for this indication in a large-scale (n = 302) clinical trial (at a high buprenorphine dose of 16 mg but not a low dose of 4 mg).", "Buprenorphine has been used in the treatment of the neonatal abstinence syndrome, a condition in which newborns exposed to opioids during pregnancy demonstrate signs of withdrawal. In the United States, use currently is limited to infants enrolled in a clinical trial conducted under an FDA approved investigational new drug (IND) application. Preliminary research suggests that buprenorphine is associated with shorter time in hospital for neonates, compared to methadone. An ethanolic formulation used in neonates is stable at room temperature for at least 30 days.", "In one study, buprenorphine was found to be effective in a subset of individuals with treatment-refractory obsessive–compulsive disorder." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Geography.", "Climate.", "History.", "Economy.", "Public transport.", "Demographics.", "Districts.", "Politics.", "List of mayors.", "Twin towns — sister cities.", "Military." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The name of the city stems from the Hungarian word \"kecske\" meaning \"goat\" and \"-mét\" meaning \"pass\".", "Kecskemét was established at the meeting point of a large sandy region and a sandy yellow soil; its elevation is above sea level. The territory west of the city is covered by wind-blown sand, characterised by the almost parallel northern-southern sand dunes and the plain between them. At the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th centuries, the pastures had become depleted. Overgrazing by cattle had destroyed the natural vegetation cover, and the movement of sand seriously endangered the town. Concentrated reforestation and planting of fruit and vines was carried out to stabilise the soil again. Kecskemét is in the centre of Kiskunság, one of Hungary's famous regions. The Kiskunság National Park was established in 1975 to preserve the many different regional species of plants and animals. It is a \"mosaic\"-type national park, consisting of units that are not connected.", "The characteristic weather in the Kecskemét region of Kiskunság is continental warm, dry, sometimes extreme. The amount of sunlight makes it possible for the region to produce agricultural products such as wheat, apricots, red peppers, and tomatoes. The warmest month in Kecskemét is July, with an average temperature of ; the coldest is January, with. Early spring and late autumn frosts are frequent on the Great Hungarian Plain. The possibility of frost usually ends only in the middle of April. After the third week of October, the temperature is frequently below.", "The first archaeological trace of a human in the area is about five thousand years old. The Sarmatians invaded the area in the first century B.C.; since then the area has been continuously inhabited by a variety of cultures. János Hornyik, the first town historian, believed that the settlement known as \"Partiskum\" of the Sarmatian Jazygian was here. Contemporary consensus among historians is that it is more likely permanent settlement occurred only after the Hungarian conquest. At the beginning of the 13th century, there were seven villages in the area, each with a population of 200–300 formed near the village church, a typical rural pattern. They were all destroyed by the Mongol Invasion. Some of the villages revived at the time of the Cumanians' colonization. As Kecskemét was situated at an important trading route, it grew as a customhouse and a market-place; in 1368 it was identified in one of King Louis I of Hungary's charters as an \"oppidium\" (town). The town's active economic life and relatively dense population attracted more traders, craftsmen and residents, including Jews who became an important part of the town. During the Turkish invasion, settlers from neighboring villages sought shelter in Kecskemét, which was protected by defensive palisades. They also were escaping the oppression of the \"spahi\" landlords. In addition to the protection of its setting, the town of Kecskemét had arranged to pay tax directly to the \"pasha\" in Buda, thus gaining his protection and enjoying a special situation. Kecskemét gradually absorbed the lands of those who had taken refuge in the town. Residents created a large common field for the animals they were breeding. By the beginning of the 18th century, residents held nearly 30,000 cattle, which grazed on an almost field. At the end of the 18th century, animal breeding started to decline in economic importance, as the fields had become overgrazed and denuded. It took nearly 100 years before the region developed its next major agricultural commodity. In the 19th century, Kecskemét was already part of an important wine district, but the city increased in importance after the vine-pest destroyed most vineyards in the hilly regions. Damage was less significant in the plains' areas of loose, sandy soil. In the 1870s, landowners planted large plantations of grapevines around the town. These were the basis of the 20th-century vineyards and wine industry of the 20th century in Kecskemét. Cottage-type settlements grew up at the vineyards to house workers, a pattern still characteristic of the rural areas around the town. The growth of the wine industry stimulated those of the food industry and trade. The city is still known for its \"barackpálinka\", an apricot brandy. With their accumulation of capital, peasants began to adopt bourgeois customs and goods, stimulating trade in the town. Such regional wealth led to construction of new buildings, especially those surrounding Kecskemét's main square. This Art Nouveau complex is architecturally significant: the Town Hall, the New College, the Ornamented Palace, the Luther-Palace, the House of Trade (today the House of Young), and the Gentlemen's Casino, now used as the Hungarian Museum of Photography. The town's growth suffered in the 1929–33 economic world crisis and Great Depression, followed by the upheaval and destruction of World War II. During the war and especially May–June 1944, Hungarian authorities rounded up and deported most of the Jews from the city to Auschwitz-Birkenau, where most were killed. Jewish Hungarians had been an important part of Kecskemét's thriving culture and trade. After 1945, the new Communist government, strongly influenced by the Soviet Union, imposed a different social-political system. Kecskemét's development slowed. Due to reorganisation in local government, Kecskemét lost its big territory; several new independent villages were formed in the area. They were economically connected to the town. In 1950, for the first time, Kecskemét took on a significant political administrative role, as it was made seat of the country's largest county, Bács-Kiskun. In the special system of the so-called \"controlled economy\" under the Communist regimes, such status provided political and financial advantages that greatly helped the city continue its growth. The architect József Kerényi (1900–1975) adapted and renovated several historic buildings for other uses, helping keep the varied historical character of the city alive. For instance, in the early 1970s, he renovated the early-eighteenth-century Franciscan monastery for use as the Zoltán Kodály Conservatory; it opened for classes in 1975.The Hungarian Association of Photographers formed the Hungarian Photography Foundation in 1990. It helped raise funds for the restoration of an 18th-century building in Kecskemét last used as an Orthodox synagogue. It was adapted for the Hungarian Museum of Photography (\"Magyar Fotográfiai Múzeum\"), which opened in 1991. The museum holds work by Hungarian and other photographers of international and national reputations. It especially collects Hungarian photographers who successfully worked abroad. On 18 June 2008, German car manufacturer Daimler announced that it would build a Mercedes-Benz manufacturing plant in Kecskemét, planning to invest €800 million (US$1.24 billion). The plant, one of the biggest if not the biggest-ever in the region, provides work for 2,500 people.", "In March 2012, the German automobile manufacturer Daimler AG opened a plant nearby Kecskemét, to manufacture the new B-Class, A-Class and CLA-Class models. The Stuttgart-based company invested €800 million (US$1.24 billion) to build the new plant, which is expected to create 3,000 new jobs in the region. According to the plans, more than 100,000 vehicles will be produced annually at the factory. As of 2018, the largest companies were: In the city, unemployment is extremely low. Over the last few years, thousands of jobs have been created to promote a low unemployment rate. Currently (2018), unemployment is 3.10% in the county seat.", "With the 1900s industrialisation of Hungary, Kecskemét developed public transportation by trams for a population of 50,000. Not until after World War II did bus travel begin in the city. In 2010, with competitive funding from the EU, the city launched a number of trolley bus lines and in 2011 completely rebuilt the town centre as a trolleybus and pedestrian tourist zone. Currently, bus travel is the only public transportation to many destinations. Bus destinations ():", "Kecskemét has 107,267 residents (). The population is homogeneous with a large Hungarian majority. A few thousand of the Romani minority live in the city; they formed their independent minority government in 1994. (95% Hungarian; 0.8% Romani; 0.4% German; 0.2% Slovak; 4.8% other.) The city had a thriving Jewish population before World War II, as represented by their grand synagogue. Most of the Jews were deported by the Nazi forces in 1944 to concentration camps, where they were killed. The Vice President of the German minority in Kecskemet is Ms Rozalia Neuendorf. Since 19 March 2007, there is also a minority self-government for Croats in Kecskemét.", "Kecskemét is divided into 21+1 sections.", "The current mayor of Kecskemét is Klaudia Szemereyné Pataki (Fidesz-KDNP). The local Municipal Assembly, elected at the 2019 local government elections, is made up of 21 members (1 Mayor, 14 Individual constituencies MEPs and 6 Compensation List MEPs) divided into this political parties and alliances:", "List of City Mayors from 1990:", "Kecskemét is twinned with:", "The MH 59th \"Szentgyörgyi Dezső\" Tactical Wing, the only jet fighter unit of the Magyar Honvédség, is based at Kecskemét air force base. The Kecskeméti Repülőnap, a bi-annual air show is held here." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Historical.", "Counter-Enlightenment.", "Origin of the term.", "Related aesthetic and philosophical movements.", "In literature.", "Characteristics.", "In music.", "History.", "Haydn.", "Mozart.", "In visual art.", "In theatre.", "Johann Anton Leisewitz.", "Wagner.", "Goethe.", "Lenz.", "Klinger.", "Schiller." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "French neoclassicism (including French neoclassical theatre), a movement beginning in the early Baroque, with its emphasis on the rational, was the principal target of rebellion for adherents of the \"Sturm und Drang\" movement. For them, sentimentality and an objective view of life gave way to emotional turbulence and individuality, and enlightenment ideals such as rationalism, empiricism, and universalism no longer captured the human condition; emotional extremes and subjectivity became the vogue during the late 18th century.", "The term \"Sturm und Drang\" first appeared as the title of a play by Friedrich Maximilian Klinger, written for Abel Seyler's \"Seylersche Schauspiel-Gesellschaft\" and published in 1776. The setting of the play is the unfolding American Revolution, in which the author gives violent expression to difficult emotions and extols individuality and subjectivity over the prevailing order of rationalism. Though it is argued that literature and music associated with \"Sturm und Drang\" predate this seminal work, it was from this point that German artists became distinctly self-conscious of a new aesthetic. This seemingly spontaneous movement became associated with a wide array of German authors and composers of the mid-to-late Classical period. \"Sturm und Drang\" came to be associated with literature or music aimed at shocking the audience or imbuing them with extremes of emotion. The movement soon gave way to Weimar Classicism and early Romanticism, whereupon a socio-political concern for greater human freedom from despotism was incorporated along with a religious treatment of all things natural. There is much debate regarding whose work should or should not be included in the canon of \"Sturm und Drang\". One point of view would limit the movement to Goethe, Johann Gottfried Herder, Jakob Michael Reinhold Lenz, and their direct German associates writing works of fiction and/or philosophy between 1770 and the early 1780s. The alternative perspective is that of a literary movement inextricably linked to simultaneous developments in prose, poetry, and drama, extending its direct influence throughout the German-speaking lands until the end of the 18th century. Nevertheless, the originators of the movement came to view it as a time of premature exuberance that was then abandoned in favor of often conflicting artistic pursuits.", "The literary topos of the \"Kraftmensch\" existed as a precursor to \"Sturm und Drang\" among dramatists beginning with F.M. Klinger, the expression of which is seen in the radical degree to which individuality need appeal to no outside authority save the self nor be tempered by rationalism. These ideals are identical to those of \"Sturm und Drang\", and it can be argued that the later name exists to catalog a number of parallel, co-influential movements in German literature rather than express anything substantially different from what German dramatists were achieving in the violent plays attributed to the Kraftmensch movement. Major philosophical/theoretical influences on the literary \"Sturm und Drang\" movement were Johann Georg Hamann (especially the 1762 text \"Aesthetica in nuce. Eine Rhapsodie in kabbalistischer Prose\") and Johann Gottfried Herder, both from Königsberg, and both formerly in contact with Immanuel Kant. Significant theoretical statements of Sturm und Drang aesthetics by the movement's central dramatists themselves include Lenz' \"Anmerkungen übers Theater\" and Goethe's \"Von deutscher Baukunst\" and \"Zum Schäkespears Tag\" (\"sic\"). The most important contemporary document was the 1773 volume \"Von deutscher Art und Kunst. Einige fliegende Blätter\", a collection of essays that included commentaries by Herder on Ossian and Shakespeare, along with contributions by Goethe, Paolo Frisi (in translation from the Italian), and Justus Möser.", "", "The protagonist in a typical \"Sturm und Drang\" stage work, poem, or novel is driven to action—often violent action—not by pursuit of noble means nor by true motives, but by revenge and greed. Goethe's unfinished \"Prometheus\" exemplifies this along with the common ambiguity provided by juxtaposing humanistic platitudes with outbursts of irrationality. The literature of \"Sturm und Drang\" features an anti-aristocratic slant while seeking to elevate all things humble, natural, or intensely real (especially whatever is painful, tormenting, or frightening). The story of hopeless love and eventual suicide presented in Goethe's sentimental novel \"Die Leiden des jungen Werthers\" (1774) is an example of the author's tempered introspection regarding his love and torment. Friedrich Schiller's drama, \"Die Räuber\" (1781), provided the groundwork for melodrama to become a recognized dramatic form. The plot portrays a conflict between two aristocratic brothers, Franz and Karl Moor. Franz is cast as a villain attempting to cheat Karl out of his inheritance, though the motives for his action are complex and initiate a thorough investigation of good and evil. Both of these works are seminal examples of \"Sturm und Drang\" in German literature.", "The Classical period music (1750–1800) associated with \"Sturm und Drang\" is predominantly written in a minor key to convey difficult or depressing sentiments. The principal themes tend to be angular, with large leaps and unpredictable melodic contours. Tempos and dynamics change rapidly and unpredictably in order to reflect strong changes of emotion. Pulsing rhythms and syncopation are common, as are racing lines in the soprano or alto registers. Writing for string instruments features tremolo and sudden, dramatic dynamic changes and accents.", "Musical theater became the meeting place of the literary and musical strands of \"Sturm und Drang\", with the aim of increasing emotional expression in opera. The obligato recitative is a prime example. Here, orchestral accompaniment provides an intense underlay of vivid tone-painting to the solo recitative. Christoph Willibald Gluck's 1761 ballet, \"Don Juan\", heralded the emergence of \"Sturm und Drang\" in music; the program notes explicitly indicated that the D minor finale was to evoke fear in the listener. Jean Jacques Rousseau's 1762 play, \"Pygmalion\" (first performed in 1770) is a similarly important bridge in its use of underlying instrumental music to convey the mood of the spoken drama. The first example of melodrama, \"Pygmalion\" influenced Goethe and other important German literary figures. Nevertheless, relative to the influence of \"Sturm und Drang\" on literature, the influence on musical composition was limited, and many efforts to label music as conforming to this trend are tenuous at best. Vienna, the center of German/Austrian music, was a cosmopolitan city with an international culture; therefore, melodically innovative and expressive works in minor keys by Mozart or Haydn from this period should generally be considered first in the broader context of musical developments taking place throughout Europe. The clearest musical connections to the self-styled \"Sturm und Drang\" movement can be found in opera and the early predecessors of program music, such as Haydn's \"Farewell\" Symphony. Beethoven, Carl Maria Weber, and even Schubert have elements of \"Sturm und Drang.\"", "A \"Sturm und Drang\" period is often attributed to the works of the Austrian composer Joseph Haydn from the late 1760s to early 1770s. Works during this period often feature a newly impassioned or agitated element; however, Haydn never mentions \"Sturm und Drang\" as a motivation for his new compositional style, and there remains an overarching adherence to classical form and motivic unity. Though Haydn may not have been consciously affirming the anti-rational ideals of \"Sturm und Drang\", one can certainly perceive the influence of contemporary trends in musical theatre on his instrumental works during this period.", "Mozart's Symphony No. 25 (the 'Little' G-minor symphony, 1773) is one of only two minor-key symphonies by the composer. Beyond the atypical key, the symphony features rhythmic syncopation along with the jagged themes associated with Sturm und Drang. More interesting is the emancipation of the wind instruments in this piece, with the violins yielding to colorful bursts from the oboe and flute. However, it is likely the influence of numerous minor-key works by the Czech composer Johann Baptist Wanhal (a Viennese contemporary and acquaintance of Mozart), rather than a self-conscious adherence to a German literary movement, which is responsible for the harmonic and melodic experiments in the Symphony no. 25.", "The parallel movement in the visual arts can be witnessed in paintings of storms and shipwrecks showing the terror and irrational destruction wrought by nature. These pre-romantic works were fashionable in Germany from the 1760s on through the 1780s, illustrating a public audience for emotionally provocative artwork. Additionally, disturbing visions and portrayals of nightmares were gaining an audience in Germany as evidenced by Goethe's possession and admiration of paintings by Fuseli capable of 'giving the viewer a good fright.' Notable artists included Joseph Vernet, Caspar Wolf, Philip James de Loutherbourg, and Henry Fuseli.", "The Sturm und Drang movement did not last long; according to Betty Waterhouse it began in 1771 and ended in 1778 (Waterhouse v). The rise of the middle class in the 18th century led to a change in the way society and social standings were looked at. Dramatists and writers saw the stage as a venue for critique and discussion of societal issues. French writer Louis-Sébastien Mercier suggested that drama be used to promote political ideas, a concept that would develop many years later. After the Seven Years' War, which ended in 1763, German spirit was extremely high and Germans felt a sense of importance on a grander stage. The aristocracy gained power as the ruling class, furthering the divide and increasing tensions between the classes (Liedner viii). With these new ideals came the sense that a new form of art capable of dethroning the extremely popular French neoclassicism was needed. Johann Georg Hamann, a noted German philosopher and a major promoter of the Sturm und Drang movement, “defended the native culture of the Volk and maintained that language, the root of all our experience, was richer in images and more powerful prior to the ‘abstract’ eighteenth century” (Liedner viii). Germany did not have a common nationality, and the nation broke up into hundreds of small states. The Sturm und Drang movement was a reaction to this lack of nationality and often dealt with the idea of living life on a smaller scale and the desire to become a part of something bigger. The Sturm und Drang movement also paid a lot of attention to the language of a piece of literature. It is no wonder that Shakespeare, with his brilliant use of language, originality with complex plot lines and subplots, and multifaceted characters from all social classes, was seen as a model for German writers (Wilson and Goldfarb 287). Many writers of the Sturm und Drang movement considered themselves to be challengers of the Enlightenment. However, the movement is actually a continuation of the Enlightenment. Many Sturm und Drang plays showed interest in how society affects the individual, a common theme in many Enlightenment plays as well. However, Sturm und Drang “makes its own distinctive contribution to 18th-century culture, bringing attention to the power of the environment as well as to the contradictory and self-defeating attitudes present in every segment of society” (Liedner ix). Far before its time, the divergent style of Sturm und Drang shrewdly explored depression and violence with an open plot structure (Liedner ix). The Sturm und Drang movement rebelled against all the rules of neoclassicism and the enlightenment, first recognized Shakespeare as a “genius” of dramaturgy, and provided the foundation for 19th-century romanticism. Writers such as Heinrich Leopold Wagner, Goethe, Lenz, Klinger, and Schiller used episodic structure, violence, and mixed genres to comment on societal rules and morals, while doubting that anything would change. The Sturm und Drang movement was brief, but it set a fire that still burns intensely today. Six main playwrights initiated and popularized the Sturm und Drang movement: Leisewitz, Wagner, Goethe, Lenz, Klinger, and Schiller. The theatre director Abel Seyler, the owner of the Seylersche Schauspiel-Gesellschaft, had an important role in promoting the Sturm und Drang poets.", "Johann Anton Leisewitz was born in Hanover in 1752 and studied law. He is remembered for his single complete play, \"Julius of Taranto\" (1776), which is considered the forerunner of Schiller's work \"The Robbers\" (1781). He was married to Sophie Seyler, the daughter of theatre director Abel Seyler.", "Heinrich Leopold Wagner was born in Strasbourg on February 19, 1747. He studied law and was a member of the literary group surrounding Johann Daniel Salzmann. He was a dramatist, producer, translator, and lawyer for the traveling Abel Seyler theatre company. Wagner was best known for his two plays, \"Die Reue nach der Tat\" (“The Remorse After the Deed”) in 1775 and \"Die Kindermorderin\" (“The Childmurderess”) in 1776. Child murder was a very popular topic in the 18th century and all of the major Sturm und Drang writers used it as a subject in their writings (Waterhouse 97). \"Die Kindermorderin\" was one of the most traditional plays of the Sturm und Drang. Although sharing aspects of neoclassical plays, such as a fairly simple plot and very few changes in the setting, it breaks away from the neoclassical idea that the protagonist must be of noble descent. Instead, this play shows how the aristocracy disrupts the lives of middle class characters (Liedner xii). This play also uses a vast array of colorful language to demonstrate the variety of characters and their social statuses. Another common theme seen in \"Die Kindermorderin\" is the idea of society hindering change. Groningseck, a lieutenant, seems to be willing to look past social norms and break down walls between the classes, but a fellow officer, Hasenpoth, betrays him (Liedner xii).", "Johann Wolfgang von Goethe was born in August 1749, in the Free Imperial City of Frankfurt, Holy Roman Empire. He wrote his first important play, Goetz von Berlichingen in 1773, in Shakespearean style, a defining characteristic of the Sturm und Drang movement (Wilson and Goldfarb 287). Shakespeare was considered a genius among German playwrights, and was idolized for his “shattering of the dramatic unities of time, place and action; and his sharply individualized, emotionally complex characters” (Waterhouse v). Goethe was well known for his staging as well as his long dramatic poem Faust (Goethe's Faust) (Wilson and Goldfarb 287). Goethe was the director of theatre at the Weimar Theatre where he eventually ran the entire company. He went to Italy for two years to collect himself and while there discovered the beauty of the Greek and Roman ruins. After this trip he returned with interest in classical ideas and writing, and a new form of writing emerged called Weimar Classicism.", "Jakob Michael Reinhold Lenz was born in Sesswegen, now Latvia, on the January 23, 1751. He studied theology and philosophy at the University of Konigsberg. His first poem, Die Landplagen (“Torments of the Land”), emerged in 1769. He went on to write “Notes on the Theatre”, The New Menoza and Der Hofmeister (“The Tutor”) in 1774, Pandemonium Germanicum in 1775, and Die Soldaten (“The Soldiers”) in 1776 (Liedner xi). Lenz took Aristotle’s popular idea of plot being more important than character and reversed it, as well as reclassified the distinctions between comedy and tragedy. In Lenz’s works, tragedies feature characters that make decisions that cause events, and in comedies a resolute milieu pushes and pulls the character through events (Liedner xi). The Soldiers is most likely Lenz’s most distinct example of Sturm und Drang literature. It centers on an idea of degradation of civilians by soldiers, but more specifically the seduction and abuse of young women by soldiers. Illustrating an undesirable, conflicted character with no power over her situation who does whatever she can to get through her current state, The Soldiers displays a “well-observed world where one’s identity is fluid – and hopelessly entangled in the social and linguistic environment” (Liedner xi). This idea of feeling unable to change one's situation is typical of many Sturm und Drang plays. Lenz's use of reserved dialogue, open form, violence, and a combination of comedy and tragedy precursors the works of contemporary authors such as Friedrich Dürrenmatt and Bertolt Brecht (Waterhouse v).", "Friedrich Maximilian Klinger was born in Frankfurt on February 17, 1752. He was born into a humble family and struggled financially after the death of his father. He studied law at Giessen with the financial help of Goethe’s family. He also worked with the Abel Seyler troupe for a year and a half (Pascal 132). Although famous for his Sturm und Drang style plays, many of his earlier plays were very classical in style. Some of Klinger’s works include Die Zwillinge (1776), Die neue Arria (1776), Simsone Grisaldo (1776), and Stilpo und seine Kinder (1780). Klinger’s most famous play, Sturm und Drang (1776), is the seminal piece of literature associated with the Sturm und Drang epoch. Strangely, the play is set in revolutionary America, not Germany. We see allusions to Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet through the feuds of the households, as well as All's Well That Ends Well in some of the character’s names (Liedner xiii). Klinger utilized a defining characteristic of Sturm und Drang when he mixed aspects of comedy and tragedy throughout the play, stating “ the deepest tragic emotion continually alternates with laughter and joviality\" (Liedner xiii).", "Friedrich Schiller was born in Marbach on November 10, 1759. He studied medicine at Karlsschule Stuttgart, a prestigious military academy founded by the Duke of Württemberg. He developed a strong relationship with Goethe, one of the most influential writers of the time (Wilson and Goldfarb 287). They were particularly interested in questions concerning aesthetics. This relationship led to an epoch known as Weimar Classicism, a style that integrates classical, romantic and enlightenment ideals (Leidner xiv). Following Schiller's plays \"Die Räuber\" (\"The Robbers\") and \"Kabale und Liebe\" (\"Intrigue and Love\"), he went on to become a major poet as well as to write famous essays and Weimar Classical drama (Leidner xiv). \"Die Räuber\" tells the story of two brothers, the younger of which is infuriated by how society favors the first-born child and he acts on his feelings without any regard to societal rules or social standing. In act five, his views on God “represent the most blasphemous attack on religion in German literature up to that time... [and] is a masterful work of social dynamics that takes deep German patterns of sensibility into account” (Leidner xiv)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Family.", "Mythology.", "Inspiration." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Salmoneus was a son of Aeolus and Enarete or Iphis, daughter of Peneus or Laodice and brother of Athamas, Sisyphus, Cretheus, Perieres, Deioneus, Canace, Alcyone, and Perimede. Salmoneus was the father of Tyro by his first wife Alcidice and his second wife was Sidero.", "Emigrating from Aeolis with a number of Aeolians, Salmoneus founded a city in Eleia (Elis) on the banks of the river Alpheius and called it Salmonia after his own name. He then married Alcidice, the daughter of Aleus but when she died, the king took for a second wife Sidero who treated his beautiful daughter Tyro unkindly. Salmoneus and his brother Sisyphus hated each other. Sisyphus found out from an oracle that if he married Tyro, she would bear him children who would kill Salmoneus. At first, Tyro submitted to Sisyphus, married him, and bore him a son. When Tyro found out what the child would do to Salmoneus, she killed the boy. It was soon after this that Tyro lay with Poseidon and bore him Pelias and Neleus. Salmoneus, being an overbearing man and impious, came to be hated by his subjects for he ordered them to worship him under the name of Zeus. He built a bridge of brass, over which he drove at full speed in his chariot to imitate thunder, the effect being heightened by dried skins and cauldrons trailing behind while torches were thrown into the air to represent lightning. For this sin of hubris, Zeus eventually struck him down with his thunderbolt and destroyed the town. Virgil's \"Aeneid\" has Salmoneus placed in Tartarus after Zeus smites him where he is subjected to eternal torment.", "According to Frazer, the early Greek kings, who were expected to produce rain for the benefit of the crops, were in the habit of imitating thunder and lightning in the character of Zeus. At Crannon in Thessaly, there was a bronze chariot which in time of drought was shaken and prayers offered for rain. S. Reinach suggests that the story that Salmoneus was struck by lightning was due to the misinterpretation of a picture, in which a Thessalian magician appeared bringing down lightning and rain from heaven. Hence arose the idea that he was the victim of the anger or jealousy of Zeus and that the picture represented his punishment." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Methods used." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Intermittent mechanisms were first used in sewing machines, in order for the fabric to be fed through correctly - ensuring it is stationary as each stitch is made, while moving the required distance between stitches.", "The intermittent mechanism must be employed in concert with a rotating shutter which blocks light transmittance during the motion of the film and allows light through while the film is held in place usually by one or more registration pins. The intermittent mechanism can be accomplished in many ways, but most often, it is done with sprocket wheels, claws, or pins coupled to the camera or projector drive mechanism. In movie theater projectors, the intermittent movement is often produced by a Geneva drive (Maltese cross mechanism). However, in a movie camera, it is done through a process by which a shutter opens exposing the film negative to light for a split second (the standard for regular motion in North America is 1/48 of a second, which corresponds to 180 degrees, but shutters with 200 degrees were popular back when the then-available color negative film had an ASA of 50; today's color negative film is available with an ASA of 500), then the shutter closes blocking light from reaching the negative. Once the shutter is completely closed, a claw pulls down the next film frame of negative film by the sprocket holes into the film gate and the process begins again. A movie projector works in a similar way." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Family.", "Mythology.", "Interpretation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Each of Hellen's sons founded a primary tribe of Greece: Aeolus the Aeolians, Dorus the Dorians and Xuthus the Achaeans (from Xuthus's son Achaeus) and Ionians (from Xuthus's adopted son Ion, in truth a son of the god Apollo), aside from his sister Pandora's sons with Zeus. In the account of Hellanicus, Xenopatra was additionally counted as one of the children of Hellen and Orseis and thus, technically the sister of Dorus. According to Clement, he was the son of Protogenia and Zeus and thus brother of Aethlius. Dorus was the father of Tectamus and Aegimius.", "In the \"Bibliotheke\", \"Dorus received the country over against Peloponnese and called the settlers Dorians after himself.\" According to Karl Kerenyi, the Dorians recalled that three times Heracles had aided their \"oldest king\", Aigimios, \"under whom they had not yet emigrated to the Peleponnesos.\" Kerenyi's source is the \"Bibliotheca\" (II.7.7), who though he is late, was working with ancient materials lost to us. Centuries later, the figure of Dorus was invoked by Diodorus Siculus in the common way to explain the presence in Crete during the historical period of Dorian cities of mixed population:\"The third people to cross over to the island, we are told, were Dorians, under the leadership of Tectamus the son of Dorus; and the account states that the larger number of these Dorians was gathered from the regions about Olympus, but that a part of them consisted of Achaeans from Laconia, since Dorus had fixed the base of his expedition in the region about Cape Malea. And a fourth people to come to Crete and to become intermixed with the Cretans, we are told, was a heterogeneous collection of barbarians who in the course of time adopted the language of the native Greeks.\" An important descendance of aristocratic clans, some of which survived into Classical times, was from Heracles. Diodorus invokes a son of Dorus in accounting for the mythic theme of the \"return\" of the Heracleidae: \"The rest of the Heracleidae, they say, came to Aegimius, the son of Dorus, and demanding back the land which their father had entrusted to him, made their home among the Dorians.\"", "The eponymous figure of \"Dorus\" is a back-formation: all tribal groups have myths of an \"original', whose name is the eponym of the tribe, even tribal eponyms in \"Genesis\". The oldest are essentially eponyms of extended families, who were worshipped in archaic cults into Roman times. A man's name, Dōrieus, occurs in the Linear B tablets at Pylos, one of the regions invaded and subjected by the Dorians. Whether it had the ethnic meaning of \"the Dorian\" is unknown. Modern derivations of \"Dorians\" do not depend on a figure of \"Dorus\": see Name of the Dorians." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Early years.", "Success with \"Tarzan Boy\".", "Style." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "In early 1984, Maurizio Bassi, a music producer and musician from Milan, met Jimmy McShane, a native of Derry, Northern Ireland. McShane was an emergency medical technician (EMT) who worked for the Red Cross in Northern Ireland. They decided to form an act fronted by McShane, a trained actor and dancer, who had previously tried to break into the West End theater scene. Bassi recruited prominent Italian sessionmen to record their first album, such as Giorgio Cocilovo on guitar and Gabriele \"Lele\" Melotti on drums. The lead vocals were performed by Maurizio Bassi, as he'd done with Carrara, with McShane sometimes providing the backing vocals.The bulk of Baltimora's song writing fell on Bassi and American lyricist Naimy Hackett, though McShane wrote the lyrics to their track \"Survivor in Love\".", "Baltimora's first single, \"Tarzan Boy\", was released in April 1985, and became a huge European success, peaking at No. 6 on the Italian single chart and entering the top 5 in numerous European countries, including Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Sweden, France, the Netherlands and Norway. The song eventually made it to the United Kingdom charts, where it reached No. 3 in August 1985. \"Tarzan Boy\" was released in Canada in October 1985 and peaked on the Canadian charts at No. 5 by the end of the year. However, it took a while for the single to enter the Hot 100 single chart in the United States (where it was released on EMI). When it did, it remained on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 chart for six months, peaking at No. 13 in February 1986. Baltimora performed on the American TV show \"Solid Gold\", which helped further their success in America. The second single, \"Woody Boogie\", which also gained notable success, entered the top 20 in Germany, Switzerland and Sweden. \"Tarzan Boy\" later appeared on the \"Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles III\" (1993) soundtrack. Baltimora's first album, \"Living in the Background,\" was released in Europe at the end of 1985, and in United States in 1986. Despite the success of \"Tarzan Boy\", \"Living in the Background\" only charted moderately entering the top 20 album charts only in a few countries in Europe, including Sweden, reaching the no. 49 spot on the US charts. When Baltimora's second album, \"Survivor in Love\" (1987) and the single \"Key Key Karimba\" failed to chart, Baltimora lost label support and Bassi decided to disband. Jimmy McShane died of an AIDS-related illness in March 1995.", "Baltimora's music style is mainly described as Italo disco and sometimes as new wave, including their first album, \"Living in the Background\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and education.", "Career.", "Personal life and death.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Dvořák was born on 4 June 1874 in Roudnice nad Labem, Bohemia, the son of a Bohemian archivist and librarian. He studied at the universities of Prague and Vienna. In 1897, he completed a PhD thesis in history at the Institut für Österreichische Geschichtsforschung, Vienna. Having been impressed by the teaching of art historian Franz Wickhoff, he focused his attention to art history and wrote his \"Habilitationsschrift\" on Bohemian thirteenth- and fourteenth-century manuscript illumination by Johannes von Neumarkt (1901).", "In 1902, Dvořák was appointed lecturer in art history at the University of Vienna. After Alois Riegl's death in 1905, he became, with the help of Julius von Schlosser, curator of public monuments in Austria. In 1909, he was appointed full professor of art history at the University of Vienna, which caused some problems among the nationalists of the art faculty because of Dvořák's Czech origin. Therefore, Josef Strzygowski set up his own, competing art history institute, known as the \"Wiener Institut\", within the same university, resulting in Dvořák and Strzygowski teaching from two different art history \"centers\". He was one of the main representatives of the Vienna School of Art History, his most important publication being on the concept of art history as a history of ideas (\"Kunstgeschichte als Geistesgeschichte\"). In 1905, he succeeded Riegl as general curator of the Imperial Central Commission for the study and conservation of art and historical monuments, today Bundesdenkmalamt. He helped save many Austrian art treasures for post-World War I war reparation. He also continued the publication of the \"Kunstgeschichtliches Jahrbuch der Zentralkommission für die Erhaltung der Kunst- und historischen Denkmale\", and in 1907, he established an inventory of Austrian and Hungarian monuments, called \"Österreichische Kunsttopographie\". Also in 1907, he created the first complete catalogue of The Lobkowicz Collections. In 1916 he published his standard work, \"Katechismus der Denkmalpflege\", in which he was able to raise a broad understanding for the concerns of monument protection.", "Dvořák died from a stroke on 8 February 1921 during a visit to his friend Count Khuen von Belasi at castle near Hrušovany nad Jevišovkou in South Moravia. He left a widow and two children. He was buried in Grusbach cemetery, in an honorary grave.", "Dvořák influenced several art historians, among them Frederick Antal, Otto Benesch, Dagobert Frey, Guido Kaschnitz von Weinberg, Emil Kaufmann, Ludwig Münz, Karl Maria Swoboda, Hans Tietze and Lionello Venturi. According to Matthew Rampley, \"In many respects his writing acts as a barometer of many of the tensions of the early-twentieth-century intellectual life\", casting \"important light on the socio-cultural situation that produced art historical discourses in the early decades of the twentieth century.\" His archives are housed at the University of Vienna. In 1921, fellow Austrian Adolf Loos designed a mausoleum for Dvořák that has remained unbuilt." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Playing style.", "Career.", "2005–2006.", "2007: First Grand Slam quarterfinal.", "2008.", "2009.", "2010.", "2011.", "2012.", "2013.", "2014: First Grand Slam semifinal.", "2015: Grand Slam doubles titles and singles final, becoming a top 5 player, struggles with illness.", "2016: Continuous struggles with injuries, first Olympic Medal and US Open doubles title.", "2017: Australian and French Open doubles champion and world No. 1 in doubles.", "2018: Struggles with injuries and health.", "2019: Retirement.", "Personal life." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Šafářová plays left-handed with a two-handed backhand and possesses a high topspin forehand. Her timing off the ground allows her to project groundstrokes with power, and she is quick to spot opportunities to take the initiative. Šafářová is notorious for having a volatile return that is capable of hitting clean winners, as well as unforced errors. Her preferred surface is clay. She was coached by Rob Steckley until September 2016 when she split with him, ending a coaching relationship of more than three and a half years, and hired František Čermák. In December 2017, Safarova announced that she is reuniting with Rob Steckley for the 2018 season.", "", "Šafářová won her first WTA Tour event in May 2005 at the Estoril Open in Portugal, where she defeated fourth-seeded Li Na in a three-sets final. In June she lost the final of the Rosmalen grass court tournament to fellow Czech Klára Koukalová in three sets. She won her second tournament at the Forest Hills Tennis Classic in August, which was played at the historic West Side Tennis Club, after a victory in the final against Sania Mirza. Šafářová started off 2006 by upsetting world No. 6 Patty Schnyder in the semifinals of the Gold Coast tournament and then winning in the final with a straight-set victory. Also in 2006, she made her first Tier II semifinal at Amelia Island, where she upset Nicole Vaidišová in the round of 16. She later lost to eventual champion Nadia Petrova. She then made another semifinal at the Tier-IV tournament at Palermo, where she was defeated by Anabel Medina Garrigues.", "At the start of 2007, Šafářová elected to represent the Czech Republic in the Hopman Cup instead of defending her Gold Coast title. Due to not defending the points at that tournament, she came into the first Grand Slam of the year ranked No. 70 and unseeded. Yet she made headlines at the Australian Open, when she stunned the defending champion and No. 2 seed Amélie Mauresmo in the fourth round. She then lost to fellow Czech Nicole Vaidišová in the quarterfinals. After the Australian Open, her ranking rose from No. 70 to 31. Šafářová continued her good start to 2007 at the Open Gaz de France in Paris. She reached the final by defeating Tsvetana Pironkova in three sets and Nicole Vaidišová, Svetlana Kuznetsova, and Justine Henin, all in straight sets. However, she lost the final against Nadia Petrova in three sets. She pulled out of her next event in Antwerp due to a shoulder injury. Šafářová lost in round three of both Indian Wells and Miami to Shahar Pe'er and Serena Williams, respectively. She defeated Daniela Hantuchová in the Czech Republic vs. Slovak Republic Fed Cup encounter. She then lost in the semifinals of the Tier IV Estoril tournament to Victoria Azarenka. At Roland Garros, Šafářová defeated Mauresmo in the third round in straight sets. It was the second time in a row that she had beaten Mauresmo in a Grand Slam after winning their only previous encounter in January at the Australian Open. In the next round, she lost in three sets to Anna Chakvetadze. As the 25th seed at Wimbledon, she defeated Zuzana Ondrášková followed by a win over Eleni Daniilidou in three sets. However, in the third round, she lost to world No. 3 Jelena Janković in three sets after coming within two points of another Grand Slam upset. The match was described as the best WTA match of 2007 up to that point and the best women's Wimbledon match in many years. Šafářová entered the US Open as the 20th seed. She defeated Jessica Moore in the first round and Andrea Petkovic in the second round. She fell to Marion Bartoli in the third round. In 2007, she advanced to the third round or better in all four Grand Slams including the quarterfinals of the Australian Open, which was the best Grand Slam result at that point of her career.", "At the beginning of 2008, Šafářová again decided to enter the Hopman Cup in Perth. She was ranked No. 23 and took on world No. 56 Alicia Molik of Australia. She lost the match followed by a loss with her partner on and off the court, Tomáš Berdych, in mixed doubles. Against the United States, she lost to Serena Williams in three sets. Šafářová and Berdych lost the first set of the mixed doubles and then retired from the match due to Berdych's health concerns. The Czechs closed the Cup by defeating India 2-1. Šafářová won her singles match against Sania Mirza in three sets. After Berdych also won his singles match and clinched the victory, Šafářová and Berdych lost the mixed-doubles match. Šafářová's second competition of the year was the Sydney Medibank International. In the first round, she faced Alicia Molik. Šafářová won in two tiebreaks. Both players had set points and match points throughout the tiebreaker, but Šafářová was able to come out on top. She subsequently pulled out of the second round against world No. 1, Justine Henin. Šafářová entered the Australian Open as the 22nd seed. In the first round, she faced Catalina Castaño of Colombia and lost in 71 minutes. Later, it was revealed that a gluteal strain was plaguing her during the match. She sustained the injury during her first round encounter against Molik at the Medibank International. Competing at the Pacific Life Open in the United States, Šafářová, seeded 26th, lost in three sets in the second round to Ashley Harkleroad. Following that, Šafářová played the Sony Ericcson Open, where she lost to fourth seed Jelena Janković. At the Summer Olympics, Šafářová competed in both singles and women's doubles. She reached the third round of the singles by beating Maret Ani and Mariya Koryttseva before losing to Sybille Bammer. In the women's doubles, she and partner Petra Kvitová were knocked out in the first round. She followed the Olympics by winning the Forest Hills Tennis Classic for the second time. She became the first and only player to win the Classic more than once as 2008 was the last edition of the tournament.", "Šafářová began the year with a quarterfinal showing at the international hard court event in Brisbane. She defeated the Australians Isabella Holland and Samantha Stosur before being defeated by second-seeded Victoria Azarenka of Belarus. After failing to qualify for the premier event in Sydney, she reached the third round of the Australian Open by defeating Sybille Bammer and Marina Erakovic before losing to Marion Bartoli in three sets. She did not advance past the second round in any of the other Grand Slam tournaments in 2009.", "Šafářová started the 2010 season by reaching the quarterfinals of the Brisbane International, where she lost to eventual champion Kim Clijsters. She then suffered first round losses at the Hobart International, where she retired against Kateryna Bondarenko in the third set, and the Australian Open, where she lost to sixth seed Venus Williams. She made her first final of the year at the Open GdF Suez in Paris by defeating Flavia Pennetta in the semifinals. In the final, she won the first set, but could not hold on and fell in three sets to top seed Elena Dementieva. In her next two tournaments, she then suffered two more first round losses. First, at the Monterrey Open, she lost to Julie Coin. Then at the BNP Paribas Open at Indian Wells, she lost to Julia Görges. At the Sony Ericsson Open, she was unseeded. She won her first round match against Kaia Kanepi and then defeated María José Martínez Sánchez in the second round in three sets, after being down match points at 5–2 in the second set. She then fell to fourth seed Victoria Azarenka. At the Porsche Tennis Grand Prix, Šafářová upset world No. 2 and top-seed Caroline Wozniacki in the second round. She then fell in three sets to qualifier Anna Lapushchenkova in the quarterfinals. At the Internazionali BNL d'Italia, she upset world No. 9 Agnieszka Radwańska in the third round, but lost to eventual champion María José Martínez Sánchez in straight sets in the quarterfinals. At the Mutua Madrileña Madrid Open, she upset world No. 12 Maria Sharapova in the first round. She then defeated Olga Govortsova and Alexandra Dulgheru to advance to the quarterfinals, where she beat world No. 18 Nadia Petrova. She retired due to a thigh injury while trailing Aravane Rezaï by a set in the semifinals. At the French Open, she was seeded 24th. She defeated Jelena Dokić in the first round, but was defeated by Polona Hercog in the second round. The French Open would be her best singles result at a Grand Slam in 2010 as she lost in the first round at both Wimbledon and the US Open.", "Šafářová began the year at the Brisbane International where she made it to the quarterfinals after tough matches against Akgul Amanmuradova and Shahar Pe'er where she lost to Anastasia Pavlyuchenkova in three sets. As the 31st seed at the Australian Open, she struggled through her first two rounds, but defeated Zhang Shuai and Klára Zakopalová, respectively. In the third round, she lost in two sets to world No. 2, Vera Zvonareva, despite having had a set point in the second set. Following the Australian Open, Šafářová defeated Daniela Hantuchová in the 2011 Fed Cup, but retired in her second rubber against Jana Čepelová. Her next tournament was the Open GDF Suez, where she fell to a resurgent Jelena Dokić in the first round. A week later at the Dubai Tennis Championships, she again exited in the first round by losing to Klára Zakopalová. Her performance at the Qatar Ladies Open was more positive, as she defeated world No. 10 Agnieszka Radwańska in two sets, before losing in three sets in the second round to Flavia Pennetta. She had her best result in 2011 at the Malaysian Open, where she reached the final against an in-form Jelena Dokić. She held two championship points in the second-set tiebreaker, but was unable to convert either chance and succumbed in three sets. She reached the second round in Indian Wells by beating Kristina Barrois, while serving a WTA season-high 18 aces, before losing a close match to 21st seed Andrea Petkovic. The following week as the 31st seed, she had a bye in round one of the Miami Masters. She then defeated Patty Schnyder and lost to fourth seed Sam Stosur. Šafářová was forced to pull out of the Czech Fed Cup tie against Belgium the following week due to a left thigh problem. She attempted to play at Stuttgart, but lost to Barrois. She pulled out of Barcelona with the same leg injury. Her next tournament was the Premier Madrid event. She defeated Spanish player Anabel Medina Garrigues by coming back from match point down in the third set. She followed this victory with a three-set win over seventh seed Jelena Janković in round two and a two-set win over Jarmila Gajdošová in round three. These victories meant that for the second consecutive year, she had made the quarterfinals in Madrid. In the quarterfinals, she lost a hard-fought match to fourth seed Victoria Azarenka in three sets. In Rome the following week, she began with a win over Kimiko Date-Krumm. In the second round, she fell to Jelena Janković. Unseeded at the French Open, Šafářová opened with an easy win over Kirsten Flipkens. In round two, she was up a set and a break against 17th seeded German Julia Görges, but eventually succumbed in three sets. In the doubles event, she and Michaëlla Krajicek opened with a win over Miami champions Radwańska and Hantuchová, and then defeated Pauline Parmentier and Kristina Mladenovic before falling to fifth-seeded Madrid Champions Victoria Azarenka and Maria Kirilenko. Reaching the third round marked her best doubles result at the French Open up to that point in her career. As the fourth seed in Copenhagen, Šafářová made a series of tough three-set wins by never winning the first set. However, after beating Johanna Konta, Michaëlla Krajicek, Zhang Shuai, and Petra Martić (after trailing by a set and 4–0), she lost the final to home favourite and world No. 1 Caroline Wozniacki. She then traveled to Eastbourne, where she lost in the opening round to eventual champion Marion Bartoli despite holding a match point. At Wimbledon, Šafářová was seeded 31st. She defeated fellow Czech Lucie Hradecká in the first round in three sete. This victory was her first win at Wimbledon since 2007. She was defeated by another Czech, Klára Zakopalová, in the second round. She next played on clay in Båstad, but was taken out by Vesna Dolonc in straight sets in the first round. She then pulled out of tournaments in Baku and San Diego before returning to the tour in Toronto. Following wins over Polona Hercog and Simona Halep, she took out eighth seeded Francesca Schiavone to reach her second Toronto quarterfinal. She lost this match to eventual champion Serena Williams in three sets. In Cincinnati the following week, she defeated Klára Zakopalová in the first round, but lost her second round match to the fifth seed, Li Na. Seeded 27th at the US Open, Šafářová began by defeating Magdaléna Rybáriková. The victory was her first US Open win since 2007. She then defeated wild card Madison Keys before a disappointing third round loss to Monica Niculescu. In Quebec City the week following the US Open, she lost in round two to Andrea Hlaváčková as the second seed. After taking a small break, she re-entered the tour in Beijing, but lost in the first round to Petkovic. She followed this tournament up with a semifinal appearance in Linz, Austria, where she lost to Dominika Cibulková. The following week in the premier Moscow event, she took out second-seed Agnieszka Radwańska in round two before losing to Kaia Kanepi in the semifinals in three sets. To finish the year, Šafářová was a part of the Czech Fed Cup team that had qualified for the final against Russia. Despite losing both her matches to the higher-ranked Svetlana Kuznetsova and Anastasia Pavlyuchenkova, she and the Czech team won 3–2 to win their first championship as the Czech Republic (Czechoslovakia had previously won five Fed Cup titles).", "Šafářová reached the quarterfinals in Sydney, but lost to Li Na in two sets. She was taken out in the first round of the Australian Open by Christina McHale. On 23 March 2012 at the Miami Masters, she lost to Heather Watson of Great Britain in a match lasting one hour, 20 minutes. The young British player was ranked No. 129 in the world. At the 2012 Summer Olympics, Šafářová competed in the women's singles and the women's doubles, but lost in the first round of both competitions. She reached the semifinals of the Rogers Cup in Montreal, where she lost to Li Na in three sets. With this result, she was ranked well within the top 20 for the first time in her career. In 2012, she also helped the Czech team defend its Fed Cup title. She won both her singles matches against Ana Ivanovic and Jelena Janković in the final against Serbia. Her victory against Janković clinched a 3–1 victory for the Czechs.", "In 2013, Šafářová did not advance past the second round at any of the Grand Slams in singles. She was more successful in doubles. Partnering with Anastasia Pavlyuchenkova, they reached the quarterfinals at both the Australian Open and the French Open. The week following the US Open, Šafářová won her fifth WTA singles title at the Challenge Bell.", "Šafářová had a match point in the third round of the Australian Open against Li Na, but was eventually beaten in three sets as Li went on to win her second major title. At the Sony Open, she lost in three tight sets to Maria Sharapova in the third round. She would go on to lose to Sharapova again in the first round of the Porsche Tennis Grand Prix. At Roland Garros, she was the 23rd seed and defeated the in-form Ana Ivanovic in the third round, but lost in the next round to Svetlana Kuznetsova in straight sets. At Wimbledon, she reached her first ever Grand Slam semifinal, where she lost in two sets to fellow Czech Petra Kvitová. In November, Šafárová was a part of the Czech Fed Cup team that played the final against Germany. In front of the home crowd at the O2 Arena in Prague, she won her singles match against Angelique Kerber in straight sets, which contributed to a 3–1 victory for the Czech team.", "Šafářová had a slow start to the year with a first-round loss at the Apia International Sydney to Samantha Stosur. At the Australian Open, she suffered another first-round exit to Yaroslava Shvedova. Despite the early loss in singles, she rebounded by capturing her first Grand Slam title in doubles. Partnering with American Bethanie Mattek-Sands, they defeated the 14th seeded team of Chan Yung-jan and Zheng Jie. Šafářová then played at the Diamond Games and lost in the quarterfinals to fellow countrywoman Karolína Plíšková. She next traveled to Dubai where she made it to the quarterfinals by upsetting defending champion Venus Williams along the way. However, in the quarterfinals she lost again to Plíšková. At the Qatar Total Open, she defeated former Grand Slam champion Samantha Stosur, fifth seed Ekaterina Makarova, sixth seed Andrea Petkovic, and ninth seed Carla Suárez Navarro en route to her first final in over a year. In the final she defeated former No. 1 Victoria Azarenka in straight sets to win her first WTA Premier tournaments title. She then lost early at both the Indian Wells Masters and the Miami Open to Elina Svitolina and Johanna Larsson, respectively. Next, she played for the Czech Republic in the semifinals against France at the Fed Cup, where she beat Caroline Garcia in three sets after saving five match points. The Czech Republic would go on to win the tie to advance to the finals for the fourth time in five years. Šafářová began her clay season in Stuttgart where she lost in the second round to eventual finalist Caroline Wozniacki in straight sets, but she would go on to win the doubles title with Mattek-Sands. She then played at the Prague Open and lost in the first round to Tereza Smitková. Next, she played at the Madrid Open and made it to the quarterfinals, where she lost to eventual finalist Svetlana Kuznetsova in three sets. In that match, she had been up 5–2 in the second set tiebreak and also failed to convert two match points on her own serve in the third set. She then lost in the second round at the Italian Open to Alexandra Dulgheru in three sets. Šafářová started her French Open singles campaign by defeating long time friend Anastasia Pavlyuchenkova in two tiebreakers. She went on to defeat Kurumi Nara and 20th seed Sabine Lisicki, which set up a clash with the defending champion Maria Sharapova in the fourth round. She won the match in straight sets. It was Sharapova's earliest French Open loss since 2010. In the quarterfinals, she played the 21st seed Garbiñe Muguruza and won in straight sets to advance to her second semifinal in a Grand Slam. With her quarterfinal win, she secured her place in the top 10. She then defeated former champion Ana Ivanovic in two tight sets to advance to her first ever Grand Slam final, which she lost to Serena Williams in three sets. In doubles she and Mattek-Sands claimed their second Grand Slam title of the year by beating Yaroslava Shvedova and Casey Dellacqua in three sets in the final. With this win she moved up to No. 5 in doubles. Šafářová began the grass court season by playing in Aegon International. She lost her first match to Dominika Cibulková in straight sets. Next, she played at the Wimbledon Championships. She reached the fourth round, but was then defeated by unseeded CoCo Vandeweghe in two tiebreakers. In the North American hard court season, Šafářová participated in the Rogers Cup, but lost in the second round to Daria Gavrilova after receiving a first round bye. This loss occurred despite having a 6–4, 5–5, 30–0 lead on her serve. She then reached the quarterfinals of the Cincinnati Open, where she lost to Elina Svitolina in three sets. Šafářová reached the final of the Connecticut Open, but lost to defending champion and compatriot Petra Kvitová. She then lost in the first round of the US Open to Lesia Tsurenko in straight sets. The rest of Šafářová's season was blighted by a bacterial infection which hospitalized her. As a result, she was unable to play for most of the autumn and early winter. She managed to play in the Linz Open and the Moscow Open, but she lost her opening matches in both tournaments. Since Serena Williams withdrew from the tournament, Šafářová was able to play the WTA Finals for the first time in her career. She failed to advance to the semifinals as she lost to Garbine Muguruza and Petra Kvitová in round robin matches, but she did get a win by beating eventual world No. 1 and two time Grand Slam champion Angelique Kerber in straight sets to finish the round with a record of 1–2. She closed the year once again in the Fed Cup Finals, where the Czech Republic won their fourth title in five years. She was not chosen to play in any of the matches.", "Šafářová skipped the whole Australian Open Series, including the Australian Open and thus failing to defend her doubles title, due to the same bacterial infection which hospitalized her at the end of 2015. She returned to tennis at the Qatar Total Open, where she was the defending champion. However, she lost to Turkish wild card Çağla Büyükakçay. In Indian Wells, Šafářová lost to Yaroslava Shvedova in the second round after receiving a bye as the 11th seed. Šafářová then partnered Ekaterina Makarova in doubles as the fifth seed, but they lost to Andreja Klepač and Katarina Srebotnik in the first round. As the 11th seed in the Miami Open, Šafářová received a bye into the second round where she faced Yanina Wickmayer. However, she lost the match in straight sets. For doubles, Šafářová partnered with her usual partner Bethanie Mattek-Sands for their first tournament together in 2016. They defeated Sloane Stephens and Madison Keys and then Daria Kasatkina Elena Vesnina to set up a blockbuster meeting with Australian Open finalists Andrea Hlaváčková and Lucie Hradecká, who are known as \"The Silent-Hs\". Mattek-Sands and Šafářová prevailed in straight sets, and dominated Chinese pairing Xu Yifan and Zheng Saisai in the semifinals. They then defeated the fourth seeds Tímea Babos and Yaroslava Shvedova in the final, winning their first title together of the year. Šafářová's next tournament was the Charleston Open. As the fourth seed in singles, she lost to Louisa Chirico in her opening singles match after receiving a first round bye. Top-seeded in doubles, Šafářová and Mattek-Sands proceeded to the final after winning all their matches in straight sets, but then lost to Caroline Garcia and Kristina Mladenovic. Next, she played in the Stuttgart Open and lost in the first round to Karolína Plíšková. Šafářová turned her season around by winning her seventh career title at the Prague Open. She won her first singles match of the year in the first round against Duque Marino, whom she beat in three sets. She followed this result up with a second-round win over compatriot Lucie Hradecká 6–4, 2–0 (ret.). In the quarterfinal she beat Hsieh Su-wei in straight sets. In the semifinals she avenged her Stuttgart defeat to compatriot Karolína Plíšková by beating her in straight sets. In the final she delighted a home crowd by coming from a set down to beat Grand Slam champion Samantha Stosur. This result ended her title drought of more than a year since her Doha win. Next, she played in the Madrid Open. She defeated CoCo Vandeweghe in the first round, but withdrew from the tournament, both from singles and doubles due to gastrointestinal illness. At the Summer Olympics in Rio, she won her first-round singles match, but retired in her second round match after losing the first set. However, she recovered in time for doubles and on 13 August 2016, she won her first ever Olympic medal, which was a bronze with her partner Barbora Strýcová. At the US Open, Šafářová was unseeded in singles. She won in the first round against Daria Gavrilova, but lost in the second round to fifth seed Simona Halep. In doubles, she teamed once again with Mattek-Sands. They were seeded 12th and would go on to win their third Grand Slam title together. In the semifinals they defeated the fifth seeded Russian team of Makarova and Vesnina, who had just defeated Mattek-Sands and Šafářová the month before in the semifinals of the Olympics and gone on to win the gold medal. In the final, Mattek-Sands and Šafářová defeated the French team of Garcia and Mladenovic, who had won the French Open earlier in the year. Šafářová and Mattek-Sands would team up to win two more tournaments in 2016, Wuhan and Beijing. Their performance during the season qualified them for the WTA Finals, where they made the finals, but lost to Makarova and Vesnina. Šafářová ended the year ranked sixth in doubles.", "In Hobart, Šafářová defeated Viktorija Golubic in the first round, but then she lost to qualifier Risa Ozaki. At the Australian Open, Šafářová defeated Yanina Wickmayer in the first round, after defending nine match points. In the second round, she lost to eventual champion Serena Williams. In doubles, Šafářová and Mattek-Sands won their fourth Grand Slam title, defeating Andrea Hlaváčková and Peng Shuai in the final. Šafářová reached the semifinals in Taipei, where she lost to Peng. She played for the Czech Republic in the Fed Cup quarterfinals against Spain in a dead rubber alongside Kateřina Siniaková. They lost to María José Martínez Sánchez and Sara Sorribes Tormo. In Budapest, Šafářová lost in the final to Tímea Babos. These two players were the two top seeds of the tournament. They also partnered in doubles, where they withdrew before the semifinal match. Šafářová and Mattek-Sands would continue their doubles success in the spring. They won at Charleston and then won another Grand Slam title at the French Open. Šafářová would not have as much success in singles during this time. She lost in the first round at the French and then in the second round at Wimbledon. Also at Wimbledon, Mattek-Sands injured her knee in a singles match causing the duo to withdraw from the tournament after winning a first round match. At the US Open, Šafářová defeated Anett Kontaveit, Nao Hibino and Kurumi Nara, before losing to CoCo Vandeweghe in the fourth round.", "Šafářová started the new season in Sydney. In singles, she lost in the first round to Angelique Kerber. In doubles, she played alongside Barbora Strýcová. They withdrew before their semifinal match against Gabriela Dabrowski and Xu Yifan. At the Australian Open, Šafářová defeated Ajla Tomljanović and Sorana Cîrstea, before losing to Karolína Plíšková in the third round. In doubles, Šafářová and Strýcová lost in the quarterfinals to Hsieh Su-wei and Peng Shuai. In Wimbledon, Safarova defeated Bondarenko and Radwanska, losing in the third round to Makarova in three sets. Playing doubles with Mattek-Sands, they were losing in the quarterfinals. In Montreal, Šafářová lost in second round to Julia Görges. In doubles she played with Bethanie Mattek-Sands, they lost in the first round to Ashleigh Barty and Demi Schuurs.", "On 10 November 2018, Šafářová announced she would retire from the singles and doubles at the Australian Open. She stated the decision was based on her health issues. However, on 4 January 2019, Šafářová announced that due to body ailments she would be pulling out of the Australian Open and her farewell tournament would come at a later date. In March 2019, she stated her final tournament would be at the Prague Open. However, she later announced that she would retire at the 2019 French Open where she would play in the doubles. She partnered with Dominika Cibulková and lost in the first round 4–6, 0–6 to Sofia Kenin and Andrea Petkovic.", "Šafářová speaks three languages: Czech, German and English. She was in a relationship with fellow Czech tennis player Tomáš Berdych until they broke up in 2011. On July 4th, 2019, Safarova posted on her Instagram that she was excited to be expecting a baby with former NHL player Tomáš Plekanec. She announced the birth of her daughter Lea on the 19th December." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name.", "Official status.", "History.", "Decline.", "Revitalisation efforts.", "Revival since 2015.", "Linguistic classification.", "Geographic distribution.", "Orthography.", "Phonology.", "Vowels.", "Consonants.", "Syllables and phonotactics.", "Dialects.", "North Island dialects.", "South Island dialects.", "Grammar and syntax.", "Bases.", "Particles.", "Articles.", "Determiners.", "Demonstrative determiners and adverbs.", "Pronouns.", "Personal pronouns.", "Possessive pronouns.", "Phrase grammar.", "Phrasal particles.", "Negation.", "Passive sentences.", "Polar questions.", "Derivational morphology.", "Calendar.", "Influence on New Zealand English." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The English word comes from the Māori language, where it is spelled. In New Zealand, the Māori language is often referred to as ('the language'), short for. The spelling (without a macron) is standard in English outside New Zealand in both general and linguistic", "New Zealand has three official languages: English, Māori, and New Zealand Sign Language. Māori gained this status with the passing of the Māori Language Act 1987. Most government departments and agencies have bilingual names—for example, the Department of Internal Affairs —and places such as local government offices and public libraries display bilingual signs and use bilingual stationery. New Zealand Post recognises Māori place-names in postal addresses. Dealings with government agencies may be conducted in Māori, but in practice, this almost always requires interpreters, restricting its everyday use to the limited geographical areas of high Māori fluency, and to more formal occasions, such as during public consultation. Increasingly New Zealand is referred to by the Māori name (\"land of the long white cloud\"), though originally this referred only to the North Island. An interpreter is on hand at sessions of the", "According to legend, Māori came to New Zealand from Hawaiki. Current anthropological thinking places their origin in eastern Polynesia, mostly likely from the Southern Cook or Society Islands region, and says that they arrived by deliberate voyages in seagoing canoes—possibly double-hulled, and probably sail-rigged. These settlers probably arrived by about AD 1280 (see Māori origins). Their language and its dialects developed in isolation until the 19th century. Since about 1800, the Māori language has had a tumultuous history. It started this period as the predominant language of New Zealand. In the 1860s, it became a minority language in the shadow of the English spoken by many settlers, missionaries, gold-seekers, and traders. In the late 19th century, the colonial governments of New Zealand and its provinces introduced an English-style school system for all New Zealanders. From the mid 1800s, due to the Native Schools Act and later the Native Schools Code, the use of Māori in schools was slowly filtered out of the curriculum in order to become more European. Increasing numbers of Māori people learned English.", "Until the Second World War (1939–1945), most Māori people spoke Māori as their first language. Worship took place in Māori; it functioned as the language of Māori homes; Māori politicians conducted political meetings in Māori, and some literature appeared in Māori, along with many newspapers. Before 1880, some Māori parliamentarians suffered disadvantages because Parliament's proceedings took place in English. However, by 1900, all Māori members of", "By the 1980s, Māori leaders had begun to recognise the dangers of the loss of their language, and initiated Māori-language recovery-programs such as the Kōhanga Reo movement, which from 1982 immersed infants in Māori from infancy to school age. There followed in 1985 the founding of the first Kura Kaupapa Māori (Years 1 to 8 Māori-medium education programme) and later the first Wharekura (Years 9 to 13 Māori-medium education programme). Although \"there was a true revival of te reo in the 1980s and early to mid-1990s... spurred on by the realisation of how few speakers were left, and by the relative abundance of older fluent speakers in both urban neighbourhoods and rural communities\", the language has continued to decline. The decline is believed \"to have several underlying causes\". These include: Based on the principles of partnership, Māori-speaking government, general revitalisation and dialectal protective policy, and adequate resourcing, the Waitangi Tribunal has recommended \"four fundamental", "Beginning in about 2015, the Māori language underwent a revival as it became increasingly popular, as a common national heritage, even among New Zealanders without Māori roots. Surveys from 2018 indicated that \"the Māori language currently enjoys a high status in Māori society and also positive acceptance by the majority of non-Māori New Zealanders\". As the status and prestige of the language rose, so did the demand for language classes. Businesses were quick to adopt the trend as it became apparent that", "Comparative linguists classify Māori as a Polynesian language; specifically as an Eastern Polynesian language belonging to the Tahitic subgroup, which includes Cook Islands Māori, spoken in the southern Cook Islands, and Tahitian, spoken in Tahiti and the Society Islands. Other major Eastern Polynesian languages include Hawaiian, Marquesan (languages in the Marquesic subgroup), and the Rapa Nui language of Easter Island. While the preceding are all", "Nearly all speakers are ethnic Māori resident in New Zealand. Estimates of the number of speakers vary: the 1996 census reported 160,000, while other estimates have reported as few as 10,000 fluent adult speakers in 1995 according to the Māori Language Commission. As reported in the 2013 national census, only 21.31 per cent of Māori (self-identified) had a conversational knowledge of the language, and only around 6.5 per cent of those speakers, 1.4 per cent of the total Māori population, spoke the Māori language only. This percentage has been in decline in recent years, from around a quarter of the population to 21 per cent. However, the number of speakers In the same census, Māori speakers were 3.7 per cent of the total population. The level of competence of self-professed", "There was originally no native writing system for Māori. It has been suggested that the petroglyphs once used by the Māori developed into a script similar to the Rongorongo of Easter Island. However, there is no evidence that these petroglyphs ever evolved into a true system of writing. Some distinctive markings among the \"kōwhaiwhai\" (rafter paintings) of meeting houses were used as mnemonics in reciting \"whakapapa\" (genealogy) but again, there was no systematic relation between marks and meanings. The modern Māori alphabet has 15 letters, two of which are digraphs: A E H I K M N O P R T U W NG and WH. The five vowels have both short and long forms, with the long forms denoted by macrons marked above them - Ā, Ē, Ī, Ō and Ū. Attempts to write Māori words using the Latin script began with Captain James Cook and other early explorers, with varying degrees of success. Consonants seem to have caused the most difficulty, but medial and final vowels are often missing in early sources. Anne Salmond records \"aghee\" for aki (In the year 1773, from the North Island East Coast, p. 98), \"Toogee\" and \"E tanga roak\" for Tuki and Tangaroa (1793, Northland, p216), \"Kokramea\", \"Kakramea\" for Kakaramea (1801, Hauraki, p261), \"toges\" for toki(s), \"Wannugu\" for Uenuku and \"gumera\" for kumara (1801, Hauraki, p261, p266, p269), \"Weygate\" for Waikato (1801, Hauraki, p277), \"Bunga Bunga\" for pungapunga, \"tubua\" for tupua and \"gure\" for kurī (1801, Hauraki, p279), as well as \"Tabooha\" for Te Puhi (1823, Northern Northland, p385). From 1814, missionaries tried to define the sounds of the language. Thomas Kendall published a book in 1815 entitled \"A korao no New Zealand\", which in modern orthography and usage would be \"He Kōrero nō Aotearoa\". Beginning in 1817, Professor Samuel Lee of Cambridge University worked with the Ngāpuhi chief Tītore and his junior relative Tui (also known as Tuhi or Tupaea), and then with chief Hongi Hika and his junior relative Waikato; they established a definitive orthography based on Northern usage, published as the \"First Grammar and Vocabulary of the New Zealand Language\" (1820). The missionaries of the Church Missionary Society (CMS) did not have a high regard for this book. By 1830 the CMS missionaries had revised the orthography for writing the Māori language; for example, ‘Kiddeekiddee’ became, what is the modern spelling, ‘Kerikeri’. This orthography continues in use, with only two major changes: the addition of \"wh\" to distinguish the voiceless bilabial fricative phoneme from the labio-velar phoneme /w/; and the consistent marking of long vowels. The Māori embraced literacy enthusiastically, and missionaries reported in the 1820s that Māori all over the country taught each other to read and write, using sometimes quite innovative materials in the absence of paper, such as leaves and charcoal, and flax. Missionary James West Stack recorded the scarcity of slates and writing materials at the Native schools and the use sometimes of \"pieces of board on which sand was sprinkled, and the letters traced upon the sand with a pointed stick\".", "Māori has five phonemically distinct vowel articulations, and ten consonant phonemes.", "Although it is commonly claimed that vowel realisations (pronunciations) in Māori show little variation, linguistic research has shown this not to be the case. Vowel length is phonemic; but four of the five long vowels occur in only a handful of word roots, the exception being. As noted above, it has recently become standard in Māori spelling to indicate a long vowel with a macron. For older speakers, long vowels tend to be more peripheral and short vowels more centralised, especially with the low vowel, which is long but short. For younger speakers, they are both. For older speakers, is only fronted after", "The consonant phonemes of Māori are listed in the following table. Seven of the ten Māori consonant letters have the same pronunciation as they do in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). For those that do not, the IPA phonetic transcription is included, enclosed in square brackets per IPA convention. The pronunciation of is extremely variable, but its most common pronunciation (its canonical allophone) is the labiodental fricative, IPA (as found in English). Another allophone is the bilabial fricative, IPA, which is usually supposed to be the sole pre-European pronunciation, although linguists are not sure of the truth of this supposition. At least until the 1930s, the", "Syllables in Māori have one of the following forms: V, VV, CV, CVV. This set of four can be summarised by the notation, (C)V(V), in which the segments in parentheses may or may not be present. A syllable cannot begin with two consonant sounds (the digraphs \"ng\" and \"wh\" represent single consonant sounds), and cannot end in a consonant, although some speakers may occasionally devoice a final vowel. All possible CV combinations are grammatical, though \"wo\", \"who\", \"wu\", and \"whu\" occur only in a few loanwords from English such as \"wuru\", \"wool\" and \"whutuporo\", \"football\". As in many other Polynesian languages, e.g., Hawaiian, the rendering of loanwords from English includes representing every", "Biggs proposed that historically there were two major dialect groups, North Island and South Island, and that South Island Māori is extinct. Biggs has analysed North Island Māori as comprising a western group and an eastern group with the boundary between them running pretty much along the island's north–south axis. Within these broad divisions regional variations occur, and individual regions show tribal variations. The major differences occur in the pronunciation of words, variation of vocabulary, and idiom. A fluent speaker of Māori has no problem understanding other dialects. There is no significant variation in grammar between dialects. \"Most of the tribal variation in grammar is a matter of preferences: speakers of one area might prefer one grammatical form to another, but are likely on occasion to use the non-preferred form, and at least to recognise and understand it.\" Vocabulary and pronunciation vary to a greater extent, but this does not pose barriers to communication.", "In the southwest of the island, in the Whanganui and Taranaki regions, the phoneme /h/ is a glottal stop and the phoneme /wh/ is [ʔw]. This difference was the subject of considerable", "In the extinct South Island dialects, \"ng\" merged with \"k\" in many regions. Thus \"Kāi Tahu\" and \"Ngāi Tahu\" are variations in the name of the same iwi (the latter form is the one used in acts of Parliament). Since 2000, the government has altered the official names of several southern place names to the southern dialect forms by replacing \"ng\" with \"k\". New Zealand's highest mountain, known for centuries as \"Aoraki\" in southern Māori dialects that merge \"ng\" with \"k\", and as \"Aorangi\" by other Māori, was later named \"Mount Cook\", in honour of Captain Cook. Now its sole official name is \"Aoraki / Mount Cook\", which favours the local dialect form. Similarly, the Māori name for Stewart Island, \"Rakiura\", is cognate with the name of the Canterbury town of Rangiora. Likewise, Dunedin's main research library, the Hocken Collections, has the name \"Uare Taoka o Hākena\" rather than the northern (standard) \"Te Whare Taonga o Hākena\". Maarire Goodall and Griffiths say there is also a voicing of \"k\" to \"g\" – this is why the region of Otago (southern dialect) and the settlement", "Māori has mostly a VSO (verb-subject-object) word order, is analytical and makes extensive use of grammatical particles to indicate grammatical categories of tense, mood, aspect, case, topicalization, among others. The personal pronouns have a distinction in clusivity, singular, dual and plural numbers, and the genitive pronouns have different classes (\"a\" class, \"o\" class and neutral) according to whether the possession is alienable or the possessor has control of the relationship (\"a\" category), or the possession is inalienable or the possessor has no control over the relationship (\"o\" category), and a third neutral class that only occurs for singular pronouns and must be followed by a noun.", "Biggs (1998) developed an analysis that the basic unit of Māori speech is the phrase rather than the word. The lexical word forms the \"base\" of the phrase. \"Nouns\" include those bases that can take a definite article, but cannot occur as the nucleus of a verbal phrase; for example: \"ika\" (fish) or \"rākau\" (tree). Plurality is marked by various means, including the definite article (singular \"te\", plural \"ngā\"), deictic particles \"tērā rākau\" (that tree), \"ērā rākau\" (those trees), possessives \"taku whare\" (my house), \"aku whare\" (my houses).", "Like all other Polynesian languages, Māori has a rich array of particles, which include verbal particles, pronouns, locative particles, articles and possessives. Verbal particles indicate aspectual, tense related or modal properties of the verb to which they relate to. They", "Definitives include the articles \"te\" (singular) and \"ngā\" (plural) and the possessive prepositions \"tā\" and \"tō\". These also combine with the pronouns. The indefinite article \"he\" is usually positioned at the beginning of the phrase in which it is used. The indefinite article is used when the base is used indefinitely or nominally. These phrases can be identified", "", "Demonstratives occur after the noun and have a deictic function, and include \"tēnei\", this (near me), \"tēnā\", that (near you), \"tērā\", that (far from us both), and \"taua\", the aforementioned (anaphoric). Other definitives include \"tēhea?\" (which?), and \"tētahi\", (a certain). The plural is formed just by dropping the \"t\": \"tēnei\" (this), \"ēnei\" (these). The related adverbs are \"nei\" (here), \"nā\" (there, near you)\", rā\" (over there, near him).", "", "Pronouns have singular, dual and plural number. Different first-person forms in both the dual and the plural are used for groups inclusive or exclusive of the listener. Like other Polynesian languages, Māori has three numbers for pronouns and possessives: singular, dual and plural. For example: \"ia\" (he/she), \"rāua\" (they two), \"rātou\" (they, three or more). Māori pronouns and possessives further distinguish exclusive \"we\"", "The possessive pronouns vary according to person, number, clusivity, and possessive class (a class or o class). Example: tāku pene (my pen), āku pene (my pens). For dual and plural subject pronouns, the possessive form is analytical, by just putting the possessive particle (tā/tō for singular objects or ā/ō for plural objects) before the personal pronouns, e.g. \"tā tātou karaihe\" (our class), \"tō rāua whare\" (their [dual] house); \"ā tātou karaihe\" (our classes). The neuter one must be followed by a noun and only occur for singular first, second and third persons. \"Taku\" is my, \"aku\" is my (plural, for many possessed items). The plural is made by deleting the initial [t].", "A phrase spoken in Māori can be broken up into two parts: the “nucleus” or \"head\" and “periphery” (modifiers, determiners). The nucleus can be thought of as the meaning and is the centre of the phrase, whereas the periphery is where the grammatical meaning is conveyed and occurs before and/or after the nucleus. The nucleus \"whare\" can be translated as \"house\", the periphery \"te\" is similar to an article \"the\" and the periphery \"nei\" indicates proximity to the speaker. The whole phrase, \"te whare nei\", can then be translated as \"this house\".", "A definite and declarative sentence (may be a copulative sentence) begins with the declarative particle \"ko\". If the sentence is topicalized (agent topic, only in non-present sentences) the particle nā begins the sentence (past tense) or the mā (future, imperfective) followed by the agent/subject. In these cases the word order changes to SVO. These agent topicalizing particles can contract with singular personal pronouns and vary according to the possessive classes: \"nāku\" can be though of as meaning \"as for me\" and behave like an emphatic or dative pronoun.", "Forming negative phrases in Māori is quite grammatically complex. There are several different negators which are used under various specific circumstances. The four main negators are as follows: \"Kīhai\" and \"tē\" are two negators which may be seen in specific dialects or older texts, but are not widely used. The most common", "The passive voice of verbs is made by a suffix to the verb. For example, -ia (or just -a if the verb ends in [i]). The other passive suffixes, some of which are very rare, are: -hanga/-hia/-hina/-ina/-kia/-kina/-mia/-na/-nga/-ngia/-ria/-rina/-tia/-whia/-whina/. The use of the passive suffix -ia is given in this sentence:", "Polar questions (yes/no questions) can be made by just changing", "Although Māori is mostly", "From missionary times, Māori used adaptations of English names for days of the week and for months of the year. Since about 1990 the Māori Language Commission has", "New Zealand English has gained many loanwords from Māori, mainly the names of birds, plants, fishes and places. For example, the kiwi, the national bird, takes its name from \"te reo\". \"Kia ora\" (literally \"be healthy\") is a widely adopted greeting of Māori origin, with the intended meaning of \"hello\". It can also mean \"thank you\", or signify agreement with a speaker at a meeting. The Māori greetings \"tēnā koe\" (to one person), \"tēnā kōrua\" (to two people) or \"tēnā koutou\" (to three or more people) are also widely used, as are farewells such as \"haere rā\". The Māori phrase \"kia kaha\", \"be strong\", is frequently encountered as an indication of moral support for someone starting a stressful undertaking or otherwise in a difficult situation. Many other words such as \"whānau\" (meaning \"family\") and \"kai\" (meaning \"food\") are also widely understood and used by New Zealanders." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Gameplay.", "Plot.", "Release.", "Reception." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The single-player campaign includes around 30 missions set in futuristic interiors full of aliens, as a squad of space marines battles to save the civilians and themselves. The game has some head-to-head and co-op multiplayer support via LAN and software such as Kali. There are three difficulty levels which influence parameters like monster respawn and damage rates. Outside of missions, the main decision is which weapons and equipment to purchase to outfit the squad. A variety of weapons are available. Some low-level guns feature bayonets for mêlée combat, which form a substantial element of the game. Equipment like jetpacks, scanners, improved armor, stimulants and medical kits becomes available as the space marines accumulate experience points.", "\"Incubation\" is part of the \"Battle Isle\" series, though it is only loosely related to the other games in the series. The plot revolves around a mysterious virus causing indigenous inhabitants surrounding a planetary colony to mutate into the monstrous Scay’Ger.", "\"Incubation\" was released on October 17, 1997 as one of the first strategy titles to use fully 3D graphics, and supported hardware acceleration on the 3dfx Voodoo. Blue Byte later published an expansion pack, \"The Wilderness Missions\", which added new missions with more resourceful enemies, as well as a map editor.", "In the United States, the game sold only 4,805 copies during 1997. Critical reception of \"Incubation\" was mostly positive. \"PC Gamer's\" take was positive, awarding it the title of the Best Turn-Based Strategy Game of 1997. Others felt the game made some steps in the right direction but lacked the depth and challenge needed for a great strategy game. Writing for GameSpot, Greg Kasavin noted that \"most weapons at your disposal carry limited ammunition and can overheat rather quickly, forcing you to fire only when you must.\" Niko Nirvi of \"Pelit\", who initially considered the game a botched \"X-COM\" variant, came to think of it as a sort of puzzle game and was very taken with it. \"GamePro\" gave it 18 out of 20, commenting: \"Best of all, the game is both challenging and fun, proving that real-time strategy isn't always best. \"Incubation\" is definitely a winner.\" \"PC Gamer US\" named \"Incubation\" the best turn-based strategy game of 1997." ] }

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{ "title": [ "The equation.", "Second order – solving through trial solution.", "Second order – solution through change of variables.", "Example.", "Difference equation analogue." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Let \"y\"(\"x\") be the \"n\"th derivative of the unknown function \"y\"(\"x\"). Then a Cauchy–Euler equation of order \"n\" has the form The substitution formula_2 (that is, formula_3; for formula_4, one might replace all instances of formula_5 by formula_6, which extends the solution's domain to formula_7) may be used to reduce this equation to a linear differential equation with constant coefficients. Alternatively, the trial solution formula_8 may be used to directly solve for the basic solutions.", "The most common Cauchy–Euler equation is the second-order equation, appearing in a number of physics and engineering applications, such as when solving Laplace's equation in polar coordinates. The second order Cauchy–Euler equation is We assume a trial solution Differentiating gives and Substituting into the original equation leads to requiring Rearranging and factoring gives the indicial equation We then solve for \"m\". There are three particular cases of interest: In case #1, the solution is In case #2, the solution is To get to this solution, the method of reduction of order must be applied after having found one solution \"y\" = \"x\". In case #3, the solution is For formula_20 ∈ R. This form of the solution is derived by setting \"x\" = \"e\" and using Euler's formula", "We operate the variable substitution defined by Differentiating gives Substituting formula_26 the differential equation becomes This equation in formula_26 is solved via its characteristic polynomial Now let formula_30 and formula_31 denote the two roots of this polynomial. We analyze the two main cases: distinct roots and double roots: If the roots are distinct, the general solution is If the roots are equal, the general solution is In both cases, the solution formula_34 may be found by setting formula_35. Hence, in the first case, and in the second case,", "Given we substitute the simple solution \"x\": For \"x\" to be a solution, either \"x\" = 0, which gives the trivial solution, or the coefficient of \"x\" is zero. Solving the quadratic equation, we get \"m\" = 1, 3. The general solution is therefore", "There is a difference equation analogue to the Cauchy–Euler equation. For a fixed \"m\" > 0, define the sequence \"ƒ\"(\"n\") as Applying the difference operator to formula_42, we find that If we do this \"k\" times, we find that where the superscript denotes applying the difference operator \"k\" times. Comparing this to the fact that the \"k\"-th derivative of \"x\" equals suggests that we can solve the \"N\"-th order difference equation in a similar manner to the differential equation case. Indeed, substituting the trial solution brings us to the same situation as the differential equation case, One may now proceed as in the differential equation case, since the general solution of an \"N\"-th order linear difference equation is also the linear combination of \"N\" linearly independent solutions. Applying reduction of order in case of a multiple root \"m\" will yield expressions involving a discrete version of ln, In cases where fractions become involved, one may use instead (or simply use it in all cases), which coincides with the definition before for integer \"m\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Marriage.", "Early negotiations.", "Negotiations for marriage to the king.", "Private relationship to Louis XV.", "Queen.", "Political role.", "Role as queen.", "Death." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Maria Karolina Zofia Felicja Leszczyńska (h. Wieniawa) was the second daughter of Stanislaus I Leszczyński and his wife, Catherine Opalińska. She had an elder sister, Anna Leszczyńska, who died of pneumonia in 1717. Maria's early life was troubled by her father's political misfortune. Ironically, the hopeless political career of king Stanislaus was eventually the reason why his daughter Maria was chosen as the bride of King Louis XV of France. Devoid of political connections, his daughter was viewed by the French as being free from the burden of international alliances. She was born in Trzebnica () in Lower Silesia, the year before her father was made king of Poland by Charles XII of Sweden, who had invaded the country in 1704. In 1709, her father was deposed when the Swedish army lost the military upper hand in Poland, and the family was granted refuge by Charles XII in the Swedish city of Kristianstad in Scania. During the escape, Marie was separated from the rest of her family; she was later found with her nurse hiding in a crib in a stable, although another version claims it was actually a cave in an old mineshaft. In Sweden, the family was welcomed by the queen dowager Hedwig Eleonora of Holstein-Gottorp and became popular members of society life on the estates of the nobility around Kristianstad. In 1712, they made an official visit to Medevi, the spa of the Queen Dowager. During this period in her life, Marie began speaking Swedish, with a Scanian accent. As Queen of France, she was known to welcome Swedish ambassadors to France with the phrase \"Welcome, Dearest Heart!\" in Swedish. In 1714, Charles XII gave them permission to live in his fiefdom of Zweibrücken in the Holy Roman Empire, where they were supported by the income of Zweibrücken: they lived there until the death of Charles XII in 1718. Zweibrücken then passed to a cousin of his. These lands were parallel to the confiscated Polish properties of Stanislaus. Stanislaus appealed to the Regent of France, the Duke of Orléans, and the Duke of Lorraine for help, with the Queen of Sweden acting as his mediator. In 1718, with the support of the Duke of Lorraine, the family was allowed to settle in Wissembourg in the province of Alsace, which had been annexed by France, a place suggested by Philippe II, Duke of Orléans, a nephew of Louis XIV and Regent of the Kingdom of France during Louis XV's minority. The family lived a modest life in a large town house at the expense of the French Regent. Their lifestyle in Wissembourg was regarded as very below standard for a royal at that time; they lived in a small house, and could not pay the salary of their small retinue from which a few \"served as an apology for a guard of honour\", and the jewels of the former queen Catherine were reportedly held as security by a moneylender. While her mother and grandmother Anna Leszczyńska (1660–1727) reportedly suffered from a certain degree of bitterness over their exile and loss of position which worsened their relationship with Stanislaus, whom they occasionally blamed for their exile, Marie, on contrast, was close to her father and spent a lot of time conversing with him, though she was evidently of a more rational nature: evidently, Marie \"possessed the gift of suffering in silence and of never wearying others with her troubles\", and was said to have developed \"a profound and intense piety\" which gave \"to her youthful mind the maturity of a woman who no longer demands happiness\".", "", "Marie was not described as a beauty; instead her characteristics in the marriage market were stated as those of being pleasant, well-educated, and graceful in manner and movement. In 1720, she was suggested as a bride to Louis Henri de Bourbon, Prince of Condé, (who preferred being and was known as the Duke of Bourbon, rather than Prince of Condé) but her intended mother-in-law refused to give her consent. The cavalry regiment provided by the Regent for the protection of the family included the officer Marquis de Courtanvaux, who fell in love with Marie and asked the Regent to be created a duke in order to ask for her hand; but when the Regent refused, the marriage became impossible because of his lack of rank. Louis George, Margrave of Baden-Baden as well as the third Prince of Baden were suggested, but these negotiations fell through because of her insufficient dowry. Stanislaus unsuccessfully tried to arrange a marriage for her with the Count of Charolais, brother of the Duke of Bourbon. In 1724, she was suggested by Count d'Argensson as a bride for the new Duke of Orléans, but her intended mother-in-law wished for a dynastic match with political advantage. In 1723, the Duke of Bourbon had become the Regent of France during the minority of Louis XV. The Regent was highly dominated by his lover, Madame de Prie. There were long-ongoing negotiations of a marriage between Marie and the now widowed Duke of Bourbon: Madame de Prie favored the match, as she did not perceive the reputedly unattractive Marie as a threat to her. The marriage negotiations, however, were soon overshadowed when a marriage for King Louis XV was given priority. That same year, the young king fell ill and, fearing the consequences of the unmarried king dying without an heir, the Duc suggested getting the young King married as soon as possible. Louis XV was already engaged, to Infanta Mariana Victoria of Spain, who had been brought to France as his future queen some years earlier and was referred to as the Infanta-Queen. However the Infanta was still a child, and could not be expected to conceive for several years; while Louis XV, being fifteen, had already hit puberty. After Louis fell seriously ill, there was a great fear that he would die before he had time to have an heir to the throne. Should that happen, the throne would pass to the Orléans line. This was an undesirable prospect for the Duke of Bourbon, who himself would in fact have preferred that the throne should pass to the Spanish line rather than to the Orléans line. The engagement between Louis XV and the Spanish Infanta was broken, and the latter was sent back to Spain, much to the chagrin of the Spanish. The Duke of Bourbon and Madame de Prie began negotiations for the immediate marriage of the King to Marie.", "Marie was on a list of 99 eligible European princesses to marry the young king. She was not the first choice on the list. She had been placed there initially because she was a Catholic princess and therefore fulfilled the minimum criteria, but was removed early on when the list was reduced from 99 to 17, for being too poor. However, when the list of 17 (including Barbara of Portugal, Princess Charlotte Amalie of Denmark, Elisabeth Therese of Lorraine and Enrichetta d'Este) was further reduced to four, the preferred choices presented numerous problems. Anne and Amelia of Great Britain, who were considered with the understanding that they would convert to the Catholic faith upon marriage, were favored by the Duke of Bourbon and Madame de Prie because it was supported by their political financiers, the firm of Paris Brothers Joseph Paris Duverney. Cardinal Fleury easily prevented the British match because of religious reasons. The last two were the sisters of the Duke of Bourbon, Henriette-Louise and Therese-Alexandrine, whom the King himself refused to marry because of the disapproval of Cardinal Fleury. Cardinal Fleury himself favored a match with Princess Charlotte of Hesse-Rheinfels-Rotenburg, which was supported by the grandfather of Louis XV, the King of Savoy, through his spy the Princess of Carignan, Maria Vittoria of Savoy. In these complicated disputes over the choice of a royal marriage partner, Marie Leszczyńska eventually emerged as a choice acceptable to both the party of the Duke of Bourbon and Madame de Prie, as well as the party of Cardinal Fleury, mainly because she was politically uncontroversial and lacked any of the alliances which could harm either party. At this point, there were already negotiations of marriage between Marie and the Duke of Bourbon. The Duke of d'Argensson had already left a favorable report of her, and the groundwork had been done. Cardinal Fleury accepted the choice as Marie posed no threat to him because of her lack of connections, while the Duke of Bourbon and Madame de Prie, precisely because she lacked any personal power base, expected her to be indebted to them for her position. Marie was, finally, chosen because she was a healthy adult Catholic princess ready to procreate immediately after the wedding. Reportedly, Madame de Prie had a flattering portrait painted of Marie, in which she was deliberately made to look like the King's favorite portrait of his mother, and when he was shown it, he was impressed and exclaimed: \"she is the loveliest of them all!\", and became enthusiastic of the match, an episode which attracted some attention. The formal proposal was made on 2 April 1725. The announcement of the wedding was not received well at the royal court. Marie's father Stanislaus had been a monarch for only a short time and she was thought to be a poor choice of inferior status not worthy of being queen of France. The Dowager Duchess of Lorraine, sister of the former Duke of Orléans, was also insulted that her own daughter Elisabeth-Therese had not been chosen. The nobility and the court looked upon the future queen as an upstart intruder, the ministers as a cause to diplomatic trouble with Spain and Russia, whose princesses had been refused in favor of Marie, and the general public was also reportedly initially dissatisfied with the fact that France would gain \"from this marriage neither glory nor honor, riches nor alliances.\" There were rumors before the wedding that the bride was ugly, epileptic and sterile. The 6 May 1725, Marie was forced to undergo a medical examination, which ruled out epilepsy and also gave reassuring reports about her menstruation and ability to procreate. In the marriage contract, the same terms were given to her as was previously to the Spanish Infanta, and she was thus guaranteed fifty thousand crowns for rings and jewelry, two hundred and fifty thousand crowns upon her wedding, and the further guarantee of an annual widow allowance of twenty thousand crowns.", "The marriage by proxy took place on 15 August 1725 in the Cathedral of Strasbourg, Louis XV represented by his cousin the Duke of Orléans, \"Louis le Pieux\". Upon her marriage, Maria's Polish name was modified into French as \"Marie\". Furthermore, despite her surname being difficult to spell or to pronounce for the French, it was still commonly used by commoners. She was escorted on her way by Mademoiselle de Clermont, seven ladies-in-waiting, two maids-of-honour and numerous equerries and pages in a long train of coaches; however, she was not welcomed by triumphal entries, diplomatic greetings or the other official celebrations, as was normally the custom upon the arrival of a foreign princess upon a royal marriage. Marie made a good impression upon the public from the beginning, such as when she handed out \"largesse\" on her way to her wedding in Fontainebleau. Louis and Marie first met on the eve of their wedding, which took place on 5 September 1725, at the Château de Fontainebleau. Marie was twenty-two years old and Louis fifteen. The young couple was reported to have fallen in love at first sight. The relationship between Marie and Louis was initially described as a happy one, and for the first eight years of the marriage, Louis XV was faithful to her. Louis XV had been very impatient to marry her, was reportedly flattered to have a twenty two-year old wife at his age, and refused to allow any criticism of her appearance. In August 1727, Marie gave birth to her first children, twins named Louise Élisabeth and Anne Henriette, at the Palace of Versailles. The king was reportedly delighted, stating that after it had been said that he could not be a father, he had suddenly become the father of two. Cardinal Fleury, however, was much more displeased, and decided that until the queen had given birth to a son, she would not be allowed to accompany the king on his trips but stay at Versailles. A year later, another daughter, Marie Louise was born, much to the disappointment of the King. The long-awaited Dauphin, Louis, was born on 4 September 1729 to the immense relief of the country, whose royal family had a history of failing to establish a secure male line of succession. In all, Marie had 10 live children, seven of whom survived to adulthood. Her children all regarded her as a role model of virtue, particularly the daughters, though Marie herself reportedly was not noted to show much affection toward them, being phlegmatic in her nature. Though not regarded as ugly, Marie was seen as plain with not much more than her fresh and healthy complexion in her favor; this faded due to her many pregnancies, but her piety prevented her from consenting to indulge in vanity in order make herself attractive. In her behavior she was described as incurably shy and timid of her husband; she considered it her duty to show him grateful reverence and was not able to relax enough to entertain him or flirt with him. Once, for example, she could find no other way to entertain him than to suggest him to kill the flies in the window panes. Louis XV, who suffered from restlessness and needed to be entertained, eventually became more inclined to listen when Marie was unfavorably compared to other women, and Cardinal Fleury, who wished to prevent Marie from eventually getting any influence over the king, favored the idea of the king taking a mistress as long as she was apolitical. Louis XV eventually became a notorious womaniser. In 1733, he entered into his first infidelity, with Louise Julie de Mailly; until 1737, this relationship was not official, and she was known at court as the \"Fair Unknown\". These years, Marie unsuccessfully tried to find out who the mistress was and did display her displeasure over the state of affairs, but the adultery had the support of Cardinal Fleury, because de Mailly was not interested in politics, and after the first years of the king's adultery, Marie became resigned to it. After the difficult birth of Princess Louise in 1737, which nearly took her life, Marie was advised by the doctors that another pregnancy may end her life, and from 1738, she refused Louis entrance to her bedroom. In parallel with this, Louise Julie de Mailly was officially recognized as the king's royal mistress and favorite at court, and the relationship between the king and queen discontinued in all but name; though they continued to perform their ceremonial roles side by side, the king paid only purely ceremonial visits to her rooms and no longer participated in her card games, and the court, wary of her loss of the king's affections, only attended to her when court representation required. Louise Julie de Mailly was followed by Pauline Félicité de Mailly (1739), Marie Anne de Mailly (1742) and Diane Adélaïde de Mailly (1742). During the serious illness of Louis XV in Metz in August 1744, when he was believed to be dying, Marie was given his permission to join him, and was cheered by the supporting public along her journey, but when she arrived, he no longer wished to see her. She and the clergy supported the idea of the king exiling his mistress Marie Anne de Mailly and her sister and the idea that the king should make a public regret for his adultery, but this did not improve their marriage. Finally, Madame de Pompadour was presented at court in 1745, and was given such an important and influential position at court until her death in 1764, that she somewhat eclipsed the queen. The lovers of Louis were often given positions in the court of Marie, in order for them to have a permanent access and official excuse to remain at court, which placed Marie in a difficult position. She regarded the first official mistress, Louise Julie de Mailly, as the most hurtful because she was the first one, but she disliked Marie Anne de Mailly on a more personal level because Marie Anne was haughty and insolent. In contrast to the other official mistresses, Marie had a moderately friendly and cordial relationship to Madame de Pompadour, who always treated the Queen with deference and respect, though Marie did (unsuccessfully) oppose Pompadour's appointment as a lady-in-waiting in 1756. In contrast, Marie herself seems never to have had extramarital relations. During this time France was a powerful nation and often in conflict with Austria; the Austrian ambassador to France, Florimond Claude, Comte de Mercy-Argenteau, was said to have been romantically involved with the Queen, but this seems highly unlikely and was disregarded as court gossip.", "", "Queen Marie never managed to develop political influence. After her marriage, her appointed court consisted of a great number of followers of the Duke of Bourbon, among them Madame de Prie herself, the Duchess de Béthune, and the Marquise de Matignon, who were among her twelve ladies-in-waiting or \"dame du palais\"; the Duke's own sister, Marie Anne de Bourbon (1697–1741), became her \"Surintendante de la Maison the la Reine\" and Paris de Verney was appointed as her secretary. Cardinal de Fleury, who had been Louis's tutor, was appointed her grand almoner. Marie had been given advice by her father to always loyally stand by the Duke of Bourbon, to whom she owed her marriage and position, and it was a favor to the Duke that Marie made her first attempt to interfere in politics. On 17 December 1725, the Duke of Bourbon, Madame de Prie, and Paris de Verney attempted to banish Cardinal de Fleury through a plot. On their instruction, the queen called on the king to come to her chambers, where the Duke de Bourbon was present. The doors were locked to ensure secrecy and the duke presented the king with a report from their ambassador in Rome which blamed Fleury for the French failure in a dispute with the Pope. Bourbon asked the king if they should write a reply, which the King refused without the presence of Fleury. Meanwhile, Cardinal Fleury learned of the plot to discredit him and left the palace. The Duke and de Prie planned to use the absence of Fleury to have him confined to an abbey, and gave Marie the task of informing Louis XV that the absent Fleury wished to enter an Abbey and leave his position at court. This led to a crisis, when the king gave Bourbon the choice to either expel Madame de Prie and Paris de Verney or be removed from his post of prime minister. This incident led to Cardinal Fleury categorizing queen Marie as his opponent, and his decision to oust the ministry of the Duke of Bourbon. Cardinal Fleury warned the king that no woman should be allowed to participate in state affairs, and that listening to women's advises would lead to disaster. In June 1726, Fleury convinced the king to deprive the Duke of Bourbon of his ministry. Madame de Prie immediately enlisted the queen to speak to the king in favor of Bourbon. She protested but agreed and reportedly spoke passionately about the affair to the king, but she was unable to succeed, as the king reacted very negatively to her attempt to interfere in politics after the preparation from Fleury that women should not be allowed to participate in state affairs. They day following the fall of the Duke de Bourbon's ministry, Louis XV stated to queen Marie that he demanded of her to let herself be directed by Cardinal Fleury in the future with the words: Marie's attempt to participate in state affairs during the events of 1726 resulted in a crisis in her relationship with Louis XV, and she sought advice on how to behave from the Princess of Carignano, whom unbeknownst to her was a spy in service of Savoy. The princess' advice was that as Queen of France, it was Marie's duty was not to involve herself in political intrigues and plots, but to act as an example of virtue and piety and a role model of a \"Catholic consort of the Most Christian King\". Queen Marie accepted the advice and followed it for the rest of her life, as she was never again involved in any political activity. After the 1726 crisis and until the birth of a dauphin in 1729, Cardinal Fleury and the Princess of Carignano made long running preparations to replace Marie, preferably with Charlotte of Hesse-Rheinfels-Rotenburg, if she should die in childbirth. Marie reconciled with Cardinal Fleury, whom she kept contact with through letters and humbly entrusted to advise her how to behave in order to please the king. Fleury and Marie developed a cordial relationship, and he often granted her his support when he estimated that her request to the king was harmless; such as in 1742, when the Cardinal, on her request, persuaded the king to allow her to appoint her personal friend Amable-Gabrielle de Villars as \"Dame d'atours\". Her political activity after 1726 was limited to asking Louis XV to grant a pension or a promotion to a friend, and she often used Cardinal Fleury as a mediator to achieve this. Despite her lack of influence, she did have political views, and also some indirect political importance. During the War of the Polish Succession in 1733–1736, she supported her father's candidacy to the Polish throne, and upon her father's demand, she did her best to encourage Cardinal Fleury to support her father's candidacy, though she herself expressed to the Cardinal that she had never wished for the war and that she was an innocent cause of it because the French wished to enhance her dynastic status. After the war, her father was given the Duchy of Lorraine because he was the father-in-law of the king of France, and the Duchy became part of France after the death of her father who became Duke of Lorraine, thus making herself indirectly useful in the political arena. As a devout Catholic, queen Marie gave her passive support to the so-called Dévots party at court, supported the bishops in their conflicts with the Parliament of Paris, and expressed sympathy for the Jesuit order in their conflict with the crown. It was also a fact, that if the king should die before his son was an adult, then she would in accordance with custom have become regent of France until his 13th birthday, which made Marie a potential regent from the birth of the dauphin until his 13th-birthday, a fact which would have been well known at court.", "Queen Marie was initially not respected by the royal court, where she was regarded as low-born. Her lack of dynastic status and lack of connections left her without a political power base, and she did not manage to acquire any personal or political influence. She was not credited with any personal significance and not given much personal attention outside of her ceremonial role as queen. As queen, Marie Leszczyńska performed her ceremonial role in strict accordance with formal court etiquette and regularly and punctually fulfilled all representational duties that the court life at Versailles demanded of her. She valued the ritualized pomp and court presentations in order to increase her dignity and win the respect of the court nobility, which was necessary because she had no prestigious dynastic connections of birth and was thus initially seen as low born by them: her successor as queen, Marie Antoinette, was to ignore many of these rules, and once pointed out, that in contrast to her predecessor queen Marie Leszczyńska, it was not necessary for her to enhance her status and dignity, since her dynastic status was evident by birth, and that she could therefore afford to relax etiquette without losing respect. Marie was given an allowance of 100.000 livres for pleasure, charity and gambling, a sum which was in reality often irregularly paid and also insufficient, as she was often in debt. Though she had simple habits - her apartments at Versailles were not redecorated after 1737 - her favorite game, \"cavagnole\", often placed her in debt, and the King was normally unwilling to pay these off for her. She accepted that her courtiers were appointed because of rank rather than personal preference, and conversed politely with those who were in attendance. However, though she was careful to always fulfill her representational role, she never participated in court life outside of what was necessary to fulfill her ceremonial duties, and when they were done she preferred to retire to her private apartments with an intimate circle of friends. Among her own private friends were her \"grand almoner\" Cardinal de Luynes, Duke Charles Philippe d'Albert de Luynes and her \" Dame d'honneur\" Marie Brûlart. Her other favorite lady in waiting was her \"Dame d'atour\", Françoise de Mazarin, who supported Marie during the affair between her cousin, Louise Julie de Mailly, and the king. Marie's private circle of friends was completed with the addition of President Hénault (her \"Surintendant\" since 1753) and Comte d'Argenson, whom she had asked not to address her with her title and with whom she also consulted when she wished to have a pension or a promotion given to a protegé. Like her mother, Marie maintained a political correspondence with Margareta Gyllenstierna, the spouse of Arvid Horn, after she had made her acquaintance during her stay in Sweden. Queen Marie eventually did manage to win the respect of the court nobility by her strict adherence to court etiquette, which made her opinion at least formally important. In 1747, Voltaire was banished from the royal court through her influence. The reason were two incidents, both of which insulted the queen: During one long night of gambling, Voltaire's lover, Emilie du Chatelet, lost a fortune at the queen's gambling table, during which Voltaire whispered to her in English that she had been cheated. This was regarded as an insult to the queen, because it denounced her guests as cheats; Voltaire could have been arrested for his ill-timed remark. Shortly afterward, Voltaire wrote a poem in honor of his patron, the royal mistress Madame de Pompadour, in which he alluded to the sexual relationship between Pompadour and the king. This insulted the queen and led to the banishment of Voltaire from court. When her first daughter-in-law died in 1746, the queen, very fond and loving of her only son, opposed the selection of his next spouse, the Duchess Marie-Josèphe of Saxony, because she was the daughter of her father's rival, Frederick Augustus Wettin of Saxony, King August III of Poland. Her dislike of the match was known but ignored, as she had no dynastic connections. Initially, this issue caused some friction between the queen and her new daughter-in-law. However, the friction was soon overcome, reportedly because Marie-Josèphe was an admirer of the Queen's father. In honour of him, several of the queen's grandsons received the name Stanislaus (or Stanislas in French) at their christening. Marie played some part as a cultural patron. Marie was the benefactor of the painter Jean-Marc Nattier, whom she commissioned in 1748 to paint the last portrait she ever sat for, an unusual one as it was informal. It was a success, was printed and sold in prints. It was also her favorite portrait, which she had reproduced to give to friends. She was a great lover of music and painting and the promoter of many artists. She met the castrato Farinelli in 1737, and the young Mozart in 1764, whom she found very charming. During his visit to Versailles, she acted as an interpreter for her spouse and family who did not understand German. Her major contribution to life at Versailles was the weekly Polish choral concerts. Queen Marie maintained the role and reputation of a simple and dignified Catholic queen. She functioned as an example of Catholic piety and was famed for her generosity to the poor and needy through her philanthropy, which made her very popular among the public her entire life as queen.", "Marie Leszczyńska died on 24 June 1768 at the age of 65. She had enjoyed great popularity among the public. She was buried at the Basilica of St Denis, and her heart was entombed at the Church of Notre-Dame-de-Bonsecours in Nancy (Lorraine). |-" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Overview.", "Lines.", "Rolling stock." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Before the Korean War from 1950 to 1953, there were three tramway systems in the entire Korean Peninsula: one each in Seoul, Busan and Pyongyang. However, the system in Pyongyang was discontinued after the war, largely due to the significant destruction of the city by US/UN bombing attacks. The remaining two in Seoul and Busan survived the war but were eventually discontinued too when motorcars became more common and a larger means of transport in South Korea in 1968, thus leaving no tramway networks on the peninsula. Unlike South Korea, personal ownership of automobiles in North Korea is very rare. North Koreans, especially those living in Pyongyang and other major cities, rely mainly on government-run public transport. Also, as the limited oil supply imported into the country is mostly allocated to its military (especially exemplified under Kim Jong-il's \"Songun\" (Military-First) policy), private vehicle ownership is virtually non-existent. In Pyongyang, there are electrically-powered trolleybuses (the Pyongyang trolleybus system) and subways (the Pyongyang Metro), with these two serving as its main forms of public transport. However, as trolleybus lines became gradually overcrowded, the city decided to re-open tram-lines. The first line was finally built and opened in 1989. In the late 1990s, the city had frequent power outages due to decrepit power stations and the lack of resources. The tram lines also suffered from outages, but the situation has improved in recent years. In 2003, however, the section of Line 1 between P'yŏngyang-yŏk and Songsin was closed, as the bridge over Taedong River started to decay. In 2008, the City Transportation Company of Prague sold 20 used T3s to Pyongyang Public Transportation Enterprise together with a shipment of tram-rails. These trams were made in the late 1970s and the early 1980s. According to Ondřej Pečený, a spokesman for the City Transportation Company of Prague, these trams are in very good condition, and can run for at least two years without the need of a service. The tram cars were made by Tatra, a Czechoslovak company, during that nation's socialist era. Various types are used, but there are currently no low-floor tram cars. Foreign tourists were previously not permitted to ride the tram lines, but some recent tours have started to include tramway rides (though rides are not shared with locals and are instead chartered, unlike the Pyongyang Metro).", "There are currently four lines in operation. As of 2006, the fare is ₩5 for any section. There are also coupon tickets (; \"sinae ch'ap'yo\").", "Prior to 2018, the only rolling stock used were the Czechoslovakian ČKD Praha Tatra T6B5 and KT8D5K in typical red/white livery. The Kŭmsusan line uses VBZ Be 4/4 Type Ib rolling stock on a different gauge of 1,000 mm, rather than 1,435 mm for lines 1-3. In August 2018, following the introduction of new trolleybuses and metro cars, new partially domestically-produced tram cars were introduced in Pyongyang for the first time in decades. The cars were recently put to use along the Kwangbok (Liberation) Street line and connect to Pyongyang Station. It is unclear how many new cars have been added to the line. The new domestically-produced tram vehicles add LED destination displays but do not appear to include air-conditioning. The trams were manufactured by Pyongyang's Bus Repair Factory under the domestic Songsan brand, assembled mostly, but not entirely, with domestic parts." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and career.", "Formula One.", "1980–1984: Lotus.", "1985–1988: Williams.", "1989–1990: Ferrari.", "1991–1992: Return to Williams.", "CART IndyCar World Series.", "Brief return to Formula One.", "1994: Williams.", "1995: McLaren.", "British Touring Car Championship.", "Subsequent appearances.", "Endorsements.", "Video games.", "Personal life.", "Helmet.", "\"Red 5\".", "Awards and honours.", "Racing career results.", "Formula One World Championship results." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Nigel Ernest James Mansell was born on 8 August 1953 in Upton-upon-Severn, Worcestershire, the son of Eric, an engineer, and Joyce Mansell. He grew up in Hall Green, Birmingham. Mansell had a fairly slow start to his racing career, using his own money to help work his way up the ranks. After considerable success in kart racing, he moved to the Formula Ford series to the disapproval of his father. In 1976, Mansell won six of the nine races he took part in, including his debut event at Mallory Park. He entered 42 races the following year and won 33 to become the 1977 British Formula Ford champion, despite suffering a broken neck in a qualifying session at Brands Hatch. Doctors told him he had been perilously close to quadriplegia, that he would be confined for six months and would never drive again. Mansell discharged himself from the hospital and returned to racing. Three weeks before the accident he had resigned from his job as an aerospace engineer, having previously sold most of his personal belongings to finance his foray into Formula Ford. Later that year he was given the chance to race a Lola T570 Formula 3 car at Silverstone. He finished fourth and decided that he was ready to move into the higher formula. Mansell raced in Formula Three in 1978–1980. Mansell's first season in Formula Three started with a pole position and a second-place finish. However, the car was not competitive, as a commercial deal with Unipart required his team to use Triumph", "", "Despite Mansell being unpopular with sponsor David Thieme of Essex Petroleum, and much speculation in the press that Jean-Pierre Jarier would fill the vacancy, Chapman announced at the start of the season that the seat would be filled by Mansell. Mansell's four years as a full-time Lotus driver were a struggle, as the cars were unreliable and he was continually out-performed by teammate Elio de Angelis. Out of 59 race starts with the team, he finished just 24 of them. He managed a best finish of third place, which he achieved five times during the four years, including Lotus's fifth race of the season, and only the seventh of Mansell's Formula One career. Teammate Elio de Angelis took a surprise win at the 1982 Austrian Grand Prix, and was frequently faster than his less-experienced colleague Mansell. During the season, Mansell planned", "In Frank Williams hired Mansell to drive alongside Keke Rosberg as part of the Williams team, Mansell later saying \"We have the greatest respect for each other.\" Mansell was given the \"Red 5\" number on his car, which he carried on subsequent Williams and Newman/Haas cars and which was brought to the public's attention mainly through commentator Murray Walker for the BBC. Rosberg, the World Champion who was heading into his fourth season with the team, was initially against Williams signing Mansell based on the clash the pair had at Dallas the previous year (Rosberg won that race and in an interview while on the podium publicly berated Mansell's blocking tactics while leading early in the race, which earned Rosberg a round of boos from the crowd who had appreciated Mansell's courage in trying to push his Lotus to the finish in the extreme heat). Other factors were what Rosberg later said in a 1986 interview was second-hand information about Mansell which ultimately proved to be false. The drivers found they got along well and from early in the pre-season formed a good working and personal relationship. 1985 initially appeared to provide more of the same for Mansell, although he was closer to the pace than before, especially as the Honda engines became more competitive by mid-season. During practice for the 1985 French Grand Prix, Mansell unwillingly broke the record for the highest speed", "Mansell believed that 1989 would be a development year and that he would be able to challenge for the championship the following season. In his first appearance with the team he scored a very unlikely win in the 1989 Brazilian Grand Prix at the Autódromo Internacional Nelson Piquet in Rio de Janeiro; his least favourite track, and the home race of his bitter rival Piquet. He later joked that he had booked an early flight home for halfway through the race as he predicted the car's new electronic gearbox would last only a few laps (as it had done throughout pre-season testing and in qualifying for the race). Mansell became the first", "Mansell's return to Williams was not straightforward. He would agree to return only if a list of demands were met, including undisputed number one status over Riccardo Patrese (who had remained with the team through 1989 and 1990), guarantees of support in a wide variety of areas with each guarantee in writing, and assurances from suppliers such as Renault and Elf that they would do everything necessary to help him win. Frank Williams said the demands were 'impossible'; Mansell concluded that if that were the case he would be happy to retire. Three weeks later the impossible had happened and Mansell was a Williams driver. His second stint with Williams was even better than the first. Back in the familiar 'Red 5', he won five races in, most memorably in the Spanish Grand", "Despite being world champion, Mansell had a public disagreement with Williams. In his autobiography Mansell writes that this was because of a deal made at the previous Hungarian Grand Prix, which Williams reneged on, and the prospect of his former teammate Alain Prost, who had sat out the 1992 season, joining the Renault-powered team. Williams had neglected to tell Mansell that Prost had signed for 1993 at only the second race of the 1992 season in Mexico, a position that Mansell felt would be similar to their days together at Ferrari. To boot, Ayrton Senna had expressed a strong desire to drive for Williams and even offered to drive for them at no salary (only to later be rebuffed as Prost, whose rivalry with the Brazilian was just as intense as the one he had with Mansell, had a clause written into his contract which enabled him to block Senna's effort). Williams decided that there was little sense in paying the high fees Mansell went on to demand. With the original offer revoked, and with the premiere teams already committed to their incumbent drivers, Mansell decided to move on. An 11th hour offer was made to him at the Italian Grand Prix, but by then the damage was done; Mansell retired from F1. Mansell then signed with Newman/Haas Racing to pair with Mario Andretti in the CART series, replacing Mario's son Michael who moved to F1 and McLaren. At the season opener at", "", "In, after the CART season ended, Mansell returned to F1 and re-joined the Williams team. Since he had left it in 1993, the team had undergone some significant changes. Damon Hill had been promoted from test driver and was running full-time in one car. Prost, Mansell's replacement, won the 1993 Drivers' Championship and then retired after the season. This allowed Williams and Ayrton Senna to finally work out an agreement, and the team received a new sponsor in Rothmans International for a season in which they were expected to remain as champions. However, the car proved unreliable and tricky to handle early in the season, leading Senna to retire from the opening rounds despite claiming pole. In the third race at Imola Senna was killed in a crash on the Tamburello curve. Williams test driver David Coulthard took over Senna's seat for a number of races in 1994 and Williams got permission from", "After losing the Williams seat to David Coulthard, Mansell signed to drive for McLaren in. McLaren's title sponsors Marlboro wanted a world champion, whereas McLaren and their engine suppliers Mercedes wanted a lower-profile driver for what was their first official year back in Formula One since. Before the season started, Mansell could not fit into the narrow car and was deputised by Mark Blundell for the opening two rounds in Brazil and Argentina. Mansell's car was completed in 33 days and in time for Imola, where despite being in the top six late", "Mansell took part in the 1993 TOCA Shootout, held at Donington Park. Mansell drove a Ford Mondeo with his usual red number 5. The race ended in disaster for Mansell; he was knocked unconscious following a crash with six laps remaining. He lost control of his car through the exit of the Old Hairpin, over-corrected the slide and collided with Tiff Needell's Vauxhall Cavalier, resulting in a spin and a bad crash into the tyre wall under the bridge. Mansell made a return to racing in 1998 in the British Touring Car Championship, driving in a Ford Mondeo", "On 16 July 2005, Mansell took part in a \"Race of Legends\" exhibition event at the Norisring round of the DTM. He competed against other Formula One World Champions Jody Scheckter, Alain Prost and Emerson Fittipaldi, as well as Motorcycle Grand Prix World Champions Mick Doohan and Johnny Cecotto (himself a former F1 driver), each driver having an opportunity to drive Audi, Mercedes and Opel cars. Prost was announced as the winner by the DTM organisers. Mansell became a financial stakeholder and a driver in the new Grand Prix Masters series. Following a period of testing and developing the car, Mansell made a successful race comeback by winning the inaugural race of the series in Kyalami in November 2005 (Mansell had won at the old Kyalami circuit in 1985 and had also won at the new circuit in 1992). After the success of the race at Kyalami, four dates were scheduled for the GP Masters Series in 2006, including one at Silverstone. Mansell won the season opener at Qatar in April from pole position. The Monza round of the series was cancelled due to noise limitations at the venue, whilst technical issues quickly ruled him out of the Silverstone race. Also in 2006 he appeared at Brands Hatch, scene of his first Grand Prix win, in October 1985, driving some demonstration laps in the BMW M3 GTR that Andy Priaulx drove to victory in the 2005 24 Hours Nürburgring, as part of the World Touring Car Championship event. On the weekend of 6 May 2007 he made an appearance in the second round of the FIA GT Championship at Silverstone driving a Ferrari 430 GT2 for the Scuderia Ecosse team. He was paired with Chris Niarchos, finishing seventh in class and 21st overall. Mansell, with his son Leo, tested a Chamberlain-Synergy team Le Mans prototype Lola-AER B06/10 during the week commencing 14 July 2008, at the Estoril circuit. The pair were said to be considering a drive in the American Le Mans series, possibly commencing as soon as October 2008 in the Petit Le Mans event, although neither driver was in the final field. On 3 July 2009, Mansell tested his other son Greg's World Series by Renault car at the Silverstone Circuit, setting a best time six seconds off the pace of the fastest driver in the session. Mansell took part in the last round of the 2009 Le Mans Series, the 1000 km of Silverstone, driving Team LNT's Ginetta-Zytek GZ09S alongside his son Greg and team boss Lawrence Tomlinson. Mansell raced a Ginetta-Zytek GZ09S in the 2010 24 Hours of Le Mans, alongside his two sons. According to the BBC, this was the first time a father has raced at Le Mans in the same car as his two sons. However, in the race he crashed going 240 mph after only five laps, following a tire puncture. Reports at the time indicated that he had suffered a concussion, but Mansell later revealed that the accident left him unable to talk or recognize his wife and children. To recover, he took up magic in order to “get [his] brain to work in different ways.” Since taking up the hobby, Mansell has become a member of the Magic Circle and gone on to perform around the world. For the 2010 Formula One season, the Sporting Regulations were changed so that a former driver sits on the stewards' panel. Mansell took this role at the 2010, 2011 and 2012 British Grands Prix.", "On 1 October 2009 Nigel appeared as the 'Face of Euronics'. In 2010, Nigel paired with Iranian-British comic Omid", "There were three video games endorsed by Mansell: \"Nigel Mansell's Grand Prix\" (1988, Martech), \"Nigel", "Mansell has been married to Roseanne since 1975 after meeting as students. He lived in Port Erin on the Isle of Man during most of his F1 career until 1995. Mansell currently lives in Jersey, Channel Islands. He spent 11 years of his life as a Special Constable on the Isle of Man during his driving career, and in Devon after he retired from racing. During this period, he", "Mansell raced with a blue helmet with two red and white arrows on each side forming on the front a drawing resembling the Union Flag with the upper angles of the arrows united by a red and white 'U' with the white chin area, when he entered Williams, a blue ring was added on the white part of the helmet. His sons Leo and Greg inherited his helmet design, but Leo's helmet has the red chin area and the white part that envelops the visor (not counting the top) is red with white outline, while Greg's helmet has the blue chin area and the white area that envelopes the visor is blue with white outline.", "Although teams in motor racing series are generally allocated numbers, Mansell has been associated with the number 5 for many years. This began when he joined Williams in 1985 and was allocated car number 5, as at the time Formula One racing numbers were allocated by constructor and Williams received numbers 5 and 6. For the first four races of the 1985 season, both Williams cars had white numbers, but from a distance the numerals \"5\" and \"6\" resembled each other. As a consequence, it was decided to give Mansell's car a red number to make it more distinctive. While this was initially just for recognition, BBC F1 commentator Murray Walker began describing Mansell's car as \"Red Five\", leading to Mansell retaining the red coloured", "Mansell was awarded the title of BBC Sports Personality of the Year in both 1986 and 1992. Only three other people have won the award twice, one of whom being fellow racing driver and former F1 World Champion Damon Hill. Mansell was inducted into the International Motorsports Hall of Fame in 2005. Mansell won the Hawthorn Memorial Trophy, an award for the leading British or Commonwealth driver in", "", "Driver did not finish the Grand Prix," ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early years in racing.", "Ferrari (1974–1977).", "1976 Nürburgring crash.", "Return to racing.", "Brabham and first retirement (1978–1979).", "McLaren comeback, third world title, and second retirement (1982–1985).", "Helmet.", "Later management roles.", "Roles beyond Formula One.", "Film and television.", "Personal life.", "Death and legacy.", "External links." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Niki Lauda was born on 22 February 1949 in Vienna, Austria, to a wealthy paper manufacturing family. His paternal grandfather was the Viennese-born industrialist Hans Lauda. Lauda became a racing driver despite his family's disapproval. After starting out with a Mini, Lauda moved on into Formula Vee, as was normal in Central Europe, but rapidly moved up to drive in private Porsche and Chevron sports cars. With his career stalled, he took out a £30,000 bank loan, secured by a life insurance policy, to buy his way into the fledgling March team as a Formula Two (F2) driver in 1971. Because of his family's disapproval he had an ongoing feud with them over his racing ambitions and abandoned further contact. Lauda was quickly promoted to the F1 team, but drove for March in F1 and F2 in 1972. Although the F2 cars were good (and Lauda's driving skills impressed March principal Robin Herd), March's 1972 F1 season was catastrophic. Perhaps the lowest point of the team's season came at the Canadian Grand Prix at Mosport Park, where both March cars were disqualified within 3 laps of each other after just past 3/4 race distance. Lauda took out another bank loan to buy his way into the BRM team in 1973. Lauda was instantly quick, but the team was in decline; although the BRM P160E was quick and easy to drive it was not reliable and its engine lacked power. Lauda’s big break came after he ran 3rd at the Monaco Grand Prix that year, and Enzo Ferrari became interested. When his BRM teammate Clay Regazzoni left to rejoin Ferrari in 1974 and team owner Enzo Ferrari asked him what he thought of Lauda. Regazzoni spoke so favourably of Lauda that Ferrari promptly signed him, paying him enough to clear his debts.", "After an unsuccessful start to the 1970s culminating in a disastrous start to the 1973 season, Ferrari regrouped completely under Luca di Montezemolo and were resurgent in 1974. The team's faith in the little-known Lauda was quickly rewarded by a second-place finish in his debut race for the team, the season-opening Argentine Grand Prix. His first Grand Prix (GP) victory – and the first for Ferrari since 1972 – followed only three races later in the Spanish Grand Prix. Although Lauda became the season's pacesetter, achieving six consecutive pole positions, a mixture of inexperience and mechanical unreliability meant Lauda won only one more race that year, the Dutch GP. He finished fourth in the Drivers' Championship and demonstrated immense commitment to testing and improving the car. The 1975 F1 season started slowly for Lauda; after no better than a fifth-place finish in the first four races, he won four of the next five driving the new Ferrari 312T. His first World Championship was confirmed with a third-place finish at the Italian Grand Prix at Monza; Lauda's teammate Regazzoni won the race and Ferrari clinched their first Constructors' Championship in 11 years; Lauda then picked up a fifth win at the last race of the year, the United States GP at Watkins Glen. He also became the first driver to lap the Nürburgring Nordschleife in under seven minutes, which was considered a huge feat as the Nordschleife section of the Nürburgring was two miles longer than it is today. Lauda did not win the German Grand Prix from pole position there that year; after battling hard with Patrick Depailler for the lead for the first half of the race, Lauda led for the first 9 laps but suffered a puncture at the Wippermann 9 miles into the 10th lap and was passed by Carlos Reutemann, James Hunt, Tom Pryce and Jacques Laffite; Lauda made it back to the pits with a damaged front wing and a destroyed left front tyre. The Ferrari pit changed the destroyed tyre and Lauda managed to make it to the podium in 3rd behind Reutemann and Laffite after Hunt retired and Pryce had to slow down because of a fuel leak. Lauda was known for giving away any trophies he won to his local garage in exchange for his car to be washed and serviced. Unlike 1975 and despite tensions between Lauda and Montezemolo's successor, Daniele Audetto, Lauda dominated the start of the 1976 F1 season, winning four of the first six races and finishing second in the other two. By the time of his fifth win of the year at the British GP, he had more than double the points of his closest challengers Jody Scheckter and James Hunt, and a second consecutive World Championship appeared a formality. It would be a feat not achieved since Jack Brabham's victories in 1959 and 1960. He also looked set to win the most races in a season, a record held by the late Jim Clark since 1963.", "A week before the 1976 German Grand Prix at the Nürburgring, even though he was the fastest driver on that circuit at the time, Lauda urged his fellow drivers to boycott the race, largely because of the circuit's safety arrangements, citing the organisers' lack of resources to properly manage such a huge circuit, including lack of fire marshals, fire and safety equipment and safety vehicles. Formula One was quite dangerous at the time (three of the drivers that day would later die in Formula One incidents: Tom Pryce in 1977; Ronnie Peterson in 1978; and Patrick Depailler in 1980), but a majority of the drivers voted against the boycott and the race went ahead. On 1 August 1976 during the second lap at the very fast left kink before Bergwerk, Lauda was involved in an accident where his Ferrari swerved off the track, hit an embankment, burst into flames, and made contact with Brett Lunger's Surtees-Ford car. Unlike Lunger, Lauda was trapped in the wreckage. Drivers Arturo Merzario, Lunger, Guy Edwards, and Harald Ertl arrived at the scene a few moments later, but before Merzario was able to pull Lauda from his car, he suffered severe burns to his head and inhaled hot toxic gases that damaged his lungs and blood. In an interview with BBC Radio 5 Live (\"I Was There -- May 21, 2019\"; \"Niki Lauda speaks in 2015\"), Lauda said, \"...there were basically two or three drivers trying to get me out of the car, but one was Arturo Merzario, the Italian guy, who also had to stop there at the scene, because I blocked the road; and he really came into the car himself, and uh, triggered my, my seatbelt loose, and then pulled me out. It was unbelievable, how he could do that, and I met him afterwards, and I said, 'How could you do it?!'. He said, 'Honestly, I do not know, but to open your seatbelt was so difficult, because you were pushing so hard against it, and when it was open, I got you out of the car like a feather...'.\" As Lauda was wearing a modified helmet because it didn't fit him properly, the foam had compressed and it slid off his head after the accident, leaving his face exposed to the fire. Although Lauda was conscious and able to stand immediately after the accident, he later lapsed into a coma. While in hospital he was given the last rites, but survived. Lauda suffered extensive scarring from the burns to his head, losing most of his right ear as well as the hair on the right side of his head, his eyebrows, and his eyelids. He chose to limit reconstructive surgery to replacing the eyelids and getting them to work properly. After the accident he always wore a cap to cover the scars on his head. He arranged for sponsors to use the cap for advertising. With Lauda out of the contest, Carlos Reutemann was taken on as his replacement. Ferrari boycotted the Austrian Grand Prix in protest at what they saw as preferential treatment shown towards McLaren driver James Hunt at the Spanish and British Grands Prix.", "Lauda missed only two races, appearing at the Monza press conference six weeks after the accident with his fresh burns still bandaged. He finished fourth in the Italian GP, despite being, by his own admission, absolutely petrified. F1 journalist Nigel Roebuck recalls seeing Lauda in the pits, peeling the blood-soaked bandages off his scarred scalp. He also had to wear a specially adapted crash helmet so as to not be in too much discomfort. In Lauda's absence, Hunt had mounted a late charge to reduce Lauda's lead in the World Championship standings. Hunt and Lauda were friends away from the circuit, and their personal on-track rivalry, while intense, was cleanly contested and fair. Following wins in the Canadian and United States Grands Prix, Hunt stood only three points behind Lauda before the final race of the season, the Japanese Grand Prix. Lauda qualified third, one place behind Hunt, but on race day there was torrential rain and Lauda retired after two laps. He later said that he felt it was unsafe to continue under these conditions, especially since his eyes were watering excessively because of his fire-damaged tear ducts and inability to blink. Hunt led much of the race before his tires blistered and a pit stop dropped him down the order. He recovered to third, thus winning the title by a single point. Lauda's previously good relationship with Ferrari was severely affected by his decision to withdraw from the Japanese Grand Prix, and he endured a difficult 1977 season, despite easily winning the championship through consistency rather than outright pace. Lauda disliked his new teammate, Reutemann, who had served as his replacement driver. Lauda was not comfortable with this move and felt he had been let down by Ferrari. \"We never could stand each other, and instead of taking pressure off me, they put on even more by bringing Carlos Reutemann into the team.\" Having announced his decision to quit Ferrari at season's end, Lauda left earlier after he won the Drivers' Championship at the United States Grand Prix because of the team's decision to run the unknown Gilles Villeneuve in a third car at the Canadian Grand Prix.", "Joining Parmalat-sponsored Brabham-Alfa Romeo in 1978 for a $1 million salary, Lauda endured two unsuccessful seasons, remembered mainly for his one race in the Brabham BT46B, a radical design known as the Fan Car: it won its first and only race at the Swedish GP, but Brabham did not use the car in F1 again; other teams vigorously protested the fan car's legality and Brabham team owner Bernie Ecclestone, who at the time was maneuvering for acquisition of Formula One's commercial rights, did not want to fight a protracted battle over the car, but the victory in Sweden remained official. The Brabham BT46 Alfa Romeo flat-12 began the 1978 season at the third race in South Africa. It suffered from a variety of troubles that forced Lauda to retire the car 9 out of 14 races. Lauda's best results, apart from the wins in Sweden and Italy after the penalization of Mario Andretti and Gilles Villeneuve, were 2nd in Monaco and Great Britain, and a 3rd in the Netherlands. The Alfa flat-12 engine was too wide for ground effect designs in that the opposed cylinder banks impeded with the venturi tunnels, so Alfa designed a V12 for 1979. It was the fourth 12-cylinder engine design that propelled the Austrian in F1 since 1973. Lauda's 1979 F1 season was again marred by retirements and poor pace, even though he won the non-championship 1979 Dino Ferrari Grand Prix with the Brabham-Alfa. In the single make BMW M1 Procar Championship, driving for the British Formula Two team Project Four Racing (led by Ron Dennis) when not in a factory entry, Lauda won three races for P4 plus the series. Decades later, Lauda won a BMW Procar exhibition race event before the 2008 German Grand Prix. In September, Lauda finished 4th in Monza, and won the non-WC Imola event, still with the Alfa V12 engine. After that, Brabham returned to the familiar Cosworth V8. In late September, during practice for the 1979 Canadian Grand Prix, Lauda cut short a practice session and promptly informed team principal Ecclestone, that he wished to retire immediately, as he had no more desire to \"continue the silliness of driving around in circles\". Lauda, who in the meantime had founded Lauda Air, a charter airline, returned to Austria to run the company full-time.", "In 1982 Lauda returned to racing, for an unprecedented $3 million salary. After a successful test with McLaren, the only problem was to convince then team sponsor Marlboro that he was still capable of winning. Lauda proved he was when, in his third race back, he won the Long Beach Grand Prix. Before the opening race of the season at Kyalami race track in South Africa, Lauda was the organiser of the so-called \"drivers' strike\"; Lauda had seen that the new Super Licence required the drivers to commit themselves to their present teams and realised that this could hinder a driver's negotiating position. The drivers, with the exception of Teo Fabi, barricaded themselves in a banqueting suite at Sunnyside Park Hotel until they had won the day. The 1983 season proved to be transitional for the McLaren team as they were making a change from Ford-Cosworth power to TAG-badged Porsche turbo power, and Lauda did not win a race that year, with his best finish being 2nd at Long Beach behind his teammate John Watson. Some political maneuvering by Lauda forced a furious chief designer John Barnard to design an interim car earlier than expected to get the TAG-Porsche engine some much needed race testing; Lauda nearly won the last race of the season in South Africa. Lauda won a third world championship in 1984 by half a point over teammate Alain Prost, due only to half points being awarded for the shortened 1984 Monaco Grand Prix. His Austrian Grand Prix victory that year is so far the only time an Austrian has won his home Grand Prix. Initially, Lauda did not want Prost to become his teammate, as he presented a much faster rival. However, during the two seasons together, they had a good relationship and Lauda later said that beating the talented Frenchman was a big motivator for him. The whole season continued to be dominated by Lauda and Prost, who won 12 of 16 races. Lauda won five races, while Prost won seven. However, Lauda, who set a record for the most pole positions in a season during the 1975 season, rarely matched his teammate in qualifying. Despite this, Lauda's championship win came in Portugal, when he had to start in eleventh place on the grid, while Prost qualified on the front row. Prost did everything he could, starting from second and winning his 7th race of the season, but Lauda's calculating drive (which included setting the fastest race lap), passing car after car, saw him finish second behind his teammate which gave him enough points to win his third title. His second place was a lucky one though as Nigel Mansell was in second for much of the race. However, as it was his last race with Lotus before joining Williams in 1985, Lotus boss Peter Warr refused to give Mansell the brakes he wanted for his car and the Englishman retired with brake failure on lap 52. As Lauda had passed the Toleman of F1 rookie Ayrton Senna for third place only a few laps earlier, Mansell's retirement elevated him to second behind Prost. The 1985 season was a disappointment for Lauda, with eleven retirements from the fourteen races he started. He did not start the Belgian Grand Prix at Spa-Francorchamps after crashing and breaking his wrist during practice, and he later missed the European Grand Prix at Brands Hatch; John Watson replaced him for that race. He did manage 4th at the San Marino Grand Prix, 5th at the German Grand Prix, and a single race win at the Dutch Grand Prix where he held off a fast finishing Prost late in the race. This proved to be his last Grand Prix victory and also the last Formula One Grand Prix held in the Netherlands. After announcing his impending retirement at the 1985 Austrian Grand Prix, he retired for good at the end of that season. Lauda's final Formula One Grand Prix drive was the inaugural Australian Grand Prix in Adelaide, South Australia. After qualifying 16th, a steady drive saw him leading by lap 53. However, the McLaren's ceramic brakes suffered on the street circuit and he crashed out of the lead at the end of the long Brabham Straight on lap 57 when his brakes finally failed. He was one of only two drivers in the race who had driven in the non-championship 1984 Australian Grand Prix, the other being World Champion Keke Rosberg, who won in Adelaide in 1985 and would take Lauda's place at McLaren in 1986.", "Lauda's helmet was originally a plain red with his full name written on both sides and the Raiffeisen Bank logo in the chin area. He wore a modified AGV helmet in the weeks following his Nürburgring accident so as the lining would not aggravate his burned scalp too badly. In 1982, upon his return to McLaren, his helmet was white and featured the red \"L\" logo of Lauda Air instead of his name on both sides, complete with branding from his personal sponsor Parmalat on the top. From 1983–1985, the red and white were reversed to evoke memories of his earlier helmet design.", "In 1993 Lauda returned to Formula One in a managerial position when Luca di Montezemolo offered him a consulting role at Ferrari. Halfway through the 2001 season Lauda assumed the role of team principal of the Jaguar Formula One team. The team, however, failed to improve and Lauda was made redundant, together with 70 other key figures, at the end of 2002. In September 2012 he was appointed non-executive chairman of the Mercedes AMG Petronas F1 Team. He took part in negotiations to sign Lewis Hamilton to a three-year deal with Mercedes.", "Lauda returned to running his airline, Lauda Air, on his second Formula One retirement in 1985. During his time as airline manager, he was appointed consultant at Ferrari as part of an effort by Montezemolo to rejuvenate the team. After selling his Lauda Air shares to majority partner Austrian Airlines in 1999, he managed the Jaguar Formula One racing team from 2001 to 2002. In late 2003, he started a new airline, Niki. Similar to Lauda Air, Niki was merged with its major partner Air Berlin in 2011. In early 2016, Lauda took over chartered airline Amira Air and renamed the company LaudaMotion. As a result of Air Berlin's insolvency in 2017, LaudaMotion took over the Niki brand and asset after an unsuccessful bid by Lufthansa and IAG. Lauda held a commercial pilot's licence and from time to time acted as a captain on the flights of his airline. He was inducted into the International Motorsports Hall of Fame in 1993 and from 1996 provided commentary on Grands Prix for Austrian and German television on RTL. He was, however, criticized for calling Robert Kubica a \"polacke\" (an ethnic slur for Polish people). It happened on air in May 2010 at the Monaco Grand Prix. Lauda is sometimes known by the nickname \"the rat\", \"SuperRat\" or \"King Rat\" because of his prominent buck teeth. He was associated with both Parmalat and Viessmann, sponsoring the ever-present cap he wore from 1976 to hide the severe burns he sustained in his Nurburgring accident. Lauda said in a 2009 interview with the German newspaper \"Die Zeit\" that an advertiser was paying €1.2m for the space on his red cap. In 2005 the Austrian post office issued a stamp honouring him. In 2008, American sports television network ESPN ranked him 22nd on their top drivers of all-time. Niki Lauda wrote five books: \"The Art and Science of Grand Prix Driving\" (titled \"Formula 1: The Art and Technicalities of Grand Prix Driving\" in some markets) (1975); \"My Years With Ferrari\" (1978); \"The New Formula One: A Turbo Age\" (1984); \"Meine Story\" (titled \"To Hell and Back\" in some markets) (1986); \"Das dritte Leben\" (en. \"The third life\") (1996). Lauda credited Austrian journalist Herbert Volker with editing the books.", "The 1976 F1 battle between Niki Lauda and James Hunt was dramatized in the film \"Rush\" (2013), where Lauda was played by Daniel Brühl. Lauda made a cameo appearance at the end of the film. Lauda said of Hunt's death, \"When I heard he'd died age 45 of a heart attack I wasn't surprised, I was just sad.\" He also said that Hunt was one of the very few he liked, a smaller number of people he respected and the only person he had envied. Lauda appeared in an episode of \"Mayday\" titled \"Niki Lauda: Testing the Limits\" regarding the events of Lauda Air Flight 004.", "The name of his mother is Elisabeth. Lauda had two sons with first wife Marlene Knaus (married 1976, divorced 1991): Mathias, a race driver himself, and Lukas, who acted as Mathias's manager. In 2008 he married Birgit Wetzinger, a flight attendant for his airline. In 2005, she donated a kidney to Lauda when the kidney he received from his brother in 1997 failed. In September 2009, Birgit gave birth to twins. On 2 August 2018 it was announced that Lauda had successfully undergone a lung transplant operation in his native Austria. Lauda spoke fluent Austrian German, English, and Italian. Lauda came from a Roman Catholic family. In an interview with \"Zeit\" he stated that he left the church for a time to avoid paying church taxes, but went back when he had his two children baptised.", "On 20 May 2019, Lauda died in his sleep, aged 70, at the University Hospital of Zürich, where he had been undergoing dialysis treatment for kidney problems, following a period of ill health. A statement issued on behalf of his family reported that he had died peacefully, surrounded by family members. Various current and former drivers and teams paid tributes on social media and during the Wednesday press conference session before the 2019 Monaco Grand Prix. A moment of silence was held before the race. Throughout the weekend, fans and drivers were encouraged to wear red caps in his honour, with the Mercedes team painting their halo device red with a sticker stating \"Niki we miss you\" instead of their usual silver scheme. His funeral, at St. Stephen's Cathedral in Vienna, was attended by many prominent Formula One figures, including Lewis Hamilton, David Coulthard, Nico Rosberg, Alain Prost, Valtteri Bottas, Nelson Piquet, Gerhard Berger, Jean Alesi and Jackie Stewart, along with Austrian politicians Arnold Schwarzenegger and Alexander van der Bellen among others.", "" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and career.", "Formula One.", "Brabham (1978–85).", "1979.", "1980.", "1981.", "1982.", "1983.", "1984.", "1985.", "Williams (1986–87).", "1986.", "1987.", "Lotus (1988–89).", "1988.", "1989.", "Benetton (1990–91).", "1990.", "1991.", "Other racing ventures.", "Indianapolis 500.", "Sports cars.", "Driver management.", "Business ventures.", "Personal life.", "Helmet.", "Criticism.", "Racing record.", "Complete Formula One results." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Piquet was born 17 August 1952, in Rio de Janeiro, then the capital of Brazil, the son of Estácio Gonçalves Souto Maior (1913–1974), a Brazilian physician. His father moved his family to the new capital, Brasília, in 1960 and became Minister for Health in João Goulart's government (1961–64). Piquet had two brothers, Alexis, and Geraldo, and a sister Genusa. Piquet was the youngest of the children. Piquet started kart racing at the age of 14, but because his father did not approve of his racing career, he used his mother's maiden name Piquet (of French origin and pronounced as \"Pee-Ké\") misspelt as Piket to hide his identity. His father wanted Piquet to be a professional tennis player and was given a scholarship at a school in Atlanta. Piquet", "Piquet made his Formula One debut for Ensign in Germany, starting 21st only to retire on lap 31 with a broken engine. After the race, Piquet drove a McLaren of BS Fabrications in the next three races, where he left good impressions. The deal was negotiated when BS Fabrications employees met Piquet when he was driving at Brands Hatch. His best finish was ninth in Italy.", "For the last race in 1978, Piquet moved to the Brabham team; he qualified in 14th and finished 11th. Piquet stayed with Brabham until 1985.", "In 1979, Piquet competed in his first full season in Formula One. He once again drove for the Brabham team, alongside double world champion, Niki Lauda. The season was difficult for the team, which was accustomed to success. Piquet retired from eleven of the fifteen races in the season. He started off his season being involved in a first-lap pile up and getting injured at the Argentine Grand Prix in Buenos Aires and crashing into Clay Regazzoni's Williams car at the Brazilian Grand Prix at Interlagos. The first points of his career came at the Dutch Grand Prix, where he finished fourth. He had", "In 1980, Piquet finished a hard-fought 2nd in Argentina behind Alan Jones; the race was held in very hot conditions on a disintegrating track. There were doubts about the legality of the car as it was believed to be underweight. Jones went to see the car which gave the suspicion that ballast had been added to bring the car within the regulations to make it legal. Piquet took his first win at the United States Grand Prix West", "The season began with the revokation of the South African Grand Prix's status as an FIA-sanctioned event due to the ongoing FISA–FOCA war. With the FISA teams boycotting the race, the FOCA teams staged a non-championship race there in South Africa held in wet conditions which was won by Carlos Reutemann with Piquet second. FISA and FOCA reached an agreement banning movable skirts and requiring a minimum ground clearance, excluding the tires, of 6 cm. After a third place in the United States Grand Prix West, Piquet qualified on pole position", "The following year, Piquet was fast but his car proved to be unreliable despite Brabham entering into an alliance with BMW to supply the team with turbocharged engines. Aside from the first Grand Prix in South Africa Brabham started the season using the Ford-Cosworth engined BT49D. Piquet won the Brazilian Grand Prix in Rio de Janeiro; the extreme heat and immense adhesion of the cars meant that Piquet and other drivers suffered from exhaustion; Piquet fainted while collecting his trophy on the podium. Piquet was later disqualified for his car being underweight from a protest from Renault and", "Piquet won the opening race in Brazil in the arrow-shaped BT52 and followed this up with a retirement in the United States West Grand Prix. He scored a second place in France and took another second at Monaco also taking the fastest lap. He was 14 points", "With the new rule that limited the capacity of the tanks of the cars to 220 liters and forbade race refueling, Piquet started as the title favorite because it was thought that the 4-cylinder BMW would suffer less from the new fuel economy requirement than the 6-cylinder competition. The winter tests seemed to confirm the expectations, and in fact the car showed promise, but the expected results never materialised. The only good thing that came from the tests was the creation of special qualifying engines, which produced more than 900 hp and allowed Piquet to match what was then the record for pole positions in a year: nine, already held by Lauda", "Prior to the season, Piquet and Brabham conducted their winter testing at the Kyalami circuit in South Africa, along with the team's new tyre supplier Pirelli. It was through this testing that Pirelli came up with the tyre compounds they would use during the season. Unfortunately, unlike the hot conditions in South Africa, most of the European part of the season took place in unseasonably cold weather. This, and the Brabham BT54's weight distribution towards the back of the car saw the Pirelli tyres (especially the fronts) largely ineffective and left Piquet often fast, but ultimately uncompetitive. In 1985, Piquet won a single race, the French", "", "A move in to Williams saw Piquet becoming the teammate of one of his fiercest rivals, Nigel Mansell. It was reported that Honda were paying the bulk of his US$3.3 million contract. When Piquet had signed for Williams at 1985 Austrian Grand Prix, Piquet did not regard Mansell as a serious threat, as the Briton had not won a race yet in his fifth year in Formula One (and would win his first race a month later). Piquet had underestimated Mansell, and the Englishman came out of 1985 on a confidence high after winning 2 of the last 3 races in 1985. Both were regarded as high-strung characters with delicate temperaments, and two top drivers in the same team was a recipe for fireworks – and sure enough Mansell and Piquet went head to head for the title. Piquet had wanted to play the role as the number one driver. According to Piquet, the verbal agreement with Frank Williams on this point was clear, and Williams's comment that in signing Piquet he had \"signed the best driver", "Piquet made amends in, using political maneuvering and technical skill to gain the upper hand. He was also a very good testing and development driver, and was able to develop the Williams car further to make it even more competitive. At times during the season, the rift between himself and Mansell was evident, as Mansell was showing superior speed in qualifying and races. Piquet had also admitted to \"not ever being quite right\" after his qualifying crash for Round 2 at Imola. He was ordered by FISA's medical chief, Prof. Sid Watkins, not to race due to the concussion he suffered when his Williams hit the wall at high speed at the Tamburello curve. He was offered by RAI to join Mario Poltronieri and Clay Regazzoni to comment on the race. Piquet, who had maintained friendly relations within the commentary box,", "", "Nelson Piquet and the number 1 went to a stagnating Lotus team in, and his career took a nose dive despite the Camel sponsored Lotus 100T having the same specification Honda V6 turbo that powered the McLarens of Ayrton Senna and Alain Prost. Nelson, who had 20 wins and 3 World Championships following the 1987 season, began to lose his reputation when he had no wins in 1988, losing his number one status to fellow Brazilian Senna, who won 8 races and the championship for McLaren (Prost won 7 races, while Piquet could only manage three 3rd-place finishes for the season). In early 1988 he resorted to using the media to attack his rivals and gained a reputation", "Piquet had a dismal 1989 season, driving a Judd V8-powered Lotus which had 125 less hp than the Honda V10s used by McLaren. He (and teammate Satoru Nakajima) once again had no wins and they both even failed to qualify for the 1989 Belgian Grand Prix, Piquet's first non-qualification since the 1982 Detroit Grand Prix. On what was his last attempt to qualify at Spa, Piquet lost his chance when he was slowed by rookie Frenchman Olivier Grouillard, who had gained a reputation throughout the season as a blocker.", "", "When Lotus informed Piquet during 1989 that they would be using the Lamborghini V12 engine for, he decided to leave the team claiming that there had not been enough development of the V12 during its debut year with Larrousse in 1989 and that the team would be uncompetitive using the Italian engine. The late season announcement by Lotus meant that there were almost no seats left with one of the top teams (McLaren, Ferrari and Williams), leaving Piquet with the unenviable possibility of not having a drive for 1990. However, the Benetton team had a seat become available when they decided not to retain fill-in driver Emanuele Pirro. After two lacklustre seasons at Lotus, Piquet was forced to sign an incentive based payment-by-results deal with Benetton, who had exclusive use of the factory Ford HB4 V8 engine. This saw Piquet", "This was followed by the final win of his F1 career at Montreal in – again at the expense of longtime rival Mansell, whose Williams-Renault stalled past the old pits on the last lap while leading. In late 1991, Piquet's teammate Roberto Moreno was replaced by Michael Schumacher, who remained for the rest of the season. He had talked to the Ligier and Ferrari teams about securing a drive, but Piquet then announced his retirement from Formula One in January 1992 to concentrate on his business activities.", "", "Piquet attempted to race in the Indy car series and was hired by Team Menard to drive in the 1992 Indianapolis 500. He had taken to the track well, and appeared comfortable driving at high speeds despite never before racing on an oval. During practice, Piquet's car ran over a metallic piece", "Alongside Formula One, Piquet took part in the 1000km Nürburgring in 1980 and 1981 driving a BMW M1. He won the 1981 race alongside the German Hans-Joachim Stuck. However, the race had to be stopped roughly two hours in because of the fatal crash of Herbert Müller after 17 laps of the 14-mile (23 km) course. In 1996, Piquet competed in the Le Mans 24 Hours driving a McLaren F1 GTR alongside Johnny Cecotto and Danny Sullivan,", "Since 2000, he has supported the career of his son, Nelson Piquet, Jr., who drove in the F1-feeder category GP2 for 2 seasons, achieving a best championship result of second with four race wins, and was a", "Upon leaving motor sport, he founded Autotrac in 1994, a company that provides mobile data messaging and tracking of customers' trucks by satellite (GPS tracking). This business concluded quite successfully as the pioneer because", "Known as a practical joker, Piquet lived a stereotypically playboy racing driver lifestyle, earning and losing and earning again a series of small fortunes in his business dealings. He remains a competitive driver in sports car racing, albeit more for fun than with serious intent. Never a fan of street circuits (save for Adelaide in Australia), he was critical of the Monaco Grand Prix by famously stating Monaco was like \"riding a bicycle around your living room\", but that \"a win there was worth two anywhere else\". Piquet entered into a first marriage with Brazilian Maria Clara in 1976 with the marriage lasting for one year. They have one son, Geraldo Piquet (born 17 November 1977). His second marriage to the Dutchwoman Sylvia Tamsma (who had previously dated Elio de Angelis) produced three children, Nelson Angelo Piquet (born 25 July 1985), Julia Piquet (born 8 May 1992), and Kelly Piquet (born 7 December 1988). Laszlo Piquet was born in 1987, but his mother is Katherine Valentin (Piquet's girlfriend while he was temporarily separated from Sylvia). He is currently married to Brazilian Vivianne de Souza Leão and they have two children, Pedro Estacio Piquet (born 1998) and Marco Piquet (born 2000). Piquet's daughter Kelly was in a relationship with Russian F1 driver Daniil Kvyat, with whom she had", "Piquet's helmet is white and red with a thick line resembling the seam on a tennis ball (possibly due to his father wanting him to be a tennis player), and teardrop shapes filling in", "Piquet was also not above ungentlemanly behaviour, in 1988 he made extremely unkind comments about rival Nigel Mansell calling him an \"uneducated blockhead\"", "", "Did not finish, but was classified" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Statistics.", "Technical parameters.", "Velorex sidecars.", "\"New Velorex\"." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Beginning in 1936, two brothers František (1914 - 1954) and Mojmír (1924-2011) Stránský, the owners of a bicycle repair shop in the village of Parník near Česká Třebová, began the design of a small, cheap three-wheeled car, inspired by three-wheelers from Morgan Motor Company. In 1943, they built their first prototype using steel tubing wrapped by dural sheet metal and some bicycle parts (later these would be replaced by parts from motorcycles). They named the vehicle Oskar (\"kára na ose,\" or \"car on axle\"). In 1945, the brothers built their first batch of cars, using leather cloth instead of sheet metal as the bodywork. Three vehicles were powered by ČZ motorcycle engines, three with, PAL engines and six with Jawa units. The price was about a quarter of the cost of a typical car. The post-war Czechoslovakian auto industry was unable to meet popular demand for vehicles, resulting in long waiting periods and quotas. Several models of small cars had been built either by amateurs or in small runs (e.g., Kreibich, TRIGA Tripolino, JAB). In 1950, the Stránský's workshop was transferred to Velo, a small manufacturing company in Hradec Králové, later renamed to Velorex. In 1951, the machinery and six workers were moved into a new plant in Solnice. During that year, 120 Oskar 54 vehicles were produced; a year later, 180; and in 1954, eighty workers produced 40 vehicles per month. On January 21, 1954, František Stránský died when a test prototype crashed. His brother, Mojmír, refused membership in the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia and was fired. In 1956, the vehicle's name was changed to Velorex - Oskar and then just to Velorex. In 1959 the company produced 120 vehicles per month. In 1961 part of the production moved into a new plant in Rychnov nad Kněžnou. The maximum speed of the car was 30 km/h. In 1963, production of the newly designed \"Model 16\" started (fitted with either ČZ 175 or Jawa 350 type 572 engines); and the model was modernized again in 1968. In 1971, production of three-wheeled cars stopped, and the company switched to production of a four-wheeler, the \"Model 435-0\", which featured the Jawa 350 type 572 - 04 engine. Problems in design and manufacturing, as well as the inability to compete with higher-category cars (including the cheap Trabants), made the four-wheeler a commercial failure, and its production was stopped in 1973. Plans to produce a small car similar to Fiat 500 or a rickshaw-like truck did not materialize. Spare parts for Velorex vehicles were first produced in the Solnice plant, and then in Rychnov nad Kněžnou after 1975. In the mid-1980s, India tried to obtain a license to produce the three-wheelers; the deal failed because the original tooling no longer existed.", "About half of the production was exported to Eastern Bloc countries (Hungary, Poland, Bulgaria, East Germany) - 7,540 vehicles in total. In Czechoslovakia, the demand exceeded the supply and the new cars were sold only to the disabled after thorough examination by an official commission. Part of the production was allocated to companies and organizations. As of 1996, 62.5% of the three-wheelers sold in Czechoslovakia were still registered. As of 2006 the vehicle can be still seen occasionally and it has obtained cult-like status among its owners. Several Velorex clubs exist in the Czech Republic. Rallies are regularly organized in Boskovice (last in 2007) and in Lipnice nad Sázavou, inside the Lipnice Castle. Until 2000 only the motorcycle driving license (A) was required, afterwards the B1 license (car from age of 17).", "Velorex was built on a frame of welded steel tubing, with bodywork consisting of vinyl (called \"Igelit\") stretched over the cage and attached by turnbutton fasteners. Like most of other three-wheeler types Velorex had two wheels in the front and one wheel at the back.", "Demand for motorcycle and sidecar combinations in the Soviet Union brought a requirement for Jawa to build a motorcycle capable of pulling a sidecar and Velorex to build a sidecar for it. In response, Jawa built their 354 motorcycle with enough strength and power for sidecar use, and Velorex built the Type 560 sidecar. In 1974, Jawa built the 350cc Type 634 motorcycle, which was designed even more specifically for use in a sidecar combination in the Soviet Union. The Jawa Type 634 produced 28 BHP @ 5,252 RPM and an impressive 38 Foot / Pounds of Torque @ 3,800 RPM, equal to the original 750cc Triumph Boneville. The electrics were powered by a 6 Volt 75 Watt dynamo as opposed to the Jawa Type 354's 6 Volt 45 Watt dynamo system. In response, Velorex created the Type 562 sidecar, which was stronger than the Type 560, but was also simpler to assemble, thereby improving the production rate which had been a problem in manufacturing the Type 560. Velorex manufactured approximately 290,000 Type 562 sidecars from 1974 to the late 1990s. In 1986 Jawa replaced the Type 634 motorcycle with the more powerful 350cc Type 638 motorcycle, which originally produced 34 BHP @ 6,500 RPM and 30 Foot / Pounds of torque @ 3,800 RPM, which was also available with the Velorex 562 sidecar attached. The Type 638 was detuned, from 1988 onwards, to 25 BHP @ 5,252 RPM for European Union emissions considerations. For the Dutch market it was detuned further to 23 BHP @ 5,252 RPM to cater for Holland's unique emissions requirements at that time. In 1990 Jawa reintroduced the Type 634 engine, now featuring a 12 Volt 228 Watt Magneton alternator, in the Type 638 motorcycle chassis as the Type 632. This proved to be a better sidecar machine than the now detuned Type 638 motorcycle. In 1990 Velorex produced the Type 710 sidecar and this was marketed with the Type 632 motorcycle attached. The Type 638 with a disc front brake and Velorex Type 710 sidecar attached was also marketed alongside the Type 632 combination as the Type 639 from 1990. Jawa motorcycles built for sidecar use, as opposed to solo motorcycle use, feature smaller 15 or 16 tooth gearbox sprockets (18 teeth on solo bikes), an attachment on the rear brake cable pivot arm for the sidecar's own brake cable to attach, a left footrest with an attachment for the sidecar brake cable to fit into and modified wiring loom at the rear of the bike with electrical power coupling for the sidecar's lighting and accessories. An adjustable friction type steering damper was fitted under the headstock on some machines, though this later proved to be unnecessary due to the good handling characteristics of the unit as a whole. This feature was occasionally fitted to the Type 634, Type 638, Type 632, Type 639 and Type 640 machines from 1974 to date. The Velorex Type 710 featured a more streamlined shape, resembling a jet fighter cockpit with a large forward opening perspex windshield, plus an interior space with plenty of leg room. Stowage behind the now full height backrested seat was 3 times the capacity of the Type 562 sidecar. Because of this the Type 710 was and still is regarded as the best sidecar Velorex ever produced. Both the Type 562 and Type 710 sidecars share the same chassis, with only the bodywork being different. Both feature either a 16 Inch or 18 Inch wheel with a 160mm. diameter single leading shoe drum brake, which is linked, when fitted to a Jawa motorcycle, to the rear brake mechanism to provide balanced braking. Both the Velorex Type 562 and Type 710 sidecars were marketed separately worldwide with fitting kits for various foreign motorcycle types including Harley Davidson, Honda, Triumph, etc. Currently Jawa still sells the 350cc Type 640 combination with the Velorex Type 562 sidecar in Europe and the United Kingdom, this currently being the only large 2 stroke motorcycle to meet current European Union emission regulations. The cooperative collapsed shortly after the Velvet Revolution, but the sidecar production facilities have since been privatized and sidecar production has restarted under the Velorexport name.", "Motoscoot, a motorcycle reseller from the Czech Republic, plans to produce modern three-wheeled sport car named \"Velor-X-Trike\" (initially \"New Velorex\"). The design was made public in March 2010 and the company expects to assemble about 5 - 10 vehicles per year. The Velor-X-Trike model has nothing to do with the recent designs by Mojmír Stránský, author of the original Velorex." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Selected works.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Gyrowetz was born 20 February 1763 in České Budějovice (Budweis). His father was the choirmaster in the cathedral there, and Adalbert first studied with him. He then travelled to Prague, where he studied law but continued to learn music. At around this time Gyrowetz was in the employ of Count Franz von Fünfkirchen in Brno, whose employees were all musicians. Here he started composing (among other things) symphonies, of which he was eventually to write more than 60. In 1785 he moved to Vienna and met Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, who performed one of Gyrowetz's symphonies in the same year. From 1786 to around 1793, he travelled throughout Europe. He spent some time in Paris, where he established that some symphonies that had been published as the work of Joseph Haydn were in fact his work. He spent three years in Italy, meeting Johann Wolfgang von Goethe in Rome and studying with Nicola Sala in Naples. In 1791 he met Haydn, whom he idolized, in London. While in London, he was commissioned by Johann Peter Salomon to compose symphonies to be performed at Salomon's Hanover Square Rooms concerts. Gyrowetz moved back to Vienna and in 1804 was appointed Vice-kapellmeister of the Court Theatre. Gyrowetz was an important part of Viennese musical society well into the 1820s and even arranged the piano reduction of Rossini's \"Zelmira\" in 1822. He was one of the pallbearers at Beethoven's funeral in 1827. Gyrowetz died 19 March 1850 in Vienna.", "Operas (all composed in Vienna unless otherwise stated) More than 60 symphonies, including: About 60 string quartets, including: 40 Piano Sonatas with Violin and Violoncello accompaniment, including: 12 Nocturnes for Piano with violin and violoncello accompaniment Other miscellaneous chamber music, including:", "Notes Sources" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "History.", "Sights.", "Demographics.", "Twin towns — sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The name comes from a Slavic personal name + patronimic suffix \"-ce\", compare with similar Czech name \"Sebran\" (\"picked up child\") and Sebranice. The first written record comes from 1409 (\"Zobranch\"). Older literature can mention also incorrect date 1344.", "In 1910, the town had 1216 inhabitants, 538 Hungarians and 577 Slovaks. Before the First World War the town was part of Austria-Hungary. After the First World War as a result of the Treaty of Trianon the town became part of newly founded Czechoslovakia and became the capital city of its own district. During the Slovak-Hungarian War, Sobrance became part of Hungary. During the Second World War the town was heavily damaged and after the war became part of Czechoslovakia again, but did not immediately regain its district status. Since the Dissolution of Czechoslovakia, Sobrance has been part of Slovakia. It regained its district town status in 1996. The first reference to Jewish residents appears in the May 15, 1739 Jewish Conscription of Ung County which recorded only one Jewish family. The head of the household was Marko Joseffovics (Marko the son of Josef), a distiller of whisky (palinka, slivovica or vodka). By July 1746 there were two Jewish families—Marko Joseffovics and Hersko Abrahamovics (Hersko the son of Abraham). The Chevra Kadisha or burial society was founded in about 1780, a time when the Jewish population of northeastern Hungary began to grow due to migrations from Galicia. Their percentage stood at 24.3% in 1910. The synagogue, which was still standing in 1929, was built in about 1800. Following the Nazi invasion of Hungary on May 17, 1944 all of the Jews living in Sobrance were deported to Auschwitz concentration camp as part of the Final Solution where most were murdered upon arrival. The property and belongings that were left behind were looted in a thoroughly organized act by the local non-Jewish population of Sobrance soon after the deportation.", "To the north of the town is Sobranecké kúpele, once a popular spa before the First World War. Today it is totally abandoned. A Guitar museum is located in the town. The collection includes more than 200 guitars mainly from the period of 1947–1980. Perhaps the most valuable guitar is a Resonet Grazioso/Futurama from early in the career of George Harrison. An Eastern Catholic Church of the Holy Seven Slavonic Saints (Sedmočislenici) was built in the town. It is a modern church building based on traditional Byzantine architecture models.", "According to the 2001 census, the town had 6,262 inhabitants. 95.37% of inhabitants were Slovaks, 0.91% Roma, 0.51% Czechs and 0.37% Ukrainian. The religious makeup was 51.09% Roman Catholics, 33.93% Greek Catholics, 3.59% people with no religious affiliation and 3.37% Orthodox.", "Sobrance is twinned with:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Career.", "Singing style.", "Equipment." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Kai Hansen was born Hamburg, Germany in 1963. At the age of ten, Kai got interested in music and started playing wash-drums. His parents however, didn't like the noise and bought him an acoustic guitar instead. He took a six-months course in classical guitar and following it, formed his first band with his classmates after he bought an electric guitar, a white Ibanez Les Paul.", "Hansen's musical career started in 1978 in a band called Gentry, alongside Iron Savior's co-founder and producer Piet Sielck. In 1983, he and Michael Weikath founded Helloween, where he was guitarist and singer until Michael Kiske took over the microphone for the albums \"Keeper of the Seven Keys Part 1\" and \"Keeper of the Seven Keys Part 2\". Hansen left the band due to the extensive touring in 1988–89 and went on to form his own power metal band Gamma Ray. Hansen also joined Iron Savior as guitarist in 1997, but quit after a few years to focus his efforts on Gamma Ray. He has now forged a very successful career with Gamma Ray, releasing several albums and playing sold-out tours across the globe. Hansen participated in a large number of other projects. He appeared as a guest vocalist on Blind Guardian's albums \"Follow the Blind\" and \"Tales from the Twilight World\". Around the same time, he and fellow Gamma Ray bandmate Dirk Schlächter collaborated on Angra's first full-length album \"Angels Cry\", both playing guitar solos in the song \"Never Understand\". He also collaborated on Angra's album \"Temple of Shadows\" released in 2004 doing vocals for the song \"The Temple of Hate\". With ANGRA He participated as a guest guitarist on Michael Kiske's debut solo album \"Instant Clarity\". Together with HammerFall he recorded a cover version of Helloween's \"I Want Out\". Hansen played the role of Regrin the dwarf in Avantasia's Metal Opera albums by Tobias Sammet. Later he was featured in the album \"The Scarecrow\" playing guitar in the song \"Shelter from the Rain\". He was also one of the guest musicians in Avantasia's 2010 world tour, which have put him to play live together with fellow ex-bandmate Michael Kiske, after more than twenty years since he left Helloween. After this tour it was announced, via Michael Kiske's official website, that Hansen would join his new band Unisonic, as they \"instantly felt the magic of Helloween years again and had a lot of fun together on and off stage\". In 2005, he toured with the young German power/Viking metal band Stormwarrior from his home town of Hamburg as lead singer, playing material from his classic Helloween debut album \"Walls of Jericho\" – the favorite album and greatest influence of Stormwarrior. \"Stormwarrior featuring Kai Hansen\" returned in 2007 to play at the Magic Circle Festival in Bad Arolsen and at the Wacken Open Air Festival. In 2008, Hansen played with Stormwarrior at Sweden Rock Festival 2008. In 2011, Hansen joined the hard-rock band Unisonic, as second guitarist and reunited with old friend and ex-Helloween vocalist Michael Kiske, who formed the band in 2009. The band released its debut album, \"Unisonic\" in 2012 and embarked on its first world tour. Hansen stated in an interview that despite being a member of Unisonic, he will not have less focus on Gamma Ray, and that the next Gamma Ray album should arrive in 2013. Unisonic's second album, \"Light Of Dawn\", was released in 2014 and a European and Japanese tour followed. In 2015, following the Best of the Best Party Tour, Hansen hired Frank Beck as their second vocalist for the Gamma Ray. In 2016, Hansen released his first solo album titled \"XXX – Three Decades in Metal\". The album was released via earMUSIC on September 16 of the same year. In 2017 Kai Hansen played minitour - four shows in Slovakia and Czech republic with the band, with special set for Ravenclaw 15-Years Anniversary - Ravenclaw feat. Kai Hansen. On November 14, 2016 was announced the Pumpkins United World Tour - a concert tour of the German power metal band Helloween. Both original members Michael Kiske and Kai Hansen joined the current members for this tour for 2017, 2018 and 2019.", "During his earlier years Hansen's singing style was reminiscent of many thrash metal vocalists. Rather than using a smooth and clear style (like his successor Kiske) Hansen sang with a raspy sound, interluded by high-pitched screams for dramatic effect. Kiske was brought in as a singer originally because Hansen had trouble singing and playing the guitar simultaneously though later in his career he seems to have overcome these problems. Beginning from 1995 onward, Hansen has provided the vocals for his current band Gamma Ray. Around that time, Hansen's vocal style became more melodic and slightly clearer, more in the traditional power metal sense, while still retaining the slight nasal tone and rasp of his early years.", "For almost 20 years, Hansen has played ESP Guitars. He first started using them during his days with Helloween after hearing testimonials of ESP from artists such as George Lynch and Kirk Hammett of Metallica. Before Helloween, he had owned a white Ibanez guitar, and a Les Paul, then saved up for a Marshall amplifier by delivering newspapers. His main ESPs are red and pink ESP Custom guitars based on Jackson's Randy Rhoads model and two custom V models based on the classic Gibson Flying V shape. During the early 1990s, Hansen had used Stratocaster models. On his autobiography on the Gamma Ray website, he claims his first electric guitar was a white Ibanez Les Paul copy On the recent tour with Gamma Ray he has been seen using a Korina Epiphone flying V with EMG's. Hansen has used, and still uses, Engl amplifiers since the recording sessions of Keeper of the Seven Keys, Pt. 2." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name.", "History.", "Founding.", "Early modern period.", "Modern period.", "Geography.", "Climate.", "Architecture and urban heritage.", "Demographics.", "Main sights.", "National institutions.", "Infrastructure and economy projects.", "Public works.", "Promotion.", "Culture.", "Printing houses in Cetinje.", "Libraries.", "Museums.", "Religion.", "Festivals.", "Sports.", "Football.", "Handball.", "Basketball.", "Other sports.", "Venues.", "Transport.", "Local government.", "Administrative and operational bodies.", "City Parliament.", "Local subdivisions.", "Settlements.", "International relations.", "Twin towns – sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "In Montenegrin, the town is known as Цетиње / \"Cetinje\" (archaically Цетинѣ / \"Cetině\"); in Italian as \"Cettigne\"; in Greek as Κετίγνη (\"Ketígni\"); in Turkish as \"Çetince\"; and in Albanian as \"Cetina\".", "", "Cetinje was founded in 1482, when Ivan Crnojević moved his capital from Obod above the Crnojević River to deeper into the hills to a more easily defended location in a field at the foot of Mount Lovćen. He had his court built at the new location that year and also founded a monastery (dedicated to the Mother of Christ) as a personal endowment in 1484. His court and the monastery are the first recorded renaissance buildings in Montenegro. Crnojević was forced to move the seat of the Eparchy of Zeta from Vranjina to Cetinje due to the Ottoman invasions, in 1485. The town was named after the Cetina river. The bishopric of Zeta was elevated to a metropolitanate in Cetinje. It was later to play an important part in both the religious and national life. The Crnojević printing house, the first printing house in southeastern Europe, was active between 1493 and 1496 in Cetinje. Zeta was first put under Ottoman rule in 1499, then annexed by the Ottomans in 1514, organized into the Sanjak of Montenegro.", "In the next two centuries, the development of Cetinje stagnated. It was very often subject to attack by Venice and the Ottomans. The city therefore endured many privations in the course of the 16th and 17th centuries. In this period the court and the monastery of the Crnojevići dynasty were destroyed. It was only at the end of the 17th century, in 1697, that Cetinje began to flourish again under the rule of the Petrović dynasty, refounded by Danilo Petrović.", "Leading the wars of liberation and strengthening the unity in the country occupied Danilo and his successors, so they were unable to devote enough effort to the further development of Cetinje. It was only during the rule of Petar II Petrović Njegoš that far greater progress was made. In 1838 his new royal residence called Biljarda (Billiard house) was built. Cetinje was enlarged by building new houses that gradually led to genuine urbanization. Many modern buildings designed for foreign consulates were built due to the newly established relations with various European countries, including the French, Russian, British, Italian and Austro-Hungarian consulates. Cetinje made great progress under the rule of Prince Nikola I Petrović when numerous public edifices were built. Those include the first hotel, called ‘Lokanda’, then the new Prince's palace, the Girls’ Institute and the hospital. This period also saw the first tenancy houses. In the 1860 census Cetinje had 34 households. After initially holding off Ottoman incursions in 1852 and 1853, Cetinje was captured by Ottoman Omar Pasha's forces during the Montenegrin–Ottoman War of 1861–62. Ottoman rule over Montenegro did not last much more than a decade however, as 14 years later the \"Great War\", the third successive contest between the two nations, ended in Montenegrin victory, with most previously-Montenegrin territory returning to their control. Montenegrin independence was recognized at the Congress of Berlin of 1878 and consequently Cetinje became the capital of a European country. Between 1878 and 1914 Cetinje flourished in every sense. Many renowned intellectuals from other South-Slavic parts came to stay there and made a contribution to the cultural, educational and every other aspect of life. Montenegro was proclaimed a kingdom in 1910. This had a great effect on Cetinje's development. At this time the Government House, the symbol of state power, was built. The population census from the same year recorded a massive growth in the world's smallest capital, registering 5,895 inhabitants. In the Interwar period, Cetinje expanded its territory, as it was now a centre of the Zeta region. But when it was decided by the Parliament of Montenegro that the administrative organs should be located in Titograd (previously and presently Podgorica), Cetinje went through a harsh crisis. By building certain industrial sections and at the same time neglecting the development of the city's traditional and potential cultural and tourist capacities, the chance to create a strong basis for more solid prosperity was lost. When Communist forces captured Cetinje in November 1944 the only population that stayed in the town were people who believed they have no reason to fear or hide from anybody. Still, as soon as Communists captured Cetinje, in the night of 13 November 1944, they shot without any trial 28 citizens of Cetinje. They were all summarily executed at \"New Cemetery\" of Cetinje in Humci.", "Cetinje is situated in the karst field (Cetinje field) of about 7 km2, with average height above sea level of 671m. It is of airline far from Adriatic Sea and from Skadar Lake. Now, it is on the main road Podgorica-Cetinje-Budva, which makes it open to the inside of Montenegro and Montenegrin coast.", "Cetinje has an oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification: \"Cfb\"), with relatively dry and warm summers, and mild and wet winters. Cetinje is well known for its plentiful precipitations, and is one of the rainiest towns in Europe with around of precipitation annually. Although abundant in precipitation, the Cetinje field and its surroundings do not have water flows on the surface and water sources are scarce. This is a consequence of the karst configuration and its geologic structure.", "The onset and development of Cetinje, as a relatively young city, with its old historical core draws a lot of attention to urban and architectural heritage, on its construction and development influenced stormy historical, social and economic events in the country. Cetinje, as a settlement has existed for 500 years, which is not much compared to the development of the coastal agglomeration of the ancient period in the immediate surrounding. However, these five centuries – the whole history of a people, who, through the development of city recorded moments of their origin, ascent, stagnation and downs. For Cetinje as urban agglomeration, can be said to have formed suddenly, which makes it very specific. In fact, since the seventies of the nineteenth century, for almost fifty years, there was, in the urban context, designed and typological characteristic areas formed with urban type residential home ground floor and storey house with developed attic, created and developed in closed urban blocks, where line of life in them was street - house - garden. Along with the development of this type of urban city blocks and residential buildings, has developed substantial public architecture of the city, which was built under the great influence of foreign builders with the application of various architectural styles and which then and now, is a representative architectural backbone of the city. Between the two world wars, which characterized by the loss of Montenegrin statehood and noticeable stagnation of the architectural development of the city, Cetinje continues the tradition of formed, then already traditional type of urban residential houses and closed urban blocks, but they build the first modern multi-storey residential buildings for collective housing, and modern public institutions necessary for the then social life. In the fastest and most important period of the development of Cetinje, since the seventies of the nineteenth century until the First World War, which was then the smallest European old capital, was created and developed city on the principles the European metropolises of that time in whose architectural activity of the city was engaged many foreign architects, engineers, builders and craftsmen. The development of Cetinje in this period was followed by many important historical and social events. So the second half of the nineteenth century in the development of Cetinje marked period of state power and its pursuit of the European culture and international recognition. Recognition of Montenegro as an independent state, at the Berlin Congress in 1878., on the basis of which greatly expanded, he began a period of rapid creation of a national, economic, social, cultural, societal and spatial superstructure which caused increasing of economic power and the reorganization and improvement of the state apparatus and the authorities. During this period, Cetinje, as the old royal capital, gains in an even greater national and international significance and experiencing its rapid socio - economic, institutional, and urban development. Without taking into consideration possibility and efforts which Cetinje is realized as spatially small and young city, it occupies an important place in terms of conceptual, social and urban transformation of other cities in Montenegro, particularly since the second half of the nineteenth century until the First World War. On the basis of that and the facts about today's relatively preserved old urban heritage, is justified the fact which Cetinje ranks among the cities with significant architectural heritage.", "Cetinje is the administrative centre of Cetinje Municipality, which has a population of 18,482. According to the census of population, households and apartments in 2011, in the territory of The Old Royal Capital Cetinje live 16,757 inhabitants, or 2.7% of the population of Montenegro. In the town of Cetinje live 13.991 inhabitants. According to the number of inhabitants, Cetinje is one of the medium units of local government in Montenegro. Population of Cetinje (town):", "Cetinje has a number of attractions, including Cetinje Monastery, Vlaška church (built in 1450, with its fence made out of barrels of captured enemy rifles), Biljarda, several museums, Zetski dom royal theatre and historic foreign embassies. Many of the old embassies and other administrative buildings are now schools of various kinds, and the town has many young people. Close to Cetinje (about ) the Lipa cave (\"Lipska pecina\") is situated, one of the biggest caves in the former Yugoslavia. Its entrance is located in the village of Lipa and it ends in the mountains directly over the Adriatic Sea. After project of Municipality of Cetinje and company 'Lipa Cave', the cave is restored and opened for public in July 2015. Today the cave is one of the biggest tourist attractions in Cetinje and Montenegro, similar to Postojna Cave in Slovenia. One of the most visited destinations of Cetinje is the mausoleum of Petar II Petrović-Njegoš on the mountain Lovćen. The mausoleum is accessible by car from Cetinje, which is away Apart from the surrounding natural environment of beech, oak and linden tree forests, there is a unique freshness of Lovćen national park. The mausoleum is situated at the Jezerski vrh (Jezerski peak), in the height of, and it officially represents the highest mausoleum in the world. In the past few years there has been a plan of enlisting the old historic core of the city of Cetinje as a UNESCO world heritage site. With this, Cetinje hopes to rebuild and restore the old historic core and the façades of its buildings. Cetinje is becoming more and more popular with tourists so the locals started painting their houses in vivid colors, the local government started quite a number of projects to restore the buildings, the markets and façades of the city of Cetinje.", "Although Podgorica is the capital of Montenegro, Cetinje is seat of numerous national institutions of Montenegro. The President of Montenegro has his official residence in Cetinje, in the former heir's palace, called the Blue Palace owing to the colour of its walls. Cetinje is the seat of Montenegrin Ministry of Culture, National Museum of Montenegro, National library, State archives and from 2017 there will be a seat of Ministry for Foreign Affairs.", "", "After the decades of stagnation, the new city government began a lot of projects with the intention to revitalise the infrastructure, business and to gain a higher promotion of Cetinje in cultural, touristic and other parts. Some of that projects were the reconstruction of Cetinje Historical Core (Main Street - Njegoševa, Main Town Square, Students' Square), \"Beautiful Cetinje\" (first energy-efficiency project in Montenegro), reconstruction of the City Market, valorisation of Lipa Cave, renovation of the first hospital building in Montenegro, building a completely new utilities system, construction of a new main road at the entrance to the town, the largest fine arts university complex in the region etc. During the past period, Cetinje became first Montenegrin city which is covered by the free wi-fi signal.", "To promote Cetinje as not only cultural and artist capital of Montenegro but the whole region too, during 2012 and 2013 the city government organized events in which participated globally famous artists such as Pierce Brosnan, Marina Abramović, Gerard Depardieu, Nicholas Lyndhurst and Rem Koolhaas, who were guests of Cetinje during that period. The most significant project for the future is a cable-car from Kotor to Cetinje, and tender is launched in August 2016.", "Cetinje has been the cultural and educational centre of Montenegro for five centuries. There are five republic institutions: Đurđe Crnojević Central National Library, the National Museum of Montenegro, the Archives of Montenegro, the Republic Institute for Preserving Cultural Heritage and the Zetski Dom Montenegrin Royal National Theatre. All these institutions keep, process, and provide public access to enormous literary treasure, and protect both mobile and immobile cultural monuments throughout Montenegro. The oldest - and for a long time the most important - cultural institution in the town is the monastery of Cetinje.", "Cetinje has a rich publishing and printing tradition. The Printing House of Crnojevići (1492–1496) and the books published there are of great importance for Montenegrin culture and history as well as for the culture of other Orthodox Balkan peoples. Its greatest contribution refers to spreading Cyrillic type. Thus, it represents an important link in a chain of world culture. There were a number of printing houses that continued this great printing tradition. These are: Njegoš Printing House, which operated between 1833 and 1839 and the State Printing House which was founded in 1858. It was renamed in 1952. Since then it has been known as Obod. Since their foundation to the present day, Cetinje printing houses have published over 3,000 books, a major contribution to the Montenegrin cultural heritage. The first Montenegrin literary and scientific annual, \"Grlica\" (Turtledove), was published in 1835, while the first Montenegrin newspaper, ‘The Montenegrin’, was established in 1871. Since then, sixty different newspapers and over thirty magazines have been published. In 1914, as a town of fewer than 6,000 inhabitants, Cetinje supported six different daily newspapers.", "The oldest libraries of Montenegro, where the oldest books and documentation of great value are preserved, are located at Cetinje. This makes Cetinje internationally recognized as well. The oldest library among these is the Library of Cetinje Monastery, which was founded by the end of the 15th century at the time when the Printing House of Crnojevići started operating. Today, seventy-five old manuscripts written in Cyrillic, then four incunabula, and many old liturgical books are kept there. The first public reading room in Montenegro known as The Reading Room of Cetinje was founded in 1896. Since its founding it has been the cultural centre of Montenegro. The fruitful activity of this reading room was continued by the Town Library and the Njegoš reading room, which offers over 63,000 books and volumes of periodicals. The school libraries of Cetinje also have a long tradition. The library of the oldest school at Cetinje today known as Njegoš Elementary School dates back to 1834, the library of the clerical college and the Carica Marija Girls’ Institute dates back to 1869, and the library of the Gymnasium to 1880.", "Museums in Cetinje include: All these except the Museum of the Cetinje Monastery and Electric Industry Museum are integrated in one institution called the National Museum of Montenegro. Numerous museums and the huge fund of museum items that are kept there established Cetinje's reputation as a museum town. Cetinje has always been a cultural centre. Every second year the international art exhibition called \"Cetinje Biennial\" is held there. Its founder is Prince Nikola Petrović, great-grandson to King Nikola I.", "Cetinje is also the seat of the Eparchy of Montenegro and the Littoral of the Serbian Orthodox Church, and Montenegrin Orthodox Church. Seat of the Eparchy of Montenegro and the Littoral is situated in Cetinje Monastery. Seat of the Montenegrin Orthodox Church is situated in the Chapel in Gruda quarter.", "Today, Cetinje is home of one of the most popular cultural events in Montenegro - 'Summer at the Old Royal Capital'. It is the artist festival with almost 100 events, which held yearly, from June to September. During that period, visitors can attend the gigs of regional artist stars at the most significant city locations, but in the villages too. During the 'Summer at the Old Royal Capital', there are festivals like 'Royal Fest' (hard rock, alternative), 'Cetinje Jazz Fest', 'Espressivo' (classical music), 'Cucka jeka' (Kobilji Do), 'Riječka noć' (Rijeka Crnojevića), 'Njeguško ljeto' (Lovćen and Njeguši), 'Folklor' etc. Events during the 'Summer at the Old Royal Capital' attend about 50,000 visitors. There are more festivals and events during the whole year, like 'Christmas Concerts' (7/8 January), Independence Day event (21 May), 'MIT Fest' (alternative theatre festival) etc.", "The most popular sports in Cetinje are football, handball and basketball.", "Football in Cetinje has a very long tradition associated with FK Lovćen Cetinje, oldest football club in Montenegro. FK Lovćen was founded on 20 June 1913. It is one of the most successful football clubs in Montenegro. The best results in the past were achieved before WW2, when they won few Montenegrin Championships, and in 1956 in qualifications for the first national league. In 1947, Lovćen was juvenile club champion. FK Lovćen now competes in the Montenegrin First League. During the season 2013/14, Lovćen won second place. On 21 May 2014, Lovćen won the Montenegrin Cup, which was the first national trophy in the club's history. Another club from Cetinje is FK Cetinje, formed in 1975. They were promoted to the Second Montenegrin League, during the summer 2013.", "Formed at 1949, Handball club “Lovćen” is among oldest handball clubs in Montenegro. During the decades, especially from 80's until today, Lovćen became most successful Montenegrin men's handball club, but the most trophied team from Old Royal Capital Cetinje. There is huge number of great Montenegrin, Yugoslav and European players which produced handball school of Lovćen. From the 1988 until today, Lovćen played 23 seasons in the First Handball League of SFR Yugoslavia, FR Yugoslavia and Montenegro. Five times, club from Cetinje won the champions' title - in the seasons \"1999/00, 2000/01, 2006/07, 2011/12\" and \"2012/13\". Most trophies in the club history, Lovćen won in the national Cup. Club from Cetinje holds 2 winner titles in the Cup of FR Yugoslavia and five in the Montenegrin Cup. Lovćen hold Cup trophies from the seasons \"2001/02, 2002/03, 2008/09, 2009/10, 2010/11, 2011/12, 2012/13\". Lovćen is member of Regional SEHA League since its inception. Today, Lovćen is the only SEHA League member from Montenegro. In their first SEHA League season, Lovćen made surprising result, with final placement on 6th position. Year after that, Lovćen finished season on the same table position. In the season 2013/14, because of new SEHA League criteria, SRC Lovćen hall was reconstructed, with changing capacity from 1,500 to 2,020. Handball club Lovćen is permanent member of European handball competitions since 1997. The greatest result Lovćen made during the EHF Champions League 2000/01 when they participated in the quarterfinals against THW Kiel. Until today, Lovćen played 65 games in European Competitions. \"B\" team of Lovćen is HC Cepelin-Lovćen, which in past competed in First league. Today, Cepelin-Lovćen is playing in Second league.", "Basketball club “Lovćen” is one of the oldest sport clubs in Cetinje. It was founded in 1947. The best results were achieved in 1997/98 season, when it was scored at the 6th place of the National basketball league. This provided participation at international competition “Radivoje Korac Cup.” Today, it competes in the first A league of Montenegro. Second club is BC Cetinje, formed in 1997.", "During the past, in Cetinje existed Volleyball club \"Lovćen\". It competed in Republic League and was among best Montenegrin clubs in that sport. VC \"Lovćen\" is not active anymore. Today, there are dozens of active clubs. Table-tennis club \"Lovćen\" is among two most successful table tennis clubs in Montenegro during last four decades. Other clubs are Racing team \"Lovćen\", Judo club \"Crnogorac\", Karate club \"Lovćen\", Boxing club \"Lovćen\", Women basketball club \"Lovćen\" and others.", "Cetinje has a number of sporting venues. The main sporting venues on Cetinje are:", "Cetinje is connected to Podgorica and Budva through three-lane motorways. Both towns are about away from Cetinje. Another road to Podgorica is built on the coast of Skadar lake. There is also a historic old road from Cetinje to Kotor, which is not of premium quality, but offers stunning views of the Bay of Kotor. This is currently, spring 2018, being upgraded. Previously there was a railway line from Cetinje to Bar along the banks of Lake Skadar, which transported both passengers and cargo. There are no remains of this railway line. Tivat Airport is away, and there are regular flights to Belgrade and Zürich, and dozens of charter planes land daily at Tivat airport during the summer season. Podgorica Airport is away, and it has regular flights to major European destinations throughout the year.", "Cetinje is governed by mayor and the Old Royal Capital Government. Since December 2010, the mayor of Old Royal Capital Cetinje is Aleksandar Bogdanović (DPS).", "Administrative and operational bodies of local administration are secretaries, administrations, directorates, managements and services. There are six secretariats in the Old Royal Capital Cetinje: The Secretariat for Local Government, The Secretariat of Finance and Enterprise Development, The Secretariat of Spatial Planning and Environment Protection, The Secretariat for Utilities and Transport, The Secretariat for Culture and Sport and The Secretariat for Social Affairs and Youth. Other administrative bodies are Management of public revenue, Directorate for Property, Directorate of Investment and Development and Center for Information System. Operational bodies are Mayor's Service, Service of Chief Administrator, The City Manager's Service, Public relations Bureau, Common Affairs Service, Protection service and Communal Police.", "\"Skupština Prijestonice Cetinje\" is the Parliament of Old Royal Capital Cetinje. Local parliament is made up of 33 deputies, or \"odbornici\" (councillors) in Montenegrin. It is elected by universal ballot and is presided over by a speaker called the \"Predsjednik Skupštine\" (President of Parliament). After the last elections held in November 2013, the Democratic Party of Socialists has an absolute majority with 19 deputies, while four other parties and coalitions are also represented in the local parliament.", "There are two city settlements in the Old Royal Capital - Cetinje and Rijeka Crnojevića. Old Royal Capital Cetinje is divided into 23 local community bodies (\"mjesne zajednice\") in which the citizens participate in decisions on matters of relevance to the local community.", "The \"prijestonica\" of Cetinje is divided into two urban settlements: Cetinje and Rijeka Crnojevića, and 92 rural settlements: Bajice, Barjamovica, Bijele Poljane, Bjeloši, Bobija, Boguti, Bokovo, Češljari, Čevo, Dide, Dobrska Župa, Dobrsko Selo, Dodoši, Donja Zaljut, Donje Selo, Dragomi Do, Drušići, Dubovik, Dubovo, Dugi Do, Dujeva, Đalci, Đinovići, Erakovići, Gađi, Gornja Zaljut, Gornji Ceklin, Grab, Gradina, Građani, Izvori, Jankovići, Jezer, Kobilji Do, Kopito, Kosijeri, Kranji Do, Kućišta, Lastva, Lipa, Lješev Stub, Majstori, Malošin Do, Markovina, Meterizi, Mikulići, Milijevići, Mužovići, Njeguši, Obzovica, Očinići, Oćevići, Ožegovice, Pačarađe, Pejovići, Petrov Do, Poda, Podbukovica, Prediš, Prekornica, Prentin Do, Prevlaka, Proseni Do, Radomir, Raičevići, Resna, Riječani, Rokoči, Rvaši, Ržani Do, Smokovci, Šinđon, Štitari, Tomići, Trešnjevo, Trnjine, Uba, Ubli, Ublice, Ugnji, Ulići, Velestovo, Vignjevići, Vojkovići, Vrba, Vrela, Vuči Do, Zabrđe, Začir, Zagora, Žabljak Crnojevića and Žanjev Do.", "", "Cetinje is twinned with:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life and work.", "Nanno.", "Poetic style.", "Comments by other poets.", "Solon.", "Callimachus." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3" ], "content": [ "The Byzantine encyclopaedia \"Suda\" provides a good example of the biographical uncertainties. The gap indicates a corruption in the text and the original wording probably testified to two books, though the only source we have for this number was the grammarian Pomponius Porphyrion. The \"Suda\"s mention of Astypalaea, an island in the southern Aegean, as a possible candidate for the poet's home town is mere fantasy. Smyrna seems to be the most likely candidate. The nickname \"Ligyaistades\" was probably taken by the \"Suda\" from an elegy addressed to Mimnermus by one of the seven sages—the Athenian lawgiver and elegiac poet, Solon (see Comments by other poets). Solon clearly admired the skills of the older poet, whom he addressed as \"Ligyaistades\", yet he objected to his hedonism and singled out this couplet for criticism: Solon thought he should be willing to live to eighty. Plutarch was another ancient author critical of the poet's self-indulgence, dismissing one poem (see Fragment 1 in Poetic style below) as \"the utterances of intemperate people.\" Mimnermus however was not timid in his hedonism, as indicated by a couplet attributed to him in the Palatine Anthology, an exhortation to others to live intemperately: \"Enjoy yourself. Some of the harsh citizens will speak ill of you, some better.\". However, the same lines have also been attributed to Theognis. A robust side to his personality is shown by his versatility as a poet. Archaic elegy was often used for patriotic purposes, to screw courage to the sticking place in times of war and to celebrate national achievements, and there is ample evidence that Mimnermus assumed this role as a poet. A quote recorded by the geographer Strabo represents the earliest surviving account of the Ionian migration, celebrating the settlement of Colophon and Smyrna from Pylos, Smyrna lay near Mount Sipylos, one of whose rocky outcrops was traditionally imagined to be the tragic figure Niobe. Like other archaic poets, Mimnermus adapted myths to his own artistic needs and Aelian recorded that he attributed twenty children to Niobe, unlike Homer, for example, who attributed twelve to her. According to Sallustius, Mimnermus was just as creative in his poetical account of Ismene, representing her as being killed by Tydeus at the command of the goddess, Athena, in the very act of making love to Theoclymenus—an original account that was soon accepted by an international audience, being represented on an early Corinthian amphora (pictured below). Imaginative accounts of the sun, voyaging at night from west to east in a golden bed, and of Jason the Argonaut voyaging to \"Aeetes' city, where the rays of the swift Sun lie in a golden storeroom at the edge of Oceanus\", survive in brief quotes by ancient authors. According to Strabo, Smyrna was named after an Amazon and, according to a manuscript on proverbs, Mimnermus once composed on the theme of the proverb \"A lame man makes the best lover\", illustrating the Amazonian practice of maiming their men.", "Unlike epic and lyric verse, which were accompanied by stringed instruments (the cithara and barbiton respectively), elegy was accompanied by a wind instrument (the aulos) and its performance therefore required at least two people—one to sing and one to play. Ancient accounts associate Mimnermus with a female aulos player, Nanno, and one makes him her lover (see quote from Hermesianax in Comments by other poets below). Another ancient source indicates that Mimnermus was a pederast, which is consistent with conventional sexual themes in Greek elegy. However, as noted by Martin Litchfield West, Mimnermus could have been a pederast and yet still have composed elegies about his love for Nanno: \"Greek pederasty... was for the most part a substitute for heterosexual love, free contacts between the sexes being restricted by society.\" Mimnermus apparently was also capable of playing all by himself—Strabo described him as \"both a pipe-player and an elegiac poet\". According to the poet Hipponax, Mimnermus when piping used the melancholy \"fig-branch strain,\" apparently a traditional melody played while scapegoats were ritually driven from town, whipped with fig branches. Ancient commentators sometimes refer to a work called \"Nanno\" and there is one clear reference to a work called \"Smyrneis\". Modern scholars have concluded that these could be the two books mentioned by Porphyrion. The \"Nanno\" appears to have been a collection of short poems on a variety of themes (not just love), whereas the \"Smyrneis\" appears to have been a quasi-epic about Smyrna's confrontation with the Lydians. A cryptic comment by the Hellenistic poet Callimachus (see Comments by other poets below) also seems to refer to those two books, commending one for \"sweetness\" and distinguishing it from \"the great lady\". The latter seems to be a reference to \"Smyrneis\", whereas the sweet verses—apparently the slender, economical kind of verses on which Callimachus modelled his own poetry—appear to refer to \"Nanno\". However, the comment is preserved as an incomplete fragment and modern scholars are not unanimous in their interpretation of it. Another Callimachus fragment has been interpreted as proof that Mimnermus composed some iambic verse but this conjecture has also been disputed.", "Elegy has been described as \"a variation upon the heroic hexameter, in the direction of lyric poetry,\" and, in Mimnermus, this takes the form of a variation on Homer, as appears for example in Fragment 1, quoted below, about which one modern scholar had this to say\" Typically, the elegiac couplet enabled a poet to develop his ideas in brief, striking phrases, often made more memorable by internal rhyme in the shorter, pentameter line. Mimnermus employs the internal rhyme in the pentameter lines 2 () and 4 (). Here is the same poem paraphrased in English to imitate the rhythms of an elegy, with half-rhymes employed in the same lines 2 (far...for) and 4 (youth...bloom): Commenting on the poem, Maurice Bowra observed that \"...after the challenging, flaunting opening we are led through a swift account of youth, and then as we approach the horrors of old age, the verse becomes slower, the sentences shorter, the stops more emphatic, until the poet closes with a short, damning line of summary.\" Of all the other early elegists, only Archilochus might be compared with Mimnermus for effective use of language, both being lifelong poets of outstanding skill.", "", "Addressing Mimnermus and criticizing him for his stated wish to die at sixty years of age, as quoted above in Life and work, the Athenian sage said:", "Defining the kind of poetry he liked and believed best suited to his own, much later times, the Alexandrian scholar-poet commended Mimnermus thus [brackets indicate gaps in the text]:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Definition.", "\"Satori\" and \"kenshō\".", "Importance.", "Realizing \"satori\"." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "D. T. Suzuki, a Japanese author of books and essays on Buddhism, Zen and Shin that were influential in the West, described \"... looking into one's nature or the opening of satori\"; and said \"This acquiring of a new point of view in our dealings with life and the world is popularly called by Japanese Zen students'satori' (\"wu\" in Chinese). It is really another name for Enlightenment (\"\"Annuttara-samyak-sambodhi\"\")\".", "\"Satori\" is often used interchangeably with \"kenshō\". \"Kenshō\" refers to the perception of the Buddha-Nature or emptiness. According to some authors, \"kenshō\" is a brief glimpse, while \"satori\" is considered to be a deeper spiritual experience. Distinct from this first insight, daigo-tettei is used to refer to a \"deep\" or lasting realization of the nature of existence.", "According to D. T. Suzuki, This view is typical of Rinzai, which emphasizes \"satori\". The Sōtō school rejects this emphasis, and instead emphasizes \"silent illumination\" through the practice of zazen.", "\"Satori\" is considered a \"first step\" or embarkation toward Buddhahood: The student's mind must be prepared by rigorous study, with the use of koans, and the practice of meditation to concentrate the mind, under the guidance of a teacher. Koans are short anecdotes of verbal exchanges between teachers and students, typically of the Song dynasty, dealing with Buddhist teachings. The Rinzai-school utilizes classic collections of koans such as The Gateless Barrier. The Gateless Barrier was assembled by the early 13th-century Chinese Zen master Wumen Hui-k'ai (無門慧開). Wumen struggled for six years with koan \"Zhaozhou’s dog\", assigned to him by Yuelin Shiguan (月林師觀; Japanese: Gatsurin Shikan) (1143–1217), before attaining \"kenshō\". After his understanding had been confirmed by Yuelin, Wumen wrote the following enlightenment poem:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "History.", "Antecedents.", "Origin.", "Kingdom of Cusco.", "Reorganization and formation.", "Expansion and consolidation.", "Inca Civil War and Spanish conquest.", "Last Incas.", "Society.", "Population.", "Language.", "Age and defining gender.", "Marriage.", "Gender roles.", "Religion.", "Deities.", "Economy.", "Government.", "Beliefs.", "Organization of the empire.", "Suyu.", "Laws.", "Administration.", "Arts and technology.", "Monumental architecture.", "Measures, calendrics and mathematics.", "Ceramics, precious metals and textiles.", "Communication and medicine.", "Coca.", "Weapons, armor and warfare.", "Banner of the Inca.", "Adaptations to altitude." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The Inca referred to their empire as \"Tawantinsuyu\", \"the four \"suyu\"\". In Quechua, \"tawa\" is four and \"-ntin\" is a suffix naming a group, so that a \"tawantin\" is a quartet, a group of four things taken together, in this case representing the four \"suyu\" (\"regions\" or \"provinces\") whose corners met at the capital. The four \"suyu\" were: Chinchaysuyu (north), Antisuyu (east; the Amazon jungle), Qullasuyu (south) and Kuntisuyu (west). The name \"Tawantinsuyu\" was, therefore, a", "", "The Inca Empire was the last chapter of thousands of years of Andean civilizations. The Andean civilization was one of five civilizations in the world deemed by scholars to be \"pristine\", that is indigenous and not derivative from other civilizations. The Inca Empire was preceded by two large-scale empires in the Andes: the Tiwanaku (c. 300–1100 AD), based around Lake Titicaca and the Wari or Huari (c. 600–1100 AD) centered near the city of Ayacucho. The Wari occupied the Cuzco area for about 400 years. Thus, many of the characteristics of the Inca Empire derived from earlier multi-ethnic and expansive Andean cultures. Carl Troll has argued that the development of the Inca state in the", "The Inca people were a pastoral tribe in the Cusco area around the 12th century. Incan oral history tells an origin story of three caves. The center cave at Tampu T'uqu \"(Tambo Tocco)\" was named Qhapaq T'uqu (\"principal niche\", also spelled \"Capac Tocco\"). The other caves were Maras T'uqu \"(Maras Tocco)\" and Sutiq T'uqu \"(Sutic Tocco)\". Four brothers and four sisters stepped out of the middle cave. They were: Ayar Manco, Ayar Cachi, Ayar Awqa \"(Ayar Auca)\" and Ayar Uchu; and Mama Ocllo, Mama Raua, Mama Huaco and Mama Qura \"(Mama Cora)\". Out of the side caves came the people who were to be the ancestors of all the Inca clans. Ayar Manco carried a magic staff made of the finest gold. Where this staff landed, the people would live. They traveled for a long time. On the way, Ayar Cachi boasted about his strength and power. His siblings tricked", "Under the leadership of Manco Cápac, the Inca formed the small city-state Kingdom of Cusco (Quechua \"Qusqu', Qosqo\"). In 1438, they began a far-reaching expansion under the command of Sapa Inca", "Pachacuti reorganized the kingdom of Cusco into the Tahuantinsuyu, which consisted of a central government with the Inca at its head and four provincial governments with strong leaders: Chinchasuyu (NW), Antisuyu (NE), Kuntisuyu (SW) and Qullasuyu (SE). Pachacuti is thought to have built Machu Picchu, either as a family home or summer retreat, although it may have been an agricultural station. Pachacuti sent spies to regions he wanted in his empire and they brought to him reports on", "Traditionally the son of the Inca ruler led the army. Pachacuti's son Túpac Inca Yupanqui began conquests to the north in 1463 and continued them as Inca ruler after Pachacuti's death in 1471. Túpac Inca's most important conquest was the Kingdom of Chimor, the Inca's only serious rival for the Peruvian coast. Túpac Inca's empire then stretched north into modern-day Ecuador and Colombia. Túpac Inca's son Huayna Cápac added a small portion of land to the north in modern-day Ecuador. At its height, the Inca Empire included Peru, western and south central Bolivia, southwest Ecuador and a large portion of what is today Chile, north of the Maule River. Traditional historiography claims the advance south halted after the Battle of the Maule where they met determined resistance from the Mapuche. This view is challenged by historian Osvaldo Silva who argues instead that it was the social and political framework of the Mapuche that posed the main difficulty in imposing imperial rule. Silva does accept that the battle of the Maule was a stalemate, but argues the Incas lacked incentives for conquest they had had when fighting", "Spanish conquistadors led by Francisco Pizarro and his brothers explored south from what is today Panama, reaching Inca territory by 1526. It was clear that they had reached a wealthy land with prospects of great treasure, and after another expedition in 1529 Pizarro traveled to Spain and received royal approval to conquer the region and be its viceroy. This approval was received as detailed in the following quote: \"In July 1529 the Queen of Spain signed a charter allowing Pizarro to conquer the Incas. Pizarro was named governor", "The Spanish installed Atahualpa's brother Manco Inca Yupanqui in power; for some time Manco cooperated with the Spanish while they fought to put down resistance in the north. Meanwhile, an associate of Pizarro, Diego de Almagro, attempted to claim Cusco. Manco tried to use this intra-Spanish feud to his advantage, recapturing Cusco in 1536, but the Spanish retook the city afterwards. Manco Inca then retreated to the mountains of Vilcabamba and established the small Neo-Inca State, where he and his successors ruled for another 36 years, sometimes raiding the Spanish or inciting revolts against them. In 1572 the last Inca stronghold was conquered and the last ruler, Túpac Amaru, Manco's son, was captured and executed. This ended resistance to", "", "The number of people inhabiting Tawantinsuyu at its peak is uncertain, with estimates ranging from 4–37 million. Most population estimates are in the range of 6 to", "The main form of communication and record-keeping in the empire were quipus, ceramics, textiles and various dialects of Quechua, the language the Incas imposed upon the peoples within the empire. While Quechua had been spoken in the Andean region, including central Peru, for several centuries prior to the expansion of the Inca civilization, the dialect of Quechua the Incas imposed was an adaptation from the Kingdom of Cusco (an early form of \"Southern Quechua\" originally named Qhapaq Runasimi, or 'the great language of the people'), or what some historians define as the Cusco dialect. The language imposed by the Incas diverted from its original phonetics as some societies formed their own regional varieties. The diversity of Quechua at that point and even today does not come", "The high infant mortality rates that plagued the Inca Empire caused all newborn infants to be given the term ‘wawa’ when they were born. Most families did not invest very much into their child until they reached the age of two or three years old. Once the child reached the age of three, a \"coming of age\" ceremony occurred, called the \"rutuchikuy\". For the Incas, this ceremony indicated that the child had entered the stage of \"ignorance\". During this ceremony, the family would invite all relatives to their house for food and dance, and then each member of the family would receive a lock of hair from the child. After each family member had received a lock, the father would shave the child's head. This stage of life was categorized by a stage of \"ignorance, inexperience, and lack of reason, a condition that the child would overcome with time.\" For Incan society, in order to advance", "In the Incan Empire, the age of marriage differed for men and women: men typically married at the age of 20, while women usually got married about four years earlier at the age of 16. Men who were highly ranked in society could have multiple wives, but those lower in the ranks could only take a single wife. Marriages were typically within classes and resembled a more business-like agreement. Once married, the women were expected to cook, collect food and watch over the children and livestock. Girls and mothers would also work around the house", "According to some historians, such as Terence N. D'Altroy, male and female roles were considered equal in Inca society. The \"indigenous cultures saw the two genders as complementary parts of a whole.\" In other words, there was not a hierarchical structure in the domestic sphere for the Incas. Within the domestic sphere, women were known as the weavers. Women's everyday tasks included: spinning, watching the children, weaving cloth, cooking, brewing chichi, preparing fields for cultivation, planting seeds, bearing children, harvesting, weeding, hoeing, herding, and carrying water.", "Inca myths were transmitted orally until early Spanish colonists recorded them; however, some scholars claim that they were recorded on quipus, Andean knotted string records. The Inca believed in reincarnation. After death, the passage to the next world was fraught with difficulties. The spirit of the dead, \"camaquen,\" would need to follow a long road and during the trip the assistance of a black dog that could see in the dark was required. Most Incas imagined the after world to be like an earthly paradise with flower-covered fields and snow-capped mountains. It was important to the Inca that they not die as a result of burning or that the body of the deceased not be incinerated. Burning would cause their vital force to disappear and threaten their passage to the after world. Those who obeyed the Inca moral code – \"ama suwa, ama llulla, ama quella\" (do not steal, do not lie, do not be lazy) – \"went to live in the Sun's warmth while others spent their eternal days in the cold earth\". The Inca nobility practiced cranial deformation. They wrapped tight cloth straps around the heads of newborns to shape their soft skulls into a more conical form, thus distinguishing the nobility from other social classes. The Incas made human sacrifices. As many as 4,000 servants, court officials, favorites and concubines were killed upon the death of the Inca Huayna Capac in 1527. The Incas performed child sacrifices around important events, such as the death of the Sapa Inca or during a famine. These sacrifices were known as \"qhapaq hucha\".", "The Incas were polytheists", "The Inca Empire employed central planning. The Inca Empire traded with outside regions, although they did not operate a substantial internal market economy. While axe-monies were used along the northern coast, presumably by the provincial \"mindaláe\" trading class, most households in the empire lived in a traditional economy in which households were required to pay taxes, usually in the form of the \"mit'a\" corvée labor, and military", "", "The Sapa Inca was conceptualized as divine and was effectively head of the state religion. The \"Willaq Umu\" (or Chief Priest) was second to the emperor. Local religious traditions continued and in some cases such as the Oracle at Pachacamac on the Peruvian coast, were officially venerated. Following Pachacuti, the Sapa Inca claimed descent from Inti, who placed a high value on imperial blood; by the end of the empire, it was common to incestuously wed brother and sister.", "The Inca Empire was a federalist system consisting of a central government with the Inca at its head and four-quarters, or \"suyu\": Chinchay Suyu (NW), Anti Suyu (NE), Kunti Suyu (SW) and Qulla Suyu (SE). The four corners of these quarters met at the center, Cusco. These \"suyu\" were likely created around 1460 during the reign of Pachacuti before the empire reached its largest territorial extent. At the time the \"suyu\" were established they were roughly of equal size and only later changed their proportions as the empire expanded north and south along the Andes. Cusco was likely not", "The most populous \"suyu\" was Chinchaysuyu, which encompassed the former Chimu empire and much of the northern Andes. At its largest extent, it extended through much of modern Ecuador and into modern Colombia. The largest \"suyu\" by area was Qullasuyu, named after the Aymara-speaking Qulla people. It encompassed the Bolivian Altiplano and much of the southern Andes, reaching Argentina and as far south as the Maipo or Maule river in Central Chile. Historian José Bengoa singled out Quillota as likely being the foremost Inca settlement in Chile. The second smallest \"suyu\", Antisuyu, was northwest of Cusco in the high Andes. Its name is the root of the word \"Andes.\" Kuntisuyu was the smallest \"suyu\", located along the southern coast of modern Peru, extending into the highlands towards Cusco.", "The Inca state had no separate judiciary or codified laws. Customs, expectations and traditional local power holders governed behavior. The state had legal force, such as through \"tokoyrikoq\" (lit. \"he who", "Colonial sources are not entirely clear or in agreement about Inca government structure, such as exact duties and functions of government positions. But the basic structure can be broadly described. The top was the \"Sapa Inca\". Below that may have been the \"Willaq Umu\", literally the \"priest who recounts\", the High Priest of the Sun. However, beneath the \"Sapa Inca\" also sat the \"Inkap rantin\", who was a confidant and assistant to the \"Sapa Inca\", perhaps similar to a Prime Minister. Starting with Topa Inca Yupanqui, a \"Council of the Realm\" was composed of 16 nobles: 2 from \"hanan\" Cusco; 2 from \"hurin\" Cusco; 4 from Chinchaysuyu; 2 from Cuntisuyu; 4 from Collasuyu; and 2 from Antisuyu. This weighting of representation balanced the \"hanan\"", "", "Architecture was the most important of the Incan arts, with textiles reflecting architectural motifs. The most notable example is Machu Picchu, which was constructed by Inca engineers. The prime Inca structures were made of stone blocks that fit together so well that a knife could not be fitted through the stonework. These constructs have survived for centuries, with no use of mortar", "Physical measures used by the Inca were based on human body parts. Units included fingers, the distance from thumb to forefinger, palms, cubits and wingspans. The most basic distance unit was \"thatkiy\" or \"thatki\", or one pace. The next largest unit was reported by Cobo to be the \"topo\" or \"tupu\", measuring 6,000 \"thatkiy\"s, or about ; careful study has shown that a range of is likely. Next was the \"wamani\", composed of 30 \"topo\"s (roughly ). To measure area, 25 by 50 wingspans were used, reckoned in \"topo\"s (roughly ). It seems likely that distance was often interpreted as one day's walk; the distance between \"tambo\" way-stations varies widely in terms of distance, but far less in terms of time to walk that distance. Inca calendars were strongly tied to astronomy. Inca astronomers understood equinoxes, solstices and zenith passages, along with the Venus cycle. They could not, however, predict eclipses. The Inca calendar was essentially lunisolar, as two calendars were maintained in parallel, one solar and one lunar. As 12 lunar months fall", "Ceramics were painted using the polychrome technique portraying numerous motifs including animals, birds, waves, felines (popular in the Chavin culture) and geometric patterns found in the Nazca style of ceramics. In a culture without a written language, ceramics portrayed the basic scenes of everyday life, including", "The Inca recorded information on assemblages of knotted strings, known as Quipu, although they can no longer be decoded. Originally it was thought that Quipu were used only as mnemonic devices or to record numerical data. Quipus are", "The Incas revered the coca plant as sacred/magical. Its leaves were used in moderate amounts to lessen hunger and pain during work, but were mostly used for religious", "The Inca army was the most powerful at that time, because any ordinary villager or farmer could be recruited as a soldier as part of the \"mit'a\" system of mandatory public service. Every able bodied male Inca of fighting age had to take part in war in some capacity at least once and to prepare for warfare again when needed. By the time the empire reached its largest size, every section of the empire contributed in setting up an army for war. The Incas had no iron or steel and their weapons were not much more effective than those of their opponents so", "Chronicles and references from the 16th and 17th centuries support the idea of a banner. However, it represented the Inca (emperor), not the empire. Francisco López de Jerez wrote in 1534: Chronicler Bernabé Cobo wrote: <br>()<br>- Guaman Poma's 1615 book, \"El primer nueva corónica y buen gobierno\", shows numerous line drawings of Inca flags. In his 1847 book \"A History of the Conquest of Peru\", \"William H. Prescott... says that in the Inca army each company had its particular banner and that the imperial standard, high above all, displayed the glittering device of the rainbow, the armorial ensign of the Incas.\" A 1917 world flags book says the Inca \"heir-apparent... was entitled to display the royal standard", "Incas were able to adapt to their high-altitude living through successful acclimatization, which is characterized by increasing oxygen supply to the blood tissues. For the native Inca living in the Andean highlands, this was achieved through the development of a larger lung capacity, and an increase in red blood cell counts, hemoglobin concentration, and capillary beds. Compared to other humans, the Incas had slower heart rates, almost one-third larger lung capacity, about 2 L (4 pints) more blood volume and double the amount of hemoglobin, which transfers oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body. While the Conquistadors may have been slightly taller, the Inca had the advantage of coping with the extraordinary altitude." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography.", "History.", "Agriculture.", "In popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Kızılırmak flows for a total of, rising in Eastern Anatolia around, flowing first to the west and southwest until, then forming a wide arch, the \"Halys bend\", flowing first to the west, then to the northwest, passing to the northeast of Lake Tuz, then to the north and northeast, where it is joined by its major tributary, the Delice River (also known by its Greek name Cappadox) at, and after zigzagging to the northwest to the confluence with the Devrez River at, and back to the northeast, joining the Gökırmak before finally flowing through its delta into the Black Sea at. Dams on the river include the Boyabat, Altınkaya and Derbent.", "The Hittites called it the Maraššantiya. It formed the western boundary of Hatti, the core land of the Hittite empire. Until the Roman conquest of Anatolia the Halys River, later called by Turkish conquerors the \"Kızılırmak\", served as a natural political boundary in central Asia Minor, first between the kingdom of Lydia and the Persian Empire, and later between the Pontic Kingdom and the Kingdom of Cappadocia. In the 1st century AD Vespasian combined several provinces, including Cappadocia, to create one large province; its eastern boundary was marked by the Euphrates River. This province once again splintered during Trajans reign—the newly created province of Cappadocia, bounded by the Euphrates to the East, included Pontus and Lesser Armenia. The Halys River remained an interior river and never regained its significance as a political border. In the 130s a governor of Cappadocia wrote: \"long ago the Halys River was the boundary between the kingdom of Croesus and the Persian Empire; now it flows under Roman dominion.\" As the site of the Battle of Halys or Battle of the Eclipse on May 28, 585 BC, it was the border between Lydia to the west and Media to the east until Croesus of Lydia crossed it to attack Cyrus the Great in 547 BC. He was defeated and Persia expanded to the Aegean Sea.", "The river water is used to grow rice and in some areas water buffalo are kept.", "The historical fiction manga \"Red River\" is named after and largely set in the Kızılırmak basin, during the age of the Hittites." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "The paradox.", "Explanation.", "Other factors.", "Steady state.", "Finite age of stars.", "Brightness.", "Fractal star distribution." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The first one to address the problem of an infinite number of stars and the resulting heat in the Cosmos was Cosmas Indicopleustes, a Greek monk from Alexandria, who states in his \"Topographia Christiana\": \"The crystal-made sky sustains the heat of the Sun, the moon, and the infinite number of stars; otherwise, it would have been full of fire, and it could melt or set on fire.\" Edward Robert Harrison's \"Darkness at Night: A Riddle of the Universe\" (1987) gives an account of the dark night sky paradox, seen as a problem in the history of science. According to Harrison, the first to conceive of anything like the paradox was Thomas Digges, who was also the first to expound the Copernican system in English and also postulated an infinite universe with infinitely many stars. Kepler also posed the problem in 1610, and the paradox took its mature form in the 18th century work of Halley and Cheseaux. The paradox is commonly attributed to the German amateur astronomer Heinrich Wilhelm Olbers, who described it in 1823, but Harrison shows convincingly that Olbers was far from the first to pose the problem, nor was his thinking about it particularly valuable. Harrison argues that the first to set out a satisfactory resolution of the paradox was Lord Kelvin, in a little known 1901 paper, and that Edgar Allan Poe's essay \"\" (1848) curiously anticipated some qualitative aspects of Kelvin's argument:", "The paradox is that a static, infinitely old universe with an infinite number of stars distributed in an infinitely large space would be bright rather than dark. To show this, we divide the universe into a series of concentric shells, 1 light year thick. A certain number of stars will be in the shell 1,000,000,000 to 1,000,000,001 light years away. If the universe is homogeneous at a large scale, then there would be four times as many stars in a second shell, which is between 2,000,000,000 and 2,000,000,001 light years away. However, the second shell is twice as far away, so each star in it would appear one quarter as bright as the stars in the first shell. Thus the total light received from the second shell is the same as the total light received from the first shell. Thus each shell of a given thickness will produce the same net amount of light regardless of how far away it is. That is, the light of each shell adds to the total amount. Thus the more shells, the more light; and with infinitely many shells, there would be a bright night sky. While dark clouds could obstruct the light, these clouds would heat up, until they were as hot as the stars, and then radiate the same amount of light. Kepler saw this as an argument for a finite observable universe, or at least for a finite number of stars. In general relativity theory, it is still possible for the paradox to hold in a finite universe: though the sky would not be infinitely bright, every point in the sky would still be like the surface of a star.", "The poet Edgar Allan Poe suggested that the finite size of the observable universe resolves the apparent paradox. More specifically, because the universe is finitely old and the speed of light is finite, only finitely many stars can be observed from Earth (although the whole universe can be infinite in space). The density of stars within this finite volume is sufficiently low that any line of sight from Earth is unlikely to reach a star. However, the Big Bang theory seems to introduce a new problem: it states that the sky was much brighter in the past, especially at the end of the recombination era, when it first became transparent. All points of the local sky at that era were comparable in brightness to the surface of the Sun, due to the high temperature of the universe in that era; and most light rays will originate not from a star but the relic of the Big Bang. This problem is addressed by the fact that the Big Bang theory also involves the expansion of space, which can cause the energy of emitted light to be reduced via redshift. More specifically, the extremely energetic radiation from the Big Bang has been redshifted to microwave wavelengths (1100 times the length of its original wavelength) as a result of the cosmic expansion, and thus forms the cosmic microwave background radiation. This explains the relatively low light densities and energy levels present in most of our sky today despite the assumed bright nature of the Big Bang. The redshift also affects light from distant stars and quasars, but this diminution is minor, since the most distant galaxies and quasars have redshifts of only around 5 to 8.6.", "", "The redshift hypothesised in the Big Bang model would by itself explain the darkness of the night sky even if the universe were infinitely old. In the Steady state theory the universe is infinitely old and uniform in time as well as space. There is no Big Bang in this model, but there are stars and quasars at arbitrarily great distances. The expansion of the universe causes the light from these distant stars and quasars to redshift, so that the total light flux from the sky remains finite. Thus the observed radiation density (the sky brightness of extragalactic background light) can be independent of finiteness of the universe. Mathematically, the total electromagnetic energy density (radiation energy density) in thermodynamic equilibrium from Planck's law is e.g. for temperature 2.7 K it is 40 fJ/m... 4.5×10 kg/m and for visible temperature 6000 K we get 1 J/m... 1.1×10 kg/m. But the total radiation emitted by a star (or other cosmic object) is at most equal to the total nuclear binding energy of isotopes in the star. For the density of the observable universe of about 4.6×10 kg/m and given the known abundance of the chemical elements, the corresponding maximal radiation energy density of 9.2×10 kg/m, i.e. temperature 3.2 K (matching the value observed for the optical radiation temperature by Arthur Eddington). This is close to the summed energy density of the cosmic microwave background (CMB) and the cosmic neutrino background. The Big Bang hypothesis predicts that the CBR should have the same energy density as the binding energy density of the primordial helium, which is much greater than the binding energy density of the non-primordial elements; so it gives almost the same result. However, the steady-state model does not predict the angular distribution of the microwave background temperature accurately (as the standard ΛCDM paradigm does). Nevertheless, the modified gravitation theories (without metric expansion of the universe) cannot be ruled out by CMB and BAO observations.", "Stars have a finite age and a finite power, thereby implying that each star has a finite impact on a sky's light field density. Edgar Allan Poe suggested that this idea could provide a resolution to Olbers' paradox; a related theory was also proposed by Jean-Philippe de Chéseaux. However, stars are continually being born as well as dying. As long as the density of stars throughout the universe remains constant, regardless of whether the universe itself has a finite or infinite age, there would be infinitely many other stars in the same angular direction, with an infinite total impact. So the finite age of the stars does not explain the paradox.", "Suppose that the universe were not expanding, and always had the same stellar density; then the temperature of the universe would continually increase as the stars put out more radiation. Eventually, it would reach 3000 K (corresponding to a typical photon energy of 0.3 eV and so a frequency of 7.5×10 Hz), and the photons would begin to be absorbed by the hydrogen plasma filling most of the universe, rendering outer space opaque. This maximal radiation density corresponds to about eV/m =, which is much greater than the observed value of. So the sky is about five hundred billion times darker than it would be if the universe was neither expanding nor too young to have reached equilibrium yet. However, recent observations increasing the lower bound on the number of galaxies suggest UV absorption by hydrogen and reemission in near-IR (not visible) wavelengths also plays a role.", "A different resolution, which does not rely on the Big Bang theory, was first proposed by Carl Charlier in 1908 and later rediscovered by Benoît Mandelbrot in 1974. They both postulated that if the stars in the universe were distributed in a hierarchical fractal cosmology (e.g., similar to Cantor dust)—the average density of any region diminishes as the region considered increases—it would not be necessary to rely on the Big Bang theory to explain Olbers' paradox. This model would not rule out a Big Bang, but would allow for a dark sky even if the Big Bang had not occurred. Mathematically, the light received from stars as a function of star distance in a hypothetical fractal cosmos is where: The function of luminosity from a given distance \"L\"(\"r\")\"N\"(\"r\") determines whether the light received is finite or infinite. For any luminosity from a given distance proportional to \"r\", formula_3 is infinite for \"a\" ≥ −1 but finite for \"a\" < −1. So if is proportional to \"r\", then for formula_3 to be finite, must be proportional to \"r\", where \"b\" < 1. For \"b\" = 1, the numbers of stars at a given radius is proportional to that radius. When integrated over the radius, this implies that for \"b\" = 1, the \"total\" number of stars is proportional to \"r\". This would correspond to a fractal dimension of 2. Thus the fractal dimension of the universe would need to be less than 2 for this explanation to work. This explanation is not widely accepted among cosmologists, since the evidence suggests that the fractal dimension of the universe is at least 2. Moreover, the majority of cosmologists accept the cosmological principle, which assumes that matter at the scale of billions of light years is distributed isotropically. Contrarily, fractal cosmology requires anisotropic matter distribution at the largest scales. Cosmic microwave background radiation has cosine anisotropy." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Mythology.", "Adventures.", "Odysseus' name.", "In popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "There are a number of different accounts of the birth of Autolycus. According to most, he was the son of Hermes and Chione or Philonis. In Ovid's version, Autolycus was conceived after Hermes had intercourse with the virgin Chione. Pausanias instead states that Autolycus' real father was Daedalion. In some accounts, his mother was also called Telauge. Depending on the source, Autolycus was the husband of Mestra (who could change her shape at will and was a daughter of Erysichthon), or of Neaera, or of Amphithea. He became the father of Anticlea (who married Laertes of Ithaca and was the mother of Odysseus) and several sons, of whom only Aesimus, father of Sinon was named. Autolycus' other daughter was Polymede, mother of Jason, the famous Argonaut who led a group of men to find the coveted Golden Fleece. A different Autolycus, the son of Deimachus, was a part of the Argonauts who went on the journey to find the fleece.", "", "Autolycus obtained most of the same skills that his supposed father Hermes possesses, such as the arts of theft and trickery. It was said that he \"loved to make white of black, and black of white, from a hornless animal to a horned one, or from horned one to a hornless\". He was given the gift that his thievery could not be caught by anyone. He had a helmet to make him invisible. Autolycus, master of thievery, was also well known for stealing Sisyphus' herd right from underneath him – Sisyphus, who was commonly known for being a crafty king that killed guests, seduced his niece and stole his brothers' throne and was banished to the throes of Tartarus by the gods. Heracles, the great Greek hero, was taught the art of wrestling by Autolycus. However, Autolycus was a source of trouble in Heracles' life, because when Autolycus stole some cattle from Euboea and Eurytus, they accused Heracles of the deed; upon going mad from these accusations, Heracles killed them and another one of Eurytus' sons, Iphitus. This led to Heracles serving three years of punishment to repent the deed.", "Through Anticleia, Autolycus was also the grandfather of the famous warrior Odysseus, and he was responsible for the naming of the child as well. This happened when the nurse of the child Eurycleia \"laid the child upon his knees and spoke, and addressed him: Autolycus, find now thyself a name to give to thy child's own child; be sure he has long been prayed for\". Then Autolycus answered: \"Since I have been angered (ὀδυσσάμενος \"odyssamenos\") with many, both men and women, let the name of the child be Odysseus\".", "Although not as well known as many other Greek mythological figures, Autolycus has appeared in a number of works of fiction." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name.", "Geography.", "Flora.", "Fauna.", "Earthquakes.", "Climate.", "History.", "Prehistory.", "Minoan Era.", "Mycenaean Era.", "Archaic Era.", "Classical Era.", "Hellenistic age.", "Byzantine period.", "Crusader and Ottoman rule.", "Modern history.", "Archaeology.", "Religion.", "Christianity.", "Islam.", "Judaism.", "Government.", "Towns and villages.", "Economy.", "Transportation.", "Air.", "Sea.", "Road network.", "Bus.", "Cars and motorbikes.", "Cuisine.", "Tourism.", "Panoramas." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The island has been known as (Ródos) in Greek throughout its history. It was also called Lindos (). In addition, the island has been called in Italian, in Turkish, and or in Ladino. The name of the island comes from the ancient Greek \"Rhódon\" (rose). \"The Travels of Sir John Mandeville\" incorrectly reports that Rhodes was formerly called \"Collosus\", through a conflation of the Colossus of Rhodes and Paul's \"Epistle to the Colossians\", which refers to Colossae. The island's name might be derived from \"erod\", Phoenician for snake, since the island was home to many snakes in antiquity.", "The island of Rhodes is shaped like a spearhead, long and wide, with a total area of approximately and a coastline of approximately. Limestone is the main bedrock. The city of Rhodes is located at the northern tip of the island, as well as the site of the ancient and modern commercial harbours. The main air gateway (Diagoras International Airport, IATA code: RHO) is located to the southwest of the city in Paradisi. The road network radiates from the city along the east and west coasts. Outside the city of Rhodes, the island is dotted with small villages and spa resorts, among them Faliraki, Lindos, Kremasti, Haraki, Pefkos, Archangelos, Afantou, Ixia, Koskinou, Embona (Attavyros), Paradisi, and Trianta (Ialysos). There are mineral-rich spring water (and sometimes sea water) used to give medicinal baths and the spa resorts offer various health treatments. Rhodes is situated east-southeast from the Greek mainland, and from the southern shore of Turkey.", "The interior of the island is mountainous, sparsely inhabited and covered with forests of pine (\"Pinus brutia\") and cypress (\"Cupressus sempervirens\"). While the shores are rocky, the island has arable strips of land where citrus fruit, wine grapes, vegetables, olives and other crops are grown.", "The Rhodian population of fallow deer was found to be genetically distinct in 2005, and to be of urgent conservation concern. In Petaloudes Valley (Greek for \"Valley of the Butterflies\"), large numbers of tiger moths gather during the summer months. Mount Attavyros, at, is the island's highest point of elevation.", "Earthquakes include the 226 BC earthquake that destroyed the Colossus of Rhodes; one on 3 May 1481 which destroyed much of the city of Rhodes; and one on 26 June 1926. On 15 July 2008, Rhodes was struck by a 6.3 magnitude earthquake causing minor damage to a few old buildings and one death.", "Rhodes has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (\"Csa\" in the Köppen climate classification).", "", "The island was inhabited in the Neolithic period, although little remains of this culture.", "In the 16th century BC, the Minoans came to Rhodes. Later Greek mythology recalled a Rhodian race called the Telchines and associated the island of Rhodes with Danaus; it was sometimes nicknamed \"Telchinis\".", "In the 15th century BC, Mycenaean Greeks invaded. After the Bronze Age collapse, the first renewed outside contacts were with Cyprus. Homer mentions that Rhodes participated in the Trojan War under the leadership of Tlepolemus.", "In the 8th century BC, the island's settlements started to form, with the coming of the Dorians, who built the three important cities of Lindos, Ialyssos and Kameiros, which together with Kos, Cnidus and Halicarnassus (on the mainland) made up the so-called Dorian Hexapolis (Greek for six cities). In Pindar's ode, the island was said to be born of the union of Helios the sun god and the nymph Rhodos, and the cities were named for their three sons. The \"rhoda\" is a pink hibiscus, native to the island. Diodorus Siculus added that Actis, one of the sons of Helios and Rhode, travelled to Egypt. He built the city of Heliopolis and taught the Egyptians astrology. In the second half of the 8th century, the sanctuary of Athena received votive gifts that are markers for cultural contacts: small ivories from the Near East and bronze objects from Syria. At Kameiros on the northwest coast, a former Bronze Age site, where the temple was founded in the 8th century, there is another notable contemporaneous sequence of carved ivory figurines. The cemeteries of Kameiros and Ialyssos yielded several exquisite exemplars of the Orientalizing Rhodian jewelry, dated in the 7th and early 6th centuries BC. Phoenician presence on the island at Ialysos is attested in traditions recorded much later by Rhodian historians.", "The Persians invaded and overran the island, but they were in turn defeated by forces from Athens in 478 BC. The Rhodian cities joined the Athenian League. When the Peloponnesian War broke out in 431 BC, Rhodes remained largely neutral, although it remained a member of the League. The war lasted until 404 BC, but by this time Rhodes had withdrawn entirely from the conflict and decided to go her own way. In 408 BC, the cities united to form one territory. They built the city of Rhodes, a new capital on the northern end of the island. Its regular plan was, according to Strabo, superintended by the Athenian architect Hippodamus. In 357 BC, the island was conquered by the king Mausolus of Caria, then it fell again to the Persians in 340 BC. Their rule was also short.", "Rhodes then became a part of the growing empire of Alexander the Great in 332 BC, after he defeated the Persians. Following the death of Alexander, his generals vied for control of the kingdom. Three—Ptolemy, Seleucus, and Antigonus—succeeded in dividing the kingdom among themselves. Rhodes formed strong commercial and cultural ties with the Ptolemies in Alexandria, and together formed the Rhodo-Egyptian alliance that controlled trade throughout the Aegean in the 3rd century BC. The city developed into a maritime, commercial and cultural center; its coins circulated nearly everywhere in the Mediterranean. Its famous schools of philosophy, science, literature and rhetoric shared masters with Alexandria: the Athenian rhetorician Aeschines, who formed a school at Rhodes; Apollonius of Rhodes; the observations and works of the astronomers Hipparchus and Geminus, the rhetorician Dionysius Thrax. Its school of sculptors developed, under Pergamese influence, a rich, dramatic style that can be characterized as \"Hellenistic Baroque\". Agesander of Rhodes, with two other Rhodian sculptors, carved the famous \"Laocoön group\", now in the Vatican Museums, and the large sculptures rediscovered at Sperlonga in the villa of Tiberius, probably in the early Imperial period. In 305 BC, Antigonus directed his son, Demetrius, to besiege Rhodes in an attempt to break its alliance with Egypt. Demetrius created huge siege engines, including a battering ram and a siege tower called Helepolis that weighed. Despite this engagement, in 304 BC after only one year, he relented and signed a peace agreement, leaving behind a huge store of military equipment. The Rhodians sold the equipment and used the money to erect a statue of their sun god, Helios, the statue since called the Colossus of Rhodes. Throughout the 3rd century BC, Rhodes attempted to secure her independence and her commerce, most especially her virtual control over the grain trade in the eastern Mediterranean. Both of these goals were dependent upon no one of the three great Hellenistic states achieving dominance, and consequently the Rhodians pursued a policy of maintaining a balance of power among the Antigonids, Seleucids and Ptolemies, even if that meant going to war with her traditional ally, Egypt. To this end they employed as leverage their economy and their excellent navy, which was manned by proverbially the finest sailors in the Mediterranean world: \"If we have ten Rhodians, we have ten ships.\" The Rhodians also established their dominance on the shores of Caria across from their island, which became known as the \"Rhodian Peraia\". It extended roughly from the modern city of Muğla (ancient \"Mobolla\") in the north and Kaunos bordering Lycia in the south, near the present-day Dalyan, Turkey. Rhodes successfully carried on this policy through the course of the third century BC, an impressive achievement for what was essentially a democratic state. By the end of that period, however, the balance of power was crumbling, as declining Ptolemaic power made Egypt an attractive target for Seleucid ambitions. In 203/2 BC the young and dynamic kings of Antigonid Macedon and Seleucid Asia, Philip V and Antiochus III, agreed to accept—at least temporarily—their respective military ambitions, Philip's campaign in the Aegean and western Anatolia and Antiochus’ final solution of the Egyptian question. Heading a coalition of small states, the Rhodians checked Philip's navy, but not his superior army. Without a third power to which to turn, the Rhodians appealed in 201 BC to the Roman Republic. Despite being exhausted by the titanic struggle against Hannibal (218–201 BC) the Romans agreed to intervene, having already been stabbed in the back by Philip during the war against Carthage. The Senate saw the appeal from Rhodes and her allies as the opportunity to pressure Philip. The result was the Second Macedonian War (200–196 BC), which ended Macedon's role as a major player and preserved Rhodian independence. Rhodian influence in the Aegean was cemented through the organization of the Cyclades into the Second Nesiotic League under Rhodian leadership. The Romans actually withdrew from Greece after the end of the conflict, but the resulting power vacuum quickly drew in Antiochus and subsequently the Romans, who defeated (192–188 BC) the last Mediterranean power that might even vaguely threaten their predominance. Having provided Rome with valuable naval help in her first foray into Asia, the Rhodians were rewarded with territory and enhanced status. The Romans once again evacuated the east – the Senate preferred clients to provinces – but it was clear that Rome now ruled the world and Rhodian autonomy was ultimately dependent upon good relations with them. And those good graces soon evaporated in the wake of the Third Macedonian War (171–168 BC). In 169 BC, during the war against Perseus, Rhodes sent Agepolis as ambassador to the consul Quintus Marcius Philippus, and then to Rome in the following year, hoping to turn the Senate against the war. Rhodes remained scrupulously neutral during the war, but in the view of hostile elements in the Senate she had been a bit too friendly with the defeated King Perseus. Some actually proposed declaring war on the island republic, but this was averted. In 164, Rhodes became a permanent ally of Rome, ending an independence that no longer had any meaning. It was said that the Romans ultimately turned against the Rhodians because the islanders were the only people they had encountered who were more arrogant than themselves. After surrendering its independence Rhodes became a cultural and educational center for Roman noble families and was especially noted for its teachers of rhetoric, such as Hermagoras and the unknown author of \"Rhetorica ad Herennium\". At first, the state was an important ally of Rome and enjoyed numerous privileges, but these were later lost in various machinations of Roman politics. Cassius eventually invaded the island and sacked the city. In the early Imperial period Rhodes became a favorite place for political exiles. In the 1st century AD, the Emperor Tiberius spent a brief term of exile on Rhodes. Saint Paul brought Christianity to people on the island. Rhodes reached her zenith in the 3rd century. In ancient times there was a Roman saying: \"!\"—\"Here is Rhodes, jump here\", an admonition to prove one's idle boasts by deed rather than talk. It comes from an Aesop's fable called \"The Boastful Athlete\" and was cited by Hegel, Marx, and Kierkegaard.", "In 395 with the division of the Roman Empire, the long Byzantine period began for Rhodes. In Late Antiquity, the island was the capital of the Roman province of the Islands, headed by a \"praeses\" (\"hegemon\" in Greek), and encompassing most of the Aegean islands, with twenty cities. Correspondingly, the island was also the metropolis of the ecclesiastical province of Cyclades, with eleven suffragan sees. Beginning from ca. 600 AD, its influence in maritime issues was manifested in the collection of maritime laws known as \"Rhodian Sea Law\" (\"Nomos Rhodion Nautikos\"), accepted throughout the Mediterranean and in use throughout Byzantine times (and influencing the development of admiralty law up to the present). In 622/3, during the climactic Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628, Rhodes was captured by the Sasanian navy. Rhodes was occupied by the Islamic Umayyad forces of Caliph Muawiyah I in 654, who carried off the remains of the Colossus of Rhodes. The island was again captured by the Arabs in 673 as part of their first attack on Constantinople. When their fleet was destroyed by Greek fire before Constantinople and by storms on its return trip, however, the island was evacuated in 679/80 as part of the Byzantine–Umayyad peace treaty. In 715 the Byzantine fleet dispatched against the Arabs launched a rebellion at Rhodes, which led to the installation of Theodosios III on the Byzantine throne. From the early 8th to the 12th centuries, Rhodes belonged to the Cibyrrhaeot Theme of the Byzantine Empire, and was a centre for shipbuilding and commerce. In 1090, it was occupied by the forces of the Seljuk Turks, not long after the Battle of Manzikert. Rhodes was recaptured by the Emperor Alexios I Komnenos during the First Crusade. As Byzantine central power weakened under the Angeloi emperors (1185–1204), in the first half of the 13th century, Rhodes became the centre of an independent domain under Leo Gabalas and his brother John, until it was occupied by the Genoese in 1248–1250. The Genoese were evicted by the Empire of Nicaea, after which the island became a regular province of the Nicaean state (and after 1261 of the restored Byzantine Empire). In 1305, the island was given as a fief to Andrea Morisco, a Genoese adventurer who had entered Byzantine service. Between 1300 and 1314, however, Rhodes was controlled by Menteşe, an Anatolian beylik.", "In 1306–1310, the Byzantine era of the island's history came to an end when the island was occupied by the Knights Hospitaller. Under the rule of the newly named \"Knights of Rhodes\", the city was rebuilt into a model of the European medieval ideal. Many of the city's famous monuments, including the Palace of the Grand Master, were built during this period. The strong walls which the knights had built withstood the attacks of the Sultan of Egypt in 1444, and a siege by the Ottomans under Mehmed II in 1480. Eventually, however, Rhodes fell to the large army of Suleiman the Magnificent in December 1522. The Sultan deployed 400 ships delivering 100,000 men to the island (200,000 in other sources). Against this force the Knights, under Grand Master Philippe Villiers de L'Isle-Adam, had about 7,000 men-at-arms and their fortifications. The siege lasted six months, at the end of which the surviving defeated Hospitallers were allowed to withdraw to the Kingdom of Sicily. Despite the defeat, both Christians and Muslims seem to have regarded the conduct of Villiers de L'Isle-Adam as extremely valiant, and the Grand Master was proclaimed a Defender of the Faith by Pope Adrian VI (see Knights of Cyprus and Rhodes). The knights would later move their base of operations to Malta. Rhodes was thereafter a possession of the Ottoman Empire (see Sanjak of Rhodes) for nearly four centuries.", "The island was populated by ethnic groups from the surrounding nations, including Jews. Under Ottoman rule, they generally did fairly well, but discrimination and bigotry occasionally arose. In February 1840, the Jews of Rhodes were falsely accused by the Greek Orthodox community of ritually murdering a Christian boy. This became known as the Rhodes blood libel. Austria opened a post-office at \"RHODUS\" (Venetian name) before 1864, as witnessed by stamps with Franz-Josef head. In 1912, Italy seized Rhodes from the Ottomans during the Italo-Turkish War. The island's population was spared the \"exchange of the minorities\" between Greece and Turkey. Rhodes and the rest of the Dodecanese Islands were assigned to Italy in the Treaty of Ouchy. Turkey ceded them officially to Italy with the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne. It then became the core of their possession of the \"Isole Italiane dell'Egeo\". Following the Italian Armistice of 8 September 1943, the British attempted to get the Italian garrison on Rhodes to change sides. This was anticipated by the German Army, which succeeded in occupying the island with the Battle of Rhodes. In great measure, the German occupation caused the British failure in the subsequent Dodecanese Campaign. The Turkish Consul Selahattin Ülkümen succeeded, at considerable risk to himself and his family, in saving 42 Jewish families, about 200 persons in total, who had Turkish citizenship or were members of Turkish citizens' families. On 8 May 1945 the Germans under Otto Wagener surrendered Rhodes as well as the Dodecanese as a whole to the British, who soon after then occupied the islands as a military protectorate. In 1947, Rhodes, together with the other islands of the Dodecanese, was united with Greece. In 1949, Rhodes was the venue for negotiations between Israel and Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria, concluding with the 1949 Armistice Agreements. The name of the US state of Rhode Island is based on a reference to Rhodes by Italian explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano. In a 1524 letter detailing his excursion into the waters around either Block Island or Aquidneck Island Verrazano wrote that he \"discovered an Ilande in the form of a triangle, distant from the maine lande 3 leagues, about the bignesse of the Ilande of the Rodes\".", "The Colossus of Rhodes was considered to be one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. This giant bronze statue was documented as once standing at the harbour. It was completed in 280 BC and destroyed in an earthquake in 224 BC. No trace of the statue remains today. Historical sites on the island of Rhodes include the Acropolis of Lindos, the Acropolis of Rhodes with the Temple of Pythian Apollo and an ancient theatre and stadium, ancient Ialysos, ancient Kamiros, the Governor's Palace, Rhodes Old Town (walled medieval city), the Palace of the Grand Masters, Kahal Shalom Synagogue in the Jewish Quarter, the Archaeological Museum, the ruins of the castle of Monolithos, the castle of Kritinia, St. Catherine Hospice and Rhodes Footbridge.", "", "The predominant religion is Greek Orthodox; the island is the seat of the Metropolis of Rhodes. There is a significant Latin Catholic minority on the island of 2,000, many of whom are descendants of Italians who remained after the end of the Italian occupation, pastorally served by the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Rhodes.", "Rhodes has a Turkish Muslim minority, a remnant from Ottoman Turkish times who were not required in the population exchange of 1923–24 to leave because the Dodecanese Islands were under Italian administration. They are organized around the Turkish Association of Rhodes (), which gives the figure 3,500 for the population they bring together and represent for the island. The number of the Turks in Rhodes could be as many as 4,000.", "The Jewish community of Rhodes goes back to the first century AD. \"Kahal Shalom Synagogue\", established in 1557, during the Ottoman era, is the oldest synagogue in Greece and still stands in the Jewish quarter of the old town of Rhodes. At its peak in the 1920s, the Jewish community was one-third of the town's total population. In the 1940s, there were about 2000 Jews of various ethnic backgrounds. The Nazis deported and killed most of the community during the Holocaust. \"Kahal Shalom\" has been renovated with the help of foreign donors but few Jews live year-round in Rhodes today, so services are not held on a regular basis. The Jewish Museum of Rhodes was established in 1997 to preserve the Jewish history and culture of the Jews of Rhodes. It is adjacent to the Kahal Shalom Synagogue.", "The present municipality Rhodes was formed at the 2011 local government reform by the merger of the following 10 former municipalities, that became municipal units (constituent communities in parentheses): The municipality has an area of 1400.681 km. It covers the island of Rhodes and a few uninhabited offshore islets. Rhodes city was the capital of the former Dodecanese Prefecture. Rhodes is the most populated island of the South Aegean Region.", "Rhodes has 43 towns and villages:", "The economy is tourist-oriented, and the most developed sector is service. Tourism has elevated Rhodes economically, compared to the rest of Greece. Small industries process imported raw materials for local retail, though other industry includes agricultural goods production, stockbreeding, fishery and winery.", "", "Rhodes has three airports, but only one is public. Diagoras Airport, one of the biggest in Greece, is the main entrance/exit point for both locals and tourists. The island is well connected with other major Greek cities and islands as well as with major European capitals and cities via charter flights. Two pilot schools offer aviation services (small plane rental and island hopping).", "Rhodes has five ports, three of them in Rhodes City, one in the west coast near Kamiros and one in east coast near Lardos.", "The road network of the island is mostly paved and consists of 3 national roads plus one planned, 40 provincial and numerous local. These are the four major island arteries: Future roads:", "Bus services are handled by two operators:", "Families in Rhodes often own more than one car, along with a motorbike. Traffic jams are common particularly in the summer months as vehicles more than double while parking spots downtown and around the old town are limited and can't cope with demand. Moreover, the island is served by 450 taxis and some 200 public and private buses adding to the traffic burden.", "Rhodian tradition in food is rich. Koriantolino and Souma (colorless alcoholic beverage produced from grape distillation) are the main alcoholic drinks of Rhodes. Local foods include Pitaroudia, Milla and Tsiriggia, Pougia pie, Lakani, Katsikaki Kapamas, Lópia (beans) with goat, Makarounia, Matsi or Koulouría (hand made pasta), Tsouvras, Sivrasi, Giaprakia, Kefalopoda Lambris, Giachni, Ladopita, Tachinopita, Sinoro (traditional cheese). Local pastry specialties are Melekouni, Fanouropita, Mouchalebi, Takakia, Escharitis, Amigdalotá (white almond cookies), Moschopougia and Mantinades.", "Rhodes is one of the most attractive tourist destinations in Greece. After Crete the island is the most visited destination in Greece, with arrivals standing at 1,785,305 in 2013. In 2014 they stood at 1,931,005, while in 2015 the arrival number reduced slightly and stood at 1,901,000. The average length of stay is estimated at 8 days. Guests from Great Britain, Israel, France, Italy, Sweden and Norway are the ones that constitute the biggest portion in terms of the arrivals by country. In Rhodes the supply of available rooms is high, since more than 550 hotels are operating in the island, the majority of which are 2 star hotels. Additionally, in terms of competitiveness, the World Tourism Organization ranks Greece in the 31st position globally.", "Rhodes harbor 2017: Rhodes panorama 2017:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Population and demographics.", "Transport." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Rožaje was first settled in antiquity by Illyrians. Later, during the migration of the Slavs, Slavs settled in the area. Rožaje was first mentioned in 1571 and 1585. The settlement surrounding the then fort was called Trgovište, which it was called until 1912. In 1797 the Ganić kula, a defensive tower (much like the same towers build within the Caucasus region between Russia and Georgia), built from the Muslim side of the Kuči (Muslim members of the clan), as they supported Muslim authority and culture, was built. Nowadays, the tower is currently the town's museum. During the Ottoman Empire's reign over Montenegro, the Sultan Murat II Mosque was constructed in the city in the 1500s, which also contains the turbe of the sultan's body. During World War I, the army of the Kingdom of Montenegro captured the city in 1912 from the Ottoman Empire, during the First Balkan War. It was officially ceded to Montenegro following the Treaty of London in 1913 that ended the war. After the war, Rožaje was one of the main cities that participated in the Plav rebellion (\"Plavska pobuna\") of 1919, which fought against the inclusion of Sandzak in the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. An estimated 700 Albanians were killed in Rožaje when the rebellion was quelled. During World War II, the city has seen conflict between the Yugoslav Partisans, the Chetniks, the Sandzak Muslim Militia, and the Albanian Vulnetari. Mullah Jakup Kardović, who would end up being a prominent commander of the Militia and would participate in the Battle for Novi Pazar, came from the village of Biševo, which is 4-5km away from the city. In 1992, during the Yugoslav Wars, the Bosniaks of Foča who managed to escape the massacre that happened in the town were resettled in Rožaje. In 2018, a replica of the Sebilj in Sarajevo has been completed and is currently displayed in the town's main square. Rožaje annually celebrates its foundation day on September 30th.", "Rožaje is the administrative centre of the \"Rožaje municipality\", which has a total of 23,312 residents. The town of Rožaje itself has a population of 9,567 in 2011. Rožaje is also considered to be the centre for the Bosniak community of Montenegro. Bosniaks form the majority in both the town and the municipality itself. Ethnic Albanians have been present within the city, as well as the outskirts, especially villages that are close to the border of Kosovo. They enjoy and support mutual relations with the Bosniaks and other ethnicities within the city and have also became an integral part of Rožaje's society. The current population of Albanians living in Rožaje rounds up to 1,158, forming 5% of the total population in 2011. The population of Rožaje from 1981 (as SR Montenegro) to 2011 (as the current republic) is as shown below:", "Rožaje is situated on the main road connecting Montenegro with Kosovo, known as the Rožaje-Kula-Peć road (Kula being the border post between Montenegro and Kosovo on both sides). It also has a link with Novi Pazar in Central Serbia. The IB-22 Highway (otherwise known as the Ibarska magistrala) is the main regional road that connects Montenegro with Serbia. It is also connected to the rest of Montenegro by a two-laned highway via Berane, which is some in distance. The nearest airport is the Pristina International Airport in Pristina, Kosovo which is away, compared to Podgorica Airport which is about away, and has regular flights to major European destinations annually." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography.", "Nature.", "History.", "Russian revolution.", "World War II.", "Post War development.", "Politics.", "Demographics.", "Economy.", "Tourism and Hospitality Industry.", "Retail and Restaurants.", "Education.", "Sports." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Ulyanovsk Oblast borders with Chuvashia (N), Tatarstan (NE), Samara Oblast (E), Saratov Oblast (S), Penza Oblast (W), and Mordovia (NW). It is located on the northern edge of Central Steppes. A quarter of its territory is covered with deciduous forests; the rest is covered with steppes and meadows. The oblast is divided in half by the Volga River. Hilly areas to the west of the Volga are known as Volga Upland (elevations up to 358 m (1,175 ft) ). Eastern part of the oblast is mostly flat. The water table occupies about 6% of territory. Ulyanovsk Oblast has moderately continental, highly volatile climate. Temperature averages at +19 °C (66°F) in July, and −11 °C (12°F) in January. As weather systems move in and out of the area, average daily temperatures often change more than +25 °C (77°F) in the matter of days. Fixed snow cover is typically present from November to the beginning of April. Overnight frosts occur until late May, restricting agriculture to cold-resistant plants such as rye and winter wheat. Annual precipitation drops out 400 mm (16 inches) a year.", "Ulyanovsk Oblast is located in the zones of wooded plain and broad-leaved scaffolding. Soils are predominantly chernozem. Forests occupy 1/4 territories. In the northwest — large massifs of oak forest with the participation of linden, maple; in the Transvolga region — meadow steppes, separate pine borons. The area is inhabited by moose, marten, squirrel, hare (white and other) as well as numerous planktonic and marshy- coastal birds. Kuybyshev Reservoir is home to fish such as bream, pike-perch, carp and others. Ulyanovsk Oblast also has a concentrated wasp population. The protected areas are found on the territory of region: national park Sengiley Mountains, the guarding zone of state preserve “Volga wooded plain”, the monuments of nature Undory mineral source, relict forests etc.", "The first settlements of Middle Volga people were established in this area of Volga more than 100,000 years ago, according to archaeological science. The presence of human groups in the Ulyanovsk Volga region in the Paleolithic show separate parking and location of stone tools and bones found in the estuary. Cheremshan Tunguz on the peninsula, on the shores of the Volga in the region of Undory resort. In the 8th and 9th centuries Ulyanovsk Volga region became a part of the early Volga Bulgaria, as a union of nomadic Turkic and sedentary Finno-Ugric tribes. In the late 14th and early 15th century, the devastating Central Asian ruler Tamerlane began desolation territory of the Volga Ulyanovsk. Since the late 1430s the region was a part of the Kazan Khanate. After the pacification of the territory of the future of his governorship Simbirsk gradually settled by Ruthenians, who mingled with the local Tatars. In the late 1640s, under the leadership of Bogdan Hitrovo, construction of the Karsunsky-Simbirsk defense line began (1647-1654 biennium). Twenty-two years after its founding, the city of Simbirsk had to withstand a siege of the Cossacks, led by Ataman Stepan Razin. In the 18th century in connection with the expansion of the territory of the Russian state, in particular, to the east, and began to develop intensively populated southern regions of the present territory of the Ulyanovsk region. Simbirsk began to lose its status of strategic military importance, but remained the provincial center.", "The Bolsheviks took power in Simbirsk one and a half month after the October Revolution—December 10, 1917. In 1918, the province was at the heart of the civil war. In July 1918 Simbirsk was captured by troops led by White Russian tsarist General Komuch Kappel. But on September 12 the Bolsheviks recaptured the city, resulting in the restoration of communism. The Red Army victory was led by the \"Iron Division\". Simbirsk was the headquarters of the Revolutionary Military Council of the eastern front. The ammunition factory in Simbirsk was essential to ensuring the Red Army victory. In 1924 Simbirsk was renamed Ulyanovsk. On May 14, 1928 the Ulyanovsk Governorate of the RSFSR was abolished. The Province, together with Penza, Samara and Orenburg became part of the newly formed Middle Volga region.", "Since the beginning of the Great Patriotic War in Ulyanovsk, being the rear, the evacuated enterprises, institutions and people from the western regions of the country, from Moscow and Leningrad. January 19, 1943 from several districts of Kuybyshev and Penza Oblasts formed Ulyanovsk Oblast.", "In the 1950 and 1960s in the creation of new enterprises (factory of heavy and unique machines, mechanical plant, Dimitrovgrad Research Institute of Atomic Reactors, etc.), road bridge over the Volga River and the airport in Ulyanovsk. In 1970, the then General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union Leonid Brezhnev, inaugurated memorial museum of Lenin. On 30 October 1997, Ulyanovsk, alongside Astrakhan, Kirov, Murmansk, and Yaroslavl signed a power-sharing agreement with the government of Russia, granting it autonomy. The agreement would be abolished on 31 December 2001.", "During the Soviet period, the high authority in the oblast was shared between three persons: The first secretary of the Ulyanovsk CPSU Committee (who in reality had the biggest authority), the chairman of the oblast Soviet (legislative power), and the Chairman of the oblast Executive Committee (executive power). Since 1991, CPSU lost all the power, and the head of the Oblast administration, and eventually the governor was appointed/elected alongside elected regional parliament. The Charter of Ulyanovsk Oblast is the fundamental law of the region. The Legislative Assembly of Ulyanovsk Oblast is the province's standing legislative (representative) body. The Legislative Assembly exercises its authority by passing laws, resolutions, and other legal acts and by supervising the implementation and observance of the laws and other legal acts passed by it. The highest executive body is the Oblast Administration, which includes territorial executive bodies such as district administrations, committees, and commissions that facilitate development and run the day to day matters of the province. The Oblast administration supports the activities of the Governor who is the highest official and acts as guarantor of the observance of the oblast Charter in accordance with the Constitution of Russia.", "Population: 55% of residents of Ulyanovsk Oblast live in two cities with population above 25,000—Ulyanovsk and Dimitrovgrad. The ethnic composition is as follows: For the first half of 2007, the birth rate was 9.0 per 1000 The area population is reduced and for 20 years since 1991 has decreased on 200 thousand persons. 2009 - 1.40 | 2010 - 1.41 | 2011 - 1.45 | 2012 - 1.57 | 2013 - 1.61 | 2014 - 1.67 | 2015 - 1.71 | 2016 - 1.71(e)", "Ulyanovsk Oblast is part of the Volga economic region. Ulyanovsk Oblast has an abundance of land, water, forest, and mineral resources. Ulyanovsk Region also has substantial reserves of other raw materials used in industry, such as various kinds of sand, cement materials, clays, and peat. One of the largest quartz sand deposits in the CIS, the Tashlinskoe deposit, is located in the region. Ulyanovsk and Dimitrovgrad are industrial cities and contain a number of large plants and factories. Rural part of Ulyanovsk Oblast is agricultural and is focused primarily on animal husbandry, to the lesser extent on crop farming. There are two resorts in Ulyanovsk Oblast territory - \"Bely Yar\" and \"Dubki\". City of Ulyanovsk is a major, diversified, industrial hub for aircraft and auto industries. The UAZ automobile manufacturing plant, now a subsidiary of Sollers JSC; Aviastar-SP Aircraft Company, now a part of United Aircraft Corporation; Scientific and Production Association \"Mars\" (manufactures industrial control systems for the Russian Navy), now part of state-owned conglomerate Agat; Ulyanovsk Cartridge Works (manufactures ammunition for firearms); Ulyanovsk Motor Plant (russian.Ульяновский моторный завод, UMZ) and Ulyanovsk Mechanical Plant (russian.Ульяновский механический завод, UMZ, subsidiary of JSC Almaz-Antey) are based in the city along with a variety of light industry and food-processing enterprises. Other developed sectors include the flour-milling, meat, butter-making, starch and molasses, distilling, building material, and woodworking industries. In addition, a global, international airline for unique and heavy cargo, Volga-Dnepr Airlines is based in the city too. There are many manufacturing facilities of foreign corporations such as Legrand (company), Mars, Incorporated, Takata-Petri, Anadolu Efes S.K.., ALFA (Mexico) and others. Banking is mostly represented by national banks such as Sberbank, VTB Bank, Alfa-Bank, Bin Bank, Ak Bars Bank, MDM Bank, Trust Bank and also regional banks from Ulyanovsk Oblast. Ulyanovsk has also a strong military base presence in town. The 31st Airborne Brigade of the Russian Airborne Troops of the armed forces is based in Ulyanovsk.", "Tourism is a growing industry in this region because of Volga micro-climate and historical significance of Simbirsk. Hilton Hotel Group and Marriott Hotels & Resorts are building their hotels in the downtown area. The region of Undory, a driving distance from Ulyanovsk is famous for its spas and mineral water. The city offers many options for sports enthusiasts. The countryside is ideal for outdoor and water sports. The springs of Undory have been known for more than 200 years. The water at spa is rich in sodium chloride, and comes from artesian wells.", "Retail is a growing business segment in Ulyanovsk Region. International retailers such as Auchan SA, METRO AG, Media Markt, Decathlon as well as local Russian chains such as X5 Retail, Magnit, Lenta (retail), Sportmaster, M.video opened up their stores in Ulyanovsk. Aqua Mall is an American-type mall concept that opened in Ulyanovsk on the banks of Sviyaga river with modern cinema theater, IMAX. The city has also a large presence of international fast food brands such as McDonald's, Burger King, Baskin Robbins, Sbarro, KFC and others. Local Russian brands are also well-represented in this market. Regional automobile code is 73. Ulyanovsk has 2 airports.", "There is also a number of technical and medical colleges in Ulyanovsk.", "Bandy is traditionally the most popular sport in Ulyanovsk Oblast.Volga plays in the Russian Bandy Super League. The other club Simbirsk plays in the 2nd division. An indoor arena for bandy, Volga-Sport-Arena, has been built, as one of the first in Russia. It has a capacity of 5 000. The outdoor stadium will be modernised and have a capacity of 18 000. The 2016 Bandy World Championship is being played in Ulyanovsk. and Dimitrovgrad. In association football, FC Volga plays in \"Urals-Volga\" zone of the Russian Second Division. Ulyanovsk also hosted matches of first qualifying round UEFA Women's Under-17 Championship 2014. Matches were held at \"Trud\" Football Stadium in the downtown Ulyanovsk. Overall sports get a lot of support from the Ulyanovsk Oblast government." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Early years.", "Beginnings.", "Post-war success.", "Recovering the Baroque.", "Collaborations.", "\"L'homme à la flûte d'or\".", "Celebrity.", "Achievement.", "Family life.", "Leaving the stage.", "Honours.", "Discography.", "Rampal on TV and DVD.", "Radio.", "Films.", "Further reading." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Born in Marseille, the only child of Andrée (née Roggero) and flautist Joseph Rampal, Jean-Pierre Rampal became the first exponent of the solo flute in modern times to establish it on the international concert circuit, and to attract acclaim and large audiences comparable to those enjoyed by celebrity singers, pianists, and violinists. As it was unusual for solo flute to be featured widely in orchestral concerts, this was not easily done in the immediate years after World War II; however, Rampal's flair and presence—he was a big man to wield such a slim instrument—paved the way for the next generation of flautist superstars such as James Galway and Emmanuel Pahud. Rampal was a player in the classical French flute tradition, although behind", "Under the tutelage of his father, who was professor of flute at the Marseille Conservatoire and Principal Flute of the Marseille Symphony Orchestra, Rampal began playing the flute at the age of 12. He studied the Altès method at the Conservatoire, where he went on to win first prize in the school's annual flute competition in 1937 at age 16. This was also the year of his first public recital at the Salle Mazenod in Marseille. By then, Rampal was playing second flute alongside his father in the Orchestre des Concerts Classiques de Marseille; privately, they played duets together almost every day. However, his remarkable career in music—which", "In 1945, following the liberation of Paris, Rampal was invited by the composer Henri Tomasi—then conductor of the Orchestre National de France—to perform the demanding Flute Concerto by Jacques Ibert, written for Marcel Moyse in 1934, live on French National Radio. It launched his concert career overnight and was the first of many such broadcasts. In promoting the flute as a solo concert instrument at this time, Rampal acknowledged that he took his cue from Moyse. Moyse himself had enjoyed considerable popularity between the wars, although not on a truly international scale. Nevertheless, he was a role model in that he had \"definitely established a tradition for the solo flute\"; Moyse, Rampal said, \"unlocked a door that I continued to push open.\" With the war over,", "Rampal's first commercial recording, made in 1946 for the Boite a Musique label in Montparnasse, Paris, was of Mozart's Flute Quartet in D, with the Trio Pasquier. Among composers, Mozart was to remain his principal love (\"Mozart, it is true, is a god for me\", he said in his autobiography), but Mozart by no means formed the cornerstone of Rampal's works. A key element in Rampal's success in the years immediately after World War II—aside from his evident ability—was his passion for the music of the Baroque era. Aside from a few works by Bach and Vivaldi, Baroque music was still largely unrecognised when Rampal started out. He was well aware that his determination to promote the flute as a prominent solo instrument required a wide and flexible repertoire to support the endeavour. Accordingly, he seems to have been clear in his own mind from the beginning about the importance, as a ready-made resource, of the so-called \"Golden Age of the Flute\", as the Baroque era had become known. Hundreds of concertos and chamber works written for the flute in the 18th century had", "Through his recordings for labels including L'Oiseau-Lyre and, from the mid-1950s, Erato, Rampal continued to give new currency to many \"lost\" concertos by Italian composers such as Tartini, Cimarosa, Sammartini, and Pergolesi (often collaborating with Claudio Scimone and I Solisti Veneti), and French composers including Devienne, Leclair, and Loeillet, as well as other works from the Potsdam court of the flute-playing king Frederick the Great. His 1955 collaboration in Prague with Czech flautist, composer, and conductor Milan Munclinger resulted in an award-winning recording of flute concertos by Benda and Richter. In 1956, with Louis Froment, he recorded concertos in A minor and G major by C.P.E. Bach. Other composers of the era, such as Haydn, Handel, Stamitz, and Quantz, also figured significantly in his repertoire. He was open to experimentation; once, through", "As the owner of the only solid gold flute (No. 1375) made, in 1869, by the great French craftsman Louis Lot, Rampal was the first internationally renowned \"Man With the Golden Flute\". Rumours of the survival of the 18-carat gold Lot had been circulating in France for years before the Second World War, but no one knew where the piece had gone. In 1948, almost by chance, Rampal acquired the instrument from an antiques dealer who had wanted to melt the instrument down for the gold—evidently unaware", "Throughout the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s, Rampal remained especially popular in the US and Japan (where he had first toured in 1964). He toured America annually, performing at every leading venue—from Carnegie Hall and Avery Fisher Hall to the Hollywood Bowl—and was a regular presence at the Mostly Mozart Festival at the Lincoln Center in New York. At his busiest, he performed between 150 and 200 concerts a year. His range extended well beyond the orthodox: alongside the outpouring of classical recordings, he recorded Catalan and Scottish folk songs, Indian Music with sitarist Ravi Shankar, and, accompanied by the distinguished French harpist Lily Laskine, an album of Japanese folk melodies that was named album of the year in Japan, where he became adored by a new generation of budding flute-players. He also recorded Scott Joplin rags and Gershwin, and collaborated with French jazz pianist Claude Bolling. The Suite for Flute and Jazz Piano (1975), written by Bolling especially for Rampal, went to the top of the US \"Billboard\" charts and remained there for ten years. This raised his profile", "Of the primal appeal of the flute, Rampal once told the \"Chicago Tribune\": \"For me, the flute is really the sound of humanity, the sound of man flowing, completely free from his body almost without an intermediary[...] Playing the flute is not as direct as singing, but it's nearly the same.\" Calling Rampal \"an indisputably major artist\", \"The New York Times\" said \"Rampal's popularity was grounded in qualities that won him consistent praise from critics and musicians in the first decades of", "Rampal and his harpist wife Françoise, née Bacqueryrisse, were married on 7 June 1947. They made their home in Paris, living in the appropriately named Avenue Mozart. They have two children, Isabelle and Jean-Jacques. Each year they holidayed at their house on Corsica, where Jean-Pierre was able to indulge his passion for boating, fishing and photography.", "In later years, Rampal took up the conductor's baton with more frequency, but he continued to play well into his late 70s. The last work of importance dedicated to him was Krzysztof Penderecki's Flute Concerto, which he premiered in Switzerland in 1992, followed by its first performance in America at Lincoln Center. Rampal's last public recital was held at the Theatre Villamarta in Jerez de la Frontera (Spain) in November 1999, when he was 77; he performed works by Bach, Mozart, Kuhlau and Mendelssohn. His last recording was made with the Pasquier Trio and flautist Claudi Arimany (trio and quartets by Mozart and Hoffmeister) in Paris in December 1999. After Rampal died in Paris of heart failure in May 2000 at age 78, French President Jacques Chirac led the tributes, saying \"his flute spoke to the heart. A light in the musical world has just flickered out.\" Flautist Eugenia Zukerman observed: \"He played with such a rich palette of color in a way that few people had done before and no one since. He had an ability to imbue sound with texture and clarity and emotional content. He", "Rampal's honours include his Grand Prix du Disques from l'Académie Charles Cros which included awards for his recording of Vivaldi's Op. 10 flute concertos (1954), his recording of concertos by Benda and Richter (1955) with the Chamber Orchestra of Prague (Milan Munclinger), and in 1976 the Grand Prix ad honorem du Président de la République for his overall recording career to date. He also received the \"Réalité\" Oscar du Premier Virtuose Francais (1964), the Edison Prize; the Prix Mondial du Disque; the 1978 Leonie Sonning Prize (Denmark), the 1980 Prix d’Honneur of the 13th Montreux World Recording Prize for all his recordings; and the Lotos Club Medal of Merit for his lifetime's achievement. In 1988, he was created President d’honneur of the French Flute Association \"La Traversière\", while in 1991 the National Flute Association of America gave him its inaugural Lifetime Achievement award. State honours included being made Chevalier de la Légion d’Honneur (1966) and Officier de la Légion d’Honneur (1979). He was also made a Commandeur de l’Ordre National du Mérite (1982) and Commandeur de l’Ordre des Arts", "Rampal's earliest recordings, 1946–1950, were on 78 rpm discs, many for the Parisian \"Boite a Musique\" label. With the opening of the 33 rpm LP era, he recorded for over 20 different labels between 1950 and 1970. Among the most significant of these was the French Erato label, founded in 1953, for whom he made approximately 100 recordings (several issued in the US on the RCA Red Seal label). In 1964 alone he recorded 17 albums, including three complete sets of flute pieces by Mozart, Handel, and Beethoven, in addition to concertos and other works. In 1979, he signed an exclusive contract with the CBS label (later Sony Classical), and he made over 60 albums for them. This proliferation proved bewildering even to Rampal himself.", "Rampal made a great many television concert appearances in France from the late 1950s onwards, and later elsewhere—especially in America and Japan, where his reputation and following remained highest. As the first televised flute-player of any age, the", "Apart from the many French Radio broadcasts of performances by Rampal, BBC Radio 4 broadcast a 45-minute profile, \"Rampal–\"Prince of Flute Players\"\", on 11 October 1983 in the 20:20–21:05 documentary slot. It contained extracts from an interview with Rampal himself, rare for the fact that Rampal gave very few interviews of any length in English. Rampal", "\"L. Subramaniam: Violin From the Heart\" (1999), directed by Jean Henri Meunier, includes a scene of Rampal performing", "Bel Canto Flute: The Rampal School (2003; Winzer Press) by Sheryl Cohen is a study of Rampal's methods and influence by an American flautist and teacher who studied with both Jean-Pierre Rampal and his fellow Marseille flautist Alain Marion. It is controversial to refer to the Marseilles group of flute players as a \"school\" distinct from the more widely acknowledged \"French Flute School\" in which Marcel Moyse and his predecessors Gaubert and Taffanel are central figures, but Cohen's study is an attempt to give Joseph Rampal, together with his son Jean-Pierre and others, some formal credit for an identifiable style of playing that became appreciated right around the musical world. As signature characteristics of this style, Cohen points in particular to a \"poetic approach to expressive phrasing as a foundation to develop musical artistry, creative practice methods, breath control tone, articulation, and technique, all while searching to free the artist from within.\" The book, which draws on the contents of Jean-Pierre Rampal's masterclasses, includes 34 etudes, 33 solo movements and a set of daily studies used as teaching materials by both Rampal and by Marion. Sheryl Cohen, Professor Emerita of Music at the University of Alabama, has since extended her study by also running a Fellowship at the Camargo Foundation in Cassis in Provence entitled \"The Flute School of Marseille: The Rampal Lineage\". The course chronicles \"the development and influence of the school of Joseph Rampal on flute playing in the twentieth century\" in order to \"preserve the vast philosophical and pedagogical project mounted by the school, and establish Joseph Rampal's proper place in the history of the flute.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "\"Le Peintre Graveur\".", "\"The Illustrated Bartsch\".", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Between 1803 and his death in 1821 Bartsch published in French in 21 volumes Le Peintre Graveur, a pioneering catalogue of old master prints by Dutch, Flemish, German, and Italian painter-engravers from the 15th to the 17th century. References to \"Bartsch\" normally mean this work. It has been reprinted five times, most recently in 1982. In 1821 he also published the \"Kupferstichkunde\" (The Art of Engraving) in German.", "\"The Illustrated Bartsch\" (Abaris Books, New York) is an English language illustrated version of \"Le Peintre Graveur.\" (The original \"Le Peintre Graveur\" was unillustrated by technological necessity.) The \"Illustrated Bartsch\" General Editor was Walter L. Strauss. The project has been underway since 1978, and is projected to include at least 164 volumes. Most of the picture volumes are published; the accompanying text volumes, in effect complete new catalogue raisonnés, are taking longer. In fact only Bartsch's numbering is retained in full, although his original is often quoted. All the prints known to Bartsch are illustrated in the first 50 volumes. Prints not known to Bartsch, not listed by him or new attributions are listed in the companion and later volumes. It is often abbreviated to \"TIB\" in references. It (currently the images only) is available online to colleges and other institutions subscribing to ARTstor- essentially in US & Canada only.", "Bartsch established what has become the definitive numbering system, bearing his name (e.g. \"Bartsch 17\" or \"B17\"), for Rembrandt etchings and the prints of many other artists, which is still used or at least referred to most subsequent and standard works in this field. His numbers list the works by category, roughly following the contemporary hierarchy of genres, except that self-portraits come first, followed by biblical subjects, then subjects of saints, allegories, and so on. In his lifetime, Bartsch executed over 500 plates from his own designs and from those of other masters. Many are attractive but he is not a major artist. His term peintre-graveur or painter-engraver is also still in use to distinguish original from reproductive printmakers, especially in the period of the old master print (to about 1830)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Types.", "History and modern usage.", "Lamp construction.", "Light generation mechanism.", "Pure xenon.", "Xenon-mercury.", "Ceramic xenon lamps.", "Power supply requirements.", "Automotive headlamps.", "Xenon long-arc-lamps." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Xenon arc lamps can be roughly divided into three categories: continuous-output xenon short-arc lamps, continuous-output xenon long-arc lamps, and xenon flash lamps (which are usually considered separately). Each consists of a fused quartz or other heat resistant glass arc tube, with a tungsten metal electrode at each end. The glass tube is first evacuated and then re-filled with xenon gas. For xenon flashtubes, a third \"trigger\" electrode usually surrounds the exterior of the arc tube. The lifetime of a xenon arc lamp varies according to its design and power consumption, with a major manufacturer quoting average lifetimes ranging from 500 hours (7kW) to 1,500 (1kW).", "Interest in the xenon discharge was first aroused by P. Schulz in 1944, following his discovery of its near-continuous spectrum and high colour rendering white light. Owing to wartime limitations on the availability of this noble gas, significant progress was not made until John Aldington of the British Siemens lamp company published his research in 1949. This triggered intensive efforts at the German Osram company to further develop the technology as a replacement for carbon arcs in cinema projection. The first successful public projection using xenon light was performed on 30 October 1950, when excerpts from a colour film (Das Schwarzwaldmädel) were shown during the 216th session of the German Cinematographic Society in Berlin. The technology was commercially introduced by German Osram in 1952. First produced in the 2 kW size (XBO2001), these lamps saw wide use in movie projection, where they replaced the older, more labor-intensive (to operate) carbon arc lamps. The white continuous light generated by the xenon arc is spectrally similar to daylight, but the lamp has a rather low efficacy in terms of lumens of visible light output per watt of input power. Today, almost all movie projectors in theaters employ these lamps, with power ratings ranging from 900 watts up to 12 kW. Omnimax (Imax Dome) projection systems use single xenon lamps with ratings as high as 15 kW. As of 2016, laser illumination for digital theater projectors is starting to establish a market presence and has been predicted to supersede the xenon arc lamp for this application.", "All modern xenon short-arc lamps use a fused quartz envelope with thoriated tungsten electrodes. Fused quartz is the only economically feasible material currently available that can withstand the high pressure (25 atmospheres for an IMAX bulb) and high temperature present in an operating lamp, while still being optically clear. The thorium dopant in the electrodes greatly enhances their electron emission characteristics. Because tungsten and quartz have different coefficients of thermal expansion, the tungsten electrodes are welded to strips of pure molybdenum metal or Invar alloy, which are then melted into the quartz to form the envelope seal. Because of the very high power levels involved, large lamps are water-cooled. In those used in IMAX projectors, the electrode bodies are made from solid Invar and tipped with thoriated tungsten. An O-ring seals the tube, so that the naked electrodes do not contact the water. In low power applications the electrodes are too cold for efficient electron emission and are not cooled. In high power applications an additional water cooling circuit for each electrode is necessary. To reduce cost, the water circuits are often not separated and the water needs to be deionized to make it electrically non-conductive, which lets the quartz or some laser media dissolve into the water. To achieve maximum efficiency, the xenon gas inside short-arc lamps is maintained at an extremely high pressure — up to 30 atmospheres (440 psi / 3040 kPa) — which poses safety concerns. If a lamp is dropped or ruptures while in service, pieces of the lamp envelope can be thrown at high speed. To mitigate this, large xenon short-arc lamps are normally shipped in protective shields, which will contain the envelope fragments should breakage occur. Normally, the shield is removed once the lamp is installed in the lamp housing. When the lamp reaches the end of its useful life, the protective shield is put back on the lamp, and the spent lamp is then removed from the equipment and discarded. As lamps age, the risk of failure increases, so bulbs being replaced are at the greatest risk of explosion. Lamp manufacturers recommend the use of eye protection when handling xenon short-arc lamps. Some lamps, especially those used in IMAX projectors, require the use of full-body protective clothing.", "Xenon short-arc lamps come in two distinct varieties: pure xenon, which contains only xenon gas; and xenon-mercury, which contains xenon gas and a small amount of mercury metal.", "In a pure xenon lamp, the majority of the light is generated within a tiny, pinpoint-sized cloud of plasma situated where the electron stream leaves the face of the cathode. The light generation volume is cone-shaped, and the luminous intensity falls off exponentially moving from cathode to anode. Electrons passing through the plasma cloud strike the anode, causing it to heat. As a result, the anode in a xenon short-arc lamp either has to be much larger than the cathode or be water-cooled, to dissipate the heat. The output of a pure xenon short-arc lamp offers fairly continuous spectral power distribution with a color temperature of about 6200K and color rendering index close to 100. However, even in a high pressure lamp there are some very strong emission lines in the near infrared, roughly in the region from 850–900 nm. This spectral region can contain about 10% of the total emitted light. Light intensity ranges from 20,000 to 500,000 cd/cm. An example is the \"XBO lamp\", which is an OSRAM trade name for a pure xenon short-arc lamp. For some applications such as endoscopy and dental technology light guide systems are included.", "In xenon-mercury short-arc lamps, the majority of the light is generated in a pinpoint-sized cloud of plasma situated at the tip of each electrode. The light generation volume is shaped like two intersecting cones, and the luminous intensity falls off exponentially moving towards the centre of the lamp. Xenon-mercury short-arc lamps have a bluish-white spectrum and extremely high UV output. These lamps are used primarily for UV curing applications, sterilizing objects, and generating ozone. The very small size of the arc makes it possible to focus the light from the lamp with moderate precision. For this reason, xenon arc lamps of smaller sizes, down to 10 watts, are used in optics and in precision illumination for microscopes and other instruments, although in modern times they are being displaced by single mode laser diodes and white light supercontinuum lasers which can produce a truly diffraction-limited spot. Larger lamps are employed in searchlights where narrow beams of light are generated, or in film production lighting where daylight simulation is required. All xenon short-arc lamps generate substantial ultraviolet radiation. Xenon has strong spectral lines in the UV bands, and these readily pass through the fused quartz lamp envelope. Unlike the borosilicate glass used in standard lamps, fused quartz readily passes UV radiation unless it is specially doped. The UV radiation released by a short-arc lamp can cause a secondary problem of ozone generation. The UV radiation strikes oxygen molecules in the air surrounding the lamp, causing them to ionize. Some of the ionized molecules then recombine as O, ozone. Equipment that uses short-arc lamps as the light source must contain UV radiation and prevent ozone build-up. Many lamps have a shortwave UV blocking coating on the envelope and are sold as \"ozone free\" lamps. These \"ozone free\" lamps are used commonly in indoor applications, where proper ventilation is not easily accessible. The company WACOM has also a long history of xenon lamp production. Some lamps have envelopes made out of ultra-pure synthetic fused silica (such as \"Suprasil\"), which roughly doubles the cost, but which allows them to emit useful light into the vacuum UV region. These lamps are normally operated in a pure nitrogen atmosphere.", "Xenon short-arc lamps also are manufactured with a ceramic body and an integral reflector. They are available in many output power ratings with either UV-transmitting or blocking windows. The reflector options are parabolic (for collimated light) or elliptical (for focused light). They are used in a wide variety of applications, such as video projectors, fiber optic illuminators, endoscope and headlamp lighting, dental lighting, and search lights.", "Xenon short-arc lamps have a negative temperature coefficient like other gas discharge lamps. They are operated at low-voltage, high-current, DC and started with a high voltage pulse of 20 to 50kV. As an example, a 450 W lamp operates normally at 18 V and 25 A once started. They are also inherently unstable, prone to phenomena such as plasma oscillation and thermal runaway. Because of these characteristics, xenon short-arc lamps require a proper power supply that operates without flickering in the flame, which could ultimately damage the electrodes..", "In 1991 \"xenon headlamps\" were introduced for vehicles (BMW E32). These are actually metal-halide lamps; the xenon gas is used only to provide some light immediately upon lamp startup, as required for safety in an automotive headlamp application. Full intensity is reached 20 to 30 seconds later once the salts of sodium and scandium are vapourised by the heat of the xenon arc. The lamp envelope is small and the arc spans only a few millimetres. An outer hard glass tube blocks the escape of ultraviolet radiation that would tend to damage plastic headlamp components. The first xenon headlamps contained mercury; newer types do not.", "These are structurally similar to short-arc lamps except that the distance between the electrodes in glass tube is greatly elongated. When mounted within an elliptical reflector, these lamps are frequently used to simulate sunlight in brief flashes, often for photography. Typical uses include solar cell testing (with the use of optical filters), solar simulation for age testing of materials, rapid thermal processing, material inspection and sintering. Though not commonly known outside of Russia and the former Soviet satellite countries, long arc xenon lamps were used for general illumination of large areas such as rail stations, sports arenas, mining operations, and nuclear power plant high bay spaces. These lamps, Лампа ксеноновая ДКСТ, literally \"lamp xenon DKST\" were characterized by high wattages ranging from 2kW to 100 kW. The lamps operated in a peculiar discharge regime where the plasma was thermalized, that is, the electrons were not significantly hotter than the gas itself. Under these conditions a positive current-voltage curve was demonstrated. This allowed the larger common sizes such as 5 and 10kW to operate directly from mains AC at 110 and 220 volts respectively without a ballast – only a series igniter was necessary to start the arc. The lamps produced around 30 lumens/watt, which is about double the efficiency of the tungsten incandescent lamp, but less than more modern sources such as metal halide. They had the advantage of no mercury content, convective air cooling, no high pressure rupture risk, and nearly perfect color rendition. Due to low efficiency and competition from more common lamp types, few installations remain today, but where they do, they can be recognized by a characteristic rectangular/elliptical reflector, and crisp blue-white light from a relatively long tubular source." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Career." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "He was born in Dölsach-Stribach near Lienz, in what was the county of Tyrol. He was the natural son of Maria Trojer, a peasant girl, and Georg Egger, a church painter. As an adult he used his father's surname combined with the name of his birthplace. He had his first artistic training under his father, and subsequently studied at the Academy in Munich where he was influenced by Franz Defregger and French painter Jean-François Millet. From 1893 to 1899 he worked in Munich, where he joined the local artistic association. He exhibited from the mid-1890s. His early works depicted scenes of peasant life and historical scenes from the Tyrolean Rebellion of 1809, such as \"Ave Maria after the Battle on the Bergisel\" (1893–1896; Tyrolean State Museum, Innsbruck). In 1899 he married Laura Möllwald (with whom he had children Lörli, Fred and Ila) and moved to Vienna where he worked separately from the local artistic environment. He tried in vain to get a job as a teacher at the Academy of Fine Arts in Vienna. In 1900 he participated in the Universal Exhibition in Paris and received the bronze medal for the painting \"Feldsegen\". During the first decade of the 20th century he often frequented and worked in the Tyrol, particularly in the Ötz Valley. In 1909 he joined the Vienna Secession. Under the influence of Ferdinand Hodler, Egger-Lienz developed a formal language of monumental expressiveness, showing a preference for heroic figures enclosed in stage-like spaces. Strongly outlined, massive forms were painted using a nearly monochromatic palette of earth colors. In 1910, his request for a professorship at the Vienna Academy for the opposition of the heir to the throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, failed once again. In 1911 he moved from Vienna to Hall near Innsbruck. During 1911 and 1912 he was professor at the Weimar Saxon-Grand Ducal Art School in Weimar. He visited the Netherlands, where he studied the old masters. Egger-Lienz publicly distanced himself from the work of Hodler by means of an article titled \"Monumentale Kunst\", written by art critic Otto Kunz and published in 1912 under Egger-Lienz's name. In September 1913 he moved with his family to Santa Giustina, near Bolzano. He was called up for military service in 1915, but was soon exonerated from front service. He was a war painter in plainclothes on the southern Austrian front in 1916. After the end of the war he remained in South Tyrol. In 1919 he turned down a professorship in Vienna. He resumed painting peasant scenes, but with religious content, as in \"Christ’s Resurrection\" (1924; Tyrolean State Museum, Innsbruck). He had critical success with the works painted in Italy, exhibited in Rome and Venice and in Vienna, in 1925, at the Wiener Künstlerhaus. He received a renewed proposal to teach at the Academy of Applied Arts in Vienna, but again declined. In his last years he painted a series of paintings and frescoes for the Memorial Chapel of the Fallen in War in Lienz. Egger-Lienz died of pneumonia on 4 November 1926 in, Bozen/Bolzano, South Tirol/ Alto Adige, Italy." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Relationships with other branches of psychology.", "Importance.", "Need for expanded cultural research.", "Mutual constitution.", "Criticisms.", "Stereotyping.", "Faulty methodology.", "Methods.", "Cultural models.", "The 4 I's culture cycle.", "Individuals.", "Interactions.", "Institutions.", "Whiting model.", "Culture and motivation.", "Self-enhancement vs. self-improvement.", "Culture and empathy.", "Cultural orientation: collectivistic and individualistic.", "Empathy across cultures.", "Intercultural and ethnocultural empathy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Cultural psychology is often confused with cross-cultural psychology. However, cultural psychology is distinct from cross-cultural psychology in that the cross-cultural psychologists generally use culture as a means of testing the universality of psychological processes rather than determining how local cultural practices shape psychological processes. So whereas a cross-cultural psychologist might ask whether Jean Piaget's stages of development are universal across a variety of cultures, a cultural psychologist would be interested in how the social practices of a particular set of cultures shape the development of cognitive processes in different ways. Cultural psychology research informs several fields within psychology, including social psychology, cultural-historical psychology, developmental psychology, and cognitive psychology. However, the relativist perspective of cultural psychology, through which cultural psychologists compare thought patterns and behaviors within and across cultures, tends to clash with the universal perspectives common in most fields in psychology, which seek to qualify fundamental psychological truths that are consistent across all of humanity.", "", "According to Richard Shweder, there has been repeated failure to replicate Western psychology laboratory findings in non-Western settings. Therefore, a major goal of cultural psychology is to have many and varied cultures contribute to basic psychological theories in order to correct these theories so that they become more relevant to the predictions, descriptions, and explanations of all human behaviors, not just Western ones. This goal is shared by many of the scholars who promote the indigenous psychology approach. In an attempt to show the interrelated interests of cultural and indigenous psychology, cultural psychologist Pradeep Chakkarath emphasizes that international mainstream psychology, as it has been exported to most regions of the world by the so-called West, is only one among many indigenous psychologies and therefore may not have enough intercultural expertise to claim, as it frequently does, that its theories have universal validity. The acronym W.E.I.R.D. describes populations that are Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic. Thus far, W.E.I.R.D. populations have been vastly overrepresented in psychological research. Findings from psychology research utilizing primarily W.E.I.R.D. populations are often labeled as universal theories and are inaccurately applied to other cultures. Recent research is showing that cultures differ in many areas, such as logical reasoning and social values. The evidence that basic cognitive and motivational processes vary across populations has become increasingly difficult to ignore. For example, many studies have shown that Americans, Canadians and western Europeans rely on analytical reasoning strategies, which separate objects from their contexts to explain and predict behavior. Social psychologists refer to the \"fundamental attribution error\" or the tendency to explain people's behavior in terms of internal, inherent personality traits rather than external, situational considerations (e.g. attributing an instance of angry behavior to an angry personality). Outside W.E.I.R.D. cultures, however, this phenomenon is less prominent, as many non-W.E.I.R.D. populations tend to pay more attention to the context in which behavior occurs. Asians tend to reason holistically, for example by considering people's behavior in terms of their situation; someone's anger might be viewed as simply a result of an irritating day. Yet many long-standing theories of how humans think rely on the prominence of analytical thought. By studying only W.E.I.R.D. populations, psychologists fail to account for a substantial amount of diversity of the global population. Applying the findings from W.E.I.R.D. populations to other populations can lead to a miscalculation of psychological theories and may hinder psychologists' abilities to isolate fundamental cultural characteristics.", "Mutual constitution is the notion that the society and the individual have an influencing effect on one another. Because a society is composed of individuals, the behavior and actions of the individuals directly impact the society. In the same manner, society directly impacts the individual living within it. The values, morals, and ways of life a society exemplifies will have an immediate impact on the way an individual is shaped as a person. The atmosphere that a society provides for the individual is a determining factor for how an individual will develop. Furthermore, mutual constitution is a cyclical model in which the society and the individual both influence one another. While cultural psychology is reliant on this model, societies often fail to recognize this. Despite the overwhelming acceptance that people affect culture and culture affects people, societal systems tend to minimize the effect that people form on their communities. For example, mission statements of businesses, schools, and foundations attempt make promises regarding the environment and values that their establishment holds. However, these promises cannot be made in accordance with the mutually consisting theory without being upheld by all participants. The mission statement for the employees of Southwest Airlines, for example, makes the claim that, \"...We are committed to provide our Employees a stable work environment with equal opportunity for learning and personal growth\". While the company can ensure the \"equal opportunity for learning and personal growth\", the aforementioned message cannot be promised. The work environment that Southwest provides includes paying consumers. While rules can be enforced to ensure \"safety\" on their aircraft, customers will not be removed due to attitude or a lack of courtesy. This therefore contradicts the promise of a \"stable work environment\". On the contrary, some establishments do ensure that their mission statements agree with the mutually consisting model. For example, Yale University promises within its mission statement that: Instead of making promises that depend on all of their students and faculty, they make statements that can refer to only a part of their student/ faculty body. The statement focuses more on what they offer, and how they uphold these promises. By providing evidence they provide readers with an example as to how their school community members participate in the environment they promise, accepting the community's role in their school culture. Past research has been conducted by middle-class North Americans analyzing culturally different societies by means of comparison mostly involving middle-class North Americans and/or aforementioned W.E.I.R.D. societies. What has been characterized as Euro-American centrism, resulted in a great volume of research for this specific selection of humans. It has also allowed us to divert from the idea that certain psychological processes can be considered basic or universal, and recognize humans' remarkable capacity to create cultures and then be shaped by them. Although cultural psychology has internalized the mutually constituting model, further implementation in our society is necessary. Being aware of this model promotes taking responsibility for one's actions and the effect that their actions have on their community. Through acceptance of ones responsibilities and conscious application, communities have opportunity for improvement which in turn supports the individuals within the community. These ideas can be found in the journal article \"Cultures and Selves: A Cycle of Mutual Constitution\" by Hazel Rose Markus and Shinobu Kitayama which are also represented in the graphic provided.", "", "One of the most significant themes in recent years has been cultural differences between East Asians and North Americans in attention, perception, cognition, and social psychological phenomena such as the self. Some psychologists, such as Turiel, have argued that this research is based on cultural stereotyping. Psychologist Per Gjerde states that cultural psychology tends to \"generalize about human development across nations and continents\" and assigning characteristics to a culture promotes a disregard for heterogeneity and minimizes the role of the individual. Gjerde argues that individuals develop multiple perspectives about their culture, sometimes act in accord with their culture without sharing the cultural beliefs, and sometimes outright oppose their culture. Stereotyping thus views individuals as homogeneous products of culture.", "Self-reporting data is one of the easiest and most accessible methods of mass data collection, especially in cultural psychology. However, over-emphasizing cross-cultural comparisons of self-reported attitudes and values can lead to relatively unstable and ultimately misleading data.", "Cultural psychologist, Richard Shweder argues that the psyche and culture are mutually constructed and inseparable. The failure of replicating many psychology findings in other regions of the world supported the idea that mind and environment are interdependent, and different throughout the world. Some criticisms state that using self-report may be a relatively unreliable method, and could be misleading especially in different cultural context. Regardless that self-report is an important way to obtain mass data, it is not the only way. In fact, cultural psychologists utilized multiple measurements and resources no different from other scientific researches – observation, experiment, data analysis etc. For example, Nisbett & Cohen (1996) investigated the relation between historical cultural background and regional aggression difference in the U.S.A. In this study, researchers designed laboratory experiment to observe participants' aggression, and crime rate, demographic statistics were analyzed. The experiment results supported the culture of honor theory that the aggression is a defense mechanism which is rooted in the herding cultural origin for most the southerners. In laboratory observations, Heine and his colleagues found that Japanese students spend more time than American students on tasks that they did poorly on, and the finding presents a self-improvement motivation often seen in East Asian that failure and success is interconvertible with effort. In terms of cognition styles, Chinese tend to perceive image using a holistic view compared to American. Quantitative statistics of cultural products revealed that public media in western countries promote more individualistic components than East-Asian countries. These statistics are objective because it does not involve having people fill out questionnaire, instead, psychologists use physical measurements to quantitatively collect data about culture products, such as painting and photos. These statistics data can also be national records, for example, Chiao & Blizinsky (2010) revealed that cultures of high collectivism is associated with lower prevalence of mood/anxiety disorders in study involving 29 countries. In addition to the experimental and statistics data, evidence from neuro-imaging studies, also help strengthen the reliability of cultural psychology research. For example, when thinking of mother, the brain region related to self-concept showed significant activation in Chinese, whereas no activation observed in Westerners.", "\"One way we organize and understand our social world is through the use of cultural models or culturally shaped mental maps. These consist of culturally derived ideas and practices that are embodied, enacted, or instituted in everyday life.\" Cultural psychologists develop models to categorize cultural phenomena.", "The 4 I's cultural model was developed by Hazel Rose Markus and Alana Conner in their book \"Clash! 8 Cultural Conflicts That Make Us Who We Are.\" In it, they refer to the mutually constitutive nature of culture and individual as a \"culture cycle.\" The culture cycle consists of four layers (Individuals, Interactions, Institutions, Ideas) of cultural influence that help to explain the interaction between self and culture.", "The first \"I\" concerns how an individual thinks about and expresses itself. Studies show that in the United States, individuals are more likely think of him or herself as \"independent\", \"equal\", and \"individualistic\". Individuals have characteristics that are consistent across time and situation. When asked to describe themselves, Americans are likely to use adjectives to describe their personalities, such as \"energetic\", \"friendly\", or \"hard-working\". In Japan, studies show that individuals are more likely to think of themselves as \"obligated to society\", \"interdependent\", and \"considerate\". The self is adaptable to the situation. Japanese individuals are therefore more likely to describe themselves in relation to others, such as \"I try not to upset anyone,\" or \"I am a father, a son, and a brother.\"", "Interactions with other people and products reinforce cultural behaviors on a daily basis. Stories, songs, architecture, and advertisements are all methods of interaction that guide individuals in a culture to promote certain values and teach them how to behave. For example, in Japan, no-smoking signs emphasize the impact that smoke has on others by illustrating the path of smoke as it affects surrounding people. In the US, no-smoking signs focus on individual action by simply saying \"No Smoking\". These signs reflect underlying cultural norms and values, and when people see them they are encouraged to behave in accordance with the greater cultural values.", "The next layer of culture is made up of the institutions in which everyday interactions take place. These determine and enforce the rules for a society and include legal, government, economic, scientific, philosophical, and religious bodies. Institutions encourage certain practices and products while discouraging others. In Japanese kindergartens, children learn about important cultural values such as teamwork, group harmony, and cooperation. During \"birthday month celebration,\" for example, the class celebrates all the children who have birthdays that month. This institutional practice underscores the importance of a group over an individual. In US kindergartens, children learn their personal value when they celebrate their birthdays one by one, enforcing the cultural value of uniqueness and individualism. Everyday institutional practices such as classroom birthday celebrations propagate prominent cultural themes.", "John and Beatrice Whiting, along with their research students at Harvard University, developed the \"Whiting model\" for child development during the 1970s and 1980s, which specifically focused on how culture influences development. The Whitings coined the term \"cultural learning environment\", to describe the surroundings that influence a child during development. Beatrice Whiting defined a child's environmental contexts as being \"characterized by an activity in progress, a physically defined space, a characteristic group of people, and norms of behavior\". This environment is composed of several layers. A child's geographical context influences the history/anthropology of their greater community. This results in maintenance systems (i.e., sociological characteristics) that form a cultural learning environment. These factors inform learned behavior, or progressive expressive systems that take the form of religion, magic beliefs, ritual and ceremony, art, recreation, games and play, or crime rates. Many researchers have expanded upon the Whiting model, and the Whiting model's influence is clear in both modern psychology and anthropology. According to an article by Thomas Weisner in the \"Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology\", \"All these [more recent] approaches share a common intellectual project: to take culture and context deeply and seriously into account in studies of human development.\"", "", "While self-enhancement is a person's motivation to view themselves positively, self-improvement is a person's motivation to have others view themselves positively. The distinction between the two modes of life is most evident between independent and collectivistic cultures. Cultures with independent self-views (the premise that people see themselves as self-contained entities) often emphasize self-esteem, confidence in one's own worth and abilities. With self-esteem seen as a main source of happiness in Western cultures, the motivation to self-enhance generally follows as a way to maintain one's positive view about oneself. Some strategies employed when self-enhancing often include downward social comparison, compensatory self-enhancement, discounting, external attributions and basking in reflected glory. In contrast, collectivistic cultures often emphasize self-improvement as a leading motivating factor in their lives. This motivation is often derived from a desire to not lose face and to appear positively among social groups.", "", "A main distinction to understand when looking at psychology and culture is the difference between individualistic and collectivistic cultures. People from an individualistic culture typically demonstrate an independent view of the self; the focus is usually on personal achievement. Members of a collectivistic society have more of a focus on the group (interdependent view of self), usually focusing on things that will benefit the group. Research has shown such differences of the self when comparing collectivistic and individualistic cultures: The Fundamental Attribution Error has been shown to be more common in America (individualistic) as compared to in India (collectivistic). Along these same lines, the self-serving bias was again shown as more common among Americans than Japanese individuals. This can be seen in a study involving an animation of fish, wherein Western viewers interpreted the scene of a fish swimming away from a school as an expression of individualism and independence, while Eastern individuals wondered what was wrong with the singular fish and concluded that the school had kicked it out. Another study showed that in coverage of the same instance of violent crime, Western news focused on innate character flaws and the failings of the individual while Chinese news pointed out the lack of relationships of the perpetrator in a foreign environment and the failings of society. This is not to imply that collectivism and individualism are completely dichotomous, but these two cultural orientations are to be understood more so as a spectrum. Each representation is at either end; thus, some members of individualistic cultures may hold collectivistic values, and some collectivistic individual may hold some individualist values. The concepts of collectivism and individualism show a general idea of the values of a specific ethnic culture but should not be juxtaposed in competition.", "These differences in values across cultures suggests that understanding and expressing empathy may be manifested differently throughout varying cultures. Duan and Hill first discussed empathy in subcategories of intellectual empathy: taking on someone's thoughts/perspective, also known as cognitive empathy and emotional empathy: taking on someone's feeling/experience. Duan, Wei, and Wang furthered this idea to include empathy in terms of being either dispositional (capacity for noticing/understanding empathy) or experiential (specific to a certain context or situation, observing the person and empathizing). This created four types of empathy to further examine: 1) dispositional intellectual empathy; 2) dispositional empathic emotion; 3) experienced intellectual empathy; and 4) experienced empathic emotion. These four branches allowed researchers to examine empathic proclivities among individuals of different cultures. While individualism was not shown to correlate with either types of dispositional empathy, collectivism was shown to have a direct correlation with both types of dispositional empathy, possibly suggesting that by having less focus on the self, there is more capacity towards noticing the needs of others. More so, individualism predicted experienced intellectual empathy, and collectivism predicted experienced empathic emotion. These results are congruent with the values of collectivistic and individualistic societies. The self-centered identity and egoistic motives prevalent in individualistic cultures, perhaps acts as a hindrance in being open to (fully) experiencing empathy.", "Cultural empathy became broadly understood as concurrent understanding and acceptance of a culture different from one's own. This idea has been further developed with the concept of ethnocultural empathy. This moves beyond merely accepting and understanding another culture, and also includes acknowledging how the values of a culture may affect empathy. This idea is meant to foster cultural empathy as well as engender cultural competence. One of the greatest barriers of empathy between cultures is people's tendency to operate from an ethnocentric point of view. Eysenck conceptualized ethnocentrism as using one's own culture to understand the rest of the world, while holding one's own values as correct. Concomitant with this barrier to intercultural empathy, Rasoal, Eklund, and Hansen posit five hindrances of intercultural empathy; these include: Paucity of: and: These five points elucidate lack of both depth and breadth as hindrances in developing and practicing intercultural empathy. Another barrier to intercultural empathy is that there is often a power dynamic between different cultures. Bridging an oppressed culture with their (upper-echelon) oppressor is a goal of intercultural empathy. One approach to this barrier is to attempt to acknowledge one's personal oppression. While this may be minimal in comparison to other people's oppression, it will still help with realizing that other people have been oppressed. The goal of bridging the gap should focus on building an alliance by finding the core commonalities of the human experience; this shows empathy to be a relational experience, not an independent one. Through this, the goal is that intercultural empathy can lend toward broader intercultural understanding across cultures and societies. Four important facets of cultural empathy are: These four aspects may be especially helpful for practicing cultural competence in a clinical setting. Given that most psychological practices were founded on the parochial ideals of Euro-American psychologists, cultural competence was not considered much of a necessity until said psychologists increasingly began seeing clients with different ethnic backgrounds. Many of the problems that contribute to therapy not being beneficial for people of color include: therapy having an individual focus, an emphasis on expressiveness, and an emphasis on openness. For more on intercultural competence, see intercultural competence." ] }

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{ "title": [ "In the complex plane.", "Trigonometric functions on the unit circle.", "Circle group.", "Complex dynamics.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The unit circle can be considered as the unit complex numbers, i.e., the set of complex numbers of the form for all (see also: cis). This relation represents Euler's formula. In quantum mechanics, this is referred to as phase factor.", "The trigonometric functions cosine and sine of angle may be defined on the unit circle as follows: If is a point on the unit circle, and if the ray from the origin (0, 0) to makes an angle from the positive -axis, (where counterclockwise turning is positive), then The equation gives the relation The unit circle also demonstrates that sine and cosine are periodic functions, with the identities for any integer. Triangles constructed on the unit circle can also be used to illustrate the periodicity of the trigonometric functions. First, construct a radius OA from the origin to a point on the unit circle such that an angle with is formed with the positive arm of the -axis. Now consider a point and line segments. The result is a right triangle with. Because has length, length, and length 1, and. Having established these equivalences, take another radius OR from the origin to a point on the circle such that the same angle is formed with the negative arm of the -axis. Now consider a point and line segments. The result is a right triangle with. It can hence be seen that, because, is at in the same way that P is at. The conclusion is that, since is the same as and is the same as, it is true that and. It may be inferred in a similar manner that, since and. A simple demonstration of the above can be seen in the equality. When working with right triangles, sine, cosine, and other trigonometric functions only make sense for angle measures more than zero and less than. However, when defined with the unit circle, these functions produce meaningful values for any real-valued angle measure – even those greater than 2. In fact, all six standard trigonometric functions – sine, cosine, tangent, cotangent, secant, and cosecant, as well as archaic functions like versine and exsecant – can be defined geometrically in terms of a unit circle, as shown at right. Using the unit circle, the values of any trigonometric function for many angles other than those labeled can be calculated without the use of a calculator by using the angle sum and difference formulas.", "Complex numbers can be identified with points in the Euclidean plane, namely the number is identified with the point. Under this identification, the unit circle is a group under multiplication, called the \"circle group\"; it is usually denoted. On the plane, multiplication by gives a counterclockwise rotation by. This group has important applications in mathematics and science.", "Julia set of discrete nonlinear dynamical system with evolution function: is a unit circle. It is a simplest case so it is widely used in study of dynamical systems.", "" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Early years.", "Young poet.", "Maud Gonne.", "Abbey Theatre.", "Politics.", "Marriage to Georgie Hyde Lees.", "Nobel Prize.", "Old age and death.", "Style.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "William Butler Yeats was born in Sandymount in County Dublin, Ireland. His father, John Butler Yeats (1839–1922), was a descendant of Jervis Yeats, a Williamite soldier, linen merchant, and well-known painter, who died in 1712. Benjamin Yeats, Jervis's grandson and William's great-great-grandfather, had in 1773 married Mary Butler of a landed family in County Kildare. Following their marriage, they kept the name Butler. Mary was of the Butler of Neigham (pronounced Nyam) Gowran family, descended from an illegitimate brother of the 8th Earl of Ormond. At the time of his marriage, William's father, John Yeats, was studying law, but would later pursue art studies at Heatherley School of Fine Art, in London. William's mother, Susan Mary Pollexfen, came from Sligo, from a wealthy merchant family, which owned a milling and shipping business. Soon after William's birth, the family relocated to the Pollexfen home at Merville, Sligo, to stay with her extended", "The family returned to London in 1887. In March 1890 Yeats joined the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, and with Ernest Rhys co-founded the Rhymers' Club, a group of London-based poets who met regularly in a Fleet Street tavern to recite their verse. Yeats later sought to mythologize the collective, calling it the \"Tragic Generation\" in his autobiography, and published two anthologies of the Rhymers' work, the first one in 1892 and the second one in 1894. He collaborated with Edwin Ellis on the first complete edition of William Blake's works, in the process rediscovering a forgotten poem, \"Vala, or, the Four Zoas\". Yeats had a lifelong interest in mysticism, spiritualism, occultism and astrology. He read extensively on the subjects throughout his life, became a member of the", "In 1889, Yeats met Maud Gonne, a 23-year-old English heiress and ardent Irish Nationalist. She was eighteen months younger than Yeats and later claimed she met the poet as a \"paint-stained art student.\" Gonne admired \"The Island of Statues\" and sought out his acquaintance. Yeats began an obsessive infatuation, and she had a significant and lasting effect on his poetry and his life thereafter. In later years he admitted, \"it seems to me that she [Gonne] brought into my life those days—for as yet I saw only what lay upon the surface—the middle of the tint, a sound as of a Burmese gong, an over-powering tumult that had yet many pleasant secondary notes.\" Yeats's love was unrequited, in part due", "In 1899, Yeats, Lady Gregory, Edward Martyn and George Moore began the Irish Literary Theatre to present Irish plays. The ideals of the Abbey were derived from the avant-garde French theatre, which sought to express the \"ascendancy of the playwright rather than the actor-manager \"à l'anglais\".\" The group's manifesto, which Yeats wrote, declared, \"We hope to find in Ireland an uncorrupted & imaginative audience trained to listen by its passion for oratory... & that freedom to experiment which is not found in the theatres of England, & without which no new movement in art or literature can succeed.\"", "Yeats was an Irish Nationalist, who sought a kind of traditional lifestyle articulated through poems such as 'The Fisherman'. However, as his life progressed, he sheltered much of his revolutionary spirit and distanced himself from the intense political landscape until 1922, when he was appointed Senator for the Irish Free State. In the earlier part of his life, Yeats was a member of the Irish Republican Brotherhood. Due to the escalating tension of the political scene, Yeats distanced himself from the core political activism in the midst of the Easter", "By 1916, Yeats was 51 years old and determined to marry and produce an heir. His rival John MacBride had been executed for his role in the 1916 Easter Rising, so Yeats hoped that his widow might remarry. His final proposal to Maud Gonne took place in mid-1916. Gonne's history of revolutionary political activism, as well as a series of personal catastrophes in the previous few years of her life—including chloroform addiction and her troubled marriage to MacBride—made her a potentially unsuitable wife; biographer R. F. Foster has observed that Yeats's last offer was motivated more by a sense of duty than by a genuine desire to marry her. Yeats proposed in an indifferent manner, with conditions attached, and he both expected and hoped she would turn him down. According to Foster, \"when he duly asked Maud to marry him and was duly refused, his thoughts shifted with surprising speed to her daughter.\" Iseult Gonne was Maud's second child with Lucien Millevoye, and at the time was twenty-one years old. She had lived a sad life to this point; conceived as an attempt to reincarnate her short-lived", "In December 1923, Yeats was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature, \"for his always inspired poetry, which in a highly artistic form gives expression to the spirit of a whole nation\". He was aware of the symbolic value of an Irish winner so soon after Ireland had gained independence, and sought to highlight the fact at each available opportunity. His reply to many of the letters of congratulations sent to him contained the words: \"I consider that this honour has come to me less as an individual than as a representative of Irish literature, it", "By early 1925, Yeats's health had stabilised, and he had completed most of the writing for \"A Vision\" (dated 1925, it actually appeared in January 1926, when he almost immediately started rewriting it for a second version). He had been appointed to the first Irish Senate in 1922, and was re-appointed for a second term in 1925. Early in his tenure, a debate on divorce arose, and Yeats viewed the issue as primarily a confrontation between the emerging Roman Catholic ethos and the Protestant minority. When the Roman Catholic Church weighed in with a blanket refusal to consider their anti position, \"The Irish Times\" countered that a measure to outlaw divorce would alienate Protestants and \"crystallise\" the partition of Ireland. In response, Yeats delivered a series of speeches that attacked the \"quixotically impressive\" ambitions of the government and clergy, likening their campaign tactics to those of \"medieval Spain.\" \"Marriage is not to us a Sacrament, but, upon the other hand, the love of a man and woman, and the inseparable physical desire, are sacred.", "Yeats is considered one of the key twentieth-century English-language poets. He was a Symbolist poet, using allusive imagery and symbolic structures throughout his career. He chose words and assembled them so that, in addition to a particular meaning, they suggest abstract thoughts that may seem more significant and resonant. His use of symbols is usually something physical that is both itself and a suggestion of other, perhaps immaterial, timeless qualities. Unlike other modernists who experimented with free verse, Yeats was a master of the traditional forms. The impact of modernism on his work can be seen in the increasing abandonment of the more conventionally poetic diction of his early work in favour of the more austere language and more direct approach to his themes that increasingly characterises the poetry and plays of his middle period, comprising the volumes \"In the Seven Woods\", \"Responsibilities\" and \"The Green Helmet\". His later poetry and plays are written in a more personal vein, and the works written in the last twenty years of his life include mention of his son and daughter, as well as meditations on the experience of growing old. In his poem, \"The Circus Animals' Desertion\", he describes the inspiration for these late works: <poem style=\"margin-left: 2em;\">Now that my ladder's gone I must lie down where all the ladders start In the foul rag and bone shop of the heart.</poem> During 1929, he stayed at Thoor Ballylee near Gort in County Galway (where Yeats had his summer home since 1919) for the last time. Much of the remainder of his life was lived outside Ireland, although he did lease Riversdale house in the Dublin suburb of Rathfarnham in 1932. He wrote prolifically through his final years, and published poetry, plays, and prose. In 1938,", "Yeats is commemorated in Sligo town by a statue, created in 1989 by sculptor Rowan Gillespie. On the 50th anniversary of the poet's death, it was erected outside the Ulster Bank, at the corner of Stephen Street and Markievicz Road. Yeats had remarked on receiving his Nobel Prize that the Royal Palace in Stockholm \"resembled the Ulster Bank in Sligo\". Across the river is the Yeats Memorial Building, home to the Sligo Yeats Society. \"\" by Henry Moore is displayed in the W. B. Yeats Memorial Garden at St Stephen's Green in Dublin." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Analyzing historical counterattacks.", "Operation Bagration.", "Battle of Austerlitz.", "Battle of St. Vith." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "In the past, there have been many notable counterattacks which have changed the course of a war. To be specific, Operation Bagration and the Battle of Austerlitz are good examples of the proper execution of a counterattack.", "Operation Bagration during World War II was one of the largest counterattacks in military history. In the summer of 1944 the assault by around 1.7 million Red Army soldiers successfully put the Red Army on the offensive in the Eastern Front after Nazi Germany in Operation Barbarossa had captured the territory against the Soviet Union in the summer of 1941. The Soviet counterattack focused on Belorussia, but prior to the counterattack starting, the Soviet Union fooled Nazi military leaders into believing that the attack will take place further south, near Ukraine. To aid the deception, the Red Army established fake army camps in the Ukraine and after German reconnaissance planes reported Soviet troop concentrations in the area, panzer and infantry divisions were rushed south from Belorussia, leaving it vulnerable to a major assault. To support the attack, partisan groups in German-controlled territory were instructed to destroy German railroads to hamper German efforts to transport supplies and troops throughout the occupied territories and further weaken German Army Group Centre in Ukraine. On June 22, 1944, the attack on Belarus by 1.7 million Soviet troops began and overwhelmed the depleted Germans defenders. On July 3, the Red Army captured Minsk and later liberated the rest of Belorussia. Operation Bagration was a huge Soviet success and opened a direct route to Berlin after the fall of Belorussia, leading to the Red Army beginning to liberate territory that was taken by the Wehrmacht three years before.", "Another military battle that utilized the counterattack tactic was the Battle of Austerlitz on December 2, 1805. While fighting the Austrian and Russian armies, Napoleon purposely made it seem as if his men were weak from the fighting in several cases. Napoleon had his men retreat in an attempt to lure the Allies to battle. He purposely left his right flank open and vulnerable. This deceived the Allies into attacking and the Allies fell into Napoleon's trap. When the Allied troops went to attack Napoleon’s right flank, Napoleon quickly filled up the right flank so the attack was not effective. However, on the Allied side, a large gap was left open in the middle of the Allied front line due to troops leaving to attack the French right flank. Noticing the large hole in the middle of the Allied lines, Napoleon attacked the middle and had his forces also flank around both sides, eventually surrounding the Allies. With the Allies completely surrounded, the battle was over. The Battle of Austerlitz was a successful counterattack because the French army defended off the Allied attack and quickly defeated the Allies. Napoleon deceived the Allies. He made his men seem weak and near defeat.", "The Battle of St. Vith was part of the Battle of the Bulge, which began on 16 December 1944, and represented the right flank in the advance of the German center, 5th \"Panzer-Armee\" (Armored Army), toward the ultimate objective of Antwerp. Given the task of countering the German advance, US General Bruce C. Clarke decided that a mobile defense was the best solution. Knowing that the German army was aiming for an objective far behind the battle line, he decided that they could afford to lose a few kilometers a day - the idea being that a slowing down of the advance was as good as stopping them outright, since the Germans were limited by time. The mobile defense he used at St. Vith involved the use of M36 tank destroyers acting as a base of fire to resist the oncoming German armored thrust, slowing them down enough to then counter-attack them with a force of M4 Sherman tanks. Artillery and Infantry were involved in this process as a combined arms force. The key was not to engage the Germans in a pitched battle, but to slow their advance enough to ruin their offensive timetable. The counter-attacks ensured that the German forces could not break through the slowly retreating forces. Clarke's success was one of the first times armor had been used in a mobile defense, and was one of the turning points of the war." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Gameplay.", "Plot.", "Development.", "Audio.", "Differences in localized versions.", "Reception.", "Sales.", "Critical reviews.", "Awards.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "\"The Curse of Monkey Island\" is a point-and-click adventure game. The SCUMM engine was also used in this \"Monkey Island\" installment but it was upgraded to a \"verb coin\" (modelled after \"Full Throttle\"), an interface that consisted in a coin-shaped menu with three icons: a hand, a skull, and a parrot, basically representing actions related to hands, eyes and mouth, respectively. These icons implied the actions Guybrush would perform with an object. The hand icon would usually mean actions such as picking something up, operating a mechanism or hitting someone, the skull icon was most used for examining or looking at objects and the parrot icon was used to issue Guybrush commands such as talking to someone or opening a bottle with his teeth. The inventory and actions were thus visible on click, rather than on the bottom of the screen as previous point-and-click games by Lucasarts. The player controlled a white 'X' cursor with the mouse, that turned red whenever landing onto an object (or person) with which Guybrush could interact. Holding left click over an object, whether in or outside the inventory, would bring up the coin menu, while right clicking it would perform the most obvious action with this particular object. Right clicking a door, for example, made Guybrush attempt to open it, while right clicking a person meant talking to him or her.", "Guybrush Threepwood is adrift in the sea in a floating bumper car, unable to recall how he escaped from the Big Whoop amusement park. He approaches Plunder Island, which is governed by his love Elaine Marley and under siege by the zombie pirate LeChuck. LeChuck captures him and locks him in the ship's hold. Seeking a way out, Guybrush fires an unrestrained cannon (causing LeChuck to drop a magical voodoo cannonball which explodes, destroying LeChuck's zombie body), finds a diamond ring in the treasure hold, and escapes the ship as it sinks. He reunites with Elaine and proposes to her with the diamond ring. However, the ring is revealed to be cursed, and when Elaine puts it on she is transformed into a gold statue and stolen by marauders. The Voodoo Lady tells Guybrush he must travel to Blood Island to find a diamond ring of greater value to break the spell. Guybrush recovers the statue Elaine, finds a map to Blood Island and secures a ship and crew to take him there. On the journey, the ship is attacked by Captain Rottingham, who steals the map. After much practice, Guybrush learns seabattle insult swordfighting and defeats Rottingham when they next meet, reclaiming the map. However, soon afterwards, Guybrush's ship crashes on Blood Island in a storm, Elaine's statue is launched inland, and the crew mutinies. Meanwhile, LeChuck is inadvertently revived as a pyrokinetic demon-pirate by a scavenging pirate, and sails back to his carnival on Monkey Island to organize the capture of Guybrush and Elaine. Alone on Blood Island, Guybrush meets the locals, including the cannibals of Monkey Island, learns a sad tale of lost love, and feigns death to enter a crypt and secure a new engagement band. He gambles with smugglers in order to acquire an uncursed diamond, combines the two to make a new ring, and returns Elaine to normal. The two share a moment before LeChuck's skeletal army seizes them. LeChuck transforms Guybrush into a child once again and leaves him in the Big Whoop amusement park with Elaine. Using a hangover cure discovered on Blood Island, Guybrush becomes an adult again and gets on the Rollercoaster of Death to confront LeChuck. Guybrush improvises an explosive and sets off an avalanche, burying LeChuck under the theme park. Guybrush and Elaine marry and set sail for their honeymoon, as various friends that were met on his adventures wave them goodbye.", "\"The Curse of Monkey Island\" was announced during the European Computer Trade Show in September 1996. According to \"Next Generation\", the game's predecessors had been \"relatively minor hit[s]\" in the United States, but became \"blockbusters on the PC and the Amiga throughout Europe.\" \"Monkey Island\" creator Ron Gilbert had parted ways with the series after \"Monkey Island 2\", and the new project leaders were Jonathan Ackley and Larry Ahern, both of whom had previously worked on \"Full Throttle\" (the interface of the game was adopted almost entirely). The lead background artist was Bill Tiller. During production, examples of major changes include enhancing the role of Murray, the talking skull. Originally intended only to be featured in the first chapter, he proved so popular with test players that he was written to reappear at several points later in the game. The game was later rereleased on a CD-ROM compilation of \"Monkey Island\" games, bundled with \"The Secret of Monkey Island\" and \"Monkey Island 2: LeChuck's Revenge\" called the \"Monkey Island Bounty Pack\". After the game shipped, a \"Monkey Island\" film was in the works. This was only brought to light when Tony Stacchi, a concept artist for the project, sent his work to The Scumm Bar, a \"Monkey Island\" fansite. The film was cancelled in the early stages of development but Tony Stacchi published the artwork on his portfolio.", "Michael Land, who provided much of the music for the first two games, composed the score. \"The Curse of Monkey Island\" was the first game in the series to feature voice acting. The primary voice cast consisted of Dominic Armato as Guybrush Threepwood; Alexandra Boyd as Elaine Marley and Son Pirate; Earl Boen as LeChuck; Denny Delk as Murray, Skully, and Father Pirate; Neil Ross as Wally B. Feed; Alan Young as Haggis McMutton; Michael Sorich as Edward Van Helgen and Charles DeGoulash (Ghost Groom); Gregg Berger as Cutthroat Bill; and Leilani Jones Wilmore as the Voodoo Lady. Other voice actors included Kay E. Kuter as Griswold Goodsoup, Tom Kane as Captain René Rottingham and the Flying Welshman, Patrick Pinney as Stan, and Victor Raider-Wexler as Slappy Cromwell and the Snowcone Guy. The game even has special guest stars Mary Kay Bergman as Minnie \"Stronie\" Goodsoup (Ghost Bride), Gary Coleman as Kenny Falmouth, and future \"Angel\" star Glenn Quinn as Pirate #5.", "Non-English versions of the game omit the section at the beginning of the second CD, where Guybrush's crew sings the song \"A Pirate I Was Meant To Be\". In this section, the player as Guybrush has to stop the crew's singing - however, at each attempt, they just start a new stanza rhyming to the player's line, until he says a line ending with the word \"orange\" making the song unable to continue. As the whole section relies on Anglophonic rhyming, it was removed from non-English versions of the game.", "", "\"The Curse of Monkey Island\" sold 52,049 copies in the United States by the end of 1997, according to market research firm PC Data. Another 40,538 copies were purchased in the country between January 1998 and July 1998, which drew revenues of $1.57 million for the period. The game was a success in the German market: Heinrich Lenhardt of \"PC Gamer US\" wrote, \"[I]f it wasn't for the sales figures in Germany, LucasArts probably wouldn't have bothered\" to continue the franchise. In the second half of November 1997, \"Curse\" debuted at #4 on's computer game sales charts for the German market. It held in the top 10 through January 1998, peaking in third place for the first half of December, and its streak in the top 20 continued through March. The game had spent 24 weeks in Media Control's top rankings by the end of May, when it secured 27th place. In August, \"Curse\" received a \"Gold\" award from the (V.U.D.), indicating sales of at least 100,000 units across Germany, Austria and Switzerland. The game remained on shelves by 2001: that year, PC Data reported sales of another 19,552 units in North America. Louis Castle of Westwood Studios estimated \"The Curse of Monkey Island\"s lifetime sales at 300,000 copies by 2002, while LucasArts' Bill Tiller stated in 2003, \"I think \"CMI\" sold over half a million units world wide\". Tiller recalled total sales between 700,000 and 800,000 copies in 2009.", "\"Computer Gaming World\" said that \"it joins LucasArts' hallowed pantheon of comic classics\", and that \"computer gaming rarely gets more entertaining than this\". GameSpot praised the graphical style for making the game \"as much fun to watch as it is to play\". Just Adventure emphasized that the \"music is the best I've ever heard in a game;... it never stops and it's never annoying; it's always a joy\". RPGFan commented that the \"additions of detailed graphics and actual spoken dialogue managed to take the already hilarious story to a whole new level\". Adventure Classic Gaming addressed plot criticism, saying \"some... may criticize the numerous farfetched plot twists in this game\", while \"some may just call it creative writing!\", and Adrenaline Vault likened \"The Curse of Monkey Island\" to the adventure genre as a whole, saying: \"The twin vitals of an adventure game are a good plot coupled with strong dialogue. This game has both, in spades.\" Although Adventure Gamers cited the graphic style's \"refusal to take itself seriously\" was adding \"immensely to the game's charm\", they found the secondary characters \"criminally underdeveloped\" and the ending \"an anticlimax, leaving the player thinking he could have done so much more, if only the game’s programmers had let him\". The abrupt ending of the game received criticism from GameSpot, Just Adventure and \"Computer Gaming World\"; the last of which called the ending \"the game's only real disappointment\". \"PC Zone\" described that due to the introduction of cartoonish graphics \"for \"Monkey\" devotees of the first two titles something tiny and almost intangible has been lost\", while still scoring the game a 92/100, praising the voice over work and humor of the game. \"Next Generation\" reviewed the P.C. version of the game, rating it three stars out of five, and stated that \"At the end of the day, however, despite its flaws, \"Curse\", like its two predecessors, is still just fun enough to remain a satisfying experience.\"", "The Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences nominated \"The Curse of Monkey Island\" for its \"Personal Computer: Adventure Game of the Year\" and \"Outstanding Achievement in Art/Graphics\" awards, which the game lost to \"Blade Runner\" and \"Riven\", respectively. Similarly, the Computer Game Developers Conference nominated \"Curse\" for four Spotlight Awards, including \"Best Adventure/RPG\", but these ultimately went to other titles. However, it was named the best adventure game of 1997 by \"Computer Games Strategy Plus\", \"Computer Gaming World\", GameSpot and \"PC Gamer US\". It also won GameSpot's \"Best Cinematics\" prize. The editors of \"Computer Gaming World\" wrote, \"Simply everything is done right in this game: lush graphics, outstanding voice acting, strong storyline, clever puzzles, and, best of all, a script with more big laughs in it than just about anything at the movies these days. It is, easily, the most entertaining adventure in years\".", "In 1998, \"PC Gamer\" declared it the 33rd-best computer game ever released, and the editors called it \"a grand, timeless adventure, sharply written and flawlessly voice-acted\". In 2008, Ron Gilbert praised \"The Curse of Monkey Island\", calling it \"great\" and remarking that \"they did an excellent job of capturing the humor and feel of the game.\" In 2011, Adventure Gamers named \"The Curse of Monkey Island\" the 45th-best adventure game ever released." ] }